COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

cy

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U.S.A.

Vol. 6, No. 8 FEBRUARY, 1930

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. See page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. Lamont, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

George K. Burgess, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

S. F. Tillman, Editor

DIVISIONS OF THE COMMERCIAL STANDARDIZATION GROUP

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE, Edwin W. Ely.

The division of simplified practice was formed in November,

1921, to provide a clearing house or centralizing agency through

which the manufacturer, distributor, and consumer groups

could meet to discuss their common problems and decide upoi

eliminations which would prove of mutual benefit to all con- cerned. The activities of the division are purely cooperative

in character. It orders nothing; it dictates nothing; the ini- tiative must come from business itself. It has no regulatory nor police powers to enforce adherence to the simplified-practice

recommendations that industry develops under the auspices

of the United States Department of Commerce. Its chief function is to serve as a neutral meeting ground for the purpose

of bringing together producers, distributors, and consumers, whose aims are sometimes divergent and possibly antagonistic,

and who would be unwilling to cooperate, except through some

unbiased central agency. Following the approval of the tentative simplified-practice recommendation by a general conference

of all interested elements thereof, the project is then presented

to the entire industry by letter referendum for its approval and

written acceptance, the publication and indorsement of the recommendation on the part of the Department of Commerce

being dependent upon acceptance of the program by at least 80 per cent, by volume, of the manufacturers, distributors, and

users concerned. AMERICAN MARINE STANDARDS COM’TEE, A.V. Bouillon.

The American Marine Standards Committee was organized

to promote simplification of practice and elimination of waste

in the marine and allied industries. It is composed of indi- viduals, corporations, societies, Government departments, public bodies, or other organizations or groups engaged in building

or operating ships, port facilities, and related activities. It works in close cooperation with official agencies, but its activities are controlled by an executive board elected annually

by and from the membership. For further information, write

direct to the secretary, A. V. Bouillon, Room 713, Department

of Commerce, Washington, D. C. DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS, I. J. Fairchild.

The commercial standards unit, now known as division of trade standards, was created on October 1, 1927, for the purpose

of aiding those industrial and commercial groups desiring to

establish standards of grades, quality, or measurements for their products or their purchases on a purely voluntary basis. The division functions only at the direct request of the in- dustry concerned. Its procedure is similar to that of the divi

sion of simplified practice, except that at least 65 per cent of the industry, by volume of annual production, must accept

the commercial standard in writing before it is published by

the Department of Commerce. A certification plan is applied

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS—Continued. on request as a means of increasing the effectiveness of such

standards. Provision is made for regular revision of the standard

through the appointment of a standing committee to consider

periodically any necessity for revision of the standard, in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with progress in the

industry.

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS, A. S. McAllister.

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote and

facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so

it carries on activities involving cooperation with technical

societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and municipal

Government specifications making and using agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and testing and research

laboratories. The cooperation with technical societies and

trade associations includes ascertaining the standardization and specification promoting activities of these organizations,

and bringing to their attention the work being done by the commercial standardization group. The cooperation with

producers involves the compilation of lists of manufacturers

who have expressed their willingness to certify to purchasers,

upon request, that material supplied by them on contracts based on certain Federal specifications or commercial standards comply with the requirements thereof. The division prepares

the directories of governmental and nongovernmental testing

laboratories; the Directory of Specifications; and is working

on an encyclopedia of specifications, the first volume of which,

Standards and Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries, has been issued. It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook. BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION, J. S. Taylor.

The division of building and housing cooperates with business, technical, and professional groups in practically all its undertakings on building and housing. Its work to modernize

building codes and to encourage improved standards for the

quality of building construction promotes the practical application of the latest development in design and use of build- ing materials. This division was also formed in 1921. In furthering home ownership, an effort is made to develop an enlarged, steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating

demand for soundly built dwellings, the largest single class of buildings which the construction industries provide. The

division also cooperates with many business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year, and to secure less fluctuation from year

to year. The work on city planning and zoning has in mind

the broad objective of buildings made more useful because

well located with respect to other buildings, a well-coordinated

street system, and appropriate public works. Good city

planning and zoning likewise encourages stability in land

values and property uses, and thereby contributes to the demand for durable structures.

Except where otherwise indicated, for further information address

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

WASHINGTON, D. C.
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 6 WASHINGTON, D. C., FEBRUARY, 1930 Number 8

CONTENTS

FEATURE ARTICLES

Page

Advertising and simplified practice 240

Current activities of the American Standards Association 253

Development of simplified practice outlined 225

Durability of rubber products improved through research 234

Economies to users of commercial standards 243

Industry evaluates simplification for shovels, spades, and

scoops 232

Instruments to increase efficiency and safety of aviation developed by Federal specialists 256

National Management Congress to meet in March 251

Properties of refrigerating agents studied as basis for improving cooling systems 241

Simplification and the lift truck 237

Standardization in Japan 229

State purchasing and standardizing agencies 248

FOREIGN NEWS

SPECIFICATION NEWS

Section Federal specifications index 250 SIMPLIFICATION NEWS

Army simplifies its stationery 255

Copper range boilers 240

Earphone batteries 236

Economic production quantities 231

Elastic shoe goring 245

New booklet on metal partitions for toilets and showers. 233

Packaging of flash-light batteries 255

Seek uniform hotel equipment 224

STANDARDIZATION NEWS

Builders’ hardware 231 Four marine standards announced 252

Fuel oil 239

Publishers turn to standardization 233

Vitreous china plumbing fixtures 255

British standard for solid and split taper pins 246

Geneva conference on hospital equipment 251

German standardization program is extended to cover hand tools 247 German standards for electrical installation materials 247 Packing for ocean shipping • 239

South Africa and standardization 228

Underground lighting 252

RESEARCH AND TESTING NEWS

Chinaware tested at Bureau of Standards 245

Fire-retardant surface treatment for wood scaffolding 247

Ice-warning thermometer for airplanes 246

Protection from lightning 236

Switchboard safety improved by research 228

Vaporization of gasoline 251

Wrought-iron research 231

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

An interesting fact in the growth of the bureau is the steady increase in the number of visitors. From all over the world experts come to see the work in progress in many specialties. Not alone the

experts but in growing numbers many of our people visit the bureau from a public-spirited desire to acquaint themselves with its research work. All visitors, from the newspapermen, who have called the

bureau a “house of wonders,” to the specialists, who use its services, are welcome, for it is their bureau

in a very real sense. They are the owners of the business and its beneficiaries. The annual per capita

cost of 2 cents which the average citizen pays toward the operation of the bureau yields returns sometimes a hundredfold or a thousandfold. How science turns wastes into profits, increases the useful life of materials, adds new efficiencies to industry, advances new arts, such as aviation and radio, by research

and discovery—these are to be seen first hand in the scientific and technical laboratories of the bureau.

A cordial invitation is extended to all citizens interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories

of the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other modern

arts and industries.

George K. Burgess, Director.

93407—30- 1 (223)
SEEK

UNIFORM HOTEL EQUIPMENT

Texas Hotel Association Favors Simplification of Commodities

Used by Hotel Industry

HE TEXAS HOTEL ASSOCIATION recently approved a resolution indorsing the application of simplified practice

to commodities used by the hotel industry. The resolution

states that “in recognition of the helpful cooperative services

of the division of simplified practice in its efforts to promote

standardisation and the elimination of unnecessary variety

in sizes, dimensions, models, etc., in many commodities

which are consumed by the hotel industry, and recognising that said elimination

of unnecessary varieties does result in simplifications and savings in hotel operation, the Texas Hotel Association does hereby wish to go on record with an

indorsement of the program of work of the division and to pledge our hearty

support in the work.”

“Furthermore, we desire to go on record with a recommendation to the

incoming board of directors of this association, that it appoint from the membership of this association a committee to be known as the Texas Hotel Association

Simplified Practice Committee, with instructions and authority to Study the

program of work of the division of simplified practice, to investigate the possibilities of simplification in certain commodity lines which are in great demand by

hotels, to make recommendations to the division of simplified practice, and to

work closely with the division in setting up simplified practice schedules in any

commodities that it believes would result in benefits to the hotel industry.”

Roland Burge, president of the association, in conformity with the resolution,

has informed the division of simplified practice that such a simplified practice

committee has been appointed by the Texas Hotel Association. R. Bruce Carter,

of the Lamar Hotel, Houston, is chairman of the committee, other members being

W. C. O’Leary, of the Warwick Hotel, Houston; S. C. Fuller, of the Beaumont

Hotel, Beaumont; and C. A. Schlotter, of the Jean LaFitte Hotel, Galveston.

It is the purpose of this committee to keep in touch with ErneCt Tutt, district

manager for the Department of Commerce at Houston, relative to the details of

contemplated variety surveys. On the occasion of the November 4 convention

of the Texas Hotel Association, Mr. Tutt fully described the service and facilities the division of simplified practice.
225

DEVELOPMENT OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE OUTLINED

“What It Is and What It Offers to Industry”; Division of Simplified Practice Now Eight Years Old; So

Far Has Assisted Industry In Promulgating More Than 100 Simplified Practice Recommendations

R. L. Lockwood, Division of Simplified Practice

Before discussing any of the specific projects

handled by the division of simplified practice, it may

be interesting to go back a little and mention some

of the questions that come up when a new project is being formulated and the waj's in which we try to answer those questions.

Our work involves constant contact with industrial

and commercial organizations in almost every field. Few individuals with whom we deal for the first time

have the slightest conception of the character or purposes of our work. One of the most common misconceptions is that we have a regulatory or police power

of some sort. This misconception must be removed

before real progress can be made on any project.

Curiously enough, it often has to be removed twice

during the course of a project, and for entirely different reasons. When a new project comes up, usually in the form

of a suggestion for reducing the number of varieties

in a certain commodity, our first move is to get in

touch with the manufacturers of that commodity,

either personally or by correspondence. In either

case, we emphasize at the beginning that we have no

regulatory or police power and that we do not initiate

projects. If our initial contact with manufacturers

indicates that the majority consider the suggested

project to be sound, we arrange a preliminary conference, where the manufacturers can get together ancL

discuss it informally.

Question of regulatory power up again.

Again the question of regulatory power comes up,

and we find that many individuals have a vague fear

that “ the Government ” is going to force them to dis- close information about their business, or to change

their practices or products in a way which they fear

will be injurious. If we succeed in allaying this sus- picion and the project itself is sound, it usually goes on through our regular procedure.

A detailed survey is made to show quantity of demand for each size or type of product made by the entire industry, and a committee of manufacturers formulates a simplified list of sizes or varieties, usually

much smaller than the existing number of varieties

but sufficient to cover all ordinary and reasonable demand. The division then calls a general conference

and invites manufacturers, distributors, representative users, and others interested in the particular commodity. If the groundwork has been properly done,

the simplified list is approved by those who attend the

general conference, usually by unanimous vote, and

becomes thereby a simplified practice recommendation,

subject to written acceptance by the industry as a whole.

Adherence to recommendation.

At this point the question of regulatory power often comes up again, but from a different angle. Having

agreed among themselves on a simplified list of varieties, the manufacturers face the problem of securing

adherence to the recommendation, and in almost every

project one or more of them ask whether it is not

possible for “ the Government ” to enforce such

adherence.

Again we have to thoroughly plant the idea that we not only have no such authority but that the fundamental philosophy of simplified practice is based upon

voluntary cooperation. Even after the X’ecommendation has been in effect for a considerable time we are often urged to take some action which will force a purchaser or manufacturer to adhere to it. To sum

up this question of regulatory power, certain elements

in an industry at first fear that we will apply such

power, and at a later stage in the project they fear

that we will not. Definition of simplified practice.

Another question that invariably comes up, particularly during the early stages of a project, is that of

defining simplified practice. We are often asked to define standardization itself. We find that the word

“ standardization ” is very loosely used to describe a broad field of activity, ranging all the way from work

in pure science to methods of wrapping packages. In

our own work we try, as far as possible, to avoid using

the words “ standardization ” or “ standard,” using

“ simplification ” or “ simplified practice ” instead.

President Hoover once expressed the distinction be- tween the two in somewhat the following terms

:

“ Standardization is a positive approach to a problem,

its function being to determine and establish definite

standards of design, materials, or performance. Simplification is a negative approach, its function being

to select from existing standards those which are of

the greatest importance, and concentrate production on those.”

In other words, true standardization is creative,

while simplified practice is selective. Certain fea- tures of railway practice offer striking illustrations

of the distinction between the two. Railroads have individual systems.

In the early days of railroading each road determined its own track gage to suit its particular needs

or desires. As the railroads expanded interline busi- ness developed, thereby necessitating interchangeable

standards. The railroads got together and adopted

what is now called standard gage for track. This was one of the first examples of true simplified practice on a nation-wide scale. True standardization consisted in the determination

by engineers of the exact distance between rails and

of other features, such as height of couplers above

rail. From the standpoint of simplified practice,

however, it did not matter whether the distance between rails is 4 feet 8y2 inches or some other figure;

the essential feature is uniformity.

Considering technical standardization and simplified practice in this way, as distinct activities, another

difference appears. The bulk of technical standard-
226

ization work is clone by individuals or individual

firms, in designing new products or perfecting existing products. On the other hand, practically all simplification is the result of group effort, not only

among the manufacturers of a product but among dis- tributors, users, and all others interested in that

product. Simplified practice has been applied to the

product of certain individual firms, but its maximum

benefits can be secured only when it is applied

throughout an entire industry.

Technique has been worked out. While the technique of simplified procedure has

been fairly well worked out in practice and involves

taking a certain definite sequence of steps, this procedure itself is little more than a set of tools designed

to perform certain work. The tools alone will not do

the work; they must be intelligently operated and

applied to a great many highly diversified jobs.

In any general conference or other meeting there

are likely to be as many different kinds of individuals

as there are individuals. The only thing we can be

assured of is that no two will be alike individually

or collectively. Even a meeting of a relatively small

group engaged in the same line of business will in- clude individuals who have a tremendous range of

actual knowledge and not much intelligence.

On the other hand, there will be others who may

have less factual knowledge but extremely high in- telligence. Some of the most interesting discussions

develop at meetings which include a representation of

many different interests, such as meetings of chambers

of commerce and similar organizations. In the course of such meetings we are often asked very pointed

questions as to the real value of standardization as a whole or of simplified practice as part of it. At a recent meeting held in a middle western city an economist started a discussion along these lines,

expressing the opinion that the whole idea of standardization and simplification, useful though it might

be to industry, was deplorable from a social standpoint. He based his opinion on the theory that standardization of material objects tended to bring about

drab uniformity in everything and to standardize the

human mind.

He claimed that the standardized product made in a standardized factory and sold under high pressure

to the public by standardized salesmen was making

American minds conform to one standardized mold,

and a rather undesirable mold. In fact, lie went so far as to condemn all forms of mass or group effect as undesirable, for the same reasons. Expressions were not based on facts.

In the course of the discussion the outstanding fea- ture was that few of the opinions expressed were based on any real facts. It happened that we had also been

studying this angle of the situation and had found at

least one kind of measuring stick which seemed applicable. It was based on the growth of certain industries in which standardization is a negligible factor,

and in many of which it does not exist. They include the business of art dealers, interior

decorators, antique dealers, orchestral instrument

dealers, certain publishers, and a few professions, such

as architecture and landscape gardening. An investigation covering a group of these highly individualistic activities showed that within the past 10 years

the rate of growth in each of them has greatly ex- ceeded the average growth of business as a whole. In some cases it has been two or three times as great.

If these facts prove anything at all, they prove that

Americans are becoming more interested in those commodities and activities which involve individuality,

taste, or artistic expression, as indicated by the fact

that they are willing to pay for them. We are all familiar with the tremendous development of the so- called “ luxury trades ” during the past decade. It would not have been possible to release the capital

and labor for those trades had it not been for the enormous increase in per capita production during the

last 10 years, amounting to more than 40 per cent,

and due in large part to the application of standardization and simplification in everyday commodities.

Work of the division explained.

The work of the division of simplified practice,

since its organization some eight years ago, has been

confined largely to manufactured commodities. The

division has cooperated with industry in the development of more than 100 simplified-practice recommendations, covering a wide range of commodities in

ordinary everyday use. Each recommendation concerns at least two groups

in a given industry and sometimes three or more. The

manufacturers are dii'ectly interested, for every manufacturer knows that if other things are equal it costs

less to make a small number of varieties in large

quantities than to make the same total quantity in a

larger variety and few quantities of each. Distributors can always be counted upon to support any project which permits them to reduce inventories, turn

over their stock faster, and give their customers better

prices or better service.

The question of the value of simplified practice to

the ultimate consumer who pays all the bills is not

always so easy to answer. If, however, a simplification project saves money to manufacturers, distributors, or both, the savings are sure to be reflected either in retail price, service, or quality, so long as industry remains competitive.

Specific instances on record.

Certain specific instances are on record showing

benefits to the consumer in each of these three ways.

Occasionally the question of the effect of simplification on labor conditions is brought up. Some years

ago it was studied by officers of the American Federation of Labor, who found that concentrating production on a few items in large and steady demand

tended to smooth off the peaks and valleys of production operations, since manufacturers could make goods

for stock and be assured that those goods would be

salable. This, in turn, tended to stabilize labor conditions

and to reduce fluctuation and turnover. William

Green, president of the American Federation of

Labor, wrote a letter to the division expressing approval of simplified practice on behalf of organized

labor. New opportunities disclosed.

Opportunities for simplified practice in manufactured products still seem unlimited, but within the

past year or two there has been increasing evidence

of opportunities in another and closely related field. Economical production is not the whole of industry.
227

Economical distribution is just as essential, and in too many industries it has lagged far behind production, both as to methods and equipment.

Many commodities in everyday use are turned out

by mass-production methods at phenomenally low

cost, only to pile up cost, necessary and otherwise, in a long, slow, and often erratic journey through the

channels of distribution. Most of the expense and

waste in distribution is caused by lack of coordination,

which, in turn, results from lack of centralized control. A manufactured article is produced in a highly

organized factory where every operation is intensively

studied and all operations integrated so that the whole

plant functions like a single machine. But coordination and integration too often stop when the product

leaves the factory in a truck or railroad car. At this

point a cycle of related but usually uncoordinated

operations begins. By the time the product has been

loaded into and unloaded from cars, trucks, barges,

or ships from four to twenty times, its final cost may

be absurdly out of proportion to its production cost, and yet not a cent of value will have been added,

except “ utility of place ’’ secured by the actual trans- portation.

$8,000,000,000 wasted annually.

About a year ago Dr. Julius Klein, Assistant Secretary of Commerce, estimated that waste in distri- bution costs the country at least $8 , 000, 000,000 a year

;

one-twelfth of our national income; about $275 for

every family in the United States. This estimate in- cludes all the so-called intangible wastes, such as useless advertising, duplicated sales effort, and cross- hauling of similar commodities.

Waste in physical distribution alone has been esti- mated by several competent groups at not less than

$3,000,000,000 a year. It includes waste in time, labor,

and material in the multifarious operations that take

place after a product leaves the final machine or process in a factory and before it is in the hands of the

final consumer ready to be used.

A recent survey of distribution cost in 20 commodities showed that freight charges amounted to only 10

per cent of total cost of physical distribution, whereas

packing, handling, loading, unloading, and rehandling, each repeated several times, accounted for the

other 90 per cent. In other words, transportation, the one part of

physical distribution which creates any real utility, costs only 10 per cent of the total. The other operations, which add nothing whatever to value, cost 90

per cent of the total, and it is in these operations that

the greatest waste occurs. Our railroads have worked

miracles during the past 10 years in speeding up and

reducing the cost of transportation. Manufacturers

sometimes complain that if they could get a reduction

in freight rates their problems would be solved. The

fact is that in most commodities a reduction of 10 per

cent in freight charges, which would ruin the railroads,

would reduce physical distribution cost only 1 per

cent, total distribution cost less than one-half per cent,

and scarcely affect retail prices at all. Reducing cost of distribution.

Standardization and simplification can do comparatively little toward reducing the intangible wastes of

distribution, but can do much toward reducing the

cost of physical distribution. Simplified practice in

production has resulted from the cooperation of all groups in a given industi’3

7 to reduce the variety of

products.

These very same groups, producers, distributors, and

users, control among them every process and operation incident to distribution except transportation.

The}

7 control all the factors in which the greatest

waste occurs. Within the past two or three years

many industries have begun to recognize that simplification of the product itself is only part of the

job. The same kind of cooperative effort can with

equal facility be applied to eliminating waste in

distribution.

The logical point of attack is found in the machinery, tools, and other equipment used to handle materials and goods between the factory and the con- sumer, and this includes all types of containers and

packing materials. Standard equipment tends in

itself to bring about standard methods and processes. Division interested in general field. The division of simplified practice began work in

this general field about two years ago. A conference

of shippers, carriers, and wai'ehousemen was held

under the joint auspices of this division and of the

transportation division of the Bureau of Foreign and

Domestic Commerce of the Department of Commerce.

It aroused wide interest in the subject, and resulted

in establishing committee machinery to study the possibilities along several different lines. The field was

obviously tremendous. Some individual firms and a few groups had established certain standards for their

own use, but in the whole distribution field there was

only one universally accepted dimensional standard.

That was the minimum inside width of a standard

railroad freight car. Work on container sizes. Within a few months after the conference, work

was under way in two or three different lines. One

of the most important was that of container sizes. A

study of manufactured commodities indicated that the

great majority require more than one container. The

first or “ primary ” container is that in which a unit

of the product itself is packed, such as a pasteboard

box containing biscuits, tooth paste, or shoes.

A quantity of primary containers with their contents are packed in a “ secondary ” container, usually

forming the “ retailer unit.” In some cases a third

container is required, usually a packing box or crate,

which is the “ shipping ” container. The diversity of

primary containers is enormous, in size, shape, and

material. There is less diversity in the material of

secondary containers, but still great diversity in size and shape.

Shipping containers are still less diversified in

material, but unnecessarily so in size and shape.

Projects now in hand include a considerable number

of primary containers, such as glass bottles and jars

and pastboard boxes, also a few secondary containers.

Material-handling project.

Shortly after the conference mentioned above, work

was also begun on certain types of material handling

and transportation equipment. It happened that the

practice of shipping goods on skid platforms was

rapidly growing and that the manufacturers were
228

anxious to establish interchangeable standards between

skid platforms and lift trucks.

This project has been described in detail in previous

issues of the Commercial Standards Monthly. Committees are at work on other kinds of handling and

transporting equipment. Within the very near fu- ture several of the container projects will reach the

point where they must be coordinated with projects

covering handling and transportation equipment.

The skid-platform project, which resulted in establishing standard clearance dimensions, has since been

revised to include certain standard over-all lengths

and widths for skids to be used in shipping goods.

Further progress has been made on the commercial

side in the organization of a centralized agency, operating along similar lines to the Pullman Co., to furnish, handle, transport, and store skid platforms, rent- ing them to shippers and other users. The standard sizes covered by the simplified practice recommendations will be adopted for nation-wide

skid service, which will mean that thousands of types

of containers will be modified in size and shape to

fit the new standard freight skid.

Retail field much concerned.

The bulk of tli is effort to simplify materials, machinery, and equipment used in distribution is being

directed toward eliminating waste in the great majority of commodities sold at retail, for it is in the

distribution of such commodities that the greatest

wastes occur. They include not only manufactured

products in many fields but food products as well, in

which waste in distribution is a serious drain on the

entire community.

It has not been an easy task to convince producers

of widely diversified commodities that such commodities can be packed and assembled to fit the same shipping containers used by other industries. A recent in- vestigation, however, covering five very different

commodities, showed clearly that simplification of

primary, secondary, and shipping containers, coordinated with simplification of handling and transportation equipment, would permit the shipment of all five kinds in packages of the same length, width, and max- imum height. These commodities were soap, typewriters, biscuits, shoes, and tooth paste, and in each

case the studjr covered one of the largest manufacturers of the commodity.

Industry closely watching progress.

The whole program of simplification and coordination in this field is being closely watched by industrial

and commercial executives throughout the country. A

general plan of coordination and integration is gradually emerging from the previous chaotic condition.

There is every reason to believe that the next few years

will show greater advantages in reducing waste in

distribution than any previous period during the

past 20 years. The results accomplished by simplified practice in

production are recognized not only in this country

but abroad. The methods and procedure by which

these results have been accomplished have been

thoroughly worked out and tested, and can be applied

with equal success to the processes and operations in- volved in distribution.

SWITCHBOARD SAFETY IMPROVED BY

RESEARCH

Design of Resistors Used in Testing Current Transformers

Described

Considerations of safety to the switchboard attendants and of convenience in station wiring have led

to the universal practice of separating the meters and

instruments used in the sale and control of electrical

energy from the dangerous high-voltage alternatingcurrent circuits by which such energy is now trans- mitted.

This is accomplished by instrument transformers

which serve to reproduce in their low-voltage secondary circuits a reduced replica of the electrical conditions existing in their primary high-voltage circuits. If the meter indications are to be accurate, the reduction factor of the transformers must be known with

accuracy as a result of careful comparisons with some more fundamental type of apparatus maintained in some standardizing laboratory.

In testing transformers used in the measurement

of large alternating currents the usual basic standard

is a resistor which must be so proportioned as to carry the large current without getting excessively

hot and yet must be so shaped that the magnetic

field produced by the current will not introduce

errors in the measurements.

The January number of the Bureau of Standards

Journal of Research contains a paper giving the

fundamental principles on which the design of such

standard resistors should be based and describing the

special apparatus which has been constructed at the

bureau for making precise measurements of alternating currents up to 2,500 amperes.

SOUTH AFRICA AND STANDARDIZATION

Increases Efficiency of South African Industries Standardization

In review of industrial expansion in the Union of

South Africa, in the October issue of Industrial and

Commercial South Africa, standardization is cited

as one of the most important means of increasing the

efficiency of South Africa’s industries. “ While in regard to producers’ goods standardization has made some progress in the Union owing to the development of buying on specifications,” the re- view states, “ very little progress has been made in

the matter of coordinating the standards of consumers’

goods. Individual brands and trade-marks, to be sure, do indicate standards of quality, but where these are absent or abused by irresponsible manufacturers a great deal of harm is done to consumers who have no means of testing the quality of goods before they are bought.

“ In general, there is great need for research into

this problem of standardization of product, and per- haps the Government should assist in this matter, for

many beneficial results may be derived therefrom by

producers as well as consumers.” (A. S. A. Bulletin.)
229

STANDARDIZATION IN JAPAN

Japan Initiated Standardization Programs More Than 20 Years Ago; Explanation Given as to Procedure

Followed in That Country; Metric System to Become Effective July 1, 1934

By Shoji Konishi

It is too evident to require an explanation that

standardization of engineering materials and manufactures would bring about, in a narrow sense, improvements to the management of a factory and, in

a wide sense, the growth of a country’s industry.

Hence all the leading industrial countries have been

•endeavoring for many years to accomplish this work,

which has made a marked progress, with the outbreak

of the World War, through the activity of the national standardizing bodies, and the establishment of an international organization, a pending question for

the last several years, has been realized.

The origin of standardization in Japan dates back more than 20 years, but it is only several years since

standardization on general engineering materials was

•started. Above all, the most important is the Engineering Standards Committee, established in 1921,

and other bodies engaged in standardization work,

with the cooperation of the

said committee or independently, have been limited to the Electrotechnical Commission formed in 1910 and

one or two others. It is a matter for rejoicing, however, that individual factories and industrial

bodies which are helpful

to the central organization

recently show a steady in-

•ci'ease in number. Nevertheless, the condition in general being still behind as compared with those in

Europe and America, the

following report is based on

the work of the Engineering Standards Committee, describing an outline of the

work of the committee, and avoiding technical details ns to the conditions of deliberation and approval of

the standards.

“Standardization in Japan,” by Shoji

Konishi, mechanical engineer, Bureau of

Industry, Department of Commerce and

Industry, Tokyo, Japan, is based on his

paper, “ Engineering Standardization in

Japan,” which was presented before the

World Engineering Congress held last October in Tokyo. A second article on

the same subject will appear in the next

issue of the Commercial Standards

Monthly.

the standard types of vessels was made under the control of the Department of Communication; in the same year investigation as to engineering materials

and machinery was made by the associated society of

13 academies. In June, 1917, the Government decided on the adoption of the metric system as the standard

weights and measures, as a result of deliberation made

by the committee for weights and measures and engineering standards, which was discontinued at the end

of 1920 in view of the necessity of providing a per- manent organization for engineering standards, and

the Engineering Standards Committee was established

in April of 1920.

Other kindred organizations.

There are other organizations which started investigation as to standardization about the same time with

the establishment of the said committee. Among

them the Associated Society of Building Materials,

established in 1920, has

investigated as to standardization on timber and lumber, bricks, etc.; the Electrical Association has been

engaged in the investigation of transformers, etc.; the Osaka Limit Gage Society, established in 1924,

commenced study on limit

gages; and the Society of

Naval Architects started in- vestigation as to parts of

ships in 1925. All of these

bodies have been greatly

helpful to the committee.

Besides, the Association of

Chemical Industry, which has been engaged in the

study of oils and paints since March, 1927, is ex- pected to render a great help to the progress of the

work.

History of standardization in Japan.

The first instance of standardization in Japan is the approval of the standard testing method of Portland cement used bv the Government in 1905. In

1910 the Japanese Electrotechnical Committee was

formed, and has been engaged in standardization of

the designations, specifications, etc., of electrical machines and apparatuses.

In 1913 the specification for cast-iron water pipe was decided by the Water Supply Association, and

after making a number of modifications this specification was approved as the Japanese engineering standard in 1927, which has been adopted to the municipal

water supplies.

In 1916 the Association of Steel Works decided on

the standard specification for the quality of steel and

dimensions of rolled steel; in 1918 investigation as to I

Committee’s plan of organization.

The committee is put under the superintendence of

the Minister of Commerce and Industry, and is charged to investigate and deliberate on the subjects

relating to engineering standardization. The committee consists of the said minister as president, one vice

president, and members not exceeding 70 in number,

provided that temporary members may be appointed,

if necessary. The vice president at present is the Vice Minister

of Commerce and Industry, and the members and

temporary members are appointed among the chief

engineers, heads of the bureaus, senior engineers of

the seven departments of the Government, as well as the managing staffs of the academies, associations,

industrial bodies, and factories concerned, the total number being more than 70. The committee is di-
230

vicled into four sections, under which there are 33

subcommittees and terms and wording committees

jointly met by all the sections.

Progress of work.

The work of the committee is carried on in accord- ance with a general principle that such items as may

be related to the important industries and already

produced in large amounts but found by the consumers in various quarters, official and private, inconvenient and disadvantageous in production, consumption, and transaction, owing to the lack of uniformity,

shall be taken up in preference to others, with an

additional study on general or collateral subjects, such

as test pieces, preferred numbers, methods of analyses,

limit gages, drawings, etc. Deliberation is made on drafts submitted by the

members of the committee or bodies concerned, taking

materials furnished by various quarters, as well as the

results of special experiments, into consideration, and,

if necessary, consulting with the trade concerned.

The drafts decided by the subcommittee shall be

amended in accordance with views of various circles and be brought before the general meeting through

the sectional meeting. The decision of the general

meeting shall be reported to the Minister of Commerce and Industry. The texts of the drafts are subject to adjustments to be made by the terms and wording committee before or after the general meeting.

Has approved 85 standards.

During a period of about seven and one-half years

beginning with the first general meeting held in October, 1921, and ending on March 31, 1929, seven general

meetings and 652 (756 days) sectional and subcommittee meetings were held, thereby approving the

following 85 standards.

Civil engineering Common bricks, hollow bricks,

fire bricks, earthenware pipes, roofing tiles, Portland

cement, blast-furnace cement, stones, and slates. Mechanical engineering. —Diameter of wire, thick- ness of sheet metal and their designations, tensile test pieces, leather belts, keys, metric screws No. 1, metric

screws No. 2, Whitworth screws No. 1, hexagonal nuts

(metric screw threads), hexagonal nuts (Whitworth

screw threads), screw threads for pipes, screw threads

for couplers, rivets, files, Morse taper-shank twist

drills, straight-shank twist drills, Morse taper shanks

and sockets, dimensions of pulleys for power trans- mission, and heating radiator.

Electrical engineering. —Electrical copper wires

;

screw-type bases and sockets for electric lamps ; small

single-phase, oil-immersed transformers; brushes for

electric machines; small 3-phase induction motors.

Shipbuilding. —Hatch cleats; eye plates; ring

plates; ring bolts; fire bars (for vessels); mooring

pipes ; closed fair leaders ; chain cables. Ferrous metallurgy. —Steel forgings; steel castings;

malleable cast iron; foundry pig iron; seamless steel tubes for water-tube boilers ; dimensions of seamless

steel tubes for boilers; seamless steel tubes for loco- motive boilers; seamless steel tubes for general purposes; gas pipes; dimensions of gas pipes; structural

steel for bridges, buildings, etc. ; structural steel for

shipbuilding; structural steel for boilers; structural

steel for locomotives and cars; permissible variations

in the dimensions and weight of structural steel;

standard steel bars; standard steel bars (hexagonal) ; standard steel sections; cast-iron water pipes.

Nonferrous metallurgy. —Copper plates ; brass plates

;

aluminum plates ; copper bars ; naval brass bars

;

brass forging bars; brass bars for high-speed screw- ing and turning ; high-tension brass bars ; seamless

copper tubes; lead tubes for water; seamless brass

tubes for general purposes; seamless brass tubes for

locomotive boilers; seamless brass tubes for con- densers ; seamless brass tubes for condenser-tube

ferrules. Chemical industry.—Method of analysis for copper;

method of analysis for zinc; method of analysis for

iron and steel; determination of carbon; method of

analysis for iron and steel; determination of silicon. Wood industry.—Timber and lumber; charcoal.

Miscellaneous.—Preferred numbers for dimensions

;

preferred geometrical numbers.

Articles on engineering important.

The great importance of engineering articles used

and produced by the Government in the industrial

circle is one of the special features of standardizing

work in Japan. Not only the amounts of the engineering articles as such are considerably large, but

there are differences between the articles used for

military and general purposes and also according to different departments and bureaus. Consequently

the standards now in practice and future policies of

the Government have a close relation to the establishment of new standards.

The metric system law enacted in July, 1924, en- forceable on and after July 1, 1934, provides that all new standards shall be in accordance with the metric

system. Especially those items whose uses are less related to foreign-made ones, such as the dimensions

of timber and lumber, bricks, roofing tiles, stone and

earthenware pipes, as well as new dimensions which

do not vary much from the old, and the application of

metric system thereto is not inconvenient in practical

use, shall be expressed by round numbers of metric

dimensions.

Many of our industries, however, having been in- troduced from Great Britain and the United States,

machines and tools made in those countries have been

imported to a considerable extent ; and there are parts

of machines to be used with imported and homemade

machines and also homemade machines and materials

which are still insufficient to meet the entire demand,

and it is still found necessary to continue the import

of certain articles from abroad, especially from Great

Britain and the United States. Consequently, in the standards for such items as screws, structural steel, steel tubes, drills, etc., two

series of inches converted into metric dimensions and

of purely metric dimensions have been provided, or metric dimensions modified with the inch system have

been mixed in with these standards in order to meet

the requirements in a transition period. Thus certain

standards which ought to be simplified appear to have

been complicated ; but it is needless to say that the condition has been simplified considerably as compared

with that prevailing at present, which is extremely

complicated with the great variety of dimensions based on the inch and metric systems.

Standards of other nations are models.

Furthermore, in establishing the Japanese standards, efforts are being made so that they may, in as
231

many respects as possible, be in line with the standards now in practice for similar articles decided by the

standardizing bodies in Europe and America and new

.standards yet to be established by them in the future.

It should be noted that our work in indebted especially to the standards of Great Britain and the United

States, which have many merits worth while adopting

to our standards, as well as those of Germany, Switzerland, etc., which are most advanced in standardization

among the metric countries.

In the next issue of the Commercial Standards

Monthly the writer will outline conditions as to the

deliberation and approval of the principal standards

in Japan. The second article will follow closely that

of the first, so that the continuity will not be broken.

ECONOMIC PRODUCTION QUANTITIES

Speaker Discusses Problem in Its Practical Operation

Outlines the Advantages to be Expected

In connection with the recent annual meeting of the

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the management division devoted a session to “ economic production quantities.” C. H. Best, of Eli Lilly & Co.,

discussed the problem from the point of view of its practical operation and enumerated the advantages

which can be realized from the use of economic lot

sizes. He summed these up by stating that, in his company’s case “ the number of production units has been

decreased by one-half, even though the business has

keen growing rapidly; that satisfactory production

•control can be obtained at a reasonable cost; that the

use of economic quantities has increased the opportunity for utilizing material handling equipment; that

inventories have been reduced by more than one-fifth

;

and that the rate of turnover of capital has been in- creased by 20 per cent.” By controlling quantity through the method mentioned above, quality through standards, and variety

•of product through simplified practice, management is able to attack the waste problem from three different

but complementary angles, with the result that a balanced and profitable production program should be

assured.

WROUGHT-IRON RESEARCH

New Process for Wrought Iron Studied by the Bureau of Standards

A report published in the Bureau of Standards

Journal of Research gives information on the comparative properties of wrought iron made according

to the recently developed “Ashton ” method and the

similar product made by hand puddling.

Test results indicated no marked or significant differences between the two irons. The product made by

the new process appears to have all the “ earmarks ” usually associated with the name wrought iron. The

new-process iron, in the tests carried out, was more

uniform in its structure than was the hand-puddled

product; on the other hand, its tensile strength was

slightly lower, but the ductility was higher. No significant differences in corrosion resistance of the two

irons Avere revealed by the corrosion tests carried out. To one interested in the history of metallurgy

wrought iron has been a fascinating subject since the

beginning of the art. Present-day manufacturing

methods for Avrought iron have not changed greatly

for over a century. The need for more economical

methods and processes, leading to increased production and lower costs, has long been realized. Various

methods for reproducing the operations of puddling

mechanically have been developed, and some used

commercially with success. The “ Ashton ” process Avas brought out recently

for Avrought-iron manufacture and differs radically

from the others in its operations, though perhaps not

in principle. It is noAV being used commercially. In

this process no attempt is made to use the changes

Avhich are accomplished in the puddling process as ordinarily carried out, but are brought about as separate operations. The raAv material (pig iron) is melted and refined in a Bessemer coiwerter as in the

manufacture of steel. Slag—the characteristic structural constituent of all wrought iron—is then incorporated into the refined

molten iron by pouring the iron into a bath of molten

slag. The resulting “ ball ” resembles in all essential

respects, except size, a ball of wrought iron made by

hand puddling. The ball after squeezing so as to compact it and expel the excess slag is hot-rolled into

shape for the manufacture of pipe or other commercial products.

BUILDERS’ HARDWARE

Draft of Recommended Commercial Standard for Builders’ Hardware (Nontemplate) Now Before Industry For

Acceptance

In accordance with action of the advisory committee on the standardization of builders’ hardware, and

with the approval of the standing committee, a recom- mended commercial standard for builders’ hardware

(nontemplate) was circulated on January 27 to producers, distributors, and consumers of this commodity

for written acceptance. The recommendation is to become effective upon announcement of official accept- ance by the industry.

The recommended commercial standard comprises

all the recommendations and types as listed in simplified practice recommendation No. IS (1st re\dsion),

with numerous additions and changes approved by the

standing committee.

The central object of the commercial standard is to

establish standard nomenclature, definitions, and descriptions for various items of builders’ hardware

throughout the United States and to set up standard

finishes and finish symbols Avhich will be recognized

and followed throughout the industry. Among the new finishes listed as standard are the folloAving:

USP, Primed for painting; US2C, Cadmium plated;

US26, Chromium plated; and US26D, Dull chromium

plated.

Exit bolts, locks, and latches are included among

the new groups of standard items. Exit bolts, locks,

and latches are used mainly on exit doors to theaters

and other buildings Avhere the public gather.

93407—30-
232

INDUSTRY EVALUATES SIMPLIFICATION FOR SHOVELS, SPADES,

AND SCOOPS

Prior to Adoption of Simplified Practice, Industry Manufactured 5,000 Varieties of Shovels; the Simplified

Schedule Now Calls for 2,178 Varieties; More Than 96 Per Cent of Production Is in Conformity With

Simpified Practice Recommendation No. 48

J. F. McNeil, Division of Simplified Practice

While there are no statistics on the subject, it is safe to estimate that half of the world’s workers do

their daily tasks with either a pencil or a shovel.

Moreover, there is a surprisingly precise individual

taste in these two tools. Most people have a decided

preference as to type, style, etc.—but there were more

than 5,000 varieties of shovels. That was approximately the possible variety prior to 1923. In that

year the manufacturers decided to undertake a program of simplification designed to eliminate, as far

as possible, the waste caused by unnecessary diversity.

They felt that their purpose could best be effected through the concerted ac- tion of manufacturers, dis- tributors, and users actingin cooperation with the

division of simplified practice of the Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce. A simplified practice committee was appointed by the

manufacturers to make a survey of the production

and sales records with a view to the establishment of

a simplified schedule. The

data thus secured were used

in preparing definite recom- mendations which were submitted for discussion at the

first general conference held

at Atlantic City, N. J., October 19, 1925. Here the

manufacturers’ program as applied to the simplified

list of multiples and sizes was adopted, and at the same time action was taken with regard to finishes and

grades.

Under this plan the new grade A took the place of

the former grade A, and the new grade B took the

place of the old grade B, and the new grade C supplanted what were formerly grades C and D. With

regard to finishes the conference unanimously voted to eliminate all finishes except black on all items with

the exception of molders’ shovels, in which the finishes were limited to black and full polished. A modification of this program was necessary, however, because,

due to the opposition of some to the elimination of

polished finishes, it was impossible to secure signed

acceptances from 80 per cent of the production capacity of the industry.

Second conference held in 1926.

A second general conference was held at the Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., April 29,

1926. This conference reaffirmed the recommendation

of the previous conference as applied to multiples, sizes,

and grades. It was the consensus of opinion that there

existed an unnecessary diversification of finishes and

that it would be desirable and feasible to eliminate

those for which there was little demand. A resolution was unanimously adopted, recommending that the in- dustry, through the standing committee, work toward

the elimination of as many of these finishes as possible.

A standing committee composed of representatives

of manufacturers, distributors, and users was created

to maintain contact be- tween the industry and the

division of simplified practice and to determine the

adequacy of the recommendation through an annual

review.

July 1, 1926, was selected

as the date on which this

recommendation should be- come effective. Revisions.

On June 15, 1927, the

standing committee unanimously recommended the

addition of two types of

shovels to the then existing

schedules, the total reduction in variet}^ being from

5,178, or 57 per cent. The

success of the original program on grades and sizes prompted the manufacturers’ representatives to place

before the entire committee a proposal to include a

section on finishes. This

section was adopted, and now appears in the revised

edition of the recommendation, which became effective

July 1, 1927, and which was subsequently reaffirmed

by the standing committee May 28, 1928. A survey of production, conducted prior to the committee’s latest meeting, showed that at that time more

than 96 per cent of the shovels, spades, and scoops were being made in conformity with the simplifiedpractice recommendation.

Results.

After the simplification had been in effect for about

a year the Department of Commerce requested a state- ment from the acceptors of the program as to the ac- cruing results. The following are excerpts from some

of the replies

:

“ On account of the simplified-practice program our

inventories have been substantially decreased,” said a

This review of the benefits derived from

adherence to provisions of Simplified

Practice Recommendation No. 48, Shovels,

Spades and Scoops, is the tenth article of

the series prepared for the Commercial

Standards Monthly. Through the development of this particular simplification,

industry reduced the variety of the com- modity from 5,000 to 2,178. Shovel users

find greater convenience and economy in

buying the varieties listed on the simplified schedule, and manufacturers and dis- tributors find that the recommendation has

effected reductions in inventories.

Complimentary copies of these 10 summaries can be secured in mimeographed

form from the Division of Simplified

Practice, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
233

large eastern manufacturer of shovels. “ The service

which we have been able to render our customers has

been decidedly increased and economies have been

effected all along the line. “ Our customers have expressed themselves as quite

favorable to the project and our program is believed

to be very much worth while.”

“ The present program as adopted by the manufacturers of shovels, spades, and scoops,” another manufacturer reported, “ has now been in effect since July

1, 1926, and during that period up to date has proven

most satisfactory, and unquestionably has tended to reduce the manufacturers' cost by reason of the

elimination of so many odd sizes and grades, which

elimination represents about 5 per cent of the sales volume.”

A distributor of plumbers’, steam fitters’, and mill

supplies and tools wrote : “ We have already noticed

a great benefit. We formerly used to carry a surplus

stock of these items which did not move quickly, and

now, as many of these various types and patterns have

been eliminated, we can readily see that it is going to

effect a big saving in the course of a year.”

“ We have noticed a much smaller invoice in

shovels,” a hardxvare dealer in the Mid-West replied.

“ We are strictly in favor of the continuance of your

program, and feel that the benefits will become greater

and greater as time goes on.”

“ The sizes which we are using have been included

in the simplified practice, or at least the sizes of the

rough sheets from which the finished product is made

are those that were adopted as standards,” the purchasing agent of one of our large railway systems

said. “ We are in sympathy with the efforts which

your department has made to bring about simplified

practice, and if the manufacturers call attention to any special sizes that we are ordering, suggesting

standard sizes instead, we will be very glad to endea- vor to change our requirements to permit the purchase

of these standard sizes.” It is apparent from the foregoing quotations that

tangible benefit is being derived from the application

of the simplified practice recommendation. The out- standing benefits recorded are: Reduction of in- ventory, release of storeroom space, less capital tied up

in slow-moving stock, quicker deliveries, and an in- crease in turnover. Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 48,

Shovels, Spades, and Scoops, can be obtained from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office. Washington, D. C.. for 5 cents a copy.

PUBLISHERS TURN TO STANDARDIZATION

Trade Press Has Shown a Growing Recognition of the Wastes in the Publishing Business Through Lack of Standardization and Research; Reference Is Made to Mechanical

Operations and Production Machinery

Business men in fields closely related to advertising

have generally tended to scoff at or distrust the value

of standardization when carried out by consumers as a means of guiding their purchases, particularly when

the dominance of nationally exploited trade brands was threatened by the possibility of the purchaser’s

making comparative tests and analyses, and doing his

buying under specifications.

Lately, however, the publishing trade press has

shown a growing recognition of the wastes in the publishing industry through lack of standardization and

research. For example, J. E. Murphy, production

manager of the Minneapolis Tribune, in Editor and

Publisher, urges laboratory tests for all materials and

machines used by newspapers and deplores the lack

of quality standards in this billion dollar business.

“ Publishers and production managers of daily

newspapers in the United States are not giving enough

attention to the standardizing and improving of the

mechanical operations and production machinery

which are used in the printing of the millions of lines of national and local advertising carried daily in these

newspapers. There are no generally accepted standards for any of the materials we use to reproduce this

advertising. We have no general appropriation under

a central directing source to be used for necessary re- search work. We have no central chemical laboratory,

and are associated with no commercial laboratory

operating for our purposes to measure, test, and

analyze our materials with a view to forming definite

standards for them,” he said.

“The work done by the Government Printing Office

in cooperation with the mechanical department of the

American Newspaper Publishers’ Association is a step

in the right direction, but it is only one step where a

series of continual strides are necessary.”

The statement of Murphy is noteworthy in that he

is apparently among the first to recognize that even

in the publishing and advertising business, research

and standardization, guided by intelligent analysis of

the consumer’s requirements, are necessary for the

establishment of rational guides for purchasing

products of an essentially technical or engineering

character.

NEW BOOKLET ON METAL PARTITIONS FOR

TOILETS AND SHOWERS

Simplification Project Approved and Booklet on Sale The division of simplified practice of the Bureau of

Standards has just announced the release of the

printed booklet on Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 101, Metal Partitions for Toilets and Showers.

An examination of this booklet, copies of which may

be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents,

Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for 10

cents each, reveals the establishment by the industry

of center-to-center dimensions for toilets, dressing

room, and shower inclosures, together with a simplified list of stock sizes for partitions, fronts, doors,

posts, and hardware.

Dimensions which fulfill the requirements for typical inclosures, door clearances, the style of fronts, and

the height off floor of partitions, doors and backs, and

a list of sizes, gages, and finish of panel sheet steel fox- doors and partitions, are also included in this recom- mendation.
234

DURABILITY OF RUBBER PRODUCTS IMPROVED THROUGH RESEARCH

Tests and Analyses Made by Bureau of Standards on Materials to Determine Most Suitable Varieties for

Specifications

r. L. Wormeley, Chief, Rubber Section

The activities of the National Bureau of Standards

in matters relating directly to the rubber industry

have been divided between work in connection with

the inspection and testing of supplies purchased by

the various Government agencies; the preparation of

specifications, the development of laboratory equipment and methods of test; investigations relative to the physical, electrical, and chemical properties of

rubber and rubber products; and experimental work

involved in a study of the design and performance of

automobile tires. This work had its beginning in 1908, when investigations were undertaken in connection with the in- spection of certain Government supplies.

Canal were purchased in accordance with the results

of tests made at the Bureau of Standards.

This bureau has for 20 years acted in an advisory

capacity for the various Government departments in

furnishing specifications for miscellaneous materials,

and in making reports covering the results of tests in

connection with supplies furnished on contract or samples submitted with competitive bids.

The General Supply Committee, created by act of

Congress June IT, 1910, and functioning under the

direction of the Secretary of the Treasury, is charged

with the important responsibility of contracting for

miscellaneous supplies required by the executive departments and other Government establishments in

Endurance tire test machine

The test wheel is a flat-faced pulley Hoo mile in circumference which is driven at a surface speed of 30 miles per hour. The tire is mounted on a wheel free to revolve on a spindle and carried on a movable carriage and pressed against the drum with the desired axle load. Three cleats are bolted to the face of this wheel at 45° left and right hand, and at 90°, respectively. The inertia of the

load applied is great enough to prevent any appreciable movements of the tire axle when the cleats strike the tire. The cleats are made by cutting longitudinal pieces % inch high from a 2%-inch diameter shaft or what is equivalent, from a size 2 V2 -inch pipe. The laboratory equipment available at that time

and the existing methods of test and analysis were al- together inadequate for an exact and expeditious determination of the physical and chemical properties

of rubber goods. It was necessary, therefore, to direct

particular attention to the development of testing apparatus and methods of analysis as a first step in the

program of standardization.

The laboratory facilities of the Bureau of Standards ai’e available without charge to State and municipal governments, but tests are not made for the

public except in special cases where the necessary

equipment is not to be found incommercial laboratories. A fee covering the actual expenses of the

work is charged in each case. Bureau made tests for Panama Canal purchases.

The large quantities of rubber goods required by

the engineering forces in constructing the Panama

Washington. The bureau’s active cooperation with

the General Supply Committee and its close working

contact with the various Government departments and

technical societies have resulted in the accumulation

of valuable information that is now serving a very

usefnl purpose in the revision of old specifications

and in the development of new ones. Specifications board formed in 1921.

The Federal Specifications Board was organized

under authority of Circular No. 42, Bureau of the

Budget, dated October 10, 1921. The duties of the

board are to compile or adopt and promulgate standard specifications for materials and services and to bring the Government specifications into harmony

with the best commercial practice wherever conditions

permit. The Director of the Bureau of Standards

is ex officio chairman of the Federal Specifications

Board.
235

For several years past a great deal of effort lias been devoted by the rubber section of the bureau to experimental work required in the development of

Federal specifications for various rubber products,

such as automobile tires, footwear, hose, packings, and

rubber medical supplies.

Aside from the obvious desirability of insuring

commodities of standard and uniform quality, the

establishment of standard specifications has introduced a' marked economy in Government purchases,

particularly in the case of certain items involving

large expenditures, such, for example, as automobiletire equipment. It has been estimated that the annual

saving to the Government on this item alone is at

least $500,000. At the present time all Government

purchases of tire equipment are made on the basis of

performance tests conducted in the laboratories of

the bureau.

Automobile tire designing.

The design of an automobile tire presents an intri- cate engineering problem, and the various details of

construction have a distinct bearing upon the performance of a tire on the road. The bureau has conducted

extensive investigations dealing with the durability

of automobile tires and with the power loss, or energy

dissipated as heat, when tires are operated under different conditions of axle load, speed, and inflation pressure. The experimental work required special endurance

machines designed to simulate road conditions and

electrical dynamometers for measuring accurately the

energy losses. The endurance machines, operating

day and night under conditions which have been

standardized, are now being used both for the testing

of tires bought on Government contracts and for ex- perimental testing in cooperative work with manufacturers to determine the effect of different changes in

tire design and construction.

Other reasearches have been concerned with the

influence of tire design on the fuel consumption of

automobiles and of the effect of reclaimed rubber on

the wearing quality of tires. The average motorist

probably does not realize that in driving on a level road at a normal speed of 25 miles per hour the power

consumed in flexing the tires, or, as is commonly said,

in overcoming their rolling resistance, represents

roughly 20 per cent of the power developed by the

engine.

These investigations have shown that the energy

wasted in the modern cord tires is approximately 25

per cent less than in tires of fabric construction and

that the power loss is very greatly increased by underinflation of the tires. The detailed results of this

work have been presented in the technologic publication of the bureau.

Test procedure a problem.

One of the problems of great practical importance

that has thus far defied all attempts at solution is a dependable laboratory test procedure for measuring

the resistance teo abrasion of rubber compounds, such

as are used in the manufacture of automobile tires. Some years ago the bureau undertook an investigation of this subject, and tests were made for the purpose of determining the relative abrasive resistance of

tire treads. This work, which formed the subject matters of Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No.

294, was received with much interest by the rubber in- dustry and served to establish certain fundamental

features of design for laboratory test machines. A

large number of tests have since been made with a machine of improved design, and there is every reason

to believe that the problem will be brought to a successful conclusion in the near future.

A problem of the greatest importance that is re- ceiving attention relates to the aging properties of

rubber. Progress has been made in an investigation

to determine the effects of heat, sunlight, and oxygen

on the physical properties of rubber compounds. A

review of detailed results appears in Technologic

Paper No. 342, entitled “ The Aging of Soft Rubber

Goods.”

Machine for measuring the abrasive resistance of tire treads
236

Experiments are under way to develop a more dependable accelerated aging test that will enable one to predict the aging properties of a rubber compound.

Consideration is also being given to the use of so- called antioxidants, which are organic substances designed to prolong the life of rubber. Present indications point to the more extended application of this

class of materials.

A recent investigation of “ guayule ” rubber made

in cooperation with the Continental-Mexican Rubber

PROTECTION FROM LIGHTNING

Losses to Country Arouse Renewed Interest in Adequate

Safeguards

Realization of the losses in the United States as a

result of lightning, which is considered to be responsible for most tank fires in the petroleum industries,

has awakened a general interest in proper standards

of protection. In the petroleum business, as in the

protection of ordinary buildings, many inadequate

protective installations have been made. However,

by the application of the proper principles and standards of construction it is believed that losses from

lightning can be greatly reduced.

Reports show that the number of fatalities from

lightning in the United States is approximately 500

a year. From the ratio of deaths to injuries where

both are known, the number injured is said to total

about 1,300 a year. The same reports show that ap- proximately nine-tenths of these casualties occur in

rural districts, which include towns and villages having 2,500 inhabitants or less. Thus, it would seem

that the lightning hazard is by far the greatest among

persons engaged in outdoor pursuits.

However, according to the Bureau of Standards,

the number of fatalities from lightning is insignificant

in comparison with the number from all other ac- cidental causes, which for 1925 was 90,341. The actual

danger from lightning is, in general, very small, ex- cept under certain circumstances of exposure out of

doors, which as a rule can be avoided. Within buildings of considerable size and dwelling houses of modern construction cases of injury from lightning are

relatively rare. The}^ are more frequent in small,

unprotected buildings of the older type. Isolated

schoolhouses and churches where numbers may con- gregate during thunderstorms present a considerable

lightning hazzard if unprotected.

The use of lightning rods to prevent fire losses from

lightning has been quite extensive, and from such data

as are available it seems evident that existing lightning-rod installations cause the present total of damage to be much less than it would be if they were re- moved. Moreover, extension of the use of properly

installed equipment would decrease the damage that

now occurs. However, it would not be financially

profitable to equip all buildings indiscriminately.

Survey made in Iowa.

The proportion of farm buildings equipped with

lightning rods is not known except in Iowa, where a careful estimate indicates about 50 per cent. In the

years 1919 to 1921, in that State, 28 rodded buildings were destroyed by lightning, the loss amounting to $87,979. In the same period 503 other buildings were

Co. has shown that, by an improved process of treat- ment in its preparation, this rubber compares favorably with plantation Ilevea rubber. Hevea rubber

comprises about 95 per cent of the world’s supply.

The more extended use of guayule rubber would prove an economic advantage to the United States, as the

shrub from which it is produced can be successfully

grown in the Southwestern States, California, and in

Mexico. The results of this investigation have been

published in Technologic Paper No. 353.

destroyed, the damage totaling $1,060,668. The value

of rodded buildings lost was only 7.7 per cent of the

total, although the number exposed was about 50

per cent. Without reference to the condition of the protective

equipment, which in some cases is defective, assuming

at a reasonable estimate that there are as many protected as unprotected farm buddings, the ratio of destruction is 1 rodded building to 57 not rodded.

In determining how far to go in providing lightning protection the following factors should be taken

into consideration: Frequency and severity of thunderstorm, value and nature of building and contents,

local conditions, relation to insurance premiums, per- sonal hazards, and indirect losses. The fundamental

theory of lightning protection for a building is to provide means by which a discharge may enter or leave

the earth without passing through a nonconducting

part of the structure, such as wood, brick, tile, ox- concrete. EARPHONE BATTERIES

General Conference Adopts Simplified List of Sizes of Cells and Batteries; Project Has Support of American Federation of Organizations for the Hard of Hearing

A general conference of manufactui-ei's, distributor's,,

and users of earphone batteries was held in Washington on December 20, 1929, to consider the simplification of this commodity. The confei’ence adopted a

simplified list of sizes of cells and batteries and the in- dustry is being circularized for acceptance. Batteries

of the type covered by the recommendation ax*e used

with instruments empio}T ecl by the hard of hearing.

The program was developed by a committee of representatives of manufacturer's of batteries and ear- phones and organized users. C. A. Gillingham, of the

National Carbon Co., was chairman of the committee,

and was retained as chairman of the standing committee. The project has the indorsement and support of

the American Federation of Organizations for the % Hard of Hearing. Some of the results which may be

expected to follow the adoption of the recommendation

are as follows: (1) There would be sufficient business

in each of the standard types to make it possible to produce them economically; (2) they could be car- ried in stock, thus speeding up delivery service to the

customers and the users; (3) there would be enough

profit in the business to justify producers of batteries

making the necessary investigations to improve their

quality materially, and produce a type best adapted

for earphone service; (4) it would enable the final con- sumer of the battery to purchase them more conveniently, since wider retail distribution would be possible

in the case of a standardized battery.
237

SIMPLIFICATION AND THE LIFT TRUCK

Lift-Truck Concern Applied Simplification 10 Years Ago. Simplification Found to Benefit Public as Well

as Manufacturers

® By T. F. Moriakty

The idea of simplification, as applied to production

in the factory, has always appealed to us, and as far

back as 10 years ago we practiced the art with decided

success. At the time our organization took up the

lift-truck business it was a toddling youngster just

grown out of the infant stage. Certain practices

seemed to us rather crude, and we determined that

when the first opportunity presented itself we would

effect a change.

Our company, which on January 1, 1926, merged

with another, had been the pioneer manufacturer of

lift trucks. The original line included just one type,

made in four sizes. Only to a small extent were parts on the various sizes interchangeable, and complete re- designing was necessary to permit an original type

to be made in a different

width or length.

This situation prevented

many concerns from enjoying the benefits of the lift- truck s}7 stem which was a boom to hundreds of firms

for which it earned big dividends in reduced time labor

costs. The four sizes would

handle the loads of most

firms, which were prospects

for the equipment, but there were numerous others who

were compelled to wait for

special sizes to be built. Produced second type.

The necessity for an ex- tension of the line was

quickly recognized, and a second type was put on the

market a few years after the

first appeared. At the same time other manufacturers appeared with their models, and the output of

several factories found its way all over the country

and into foreign lands. The new type afforded more

firms an opportunity to put their materials on skids

and to eliminate rehandlings, because the new line

offered 12 distinct models as against 4 made in the

original type.

We made further advancement toward simplification in the lift-truck industry by reducing in number

the parts that had to be changed in order to assemble

trucks in various sizes. Yet the sizes equivalent to the original four were most in demand, because hundreds of firms were using those sizes and had built

thousands of skids for use with the trucks. Those

sizes had become standard for the lines of business

in which the lift-truck system had made its greatest

progress. To-day, when hundreds of sizes in varying

capacities are available, the specifications of the original four models are closely adhered to in the industrial plants and places of business where the system was welcomed in its infancy.

Public approves ol' simplification.

Simplification appeals to us for other reasons than

merely saving money in our factory. We feel that it benefits the public (our customers) as much as it does

ourselves. Our aim in bringing out our first type of

truck was to provide a design that would permit building all sizes at that time in use, with the smallest

number of different parts, and at the same time allow

the addition of new sizes as the need for them developed.

As we saw it, there were great things ahead for the

lift-truck industry and we wanted to be prepared.

We felt that simplification,

applied principally to the

engineering department,

was going to be valuable,

and over all these years we

have found no reason to believe otherwise.

In the early days of our company it was the practice among lift-truck makers to build generous quantities of each size in the

catalogue. This caused no

difficulties until other sizes were introduced, and the

few models had grown to a score or more. Then it was realized that to continue the plan of having a

large number of each size in stock would mean the

investment of a great deal more capital, because stocks

had to be heavy. As we saw it, this meant greater

expense which had to be passed along to the customer

in the price of each truck.

Need for large stocks eliminated.

The simplified design of our line eliminated the

need for big stocks. All the parts, with the exception

of side rails, were interchangeable on the various

models. More important yet, the parts were finished

with extreme care and could be assembled in short

order even by an inexperienced workman. As a result of this arrangement it was possible to build trucks the

day an order was received and to paint them and ship

the following day. Tins was not necessary very often,

as a small stock of completed trucks, especially in

fast-selling sizes, were kept on hand for rush orders.

We saw clearly that simplification in our business

meant smaller stocks of parts and of finished models.

It meant improved service for the customer, as a shortage of parts rarely occurred because such wanted

This article, by T. F. Moriarty, 6261

Cortelyou Street, Cincinnati, Ohio, was

submitted by him in the Shaw simplification contest. The author has written his

article from an interview with Walter C. Stuebing, president of the Stuebing-Cowan

Co., of Cincinnati, Ohio, and Holyoke,

Mass. Incidentally, Stuebing was one of

the leaders in developing the simplified

practice recommendation for lift trucks

and skid platforms. A review of this

recommendation, by Victor Whitlock, of

the United States Daily, appeared in the

October number of the Commercial Standards Monthly.
238

parts were tied up in assembled trucks in the stock room. One bad feature of maintaining large stocks of

assembled trucks was the “ robbing ” or borrowing of

parts necessary for rush orders from models in the

stock room. The expense of taking off and making

replacements later was an important item.

Simplification meant a big cut in our stock of parts

because of their being interchangeable on the various

models ; it meant less pattern cost ; it offered economies

in administration, in sales, and in publicity; with the

result that it was possible to produce good trucks to

sell at lower prices and better trucks to sell at the

prices then in effect. It has been our experience that

every time simplification has registered an advantage

for us the users of our equipment have also benefited.

Simplification was not lost sight of when improvements were made from time to time in our various

types. As time went on, experience showed that our equipment could be made to do a better job for our cus- tomers by redesigning cer- tain parts and by adopting new principles. There was

no hesitation on our part.

The changes were made in

order that customers with

our trucks in service could

also benefit by the improved

features.

Redesigning made possible the furnishing of new

parts in place of the old

and has eliminated many

difficulties that face manufacturers of equipment who

did not put the proper

value on simplification when their products were being

improved.

Improvements added to old models.

As a result of our policy, users of our trucks can

consult a parts list, make out an order for replacements, and be sure that every part received is what

they want for their trucks. Service on repair orders

has been speeded up, for the factory knows exactly

what parts are suitable, and because of the interchangeability of parts complete stocks can be maintained without a large investment of capital.

Customers have been given the opportunity of

bringing their old models up to date, as the improved

features can be applied to their machines in their own

plants at a reasonable cost. This feature has reacted

favorably for our firm, as it has advertised the important improvements in our trucks and has emphasized

that we have kept abreast of the time.

The merger of the two companies about four years

ago gave us increased opportunities to apply the principles of simplification. Here we were with two complete lines of trucks, each line preferred by thousands

of industrial and commercial firms. A careful check

of each line was made and certain models were easily

eliminated without affecting the standard practice of

users. Gradually certain types were made interchangeable, so that certain major parts could be used on both types. This made possible consolidated purchases of material for side rails ; steel for pins, shafts,

and axles; and roller bearings for wheels. In the

item of bearings alone a saving of 45 per cent has been

made through placing one large order instead of two- smaller ones. Not a move was made that simply meant savingsfor us, through reduced costs, for we insisted that the

quality of our products be maintained. In some cases the changes have meant an improvement in The type

where the part was altered. Overhead costs reduced.

Simplification in administration has meant lowercosts through reduction of overhead. The combination of two firms into one permitted broader guaranties, so that the item of chance is eliminated in this

line for users whose conditions are unusual. The econ- omies contributed by simplified administration have

meant added profits large enough so that after the first j^ear the company found it possible to pass these econo- mies along to the users in the shape of reduced prices.

A higher quality of product, a saving to the cus- tomer, and improvement of

the service in every phase

are the fruits of our policy

of simplification as practiced

extensively during the past

several years. Moreover, the

use of the lift-truck system

has been extended; firms

who felt that their business was not adapted to the use

of lift trucks and skids have

investigated, and a start has

been made. Simplification

in various industries and the

use of certain sizes of trucks

and skids have encouraged

transportation companies to participate in the savings

offered by the use of the system.

Shipments on skids.

Hundreds of firms in various lines are shipping

their products on skids, which results in great savings

through the elimination of packing cases and in the

labor of packing and unpacking. These shipments

must be handled by steamships, freight stations, and

motor-truck firms, who can do so with only a small

investment in trucks, because when the lift truck was new it was standardized in a few sizes. This same

idea, or art as it might be called, will have a farreaching effect on the future of the lift-truck industry.

Without simplification, the use of the system would be

confined to the few lines of business to which it was

originally introduced.

Simplification has made possible the offering of our

line of trucks in 600 different sizes, yet requiring only

a small number of standard parts plus varying

lengths of flat steel, and round shafts. Simplified

standard lift-truck units will permit exchanging loads

between industrial plants and jobbers, between paper

houses and printers, between wholesalers and retailers,

between transportation companies, shippers, and

consumers.

It is not too much to say that in the near future

lift trucks and skids will be found in all large commercial establishments, in hotels for handling in- coming supplies and baggage, in libraries, hospitals,

and other public institutions. Simplification cer- tainly has enlarged the field for the lift-truck maker.

Has your company applied simplification, thus effecting worth-while savings?

Why not tell the readers of the Commercial Standards Monthly about it? Organizations engaged in developing

standardization programs; industries and

individual concerns interested in the promulgation of simplified practice recom- mendations are cordinally invited to submit news on such activities for consideration by the editor.
239

FUEL OIL

New Printed Booklet, “ Domestic and Industrial Fuel Oils,” Describes Their Properties From Consumer’s

Viewpoint

The printed edition of the commercial standard

specifications for fuel oil has recently been released by

the Bureau of Standards. This publication is designated “Domestic and Industrial Fuel Oils, Commercial Standard CS12-29.” Copies are available from

the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy.

This specification covers 6 grades of fuel oil, numerically designated from 1 to 6; the first 3 being

principally for domestic or house-heating purposes,

while the last 3 are generally considered for industrial

use. Requirements and tests are prescribed for the

following important characteristics of the various

grades

:

Flash point. —The temperature to which an oil must

be heated in order to give off sufficient vapor to form

an inflammable mixture with air. The minimum flash point is usually fixed by law to guard against the fire hazards that would be introduced by the use of highly

inflammable oil. Maximum flash points are specified

to insure the proper ease of ignition.

Water and sediment. —Impurities in fuel oil, the

presence of which is very undesirable. Water reduces

the heating efficiency of an oil and must be evaporated

off, while sediment is likely to cause clogging of the

burner.

Pour point. —The lowest temperature at which an

oil will flow under prescribed conditions. It is in- cluded in the specifications so that oils may be se- cured that will cause no difficulty in handling or use

at the lowest temperatures to which they may nor- mally be subjected.

Distillation. —Tests which give an index as to the

volatility of an oil. The 10 per cent point is the cri- terion of ease of ignition, and the 90 per cent point

and end point are specified to make sure that the oil will burn completely and produce a minimum of

carbon.

Viscosity. —The measure of resistance to flow. Maximum limits are- placed on this property because of its effect on the rate of flow through pipe lines and upon

the degree of atomization that may be secured in any

given equipment.

Advantages of standard grades.

The use of these standard grades of fuel oils will

provide a sound and stable basis of everyday trade for

all concerned. The manufacturers of oil-burning

equipment will be able to recommend one grade of oil for their particular burner that will be essentially the same wherever it is purchased. The practice will re- lieve them of numerous complaints against their

equipment, which, in many cases, were due not to faulty burners, but rather to the use of oil unsuited to them.

To the householder who buys the fuel oil, standard

grades will mean easier procurement. He can buy the

grade recommended for his equipment with assurance

of satisfactory service, and no longer needs to purchase the lighter and more expensive oils to be on the

safe side. The distributor profits by standard grades in that

he can sell one of the several standard grades required

by his customers. The grades produce a fair basis of

competition and prevent the securing of business on

untrue and unfounded claims.

Refiners also benefit.

While last, the refiners are far from least in the

benefits to be derived from commercial standard

grades of fuel oil. In the first place, they can anticipate a steady demand for the standard grades and

are not confronted with requests from many sources

for oils of different specifications. However, the

greatest influence of standard grades of fuel oil is in

the stabilizing effect on the industry as a whole, be- cause anything done to bring about greater satisfaction and convenience in the use of oil as fuel for house

heating is a step toward increased consumption and

the advancement of the industry.

In brief, the standard grades are those of the industry, developed with the cooperation of burner manufacturers, oil refiners, distributors, and consumers for

their mutual benefit. They establish a classification

that can be readily understood by all concerned, which

is based on the characteristics essential to satisfactory

burner performance and heating efficiency.

The consumer no longer has to listen to meaningless

arguments on gravity, color, etc., but can purchase

with assurance the grade recommended for his particular burner, knowing that the oil distributor and,

in turn, the refiner will understand his needs.

PACKING FOR OCEAN SHIPPING

German Committee Issues Revised Manual

A pamphlet on the subject of “Packing for Ocean

Shipping,” published sometime ago by the German

Committee on Economic Production ( AAYF) , has been

reprinted in the second edition, according to a news

item appearing in the A. S. A. Bulletin. The pamphlet originated from the desire to clarify knowledge

of the present methods of packing goods for export.

It is illustrated by specific examples showing to what

influences goods shipped overseas are subjected, both

at sea and when transported in the foreign country.

One of the subjects dealt with is the regulations in

foreign countries concerning tariffs, as these items have

considerable influence on the choice of the kind of

packing and the marking. The text is illustrated by

pictures.

There is included a list of conventional symbols in- dicating the way in which export goods should be

treated. These symbols are meant to be self-interpreting, in view of the fact that large numbers of

longshoremen are illiterate and, therefore, could not

be instructed by written indications.

93407-30-
240

ADVERTISING AND SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Professional Interest in Simplified Practice. “ Simplified Lines ” Now Featured in Advertising

By S. F. Tillman

Members of the advertising profession are realizing more and more that they have a newer function in

their work, that of business analyst and counselor.

They and their clients are seeing with greater clarity

than ever before that advertising has become more

than merely a brokerage agency or a technical art

service.

They guide expenditures amounting to billions of

dollars annually, but unless their counsel is based on

exact and detailed knowledge of facts gained by re- search its effectiveness is lost. With emphasis on

these functions becoming in- creasingly greater, members

of the advertising profession are studying every possibility for assisting their

clients to a more rapid rate of turnover and to wise

economies which will make

for improved stability in

their business.

It is interesting to note

that some of the members

of the advertising profession are tying-in their program with the currently

active simplification movement. Under the auspices

of the division of simplified

practice many industries

have adopted simplified

practice recommendations,

which serve to eliminate the

unnecessary varieties, sizes,

and dimensions of articles in

everyday use. This bringing together of elements of an industry, the manufacturers, distributors, and con- sumers to consider the facts

and to take united action for their mutual benefit, has

led to the adoption of remedial measures and the

annual saving of appreciable sums of money by all interests. Revelation by competent industrial experts that a

large amount of preventable waste is directly trace- able to overdiversification of sizes, dimensions, and

varieties of commodities led to the initiation of the

service of the division of simplified practice within

the Bureau of Standards. This division assists entire

industries, manufacturers, distributors, and consumers

in weeding out superfluous and unnecessary varieties. It has no, nor does it desire, regulatory nor police

powers. Its activity is confined to cooperation with

industry in reaching those conclusions which have

been defined by industry.

Professional interest in work.

The benefits from simplification make a direct appeal to the advertising profession. The manufacturer

finds in the principles of

simplified practice an aid

in controlling production,

inventory, and distribution

costs. To the distributor

there comes a quicker turn- over of stocks, reduced

warehouseing space, and

smaller losses on dead stock. These benefits, in the final analysis, should reach the consumer.

It will be seen, therefore,

that the economic value of

simplification and adherence

to it by the advertising

client is an important matter for the consideration of

the business analyst, and it would seem equally important for the advertising

client to stress this in his

advertising “copy.”

Numerous groups which

have applied simplified

practice in their business

have undertaken to “ tell the world ” that they are following this program of

intelligent management.

The division of simplified

practice has received a number of advertisement clippings exemplifying that action.

“ To-morrow’s profits must come from to-day’s

wastes,” is a statement that has been used repeatedly

by commentators on the simplification movement.

Such economies as will come from simplification offer to members of the advertising profession, in their

capacities of business analyst and counselor, a subject

for serious consideration as they strive to improve and

broaden their service to commerce and industry.

As stated in the December issue of the

Commercial Standards Monthly, the cir- culation for the magazine has been steadily

increasing, month by month, since July.

The paid circulation, by month, is as follows

:

July 887

August 1,041

September 1,197

October 1, 426

November 1,609

December 2, 008

January 2,626

Subscription to the magazine is $1 per

year in the United States, Canada, Mexico,

Newfoundland, Cuba, and the Republic of' Panama. The foreign subscriptions are

$1.25 per year each. All subscriptions

should be placed direct with the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

division of simplified practice in December. These

replies will serve as a guide to the simplified practice

committee of the industry in their work of drafting

a tentative simplified practice recommendation.

COPPER RANGE BOILERS

Replies have been received from manufacturers of

copper range boilers to a questionnaire sent out by the
241

PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERATING AGENTS STUDIED AS BASIS FOR IMPROVING

COOLING SYSTEMS

Refrigeration Makes it Possible for Every Section of Country to Enjoy Products from Other Sections at Any Time; Real Service of Refrigeration Hardly Appreciated

By Hugh G. Botjtell, Chief, Information Section, National Bureau of Standards

The refrigeration industry is a modern development. Even the use of natural ice as a means of

preserving foods did not become general until comparatively recent times. The art of refrigeration by

mechanical means is still more recent, though, as carried out in plants of comparatively large size, it has been in successful use for many years. The public’s interest in mechanical refrigeration is a development of to-day. A short time ago mechanical

refrigeration was associated in the mind of the aver- age citizen only with jokes concerning “ cold-storage

eggs,” and other abominations. That there would

ever be a connection between mechanical refrigeration

and the transfer of real estate would have seemed impossible, yet to-day “ Equipped With Eternal Frost,”

or some similar slogan, has moved many a stubborn

house and secured tenants for otherwise undesirable

apartments.

Public does not recognize full service.

Still, the real service of refrigeration to the public

is hardly appreciated. Much of our food could never

reach our tables if it were not for this great industry.

We would be obliged to lead a hand-to-mouth exist- ence, eating only those products which could be grown

near at hand and those only “ in season.” Refrigeration makes it possible for every section

of the country to receive and enjoy the food produced

by every other section at any time of the year, and,

what is almost equally important, it permits the buying of large quantities of supplies in advance with

the assurance that they will be in first-class condition

when needed.

To-day refrigeration engineering is generally ac- cepted to mean refrigeration by mechanical means,

as distinguished from the production of cold by

natural ice, and it is in this field that most of the

work of the National Bureau of Standards finds its application.

Two classes of refrigeration.

Refrigeration plants are divided into two main

classes, compression and absorption. In the former,

the refrigerant in gaseous form is compressed by a pump, cooled by running water or air in a condenser,

and then expanded in coils. During the expansion the

refrigerant takes up heat from whatever surrounds it, and it is in this way that the cooling effect is produced.

In the absorption machine the expansion coils and

condenser are much the same as in the compression

plant. In place of the pump or compressor to draw

the gas from the evaporating coils and deliver it to the

condenser an absorber and generator are used. The

cold gas from the expansion coils is absorbed by a liquid or some other material in the absorber, after

which it passes to the generator or still. This is heated either by a flame or by steam which drives off

the gas, the latter passing through the condenser and

expansion coils as in a compression plant.

Refrigeration plants of either the compression or absorption types may produce the cooling effect by

direct or indirect means. In the former case the coils containing the i-efrigerating medium are placed di- rectly within the space to be cooled, while in the lat- ter these coils are immersed in a tank containing a

liquid of low freezing point which is then circulated

through the space to be refrigerated.

Apparatus for testing thermal conductivity of insulating

materials showing two specimens of cork hoard inserted and

the apparatus partly closed

Complicated apparatus required.

It is obvious that any system of mechanical refrigeration requires the use of considerable apparatus

which is necessarily rather complicated. For many

yeai's it did not appear possible to design small plants

which would be sufficiently “ fool proof ” to run for

long periods without attention. However, greater

technical skill, refinements in manufacturiixg processes, and particularly the revolutionary changes

which have been effected by mass production have
242

now made possible mechanical refrigeration units of

very small size. The result is evident in the numerous highly successful household refrigerators now on the market.

Even railroad cars used for the transportation of

perishable foodstuffs are being equipped with mechanical refrigeration. In one of these systems a master

car contains the refrigeration plant, the other cars in

the train serving merely as cold-storage rooms, while

in another system each car operates as a unit. Cars of

this tj^pe have been used to transport frozen fish from

the eastern seaboard to every section of the country.

While, as just stated, it is undoubtedly true that the

greater portion of the rapid development of mechanical refrigeration in recent years is to be attributed to improved manufacturing methods, yet it is certain

that some of this has been the result of increased

knowledge of the properties of refrigeration media,

such as ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide,

etc., and of insulating materials.

Standard constants are fundamental.

The so-called standard constants play a fundamental

part in the refrigeration industry. It is not possible

to design even a moderately successful refrigeration

plant without an accurate knowledge of the physical

properties of the cooling agent to be employed. One

of the primary duties of the bureau is to determine

the values of these standard constants. A dozen years ago the need for more extensive and

precise tables of the properties of ammonia led the

bureau to undertake an investigation which required

eight years to complete, and which for thoroughness

and high accuracy has never been equalled. Essentially, the investigation required heat measurements

under carefully controlled conditions, so that only

heat given to or taken from the fluid intentionally

would be measured. All ordinary heat losses had to be

eliminated.

The construction of the calorimeter with its sur- rounding baths was in itself a major piece of work

involving scientific design of the first order and high

skill on the part of the instrument maker. The pre- liminary work was long and tedious, yet the results

justified all the time spent on the project and the

smoothness with which the final measurements were made bore witness to the careful thought given to the

plan and construction of the apparatus.

The results of the above work took the form of

tables and graphs of the thermodynamic properties of

ammonia which are now recognized as international

standards. With these complete and accurate data at

his command, the refrigeration engineer has been able

to design machinery on a more precise basis. This

work was so well though of by the refrigeration in- dustry abroad that the Societe Internationale du Froid

awarded the sum of 15,000 francs to the National Bureau of Standards in recognition of its services. This

fund is being administered by the National Research

Council, and is being used to complete tables of the

properties of methane, another important refrigerating medium.

Trouble occasionally encountered.

In the case of absorption plants trouble is occasionally experienced because of the formation of foul

gases within the system which attack the metal of

pipes, valves, and other parts, causing rapid corrosion. The bureau investigated the matter and dis- covered that there are two causes for the formation

of these gases—air leaks and the use of impure aqua

ammonia.

The former cause is indicated by the formation of

nitrogen, the latter by hydrogen. The remedy for air

leaks, of course, lies in keeping every part of the sys- tem tight, while corrosion caused by impurities in

the aqua ammonia may be prevented by adding potassium dichromate to the extent of. 0.2 per cent of the

weight of the aqua ammonia charge. A method was

also worked out for estimating the amount of carbon

dioxide (an objectionable impurity) present in the

ammonia.

Calcium chloride brine is one of the solutions often

employed in refrigerating plants which use the indi- rect method of cooling. The bureau conducted an in- vestigation of chemically pure and of commercial cal- cium chloride solutions and determined their specific

heats at various densities and at temperatures from — 31° to +68° F. Two independent methods were

employed, and energy and temperature measurements

were made electrically. The work stands, after 20

years, as authoritative.

Insulating materials important.

Insulating materials are almost as important in the

refrigeration industry as the refrigerant itself. The

bureau has pointed out that great improvements could

be made in the ordinary household refrigerator using

ice if such insulation as is used for mechanical units were employed. It has studied the heat transfer

through most of the commercial insulating materials

and has issued a letter circular on the subject.

This circular letter gives the weight of the material

in pounds per cubic foot and the thermal conductivity

in B. t. u. per hour, per square foot, and temperature gradient of 1° F. per inch thickness. The lower

the conductivity the greater is the insulating value of

the material. In the circular it is explained that

there is no essential difference between insulating

against “ heat ” and insulating against “ cold.” In

general, however, a refrigerator should be much better insulated than a house, both to save refrigeration

and to maintain a lower temperature on the inside.

For instance, an ordinary household refrigerator

should have the equivalent of not less than 2 inches

of insulation. The moisture-resisting quality of the

insulating material is also an important matter in choosing substances for refrigeration insulation. So

far the bureau has not found any material which is in

any sense water or moisture proof. All absorb more

or less moisture, and when in a completely saturated

state their insulating value is lowered many times.

In conclusion, it is of interest to note that the

American Society of Refrigerating Engineers has

developed a standard test for ordinary household re- frigerators. Eventually it is expected that each re- frigerator will be provided with a uniform name

plate on which the temperatures of the various compartments and ice consumed in a given time will be

indicated. The value of such information to the purchaser is obvious.
243

ECONOMIES TO USERS OF COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

Uniform Basis of Purchase and Satisfactory Assurance That Delivered Goods Equal or Exceed Specification Requirements Found in Commercial Standards

By I. J. Fairchild, Chief Division of Trade Standards

The National Association of Purchasing Agents,

public utility purchasers, and, in fact, all professional

purchasers, in their desire to obtain the maximum

value in performance or service for each dollar ex- pended, require three things: First, a uniform basis

of purchase, acceptable alike to the producer, distributor, and the purchaser, and set down in black and

white—in other words, a nationally recognized specification; second, ample competition among bidders;

and, third, satisfactory assurance that delivered goods

equal or exceed the specification requirements.

In abbreviated form, these three requirements may

be stated like this: (1) An acceptable basis for purchase, (2) ample competition, and (3) assurance of

delivered quality.

It may safely be assumed that, as a group, professional purchasing agents are committed to the policy

of using specifications as a uniform basis of purchase,

and therefore the first major problem confronting the

purchasing agent is the

preparation or selection of

a suitable specification for a given commodity.

Variety of specifications

exist.

In most lines there is a bewildering variety of specifications sponsored by individual manufacturers, technical societies, associations,

and prepared in some in- stances from a one-sided

point of view. Some of

these exploit a special claim

by an individual manufacturer, others cover special

requirements of a particular group of users, and still others are prepared from the technical point of view,

with little or no regard to the economies of the situation or the fundamental principles of purchasing.

If the professional purchaser attempts the preparation of a specification to suit his particular needs,

he is frequently shocked by the absence of authentic

information. He is confronted with a conglomeration of conflicting claims and clever jockeying for

position on the part of the producers, and he en- deavors to boil down the thin and watery advertising

sap to obtain the residual competition sugar, the

presence of which is evident.

His immediate questions are. What shall be in- cluded in the specifications? What omitted? Can it be checked? Almost any requirement that he sets down is likely to limit competition to some extent. But why elaborate? One knows only too well that

most of the trials and tribulations of the purchasing

agent originate in the preparation or selection of a

specification. No doubt, many long for an authoritative statement, or some place to turn for authenticinformation on proper specification requirements

and tests for a given commodity.

Checking deliveries.

The checking of deliveries for conformity to the

specification requirements is another major problem,

of the purchasing agent. What tests shall be employed? What is the recognized method of test? Is the value of this delivery sufficient to warrant a complete laboratory test? Will the delay incident

to testing be prohibitive or objectionable? If so, how can we be assured that we have received satis- factory quality?

With these questions in mind let us consider the- method of developing and establishing commercial

standards. They may, of course, be proposed by any

group sufficiently irritated by existing conditions to devote the necessary time and effort to the preparation

of a specification. The co- operation of the Bureau of

Standards is obtained only

upon written request, lest there be any impression of

Government interference in business.

Taking the ordinary case

as an example, let us as- sume that the conflicting

claims of the manufacturers

have brought about a con- tinuous lowering of quality

to obtain increased volume,,

which has acted as a boomerang on the producers by

reducing demand for the commodity as a whole.

Driven by the formidable tide of public opinion, the

producers hasten to repair or rebuild a foundation of

quality, service, or performance which has been per- mitted to disintegrate by inattention and neglect.

Having requested the cooperation of the Bureau of

Standards, they pool their past experience and initiate research to plug the holes in available

knowledge of the commodity and as soon as practicable select or formulate a specification which is known,,

at that stage, as a “ proposed commercial standard.”

Copies are prepared in large numbers and trans- mitted to all known producers and to distributors

and consumers for careful consideration and criticism.. Also the proposed commercial standard is published in

the trade papers and readers are invited to submit

their comments by correspondence or to attend the

general conference and present their suggestions in

person.

General conferences.

A representative of the Bureau of Standards presides, as a neutral referee, at the general conferenceThis paper was delivered by I. J. Fairchild on the occasion of the sixth annual

conference of the public utility group of

the National Association of Purchasing

Agents, held last month at the Bureau of

Standards. It is printed in the Commercial Standards Monthly for the information of those unable to attend the conference

last month.
244

and endeavors to elicit all pertinent suggestions and

criticisms in order that the standard as finally

adopted may be in a form acceptable to all branches

of business directly concerned in the commodity.

After arranging the details to its satisfaction the

general conference adopts the proposed commercial

standard and from that time forward it is known as a recommended commercial standard. The general

conference also appoints a standing committee, repre- senting all branches of the business, which is charged

with the specific duty of initiating and coordinating

suggestions for revisions, in order that the commercial standard may be kept continually abreast of

progress in the industry.

The verbal approval by the general conference is not considered final, but is regarded as authority for

circulating the recommended commercial standard to producers, distributors, and consumers for written ac- ceptance. They are asked to sign on the dotted line,

signifying that the commercial standard will be made

their standard of practice for one year and that they

will use their best effort in securing its general

adoption.

Publication of standard.

When acceptances have been received representing

at least 65 per cent of production by volume, and provided there is no active opposition from any group

directly concerned, an announcement of success of the

project is circulated to industry, and the specification

is given a serial identification number for easy refer- ence and published as a commercial standard.

It is customary to print 2,500 copies of each commercial standard and circulate them to libraries, or- ganizations of producers, distributors and consumers,

all acceptors of the project, and others who may specifically request a copy. Additional copies are available through the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, at a very nominal price,

usually not to exceed 5 or 10 cents per copjq with

reduced rates for quantit}^ purchases.

Self-certifying labels. The central point of interest is the self -certifying

label or certificate by means of which the consumer is assured that the quality, service, or performance value

of the product equals or exceeds the requirements of

the commercial standard. The term “ Self-certifying ” is used to indicate a label bearing a complete,

concise, and comprehensive statement that the article to which it is attached complies in every respect to the

requirements and tests of a nationally recognized

standard such as the commercial standard.

A. F. Allison, president of the National Standards

Council, and secretary of the International Association

of Garment Manufacturers, in a paper delivered

before the January meeting of the General Federation

of Women’s Clubs, said

:

Labels are ancient institutions. In tlie days of chivalry

the Sir Knight, brave and bold, proudly rode forth to battle or tournament bearing his family trade-mark (coat of arms)

on his armor and wearing the golden spurs which certified to

all beholders that he had met, at least, the minimum standard

requirements for knighthood.

Just as the golden spurs were evidence that the wearer had

passed the tests required to maintain at least a minimum

standard of fitness for knighthood, so in our modern life widely recognized labels serve as evidence tending to prove

that the commodity complies or exceeds an established standard. But what of the false knight, the imposter who wears

the golden spurs to aid his selfish purpose without having |

earned the right? The more valuable the label or trade-mark

the greater temptation is offered to the weak, ignorant, or unscrupulous imitator. A mark or insignia has been devised by the National

Standards Council which will be used by manufacturers under

license terms which provide for inspection of plant and products and penalties for any misrepresentation. Products bear- ing the National Standards Council mark or tag must comply

with or exceed the requirements of the United States Commercial Standard. Tag has code index number.

The tag adopted by the National Standards Council

beat's these words : “ Guaranteed full size, complying

with U. S. Commercial Standard CS15-29 (or any

other number), National Standards Council (Inc.)

No. 12345.” The latter number is a code index to the

manufacturer to preserve the line of responsibility for

such garments as are sold under the distributor’s label. The label copyrighted by the Wallpaper Association

reads as follows : “ The manufacturer guarantees this

wall paper to meet requirements of U. S. Commercial

Standard CS16-29 issued by U. S. Dept, of Commerce.” This label is used on the backs of wall paper

samples. On the margin of the wall paper delivered

to the job there appears this statement: “Conforms

to specification No. CS16-29, U. S. Department of

Commerce.” A large distributor has just issued one and three-fourth million copies of a spring and sum- mer wall paper catalogue for 1930. This catalogue contains approximately 90 samples of

wall paper, 72 of which bear the self-certifying labels based on the commercial standard. The remaining 18

do not bear the label, indicating that a demand is still anticipated for wall paper which will not meet these

exacting requirements.

Standards for clinical thermometers.

Clinical thermometers are now sold accompanied

by a certificate which includes the following state- ment: “We the undersigned manufacturers hereby

certify that our registered clinical thermometer

marked No. 123456 will meet all the requirements and

tests specified in United States Department of Commerce Commercial Standard CSl-28 for Clinical

Thermometers.”

Other examples might be cited, but it is believed

that these are sufficient to illustrate the significance

of the self-certifying label based on commercial

standards.

The natural skepticism of the purchasing agent

impels the question “ How far can I depend upon

such a label ?” It may be said that a label certifying

that the goods conform to or exceed requirements of

a given specification, the provisions of which are sus- ceptible to definite physical proof, will constitute a part of the sales contract whether or not a memoran- dum of the sale exists in writing. The self -certifying

label, then, enables the purchaser to reject the goods in

the event of noncompliance with the specification or

to recover in the event a discrepancy is discovered

within a reasonable time.

It is reasonable to suppose, also, that the manufacturers will be watching their competitors for any

violation of the integrity of the self-certifying label and will report collectively through their organization, or individually, to the Federal Trade Commission any manufacturer taking unfair advantage of

the self-certifying label. In general, it is safe to say

that the present weapons against the misuse of such
245

self-certifying labels are so powerful and the penalties so great as to allay any fears of serious difficulty

from that source. Economies to users. May we now revert to the questions raised at the

beginning of this article, which were variations of the

broader question, “ What does the commercial standard

accomplish for the purchasing agent or user? 7

' The commercial standard practically eliminates for

the purchasing agent time and trouble required for

preparation or selection of a proper specification.

The commercial standard either increases the utility

value of the goods received or lowers the price by in- creasing competition. The commercial standard, particularly for the purchaser of small quantities, reduces

the need for laboratory tests and provides a basis for

acceptance in those cases where the delay incident to

tests is prohibitive.

From a slightly different point of view the econo- mies to users may be stated as follows: Representing,

as it does, the authoritative, composite experience of

the industry, the commercial standard provides a uniform basis for purchase, thoroughly recognized and

acceptable to all. Having been accepted in writing

as the standard of practice by a majority of producers,

as well as large numbers of distributors and con- sumers, it widens and increases the amount of real competition among bidders. Having been published

and recorded as a public document available to all, it forms a satisfactory basis for self-certifying labels or

certificates to assure the buyer that delivered goods

conform to the specification requirements.

CHINAWARE TESTED AT BUREAU OF

STANDARDS

Foreign and Domestic Ware Compared1 on Impact Machine

for Resistance to Chipping and to Impact

Chinaware for use in the various Government departments and bureaus is purchased upon Federal

Specifications which cover certain required physical

properties, such as size, weight, amount of water absorption, and strength. The strength is measured by

testing the ware on an impact machine which enables one to determine the probable strength of the ware in service. Two tests—resistance to chipping

and resistance to impact—are made. Such a testing

machine has been in use at the Bureau of Standards

for some time. The principal feature of this machine

is a swinging pendulum to strike the ware with blows

of increasing force, measured by the weight of the

pendulum and the distance through which it falls,

until the test piece breaks. The average of six tests

is taken as indicating the strength of the ware. A modified form of this impact machine has been

designed and built to determine the reliability of the

old machine and eliminate certain difficulties en- countered in its use. Comparative study of foreign and domestic ware

made.

In cooperation with 24 manufacturers of domestic ware and 4 importers of foreign ware who furnished

the ware used to make the tests, a comparative study

of the two machines and of domestic and foreign ware

has been made. The domestic ware included one brand of semiporcelain and three brands of vitrified ware. The samples of foreign ware were made in

England, France, Japan, and Czechoslovakia.

The data obtained in this study seem to show that

the two machines give almost the same values for

the strength of the ware. There appears to be no

definite relation between the thickness of the ware

and its strength or between the percentage of water

absorption and strength. Domestic ware seems to be

stronger than foreign-made ware. Some of the

domestic semiporcelain (earthenware) bodies appear

to be stronger than foreign-made vitreous ware. Chipping values do not seem to bear any direct rela- tion to the impact values. This may partially be

attributed to the design of the edge and the angle of

inclination of the rim.

Economies effected through improved methods of

production.

Competitive tests such as these tend to cause the

manufacturers to improve continually their methods

of production, resulting in the production of better

and stronger dinner ware. There are several commercial laboratories in the United States equipped to make these tests on chinaware, and the larger users are following the lead of the Federal Government

and demanding that their purchases meet specified

qualities. The economies effected in the elimination

of losses by breakage by having an accurate basis for

buying is benefiting the whole trade, and the entire

public gains a material benefit as a result of these

simple tests. It is also a matter of interest that

American manufacturers of chinaware can produce ware that is just as durable as foreign-made ware.

ELASTIC SHOE GORING

Simplification Accepted by Industry; Now in Effect For New

Production

Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 112, Elastic Shoe Goring, which has been in the acceptance

stage since the general conference on July 23, 1929,

has received sufficient support to insure its initial success, and will go into effect forthwith. The recom- mendation has been approved by 100 per cent of the

manufacturers and by manufacturers who use more

than 80 per cent of the annual output of the material in the making of shoes, slippers, etc. There originally existed a need for the recommendation, and this unusually high degree of support is evidence of the fact that the committee in working out

the details of the program took -into consideration the

requirements of all elements of the industry. Robert

Taylor Dawes, of the Thomas Taylor & Sons Co.,

Hudson, Mass., was chairman of the simplified practice committee and of the standing committee. The

Webbing Manufacturers’ Exchange cooperated in

the development of the program. The program will

result in a reduction of 16 qualities of shoe goring to

5 and TO varieties to 29.
246

ICE-WARNING THERMOMETER FOR AIRPLANES

A Temperature-Actuated Switch, Which, Controlling a Red Light On Instrument Board of Airplane,

Warns Pilot of Critical Ice-Forming Temperature Range

A device which may find application as an indicator

of the temperature range in which ice may form on

an aircraft has been developed by the Bureau of

Standards. It is essentially a temperature-actuated

switch which controls a red light on the instrument

board of the airplane. The thermal switch is located on a strut or otherwise exposed in the free air stream,

while the indicator is installed in a convenient place

in the cockpit. The light, behind the red window, apof bakelite, is made cresent-shape so that the switch arm can easily ride over it without jamming as the

temperature increases or decreases.

The time lag of this instrument is somewhat greater

than that of a minimum-temperature recorder, shown

on page 323 of the September, 1929, issue of Instru- ments, but, on the other hand, the rather thin aluminum base of the instrument, to which the bimetal coil

is securely attached, serves as a good radiator, so that

Ice indicator to warn pitot when temperature reaches dangerous point at which ice may form on his plane

It consists of a bimetallic strip thermal element mounted on the strut and a lamp indicator with self-contained batteries on the instrument board.

pears only at temperatures from —4° to 0° C., which,

according to tests by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics is the critical ice-forming temperature range. This indicator warns the pilot with a minimum of mental elfort on his part, the moment

that his ship has entered a flying level at the temperature of which the clear, dangerous type of ice may

form. For ease in installation on the ship the instrument is made up in a unit with its own battery, using

pocket flashlight cells of standard size. These are

located in the small box which contains the red warning lamp. The contact points are made of coin silver. The lower contact, attached to an insulating sheeting

the resulting time lag of the entire instrument may

not be considered excessive.

Flight tests satisfactory. Tests in the laboratory on a standard vibration

board and in an automobile over rough roads when

the temperature was 0° C. both showed that the

bimetal coil with its attached switch arm is sufficiently

stiff to function properly when subjected to severe

vibrations. Flight tests, made through the courtesy

of Roger Scott, operations manager of Hoover Field,

Washington, D. C., during last December showed that

the instrument will function satisfactorily in air- planes.

BRITISH STANDARD FOR SOLID AND SPLIT

TAPER PINS

This standard deals with solid and split taper pins,

giving their chemical composition and their dimensions, and specifying how they shall be subjected to tensile and bending tests. A table shows the varia^

tions in diameter (at the large end of the pin) from

1 6 to % inch, with .the length in inches varying from

y2 to 6 inches. (A. S. A. Bulletin.)
247

FIRE-RETARDANT SURFACE TREATMENT FOR WOOD SCAFFOLDING

Property Loss Resulting From Serious Fires in Scaffolding of Buildings Creates Need for Fire-Retardant

Treatment. Tests Undertaken to Develop Most Desirable Method

Several serious fires in the scaffolding of buildings

and bridges during construction have resulted in large

property loss and delay in completion. Of those re- cently occurring in buildings can be mentioned the

Sherry-Netherlands Apartment Hotel, Fifth Avenue

Aeolian Building, and the Riverside Church, all in

New York City.

Preliminary tests. The Bureau of Standards has received frequent

inquiries relative to methods that can be employed to decrease this fire hazard, and some tests were undertaken employing several types of treatments meeting

the special conditions involved. Impregnation or coating with many of the chemicals generally used to produce a fire-retardant condition are objectionable on accoifnt of irritating effects on hands of workmen,

particularly in case of injury. Also no coating can

be applied to the surface of the timber so opaque that

it obscures defects that have a bearing on strength.

Preliminary tests with various chemicals applied to the surface of the wood indicated that the penetration

into the wood was insufficient to obtain any appreciable fire-retardant effect. Of acceptable surface coatings, sodium silicate (water glass) appeared promising, and further ignition and spread-of-flame tests were conducted with this treatment. Ignition tests. The specimens for the ignition tests consisted of

pieces of short leaf or loblolly pine, Western pine, or Douglas fir, 10 inches square and % inch thick, and for

the spread-of-flame tests the specimens were 2 inches

wide, 18 inches long and % inch thick. Except for

a 3-inch length on one end of the long specimens, they were coated on all sides with one brush coat of sodium

silicate of specific gravity 1.38, thinned with water to

specific gravity of 1.33. The ignition tests were conducted by applying

safety-match flames, 1-inch yellow Bunsen burner

flames, and 8-inch blue Bunsen burner flames for

periods of one minute to the corner, edge, or flat side

of the specimen. Burning continuing for one minute

or more after removal of the igniting flame was con- sidered as ignition. Ignition using safety matches was obtained in 63 per cent of the trials with the untreated specimens and in 14 per cent of the trials with

the treated specimens, the results being averaged for

the three species of wood. Specimens exposed to the

weather for about three weeks and subjected in this

time to three rains were ignited in 39 per cent of the

rials. With the 1-inch Bunsen flame ignition obtained

in 78 per cent of the trials with the untreated speci- mens and in 3 per cent when coated with sodium sili- cate. The 8-inch Bunsen flame gave 97 per cent ignition with untreated specimens and 12 per cent when treated.

In the spread-of-flame tests with the pieces held

vertically the untreated 3-inch portion was ignited

with a Bunsen burner flame and the spread of flame on a 12-inch length of the treated portion noted.

Taken as an average for the three species the flame

spread over the 12-inch marked length of the untreated specimen was 8 inches and only over 0.7-inch

length for the treated pieces.

Effectiveness of the treatment.

The effectiveness of the treatment was somewhat

greater for the Western pine and Douglas fir than

for the short leaf or loblolly pine, due possibly to greater penetration. An additional coat would un- doubtedly have increased the fire retardant effects considerably. The tests with the specimens exposed

to the weather indicated loss of a considerable amount

of the coating in three weeks’ time, hence, the treat- ment can be considered useful mainly for inside

scaffolding.

Fine sand was applied on the coating of some of the

specimens before it dried. The amount was not

sufficient to affect appreciably the fire retardant effect of the treatment, but it increased the roughness of

the surface to an extent that more than counteracted

any slipperiness produced by the sodium silicate. For scaffolding the sand can be applied for this purpose to the wearing surfaces.

GERMAN STANDARDIZATION PROGRAM IS

EXTENDED TO COVER HAND TOOLS

German standardization work, which has been

especially active in fields not yet extensively dealt

with by other standardization bodies, except that of

Soviet Russia, is now beginning to extend into the

field of hand tools, such as nail pullers, pincers,

linemen’s wire cutters, combination pliers, telegraph

pliers, and wiremen’s small pliers.

The proposed standards cover dimensions in so far

as they are important ; a tolerance on the basic dimension ; design and form; and material, with a stan- dardized designating symbol for each type and size. (A. S. A. Bulletin.)

GERMAN STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL

INSTALLATION MATERIALS

Published Collection of German Standards Now Available

A new book, Installation Material (DIN Taschenbuch 13), containing a collection of German standards, reduced to half the linear size and bound in

a volume for handy reference, covers the rules and

regulations for the construction and testing of installation material up to a nominal voltage of 750 volts. The various sections of the book cover basic standards, structural parts, line material, tubes for wiring

and accessories, commutators, fuses, outlets and switch

plugs, sockets and bases for incandescent lamps.

(A. S. A. Bulletin.)
248

STATE PURCHASING AND STANDARDIZING AGENCIES

Fifty-one Purchasing Agencies Operate in the 48 States and the District of Columbia; Massachusetts and

Pennsylvania Have More Than One Agency Each; Provisions For Testing of Commodities Purchased

on Specifications

By R. A. Martino, Division of Specifications

Methods employed by States in the purchase of

equipment, and supplies for the operation of the several State governments differ in some respects,

although in practically every case provisions have

been made for the testing of commodities purchased on specifications. A few of the agencies have estab- lished laboratories of their own, while others make

use of the laboratories of commercial agencies or those

of the State highway departments.

Several of the States have adopted the centralized

system of purchasing, the last one organizing this sys- tem being Wisconsin under an act passed by the legislature of that State in September, 1929. In t lie 48 States and the District of Columbia there

are 51 purchasing agencies, 25 of which were created

by legislative action, 2 were self-appointed, and 1 was

organized by the governor of the State. Two separate

and distinct purchasing agencies are in operation in

the State of Massachusetts, while three are engaged in

purchasing in Pennsylvania.

System in vogue in Massachusetts.

In Massachusetts the State purchasing bureau,

composed of heads of the various State departments,

recommends to the State purchasing agent such of the

commodities as must be purchased b}7 him for use by

the departments.

All commodities bought on specifications are tested

in the laboratory connected with the purchasing bu- reau and by outside agencies when necessary. The

bureau also engages the services of six chemists, who

are constantly occupied in testing materials submitted

with bids and testing samples of materials delivered on bids. By action of the Governor of Massachusetts,

the department of mental diseases is entrusted with

carrying forward work relating to the standardization of hospital construction, equipment, supplies,

and administrative procedure, as well as purchasing

food for 15 hospitals under State control.

Pennsylvania has bureau.

The bureau of standards and purchases of the State

of Pennsylvania formulates and establishes standards

and specifications for all articles, materials, and supplies, subject to approval by the administrative

boards, departments, and commissions, and by State

institutions, before such standards and specifications can become effective. Much of the test work is con- ducted in cooperation with the State agriculture and

State highway departments and the National Bureau

of Standards. All equipment and supplies required

for the operation and maintenance of institutions

under the jurisdiction and control of the State department of health are purchased by this department.

The Pennsylvania State Stewards’ Association, cre- ated at the request of the governor, is composed of

superintendents and stewards of State institutions,

hospitals, and normal schools. Its main function is to deal with matters relating to institutional operation

and to develop specifications, subject to approval by

the State departments of welfare, public construction,

and properties and supplies, for use by State-owned

institutions. This organization adopts the specifications promulgated by the Federal Specifications

Board.

Method used in District of Columbia.

The purchasing method employed by the District of

Columbia’s purchasing office is similar to that of the

Federal Government, in that all purchases are based

as much as possible on the schedules of supplies compiled annually by the General Supply Committee.

Items not covered by these schedules are bought

on contracts based on Federal Specifications, and in

the absence of Federal specifications the purchasing

agent is empowered either to select specifications from

other sources or to formulate others. In some in- stances the specifications of the United States Department of Agriculture are used when making purchases of foodstuffs.

Buying for 26 States.

Purchasing agencies in 26 States buy for all departments of the State government, 3 for all departments except the educational, 10 exclusively for penal

and charitable institutions, 2 exclusively for the legislative bodies, and 1 for hospitals alone.

Purchases are based on written specifications in 16

States and in a like number of States commodities are bought both on specifications and on trade brands.

Specifications are formulated by purchasing agencies

in 19 States and 6 make use of nationally recognized

specifications of technical societies. In 13 of the

States the specifications used relate largely to foodstuffs, in 9 to printing and stationery, in 8 to textiles

and clothing, and in 7 to building and road materials.

In 12 States the purchasing departments have set up their own laboratories to determine the quality of

goods purchased by them, and 6 of these also make use

of college laboratories. Commercial laboratories are employed exclusively by 2 agencies and 2 others use the Federal Government laboratories. Thirty-one of

the agencies make use of the college laboratories for at least part of their commodity-acceptance testing,

while others engage the services of the laboratories of

the State highway departments.

California system under department of finance.

The bureau of purchases of California is under the

direct control of the department of finance. The

bureau formulates rules and regulations for purchasing for all institutions, departments, commissions,

State schools, and offices of the State, with the ap- proval of the director of finance. This bureau co- operates with the chemical, physical, research, and

pure food and drugs laboratories in the formulation

of standards and specifications for equipment, materials, and supplies.

The heads of the various State institutions in

Indiana comprise the State joint purchasing com-
249

mittee through which all purchases are made, using

whenever possible, the specifications promulgated by

the Federal Specifications Board. The committee

does not maintain its own testing laboratory, but

makes frequent use of the laboratories of the State

universities.

Articles purchased for the various units of the State

of New Jersey are done so by the statehouse commission, consisting of the Governor, treasurer, comptroller, and a purchasing agent. In numerous cases the commission formulates its own specifications and

determines the quality of goods so purchased by tests conducted either by the State laboratories or those of

commercial agencies.

North Carolina established bureau in 1925.

The executive budget act of 1925 created a State

budget bureau in North Carolina, but no power was

given to the bureau to regulate and control the purchases for some TO organizations making up the

State government. Up to 1929 each organization

maintained its own purchasing officer, and with the

exception of coal, no arrangements had been made

by any officer for the testing of commodities to determine whether or not they complied with the specification requirements or with samples submitted with bids.

However, in 1929, the executive budget act was amended in order to give to the budget bureau the

power of supervision over all bureaus, commissions,

departments, and institutions, and in a majority of

cases all purchases are made and contracts based on

written specifications. Testing is now being con- ducted by the budget bureau in cooperation with the

North Carolina State College of Agriculture and

Engineering.

Rhode Island system.

Under the State Welfare Commission of Rhode

Island functions the purchasing department, the

power of appointment and control of which rests in

the commission. It is the duty of the purchasing

agent to formulate specifications and make purchases

for all penal, correctional, and charitable institutions

maintained by the State, and also to buy for any department of the State when requested to do so. In this State the testing of commodities is handled on a slightly different basis than in other States. Oleomargarine is analyzed and tested monthly by

the drug department; coal tests are conducted quarterly by the fuel department; while meats, groceries,

canned fruits, and other edibles are carefully ex- amined and tested by the purchasing department at time of deliver}7

, before they are turned over to the

institutions for consumption.

System in Colorado and Maine somewhat similar.

Methods of purchasing equipment and supplies for

State-owned institutions in Colorado and Maine are somewhat similar in that in each States there has been

organized a purchasing agents’ association consisting

of purchasing agents of institutions whose purpose is to standardize on commodities commonly used by the

State institutions and to make purchases by pooling

the necessary requirements for each institution.

Among the States which have no organized purchasing agencies may be mentioned Louisiana, Mississippi. Missouri, and New Mexico. In these. States

the head of each department manages and operates his

office independent of any other branch of the State

government, and makes such purchases as are required

for carrying on the work of his office. However, in Louisiana, there has been created by

the governor a board, consisting of five men appointed

by him, to administer the affairs of the port of New

Orleans. This board maintains a well-equipped labor-: atory for testing fuel oil, gasoline, lumber, sand,

cement, and other commodities. It also makes use of

the laboratories of Tulane University for testing concrete slabs and cylinders, and reinforcing steel. Although Nevada maintains no organized purchasing agency, it does maintain a board, composed of the

governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, comtroller, and treasurer, ex officio, and a clerk, for the

purpose of purchasing all supplies required by the

various State offices in the capitol.

State highway purchasing.

Some idea of the magnitude of the expenditures

being made by the State and Federal Governments in

improving and maintaining the highways of the country can be gained from the fact that the total length

of the highway system already improved with Federal-aid funds noAv exceeds 78,000 miles, of which more than 7,000 miles were improved during the fiscal year 1929. The estimated cost of the 9,526 miles of

road under construction in the United States in July,

1929, was $238,158,495, which included Federal funds

in the sum of $96,500,347.

The problem of constructing and maintaining the

nation-wide system of highways has been entrusted

by the several States to State highway departments

and commissions. In every State standards and specifications have been prepared for practically every type

of material entering into highway construction, the

specifications used being in conformity with those

formulated by the American Society for Testing Materials, the American Association of State Highway

Officials, and the United States Bureau of Public

Roads, and formally approved by the United States Secretary of Agriculture for use in connection with

Federal-aid road construction.

In nearly every State the highway department or commission was created either by an act of the legisla- ture or by action of the governor.

Purchase specifications.

In 40 of the States the purchases made by the highway departments are based on written specifications; 11 of these departments buy partly on trade brands,

and in no case has it been reported that purchases

are made exclusively on trade-brand or trade-name

articles. Thirteen of the State agencies make use largely of

nationally recognized specifications, 16 highway departments do so in part, and 11 formulate their own

specifications. In 11 cases the specifications are pre- pared by individuals and in 7 by conference of the

officers of the interested departments. State laboratories are used for commodity-acceptance testing by

12 agencies, college laboratories by 28, and commercial laboratories by 11. Many of the agencies make

use of State, college, and commercial laboratories in

various combinations; in some cases for test work

only, while in others they are used for investigational

and i-esearch purposes.
250

Typical examples.

A few typical examples of the usual procedure fol- lowed by a majority of the highway departments in

purchasing and testing materials used in road construction are given below.

The State Highway Commission of Indiana re- quires the chief engineer to prepare and to place on

file in the office of the commission standard specifications for three or more distinct t3

? pes of modern

highways, of which at least three shall be hard-surface

types. The commission supplies project engineers in

charge of construction with the necessary equipment

with which to make such field tests as are practicable,

and maintains its own laboratory for the purpose of

conducting analyses and tests of all materials entering

into the construction and maintenance of roads and

bridges. Liaison is also maintained between the lab- oratory and the engineering experiment station and

testing laboratories of Purdue University.

Two laboratories are maintained by the Michigan

highway department, one at Ann Arbor in cooperation with the University of Michigan and the other

at the Michigan College of Mines at Houghton. All

commodities purchased by the department are tested

in the laboratories. Steel bought outside of the State

is tested by commercial laboratories designated and

employed by the department. Cement samplers are located at various mills, and inspectors are stationed

at stone and gravel plants and at certain concrete and

clay pipe plants. The highway department through

its laboratories also undertakes to make tests for

counties, cities, and other State government subdivisions.

Vermont samples road materials.

Road materials for use in Vermont highways are sampled by the highway department inspectors on the

various projects and at different plants where material is purchased. Also samples are sent to the department’s own testing laboratory, except tests in- volving compression tests of over 50,000-pound load,

which are handled by the laboratories of the University of Vermont.

In Virginia the State department maintains its own division of tests, which is equipped to make both

chemical and physical tests of materials used in road

construction. Steel superstructure, reinforcing steel,

creosote, cement, and other materials manufactured

outside of the State are tested and inspected by commercial firms at the sources of supply.

Highway survey conducted.

Methods of purchasing, accepting, servicing, and

retiring highway construction and maintenance equipment by the several highway departments are many

ami varied. An effort to eliminate unsound policies

in the purchase of equipment and to standardize purchasing methods along practical and efficient lines has

been undertaken by a joint committee composed of

representatives of the American Road Builders’ Association and the American Association of State Highway Officials, working in cooperation with the United

States Bureau of Public Roads, and the National

Bureau of Standards. Below there is given some in- formation compiled from replies received to questionnaires recently submitted by the joint committee to

the several States. Twenty-two of the States reported having laws cov- ering the purchase of highway construction and maintenance equipment. Of these, 9 place the authority

for the purchasing with the State purchasing agents

or commissions ; 7 with the State highway commission

or director of public works; 2 with the State finance

board, and 3 require merely that there be competitive

bidding.

Twenty-five of the States operate on the budget sys- tem, the expenses generally being budgeted on the

basis of previous experience.

Thirteen States reported the purchase of equipment

through the State purchasing agents and 25 through

the highway departments or commissions.

Thirty of the States reported having equipment

divisions, 8 reported not having any division, and 5 reported using various agencies as substitutes for

equipment divisions. Of those maintaining equipment divisions, 3 make their purchases through the

State purchasing agents.

In 21 of the States use is made of general specifications for equipment, in 9 detailed specifications are

used, and in 11 both general and detailed specifications are used at times. In 41 States cost and service

records of equipment are kept. Twenty-one of the

States require tests of equipment offered for sale, 13

require inspection, and 6 reported having no fixed rule

in this respect.

Assistance given to counties and townships.

Seven of the State highway commissions reported

that they are assisting counties and townships in

purchasing road construction and maintenance equipment by buying such equipment through their organizations and 35 stated that they did not do so. The officers of 14 highway commissions expressed

the belief that purchases for townships, counties, and

districts could be handled to better advantage by

clearing through the central departments of the commissions, 6 expressed the belief that this could be

done in part, and 22 expressed their doubts as to the

desirability of doing so. In 37 States the highway officials expressed the

opinion that model specifications, inventory, equipment service, and cost record forms would be useful

in controlling their equipment operation and purchase

routine; 6 stated that they might well be used in part;

and 8 said that they would not be useful.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS INDEX

Alphabetical Index and Numerical List of Federal Specifi- cations Issued by the Federal Specifications Board

Circular of the Bureau of Standards, No. 378

(1929), giving an alphabetical index and numerical

list of Federal specifications promulgated by the

Federal Specifications Board, is now off the press and

copies may be obtained from the Superintendent of

Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C., at 5 cents per copy. This circular supercedes

Circular No. 371, issued in 1928.
251

NATIONAL MANAGEMENT CONGRESS TO MEET IN MARCH

One Session for Discussion of Elimination of Waste. Continuation of Program Necessary for Industrial

Progress

The March 3 session of the National Management

Congress, which will be held at the Hotel Stevens

in Chicago, will be devoted to a discussion of elimination of waste. This session will be the first openingmeeting of the committee’s 1930 elimination-of- waste

drive.

The month of April has again been set by the committee as the time for the annual “ National Elimination of Waste Campaign.” This movement, which

began last year, has grown very remarkably and has

become even international, as the committee has as- sisted groups in Australia, China, England, and

Russia by supplying information about campaigns

conducted in this country. During April of last year a large number of companies put on an exhibit

waste campaign within their factories and an even

larger number are expected to cooperate this year. The first notable campaign to reduce wastes in

factories by displaying waste exhibit boards was put on by the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing

Co. in 1926 as a part of Management Week. The re- markable success of the campaign in reducing waste

and securing better cooperation from employees

caused the companies to make it an annual event and

brought this method into prominence. Since then

notable elimination of waste campaigns have been run by the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock

Co., subsidiaries of the United States Steel Corporation, the Oakland Motor Car Co., and a number of

others.

Sponsored by American Society of Mechanical

Engineers.

Early last year an Elimination of Waste Committee was sponsored by the management division

of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,

with the American Management Association cooperating to coordinate this growing movement. It was

then decided to advocate definitely an annual “ National Elimination of Waste Campaign” for April,

and the movement immediately won splendid support throughout the country.

According to an announcement of the Elimination of Waste Committee of the A. S. M. E., 29 West

Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y., a paper will

be presented to the session on March 3 outlining the

problem of waste in an industrial plant. This will

be followed by a second paper giving methods of

attacking this problem, and then there will be a number of short papers by companies that have held exhibit campaigns, who will give concrete examples of

savings due to their campaigns and suggestions made

by employees.

At the exposition which is to be held at the Hotel

Stevens there will be a special booth given over to exhibiting the prize waste-elimination boards of vari- ous large companies that have had campaigns.

VAPORIZATION OF GASOLINE

Easy Method for Determining Readiness With Which Gasoline

Vaporizes Discovered by Bureau of Standards

The Bureau of Standards has found an easy method

for determining the readiness with which gasoline

vaporizes. Now the oil refiner can obtain this in- formation on his product without the use of any special tests. At every stage in the production, storage, transportation, and use of gasoline it is necessary to know

how readily it will vaporize. Millions of gallons of

gasoline, fresh from the stills, are stored in large tanks

having small openings to the air. The gasoline vaporizes, some more than others, and thousands of dollars

worth of good motor fuel is lost. The tank cars used

for shipping on the railroads must conform to certain

I'egulations, based on the ease with which the gasolines

vaporize. If the gasoline used by the motorist in winter does not vaporize enough he will have difficulty in

starting his engine. If his gasoline vaporizes too

readily he will be annoyed, especially in summer, by

frequent engine stoppage.

The Bureau of Standards made experiments on a

large number of fuels to determine the temperatures

at which a small bubble was formed in the gasoline.

These temperatures are called bubble points and indi- cate the ease with which the gasoline vaporizes. It was discovered that the bubble point temperature at atmospheric pressure is identical with the temperature

at which 10 per cent of a gasoline is evaporated in a simple distillation test used by all oil refiners. A

low 10 per cent point indicates large losses on storage,

but easy engine starting in winter. Under summer

operating conditions it indicates the tendency to boil

in the carburetor.

So using the 10 per cent point as a criterion the re- finer can produce gasoline for easy starting in any

climate, and gasoline which will not boil at any sum- mer temperature.

GENEVA CONFERENCE ON HOSPITAL

EQUIPMENT

French International Committee on Standardization of Hospital Equipment Urge Greater Standardization of Equipment for This Industry

The fourth session of the International Permanent

Commission for the Standardization of Hospital

Equipment was held in Geneva in October. Resolutions were adopted with regard to the standardization of field stretchers, to vehicles on wheels, and to

airplanes, and with regard to the study of efficient horse-drawn and motorized vehicles for transporting

the sick and wounded. Information is now being

collected from the several army administrations re- garding the following items about vehicles: Weight,

dimensions (length and width), illumination, means

of supporting stretchers, efficiency shown in time of war, etc. (A. S. A. Bulletin.)
252

FOUR MARINE STANDARDS ANNOUNCED

American Marine Standards Committee Considers Four Proposed Marine Standards; Wire Ropes for

Marine Uses, Standard Locks for Ship Doors, Standard Practice in Ship Hull Construction, and Care

and Operation of Oil-burning Apparatus and Handling of Fuel Oil on Ships. Members of New Executive Board Announced. Committee Will Coordinate Rules for Design and Construction of Marine

Boilers and Pressure Vessels

The American Marine Standards Committee has

under consideration four proposed marine standards,

according to the secretary, A. V. Bouillon, room 713,

Commerce Building. These are as follows:

Wire ropes for marine uses.—A tentative final draft

of proposed general specifications has been prepared,

and is under consideration by the technical committees on hull and ship operation details. This is due to receive final action at an early date. Care and operation of oil-burning apparatus and

handling of fuel oil on ships.—A preliminary draft of

proposed standard instructions recently circularized

lias brought comment and suggestions from various

sources. The subject is to be submitted for final action at an early date, with probability that a final draft will be developed for promulgation.

Standard locks for ship doors —-A preliminary draft

of proposed standard specifications has been generally

approved, subject to minor alterations, and is to be

presented for promulgation at an early date. Fourteen standard locks are contemplated.

Standard practice in ship hull construction.—A ten- tative final draft of standard instructions is under consideration by the technical committee on hull details,

the National Council of American Shipbuilders, and

others concerned. If the results are favorable, the

draft will be presented for promulgation.

Executive board elect for 1930.

The recent annual election by the membership re- sulted in the election of the following members to the

executive board for 1930 : Edwin C. Bennett, naval

architect, New York, N. Y. ; Maj. Gen. Lytle Brown,

Chief of Engineers, United States Army, Washington, D. C. ; Homer L. Ferguson, president and general manager Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry

Dock Co., Newport News, Va. ; Theodore E. Ferris,

naval architect and marine engineer, New York, N.

Y. ; Hugo P. Frear, vice president Marine Engineering Corporation, Philadelphia, Pa. ; Capt. R. D. Gatewood, manager United States Salvage Association

(Inc.), New York, N. Y. ; William Francis Gibbs,

vice president Gibbs & Cox (Inc.), New York, N. Y.

;

Edward C. Gillette, superintendent of naval construction, Bureau of Lighthouses, Washington, D. C.

;

Dickerson N. Hoover, supervising inspector general

United States Steamboat Inspection Service, Washington, D. C. ; Capt. Charles A. McAllister, president

UNDERGROUND LIGHTING

British Specification Promulgated for Underground Lighting

Fitting For Use in Mines

This British specification deals with fittings, including well glasses, intended for use with British standard vacuum tungsten filament lamps, with a maximum

rating of 60 watts (the dimensions of these lamps are given in an appendix).

American Bureau of Shipping, New York, N. Y. ; S. D. McComb, manager Marine Office of America, New

York, N. Y. ; Robert W. Morrell, M. E., consulting

naval architect and marine engineer, New York, N.

Y. ; Edward P. Morse, president Union Dry Docks

(Inc.), Morse Plant, 11 Broadway, New York, N. Y.

;

E. H. Rigg, naval architect, New York Shipbuilding

Co., Camden, N. J. ; Rear Admiral George H. Rock

(C. C.), United States Navy, chief, Bureau of Construction and Repair, Navy Department, Washington, D. C. ; Dr. Herbert C. Sadler, dean of Colleges

of Engineering and Ai’chitecture, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.; Col. E. A. Simmons, president Marine Engineering and Shipping Age, New

York, N. Y. ; Henry G. Smith, president National

Council of American Shipbuilders, New York, N. Y.

;

Rear Admiral J. G. Tawresey, United States Navy

(retired), Bureau of Operations, United States Shipping Board, Washington, D. C.; Joseph J. Tynan,

general manager Union Plant, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation (Ltd.), San Francisco, Calif.; and

H. B. Walker, president American Steamship Owners’

Association, New York, N. Y.

The chairman, vice chairman, and secretary for the

current year are to be appointed at the board’s first meeting. Administrative committees for the current

year are then to be appointed by the chairman.

Active projects for marine standards.

The secretary recentty issued a quarterly report in

which there were listed 25 projects, comprising hull,

engineering, and ship operation details, and 4 projects appertaining to port facilities. Special committee appointed.

As a result of a conference between a committee

delegated by the Society of Naval Architects and

Marine Engineers with the Secretary of Commerce, a

special committee has been appointed to coordinate

existing activities and produce single standard rules. The following interests and their representatives are comprised in this special committee : Dr. D. S. Jacobus, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers; B. E. Meurk, American Steamship Owners’

Association; Charles F. Bailey, National Council of

American Shipbuilders; Prof. H. L. Seward, Society

of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers; John L. Crone, Steamboat Inspection Service; and Henry C. K. Meyer, American Marine Standards Committee.

The standard does not apply to gas-filled lamps, be- cause a larger globe is necessary to prevent overheating in this case. The following items are dealt with

:

Material, provision for grounding, lamp holder, di- mensions of well glasses, rubber channel rings, well

glass clamping rings, well glass guards, attachment of

metallic covering of cables, provision for sealing the

dielectric of cables, and finish. (A. S. A. Bulletin.)
253

CURRENT ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Current Status of Pending Projects Reviewed—Pipe Flanges and Fittings, Standardized Lettering, Standardization of Keys and Keyways, Electrical Definitions, Leather Belting, Mechanical Projects, Safety

Code for the Prevention of Dust Explosions, and Gas Mask Canisters

Companion flanges and marking for pipe fittings

.are the subjects of two questionnaires being submitted

to industry by a subgroup of the sectional committee on

“ pipe flanges and flanged fittings.” The results of the

questionnaire will be used by the subgroup as the

basis for their work.

J. Roy Tanner, chairman of the subgroup on “ companion flanges,’ accompanies the questionnaire on this

subject with the note : “ Throughout the six years

since the dimensions of the steel fitting standards be- came available, in the absence of a basic standard for

companion flanges, various types of these flanges have

been used, among which were flanges with high hubs,

with low hubs, with inverted hubs, and without hubs.

Flange facings and joints of various types also have

been used with these flanges. To assist the subgroup

in the completion of its work, it is desired to secure

first-hand information as to the performance in service of these flanges, together with that of bolts, joints,

valves, fittings, etc., made to comply with the American

steel flange standards.”

W. J. Morrison, chairman

of the subgroup on “ markings for pipe fittings,”

writes, in submitting this

questionnaire on markings,

‘‘standardization of markings for pipe fittings has

long been talked of but

never attempted. At this

time, however, there is an urgent demand for the

standardization of markings

for use on the new American Standard pipe fittings

* * *. There are three

questions involved: (1) What markings are necessary,

(2) can they be put on the fittings, and (3) how should

the}7 be applied? ” Standardized lettering.

A draft standard on lettering has been prepared

by a subcommittee of the sectional committee on

standards for “ drawings and drafting-room practice.”

The subcommittee is under the chairmanship of T. G.

Crawford, supervisor of drafting, General Electric Co.

The draft is based upon the results of a questionnaire,

of which 500 copies were distributed to all branches

of industry. An introduction to the draft says: At one time it was the general opinion that lettering should

be sloped as in script, thereby combining uniformity and

speed. A number of letter forms have been promulgated, but,

in apparent contradiction to theory, the vertical letter has been adopted by many of the larger manufacturers as being the type

of lettering that tracers can make legibly and uniformly. As

in script, sloped letters invariably carry personal characteristics of the individual. This feature is not so noticeable where vertical letters are used. It is also noticeable that

vertical lettering produces work which is more legible in the

blue prints. In a questionnaire recently sent to the industries and educational institutions it developed that the industries are in

favor of the vertical lettering, and the educational institutions

of the inclined letters. In making recommendations for a universal type of lettering

it seems desirable to be governed by the group which uses

it in practice.

Standardization of keys and keyways.

A proposal to establish standard dimensions of plain

and taper square and flat keys, and plain and gib-head

taper keys, is being voted upon by the sectional committee on the standardization of shafting (B 17).

The following standard dimensions are being con- sidered :

Diameter of shaft

(in inches)

Size of key i Diameter of shaft

(in inches) Size of key

634 134 by 114

134 by 114

lli by m 2 by 134

214 by 114 ; 214 by 134

11 2% by 134

3 by 2 314 by 214

4 by 2

H

414 by 234

5 by 3

7 . 12 734 14 8. 16

9 18

10 20The result of the vote will

determine whether this se- ries is to be established as standard or whether a pref- erence exists for some other

series of sizes. Electrical definitions.

Dr. A. E. Kennelly, of

Harvard University, has

been appointed chairman of

the recently organized

American Standards Association Committee on Electrical Definitions. Dr. Kennelly will represent on the

committee, in addition to the American Institute of

Electrical Engineers, which will act as sponsor for

the project, the National Academy of Science, the

Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. The work of the committee will be

divided among 14 subcommittees, as follows : General

(elemental, fundamental, and derived terms, units,

etc) ; rotating machinery; transformers (including

induction regulators and reactors) ; switching equipment; control equipment; instruments, measurement,

and testing; transmission and distribution; traction;

illumination; communication (wire); communication

(radio) ; electrochemistry and electrometallurgy;

welding; and miscellaneous. There are 43 members

on the committee representing 29 organizations.

Leather belting.

A general conference of manufacturers, distributors, and users of leather belting will be held under

the auspices of the A. S. A. at 10.30 a. m., February

6, 1930, in room 1105 of the Engineering Societies

Building, 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York,

N. Y. The conference is being called at the request

of the special committee which met on May 7 to conTo afford an expansion in national

standardization work, the A. S. A. has had

its finances underwritten for a period of

three years. By this arrangement the A.

S. A. will spend a total of $150,000 annually. The growth of industrial standardization in this country has been very rapid,

and, with this additional fund at its dis- posal, the A. S. A. expects immediately to

start expanding the work of providing

authoritative national standards.
254

sicler the proposal for the standardization of leather

belting made by the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers.

The conference will determine primarily whether or not the standardization of leather belting should be

undertaken. If standardization is favored the fol- lowing questions will be considered: (1) To recom- mend a scope for this standardization activity, and

(2) to ascertain what organizations desire representation on the sectional committee should it be decided

that the development of American standards for

leather belting is desirable.

Among the organizations which have been invited

to send representatives to the conference are: National Electrical Manufacturers Association, Bureau

of Standards, United States Navy, Power Transmission Association, Society of Automotive Engineers,

American Railway Association, American Society of

Mechanical Engineers, American Leather Belting

Association, International Trade Press, and Textile

Machinery Manufacturers Association.

Mechanical projects.

A tentative decision on the proposed standard taper

series for machine tapers has been reached by technical committee No. 3 of the general sectional committee on “ Standards for Small Tools and Machine

Tool Elements.” The series decided upon is made

up of 3 sizes having one-half inch taper, 5 sizes of

Morse tapers, 1 size with 0.623 inch taper, and 10

sizes having three-quarter inch taper.

Adoption of the new spindle nose recommended by

the technical committee on chucks and chuck jaws of

the general sectional committee referred to above, was furthered when representatives of the builders

of turret, automatic, and engine lathes, meeting with

the committee, agreed to recommend to their companies that they adopt the new spindle noses. The

committee reports that “ while no official action has

been taken, each of the automatic lathe builders,

most of the turret lathe builders, and the Monarch

Machine Tool Co., one of the largest builders of the

engine lathes, are making arrangements to get these

neAV spindle noses into production.” The Pratt &

Whitney Co. has agreed to manufacture the neces- sary gages for use in this connection.

The general sectional committee on “ Standards for

Small Tools and Machine Tool Elements ” has added

a subcommittee for the standardization of splines and

splined shafts, and designated C. W. Spicer, of the

Society of Automotive Engineers, as temporary chair- man. Subcommittees were also appointed for the

standardization of electric welding dies and electrode

holders, and for the standardization of the dimensions

of milling machine tables. Safety Code for the prevention of dust explosions

The American Standards Association has approved

as an American Standard, the revision of the “ Safety

Code for the Prevention of Dust Explosions in Pulverizing Systems for Sugar and Cocoa.” This code

prepared by a sectional committee under the joint

sponsorship of the United States Department of

Agriculture and the National Fire Protection Association was unanimously approved by the members of

the committee, under the chairmanship of David J. Price, of the Department of Agriculture.

The provisions of the code cover location of pulverizing systems, construction of buildings, access to

these buildings, power, lighting, preventive measures, housekeeping, and fire protection.

Safety Codes for the Prevention of Dust Explosions cover, in addition to pulverizing systems for

sugar and cocoa (Z 12b—1930), installation of pulverized fuel systems (Z 12a—1927) , prevention of dust

explosions in starch factories (Z 12c—1927), prevention of dust explosions in flour and feed mills

(Z 12d—1928), and prevention of dust explosions in

terminal grain elevators (Z 12e—1928).

Gas-mask canisters.

A safety code for the identification of gas-mask

canisters (K 13—1930) has been adopted as an American Tentative Standard by the American Standards

Association. This code was unanimously approved by

the 18 members of the sectional committee which pre- pared it and by the National Safety Council, sponsor

for the project.

The purpose of the code, according to an introduction to the standard, “ is to provide protection against

accidental injuries arising out of misunderstandings

in the identification of suitable gas-mask canisters

selected for use in connection with gas masks worn

by men who are required to enter atmospheres con- taining dangerous quantities of harmful gases, vapors,

smokes, or mists (singly or in combination), or dusts

in combination with any of these. By establishing a uniform practice those who may have occasion to use gas masks will acquire a knowledge of the identification colors and marks and will thus be assisted as much as possible in selecting proper canisters for

specific conditions encountered.”

The committee recommends that : “ The manufacturers of gas-mask canisters, falling within the scope

of this code, shall see that all canisters of their manufacture are properly colored and marked in accord- ance with these requirements before they are delivered

to their customers. All who issue or hse gas masks,

falling within the scope of this code, shall see that

all gas-mask canisters purchased or used by them are properly colored and marked in accordance with

these requirements before they are placed in service

and that the colors and markings are properly maintained at all times thereafter until the canisters have

completely served their purpose.”

To spend $150,000 annually.

Announcement that the underwriting of the finances

of the American Standards Association for a period

of three years, to permit a total annual expenditure

of $150,000 for the association’s work is now being

completed, is made by William J. Serrill, president

of the association. This fund permits an increase of

$80,000 in the 1930 budget over the previous budget

of the association, and is expected to result in an ex- pansion of national standardization work affecting

practically all industries.

The fund is being underwritten by a large group of

industrial organizations. The underwriting was ar- ranged by a committee consisting of James A. Farrell,

president of the United States Steel Corporation;

Gerard Swope, president of the General Electric Co.

;

George B. Cortelyou, president of the Consolidated

Gas Co. of New York; and F. A. Merrick, president

of the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co.
255

Because of the rapid growth of the industrial standardization movement in this country, the underwriting was planned to permit immediate expansion of the

work of providing authoritative national standards,

while permanent financing is under way. It is ex- pected that this financing will be completed during

the 3-year period of the underwriting.

Has adopted 160 national standards.

Up to the present time the ASA has adopted approximately 160 national standards, and 190 other national standards are being formulated. The association provides the machinery by which all of the producing. distributing, and consuming groups concerned

with a standard may cooperate in its preparation.

The foremost technicians of all groups are thus

brought together to pool their knowledge for the

benefit of all. More than 2,000 individuals representing 800 cooperating organizations are in this way

working on technical committees under the procedure

of the association.

An important feature of the association’s work is the adoption of national safety codes, which are used

voluntarily by industries and also as the basis for

State and municipal safety regulations and for the

regulations of insurance companies in numerous

States. Among the most important of these codes are

:

The National Electrical Safety Code, The Code for

Mechanical Power Transmission, and several codes

for mine safety.

As the result of the recent affiliation of the American Home Economics Association with the American

Standards Association, the latter body has also begun

important standardization work on projects of direct concern to the ultimate consumer, such as refrigerators,

sheets, and blankets.

PACKAGING OF FLASHLIGHT BATTERIES

Conference Approves Plan for Packaging Large and Small

Flashlight Cells; Recommendation Now Before Industry

for Acceptance

A general conference on packaging of flashlight batteries Was held in Washington, D. C., on December

20, 1929, and approved a plan for packaging large

and small flashlight cells. The recommendation of

the conference has been referred to manufacturers,

distributors, and organized users for approval and

will be published as a simplified practice recommendation if adopted by those concerned.

The need for a uniform system of packaging was

suggested by Dr. E. L. Newcomb, secretary of the

National Wholesale Druggists Association. At his

request, the division of simplified practice called a meeting of manufacturers of flashlight cells, and with

their cooperation developed the proposal which was

approved at the general conference. In accordance

with the usual procedure of the division, the confer- ence approved the appointment of a standing committee for the purpose of enlisting the support of

producers, distributors, and users to maintain interest

and adherence by keeping the program abreast of current requirements through periodic revision.

VITREOUS CHINA PLUMBING FIXTURES

Draft of Recommended Commercial Standards Before Industry For Acceptance

The recommended commercial standard for vitre- ous china plumbing fixtures was circulated during

Januaiw among producers, distributors, and users for

written acceptance. This recommended commercial

standard covers additions and corrections proposed

as the first revision of simplified practice recom- mendation No. 52. Although the recommendation includes a simplified list of variety of vitreous china plumbing fix- tures, the primary purpose is to establish nomenclature, definitions, and grading rules as a basis for

marketing the commodity, and, therefore, upon request of the industry, the revision is being handled as a commercial standard project.

As compared with simplified practice recommendation No. 52, the recommended commercial standard

incorporates a number of additional requirements in- tended to clarify the general understanding between

producers and consumers. For example the following : “ Integral traps in vitreous china water-closet

bowls shall provide a water seal of not less than 2y2 inches in depth, and for all other classes of vitreous

chinaware integral traps shall provide a water seal of not less than 2 inches in depth.”

The recommended commercial standard also incorporates more severe restrictions as to grading of

water-closet bowls, low tanks, and lavatories, as well

as a number of additional dimensional standards to provide a greater degree of interchangeability between goods produced by different manufacturers, so

as to permit a greater competition among the manufacturers of brass trimmings.

Dimensional standards are also incorporated, in- cluding over-all and roughing-in dimensions for

urinal stalls, top, and back supply pedestal urinals.

Mimeographed copies of the recommended commercial standard are available on request.

ARMY SIMPLIFIES ITS STATIONERY

War Department Circular Shows Standard Items to be Carried in Stock by Department

The War Department has applied both simplified

practice and standardization in handling stationery

and office supplies to be procured, stored, and issued

for the military service, according to Bulletin No. 15

of that department. One example will serve to illus- trate. In the matter of rubber bands the department

has reduced the variety to be carried in stock to three

standards. These varieties are carried as standard

items of issue and no other varieties will be procured,

stored, or issued without the prior approval of the

proper authority of the War Department. This procedure not only serves to simplify the handling of supplies, but also reduces the warehouse space devoted to their storage.
256

INSTRUMENTS TO INCREASE EFFICIENCY AND SAFETY OF AVIATION

DEVELOPED BY FEDERAL SPECIALISTS

Measuring Instruments Essential to Successful Flight. Standard Rules and Practices. Deafening Roar in

Airplane Cabin Reduced Through Bureau Research

By Henry D. Hubbard, Assistant to the Director Bureau of Standards

Measuring instruments are essential to successful

flight. They correspond to the five senses of man, ex- cept that aircraft instruments are far more numerous. Some 40 aeronautical instruments have been intensively studied by Bureau of Standards experts. Its publication on the subject is the classic reference work

in this field. In the aneroid barometer 28 sources of error were

originally found deserving of attention. At first an

aneroid altimeter might still register several hundred

feet altitude when the plane landed. The lag in registration was dangerous. The bureau’s tests and con- ference with manufacturers have resulted in a material improvement in the prompt response of these

basic instruments.

Standard atmosphere chart.

The bureau computed and published a “standard

atmosphere chart,” giving graphically and numerically the ideal temperature-pressure-altitude rela- tions by which the altitude may be derived from the

air pressure. Instrument flying.

Instrument flying is now recognized as the only

method by which flight may be made at all times re- gardless of air conditions. A systematic campaign

is now in progress to educate fliers on this point.

This will more than ever give aeronautic instruments

the status they deserve as the fundamental controls of

the plane in flight.

Improvements were devised by bureau experts on many aeronautic instruments. The bubble sextant

as developed is now recognized as the best available means of locating the position of aircraft. For cer- tain purposes a photographic sextant was desired and

was invented to order by one of the staff. A rate-ofclimb meter was developed and is most useful for

flight-test work.

Earth inductor compass.

The Bureau of Standards developed the earth-inductor compass, a successful substitute for the mariner’s compass of the Chinese. This device is more

accurate than the magnetic compass, since its sensitive element may be placed on the tip of the plane or

the tail, free from disturbances from the motor, and

the indicating element may be placed in the observing

position most convenient to the pilot.

A particularly interesting advantage of this in- strument is that the needle may be set to read zero

for any desired course so that the pilot need only

keep the needle at zero in order to fly at a true course, thus relieving him of continually watching the points

of the compass card.

Direction-finder principle.

Perhaps the most notable contribution to air navigation ever made was the Bureau of Standards direction-finder principle, with its many applications, including the radiobeacon, the radio compass, the fogsignaling system, position-location sj^stem, and other

interesting uses. Much ingenuity has been devoted to the use of

liquids to damp the vibrations of instrument parts to promote accuracy and reduce disturbing effects. The

bureau’s experts have been studying the viscosity of

liquids over a wide range of temperature in search

of ideal liquids which have minimum change of visEarth-inductor compass

This in the original model invented by Dr. L. J. Briggs and Dr. Paul R. Heyl, of the Bureau of Standards, for guiding airplanes.

cosity with change of temperature. Many tests have

been made, and much valuable data gained. Already

over certain ranges it is now possible to select suit- able liquids for specific uses. Data are being gathered on the elastic properties of materials with a view

to enabling the instrument designer to select a metal

having elastic properties suited to its uses. Standardizing instruments.

In standardizing aeronautic instruments the bureau

duplicates the vibrations of a plane, since the accuracy
257

of readings of such instruments is atfected by vibration.

The tests develop whether the errors thus caused are

excessive and often how they may be minimized. In

the test the instruments are made to vibrate and their

readings are compared with those of standard instruments under undisturbed conditions.

The bureau serves as technical referee for altitudeflight records. The graphic records made during the

flight are sent to the bureau and the time-temperaturepressure curves reproduced under standard controlled

conditions with accurate instruments. The competing

records are thus calibrated as a basis for the flightrecord award.

Complex coordinator

This is an instrument designed and built by the Bureau of Standards

to determine the time of aviators’ reaction. An experimental container for liquid oxygen, developed by a staff member, proved three times more

effective than the ordinary vacuum flasks. The idea was that liquid oxygen might be carried in planes to conserve space. Another experimental development was an oxygen supply which delivered the flier an amount controlled by the density of the air, so that

the aviator might automatically be supplied with the

requisite amount at any altitude.

Tautness meters for wires and fabric in aircraft were devised to measure and standardize their tension,

so that the balance of stress-strain may be optimum.

Times gunfire.

A device was perfected to accurately time airplane

gunfire between the propeller blades in air combats.

Another development was the system of airplane

photography through fog. The bluish light of the

haze was screened out by a color filter and the plates were sensitized to the red rays. The bureau was able

to take photographs of Washington, for example,

from the height of a mile in one one-hundredth of a

second through haze which obscured the view. Suitably computed plate glass was inserted in an airplane

mapping camera, thus cutting the mapping time onehalf. The success and progress of aviation depend upon

scientifically measured controls of materials, motors,

structual and operating elements, knowledge of air

conditions and performance, so that scientific-research

laboratories, snch as those at the Bureau of Standards,

must continue to play an important part in testing

and research.

High speeds, mileage, efficiencies, flying by instruments, endurance records, radiobeacons, automatic

stabilization, and other modern phases of aviation

require basic measuring devices and methods and ex- perimental researches of a new order.

Standard rules and practices.

As in marine navigation, standard rules and practices have evolved through experience, so already aviation has its code of practice to insure safety and ef- fectiveness. Under the sponsorship of the Bureau of

Standards there was prepared a comprehensive code

of technical specifications for aircraft, construction,

and maintenance of flying fields, and the operation of

aircraft.

The development of the code occupied four years

in preparation and engaged the active cooperation of some 33 engineers and officials of the aircraft industry

and of the Government. The subject matter covers

airplane design assembly; tests; airplane equipment,

maintenance, and operation ; signals and signaling

equipment; airdromes and airways; traffic and pilotage rules; qualifications for airmen; free and captive

balloons, airships; and parachutes.

Saved $1,000 per cruising hour.

When airships were obliged to valve out helium to reduce buoyancy to match the lost weight of fuel

burned, the bureau devised condensers to keep the

water produced by combustion with a maximum saving, it was reported, of $1,000 per cruising hour.

In a recent successful bureau research it was found

possible to reduce the deafening roar in an airplane

cabin so that ordinary conversation was possible

introducing a new era of quiet and ear comfort in a passenger-carrying aircraft. The results were promptly put into successful practice by plane

makers.

The special problems incident to successful tele- phony between the ground station and the plane were

recently solved by the Bureau of Standards and an

effective installation completes another chapter of the

research program for the first national airway established by the Department of Commerce.

Radiobeacon devised.

The radiobeacon devised and set up by the bureau

for the first national airway is a notable development.

The radio airway beacon is in effect a beam of radio

laid down to mark a true course. The automatic

visual indicator constantly before the air pilot shows

him whether or not, and how nearly, he is on true

course. This principle is now a basic factor in per- fected flight technique. A newly developed system

devised at the bureau sets up 12 courses as readily

as 2.
258

The logical next step in aviation is to network the

entire country with similar national airways so that

above the clouds, at night, or in fog the pilot may

navigate the air everywhere as place conscious and

as unerringly as a motorist drives through the city

streets.

Course-shift indicator

This device shows whether the radiobeacon is sending out the correct course, so that if any error exists it can be corrected at once.

Crossed coil aerial of radioheacon

This is the original installation at College Park, Md., and consists of 2-coil aerials at right angles sending out alternate signals of differ- ent frequency

o
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND COMMERCIAL

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE

national BUREAU of standards

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference, the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its firSt year the Journal developed a

liSt of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them better to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSfc of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busieSt execu-

, tive can afford the time to read it. Issued monthly . Price, $2.75 per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

Subscription price . 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1929

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

Standardization. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless sizes and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

standardisation by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardisation Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.”

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1929 is the

third annual issue of a publication devoted to the great and growing field of Standardisation

in its broad aspects. It is a 400-page summary

of progress.

Standardisation is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to industry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to business men and manufacturers as well as to engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

‘

‘ Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well- ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described publications send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent

of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other than the United

States, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.75; Bulletin, $0.40;

Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $1.20
“* * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field." —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director.

" Taking censuses of population, mines and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products;

and publication monthly' of Survey of Current Business. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, and district and cooperative offices in 65 cities. The

maintenance of commodity, technical, and regional divisions to

afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in ah parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce- BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish,

in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods, improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery

statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and

the protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam, Commissioner. Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners.

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological

investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover, Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to

_ patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930