NBSIR 75-803

SELECTED TOPICS ON HYDROGEN FUEL

W. R. Parrish

R. 0. Voth

J. G. Hust

T. M. Flynn

C. F. Sindt

N. A. Olien

J. Hord, Editor

Cryogenics Division

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

Boulder, Colorado 80302

January 1975

NBSIR 75-803

SELECTED TOPICS ON HYDROGEN FUEL

W. R. Parrish

R. 0. Vot'n

J. G. Hust

T. M. Flynn

C. F. Sindt

N. A. Olien

J. Hord, Editor

Cryogenics Division

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

Boulder, Colorado 80302

January 1975

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. Frederick B. Dent, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS Richard W Roberts. Director

ABSTRACT

The National Bureau of Standards played a vital role in developing

hydrogen technology for the space age and is now engaged in efforts to adapt

and improve this technology for the commercial use of hydrogen fuel. This

document is a summary report on selected hydrogen-fuel topics and was

prepared to identify cost and technical barriers to the commercial use of

hydrogen fuel and to generate reference data for policy-planning, decisionmaking and design. Cryogenic hydrogen fuel technology is emphasized in the

economic and systems analyses reported herein. Using the best available

technical and economic data, hydrogen fuel is not currently cost competitive

with alternate fuels; however, we must not reject hydrogen on the basis of

current economic comparisons. Increased efficiencies of production,

liquefaction, and energy conversion may drastically change these comparisons

of-today as will increased fossil fuel prices and more stringent environmental

and pollution constraints. Hydrogen appears currently marketable in certain

integrated utility systems, in transoceanic transport of energy produced far at

sea, and is a necessary element in a wide variety of growing industrial

processes and in the liquefaction of coal. This publication identifies research

and development needs within selected areas of NBS competence and future

research plans are outlined.

Keywords: Conservation; conversion; cost; cryogenics, economics; embrittlement; energy; hydrogen; industrial, instrumentation, liquefaction;

literature; materials; production; solar; storage; transmission;

transportation; utilities.

iii
PREFACE

BACKGROUND. The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) has been

actively engaged in hydrogen research for over twenty years and in

mid- 1972 our interests were rekindled by the obvious need for an

abundant, clean-burning fuel. Convenient energy storage and distribution, portable power and reduced air pollution are some of the advantages of recyclable hydrogen fuel. In the fall of 1972 the NAS-NAE-NRC*

evaluation panel for the Cryogenics Division (CD) of the NBS recommended

renewal of a modest effort on hydrogen fuel technology. The scientific

staff of the NBS-CD responded enthusiastically and a state-of-the-art

survey paper [1] was released in the summer of 1973. An economic

analysis [2] of hydrogen-fueled electrical utility systems was published

in March 1974, and a benchmark literature bibliography [3] was

completed in June 1974. The work reported herein was initiated in

July 1973.

The rapid momentum achieved in this program was made possible by

the cognizant support of management at all levels of the NBS, e. g. , Institute Director's Reserve funds were made available to initiate

this study.

Vfi National Academy of Science (NAS) , National Academy of Engineering

(NAE) and National Research Council (NRC).

1. Hord, J. , Cryogenic H2 and National Energy Needs, Book, Advances

in Cryogenic Engineering 19_, (Ed.) K. D. Timmerhaus, p. 1-11 (Plenum

Press, Inc. , New York, N. Y. , 1974).

2. Parrish, W. R. , An Economic Study of Electrical Peaking Alternatives,

Proceedings of THEME Conference, University of Miami, Coral Gables,

Fla. (March 1974).

3. HYDROGEN FUEL - SUMMARY BIBLIOGRAPHY, Cryogenic Data

Center, NBS, Boulder, Colo. (June 1974).

iv
Because the Cryogenics Division of the NBS is primarily concerned with

low temperature research, this study emphasizes the cryogenic

aspects of hydrogen fuel. In the market place the application dictates

the most suitable physical form of the fuel and cryogenic hydrogen is a contender in many potential fuel systems.

MOTIVATION. Hyd rogen is a prime candidate to satisfy many long-term

national (and international) fuel requirements. It is no longer necessary

to justify hydrogen fuel research because hydrogen is a clear contender

for the synthetic fuel market of the future --only the time scale for

implementation of this fuel is uncertain. Economical production of

hydrogen,from coal or water, could easily occur within the next decade

and initiate major transitions in current modes of distributing marketable

energy. Thus, it is apparent that hydrogen fuel research will have a major impact on future dispensation of energy in this country and offers

great potential benefit to the public.

The need to accelerate hydrogen fuel research is accentuated by the

fuel shortages that we have experienced over the past few years and

by a nationally acclaimed goal- -energy-fuel self-sufficiency by 1985.

The NBS has a history of assisting industry in major national programs.

The NBS mission stresses conservation of our natural resources,

equity in the marketplace, transfer of existing technology to industry

and research applied to industrial needs.

OBJECTIVE. Our goal is to provide the cryogenics industry with

innovative cryogenic technology so that hydrogen may be liquefied,

stored and distributed efficiently and with safety and fairness to the

consumer.

v
APPROACH. Economic and systems analyses are performed to

identify cost and technical barriers to the use of hydrogen fuel and

to aid in program planning and definition. We endeavor to provide

rational analyses based on the best available technical/economic

information and to generate valid data for decision-making and design.

The work reported herein was selected to 1) coincide with the NBS-CD

mission, 2) avoid repetitious efforts and augment studies of others,

3) serve national interests by supplying unbiased technical assessments

of hydrogen's potential as a fuel and, 4) provide authoritative reference

data in areas where the NBS is uniquely qualified.

This report was prepared for an interdisciplinary audience and is

intended to afford maximum usefulness to the reader. Therefore,

conventional units and terminology, common to the particular topic,

are used in each chapter without regard for consistency from chapterto-chapter. Metric units are used where appropriate. Each chapter

is self- standing for ready reference; therefore, there is necessarily

some overlap in individual chapter narratives. Authors of these

chapters are senior staff scientists and engineers of the Cryogenics

Division of the NBS.

PROGRESS. Analyses and summary reports are presented herein- -the

topics covered are: (1) cost and availability of hydrogen, (2) hydrogen

in the electrical utility industry, (3) hydrogen-fueled automobiles,

(4) survey of materials for hydrogen service, (5) instrumentation

for cryogenic hydrogen fuel, (6) transmission and distribution of

hydrogen, (7) solar energy- -liquid hydrogen, (8) industrial applications

of hydrogen and (9) hydrogen fuel literature.

vi
SUMMARY. Based on current economic data, hydrogen fuel appears

economically marginal in auto transportation and in electrical utility

systems: however, we must be continuously aware that these conclusions are influenced by cost parameters that are changing daily.

Consequently, cost parameters are provided in this study so that cost

comparisons can be readily upgraded to reflect future cost factors,

by-product credits and technological advances. Also, cose factors

are not currently known well enough to justify elimination of hydrogen

fuel on economic grounds.

At this writing hydrogen appears attractive as an aircraft and aerospace

fuel, in certain integrated gas-electric utility systems [e.g. , use of

hydrogen to store solar or off-peak electrical energy), for transport

of energy from solar sea power plants and is an essential ingredient

in a wide variety of prolific industrial processes,

Widespread use of hydrogen fuel will generate a significant need for

construction and insulation materials research- -this need for materials

with suitable characteristics is defined herein.

Cryogenic instrumentation has not noticeably advanced in the past

ten years. Large scale commercial use of cryogenic hydrogen will

reauire maior research and development efforts in this area.

When liquid fuel is required, our cost study shows that it is usually

economicallv prudent to produce liquid hydrogen at the use-site. It

is advantageous to liquefy hydrogen at the source when energy must

be transported from power plants far at sea.

The XBS-CD provides hydrogen fuel literature services for the general

public and these services are described herein.
PLANS. Priority research elements that have been identified and

selected for future study are: (1) improve hydrogen liquefaction

efficiency, (2) evaluate methods of recovering liquefaction energy and,

(3) evaluate hydrogen compatible materials of construction. Long-term

plans include the development of insulation transfer standards, the

development of improved insulation systems and the standardization

of measurement techniques for commercial exchange of liquid hydrogen.

J. Hord

December, 1974.

viii
CONTENTS

Page

Preface

CHAPTER 1. COST AND AVAILABILITY OF HYDROGEN 1. 1 W. R. Parrish and R. O. Voth

1. 0 Summary 1. 1

1. 1 Introduction 1. 2

1, 2 Gaseous Hydrogen Sources and Production

Techniques 1. 2

1. 2. 1 Hydrogen from Fossil Fuels 1. 2

1. 2. 2 Economics 1.4

1. 2. 3 Hydrogen from Water 1. 4

1. 2. 4 Thermochemical Decomposition of

Water 1. 7

1. 2, 5 Other Methods of Producing Hydrogen

from Water 1. 8

1. 3 Cost to Make Liquid, Slush, and Solid

Hydrogen from Gaseous Hydrogen 1. 9

1. 4 Hydrogen Cost Credits 1. 16

1. 4. 1 Oxygen By-Product Credit 1. 16

1. 4. 2 Deuterium By-Product 1. 16

1, i 3 Recovery of Liquefaction Energy 1.19

1. 5 References 1. 25

CHAPTER 2. HYDROGEN IN THE ELECTRICAL UTILITY INDUSTRY 2. 1 W. R. Parrish

2. 0 Summary 2, 1 2. 1 Introduction 2. 2

2. 2 Economic Analysis 2. 6

2. 2. 1 Basic Assumptions 2, 6

2. 3 Cost Data 2, 7

2. 3. 1 Power Generation Units 2. 7

2. 3. 2 Fuel Production and Storage 2, 8

2. 3. 3 Energy Storage Systems 2 S 10

2. 4 Economic Comparison 2, 11

2, 4. 1 Peaking Units 2. 11

2. 4a 2 Intermediate Units 2 S 19

2 0 5 Conclusions 2. 19

2. 5. 1 Peaking Duty 2. 19

2. 5. 2 Intermediate Duty 2. 25

2. 5. 3 Base Load Duty 2. 25

2. 6 Hydrogen in Power Generation 2, 25

2. 7 Acknowledgment 2. 25

2. 8 References 2. 26

2. 9 Appendix A; Sample Calculation of Power

Production Cost 2 3 28

2. 9. 1 Power Generating Unit 2. 28

2. 9. 2 Electrolysis Unit 2. 29

2. 10 Appendix B: Hydride Storage Cost Data 2, 29

ix
CHAPTER 3, H FUELED AUTOMOBILES 3. 1 R0 O. Voth

3. 0 Summary 3„ 1 3. 1 Introduction 3„ 1 3. 2 Safety of Hydrogen Fuel 3. 2

3. 3 Power Generating Devices for Use with

Hydrogen ' 3. 3

3. 3. 1 The Internal Combustion Engine

Using Hydrogen Fuel 3.4

3. 3. 2 External Combustion Engines 3. 6

3. 3. 3 Fuel Cells 3, 6

3. 4 Fuel Storage Aboard a Vehicle 3, 8

3. 5 Economic Analysis of the Use of Hydrogen

Fuel for a Small Automobile 3, 10

3. 6 References 3„ 22

CHAPTER 4. SURVEY OF MATERIALS FOR HYDROGEN SERVICE 40 1 J. G. Hust

4. 0 Summary 4. 1 4. 1 Introduction 4„ 1 4. 2 Hydrogen Related Materials Properties 4„ 3

4. 2. 1 Temperature Effects 4. 4

4. 2. 2 Hydrogen Embrittlement, Diffusion

and Permeation 4. 9

4. 2. 3 Insulation 4. 14

4. 2. 4 Oxygen Compatibility 4. 16

4. 3 Materials Requirements for Hydrogen

Production 4. 18

4. 3. 1 Electrolysis 4. 18

4. 3. 2 Thermochemical 4. 19

4. 3. 3 Other Production Methods 4. 19

4. 3. 4 Hydrogen Liquefaction and

Solidification 4. 19

4. 4 Material Requirements for Hydrogen

Transfer and Storage 4. 20

4„ 4. 1 Gaseous Hydrogen 4. 20

4. 4. 2 Liquid and Frozen Hydrogen 4. 21

4. 4. 3 Hydride Storage 4. 2 3

4. 5 Materials Requirements for Hydrogen

Applications 4. 23

4. 5. 1 Heating 4. 23

4. 5. 2 Propulsion 4. 24

4. 5. 3 Electric Power Generation 4. 24

4. 6 Recommendations 4, 25

4. 6. 1 Structural Materials Research 4, 25

4. 6. 2 Insulation Research 4. 26

4. 6. 3 Catalytic Material Research 4. 26

4. 7 Acknowledgments 4. 26

4. 8 References ' 4„ 27 .

x
4. 9 Appendix: List of Recent and On- Going

Hydrogen Related Material Research 4. 38

4. 9. 1 Material Development Projects 4. 38

4. 9. 2 Hydrogen- Environment Embrittlement

Projects 4. 39

4. 9. 3 Internal Embrittlement Projects 4. 40

4. 9. 4 Hydride Embrittlement Projects 4. 43

4. 9. 5 Embrittlement Inhibitor Projects 4. 46

4. 9o 6 Hydrogen Diffusion Projects 4. 46

4. 9. 7 Hydrogen and NDT Failure Detection

Projects 4. 47

4. 9. 8 Hydrogen Production and Transmission Projects 4. 48

4. 9. 9 Hydrogen Storage Projects 4. 49

4. 9. 10 Propulsion Systems Projects 4. 50

4. 9, 11 Bearings, Seals and Lubricants

Projects 4. 51

4. 9. 12 Fuel Cells Projects 4. 52

CHAPTER 5. INSTRUMENTATION FOR CRYOGENIC HYDROGEN FUEL 5. 1 T. M. Flynn

5. 0 Summary 5. 1 5. 1 Introduction 5, 2

5. 2 Pressure 5. 3

5. 2. 1 Pressure Transducers 5„ 3

5. 2. 2 Steady State Temperature Effects 5. 4

5. 2. 3 Thermal Shock Effects 5, 4

5. 2. 4 Methods of Avoiding Temperature

Effects on Pressure Transducers 5 a 5

5. 2. 5 Pressure Summary 5. 5

5. 3 Temperature 5. 7

5. 3. 1 "Fluid" Thermometry 5. 7

5. 3. 2 Metallic Resistance Thermometry 5. 8

5. 3. 3 Non-Metallic Resistance Thermometry 5. 10

5, 3. 4 Thermocouples 5. 11

5. 3. 5 Temperature Summary 5„ 12

5. 4 Liquid Level 5 0 14

5. 4. 1 Point Liquid Level Sensors 5. 15

5. 4. 2 Continuous Liquid Level Sensors 5. 16

5. 4. 3 Liquid Level Summary 5. 18

5. 5 Density 5, 19

5. 5. 1 Direct Weighing Method 5. 19

5. 5. 2 Buoyant Force Method 5. 19

5„ 5. 3 Differential Pressure Method 5. 19

5. 5. 4 Capacitance Method 5, 19

5. 5. 5 Optical Method 5, 20

5. 5. 6 Acoustic Method 5„ 20

5. 5. 7 Ultrasonic Method 5„ 21

xi
5. 5. 8 Momentum Methods 5„ 22

5„ 5. 9 Nuclear Radiation Method 5. 23

5. 5„ 10 Density Summary 5. 24

5. 6 Flow 5. 24

5. 6. 1 Head Meters 5. 24

5. 6. 2 Turbine Type Meters 5. 25

5. 6. 3 Vortex Shedding Meter 5. 26

5. 6. 4 Momentum Mass Flowmeters 5. 27

5. 6. 5 Flowmeter Summary 5. 30

5. 7 References 5 0 31

CHAPTER 6. TRANSMISSION OF HYDROGEN 6. 1 C. F. Sindt

6. 0 Summary 6. 1 6. 1 Introduction 6„ 1 6. 2 System Descriptions 6„ 2

6. 3 System Analysis 6. 2

6. 4 Results 6 0 5

6. 5 Conclusions 6, 7

6„ 6 References 6, 1

CHAPTER 7. SOLAR ENERGY- - LIQUID HYDROGEN 7. 1 C. F. Sindt

7. 0 Summary 7. 1 7. 1 Introduction 7. 1 7. 2 System Descriptions 7„ 2

7. 3 Sizing System Components 7. 5

7. 4 Estimated Performance of System Components 7„ 6

7. 5 Comparison of the Operation of Systems 7„ 6

7. 6 Costs 7. 7

7. 7 References 7. 10

CHAPTER 8. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF HYDROGEN 8. 1 W. R. Parrish

8. 0 Summary 8. 1 8. 1 Introduction 8. 1 8. 2 Petroleum Refining 8. 1 8. 3 Ammonia Production 8. 2

8. 4 Other Uses of Hydrogen 8. 2

8. 5 Future Uses of Hydrogen 8. 2

8. 6 References 8. 3

CHAPTER 9. HYDROGEN FUEL LITERATURE 9. 1 N. A. Olien

9. 0 Summary 9. 1 9. 1 Introduction 9* 1 9. 2 The Cryogenic Data Center 9. 1 9. 3 Services and Products of the Cryogenic

Data Center 9. 2

9. 4 Hydrogen Safety Information 9. 4

9. 5 Hydrogen Properties Handbook , 9. 4

9. 6 References 9. 7

xii
CHAPTER 1 COST AND AVAILABILITY OF HYDROGEN

W. R. Parrish and R. 0. Voth

1 . 0 SUMMARY

The feasibility of using hydrogen as a fuel will be determined by the availability and

cost of hydrogen. This chapter considers techniques and costs of producing gaseous hydrogen

along with costs of producing liquid, slush and solid hydrogen. It also examines the potential by-products that could lower the overall cost of using hydrogen.

Fossil fuels and water are the two sources of hydrogen. Today most industrial hydrogen

is derived from hydrocarbons (mainly natural gas) and costs 10 to 15c/kg to produce. When

natural gas costs more than approximately 80c/MBTL", coal becomes a competitive source with

production costs of 20 to 25c/kg. MBTU = BTU x 10^ throughout this chapter.

As the fossil fuels are depleted, water will become the principal source of hydrogen.

The two most promising means of producing hydrogen from water are electrolysis and thermochemical decomposition. Although electrolysis is an existing technology, it is not cost

competitive with other existing processes unless electrical power costs less than 5 mills/

kW-h—exceptions occur in those cases where ultra-high purity and/or small quantities of

hydrogen are required. Thermochemical decomposition uses a combination of heat and chemicals

to decompose water; the process requires several intermediate steps involving chemical re- actions and separations. Thermochemical decomposition offers the possibility of producing

hydrogen from water at lower cost and more efficiently than electrolysis; however, this

hydrogen will still be more expensive than hydrogen produced from fossil fuels (even when

fossil fuels cost double their current price)

Using current technology, it costs 15 to 20c/kg to liquefy, slush or solidify hydrogen

in a high capacity plant. In terms of energy required, it takes 20 to 30 percent of the

lower heating value of hydrogen to convert it into the condensed phases. Although the

economic and energy penalties are significant, the end-use of the fuel prescribes the opti- mum physical state of hydrogen.

At least three by-products of hydrogen production and liquefaction could increase the

economic attractiveness of hydrogen as a fuel: oxygen, deuterium, and recovery of liquefaction energy. If hydrogen is produced from water, selling the by-product oxygen could reduce

the selling pri%e of hydrogen by as much as lOc/kg, provided the oxygen demand met the supply.

Distillation of liquid hydrogen offers an attractive means of obtaining deuterium which is a fuel for fusion reactors. Current estimates indicate that sale of deuterium could lower the

cost of liquid hydrogen by 2 to 3c/kg. Although the maximum amount of energy recoverable

from liquefaction is only 10 percent of the heat of combustion, it represents a significant

amount of energy in large vaporizing facilities. A preliminary analysis indicates that

25 percent of the ideal liquefaction energy of a kilogram of hydrogen is comparable to the

actual separation energy required to extract eight kilograms of oxygen from air. This

observation implies an overall energy recovery system efficiency of about ten percent. Thus,

the refrigeration energy recovered by warming a liquid hydrogen stream could theoretically

1.1
power an air separation plant sized to provide enough oxygen for stoichiometric combustion

with the hydrogen stream. This availability of both oxygen and hydrogen at the use-point

may prove both economically and environmentally attractive.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses methods of producing and liquefying hydrogen. The first section

covers methods of hydrogen production. Whenever possible, production costs are included.

The second section covers the cost of producing liquid, slush and solid hydrogen. These

costs include the cost of purifying the hydrogen. The effect of cycle efficiency on production costs is also demonstrated.

The last section looks at possible by-products of hydrogen which could reduce the net

cost of hydrogen. It also discusses the feasibility of recovering liquefaction energy.

1.2 GASEOUS HYDROGEN SOURCES AND PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

The two primary sources of hydrogen are fossil fuels and water. This section briefly

describes some of the more important hydrogen producing processes. It also considers some innovations which could become important in the future.

1.2.1 Hydrogen from Fossil Fuels

There are at least five processes for producing hydrogen from fossil fuels. Today most

of the hydrogen in the U.S. comes either from steam reforming or partial oxidation of hydrocarbons.^" As hydrocarbon stocks become more expensive, coal gasification will become an important hydrogen-producing process. This subsection briefly describes these three processes. For more details about all of the processes, excluding coal gasification, one can

2 refer to reference books such as Faith, Keyes, and Clark fl].

Steam Reforming: Steam reforming of hydrocarbons is the major source of industrial

hydrogen today; it produces relatively high purity (97%) hydrogen in a two or three stage

process. The first stage is the reforming stage where steam and hydrocarbons react over a nickel catalyst in a furnace operating at 1000 to 1200 K and 30 atm. The basic reactions are

C H + m H„0 ^ mCO + (m + n/2)H_ m n 2 2

C H + 2m H^OrfmCO + (2 m + n/2)H_. m n 2 L

The product gas containing H„, CO, and C0„ goes to a shift converter where it is mixed with

more steam and undergoes the following reaction:

CO + H

20 C02 + H

2

.

^ Hydrogen is a major by-product in the catalytic reforming of petroleum. Since the

hydrogen is consumed within the refinery, this process will not be discussed here.

2 Numbers in brackets indicate references at the end of this paper.

1.2
The shift converter requires an iron catalyst and operates at a lower temperature (900 K)

whereas the reforming is endothermic , the converter reaction is exothermic; this heat is

used to generate some of the process steam. After cooling the converter gas to around 350 K, the gas is scrubbed with a caustic or an ethanolamine to remove the carbon dioxide. To obtain 97% H„, the gas goes through another

shift conversion and scrubbing.

Many times part of the feedstock is the fuel for the reforming furnace; waste heat in

the flue gas generates roughly half of the steam required in reforming. Quade [2] suggests

using a nuclear high temperature gas reactor (HTGR) to supply the process heat. Nuclear

heat has the attraction of reserving hydrocarbons for chemical purposes instead of using

them as fuels.

Partial Oxidation : The partial oxidation process produces hydrogen by partial burning

of the hydrocarbon; the overall reaction is

C H + 1/2 (m + n + x - y)0o - xC0 o + (m-x)CO + yH„ + (n-y)H-O, m n La. II

where x and y are respectively, the number of moles of carbon dioxide and hydrogen produced

per mole of feedstock. The reaction apparently goes to completion because only a trace of

oxygen is found in the synthesis-gas stream. The process is attractive because the reaction

requires no catalyst and has a high thermal efficiency (60%) [3]. However, the process requires an oxygen plant which is roughly 25% of the total capital cost. The operating con- ditions are comparable to those in steam reforming but in this process the reactants are preheated before entering the reactor. As in the case of steam reforming, to obtain a high

purity product, the syn-gas must go through one or two stages of shift conversion and

scrubbing.

Coal Gasification : Coal gasification is a relatively new technology and not yet fully

developed in this country. Although most of the gasifier research today relates to low or high BTU gas and liquefaction processes, the same gasifier technology can be used to produce

hydrogen from coal. In fact, most liquefaction processes require large amounts of hydrogen

(~7000 SCF/bbl of synthetic liquid \k\) and coal may be the most economical source of

hydrogen gas in the future.

The coal gasification process is quite similar to the partial oxidation process except

that instead of preheating the reactants, they are heated in the gasifiers by the partial

3 oxidation of coal. Steam is required to supply an additional source of hydrogen according

to the reaction

C + H

2 0 ^ CO + H

2

.

To produce hydrogen from coal requires 1.7 kg of steam per kg of coal consumed (0.3 kg in

the gasifier) and 0.75 kg of oxygen per kg coal. This all produces 0.16 kg of hydrogen at

97% purity [3]. (This particular process used only one shift converter.)

In theory, this same process could be used to produce hydrogen from garbage or other

organic wastes.

1.3
1.2.2 Economics

Figure 1.1 gives the production cost of hydrogen from various fossil fuels and by

electrolysis. This figure assumes that all of the different hydrogen production plants

have a capacity of 180 million SCFD (17750 kg/h) . The solid portions of the curves re- present current or near-term raw materials cost (or electricity in the case of electrolysis)

Figure 1.2 shows our estimated selling price of hydrogen for the various processes. The

selling price is based on a discount cash flow of 18%, it includes a 50% state and federal

tax rate and straight-line depreciation over 20 years. It excludes transmission costs and

local taxes. Based on these curves, the cheapest source of hydrogen is natural gas—providing it

costs less than roughly 80c/MBTU. Higher costs make coal competitive. The current cost

of fuel oil makes it a much less attractive source of hydrogen.

1.2.3 Hydrogen from Water

The most abundant source of hydrogen is water. Electrolysis is the only commercial

process existing today for obtaining hydrogen directly from water. However, several new

techniques are under development, the most promising alternate approach is thermochemical

decomposition. Electrolysis and thermochemical decomposition are considered first, while the more exotic methods are discussed at the end of this section.

Water Electrolysis : Electrolysis produces a high purity hydrogen, which today is more

expensive than hydrogen from hydrocarbons. Some reasons for this include:

1. It takes more energy to remove hydrogen from water than from hydrocarbons.

2. Electrolysis requires a high-grade energy (electricity), whereas hydrocarbon

reduction requires a low-grade energy (heat).

3. Hydrocarbons are usually relatively cheap compared with electrical power.

However, electrolysis becomes attractive if power is inexpensive or where hydrogen

demand is too small to justify a hydrogen-from-f ossil fuels plant. Also, as nuclear power

becomes more important, the third reason may vanish.

The basic electrolysis unit consists of two electrodes, which are separated by a membrane and immersed in water. Since pure water conducts electricity poorly, a strong

electrolyte, such as potassium hydroxide, is added to the water to reduce ohmic losses.

As current passes through the electrodes, hydrogen evolves from the cathode and oxygen

from the anode. The hydrogen production rate is directly proportional to the current;

from Faraday's law, each kilogram of hydrogen produced requires 26,532 ampere-hours.

In theory, only the free energy (237.3 kJ/g-mol at 25°C and 1 atm) of dissociation

needs to be supplied by electricity. The remaining portion of the heat reaction (286.0

kJ/g-mol at 25°C and 1 atm) can be supplied by heat from the surroundings or from ohmic

losses within the cell. However, commercial cells operate at such a low efficiency that heat

must be removed from the cell. For a given cell design, the cell efficiency is inversely

proportional to the current density. However, the lower the current density, the greater

the number and/or size of cells (and capital cost) required to provide a given hydrogen

production rate. Thus, the optimum current density depends upon the relative contributions

of fixed costs (i.e., costs related to capital investment) and operating costs (i.e., power,

labor and maintenance costs). Based on an advanced cell design [5], the optimum current

1.4
CURVE

1 Coal Gasification

2 Steam Reforming of Methane

3 Partial Oxidation of Methane

4 Partial Oxidation of Fuel Oil

5 Electrolysis

( LH V ) (HHV) P0WER C0ST F0R ELECTROLYSIS, mills/kW-h

0 5 10 15

0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

RAW MATERIAL COST, $/MBTU(HHV)

* Raw mater ial costs are commonly based on HHV.

FIGURE 1.1 Hydrogen Production Cost vs. Raw Material Cost for Various Processes,

180xl0

6

SCFD Plant. HHV=High Heat Value and LHV=Low Heat Value.

1.5
(LHY)

5.0

ZD

I—CO

s:

CD

4.0

3.0

^ 2.0

CDO

ceQ

>-

i.o -

(HHV)

0

5.0

CURVE

1 Coal Gasification

2 Steam Reforming of Methane

3 Partial Oxidation of Methane

4 Partial Oxidation of Fuel Oil

5 Electrolysis

POWER COST FOR ELECTROLYSIS, mills/kW-h

5 10 15

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

o 0

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

RAW MATERIAL COST, $/MBTU(HHV)

Raw material costs are commonly based on HHV

- 0.60

0.50 ^

c_> —I 0.40 3

Q.CD

0. 30

CD —| 0.20 I

0. 10

5.0

FIGURE 1.2 Selling Price of Hydrogen vs. Raw Material Cost for Various Processes^

180xl06

SCFD Plant. HHV=High Heat Value and LHV=Low Heat Value.

1.6
density decreases roughly 25 - 30% if the cost of power doubles. Hovever, as figures 1.1

and 1.2 point out, for any reasonable power cost, the cost of power is the major component

of the total cost. Several ways are being pursued to lower the cost of hydrogen via electrolysis. One

obvious way is to improve electrode efficiency at high current densities while keeping the

capital costs down. Assuming constant capital costs and a power cost of 10 mills/kW-h, the

selling price of hydrogen would vary from 4 S/MBTU to 3 S/MBTU if the cell efficiency

increased from 77 to 100% (i.e., low-grade heat, taken at no charge would have to be added);

this gives a rough lower bounds on hydrogen costs that could never be obtained in commercial units.

If high pressure hydrogen is the end product, electrolysis has an advantage in that

the free energy change is a weak function of pressure at temperatures below 400 K [6].

Therefore, the unit has very little penalty in power consumption at high pressures. However, more heat must be added because the heat of reaction is increased. Also, the economics of using high pressure vessels must be included. Even so, Kincaide [7] believes that

2 high pressure electrolysis could be attractive at pressures of 6 MN/m with conventionally

designed electrodes.

Conventional electrode designs use membranes made of materials such as asbestos to separate the electrodes. The membrane prevents mixing of the evolved gases but permits

the flow of ions, electrons, and water between compartments. These membranes can be a source of problems if the cell is operated at elevated pressures. One solution to this

problem is to use a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) [6] . This system replaces the membrane

with a polymer that, when saturated with water, becomes a good conductor. The SPE is strong

enough to withstand high differential and operating pressures. It has the additional advantage of eliminating the strong electrolyte, which can cause corrosion problems in the

gas collecting system. Nutall et al. [6] claim that future developments will make the SPE

concept competitive with conventional electrolysis systems, both in higher efficiency and

lower capital and operating costs.

1.2.4 Thermochemical Decomposition of Water

There has been a recent surge of interest in producing hydrogen from water via

thermochemical processes. The primary attraction is that heat, probably nuclear or solar,

instead of electricity is used, which could reduce production costs and increase the overall efficiency. (The overall efficiency of electrolysis is limited by the conversion of

heat to electricity.) The processes fall into two categories —open and closed cycle.

Open-cycle systems consume the reactants: examples of open-cycle processes include coal

gasification and shift conversion, which were discussed previously in this section.

Today the main interest is in closed-cycle systems. A hypothetical two-step, closedcycle process is

X + H

2 0 + XO + H

2 XO + heat - X + 1/2 0

1.7
so that the net reaction is

H2° "* H

2 + 1/2 °2*

However, the processes being considered contain three to six steps and reaction temperatures ranging from 273 to 1200 K. From a capital and operating cost standpoint six steps

is the maximum if the process is to compete with electrolysis. On the other hand, Funk

and Reinstrom [8] found that no material X exists which could make the two-step cycle

above as efficient as electrolysis. The same is probably true for three step processes;

therefore, the optimum processes will probably contain four to six steps.

Many organizations are investigating possible closed cycles [9] . Possible cycles

must first be evaluated using thermodynamics. As Funk et al. [10] points out, the work of

separation and degree of completion of each reaction must be considered. Incomplete reactions result in larger recycle streams and increased separation work; both of these problems

decrease the economic feasibility of the cycle. If the process looks thermodynamically

attractive and offers minimal corrosion problems (many of the most promising reactants are corrosive), then the reaction kinetics must be studied. Usually this takes a substantial

effort, especially if gas phase reactions and/or catalysts are involved. Several processes

have passed the thermodynamics stage and are in the kinetics stage.

At this time, any economic analysis of closed-cycle thermochemical processes must be

considered preliminary; however, Wentorf and Hanneman Til] estimate production costs to be

at least 2.60 $/MBTU. Comparing these costs with data shown on figure 1.1 indicates that

this process could be competitive with electrolysis; but even if the anticipated price

range of coal were doubled, hydrogen from coal would still be cheaper.

1.2.5 Other Methods of Producing Hydrogen from Water

This section includes some of the more speculative methods suggested for producing

hydrogen. The technical feasibility of some of the methods is questionable, and an economic analysis of the process at this time would be meaningless.

High Temperature Decomposition : The free energy of decomposition of water vapor de- creases and the concentrations of free oxygen and hydrogen increase with increasing temperatures. Thus, water can be decomposed at high temperature using only heat. This concept

seems promising, but no one has found a way of separating hydrogen from the gas mixture at 3000 K. The separation cannot be made at lower temperatures because the hydrogen and oxygen

will recombine. (The equilibrium mole fraction of hydrogen at 3000 and 1000 K are 0.65 and

10 ^ respectively r 12] . ) Just the material problems make thermal cracking look unattractive,

even if the heat source were available.

High Temperature Electrolysis: Operating an electrolysis unit at higher temperatures

lowers the electrical energy input because the free energy is lower; e.g., operating at 1000 K instead of 300 K reduces the electrical energy demand by roughly 10%. However, solid

electrolytes, similar to the solid polymer electrolyte, that can operate at high temperatures

need to be found (SPE cannot operate long at temperatures above 380 K) ; also, gasket materials

are a problem at higher temperatures [6]
Ultra-Violet Photolysis of Water ; Eastlund and Gough [13] suggest using ultraviolet

photons to photodissociate water. The photon source would be leakage plasma from a fusion

reactor. It is possible that this process will have a higher overall efficiency than the

conventional electrolysis system. However, the process must wait for the development of

fusion reactors, which may not occur before the year 2000 or later.

Biophotolysis of Water : Mitsui [14] is investigating the use of microorganisms

and sunlight to produce hydrogen. This concept is attractive because it offers the potential

of a relatively high conversion efficiency of sunlight to chemical energy, at least when

compared to conventional solar heat-to-hydrogen systems. However, many problems must be

solved before the process can be considered commercially viable.

1.3 COST TO MAKE LIQUID, SLUSH, AND SOLID HYDROGEN FROM GASEOUS HYDROGEN

Producing liquid, slush, and solid hydrogen from gaseous hydrogen requires capital

investment, energy expense, and operating expense for the liquefier and/or refrigerator.

An estimate of these costs can be obtained using information from a survey and correlation

of current ref rigerator/liquefier capital costs and energy requirements by Strobridge [15].

Liquefaction costs presented herein include the cost of gas purification; however, we

are unable to 'supply a breakdown of purifying costs, as these are proprietary industrial

data. Figures 1.3 and 1.4 are reproduced from Strobridge's report to show the efficiencies

and capital costs of existing refrigerators and liquefiers. The numerous points on the curves show the performance for refrigerators and liquefiers at various low temperatures

using various cryogenic fluids. The basis of comparison is the ratio of ideal work to actual work of producing refrigeration or liquid.

Figure 1.3 shows the efficiency of refrigerators versus the refrigerator capacity.

To convert the refrigeration capacity to an equivalent liquefier capacity, the refrigeration capacity from the graph is multiplied by the ideal work of compression per unit of

refrigeration at the liquefaction temperature of interest and divided by the ideal work

of liquefaction per unit of liquid.

The ideal work of compression per unit of refrigeration is defined as the work re- quired by an ideal Carnot cycle refrigerator operating between the same temperature limits.

For a unit operating at hydrogen temperatures this work is

!c , ZH_Li , 300_^_20 , u „atts/„att . c

The ideal work per unit of product for a liquefier can be derived from the thermodynamic

availability of the product. Thermodynamic availability is defined by

A = T (s - sT

) - h + h

o o L o L

where T is the absolute temperature, s is specific entropy, and h is specific enthalpy. The

subscript o designates ambient conditions and L designates the low temperature product conditions. Table 1.1 is a list of ideal work requirements for various cryogenic states of hydrogen.

1.9
"O °Q 70

10NMV0 iN30a3d

1.10
1.11
It is assumed that normal hydrogen at 1 atmosphere pressure and 300 K is used to produce

cryogenic parahydrogen in the various states.

Figure 1.4 shows the capital investment required for commercial refrigerators and

liquefiers [15], The cost is plotted against the installed compressor power of the

available units. The line on the plot is for the equation

C = 6000 P°°

7

where P is the kilowatts of installed compressor power, C is cost in dollars (1973) . This

equation is used to calculate capital investment costs in this section.

In order to determine the cost of producing liquid, slush, or solid hydrogen, the

cost of the required power, the operating and maintenance costs (O&M) , and the fixed charges

on. the capital investment must be included. The fixed charges are based on operation of the

plant 90 percent of the time. The power costs are simple functions of the ideal power re- quirements and conversion efficiency. The 0&M costs include maintenance, labor and operating

costs other than fuel costs. The fixed charges include interest on the capital investment and

debt retirement. The cost of land for the liquefier installation is neglected in the costing figures.

Table 1.1 Ideal work required to liquefy, slush or solidify hydrogen.

(Initial state of normal hydrogen gas: pressure, 1 atm absolute; temperature, 300 K.)

Final State Ideal Work Required

kW-h/kg kW-h/lb Btu/lb

Saturated liquid at 1 atm 3.971 1.801 6147

Slush hydrogen: 50-50 mixture of

solid-liquid by weight at triple

point temperature and pressure 4.375 1.985 6773

Solid hydrogen at triple point

temperature 4.543 2.061 7032

Table 1.2 shows the capital costs and energy requirements for various sized units.

The 3500 kg/h capacity approaches the capacity of the largest plant currently in service

with the larger capacities being an extrapolation of the trends apparent in the existing

units. The efficiency figures were based on existing plant operations with a reasonable

extrapolation to a 40 percent efficient process for the largest plant.

The production of slush hydrogen (a 50-50 mixture of solid and liquid by mass) is a batch process f 16] . Because of the batch process inefficiencies and the lack of definitive

data, the efficiency of the overall slush manufacturing process was arbitrarily reduced by

one percentage point and costs were based on this assumption. For the large plants considered

herein, this assumption is considered reasonable.

1.12
Table 1. 2 Capital costs and energy requirements for

producing cryogenic hydrogen from gaseous hydrogen.

Liquid Hydrogen

Plant Size EFF Cost

1 Energy Requirements

kg/h % 1973 dollars kW-h/kg

100, 000 40 94. 61 x 10

6

9. 93

7, 000 35 16. 15 x 10

6 11. 35

3, 500 34 10. 14 x 10

6 11. 68

1, 500 33 5. 72 x 10

6 12. 03

500 30 2. 84 x 10

6 13. 24

" IjXQJ U.1U. ^ JU" Ju XIlXA.tU.iTC Uy Illaoo) XT. y U, ± <J oil

100, 000 39

L 103. 06 x 10 11. 22

7, 000 34 17. 63 x 10

6

12. 87

3, 500 33 1 1. 08 x 10

6 13. 26

1 , 5 UU 6. co x 10 1 3. 67

500 29

6

3. 11 x 10 15. 09

(> T ri "nl e

-

-L J. J- pi _L"Poin W J. 1 1 tU 5-JoHr! Uull V-l J.Hvdroaen i. V MJ. Ugvil

100, 000 40

/ 94. 61 x 10

6

9. 93

Aux Ref* 40 33. 29 x 10 2. 23

7, 000 35 16. 15 x 10

6 11. 35

Aux Ref 30 6. 33 x 10 2. 98

3, 500 34 9. 38 x 10 11. 68

Aux Ref 29 3. 99 x 10 3. 08

1, 500 33 5. 72 x 10, 12. 03

Aux. Ref 27 2. 32 x 10 3. 31 500 30 2. 84 x 10 13. 23

Aux. Ref 23 1.20 x 10 3. 88

Cost = 6000 P ' where P is input power in kilowatts.

Auxiliary refrigerator of appropriate capacity operating at 10 K.

1. 13
Table 1. 3 Liquefaction/ refrige ration costs per

unit of product cryogenic hydrogen (from gaseous hydrogen).

Plant Size, kg/h

lb/h

Power Costs*

O&M3 4 Fixed Charges

Total $/kg

Total $/lb

Total $/10

6 Btu

Power Costs

O&M

Fixed Charges

Total $/kg

Total $/lb

Total $/10 Btu

Power Costs

O&M

Fixed Charges

Total $/kg

Total $/lb

Total $/10

6 Btu

100, 000

220,462

0. 119 $/kg

0. 013

0. 019

0. 151

0. 068

1. 32

7,000 3,500

15,430 7,716

Liquid Hydrogen

0. 135

0. 014

0. 020

0. 169

0. 077

1. 49

0. 146

0. 018

0. 025

0. 189

0. 085

1. 65

0. 136 $/kg

0. 035

0. 045

0. 216

0. 098

1. 90

0. 140 $/kg

0. 045

0. 057

0. 242

0. 110

2. 13

50-50 Slush Hydrogen

0. 154 0. 159

0. 038 0. 049

0. 049 0. 062

0.241 0.270

0. 109 0. 122

2. 11 2. 36

Solid Hydrogen

0. 172 0. 177

0. 041 0. 053

0. 063 0. 075

0. 276 0. 305

0. 125 0. 138

2.42 2.67

1,500

3, 307

0. 144 $/kg

0. 062

0. 075

0. 281

0. 127

2. 46

0. 164

0. 067

0. 082

0. 313

0. 142

2.75

0. 184

0. 072

0. 105

0. 361

0. 164

3. 18

500

1, 100

0. 159 $/kg

0. 097

0. Ill

0. 367

0. 166

3. 22

0. 181

0. 106

0. 122

0. 409

0. 186

3. 60

0. 206

0. 115

0. 159

0. 480

0. 218

4. 22

Electric power costs $. 012/kW-h

2 Based on lower heating value of 33. 331 kW-h/kg (51, 600 Btu/lb)

3 $/kg = 301.88 (P/l 10372)°' 65

/liquefaction rate; P = Input powe r, kW

4 FCR = I (1+I) y

/((1+I) Y - 1) I = Interest Rate, 15%; y = Plant life, 25 years

1 . 14
The cost of producing solid hydrogen was estimated as follows: First, liquid hydrogen

is produced at the N.B.P. and then frozen solid with an auxiliary 10 K refrigerator. The

final temperature of the solid is taken at the triple point temperature (13.803 K) . Estimates of the time required to freeze hydrogen in various configurations are given in reference f 17]

Table 1.3 shows the cost per unit of product for various sized units. Power costs were

based on electrical availability at 0.012 $/kW-h. Operating and maintenance (0 & M) costs

per unit of product were calculated by

, P .0.65 301.88

O&M * ''110372 ' X Production Rate, kg/h

where P is the input power in kilowatts and the production rate is for 90 percent plant

operating time.

The constant (301.88) includes a correction for kilograms per hour. The equation is

a modified version of an equation presented by Hallet [18]. The equation was modified by

basing the O&M costs on the installed compressor power instead of the liquefaction rate. This alteration allowed the O&M costs to change with plant size and with changes in efficiency and ideal work of production. The fixed charges on the capital investment (per unit

of product) were determined by

C = FCR* x

Capital Investment

FC Production Rate x 0.9 x hours/year

The costs presented in table 1.3 are based on current technology and extrapolations of

trends in efficiency. Improved technology could yield lower costs. The largest reduction

in costs would result from improved efficiency in the liquefaction process. Improved

efficiency would not only reduce power requirements but would also reduce the capital investment and the related fixed costs and O&M costs. Table 1.4 shows the possible reduction

in costs with improved efficiency in the liquefaction process for a plant capacity of

7000 kg/h. Also, since most existing plants are one-of-a-kind, further reduction in plant

costs could be expected if many plants of equal size were constructed.

Table 1.4 Effect of efficiency of liquefaction on product costs - (7000 kg/h)

EFF. (%) 35 40 45 50 55 60

Power Costs $/kg 0.136 0.119 0. 106 0. 095 0.,087 0.,079

O&M $/kg 0.035 0.032 0. 030 0,,028 0,,026 0.,025

Fixed Charges $/kg 0.045 0.041 0. 038 0,.035 0,,033 0,,031

Total $/kg 0.216 0.192 0. 174 0.,158 0,,146 0.,135

Total $/lb 0.098 0.087 0. 079 0,,072 0,,066 0.,061

Total $/106 Btu 1.90 1.69 1. 53 1,,40 1.,28 1.,18

See footnote 4 in table 1.3.

1.15
The liquefaction costs are high and are a deterrent to the adoption of liquid hydrogen

as an energy carrier. The energy requirements for liquefaction are shown in a simple block

diagram in figure 1.5. The top half of this figure shows an energy balance assuming no recovery of the liquefaction energy. The figure shows that for every kilowatt of chemical

energy output in the form of liquid hydrogen, 1.298 kW of energy from chemical and electrical sources must be supplied. The lower diagram in figure 1.5 indicates the energy recoverable from the liquid as an energy output. The recovered energy and the liquefaction energy were estimated by using the ideal work of liquefaction at an efficiency of 40 percent for

both processes. Figure 1.5 indicates the energy penalty one must pay for liquefying hydrogen. In addition, liquid storage and handling evaporation losses could impose an additional

energy penalty of 10 to 20 percent for reliquefaction; i.e., electrical energy requirements may be as high as 0.358 kW in the diagram shown on figure 1.5.

Thus, the energy and cost penalties incurred in liquefying hydrogen are significant,

but we must remember that the fuel application dictates the choice of fuel physical state. Only in a total fuel system can we estimate overall energy conversion efficiencies and

fuel economics. Even then, convenience and performance factors favor dense fuels and frequently outweigh cost and efficiency arguments.

1.4 HYDROGEN COST CREDITS

Large scale production and liquefaction of hydrogen offers several by-products that

could lower the cost of hydrogen as a fuel. These are oxygen, deuterium, and refrigeration potential, i.e., recovery of liquefaction energy.

1.4.1 Oxygen By-Product Credit

For every kilogram of hydrogen produced from water there are eight kilograms of oxygen

produced. Hence, when the hydrogen fuel industry matures, large quantities of oxygen will

be available.

The by-product value of oxygen could range anywhere between zero and the cost of oxygen

obtained from air separation. In 1972, the average price for large quantities of oxygen

from air plants was 0.58c/lb (1.3c/kg) [19] . (This cost excludes transmission costs because

the air plants are situated near the consumers.)

Figure 1.6 shows the effect of oxygen by-product credit on the selling price of hydrogen.

Unless large new markets are found, the by-product value will be low because of the large

oversupply. Possible large scale future markets for oxygen include sewage treatment [20]

and paper processing [21]. To make by-product oxygen more competitive with oxygen from air

plants, the source should be close to the consumer to minimize transmission costs. For a given volumetric flow rate, it costs roughly twice as much to pipeline oxygen gas as hydrogen [22].

1.4.2 Deuterium By-Product

The natural abundance of the isotope deuterium is roughly 0.015% that of hydrogen.

To obtain deuterium, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission goes through the costly (in capital

and in energy) process of distilling heavy water (D2O) from water. The heavy water is

electrolyzed to produce deuterium. A more direct method, especially if liquid hydrogen is

1.16
Electrical Energy = 0.298 kW

1.298 kW

Total

Input

Energy

H Gas

2

(Chemical Energy

(<>LHV = 1 kW)

1

Liquefier:

40 % of Carnot

Efficient

H 2 Liquid

(Chemical Energy

@ LHV = 1 kW)

'

Input Energy

Output Energy

= 1.298

Electrical Energy = 0.298 kW

1.298 kW

Total

Input

Energy

0.05 kW-Recovery — of

kW Liquefaction Energy

Liquefier:

40 % of Carnot

2 Efficient

Gas 1 kW H

2 Liquid

1.05 kW

Total

Output

Energy

Input Energy

Output Energy

= 1.236

FIGURE 1.5 Energy Requirements for Liquefaction of Hydrogen (Based on LHV)

With and Without Recovery of Liquefaction Energy.

1.17
BY-PRODUCT CREDIT OF OXYGEN, <t/kg

(LHV) (HHV) 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75

1.00

1.00

=>

tCQ

^

0.80

QCN 0.60

2 0.40

t-o

=3O

LU

0.20

0.80 -

0.60 —

0.40 —

0.20 -

0

0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80

BY-PRODUCT CREDIT OF OXYGEN , $/1b

FIGURE 1.6 Effect of Oxygen By-product Credit on the Cost

of Hydrogen.

1.18
required, is the low temperature distillation of deuterium from hydrogen [23] ; this method

is used in Europe.

At present, there is little demand for deuterium outside of basic research. However,

this could change radically if the fusion reactor becomes a reality since the two most promising fusion reactions use deuterium as a reactant [24]. It is difficult to predict how much credit could be given for deuterium. Two recent

estimates [25,26] range between 1.8 and 3.5c/kg of hydrogen; this amounts to 10% or less

of the estimated cost of producing hydrogen gas.

1.4.3 Recovery of Liquefaction Energy

When liquid hydrogen is available but gaseous hydrogen at ambient temperature and

pressure is desired, some of the liquefaction energy can be recovered. The amount of

kW-h

energy that can be recovered is no greater than the ideal work of liquefaction (3.971 —-—

K-g as shown in table 1.1. Because the ideal liquefaction energy is approximately 10 percent

of the chemical energy of the hydrogen, the recovery of the liquefaction energy will probably not be economical in small systems. However, in large vaporizing facilities, the

recoverable energy is significant, and several interesting recovery techniques may be

employed.

The simplest recovery technique utilizes a system as shown on figure 1.7. The liquid

is pumped to a high pressure by a liquid pump, vaporized and heated to ambient temperature

by receiving heat from the ambient, and then expanded isothermally back to ambient pressure.

The net work from this system Is the work output from the isothermal expander minus the

shaft work into the liquid pump. Using the conditions of NBP equilibrium liquid hydrogen

in the storage container, and 300 K sea level ambient conditions, the net work from the

system is shown on figure 1.8 as a function of the pumped liquid pressure. The top curve

on the figure shows the recovered work if the pump and expander are 100 percent efficient;

the work recovery shown by the lower curve includes an adiabatic efficiency of 80 percent

for the pump and 60 percent isothermal efficiency for the expander. Parahydrogen properties

from [27] were used to perform the calculations.

A similar work recovery calculation can be made for liquid oxygen. The results of

such a calculation are shown in figure 1.9. Oxygen data from [28] were used in the calculation.

A further refinement of the recovery technique would be to use the refrigeration

available to precool air in an air separation plant instead of absorbing heat from the

ambient. Although large quantities of oxygen are produced by electrolysis and the use of

this oxygen will increase the efficiency of a power plant while reducing emissions, the

cost of transporting oxygen to a remote site is seldom economical. However, by using the

refrigeration energy available from liquid hydrogen, stoichiometric amounts of oxygen can

be separated from air on-site with very little additional energy. The capital expense of the

on-site air separation plant may be balanced by the reduction in cost of a steam generating

plant because of a reduction in boiler complexity. Other by-products from the air separation plant, such as neon and argon in the near future, and perhaps helium in the distant

future could be used as cost credits for liquid hydrogen.

1.19

O Lf) o

o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o

CXI CO O '-O cm ro co cm cm cm •

1 1

' qivng 'q3cJ3aod3cJ »y om

1.21
6>I/M-M>I 'Q3a3A033a XdOM
The feasibility of using an air separation plant to produce gaseous oxygen for com- bustion with hydrogen can be demonstrated by comparing the work of separation of a stoichiometric amount of oxygen with the energy available from vaporizing the liquid hydrogen.

Combustion of hydrogen with oxygen proceeds according to + 1/2 0^ "* ^2®' ^e ^deal work

of separation of the oxygen from the air is 52.2 W-h per kilogram of oxygen [29]. Since

every kilogram of hydrogen burned requires eight kilograms of oxygen, the required separation energy becomes 417.6 W-h per kilogram of hydrogen. Using the ideal liquefaction energy

available from one atmosphere liquid hydrogen (3971 W-h/kg, table 1.1) no additional energy

would be required to obtain the gaseous oxygen if the overall efficiency of the recovery

system and separation process is (417.6/3971) x 100 = 10.5 percent efficient.

The efficiency data [30] for several nitrogen, air, and separation plants are included

on figure 1.10. Percent Carnot refers to the ratio,

' W. N = 77— x 100

c W

a

where W is the work expenditure, subscript i indicates ideal work, and subscript a indicates

the actual work requirement of the separator. The solid line was drawn to show average performance demonstrated by existing refrigerators and single fluid liquefiers. Data for re- frigeration units operating in the 30 to 90 K temperature range are shown by the open symbols

data for air separation and liquefaction plants are given by the symbols with an enclosed

number. Unit 1 is a mobile liquid oxygen-nitrogen generator currently being used by the

Navy and Marine Corps; units 2, 3, and 4 are liquid nitrogen generators; unit 5 is a small

liquid oxygen generator; and unit 6 produces gaseous nitrogen at room temperature plus a small amount of liquid nitrogen—both products being delivered at about 0.8 MPa (8 atm)

absolute pressure. It is apparent that efficiencies of 30 to 40 percent could be expected

from large separation plants. Assuming 40 percent efficiency for the air separation cycle,

the work required per kilogram of hydrogen to produce a stoichiometric amount of gaseous

oxygen would be 417.6 W-h/0.4 = 1.044 kW-h per kilogram of evaporated hydrogen. Recovery

of 30 percent of the ideal work of hydrogen liquefaction (3.971 ) would provide the

energy required to produce this oxygen. Also, we can compare this energy requirement for

production of oxygen from air with the energy available in compressed liquid hydrogen.

Figure 1.8 indicates that recovery of work from compressed liquid hydrogen could supply

enough energy to produce stoichiometric gaseous oxygen from air. A more detailed design

analysis is necessary to prove this simple analysis, but the increased efficiency of having

both oxygen and hydrogen available at a site remote from a liquid hydrogen generator may

prove to be economically and environmentally attractive.

1.23

1 . 5 REFERENCES

[I] Faith, W. L. , Keyes, D. B., and Clark, R. L. , Industrial Chemicals, p. 434 (John

Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1965).

[2] Quade, R. N., and McMain, M. T. Jr., Hydrogen Production with a High Temperature

Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR) , Paper presented at The Hydrogen Economy Miami Energy

Conference, Miami Beach, Florida (March 18-20, 1974).

[3] Katell, S., U.S. Bureau of Mines, Morgantown, West Virginia, personal communication to the author (1973)

[4] Harper, W. B., U.S. Bureau of Mines, Arlington, Virginia, personal communication

to the author (1974).

[5] Kincaide, W. C, and Williams, C. F., Storage of Electrical Energy Through

Electrolysis, paper presented at the 8th IECEC, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

(August 1973)

[6] Nutall, L. J., Fickett, A. P., and Titterington, W. A., Hydrogen Generation by

Solid Polymer Electrolyte Water Electrolysis, paper presented at The Hydrogen

Economy Miami Energy Conference, Miami Beach, Florida (March 18-20, 1974).

f7] Kincaide, W. C, Teledyne Isotopes, Timonium, Maryland, personal communication

to the author (1973).

[8] Funk, J. E., and Reinstrom, R. M. , Energy Requirements in the Production of

Hydrogen from Water, Ind. Eng. Chem. Proc. Des. Develop. 5_, 336 (July 1966).

[9] Russell, J. L., and Porter, J. T., A Search for Thermochemical Water-splitting

Cycles, paper presented at The Hydrogen Economy Miami Energy Conference, Miami

Beach, Florida (March 18-20, 1974).

flO] Funk, J. E., Conger, W. L., and Carty, R. H., Evaluation of Multi-step Thermochemical Processes for the Production of Hydrogen from Water, ibid.

[II] Wentorf, R. H., Jr., and Harmeman, R. E., Thermochemical Hydrogen Generation,

Science 185, No. 4148, 311 (July 1974).

[12] Chao, R. E., and Cox, K. E. , An Analysis of Hydrogen Production via Closed-cycle

Schemes, paper presented at The Hydrogen Economy Miami Energy Conference, Miami

Beach, Florida (March 18-20, 1974).

[13] Eastlund, B. J., and Gough, W. C, Generation of Hydrogen by Ultra-violet Light

Produced by the Fusion Torch, paper presented at the 163rd American Chemical

Society Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts (April 9-14, 1972).

[14] Mitsui, A., Utilization of Solar Energy for Hydrogen Production by Cell Free

System of Photosynthetic Organisms, paper presented at The Hydrogen Economy

Miami Energy Conference, Miami Beach, Florida (March 18-20, 1974)

[15] Strobridge, T. R. , Cryogenic Refrigerators - An Updated Survey, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Tech. Note 655 (June 1974).

[16] Sindt, C. F., A Summary of the Characterization Study of Slush Hydrogen,

Cryogenics 10, 372 (October 1970)

[17] Daney, D. E., Steward, W. G. , and Voth, R. 0., Preliminary Hydrogen Freezing

Studies, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) IR Report 73-339 (October 1973).

[18] Hallett, N. C, Study, Cost, and System Analysis of Liquid Hydrogen Production,

NASA Report CR-73226 (1968).

1.25
fl9] Pennington, J. W., Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C., personal communication to the author (1974)

[20] Rosen, H. M. , Use of Ozone and Oxygen in Advanced Waste Water Treatment, J. Water

Pollution Control Fed. 45_, No. 12, 2521 (December 1973).

[21] Chem. & Eng. News, Pulp Mill Gets its Own Oxygen Generator, 52, No. 29, 15

(July 22, 1974).

r 22 ] Bighi, G., Dejace, J., Massard, C., and Ciborra, B., Economics of Pipeline

Transport for Hydrogen and Oxygen, paper presented at The Hydrogen Economy

Miami Energy Conference, Miami Beach, Florida (March 18, 1974).

r 23] Flynn, T. M., Pilot Plant Data for Hydrogen Isotope Distillation, Chem. Eng.

Progr. 56, No. 3, 37 (March 1960).

[24] Gough, W. C, and Eastlund, R. J., The Prospects of Fusion Power, Sci. Amer.

224, No. 2, 50 (February 1971).

r 25 ] Stuart, A. K., Modern Electrolyzer Technology, paper presented at the 163rd

National Meeting of the American Chemical Society, Boston, Massachusetts

(April 9, 1972).

[26] DeBeni, G., and Marchetti, C, A Chemical Process to Decompose Water Using

Nuclear Heat, paper presented at the 163rd National Meeting of the American

Chemical Society, Boston, Massachusetts (April 9, 1973).

[27] McCarty, R. D., and Weber, L. A., Thermophysical Properties of Parahydrogen

from the Freezing Liquid Line to 5000 R for Pressures to 10,000 PSIA, Nat.

Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Tech. Note 617 (April 1972).

[28] McCarty, R. D., and Weber, L. A., Thermophysical Properties of Oxygen from

the Freezing Liquid Line to 600 R for Pressures to 5000 PSIA, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Tech. Note 384 (July 1971).

r 29 ] Barron, R., Cryogenic Systems, p. 188 (McGraw Hill Book Company, New York,

New York, 1966)

[30] Arnett, R. W., and Muhlenhaupt, R. C, Study of Oxygen and Nitrogen Generating

Systems, Unpublished NBS Report (September 1970).

1.26
CHAPTER 2 HYDROGEN IN THE ELECTRICAL UTILITY INDUSTRY

W. R. Parrish

2 . 0 SUMMARY

This chapter considers the economic feasibility of using hydrogen as a fuel in peaking

and intermediate power generation. To make the study meaningful, hydrogen was compared with

other reasonable alternatives.

The alternatives fall into two categories — power generation and energy storage. In power generation we consider using gas turbines, fuel cells and combined cycle units. Whereas the first two are considered for both peaking and intermediate duty, the combined cycle

is considered for intermediate duty only. The fuels considered were hydrogen, synthetic

natural gas (SNG) and methanol. We evaluate the relative merits of two sources of hydrogen:

1) hydrogen produced via electrolysis using off-peak power and 2) hydrogen purchased from

an outside source. Methods of storing hydrogen include liquid, compressed gas and metal

hydride. Storage methods for SNG include liquid and compressed gas while methanol is readily

storable as a liquid.

We evaluate three energy storage concepts: hydro pumped storage, batteries and superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)

A simplified approach to the economic analysis is used wherein we assume that sufficient

off-peak power is available and that power production costs consist of fuel costs (sometimes off-peak power costs must be considered instead of, or in addition to, fuel costs),

operating and maintenance costs, and fixed charges on capital investment. Sample calculations are given in Appendix A. All cost data required for the analysis are based on current

costs or currently anticipated costs; for several cases we give estimated cost ranges. For the economic comparison, we consider a 100 MVe peaking unit and a 400 MWe intermediate unit. In each case we report both total and component power production costs. This allows one to rapidly determine the effect of changing any cost factor used in the

base case calculations.

The economic analysis based on the assumptions described below indicates that for

peaking operation, pumped storage and methanol-fired gas turbines are currently the most

attractive options while batteries and SMES are the least attractive. SNG looks slightly

more economical than purchased hydrogen, which, in turn looks slightly more economical than

electrolytic hydrogen. The predominant cost in all of the alternatives is the fixed charge

on capital. The most attractive physical form of fuel storage appears to be liquid although

underground gas storage might be competitive if depleted gas fields are available.

The above conclusions also apply to intermediate operation except that the most

attractive means of generating power is the combined cycle unit using methanol.

One must remember that the results presented here are based on present day and anticipated near-future technology. Significant technological advances could radically alter

these conclusions. Also other cost-influencing factors such as stricter environmental

controls could make hydrogen an attractive fuel for future power generation.

2.1
2.1 INTRODUCTION

The electrical utilities must meet daily load variations where the peak demand can

be more than twice the minimum demand [1]; figure 2.1 illustrates a typical daily load

curve. The exact shape of the curve depends upon the weather and the relative demand

of residential and industrial consumers. However, all utilities are faced with the problem

of having to meet high demands for relative short periods of time. This is shown more

clearly by the annual duration curve in figure 2.2. This curve indicates how many hours

per year the utility operates at or above a given power level. Utilities normally divide

the curve into three regions. Base load plants have high capital costs and high thermal

efficiencies f^40% for fossil-fired plants based on higher heating value (HHV) ] but relatively low operating and fuel costs. To minimize power production costs, these plants must

be operated 7000 hours or more per year. Base load plants use either fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, or nuclear fuel (there are base load hydro-electric plants in some areas).

Plant sizes range from 200 to 1400 MW. The intermediate demand is met by pumped hydro-storage and fossil-fired steam plants

with variable duty cycles [2]. Combined cycle units which use premium fuels are also used

for intermediate loadings. Plant capacities vary between 100 and 500 MW, and they operate

between 1000 and 4000 hours per year.

The peaking portion of the curve is supplied predominantly by gas turbines and smaller,

old fossil-fired plants with capacities of 200 MW or less [2]. Peaking units are characterized by low capital costs but relatively high operating and fuel costs. Annual operating

time is usually less than 1000 hours; while the fossil plants can use a variety of fuels,

gas turbines must use expensive premium fuels such as low-sulfur fuel oil and natural gas. In the next decade, the petroleum shortage will grossly affect the electrical power

industry. There will be more nuclear base load plants [3], and fossil-fired plants will

return to coal or convert to gas produced from coal [4]. Intermediate plants will also

depend more heavily on coal. However, peaking units, especially if they are gas turbines,

will continue using premium fuels.

This chapter considers the economics of some alternatives for peak and intermediate

power generation. A study of this kind not only points out which alternatives are the most

attractive, but it also picks out the major cost items of each alternative; this gives a guide to where technological improvements would be most profitable. Several papers discuss

various peaking alternatives, but the report by Kyle, et al. [5] is probably the most com- prehensive to date. However, they did not consider fuel cells, superconducting magnetic

energy storage or possible synthetic fuels. To our knowledge, there are no comparable

studies for intermediate loading.

Table 2.1 lists the alternatives considered here. The options fall into two broad

categories—power generation and energy storage.

Power generating alternatives considered include gas turbines and fuel cells for

peaking and intermediate operation; combined cycle units are considered for intermediate

loading only. We investigate three chemical fuels —hydrogen, synthetic natural gas (SNG)

and methanol. It is assumed that hydrogen can be made on site via electrolysis of water or

2.2
- 40

20 —

12 6 AM 12

HOURS

6 PM 12

FIGURE 2.1: Typical Daily Load Curve

2.3
TIME , hours

FIGURE 2.2: Typical Annual Load Duration Curve

2.4
Table 2.1 Peaking and Intermediate Power Plant Alternatives

Considered in this Paper

UNIT FUEL ENERGY STORAGE MEDIA

Gas Turbines

OR

Fuel Cells

OR

Hydrogen:

Electrolytic E^,

H„ from Coal or Tnermochemical

Decomposition of H^O

Liquid Hydrogen

Compressed Gaseous

Hydrogen

Metal Hydride

Combined Cycle

(Intermediate Duty Only)

SNG (from Coal) Liquid SNG

Compressed Gaseous SNG

Methanol (from Coal) Liquid Methanol

Hydro Pumped Storage Potential Energy

OR

Batteries

|

Off-Peak Electricity ^ Electrochemical Energy

OR

Superconducting Magnetic

Energy Storage (SMES)

Electromagnetic Energy

2.5
be bought from the outside. In the latter case, we assume the hydrogen may be produced

from coal or by thermochemical decomposition of water using nuclear reactor heat. It is

assumed that both SNG and methanol are produced from coal.

The compressed gas concept uses off-peak electricity to drive a centrifugal compressor

for pressurizing the storage vessel. When the unit is producing power, the gaseous fuel

depressurizes through the compressor, making an electric motor a generator. Thus, some of

the energy used to store the gas can be recovered; this reduces the total fuel requirement.

Energy storage systems considered include hydropumped storage, batteries and superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) . We include pumped storage as a base case be- cause it is the way some utilities store off-peak power today.

No attempt has been made to cover all of the possible ways of storing off-peak power.

Two alternatives, briefly considered, appeared to be economically unattractive; these are capacitors and flywheels [6]. However, a recent article [7] gives some cost estimates for

flywheels which make them more appealing if high strength, low cost materials become

available.

One alternative studied by Korsmeyer [8] not considered here which might prove attractive is compressed air storage in combination with gas turbines. Air is compressed using

off-peak power; then during turbine operation, the air is fed directly to the turbine.

This would increase turbine efficiency by roughly 250% because a large portion of the energy

generated by the turbine normally is used to compress the inlet air. Korsmeyer found large

variations in estimated capital costs, especially mining costs. However, if the proper

underground sites could be found for compressed air storage, this concept may significantly

reduce peaking power costs. Many variables affect power production costs, and we consider the influence of the

following parameters:

1. unit size,

2. off-peak power costs,

3. fuel costs, and

4. equipment capital costs.

The parameters are varied over plausible ranges; in some cases, capital costs are considered

from the standpoint of break-even charts.

Finally, there may be advantages to locating power units close to load centers [2,5].

Therefore, transmission credits can affect the relative attractiveness of the alternatives

as shown herein.

2.2 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

We take a simplistic approach in evaluating the economic feasibility of the various

alternatives because each utility company is unique in demand requirements and in the

make-up of generating components. Also, many of the cost data are too uncertain to justify

a sophisticated analysis. (Appendix A gives sample calculations.)

2.2.1 Basic Assumptions

We assume that off-peak power is readily available within the distribution network

for at least eight hours per day; this makes the type of base load plant immaterial in this

2.6
study. It should be pointed out that the eight hours per day of off-peak power is realistic

today but there may be less off-peak power in the future.

We assume that power production costs include three components:

1. fuel and/or off-peak power costs,

2. operating and maintenance costs (0 & M) , and

3. fixed charges on capital investment.

Fuel and power costs are simple functions of conversion efficiency. 0 & M costs include

all maintenance, labor and operating costs, excluding fuel costs. Fixed charges cover

taxes, depreciation, cost of capital, and return on investment. We calculate fixed charges

using a capital recovery factor (which converts the initial capital cost to a series of

equal annual payments) with a fixed charge rate of 15%/yr; this corresponds to an investor

owned company [9]. To size the various components, we assume that the peaking and intermediate units must

have the capacity to operate 10 and 16 hours per day, respectively. This method of estimating the capacity of an energy storage unit weighs heavily against those techniques with high

capital costs. The reserve capacity is almost double the actual daily useage. In the case where a fuel is being produced and/or liquefied for storage, the flow rate is taken to be

75% of the maximum daily demand. This assumes that the remaining 25% can be made up during

weekends when the demand is lower.

Finally, the cost of land is omitted and the working capital is considered negligible

in terms of capital costs.

2.3 COST DATA

2.3.1 Power Generation Units

Table 2.2 lists the necessary cost data for the power generation units considered here.

All costs are given in 1973 dollars. Gas turbine and combined cycle data are based on current operating technology [ 10 ] . We assume that turbine costs are independent of the fuel

considered here.

Unit

Table 2.2 Cost Data for Power

Capital Cost O & M

$/kWe mills/kW-h

Generation Units

Plant Life

Yrs.

e

Efficiency

%

Gas Turbine 135 [10] 3. 4 [10] 20 28a [10]

Fuel Cell 140-290 b [12] 1. 5 [11] 16, 000 HRS [12] 51 a [12]

DC-AC Inverter 45 [10] 20 [11] 97 [13]

Reformer 25 [12] 10 [11] 85 [11]

Combined Cycle 200 [10] 2. 1 [10] 20 41 a [10]

a. Efficiency is based on LHV

b. This is the cost of the fuel cell only. Ref. [12] gives costs of fuel cells plus inverters and reformer.

2.7
Fuel cell cost data are more uncertain because fuel cells have not been used by utility

companies although they are supporting fuel cell development [11,12]. Since fuel cells produce DC power, DC-AC inverters are needed. The fuel cells being developed for utility applications use hydrogen and air [11]. Therefore, unless hydrogen is the fuel, a catalytic re- former is necessary to produce hydrogen from another fuel.

2.3.2 Fuel Production and Storage

Table 2.3 lists the economic data used in evaluating the economic feasibility of

various fuels and storage schemes.

The primary means of producing hydrogen today is either steam reforming or partial

oxidation of fossil fuels such as natural gas and naphtha [12]. As these feedstocks be- come more expensive and in shorter supply, coal will become the major source of hydrogen.

Also, thermochemical decomposition of water [14,15] using nuclear heat may become economically

attractive. The anticipated price range for hydrogen from these processes is 1.15 [16] to 1.55 $/MBTU* (HHV) [14]. The lower cost corresponds to hydrogen from coal at 4$/ton; if

coal costs 6$/ton, hydrogen would sell at 1.30$/MBTU.

Electrolytic hydrogen costs depend primarily on power costs [17]; considering only

power cost, electrolytic hydrogen costs 4.70$/MBTU if power costs 15 mills/kW-h. However,

if off-peak power is available at less than 5 mills/kW-h electrolytic hydrogen becomes more competitive.

We use the cost data of Kincaide and Williams T17] for the electrolysis plant. In their work, they used equipment currently available which put a limit on component size.

This makes the capital cost increase linearly with capacity. We assume that larger com- ponents will become available as needed because increasing sizes should not cause major

technological problems. Hence, we assume that costs increase with size to the 0.8 power.

The capital costs are based on a 10 ton/day plant with 33% utilization and an advanced

cell design. As Kincaide and Williams point out, the optimum plant design depends upon

power costs; this consideration is neglected here.

Of the three options for storing hydrogen, only cryogenic storage can be considered

state-of-the-art for storing the quantities that would be required for utility applications . Liquefaction costs are from Hallett [18]; they have been increased 25% to account for inflation. The cryogenic storage cost is for an above-ground, double wall tank with evacuated

perlite insulation [18]. This container has a boil-off rate of less than 0.1% per day.

If higher boil-off rates are acceptable (2% per day), vessel costs can be cut by 60% [18].

The storage vessel is sized to hold three days supply of electrolytic hydrogen; storage

vessels for the other fuels are sized to hold a ten day supply.

The centrifugal compressor cost for high pressure storage is estimated using

Guthrie's [19] cost data. To size the compressor, we assume that it has a 60% efficiency,

based on isothermal compression. In all the compressed gas storage calculations, we

assume ideal gas behavior. The lower vessel cost is for depleted gas fields [20]; the

higher cost is for above ground storage in 10 ft long by 10 ft diameter cylindrical pressure

vessels [19]. We assume that the maximum pressure in underground storage is 1000 psia, and

* MBTU = 10 BTU throughout this chapter.

2.8
2.9
in aboveground storage, it is 2400 psia. To account for the added wall thickness of the

pressure vessel, the vessel cost is increased by 15% of the base cost for each 100 psi of

operating pressure [19]

Costs for hydride storage [21] are speculative because they are based on an as yet

untested design. The process consists of the metal hydride unit operating at 35 atm and

using hydrogen as the heat transfer fluid during charging and discharging. The estimated

capital cost depends upon charging and discharging rate as well as the amount of hydrogen

stored. Assuming iron titanium costs l$/lb, it amounts to between 50 and 65% of the total

hydride storage cost in peaking operation and even higher (70 to 80%) in intermediate duty.

(See Appendix B for details of hydride storage costs). Hydride storage requires some power

to drive compressors and pumps; this power demand is given in Table 2.3. The system also

needs some thermal energy (~ 2000 BTU per pound of discharged) to heat the bed during

discharging; we assume that waste heat is readily available at no charge for heating the bed.

Projected costs for making SNG from coal vary, but we anticipate that the selling

price will be somewhere between 1.00 [23] and 1.50 $/MBTU (HHV)

As in the case of hydrogen, storage of SNG requires cryogenic processing. Liquefaction

capital cost is based on Wenzel's [24] data for LNG peakshaving plants. The cryogenic

container capital cost corresponds to an all steel, 600,000 barrel tank currently under

construction [25].

We assume the capital cost per unit of container volume of compressed gas storage to be the same for both hydrogen and SNG. For equivalent energy storage at the same storage

pressure, hydrogen requires larger containers and more compressor power than SNG. The selling price of methanol from coal will probably be in the range of 1.00 [26] to 1.50 $/MBTU (HHV)

Of the three fuels considered, methanol is the simplest and cheapest to store. The

storage capital cost is for cone roofed, carbon steel tanks [19].

2.3.3 Energy Storage Systems

Table 2.4 lists the cost data for the three energy storage systems considered here.

The range in capital cost for pumped storage covers what a new facility might cost; costs

above 250 $/kW make pumped storage unattractive [9]

Development in new types of batteries make their capital cost uncertain. The higher

cost represents costs for present-day lead-acid batteries while the lower cost corresponds

to the target selling price for lithium-sulfur batteries [5]. Battery life is based on lead-acid batteries [2]; future batteries might last 7 to 8 years [5] which would make

them much more attractive. The total cost of a battery system must include a DC-AC inverter.

Superconducting magnetic energy storage technology is in its infancy; therefore, all

cost data for SMES systems must be considered preliminary. Capital costs are based on 10.8 GWh

e of energy storage [27]. The capital cost depends upon the magnet geometry,

solenoidal or toroidal, and the reinforcement, warm or cold. The solenoidal geometry is

less expensive because it stores more energy per unit of superconductor than does the torus; depending upon the system, superconductor costs are between 20 to 35% of the fotal SMES

cost. We assume 0 & M costs for SMES to be comparable to those of pumped storage.

2.10
Table 2.4 Cost Data for Energy Storage Systems

Unit

Capital Cost

$/kw-he O & M

mills/kW-he

Plant Life

Yrs

Efficiency

%

Hydro Pumped Storage 200 $/kW 2 [9] 50 67 [9]

Batteries 20 - 50 a

[5] 1 [2] 5 [2] 70 [5]

Superconducting

Magnetic Energy

Storage

70 - 150a

[27] 2 20 95 [13]

a. To obtain the total capital cost, the cost of a DC -AC inverter

must be included (see Table 2.2).

2.4 ECONOMIC COMPARISON

2.4.1 Peaking Units

Table 2.5 lists the cost of producing peak power for the various alternatives. For ease of comparison, all three fuels are assumed to cost 1.25 $/MBTU (HHV) . Tables 2.6,

2.7 and 2.8 present the component costs used to obtain Table 2.5. Using these supplemental

tables and simple ratios, one can quickly estimate the effect of a component cost change

on the total power cost. The effect of size is more complicated in many cases because

costs are non-linear functions of capacity.

Based on Table 2.5, the least expensive ways to produce peak power are by using 1)

pumped storage and 2) gas turbines using methanol as the fuel. Therefore, to make any of

the other options competitive, costs must be lowered enough to reduce production costs to around 40 mills/kW-h if annual operating time is 1000 hours.

Considering the remaining energy storage systems first, we want to determine how they

can be made competitive. For these discussions, we will hold plant size, operating time,

and fixed charge rate constant. The remaining parameters affecting power costs for batteries

and SMES are off peak power costs, capital costs, and transmission credits, i.e., credit

for locating the units near load centers [2]. A simple calculation shows that to make

batteries competitive, they must cost between 10 and 15 $/kW-h; this assumes reasonable

off-peak power (< 20 mills/kW-h) and transmission credits (< 50 $/kW which corresponds to an

8 mills/kW-h credit for this case). Batteries could be competitive at 15 to 20 $/kW-h if

battery life can be extended from five to eight years. Using the same ranges of off-peak

power costs and transmission credits, SMES capital costs would have to be around 15 to 20 $/kW-h before they could produce peak power at 40 mills/kW-h.

The nearest competitor to the methanol gas turbine option is the methanol fuel cell

system. Peak power costs are higher for the fuel cell systems using methanol or SNG be- cause the fuel savings cannot offset the higher capital costs of the reformer-fuel cellinverter system. Direct comparison of methanol-f ueled gas turbine and fuel cell systems

2.11
Table 2.5 Base Case Peaking Power Costs, mills/kW-h

Capacity

Operating Time

Cost of Off-Peak Power

100 MW

1000 h/yr

5 mills /kW-h

POWER GENERATING UNITS

Fuel Storage

Gas

Turbines

Fuel

Cells a

Hydrogen (el.

Hydrogen

(@ 1. 25 $/MBTU)

Liquid 144. 0 Comp. Gas

A. G. b 29300

U. G. 144. 1 Hydride 15 3.8

Liquid 117. 9 Comp. Gas

A. G. 97400

U. G. 262. 4 Hydride 244. 8

Liquid 85. 9 Comp. Gas

A. G. 28900

U.G. 119.2

Methanol

(@ 1. 25 $/MBTU) Liquid 42.8

ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS (1000 MW-h CAPACITY)

Pumped Storage

Batteries 0 SMES

SNG

(@ 1. 25 $/MBTU)

39.5

164. 5 254. 1

130. 3

15500

128. 3

135. 0

114. 4

51500

198. 3

186. 0

107. 8

19700

124. 7

74. 2

a. Assumes fuel cell cost is 290 $/kW.

b. A. G. denotes above ground storage; U. G. denotes underground

storage in a depleted oil or gas field.

c. Assumes batteries cost 50 $/kW-h.

d. Assumes SMES cost 150 $/kW-h.

2. 12
Table 2.6a Component Peaking Power Costs for Hydrogen Fueled Systems Using

Liquid or Hydride Storage

Component

Capital

Cost, K$ Fixed Charges

Operating Costs, mills/kW-h

b O & M Fuel/Elec.

GTa FC GT FC GT FC GT FC

Power Generator 13500 33500 21. 6 55. Q 3. 4 1. 5 Electrolysis Plant 12800 8070 19. 8 12. 5 2. 4 1. 3 22. 4 12. 6 Fuel Cost

@ 1. 25 MBTU 18. 0 10. 1 Cryogenic Storage

Liquefier 41400 26000 66. 1 41. 6 2. 5 1. 7 5. 3 3. 0 Storage Tank

3 days storage

10 days storage

267

583

183

400

0.0.

4

9

0.0.

36

0.

0.

0

1

0. 0

0. 0 Hydride Storage

3 days storage

1 0 days storage

51800

127800

30800

74300

80.

197.

1847.

115.

793.

3.

0

0

3. 0

3. 0

1. 0

1. 0

0. 6

0. 6

a. GT = gas turbine. FC = fuel cell

b. Fixed charges are calculated using capital recovery factor (f raction/yr) X Capital Cost

($) /Power (MW) / Operating time (h/yr) where the capital recovery factor is given

by FCR (1 - FCR)PL

/[(1 + FCR)PL - 1] and FCR is the fixed charge rate and PL is plant life in years.

Table 2.6b Component Peaking Power Costs for Hydrogen Fueled Systems Using

Compressed Gas Storage

Capital Operating Costs, mills /kW-h

Component Cost, KS

GT FC

t ixed Charges O & M Fuel/Elec.

GT FC GT FC GT FC

Storage

Above Ground

3 days storage I3xl0 9 $ 7. Ixl0 9 $ 20850 11700

10 days storage 45x10?$ 23x109$ 69500 36700

Underground

3 days storage 36500 22000. 56. 4 34. 0 10 days storage 121500 73200 188.0 113.3

a. All costs, except where noted.are for underground storage.

2.13

1350

4500

3. 6

12. 2

17. 8 11. 0

Main Power

Generator 10700a 25300 17. 1 48. 8 2. 7 Electrolysis Plant 10700 7200 16.5 11.2 1.9

Fuel Cost

@ 1. 25 $/MBTU

Compressor-Turbine 12000 8100 19.2 12.9 6.0

1. 3

1. 2

4. 0

712

2370

2. 2

7. 3

14. 3

2. 9 1.
Table 2.7a Component Peaking Power Costs for SNG & Methanol Fueled Systems

Using Liquid Storage

Capital

Component Cost, K$

GT FC

Power Generator 13500 36000 SNG

Fuel Cost @ 1. 25 $/MBTU

Cryogenic Storage

Liquefier

Storage Tank

Methanol

Fuel Cost @ 1. 25 $/MBTU

Storage Tank 360 270

Operating Costs. mills/kW-h

Fixed Charges O & M Fuel/Elec.

GT FC GT FC GT FC

21.6 60. 9 3. 4 1.5

0. 6 0. 6 0. 1 0. 1

16. 9 11. 1

19700 15600 30.4 24.1 9. 8 7. 8 3.1 2.0 340 220 0. 5 0. 4 0. 1 0. 0

17. 1 11. 3

Table 2.7b Component Peaking Power Costs for SNG Fueled Systems Using Compressed

Gas Storage

Capital Operating Costs, mills/kW-h

Component Cost, K$ Fixed Charges O & M Fuel/Elec.

GT FC GT FC GT FC GT FC

Main Power

Generator 12500a 36000 20. 0 57. 9 3. 2 1. 4 Fuel Cost @ 1. 25 $/MBTU 15. 7 10. 6 Compress or -Turbine 5100 3700 8. 2 5. 9 1.0 0. 7 Storage

Aboveground 13xl0 9

$ 9. 0x1

0

9 $ 20600 14000 1300 904 Underground 41600 28200 64. 5 43. 6 4. 2 2. 8

a. All costs, except where noted, are for underground storage.

Table 2.8 Component Power Costs for Peaking Energy Storage Systems

Operating Costs, mills/kW-h

Capital Fixed

Component Cost, K$ Charges O & M Elec. Pumped Storage 20000 30. 0 2. 0 7. 5 Batteries 54500 156. 4 1.0 7. 1 SMES 154500 246.8 2.0 5.3

2. 14
200

o

<_>

r 100

<_>

FUEL CELL

TRANSMISSION CREDIT, $/kW

LU

NOTE: Gas Turbine allowed zero

Transmission Credit.

1 . 00

METHANOL FUEL COST, $/MBTU(HHV)

2.0

FIGURE 2.3: Fuel Cell Capital Cost Required to

Fuel Cells Competitive With Gas Turbines.

2.15
gives break-even capital costs for fuel cells as shown on figure 2.3. The curves are based on gas turbine cost and efficiency remaining constant.

Under the stated assumptions, none of the remaining alternatives look promising for

peak operations unless methanol costs over 3 $/MBTU. This is due to the high capital costs

required for each alternative. Also, the equipment runs at roughly 30% of full capacity on an annual basis (assuming the units operate 8 instead of 24 hours per day) . One alternative

for the electrolytic hydrogen concept would be to run the electrolysis unit and liquefier

at full capacity for 8 hours per day and sell the excess hydrogen. Considering the gas

turbine option, a selling price of roughly 7 $/MBTU (including 1.90 $/MBTU for electricity

at 5 mills/kW-h) would be required to make this option competitive with pumped storage.^"

However, the break-even selling price can be lowered by increasing plant capacity if there

is sufficient off-peak power. Figure 2.4 shows the break-even selling price of gaseous

hydrogen as a function of off-peak power cost and plant capacity factor. The plant capacity

factor is the ratio of actual plant capacity to the base case capacity (2.2 x 10^ lbs/hr

for this case). The liquefier capacity remained constant in these calculations. Figure 2.5

shows break-even prices for producing liquid hydrogen.

The same type of calculations for fuel cells using electrolytic hydrogen shows that

the break-even selling prices are roughly 2 $/MBTU higher than in the gas turbine case. This is caused by the high capital cost of the fuel cells and by the lower amount of excess hydrogen per kW-h output resulting from the fuel cells higher efficiency.

Considering storage techniques for hydrogen and SNG, cryogenic storage appears to be

the most attractive while compressed gas storage in pressure vessels is the least attractive

(at least at pressures less than 2400 psia) . Hydride storage, assuming iron-titanium costs

1 $/lb, is more expensive than liquid storage if many days of fuel must be stored. If the

cost of iron titanium drops to 0.50 $/lb [28], and if we store three days supply of hydrogen,

hydride storage becomes competitive with liquid storage. On the other hand, no allowance

has been made for recovery of the energy used in liquefaction while dehydriding energy was

taken at zero cost. For example, it might be possible to use cold hydrogen gas to reduce

the work required to compress the air fed to the gas turbine. As in the compressed air

concept, this would increase turbine efficiency. However, it still would not make hydrogen

competitive with methanol (at currently estimated costs of producing methanol from coal).

In the above discussions, we assumed plant capacity to be constant. Changing plant

capacity does not alter the results; in using this simple analysis, peak power costs are independent of capacity for the energy storage systems and the methanol systems. Peak

power costs for the other alternatives decrease slightly (< 10%) when plant capacity is

doubled. The major effect of increased off-peak power cost is to make electrolytic hydrogen

and the energy storage techniques look less attractive. To a lesser extent, it would de- crease the attractiveness of liquid storage compared with compressed gas or hydride storage.

This assumes an annual operating factor of 0.9 for the electrolysis and liquefaction

units

2.16
10

c_> >

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X

CDO

Q

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CD

2 -

OFF-PEAK POWER COST,

0 1 2 3 4 5 PLANT CAPACITY FACTOR (See Text)

FIGURE 2.4: Selling Price of Gaseous Hydrogen Required to Make the Electrolytic

Hydrogen Option Competitive With Pumped Hydro Storage.

2.17
PLANT CAPACITY FACTOR (See Text)

FIGURE 2.5: Selling Price of Liquid Hydrogen Required to Make the Electrolytic

Hydrogen Option Competitive With Pumped Hydro Storage.

2.18
2.4.2 Intermediate Units

Table 2.9 gives intermediate power production costs for the various alternatives;

component costs are listed in tables 2.10 through 2.12. For intermediate duty, power production costs must be around 17 to 20 mills/kW-h to compete with pumped storage. Operating

intermediate units at 4000 instead of 1000 hours per year reduces fixed charges 75%. This

is the primary reason for the intermediate power costs being lower than peaking costs.

To make batteries competitive for intermediate duty the capital cost would have to be less than 10 S/kV-h which is probably unrealistic. Because the batteries would have an eight hour charging time and 16 hour discharging time they would be more expensive than

batteries used for peaking duty and would be less efficient [29].

As in the case for peaking, SMES capital cost would have to be less than 20 $/kW-h

before they would become competitive for intermediate loading.

Of the power generating alternatives the methanol fueled combined cycle system is the

most attractive. Compared to the gas turbine, the increased capital cost of the combined

cycle unit is more than offset by the lower fuel and 0 & M costs. The fuel would have to be

an unrealistic 30c/MBTT before gas turbines would be competitive with combined cycle units.

Fuel cells in intermediate duty are less attractive for two reasons : 1) their high

capital cost and 2) their short lifetime (4 years at 4000 hours per year) . Lowering capital

costs to 140 $/kW drops power costs by 13 mills/kW-h. Doubling the operating life lowers

power costs by 9 mills/kW-h.

As in the case of peaking, liquid storage is the most attractive. However, in the

electrolytic hydrogen options only above-ground storage is absolutely out of contention.

Compared to the peaking case, the option of selling excess electrolytic hydrogen is

much less attractive. The small amount of excess hydrogen produced per kW-h is the reason.

Also, from a realistic standpoint there probably will never be enough off-peak power to operate electrolysis units sized at capacity factors much greater than one.

2.5 CONCLUSIONS

2.5.1 Peaking Duty

Although the timing is unknown, at some future period the utilities will have to rely

on fuels from coal to produce peak power. It is impossible to consider even' possible

option but based on this work, the most attractive future means of producing peak power is

to use methanol made from coal and gas turbines or possibly fuel cells.

The next most promising alternative is probably lithium or sodium-sulfur batteries,

providing their capital cost is around 20 $/kW-h. However, conventional lead-acid batteries

are not feasible because of price and lead availability; if all of the lead mined in the

U.S. during 1971 went into batteries, they would replace only 15% of the 1973 peaking

capacity.

It is hard to tell which of the remaining alternatives are the most economically

feasible. Before any of them can produce peaking power for 40 to 50 mills/kW-h, capital

costs will have to be reduced significantly.

2.19
Table 2.9 Base Case Intermediate Power Costs, mills/kW-h

Capacity 400 MW

Operating Time 4000 h/yr

Cost of Off-Peak Power 5 mill/kW-h

Fuel

Hydrogen(el)

Hydrogen

(@ 1.25$/MBTU)

SNG

(@ 1.25$/MBTU)

Methanol

(@ 1.25$/MBTU)

Storage

Liquid

Comp . Gas

A.G.

U.G.

Hydride

Liquid

Comp . Gas

A.G.

U.G.

Hydride

Liquid

Comp . Gas

A.G.

U.G.

Liquid

Gas

Turbines

65.1

8900

64.9

67.2

51.1

29600

111.1

99.7

36.2

8800

55.2

26.1

Fuel

Cells

60.9

4700

61.1

63.6

53.7

15700

88.5

81.8

48.9

6000

60.4

41.3

Combined

cycle

48.6

5400

51.1

51.6

40.0

18000

83.7

73.8

29.7

6200

42.6

21.9

Energy Storage Systems (6400 MW-h Capacity)

Pumped Hydro

Batteries

SMES

17.0

69.6

104.9

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2.24
2.5.2 Intermediate Duty

Of the options considered here for intermediate duty the methanol fueled combined

cycle option is the most attractive. However, these alternatives will have to compete

with coal fired power plants using stack gas clean-up and/or power plants fired by low

BTU gas. The low BID gas concept is attractive because it can use combined cycle systems

whereas coal fired plants cannot.

2.5.3 Base Load Duty

Base load plants were omitted in this study because we were interested in energy

storage concepts. However, at least two studies have considered hydrogen as a fuel for base

load plants. Byron [30] considered hydrogen-air fuel cells as one of the possible advanced

power generation systems. He concludes that this option could be competitive if pipeline

hydrogen from coal costs around 1.25 S/MBTU and if fuel cell efficiency increases to roughly 70%.

Seikel et al. [31] evaluate hydrogen-oxygen combustion powered steam-MHD power plants.

Their source of hydrogen is coal and they use an on-site liquid air plant to obtain oxygen.

3ased on their results, the hydrogen-oxygen MKD cycle is a competitive means of producing

base load power. Also, since the system is essentially pollution free, the plant could be

located close to load centers.

2.6 HYDROGEN IN POWER GENERATION

Based on current and anticipated technology, the near-term use of hydrogen as a utility fuel appears unlikely. High capital cost for hydrogen systems is the major drawback. Even so, it is important to keep an open mind toward all the options; future technological advances and/or governmental regulations could alter the economic assessments and

results presented here. For example, advances in thermochemical decomposition of water

could keep hydrogen prices down compared to fuels from coal. Also advances in liquefaction

technology and schemes to recover liquefaction energy could make it more competitive.

(Chapter 1 discusses these topics) . If antipollution factors become more important then

hydrogen or hydro gen-oxygen systems will be more attractive.

The results that are presented here are based on current and near-term technology. As current technology improves cr advanced technology develops these results will have to be

reevaluated. The format used here allows rapid evaluation of the effect of technological

progress on power production costs.

2 . 7 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author thanks Messrs. R. V. Hugo and W. S. Landers of the Public Service Company

of Colorado for their many helpful suggestions.

2.25
2 . 8 REFERENCES

Federal Power Commission, 1970 National Power Survey , Part IV p IV-4-22.

Lewis, P. A., and Zemboski, J., Energy Storage in Future Electric Power Systems,

paper presented at the 1973 IEEE INTERCON.

Dupree, W. G., and West, J. A., United States Energy Through the Year 2000,

U.S. Department of the Interior (Dec. 1972).

Ashworth, R. A., and Bolez, C. A., A Dollar and Cents Approach to the Clean

Conversion of Coal to Electric Power, Paper No. 7d, AIChE 74th National Meeting,

New Orleans (March 1973).

Kyle, M. L., Cairns, E. J., and Webster, D. S., Lithium/Sulfur Batteries for

Off-Peak Energy Storage: A Preliminary Comparison of Energy Storage and Peak

Power Generation Systems, Argonne National Laboratory Report No. ANL-7958

(March 1973).

Szego, G. C, The U.S. Energy Problem, Vol II. Report No. C645 prepared for

NSF-RANN (Nov. 1971) .

Post, R. F., and Post, S. P., Flywheels, Sci. Amer. 229, (6) 17 (Dec. 1973).

Korsmeyer, R. B., Underground Air Storage and Electrical Energy Production,

Oak Ridge National Laboratory Rept. No. 0RNL-NSF-EP-11 (Feb. 1972).

Hugo, R. V., Public Service Company of Colorado, Denver, Colorado, private

communication (1973).

Balet, W. J., Federal Power Commission, Washington, D.C., private communication

(1973)

Lueckel, W. J., Eklund, L. G. , and Law, S. H. , Fuel Cells for Dispersed Power

Generation, IEEE Trans. PAS-92 (1) 230 (1973).

Federal Power Commission, National Power Survey , Energy Distribution Research,

(to be published)

Boom, R. W., Mcintosh, G. E. , Peterson, H. A., and Young, W. C. , Superconducting

Energy Storage, Book, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering 1£, (Ed.) K. D. Timmerhaus, pp. 117 (Plenum Press, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1974).

Wentorf, R. H., Jr., and Hanneman, R. E., Thermochemical Systems for Hydrogen

Generation, Paper No. 3, Fuel Chemistry Division, 166th ACS Meeting, Chicago

(August 1973)

Marchetti, C, Hydrogen and Energy, Chem. Econ. Eng. Rev. 5, (1) 7 (Jan. 1973).

Katell, S., U.S. Bureau of Mines, Morgantown, West Virginia, private communication (1973).

Kincaide, W. C, and Williams, C. F., Storage of Electrical Energy Through

Electrolysis, paper presented at the 8th IECEC, Philadelphia (August 1973),

Hallett, N. C, Study, Cost, and System Analysis of Liquid Hydrogen Production,

NASA Report No. CR 73, 226 (June 1968).

2.26
[19] Guthrie, K. M. , Data and Techniques for Preliminary Capital Cost Estimating,

Chem. Eng. 114 (March 24, 1969).

[20] Gregory, D. P., A Hydrogen-Energy System, Amer. Gas. Assoc. Catalogue No. L21173 (August 1972).

[21] Isler, R. J., Brookhaven National Laboratory, Long Island, New York, private

communication (1973)

.

[22] Reilly, J. J., and Wiswall, Jr., R. H. , Iron Titanium Hydride: Its Formation,

Properties, and Application, Paper No. 5, Fuel Chemistry Division, 166th ACS

Meeting, Chicago (August 1973)

.

[23] Siegel, H. M. , and Kalina, T., Technology and Cost of Coal Gasification, Mech.

Eng. 95, (5) 23 (May 1973).

[24] Wenzel, L. A., LNG Peakshaving Plants - A Comparison of Cycles, Paper No. C-l,

Cryogenic Engineering Conference, Atlanta (August 1973).

[25] Schmidt, A. F., Cryogenics Division, National Bureau of Standards, Boulder,

Colorado, private communication (1973).

[26] Garrett, D., and Wentworth, T. 0., Methyl-Fuel - A New Clean Source of Energy,

Paper No. 9, Fuel Chemistry Division, 166th ACS Meeting, Chicago (August 1973).

[27] Hassenzahl, W. V., Baker, B. L., and Keller, W. E., The Economics of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Systems for Load Leveling, A Comparison with

Other Systems, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Informal Report No. LA-5377-MS

(August 1973)

.

[28] Rielly, J. J., Brookhaven National Laboratory, Long Island, New York, private

communication (1973).

[29] Kyle, M. L., Argonne Natiotial Laboratory, Argonne, 111. private communication

(1974) .

[30] Baron, S., Cost-Benefit Analyses of Advanced Power Generation Methods, Proc. American Power Conference, j!5_, 451 (1973).

[31] Seikel, G. R., Smith, J. M. , and Nichols, L. D., H

2 ~02 Combustion Powered

Steam-MHD Central Power Systems, paper presented at THEME Conference,

Miami Beach (March, 1974)

.

2.27
2.9 APPENDIX A

Sample Calculation of Power Production Cost

The most difficult part of any economic analysis is obtaining reasonable cost figures;

the calculations from that point on are usually straight forward. That is the' case here;

however, a sample calculation is in order because it clearly shows how we arrived at power

production costs. For this example we choose a fuel cell using electrolytic hydrogen to produce 100 MW of peaking power and then make detailed calculations for the power generator

and electrolysis plant. The peaking unit will operate 1000 h/year and the fuel cell life

is taken as 16000 h, inverter life is 20 years and electrolyzer life is 25 years.

2.9.1 Power Generating Unit

Capital Cost : From Table 2.2 we obtain a capital cost of 290 $/kW for the fuel cell

and 45 $/kW for the DC-AC inverter (no reformer is needed since we are using hydrogen as the

fuel). The total capital cost of the unit is $335 x 10

5

. Fixed Charges : The fixed charge rate must be figured separately for the fuel cell

and inverter because they have different plant lives. For the fuel cell we first need the

capital recovery factor (CRF) which is

CRF = FCR (1 + FCR)n

(A-l)

(1 + FCR) n

- 1

where FCR is the fixed charge rate (15%/yr) and n is the plant life (16 years in this

example). For the fuel cells CRF is 16.8%/yr and for the inverter it is 16.0%/yr. Multiplying the capital cost times CRF gives the size of the annual payment required to regain

the initial capital investment after n years if the interest rate is the fixed charge rate. Fixed charges in terms of power production are

FC(mills/kW-h) = TCC($) x CRF(yr~

1

) tCtmills/KW fi) ( } p(MW) x T(h/yr) k& D

where TCC is the total capital cost, P is the power and T is the annual operating time.

Then for the fuel cell and inverter

vn 2.9 x 10

7 x 0.168 + 4.5 x 1Q

6 x 0.160 _ . _ .„ c/WJ ^ FC = 100 x 1000

55 - 9 NilWkW-h.

Operating and Maintenance Cost : O&M costs for the fuel cell are estimated to be

3.4 mills/kW-h. O&M for the inverter is assumed to be zero in this study.

Fuel and Power Cost : Since we are using electrolytic hydrogen there is no power or fuel charge here; however, we still need to calculate how much hydrogen is required for

the plant. To produce one kW-h

g using a fuel cell with 50% efficiency we need

x

34 " ,BTU

x Arc = 0.132 lb H 0 /kW-h.

51,570 BTU(LHV) kW-h 0.50

- 2'

c 5 The flowrate is 0.132 x 10 lb/hr and the maximum consumption in one day is 1.32 x 10 lbs.

2.28
2.9.2 Electrolysis Unit

Capital Cost : From the above calculation we know the hydrogen consumption per day

(1.32 x 10^ lb). To size the plant we divide this number by eight (we assume an eight

hour operating day) and multiply the result by 0.75 since the plant is sized at 75% of the

maximum daily load. Thus we obtain 12375 lb/hr for plant capacity. From Table 2.3 the

capital cost is S930 x 10

3 (12375/833) °

8 or $8.07 x 10

6

. Fixed Charges : Using 25 years as the plant life for the electrolysis unit we obtain

a capital recovery factor of 15.5%/yr. From Eq (A-2) we obtain fixed charges of 12.5

mills /kW-h.

Operating and Maintenance Cost : In this case O&M costs are taken as 0.01 $/lb of

hydrogen produced. Since the fuel cell requires 0.132 lb H^/kW-h, O&M costs are 1.3

mills/kW-h.

Fuel and Fower Costs : No fuel is needed but a large amount of electrical energy is

needed (19 kW-h/lb) . Assuming power costs 5 mills/kW-h the cost of power per unit of energy

output is 5 mills /kW-h x 19 kW-h/lb H

2 x 0.123 lb H

2 /kW-h = 12.55 mills/kW-h. All of the other

calculations can be made in a manner similar to the ones presented here.

2.10 APPENDIX B: Hydride Storage Cost Data

As mentioned in the text, hydride storage is still in the developmental stage; therefore any cost estimates must be considered preliminary. Complete cost details for hydride

storage were omitted in the text because the cost is a function of the charging and discharging flow rates, and the total amount of hydrogen stored. All numbers are based on

cost estimates by R. J. Isler [21]

,

2.10.1 Cost Components Dependent Upon Amount of H

2 Stored

Hydride (FeTi) : 38.75 ,J*

Tx

J x -^-^— = 38.75 -rr^— j lb H. lb_, „. lb H stored

2 FeTi I

0 8 Hydride Storage Vessel: 154.7 (lb H

2 stored) " = $ (includes filters)

Dissociation Energy: 1960 BTU/lb H

2 (taken at no charge in these

calculations)

.

2.10.2 Cost Components Dependent Upon Discharge Flow Rate

Heat Exchanger: 1892 (lb H

2 /hr) 0,65

= $

0 8 Recirculation Compressor: 993 (lb H

2 /hr) ' = $ 2.10.3 Cost Components Dependent Upon Charging Flow Rate

0 8 Charging Compressor: 2233 (lb H

2 /hr) ' = $

Heat exchanger: 301 (lb H /hr)°'

65 = $.

2.29

CHAPTER 3 H

2 FUELED AUTOMOBILES

R. 0. Voth

3 . 0 SUMMARY

There are no insurmountable technical problems that must be solved before hydrogen

can be adopted as a synthetic fuel for use in transportation. Internal combustion engines,

external combustion engines, and fuel cells either work best with hydrogen or are easily

adapted to hydrogen fuel. The use of hydrogen in conventional or advanced engines tends

to increase their efficiency while reducing polluting emissions. The cost of hydrogen and

the cost of hydrogen storage onboard a vehicle are major economic barriers to the adoption

of hydrogen fuel. Compressed gas storage is bulky and heavy and requires additional energy

to compress the gas. The onboard storage of cryogenic liquid involves an expensive storage

dewar, additional expense to liquefy gaseous hydrogen, and the venting of boiloff gases

which, besides being a safety problem, adds to the operating cost of the vehicle. The

onboard storage of hydrogen in a metal hydride is an economic unknown. The heavy weight of

the hydride increases the energy consumed by a vehicle, thereby increasing the cost of

operation, and the hydride requires a heat of dissociation which may or may not be available

as reject heat from the onboard engine or fuel cell.

The following is a review of work being conducted on transportation power sources using

hydrogen fuel and on methods of storing hydrogen on a vehicle. An economic comparison of

the cost of operating a small intensively driven car for intercity use with various fuels,

engines, and fuel storage methods is also presented.

3 . 1 INTRODUCTION

Currently, transportation consumes approximately 25 percent of the energy consumed

in the U.S. Projections [1] indicate that transportation will continue to consume this

portion although the portion used by the automobiles will decrease from the current 85

percent of the transportation total to 65 percent by the year 1990. The transportation

industry is a major user of petroleum. It is now consuming approximately 55 percent of

the oil used in the United States, and projections indicate this fraction will increase to

60 percent by the mid-eighties. The need to import petroleum products to meet this demand

has caused many authorities to suggest the adoption of a synthetic fuel to be used for

transportation. With a suitable primary energy source, hydrogen could serve this purpose.

The choice of synthetic fuel to be used by transportation is determined not only by

economics but also by social and therefore political pressures to reduce polluting emissions.

Because of the emission problem a purely objective decision on the type of synthetic fuel

to be adopted by transportation is not possible.

The choice of hydrogen as a synthetic fuel is based on reduced emissions, adaptability

of hydrogen fuel to current transportation power sources, and the ease of storing and distributing energy in the form of hydrogen; also, hydrogen offers a short-cycle ecological fuel,

i.e., water-to-hydrogen-to-water. This chapter is primarily concerned with the adaptability

of hydrogen as an energy source for transportation.

3.1
The following sections review the research work currently being conducted on heat

engines and fuel cells. Also, a simplified analysis of the economics involved in the use

of hydrogen fuel in an intercity automobile is presented.

3.2 SAFETY OF HYDROGEN FUEL

Before hydrogen can be adopted as a synthetic fuel for general use in vehicles, its

ignition and flammability characteristics should be considered. These properties are used

to design a hydrogen engine and to determine safety precautions involved in handling the

fuel. Although liquid hydrogen involves cold temperatures (20.27 K) resulting in the

freezing of human tissue exposed to the liquid, the properties of hydrogen of most concern

are the gaseous ignition temperature and ignition energy, detonability limits, and flammability limits. Table 3.1 gives a comparison of the ignition and flammability characteris

tics of hydrogen with other fuels in air. Hydrogen in air displays a relatively high ignition temperature and a wide flammability range.

Table 3.1 Ignition and Flammability Properties

Hydrogen

Gasoline

Diesel fuel

Methane

Methanol

Auto Ignition

Temperature

[2]

°C 585[4]

440

225

540

385

Limits of

Flammability [2]

Volume Percent

of fuel in air

Lower

4.0

1.3

5.0

6.7

Upper

757.1

15.0

36

Stoichiometric

Mixture [3]

Volume Percent

of fuel in air

29.6

~1.3

~1.2

9.5

12.3

Table 3.1 indicates that the flammability range for hydrogen is much wider than for

gasoline but gasoline has a lower flammable limit. Thus, gasoline will burn at lower

fuel-in-air concentrations but as the concentration increases hydrogen remains an explosive

threat and gasoline becomes non-flammable. Based on the lower flammable limit hydrogen

appears safer than gasoline. Based on the flammable range hydrogen appears more hazardous

than gasoline. The time required to reach the lower flammable limit favors gasoline be- cause hydrogen is much more volatile and/or stored at higher pressure; however, flammable

hydrogen concentrations will also dissipate much more rapidly than gasoline-in-air as a result of buoyant forces. The wide flammability range makes even small leaks from a hydrogen fuel system into an enclosed area a safety problem. Assuming a 6.1 m (20 ft) x

3 3 6.1 m x 2.4 m (8 ft) garage enclosure, a leakage rate of .15 m /h or .00251 m /min would

provide sufficient hydrogen in 24 hours to yield a flammable mixture in the garage. The

garage would need to be free of leaks itself in order to contain the hydrogen for this

period of time because of the rapid dispersion characteristics of hydrogen (high diffusion

and buoyant leakage flows). Nonetheless, a hydrogen fuel system free of leaks is mandatory.

3 . 2
A more serious circumstance for a contained leak exists if the leak is of sufficient

size to provide a detonable mixture within the enclosure. The detonability limits for

hydrogen are 18-59 percent hydrogen by volume in air [5], In the above enclosure a con3 3 tained leakage rate of 0.67 9 m /h or 0.011 m /min would provide sufficient hydrogen to reach the lower detonability limit in 24 hours. Experiments with gaseous hydrogen-air

mixtures have shown that a detonable mixture ignited by a strong detonation source or ignited while it is enclosed on three sides, may detonate resulting in severe explosive

damage. Again, the high dispersion rate of hydrogen would tend to reduce the possibility

of reaching a mixture of these proportions in the 24-hour period.

The high auto-ignition temperature of hydrogen-air mixtures would indicate that the

mixture is difficult to ignite; however, the energy required to ignite hydrogen-air mixtures is an order of magnitude lower than that required by gasoline-air mixtures. A

hydrogen fire can be initiated by an electrostatic discharge from a person even though

the discharge is of such low intensity that the person would not feel the discharge.

The radiation from a hydrogen-air fire is 1 to 10 percent of that from a comparable

hydrocarbon fire because of the low emissivity of the hydrogen flame. Besides the low

emissivity , the radiation from a hydrogen fire is at a wavelength that is readily absorbed

by the atmosphere; the radiation intensity therefore decreases rapidly with distance from

a hydrogen fire. Also, smoke inhalation is a serious health hazard in hydrocarbon fires

and non-existent in hydrogen fires.

Based on the f lammability and explosive characteristics of hydrogen, any hydrogen

system must be designed with great care if it is to be placed into the hands of the general

public. Leakages of hydrogen must be virtually eliminated, and uncontrolled venting cannot

be tolerated.

3.3 POWER GENERATING DEVICES FOR USE WITH HYDROGEN

In order to use hydrogen as a fuel for transportation, heat engines must be adapted

to the fuel characteristics. The wide f lammability limit, which was a detriment to safe

handling, helps when hydrogen fuel is used in an internal (I.C.) or external combustion

engine. Because of the wide flammability range of hydrogen, it is possible to run the

hydrogen fueled I.C. engines fuel lean. Running the engine with excess air lowers the

combustion temperature which in turn reduces the N0x emission from the engine. Although

the high auto ignition temperature of hydrogen-air mixtures would again indicate the

mixture would be hard to ignite, the opposite is true. Fluffy deposits of carbon or other

particles in the combustion chamber causes I.C. engines to backfire under certain conditions, probably because the hot deposits ignite the fuel mixture before the intake valve

closes. The low energy required to ignite the hydrogen air mixture is the cause of the

backfiring phenomenon. The tendency to backfire can be reduced by cleaning the combustion chamber, by using special cool-running exhaust valves and spark plugs, by running

with fuel-lean mixtures, and carefully routing ignition wiring [32] or using a special

distributor cap to ground spark plugs except when they are fired.

Since hydrogen fuel burns thoroughly, and since no hydrocarbons are involved in

the combustion process, the exhaust constituents are water from the combustion process,

oxides of nitrogen, and other atmospheric components. Griffith [36] has pointed out that

3.3
exhaust emissions from hydrogen-fueled engines may contain low concentrations of hydrogen

peroxide. Also, low concentrations of ammonia and hydrazine may possibly be produced in

such engines. Although hydrogen-fueled engine exhausts have not been carefully analyzed

for these contaminants, they are not considered T34] a significant threat to the use of

hydrogen fuel.

3.3.1 The Internal Combustion Engine Using Hydrogen Fuel

A comprehensive history of the use of hydrogen to fuel internal combustion engines

is presented by Billings and Lynch [6] and Weil [7]. Hydrogen, mainly from town gas

rich in hydrogen, was used with I.C. engines as early as the 19th century. Even as early

as 1923, the ability of hydrogen to run in an I.C. engine with a fuel lean mixture was

recognized. High indicated thermal efficiencies were achieved with the fuel-lean mixtures.

The engines used with the Zeppelin airships were converted to run on a partial charge of

hydrogen in order to conserve the primary hydrocarbon fuel carried on board. Both spark

ignition and compression ignition engines were partially fueled with hydrogen. The Great

Britain Royal Airship Works also experimented with hydrogen fuel in their airships with

equal success. Because hydrogen is such an ideal fuel, two engines [8] are currently being developed

that use a reaction chamber to convert a hydrocarbon fuel, water, and air to a mixture of

hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. In one of the engines this gaseous mixture

is inducted into the normal air and hydrocarbon mixture to improve combustion. The other

engine runs on the mixture of reformed gases and air only. Both systems require water that

is used in the reforming process, but the engines have demonstrated reduced emissions and

slightly increased thermal efficiencies. The water can be obtained from onboard storage

or condensed from the engine exhaust.

Different investigators have taken different approaches to the pure hydrogen-fueled

internal combustion engine. The simplest conversion is to induct hydrogen into the intake

air. By maintaining a fuel-lean mixture and varying the charge with an intake throttle

valve, the thermal efficiency of the engine can be maintained at a high value while maintaining low NO^ emissions and a low probability of backfiring. The major problem with

this approach is that the engine power per unit of displacement is reduced nearly 50 percent

compared with a similar engine using gasoline. The compression ratio of the engine can be

increased somewhat while maintaining the fuel-lean mixture to recover some of the power

capability of the engine and to further increase its efficiency.

Another approach to the hydrogen I.C. engine is to inject water with the hydrogen to lower the combustion temperatures. With this approach the NO^ emissions can be maintained

at a low value at richer fuel-air mixtures. With water injection, the output of the

engine approaches 75 percent of a similar displacement gasoline engine without significant

NO^ emissions or backfiring [9] . Exhaust recirculation is another approach to allow a richer fuel-air mixture without backfiring while maintaining low NO emissions. Again, the

power per unit displacement is reduced below that of a gasoline engine by approximately

40 percent.

3.4
A combination of these methods would use lean fuel mixtures at part load on the engine

to increase the efficiency of the engine and reduce the N0

x emission, while at peak loads

the fuel-to-air mixture could be made richer with the addition of water or the use of

exhaust gas recirculation in order to maximize output with low NO emissions.

x

Two other noteworthy experimental engines used a more direct method of injecting the

hydrogen into the engine. The first used a modified single cylinder, small gasoline engine

with the hydrogen injected directly into the combustion chamber [10] . The modifications of

the engine included a mechanism to control a fuel injector valve and a boiling water

cooling system to replace the normal air cooling. The fuel injection start time, the spark

time, and the injection stop time could be adjusted in the experimental engine. Fuel flow

to the engine could also be adjusted by varying the fuel supply pressure. Fael supply

pressure was as high as 66 atmospheres in some high-power output tests. Although fuel

consumption of the engine was slightly higher than expected because of the additional

valve-activating mechanism for the fuel injector and an incorrectly shaped combustion

chamber, the NO emissions were a small fraction of the emissions obtained from gasoline x

tests.Another engine tested with hydrogen fuel [11, 12] used a specially designed intake

valve. When the intake valve opened, unthrottled air was inducted along with hydrogen

from a special port installed in the intake valve seat. The engine power was changed

by changing the amount of fuel inducted by varying the fuel supply pressure. At low power

output, the combustible mixture was very fuel lean, and as power increased, the fuel mixture approached more nearly the stoichiometric mixture. Since the intake air is not

throttled, the pumping losses are decreased and the part load efficiency of the hydrogen

fueled I.C. engine behaves more like the higher part load efficiency of a Diesel cycle

engine. The NO^ emissions from this engine were low at part loads, but at full load,

exhaust gas recirculation or water injection would be necessary to reduce the NO^ emissions

to an acceptable level.

A Diesel cycle engine to use hydrogen fuel has been proposed [13]. The Diesel cycle

is distinguished by a constant pressure combustion process because the fuel is injected

and burned during part of the power stroke of the piston. Ignition in a Diesel cycle is

usually obtained by having high temperature air, obtained by compression, in the combustion

chamber. Because of the high ignition temperature of hydrogen, a compression ratio of at least 55:1 is required for an ideal specific heat ratio for air of 1.4 to obtain the hydrogen

auto ignition temperature. Since heat is transferred to the cylinder walls during compression,

a more realistic compression ratio of 83:1 (n = 1.35) is required in order to obtain the desired compression ignition. Since these high compression ratios are not possible, the hydrogen

Diesel cycle engine would require an auxiliary ignition source. An electric glow plug or other

hot spot in the cylinder could provide the required ignition source. However, unless this

ignition source were located to ignite the very first portion of the fuel injected, the cycle

on a pressure-volume diagram would probably more closely resemble an Otto-cycle than a Diesel

cycle.

ft 3.5

i
3.3.2 External Combustion Engines

For external combustion engines such as the Stirling cycle engine, Rankine cycle

engine, or gas turbine engine the only design problem different for hydrogen (from other

fuels) is the design of the combustor. Because hydrogen is easy to burn, the burner

design is relatively simple. Designing for minimum NO^, a more difficult design, requires

a uniform flame temperature without local hot spots [14]. Because hydrogen will burn readily

with an excess of air, the NO^ emissions from a combustor using hydrogen should be less

than can be obtained from a fossil fueled combustor. Since the combustion process is more

readily controlled in a combustor than in an I.C. engine, considerable development of

efficient burners is currently proceeding for the hydrocarbon fuels. Using hydrocarbon

fuels, the NO^ emissions can be reduced to an equivalent of 0.18 g/mile with a Stirling

cycle engine compared with the 1975/1976 requirements of 0.4 g/mile [15]. Using a hydrogen

fuel combustor, the NO emissions will be at least as low as can be obtained with fossil

x fuels.

Gas turbines have been converted to hydrogen fuel. The first gas turbine to use hydrogen gas was a fossil fueled engine converted to hydrogen in 1956 [16]. The only major

change required on the existing engine was an external heat exchanger to convert liquid

hydrogen (the fuel used) to a gas before it was injected into the burners. Because of the

excellent mixing and combustion properties of hydrogen, acceptable combustion efficiencies

could be obtained with hydrogen in about one-quarter the combustor length required for

hydrocarbon fuels. The turbine could operate with a combustion chamber temperature of

less than 200°F, and under this condition the turbine turned so slowly that the first stage

compressor blades could be counted. After the successful conversion, a gas turbine designed

specifically for hydrogen was also built and tested. No problems with this turbine are reported although actual data are scarce because the original work was classified. Three

successful flights of a twin-engine light bomber with one engine converted to hydrogen

above 50,000 feet were accomplished by the NACA in 1957 [17]. No problems were encountered

in the test flights.

The experimental results from both internal combustion and external combustion engines

indicate that no significant technological breakthroughs are required. Although unburned

hydrocarbons and carbon monoxides are not a problem with hydrogen fuel, NO^ is still a partial problem in air-breathing engines, but can be minimized by design modification.

Combustion of hydrogen with oxygen eliminates the NO^ problem.

3.3.3 Fuel Cells

Fuel cells were conceived by Sir William Grove in 1839, but because the dynamo was coming into being around 1890, no serious battery development was accomplished until

about 1944. At that time fuel cells came under active development because of the emerging

space program and because fuel cells could theoretically yield a high conversion efficiency.

Current development involves fuel cells for the power utilities, fuel cells for long life

remote applications, fuel cell electrode development using less expensive materials, and fuel

cells for space applications. Although significant amounts of development money have been

spent on fuel cells, fuel cells are not generally available except as custom designs, and

they are not generally used except in systems where the use of any other power source is

impossible.
The basic fuel required for current fuel cells is hydrogen. In some of the applications being considered for fuel cells, hydrogen is provided by reforming heavier hydrocarbons. A specific example of this type of application is the current development of a fuel cell to be used as a peak power source for the electrical utilities f 18 ]

.

The conversion efficiency of the fuel cell is one of its major advantages. At full

capacity the conversion efficiency of a hydrogen-air fuel cell is slightly higher than that

of a fully loaded heat engine. As the load decreases, the efficiency of the fuel cell in- creases while the efficiency of heat engines decreases. As a result the fuel cell will

display significantly better efficiencies than heat engines in applications where the mean

load is less than the full capacity of the power source. An economic analysis [19] of the

fuel cell versus other heat engines is available with a definition of the economic size of

the fuel cell versus capital costs and fuel costs to achieve the lowest overall operating

cost. Data concerning emissions from a fuel cell using a reformed hydrocarbon fuel are presented by Lueckel [18]. Table 3.2 is a sample of these data converted to g/mile

assuming an average power consumption for a vehicle of 1 kV-h/mile [20] . Many of the

emissions result from the dirty gas that was used as the fuel. If pure hydrogen were

used as the fuel, the only emission would probably be the low NO^ pollutant.

The major disadvantages of the fuel cell are its high cost, heavy weight, and large

volume. The high costs are a result of the one-of-a-kind production method of custom

designs. Also current hydrogen-air fuel cells employ a platinum catalyst costing approximately $50/kW [21].

iable 3 . 2 Probable emission characteristics of a fuel cell

powered vehicle using a reformed hydrocarbon fuel

1976 Clean Air Act Vehicle emissions

Requirements

Unburned Hydrocarbons 0.41 g/mile 0.104 g/mile

Carbon Monoxide 3.4 g/mile not given

Nitrogen Oxides 0.4 g/mile 0.109 g/mile

Current costs of fuel cells vary from a high of $40,000/kW for the high reliability fuel

cells for space use [22] to a low projected cost for the electric utilities fuel cell of

S130/kW [18]. Cost projections based on the elimination of the platinum catalyst and the use of mass production techniques are as low as $18 - S30/kW [19] . All the above costs are for the full capacity output of the units and do not reflect the purchase of a higher

capacity fuel cell for increased efficiency in a particular application.

Table 3.3 shows the weights and volumes of fuel cells compared with other more

comer. rcver scurces. Z'r.e lead-acid barcary da- a high energy density; r.owever, it lacks

sufficient power density to be considered in most vehicle applications. The fuel cell

has a relatively low energy density; however, it will supply power for as long as it receives fuel. The projected data for the dissolved methanol fuel cell indicates that it

will have limited application in the transportation industry because of its large size

3.7
and weight. Methanol or other petroleum fuel can be reformed to supply a hydrogen rich

fuel for a hydrogen-air fuel cell; however, when the weight of the reformer is added to the weight of the fuel cell, the total weight approaches 25 - 40 kg/kW [19]. This high

weight eliminates the use of a fuel cell with fuels other than hydrogen for small cars. Although fuel cells are not fully developed, the high thermal efficiencies possible

from fuel cells makes their use in transportation more desirable as fuel costs rise. Since

hydrogen is a natural fuel for the fuel cell, the general availability of hydrogen would

also increase the desirability of using the fuel cell in transportation.

Table 3.3 Range of fuel cell weights and volumes

compared to other power sources

Wt/Max. Power Vol. /Max. Power

kg/kW m

3 /kW

Low temperature hydrogen-air

fuel cell with liquid electrolyte

from [21] 27.2 0.02 - 0.03

Projections from [19] 15 - 20

electrovan Oxygen-hydrogen

from [23] 9.6

Low temperature hydrogen-air

fuel cell with solid electrolyte

from [19] 10 - 15 0.005 - 0.015

Low temperature dissolved

methanol fuel cell from [19] 30-45 .06 - .09

I.C. Engine from [3] 3-4.3 0.003

Lead-Acid Battery from [24] 10 - 100 0.3

3.4 FUEL STORAGE ABOARD A VEHICLE

Although considerable research is being conducted on power sources for use in a vehicle, the major work being done on hydrogen fuel storage systems applicable to a vehicle

is in the area of metallic hydride storage. Compressed gas storage and cryogenic liquid

hydrogen storage are in widespread use and little research work is necessary in these areas except to match the storage container to the chosen power source; to perfect filling procedures, and in the case of liquid storage, to develop a safe system to vent boil-off gases.

A prototype liquid hydrogen dewar for use onboard a car has been manufactured [35] and a liquef ied-natural-gas dewar can easily be converted [26] to liquid hydrogen use. Compressed

gas storage for vehicle use is too bulky and heavy to furnish the desired range from a vehicle. Several experimental vehicles are currently being fueled with liquid hydrogen

[25,33,34] and a previous experimental car used liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen to provide

fuel and oxidant for a fuel cell T23] . No particular problem was encountered with the liquid

storage except for some pulsating pressure from the vaporizer on the fuel cell vehicle. In general new designs using existing technology must be developed to handle the safe venting am

filling procedures for the liquid containers; however, no technological breakthroughs are necessary to store liquid hydrogen aboard a vehicle.

3.8
Costs related to liquid storage involve the cost of the onboard container or dewar,

the added costs of hydrogen due to the liquefaction process, and any additional costs involving venting of hydrogen overboard. A car-sized dewar for liquid hydrogen currently

costs about $900.00 [26], and projections of $250 [27] to $500 [25] have been made for mass produced dewars of similar size. Unless the cost of liquefying hydrogen is written

off to reduce transmission or storage costs, the selling price of liquid hydrogen will be

$0.17/kg higher than the basic gaseous hydrogen costs. This added cost of the liquid fuel

may be reduced slightly by recovering a portion of the liquefaction energy onboard the vehicle.

The boiloff rate for the onboard dewar is determined partially by the cost of the dewar;

however, with current technology a 1% boiloff per day should be achievable. Assuming an average range of 400 km for a vehicle, the 1% boiloff requires the vehicle to be driven an average of 4 km per day to use the boiloff gases. However, the average car is driven 42 km

per day [1] and boiloff rate should not be a problem.

Hydrogen storage in a metal hydride does not have the extended history of compressed

gas or liquid storage, but some general characteristics of metal hydrides have been measured. These characteristics are shown in table 3.4. Because of the heavy weights or high dissociation temperatures of most of the hydrides, the MgH or MgNiH are considered

the most probable for use with a vehicle. Although the theoretical properties of the

metallic hydrides are known, the performance degradation of the material with repeated usage

has not been determined and even in carefully controlled experiments MgH could be loaded

to only 80 percent of its theoretical capacity. Dissociation heat at the 1 atm equilibrium temperature may or may not be available from the heat rejected by the vehicle power

source. Two investigators, [28 and 30], have theoretically determined the balance between

the heat rejected by an I.C. engine and the heat required by MgH and they found the balance

sufficient. Others [37] are more skeptical of the ability to use waste engine heat to dissociate the hydrides. The theoretical results [28,30] considered the possibility of

increasing the available heat from the engine exhaust by decreasing the heat rejected to the engine cooling water. Also, to return a partially depleted and cooled MgH bed to operating temperature some hydrogen must be burned. Indications are that MgH requires a significant overpressure during loading to reduce the loading time to acceptable limits.

The addition of the nickel catalyst reduces the required overpressure and the degradation

of the material with time but also decreases the amount of hydrogen stored [29].

Another problem with hydride storage aboard a vehicle is the safety aspects of the

storage medium. As magnesium is cycled to the hydride form and back to the pure form many

times the material tends to form fine grains. The granular hydride becomes highly pyrophoric.

Besides the hazards associated with handling large quantities of this material, the hazards

of a magnesium fire following a vehicle accident with a partially depleted bed is severe.

The adoption of any hydride, but especially of a hydride involving magnesium, for fuel

storage aboard a vehicle may depend more on the hazards involved with the hydride than for

other technical or economic reasons.

3.9
Cost factors are difficult to determine for the metallic hydride storage system be- cause a working system has not been designed. In order to effectively use the reject heat

from the vehicle power source, a highly efficient heat exchanger must be included in the

hydride bed. Besides the expense of the heat exchanger, it may add significant volume and

weight to the hydride bed.

Table 3.5 shows a comparison of the various methods of hydrogen storage with the

storage of an equivalent amount of energy in gasoline and methanol. The unacceptability

of compressed gas storage is apparent because of its large volume, heavy weight, and high

capital costs. The volume required by the liquid hydrogen and the MgH storage is nearly

the same although the weight of the hydride storage is considerably higher. MgNiH storage

is significantly larger and heavier than that of liquid hydrogen or MgH. Gasoline storage

is the best, followed by methanol and liquid hydrogen.

3.5 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF HYDROGEN FUEL FOR A SMALL AUTOMOBILE

In order to compare the possible power sources, fuels, and methods of storing the

fuel, calculations were performed to determine the cost of operating a specific auto over

a defined driving cycle. The type of auto selected was an intensively driven intercity

vehicle because in this type of vehicle the high capital expense of a higher efficiency

power plant can be amortized over a larger number of miles. Since projected fuel costs

are high, a higher efficiency power plant should be best suited to an intensively driven

vehicle.

The performance characteristics of this auto were chosen to be near that of a small,

low powered car similar to the American sub-compact or small import car. Acceleration to 64.4 km/h (40 miles/h) was specified to be 12 seconds. The power calculated as necessary

to achieve the required acceleration was sufficient for all other operating modes of the

vehicle including a continuous cruising speed of 64.4 km/h. The basic car body and frame were assumed to weigh 680 kg with an additional load of 363 kg for passengers and baggage.

The total weight of the car was varied in the calculations due to the varying storage

weights of the fuel and corresponding engine weights. The total weight of the car ranged

from 1160 to 2960 kg, depending upon the engine-fuel option selected.

Weights and costing factors for the defined car are shown in table 3.6. Most con- ventional materials were assumed to cost $3.3/kg, as fabricated, while increased costs were

used for non-conventional materials. The capital costs were amortized over their life

(given in table 3.6) assuming 15 percent interest on the capital investment.

The driving cycle used to determine the required stored energy aboard the car was calculated using a time cycle of 8 hours. The car cruised at 64.4 km/h on level roadway

for 60 percent of the 8 hours, accelerated to 64.4 km/h for 26.7 percent of the 8 hours,

and decelerated to 0 km/h for 13.3 percent of the time. A total distance of 435 km was traveled during the driving cycle. For this driving cycle an average energy consumption

of .23 kW-h/km was calculated for a vehicle weighing 1600 kg. This average energy con- sumption compares favorably with that calculated by Salihi [20] for the same weight vehicle

performing according to the Federal driving cycle. No energy recovery was included during

the deceleration periods.

3 . 10
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Table 3.6 Cost, weight, and life factors used to calculate

operating costs for a specified auto. Weight Cost Life

1. Frame and Body 680. 4 kg $2250 1 yr

2. Passenger and Baggage 362 kg None

3, Inte rnal Comhn on Engine and Drive Train 4 kg/kW $3. 31 /kg 1 yr

4. Fuel Cell 18 kg/kW $20-$160/kW 1 -5 y

5. Electric Motor and

Controller 4. 23 kg/kW $7. 34/kW 2 yr

6. Fuel Storage

Hydrogen

(kg)

Liquid (Container) 41. 3 + 3. 2VWt of H

2 $15/k g

2 yr

MgNi Hydride (Wt of H )/0. 035 $2. 2/kg 2 yr

Mg Hydride (Wt of H )/0. 077 $0. 84/kg 2 yr

Hydride Container 0. 136 x hydride wt. $3. 3/kg 2 yr

Methanol 0. 136 x Fuel Wt $3. 3/kg 1 yr

Gasoline 0. 18 x Fuel Wt $3. 3/kg 1 yr

3.13
The equation used to calculate the energy requirements was taken from Austin [30] and

modified to account for changing frontal area with car weight according to Ambs [31]. In- cluding an acceleration term the final equation used was:

dV c

ip dt (Wt)V C

2

where

V is Velocity, km/h,

P is Power at the wheels, kW, Wt is weight of Vehicle, kg,

C

1 = 11,820.55,

C

2 = 32.24025,

C

3 = 0.02,

C. = 3.0906 x 10~ 3

, 4

-fi and C

5 = 1.3627 x 10 .

The power required during a constant velocity cruise was determined by solving the

equation while setting dV/dt = 0. The power consumed during acceleration was determined

by maintaining a constant P sufficient to accelerate a vehicle of selected weight to 64.4 km/h in 12 seconds. No power was consumed or recovered during the deceleration phase

and only the distance traveled during this phase was of interest. The power required to accelerate a car of specified weight to 64.4 km/h in 12 seconds is shown on figure 3.1. Figure 3.2 shows the total energy required for the complete driving cycle of 8 hours versus

the weight of the vehicle. In order to determine the size and thus the cost of the vehicle,

a weight was assumed, and the motor sizes determined from the acceleration power requirement divided by a drive train efficiency. Then the fuel storage capacity was determined

by dividing the total energy requirements over the 8-hour period by the overall efficiency

of the power unit. If the final calculated weight did not agree with the initial assumed

weight, a new weight was assumed and the calculation repeated. In the case of the I.C. engine, the drive train efficiency used was 80 percent. With the fuel cell the electric

drive train efficiency together with the control unit was taken at 85 percent. Overall

efficiency of the fuel cell and electric drive unit was taken as 50% [21]. The overall

efficiency of the I.C. engine and drive train was varied in the calculations.

The fuel cell and electric drive unit weight was calculated by sizing the fuel cell to supply the total energy requirement of the 8-hour driving cycle, while the drive motor and

control unit was sized to supply the required acceleration power. Lead-acid batteries were included to supply peak power requirements during the periods of acceleration.

Figures 3.3, 3.4, and 3.5 show the results of the cost analysis for three different

fuel costs. The calculated costs on these figures are only fuel and capital costs and do not include maintenance or insurance costs. The total cost of car operation was reduced to

a cost per kilometer of operation by dividing the annual costs by the assumed 161,000

kilometers driven per year. The cost of producing liquid hydrogen was taken at 0.205 $/kg.

This cost was chosen as a lower-intermediate value from table 1.3 (Chapter 1) to account

for some boil-off losses (10 to 20 percent of liquefaction costs) and an intermediate

liquefaction efficiency.

3. 14
TOTAL CAR WEIGHT, lbs

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

TOTAL CAR WEIGHT, kg

FIGURE 3.1 - Power Required at the Wheels to achieve

64. 4 km/h i n 12 seconds

.

3.15
TOTAL CAR WEIGHT, lbs

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

500 1000 1500 2000 2500

TOTAL CAR WEIGHT, kg

FIGURE 3.2 - Energy Required by Car for the Driving Cyc

3.16
OVERALL I.C. ENGINE & DRIVE TRAIN E FF I C I ENC Y , per cen

t

10 20 30 40 50 60

FUEL COST BASED ON LHV

Gasol ine '- $.005/kW-h ( $ 1 . 5/ 10

6

Btu

)

Methanol - $ . 005/ kW-h ( $ 1 . 5/ 10 6

B tu

)

H

2 Gas

H

2 L i qui d

NOTE:

$.005/kW-h ($1.5/10 6 Btu)

$ . 01 1/kW-h ($3.3/10 6 Btu)

Hydride Costs Assume Dissociation

Heats are Obtained from Waste

Engine Heats.

Fuel Cell Life

(Liquid Hydrogen Fuel)

40 80 120 160

COST OF FUEL CELL, $/kW

. 16

200

FIGURE 3.3 - Cost of Car Operation; Low Cost Fuel.

3.17
OVERALL I.C. ENGINE & DRIVE TRAIN EFFICIENCY, percent

10 20 30 40 50

10 I

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T~ 1 . 16

FUEL COSTS

Gasoline - $ . 01/ kW-h ( $3 . 00/ lO^Btu

)

Methanol - $ . 01/ kW-h ( $3 . 00/ lO^B tu

)

H 2 Gas - $.01/kW-h ( $3 . 00/ lO^Btu ) —

H 2 Liquid -$.016/kW-h ( $4 . 80/ 10

b

Btu

)

NOTE:

Hydride Costs Assume Dissociation

Heats are Obtained from Waste

Engine Heats.

Fuel Cell Life

(Liquid Hydrogen Fuel)

Methanol

Gasol i ne

J L 40 80 120

COST OF FUEL CELL, $/kW

160

FIGURE 3.4 - Cost of Car Operation, Medium Cost Fuel

3.18
OVERALL I.C. ENGINE & DRIVE TRAIN EFFICIENCY, percent

10 20 30 40 50 60

10

FUEL COSTS

Gasoline - $ . 034/ kW-h ( $ 10/ 10 6 Btu

)

Methanol - $ . 034/ kW-h ( $ 10/ 10 6

B t u

)

H 2 Gas - $.034/kW-h ($10/10 6 Btu)

H 2 Liquid - $ . 040/ kW-h($11.8/106 Btu)

Hydride Costs Assume Dissociation

Heats are Obtained from Waste

Engine Heats.

LH 2

MgNi Hydride

Fuel Cell Life

(Liquid Hydrogen Fuel)

1 Yr.

Methanol

Gasol i ne

2 Yr

Mg Hydride

2 —

0 40 80 120 160

COST OF FUEL CELL, $/kW

FIGURE 3.5 - Cost of Car Operation; High Cost Fuel

200

3.19
The efficiency of the I.C. engine operating with gasoline or methanol fuel may approach

27 percent for a subcompact vehicle [19]. At least in the short term, the pollution controls

on these engines may reduce their efficiency by 20 to 25 percent [1] resulting in an overall

efficiency of 20 to 21 percent. Using hydrogen as a fuel for the I.C. engine should increase

the efficiency of the engine to at least 27 percent. Although higher efficiencies [11,12,33,38]

than those obtained using gasoline as a fuel have been observed for hydrogen fueled I.C. engines,

most of the higher efficiency is due to a higher part-load efficiency, and at least for the

car used in this calculation, the engine is of minimal size reducing the majority of the

part-load advantage.

Gasoline costs are currently nearly $.60/gallon (0.16 $/£), especially for the

no-lead gasoline scheduled for use with a majority of the 1975 automobiles. Using

12.92 kW-h/kg as the lower heating value of gasoline and a density of 0.72 kg/fi , the

current cost of energy is $0.017/kW-h or one-half the cost of fuel used on figure 3.5.

Using a fuel cost of $.034/kW-h (figure 3.5) the most economical car using an I.C. engine

would be the hydrogen fueled car (efficiency of the engine is 27 percent versus 21 percent

for methanol or gasoline fuel) with the fuel stored in magnesium hydride. The only

difficulty with this conclusion is that the theoretical performance of the magnesium

hydride was used in the calculations, and indications are that it may be necessary to either burn hydrogen to supply a portion of the dissociation heat or that the hydride

may poison or cake reducing its capacity [30]. Either one of the nonideal reactions of

the magnesium hydride would increase the cost of operation of the car. Fuel cell powered

cars with liquid hydrogen fuel would become competitive if fuel cells would cost less than

$60/kW and have a life of 1 year or have a cost of less than $200/kW with a life of 5 years.

Table 3.7 presents a breakdown of the operating costs obtained for an I.C. engine

driven car and for a car powered by a fuel cell costing 160 $/kW. The gasoline and methanol

fueled engines are assumed to be 20 percent efficient, the hydrogen I.C. engines are taken

at a modest 25 percent efficiency and the fuel cell power plant is assumed to be 50 percent

efficient. The effects of the heavy weights and high capital costs are reflected in the

cost of operation for the fuel cell system. High fuel costs increase the cost of operating

the liquid hydrogen fueled I.C. engine driven car while the heavy weight of the MgNi in- creases the cost of operating the car using the MgNi hydrogen storage system. In the

breakdown, the costs of fuel were taken from figure 3.5 (high cost fuel).

No specific conclusion can be drawn from the economic study except that for low fuel

costs the methanol and gasoline cars are the least expensive to operate. As the fuel

costs increase, hydrogen fuel becomes more competitive. At high fuel prices, liquid hydrogen

fuel with a fuel cell becomes more competitive if fuel cell costs can be reduced or if the

life of a fuel cell can be extended. If cost of operation becomes competitive, the choice

of fuel must be hydrogen because of the reduction in pollution from hydrogen-powered

vehicles. As new engine designs evolve and cost factors are defined the approach outlined

herein can be used to compare alternate synthetic fuels. Hydrogen must be considered a strong contender at this writing due to the inflationary trend of automotive fuel costs.

3. 20
as

<D XI > tH

•H 3 — "HJ

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00

a oj •H 00 3 O

ta -a

EC

00

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XI 3 5 c u

cu CU 4-1 4-1 co o 4J c o

•H - u 4-1 cu cu 3 CD c cu CO c_> I—

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cu B « w

cu a o t—

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3.21
3 . 6 REFERENCES

Transportation Energy Panel, Research and development opportunities for improved

transportation usage, Department of Transportation, Report No. DOT-TSC-OST-73-14,

(Sept. 1972).

Zabetakis, M. G., Flammability characteristics of combustible gases and vapors,

Bureau of Mines Bulletin No. 627 (1965).

Marks, L. S., Mechanical Engineers Handbook, McGraw Hill Book Company Inc. New York, N.Y. (1951)

Fire-Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and Volatile Solids,

National Fire Protection Association, No. 325 (May 1960).

On an investigation of hazards associated with the storage and handling of

liquid hydrogen, Final Report C-61092, Contract No. AF 18 (600)-1687 , Prepared

by Arthur D. Little, Inc., DDC Access. No. AD 324194, 137 pages (Mar. 1960).

Billings, R. E., and F. E. Lynch, History of hydrogen-fueled internal combustion

engines, Billings Energy Research Corp., Publication No. 73001 (1972).

Weil, K. H., The hydrogen I.C. engine- its origins and future in the emerging

energy-transportation-environment system, Proceed, of the 7th IECEC, 1355-1363

(1972) .

Gwynne, P., The hydrogen car, New Scientist, Vol. 60, No, 868, 202-3 (Oct. 1973).

Billings, R. E., and F. E. Lynch, Performance and nitric oxide control parameters

of the hydrogen engine, Billings Energy Research Corp., Report No. 73002 (1973).

Murray, R. G., R. J. Schoeppel, and C. L. Gray, The hydrogen engine in perspective,

Proceed, of the 7th IECEC, 1375-81 (1972).

Swain, M. R., and R. R. Adt Jr., The hydrogen-air fueled automobile, Proceed, of

the 7th IECEC, 1382-87 (1972).

Adt, R. R. Jr., D. L. Hershberger, J. Kartage, and M. R. Swain, The hydrogen-air

fueled automobile engine (Part 1), Proceed, of the 8th IECEC, 194-7 (1973).

Modrey, J., Hydrogen powered bus, a small distribution bus powered by a hydrogen

fueled engine, Brochure furnished in a private communication from J. Modrey,

Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. (1974).

Stephen, R. D., N. A. Henein, and T. Singh, Emissions characteristics of the

Stirling and other engines, Proceed, of the 7th IECEC, 887-95 (1972).

Michels, A. P. J., CVS test simulation of a 128 kW Stirling passenger car engine,

7th IECEC, 875-886 (1972).

Scott, R. B., W. H. Denton, and C. M. Nicholls, Technology and uses of liquid

hydrogen, The MacMillan Company, New York, N.Y. (1964).

Mulholland, D. R. , L. W. Acker, H. H. Christenson, and W. V. Gough, Flight

investigation of a liquid-hydrogen fuel system, NACA, Report No. N71-75121 (1957).

Lueckel, W. J., L. G. Eklund, and S. H. Law, Fuel cells for dispersed power

generation, Transactions of the Power App. & Systems, IEEE, PAS-92 (1973).

Berger, C, Ed., Handbook of fuel cell technology, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1968).

3.22
[20] Salihi, J. T. , Energy requirements for electric cars and their impact on electric

power generation and distribution systems, IEEE Trans, on Industrial Applications,

Vol. IA-9, No. 5 (1973)

.

[21] Kordesch, K. V., Hydrogen-air /lead battery hybiid system for vehicle propulsion,

Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 812-17 (May 1971).

[22] Rice, W. E. and D. Bell III, Status of shuttle fuel cell technology program,

Proceed, of IECEC, 390-95 (1972).

[23] Marks, C, E. A. Rishavy, and F. A. Wyczalek, Electrovan-a fuel cell powered

vehicle, SAE Transactions, Vol. 76, 992-1002 (1968).

[24] Kyle, M. L., E. J. Cairns, and D. S. Webster, Lithium/sodium batteries for

off-peak energy storage: A preliminary comparison of energy storage and peak

power systems, Argonne National Laboratory, Contract W-31-109-Eng-38 , Report

No. XNL-7958 (1973)

.

[25] Billings, R., Hydrogens potential as an automotive fuel, Cryogenics and

Industrial Gases, Vol. 9, No. 1, 23-5 (1974).

[26] Private communication with J. J. Hibel of Beech Aircraft Corporation, Boulder,

Colo. (1974).

[27] Booth, L. A., J. D. Balcomb and F. J. Edeskuty, A combined nuclear and hydrogen

energy economy-a long term solution to the world's energy problem, Proceed, of

the 8th IECEC, 396-403 (1973).

[28] Cummings, D. L., and G. J. Powers, The storage of hydrogen as metal hydrides,

Ind. Eng. Chem. , Process Des . Develop. Vol. 13, No. 2, 182-92 -(1974)

.

[29] Wiswall, R. H., and J. J. Reilly, Metal hydrides for energy storage, Proceed

of the 7th IECEC, 1342-48 (1972).

[30] Austin, A. L., A survey of hydrogen's potential as a vehicular fuel, University

of California, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Report No. UCRL-51228 (Jun 1972).

[31] Ambs, L. L., Passenger car design influences on fuel consumption and emissions,

Proceed, of the 8th IECEC, 227-231 (1973).

[32] Billings, R. , N. Baker, F. Lynch, and D. Mackay, Ignition parameters of the

hydrogen engine, Proceed, of the 9th IECEC, 487-92 (1974).

[33] Stewart, W. F., F. J. Edeskuty, K. D. Williamson, Jr., and H. M. Lutgen,

Operating experience with a liquid hydrogen fueled vehicle, Book, Advances in

Cryogenic Engineering, Vol. 20 (Ed.) K. D. Timmerhaus (Plenum Press, Inc.,

New York, N.Y., 1975) — to be published: See also Stewart, W. F. and F. J. Edeskuty, Alternate Fuels for Transportation, Part 2: Hydrogen for the Automobile, Mech. Engr., 22-28 (June 1974).

[34] Private communication with W. D. Van Vorst of Univ. of Calif., Los Angeles,

Calif. (1974).

[35] Private communication with H. M. Lutgen of Minnesota Valley Engineering Co.,

New Prague, Minnesota (1974).

[36] Griffith, E. J., Letter to the editor concerning hydrogen fuel, Nature, Vol. 248,

458 (March 1974) .

[37] Bauer, W. , S. C. Keeton, L. N. Tallerico and C. Landram, Hydrogen as a vehicular

fuel, Internal Sandia Rept. SLL-73-0053 (Aug. 73).

[38] Hoehn, F. W., and M. W. Dowdy, Feasibility demonstrations of a road vehicle fueled

with hydrogen-enriched gasoline, Proceedings of the 9th IECEC, 956-64 (1974).

3.23

CHAPTER 4

SURVEY OF MATERIALS FOR HYDROGEN SERVICE

J. G. Hust

4 . 0 SUMMARY

Hydrogen related materials requirements involve primarily: hydrogen embrittlement

resistance, high and low temperature strength, wear and corrosion resistance, hydrogen and

oxygen compatibility, and insulating materials. The problem of hydrogen-environment embrittlement, relatively unique to hydrogen service, introduces severe materials requirements and

pervades essentially all phases of hydrogen production, transfer and storage, and applications. Low-cost, high-strength materials which are also embrittlement immune and resistant

to corrosion, will be necessary in hydrogen production facilities and for transfer and storage

systems. A strong need also exists for low-cost, light-weight storage systems and insulating

materials for portable applications, such as for fuel tanks aboard automobiles and aircraft.

Composite materials are strong candidates for these applications. Many materials, of course,

exist which are applicable to hydrogen service, but low-cost materials are needed. In some instances, large uncertainty exists as to the compatibility of materials with hydrogen, primarily because of the embrittlement phenomena. In other cases, such as in proposed hydrogen

production techniques, the materials problems cannot yet be defined because of uncertainty

as to the method or process which will be adopted. Materials research should be directed

toward: (a) compilation and critical analysis of existing low temperature, ambient temperature, and high temperature mechanical and thermal property data and embrittlement data for

candidate structural materials, (b) compilation and critical analysis of low temperature

insulation data, (c) establishment of standard embrittlement test procedures suitable for

pertinent applications, (d) establishment of standard insulation test procedures and

standard reference materials of insulation to facilitate these test procedures, (e) measurement of mechanical properties, thermal properties, embrittlement, and permeation of

metals and non-metals (especially plastics) as indicated by (a), (f) measurement of thermal

conductance of insulating materials using standardized test procedures, and (g) development of light-weight, high-strength, embrittlement immune materials for high pressure

structural applications, of low-cost efficient insulations and development of hydrogenoxygen catalytic materials.

4 . 1 INTRODUCTION

The fossil fuel energy shortage has created strong interest in alternate sources of

energy and methods of energy storage. Fossil fuels, such as gasoline, natural gas, oil,

and coal are portable and are used directly for transportation as well as for heating and

electric power generation. Alternate sources of energy, such as nuclear, solar, and geothermal, are less portable or not portable at all. Their application tends toward an electrical economy which is less applicable to transportation needs.

If society is to retain all current modes of transportation, it is clear that a readily

portable and storable energy carrier is needed. Fossil fuels have been the basis for such

4.1
an energy carrier in the past, but as our resources are depleted, an alternate comparable

energy carrier must be developed.

One of several portable energy carriers is hydrogen fuel fl] . It can be produced from

water and is available almost anywhere on earth. This storable energy carrier is also

ecologically clean and its closed re-use cycle, H^O * + 0 -* H^O, can be measured in

weeks as compared to the effectively open cycle of fossil fuels, measured in millions of

years, if at all. It is emphasized that water is not an energy source but only a material

which can be used effectively to produce an energy carrier (hydrogen fuel). The energy

required to produce hydrogen by splitting water is theoretically comparable to the energy

carried by the hydrogen produced.

Scores of papers have been written describing the production, storage and transmission,

and applications of hydrogen as a fuel. Some of these are rather non-technical and speculative in nature, others relate principally to the aerospace program. The more detailed documentation on the feasibility, economics, and applications of hydrogen as a fuel for commercial and domestic use are by Hord fl], Gregory [2-6], De Beni and Marchetti [7,8], Winsche,

et al. [9], Jones [10], and Maugh [11]. The most inclusive treatment is by Gregory [2],

These and other papers suggest that no insurmountable technical materials problems

exist for the production, transfer and storage, and general use of hydrogen as a fuel. As

a matter of fact, hydrogen has already been used in ground vehicles and aircraft to a limited extent, quite extensively as a 50% to 80% component in a gas mixture for domestic use in the form of "town gas" or manufactured coal gas, and most extensively in the aero- space program. The materials limitations are based primarily on economic considerations

as described in later sections of this paper.

In anticipation of the development of a hydrogen fuel economy, we will consider

materials problems associated with the production, transfer, storage, and use of immense

quantities of gaseous, liquid, and possibly solid hydrogen, see for example reference [12],

The purpose of this paper is to review potential material (primarily structural and insulating materials) requirements involved in the production, transfer, storage, and use of hydrogen,

including the containment of related chemicals in hydrogen applications. This review encompasses

the containment of hydrogen under static as well as dynamic conditions, at temperatures from near absolute zero to high temperatures, which in some proposed devices exceeds the limits of

present production materials, and at pressures from atmospheric conditions to thousands of

atmospheres. In addition, attention is directed to materials requirements in the handling of

oxygen by-product and the compatibility of materials in contact with some of the more corrosive

chemicals used in the production and applications of hydrogen.

In section 4.2, hydrogen related materials properties are discussed, e.g., mechanical,

thermal, and compatibility properties. Although a wide range of conditions is involved in

a hydrogen economy, emphasis is directed toward those facets which are most unique to domestic and commercial applications of hydrogen. A lengthy section on hydrogen embrittlement is included to emphasize the significance of this phenomena in ambient as well as high temperature systems design. Other high temperature and pressure effects are slighted,

4.2
since associated problems are common to other industrial processes and concomitant

research and development. Low temperature insulation requirements and developments are reviewed

Sections 4.3 through 4.5 are concerned with systems design requirements dictated by

material embrittlement, low temperature effects, and compatibility, in hydrogen production,

transfer and storage, and applications. Emphasis is directed toward those materials in

direct contact with hydrogen, such as metal and plastic pipes, metal and composite storage

vessels, seals, bearings, propulsion systems, and domestic appliances. Low temperature

insulating materials and systems are discussed.

A materials survey similar to this is currently in progress at Stanford Research

Institute under the direction of Neville Daniels [13]. Areas of emphasis will undoubtedly

differ in these studies and in some instances viewpoints may be in conflict, but it is

believed that the results of these two studies will supplement each other, resulting in a more thorough overview. Discussions have been conducted with Daniels and his associates

regarding common areas of interest.

The quest for data on materials requirements included: computer searches of the

NBS Boulder-Cryogenics Division Data Center, the NASA Cleveland Data Bank, and the

Smithsonian Scientific Information Exchange Work-in-Progress File for information on hydrogen related problems, systems, and current research. Abstracts from the NASA Research

and Technology Operating Plan Summary (1972) and An Inventory of Energy Research by ORNL

(1972) were also searched. Approximately 1000 references resulting from these searches

relating to hydrogen service and materials research were obtained and reviewed. In addition,

discussions, both personal and by phone, were held with several dozen experts in materials

research and cryogenic systems development. Considerable information was also obtained

from members of the NBS Cryogenics Division.

The author has attempted to give due consideration to all pertinent aspects of a hydrogen economy, but it is unavoidable that a review of this scope reflects to some extent

the author's personal interests. This work, therefore, should be considered a source of

information gathered from workers in each discipline as reported in the published literature,

contract reports, and summaries, and through personal contacts with these workers.

4.2 HYDROGEN RELATED MATERIALS PROPERTIES

Pertinent material properties can be divided into mechanical, thermal, electrical,

and chemical properties. Each of these may have unique importance in particular applications.

In structural design, economic, fabrication, and mechanical property considerations require

the highest priority. In the presence of appreciable temperature gradients such as in the

containment of cryogenic hydrogen, thermal properties (e.g., thermal conductivity, thermal

expansion, and specific heat) are critical and significantly affect material selection.

Chemical properties are considered significant here only in-so-far as they influence pertinent mechanical properties

.

Of the previously mentioned range of conditions, temperature is the most significant

from the standpoint of material property variation. Solids generally become stronger but

4.3
less ductile as temperature decreases. For many metals, this loss in ductility is sufficient to eliminate them from low temperature applications (see, for example, Pearson [14 ] )

The thermal conductivity and thermal expansion of most metals change appreciably with temperature, especially at low temperatures. Corrosion resistance decreases with increasing

temperature and is a potentially serious problem in some of the proposed high temperature

hydrogen production methods.

Because of their small size, hydrogen atoms readily dissolve into and diffuse through

most materials. The diffusion and permeation of hydrogen in metals is a significant aspect

of hydrogen embrittlement in metals. Hydrogen embrittlement produces severe mechanical

property degradation of many metals and often results in premature structural failure by

brittle fracture. It is most significant at ambient temperatures, less so at high temperatures, and negligible at cryogenic temperatures. Hydrogen-reaction embrittlement (see

section 4.2.2) can be significant at high temperatures and in hydride storage applications.

The design of equipment for hydrogen service must include consideration of material

compatibility, property variations (primarily as a function of temperature), and the

degradation of these properties due to hydrogen embrittlement. The following sections

elaborate on these property variations, concomitant design considerations, and related

problem areas.

4.2.1 Temperature Effects

Excellent reviews and data compilations have been published on the temperature variation of mechanical properties of metals [15-27], polymers [18,21,23,28,29], and other

non-metals [18,21,23]. Two basic requirements of a structural material that must be fulfilled are: (1) it must support a sufficient load (generally with a minimum deflection)

and (2) it must be tough but not brittle. Of course, it should also be economic and

readily fabricated. The first requirement implies a high strength material while the

second implies ductility. For many materials, these requirements are somewhat in conflict,

since as strength increases, ductility often decreases. At high temperature the increased

ductility and lowered strength of most materials are significant factors in material

selection. At low temperature the brittle behavior of materials is most important, and

thus, fracture mechanics is of great importance. A myriad of mechanical properties of

significance in material selection can be cited, such as hardness, modulus, strength,

ductility, creep, fracture toughness, yield stress, offset strain, etc. Which of these are most important is determined by the particular applications. Often equipment must be

designed to operate alternately at ambient and low temperatures or ambient and high tem- perature, thus requiring acceptable properties over extended temperature ranges.

The temperature dependence of some of the more important mechanical properties of

transition metals can be classed according to the crystalographic structures, face centered

cubic (fee), body centered cubic (bec), and hexagonal close packed (hep).

Fee transition metals are generally lower in strength but tend to remain ductile at low temperatures. Structural metals for low temperature applications are usually chosen

from the fee class, e.g., aluminum, copper, and nickel alloys as well as austenitic stainless steels. The fee metals generally have low yield stress relatively independent of

4.4
temperature, but the yield stress can be improved by cold work.

Bcc transition metals are hard, have high melting points, and thus are of considerable

use at high temperatures. Iron, the most important and common of these, undergoes a crystal

structure phase change at 910°C. The fee, high temperature, or Y

-phase exists above 910°C

while the bcc, low temperature, or a-phase exists below. Bcc metals tend to become brittle

at low temperatures, and thus are usually avoided 'for low temperature applications. Through

the addition of various elements to iron, the ct-^ transition temperature can be controlled.

Additions of chromium, tungsten, vanadium or silicon among others raises the transition

temperature and tends to stabilize the bcc structure. Additions of manganese, nickel,

cobalt, or copper among others lowers the transition temperature resulting in a more stable

fee structure. With sufficient nickel, for example about 42%, a fully stabilized fee alloy

(austenitic steel) is obtained which remains stable to the lowest temperatures measured.

The hep transition metals are not as readily classified as the bcc and fee metals;

some of them behave more like bcc metals while others have the properties of fee metals.

For example, tungsten is brittle at low temperatures, and zirconium and titanium remain

ductile at low temperatures. Typical stress-strain curves for fee and bcc metals are shown

in figure 4.1 (data obtained from Fickett [19] and Kasen [39]).

Of the many physical properties, only a relatively few, other than mechanical properties,

are important in structural applications. Probably the most significant are thermal expansion and density. Of lesser, but significant, relevance are thermal conductivity, specific

heat, and thermal diffusivity. In fewer instances, electrical resistivity and dielectric

properties are important in design.

The most extensive effort for the compilation of thermal properties of materials is

the on-going work at the Thermophysical Properties Research Center, Purdue University,

under the direction of Touloukian [30]. Other excellent compilations and papers are: thermal expansion of alloys by Clark [31], thermal properties of polymers by Schramm,

et al. [29] , specific heats by Corruccini and Gniewek [32], and thermal conductivity of

materials by Childs, et al. [33]. Reviews on thermal properties of metals and non-metals

are abundantly available; only the texts by Tye [34], Childs, et al. [33], and

Touloukian [30] are cited. Density data on metals can be found in the ASM Metals Handbook [16] . A few summarizing remarks on thermal and electrical properties are given here. The

thermal and electrical properties of metals and non-metals are generally strongly dependent

on temperature. The thermal and electrical conductivities of pure metals at low temperatures are strongly dependent on the concentrations and types of impurities. The heat

treatment or anneal condition also can significantly affect the low temperature values

for both pure metals and alloys. Figure 4.2 illustrates the general temperature dependence

of thermal conductivity for metals. Specific heat and thermal expansion are relatively

insensitive to small composition changes in metals but heat treatment can produce significant changes in thermal expansion. See, for example, Clark's T31] data on AISI 633

annealed and precipitation hardened steel. High temperature properties are less sensitive

to composition and heat treatment. Comparative behavior of thermal expansion is illustrated

in figure 4.3.

4.5
STRAIN (Glass-Cloth Composites only)

0.04 0.08 0.12

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

STRAIN

FIGURE 4.1 Tensile bshavior of bcc and fee metals and glassreinforced composites.

4.6
TEMPERATURE, K TEMPERATURE, K

Figure 4.2 Thermal conductivity for several classes of materials as a function of temperature.
0 100 200 300

TEMPERATURE , K

Figure 4.3 General behavior of the thermal contraction for several classes

of materials.

4.8
Electrical resistivity data for pure metals are relatively abundant. The text by

Meaden [35] contains extensive resistivity data and in addition is an excellent introductory treatise. Hall [36,37] has compiled the low temperature resistivity of selected

pure metals. Electrical resistivity data sources for alloys are much more scarce, probably

because of the lack of theoretical interest. A paper by Clark [38] contains low temperature data for selected alloys at low temperatures.

Non-metals, like metals, tend toward brittleness as temperature is lowered; a few

non-metals remain sufficiently ductile at low temperatures to be structurally useful, e.g.,

polytetrafluoroethylene (TEE) and hexaf louropropylene (EEP) . Creep in polymers is relatively large and can be a problem in certain applications. Non-metals often are useful in

hydrogen applications involving insulations, supports, bearings, seals, and structural

reinforcing composites. A review of the state-of-the-art on composites is presently being

prepared by Kasen of this laboratory [39] . Composites range widely in mechanical properties

depending strongly on fiber orientation, matrix material, resin, temperature, etc. In general, they have very high strength-to-weight ratios and may find extensive applications

in high-pressure and low-weight vessels and pipes. Typical stress-strain, thermal conductivity, and thermal contraction data are illustrated in figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3, respectively.

An excellent review of the mechanical properties of non-metals, including polymers,

foams, ceramics and glasses, and composites is given by ".•,'igley [23]. Extensive polymer

property data are tabulated in the Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology [40],

by Schramm, et al. [29], and reviewed by Serafini [28].

4.2.2 Hydrogen Embrittlement , Diffusion and Permeation

As indicated earlier, hydrogen readily diffuses into most engineering materials.

The presence of atomic and molecular hydrogen can cause significant degradation of the

mechanical properties, i.e., embrittlement, of most metals. Embrittlement is the most

severe technological problem encountered in the containment of gaseous hydrogen. A vivid

example is the failure of several 5000 psi, 1300 cubic foot hydrogen gas vessels [41] . One

of these vessels developed a 50 inch long crack at a weld seam. Three similar hydrogen

containing vessels failed, while several identical nitrogen containing vessels were

operated without incident for several years. Such incidents could be avoided through the

use of more compatible materials or more sophisticated vessel design, but this may not be

economically feasible in a larger scale commercial facility. Jewett, et al. [41] and

Voth [42,43] describe many failures due to material embrittlement in vessels and gauges.

Failures have been observed at as little as one-tenth design pressure. These incidents

are cited to emphasize the need for material research and development so as to obtain

hydrogen compatible, inexpensive materials.

Although it has been known for about 100 years that hydrogen can seriously degrade

the mechanical properties of metals [44], the exact mechanisms by which this occurs are not

clearly understood. It is now believed that hydrogen embrittlement can be classified into

three categories: (1) hydrogen-reaction embrittlement, (2) internal-hydrogen embrittlement,

and (3) hydrogen-environment embrittlement. Hydrogen-reaction embrittlement occurs as a

4.9
result of chemical reaction between hydrogen and the base metal or some alloying element of

the metal. Metals such as titanium, zirconium, niobium, and tantalum (exothermic occluders)

form irreversible embrittling hydride phases. The decarburization of steels and the formation of high-pressure water vapor in copper voids and methane in steel voids are other

examples of hydrogen-reaction embrittlement

Both internal and environmental-hydrogen embrittlement are due to hydrogen atoms

dissolving into the metal. The most widely researched area of internal embrittlement is

that caused by electrolytic charging such as in a plating, cleaning, or pickling baths.

Internal-hydrogen and hydrogen-reaction embrittlement problems are often encountered in

metal and petrochemical processing facilities. Any hydrogen containing chemical solution

is capable of producing internal-hydrogen embrittlement.

Hydrogen-environment embrittlement signifies the degradation of mechanical properties

occuring due to the presence of hydrogen at the surface of the metal. This is also referred

to as external-hydrogen embrittlement. Both internal and external-hydrogen embrittlement

are reversible so long as the hydrogen is removed before crack formation commences. Internal

hydrogen can be removed by high temperature heat treatment. Hydrogen-environment embrittlement, although probably closely related to internal-hydrogen embrittlement, is the most

unique to a hydrogen economy and is the primary subject of this section.

Several reviews and compilations of data on hydrogen-environment embrittlement exist

[41,45-64]. It is clear from these reviews that controversy exists as to the exact mechanism

operative in hydrogen-environment embrittlement. One argument leads to the conclusion that

hydrogen-environment embrittlement is distinct from internal-hydrogen embrittlement, and

other arguments lead to the conclusion that both are manifestations of the same mechanism.

The main argument for distinctly different mechanisms is that delayed failure, failure at constant stress below the normal strength of the metal after a time which may be hours or

days, occurs only through internal -embrittlement. Embrittlement due to hydrogen-environment is immediate, and no increase in embrittlement is seen with exposure times as long

as 100 days [41,54,60,61]. Otherwise, the behavior of the two types of embrittlement is

quite similar. It is noted that early internal embrittlement studies on Inconel 718 indicated no susceptibility to embrittlement, but recent hydrogen environment studies showed

Inconel 718 to be severely embrittled [41]

The degree of hydrogen-environment embrittlement is dependent on the base metal and

its alloying constituents, the microstructure of the metal, strain rate, the surface condition of the metal (cracks, notches, pits, etc.), stress, the strength level of the metal,

impurities present in the hydrogen environment, and probably other parameters not yet investigated. It has often been suggested that, at least in the case of steels which are the

most thoroughly investigated metal class, metals with a fee structure are relatively immune

to embrittlement while metals with a bec structure are severely embrittled. It has been

shown more recently that the crystal structure is less significant than the atomic structure [52]. More specifically, Louthan [52] has shown a close relationship between hydrogen

solubility, and subsequently the degree of embrittlement, and the density of states at the

4.10
Fermi surface. Chandler and his associates at Rocketdyne [41,54,60,61] have compiled and

reviewed all but the most recent hydrogen-environment embrittlement data. To avoid an overwhelming list of references, their reviews are the principal source of information

here.

The Rocketdyne group has shown that the degree of embrittlement is approximately proportional to the square-root of pressure until saturation occurs, which is generally several

thousand pounds per square inch. Internal-embrittlement generally peaks near ambient temperatures and falls off both at high temperatures and at low temperatures. No hydrogen-environment

embrittlement is expected at liquid hydrogen temperature with common structural materials.

At higher temperature, such as encountered In engines, burners, and proposed hydrogen production equipment, both hydrogen-environment and reaction embrittlement problems are likely

[41,65,66]. In addition, at high temperatures and pressures, the containment material will

become saturated with hydrogen. If cooldown of the equipment is not controlled, to allow

the internal hydrogen to escape by permeation, classical internal-hydrogen embrittlement

may result at ambient temperature. Groeneveld [67] has observed blistering of A387 and

A52 steels after cooldown from a high temperature and pressure hydrogen environment.

Troiano [68] indicates that degassing by cyclic temperature control to remove hydrogen in

refining operations is standard procedure. Gray [49] notes that embrittlement may also

occur in a liquid hydrogen vessel if the ullage space material approaches ambient temperature.Rate of strain is an important parameter in the degree of embrittlement exhibited.

Low strain rates promote maximum embrittlement. Smooth surfaces are least susceptible to embrittlement. Metals conditioned to high strength levels are more susceptible to embrittlement than their lower strength counterparts. This effect is especially important in weldments or localized hard spots. Table 4.1 illustrates the relative degree of embrittlement

of metal classes. The relative scale used is the same as that defined by Chandler, et al.

[41]. Table 4.2, taken from a most recent publication by Chandler and Walter [69], illustrates more specifically the embrittling effects on metals as indicated by notched and

unnotched strength ratios and unnotched ductility.

The purity of the hydrogen environment can have profound effects on the degree of

embrittlement. Small amounts of oxygen, in some instances, have totally destroyed the

embrittling capability of hydrogen. Small additions of S0

2

, CO, and CS

2 are also effective

in inhibiting hydrogen embrittlement. Chandler, et al. [41] and Fidelle, et al. [70] have

investigated the effects of metallic and oxide coatings to inhibit embrittlement. Chandler,

et al. [41] feel that an effective coating must have low permeability, be non-porous,

adhere well to the substrate, and be ductile or self-healing. He has found that electroplated coatings of copper, gold, and silver are effective barriers. Chandler [71] is

continuing his work on aerospace alloys and is also carrying on discussions with the

Institute of Gas Technology to determine the significance of embrittlement on pipeline

materials. He indicates that, although embrittlement is most important at ambient temperatures, creep and low cycle fatigue are affected at high temperatures. A286 stainless steel,

for example, is relatively immune at room temperature but is appreciably affected at elevated

4.11
Table 4. 1. Relative^ degree of hydrogen- environment embrittlement

of classes of metals.

Degree of

Embrittlement Materials Characterization

Extreme High strength steels Large decrease in notch

Nickel-base alloys strength and notched and

unnotched ductility.

Some decrease in unnotched

strength. Propagation

of surface cracks

Severe Ductile, lower- Considerable reduction

strength steels of notch strength and

Pure nickel unnotched and notched ductility.

Titanium alloys No reduction of unnotched

strength.

Propagation of surface

cracks

Slight Metastable 300 series Small decrease in notched

stainless steels Strength and unnotched ductility,

Beryllium-copper Failure of unnotched specimens

Pure titanium from within.

Negligible Aluminum alloys Essentially unembrittled

Stable austenitic with no surface cracks

stainless steels

Copper

4.12
Table 4.2 Embrittlement of Metals by 68.9 MN/m (10,000 psi) Hydrogen at Ambient Temperature, Chandler and Walter [69].

Strength Ratio,

H

2 /He Unnotched Ductility

Elongation RA*

Percent Percent

Material Notched

(K

t=8.4)

Unnotched He H2 He H,

2

18 Ni-250 MAR 0. 12 0.68 8.2 0.2 55 2.5

410 SS 0. 22 0.79 15 1.3 60 12 1042 QT 0. 22 — — —

17-7PH SS 0. 23 0.92 17 1.7 45 2.5

Fe-9Ni-4Co-0.2C 0. 24 0.86 15 0.5 67 15 H-11 0. 25 0.57 8.8 0 30 0 Rene 41 0. 27 0.84 21 4.3 29 11 Electroformed Ni** 0. 31 — — — —

4140 0. 40 0.96 14 2.6 48 9 Inconel 718 0. 46 0.93 17 1.5 26 1 440 C 0. 50 0.40 — — 3.2 0 Ti-6A1-4V (STA) 0. 58 — — — —

430 F 0. 68 22 14 64 37 Nickel 270 0. 70 56 52 89 67

A-515 0, 73 42 29 67 35 HY-100 0. 73 20 18 76 63 A-372 Class IV 0. 74 20 10 53 18 1042 Normalized 0. 75 59 27

A-533-B 0. 78 66 33 Ti-6A1-4V (annealed) 0. 79 — — — —

AISI 1020 0. 79 68 45 HY-80 0. 80 70 60

Ti-5Al-2. 5Sn ELI 0. 81 45 39 ARMCO Iron 0,,86 83 50 304 ELC SS 0,,87 78 71 305 SS 0, 89 78 75 Be-Cu Alloy 25 0..93 72 71 310 SS 0..93 64 62 Titanium 0,.95 61 61 A-286 ' 0,.97 44 - 43 7075-T73 Al Alloy 0. 98 37 35 Incoloy 903** 1 .00 50 47 316 SS 1 .00 72 75 OFHC Copper 1 .00 94 94

NARloy-2*** 1 .10 24 22 6061-T6A1 Alloy 1 .10 61 66 1100- 0A1 1 .40 93 93

Identification of a manufacturer and a manufacturer's product in this table

has been necessary to make the results of this work meaningful and in no way implies a recommendation or endorsement by the National Bureau of

Standards

.

2 * RA=reduction in area **Tested in 48.3 MN/m (7000 psi) H.

: ** Rockwell International Corporation Trademark; tested in

40 MN/m2 (5800 psi) H

2

4. 13
temperatures (see also [72]). He also notes that little work has been done on crack growth

at high temperatures. Chandler [41] says it is safest to assume a metal embrittles unless

proven otherwise. Only aluminum alloys, austenitic stainless steels, and copper have been

shown to be reasonably immune. Hydrogen embrittlement does not significantly affect elastic

properties; most affected are tensile ductility, notch strength, fatigue, and crack behavior

and creep.

Vented multilayer vessels have been used successfully to reduce failures due to embrittlement [73,74]. Filament-wound containers with an impermeable metal liner have

been developed for aerospace applications [75-81]. These may be very useful in a hydrogen

economy. Life prediction for high temperature hydrogen materials, based upon Nelson curves

[82], has been common procedure to prevent unexpected failure. Extrapolation of these curves should be avoided.

No evidence has been presented which indicates serious embrittling effects of hydrogen

on non-metals. However, very little work has been done in this area; the only work on non-metals compatibility is being done at White Sands Test Facility, New Mexico [83,84].

Preliminary results indicate that, of room temperature vulcanizing silicone rubber (RTV)

,

polyvinyl chloride (PVC) , polytetraf luoroethylene-hexof luoropropylene copolymer (FEP)

,

polytetrafluoroethylene (TFE) , glass filled TFE and cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB), only

RTV is adversely affected by hydrogen. A slight charring of RTV was observed during hydrogen

environment impact tests. Thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity of pure metals can be strongly affected

by impurities in solids, including gases such as hydrogen. In impure metals and alloys the

effect is small and in most cases undetectable. Other thermal properties are not significantly

dependent on hydrogen content. Structural design will not significantly depend on the effect

of hydrogen on thermal and electrical properties.

Since hydrogen diffuses and permeates through materials and flows through crevices more readily than other gases, the often mentioned, potential problem of hydrogen leakage deserves

attention. The permeation of hydrogen through metals is well below the level which would cause

any safety or economic difficulty. Permeation through polymers, although much larger than

through metals, is not expected to be a problem in plastic gas pipes. Figure 4.4 illustrates

the approximate hydrogen permeabilities of metals and polymers. The principal area of con- cern for hydrogen leakage is in seals and cracks. Beck [46] reviews methods of low level

hydrogen detection and quantitative measurements. These methods are useful both for permeation studies and for hydrogen content determinations. Powell, et al. [85,87] have

recently described a very sensitive hydrogen content measuring device. Berman, et al. [88]

have developed a thermochemical technique which is precise to 0.1 ppm, rapid, and is applicable to in-situ measurements, Jankowsky [89] has compared other test methods of hydrogen

detection in metals.

4.2.3 Insulat ion

As envisioned, the hydrogen economy would involve large quantities of liquid hydrogen

for convenient transport by ocean tankers, trucks, and by rail, for convenient storage, and

for use in ground vehicles and aircraft. Liquid hydrogen, because of its low boiling tem- perature (20 K, -253°C) and its low volumetric latent heat of vaporization (7.5 kcal/liter),

4.14
Io

IO

fOo

a.

>>

00

I2 i

CD X

E

a

H

I V> (N

I 0 E t-H O

n

E

u h -a

1 +j O oo

rau

Qu

>-I— t •—

i

rH _l

I i—

<

O QQ

<-H <UJ

ecUJ

cc

I

to

oj

o

a.

Figure 4.4 Permeability ranges of metals and polymers (ambient temperature).

4.15
must be extremely well insulated to minimize fluid boil-off losses.

Except for the relatively recent advent of multilayer insulation, few significant

improvements in economic insulation technology are noted. Most of the recent hydrogeninsulation work is directed toward improved insulation systems rather than material development [73,74,90-110]. Recent reviews on insulation technology are extensive [73,111-115].

These describe systems of measurement, give comparative data on the thermal conductance of

various insulations, comparative costs, weight, etc. Insulations commonly used for liquid

hydrogen storage are vacuum with liquid nitrogen shield, and evacuated foams, perlite,

silica gel, and superinsulation. Comparative heat losses are illustrated for these in

figure 4.5. Thermal conductance is illustrated in figures 4.2 and 4.5.

For the lowest conductance insulations, such as superinsulation, a large proportion of

the heat loss is through thermal bridges. Examples of these thermal bridges are structural

supports, seams, and holes through which thermal radiation penetrates.

Not all systems will require the same degree of insulation quality. This is determined

primarily by a trade-off between insulation system (material) cost and boil-off losses or hold time. For example, in an automobile storage vessel, the relative boil-off may be quite

high because the tank is generally emptied in a few days at normal rates. In a large stationary storage vessel, relative boil-offs need to be small because of the large absolute

losses involved. Thus, various insulation qualities will be required for different applications.

Although relatively small improvements can be predicted in insulation quality, these

can be very significant economically because of the absolute magnitude of hydrogen losses

in a hydrogen economy. More significant benefits are to be expected from improved insulation systems development. Standardizations of low heat flux measurements and the availability of standard reference materials would be beneficial in determining the most economic

and effective insulating materials. The only effort related to the development of standard

reference materials is that by Ludtke [116] to develop a series of low temperature transfer

standards.

Thermal conductivities of insulating materials are strongly dependent upon the compaction (density) of the insulating material, the type and pressure of the gas on the insulation

space, and the reflectivity of the insulation surfaces. Howell [117] indicates that the

principal problems with insulations are: hydrogen permeation of internal foam systems and

cell breakdown for external foam systems, insulation and bonding integrity under the stresses

induced by thermal cycling, and vacuum leaks with superinsulation and other evacuated insulation systems. Thus, the principle insulation requirements are systems design improvements

and measurement standardization.

4.2.4 Oxygen Compatibility

Regardless of the method used to produce hydrogen from water, oxygen is a by-product.

Oxygen use has been growing at the rate of about 18% per year [118] (comparable to the

growth of hydrogen production) and it is expected that this rate will persist or, more

probably, increase. Mrochek [118] indicates a potential oxygen credit of 4$/ton of oxygen,

but this is highly uncertain unless applications requiring huge amounts of oxygen are

4.16
Foams,

Fiber-glass,

and Powders

Evacuated

Multilayer

0.001 0.01 0.1

Relative Thickness/unit heat loss

1.0

(b) Unevacuated

Foams,

Fiber-glass,

and Powders

Evacuated

Multilayer

0.01 0.1

Relative Weight/unit heat loss

_J

1.0

Foams,

Fiber-glass,

and Powders

(c)

Evacuated

Unevacuated

I —

I

Multilayer

0.1 1.0 10 100

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, uW/cm-K

1000

Figure 4.5 Comparative data for selected insulations

4.17
developed. If this oxygen can be used we are faced with oxygen containment problems.

Oxygen compatibility problems have been encountered in the space program and can be severe. The principal problem area is associated with the combustion (rapid oxidation) of the con- tainment structural materials. It has been found that almost any material will burn in the

presence of pure oxygen, especially at high pressures. This includes not only the common combustible materials but also metals and most other structural materials. A recent sur- vey on the subject is cited U19] . This review confirms that the problems are significant,

must be given serious attention in any high pressure or high temperature application, and

cannot be ignored even at ambient conditions. The oxygen compatibility of metals and

polymers has been investigated most extensively. Few polymers are compatible with high

pressure oxygen. Metals are generally much more compatible, but the degree of combustibility varies widely from metal-to-metal. The degree of oxygen compatibility of ceramics

is not extensively studied, but it is expected to vary widely according to the chemical

composition of the ceramic. Oxide ceramics, for example, should be the most compatible

and better than most metals.

4.3 MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS FOR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

The primary sources of hydrogen gas production have been the steam reformation of

natural gas, the petrochemical industry [120-122] and more recently from water by electrolysis [3, 118, 123]. As our dwindling fossil fuels are reserved for more essential purposes, more hydrogen will be obtained from water. Electrolysis of water requires an amount of

electrical energy comparable to the energy stored in the hydrogen fuel produced. Thus, an immense electrical economy based on non-fossil fuels will need to be developed. This,

in all probability, will be based on nuclear or solar power. Therefore, the materials

requirements for the production of hydrogen fuel are closely linked with those of non-fossil

fuel power generation as well. First, we direct our attention to the material requirements

for the generation of hydrogen by electrolysis and other water decomposition processes.

4.3.1 Electrolysis

Water electrolyzer technology has developed to yield efficiencies of about 60% for

large scale plants [4,11]. Gregory [2] points out that the maximum theoretical efficiency,

based on electrical input energy, is 120%. The additional 20% comes from the thermal

energy input to the electrolyzer. Since present efficiencies are cnly about 60%, it is

reasonable to assume that sizeable gains in efficiency will occur with improved designs

and materials. Efficiencies can be increased with the development of better electrode

materials and configurations, to lower the overvoltage and internal resistance losses of

the cells, and by operating the cells at higher temperatures and pressures. Kincaide T124]

indicates an increase in efficiency of 15% is possible by operating at 700°C. It is noted

that such increases in efficiency generally are accompanied by Increased capital equipment

costs. The structural material corrosion resistance requirements at increased temperatures

will present a formidable materials development challenge. On the huge scale of production

involved in a hydrogen economy, a few percent increase in efficiency represents billions

of dollars in production cost savings per year in the U.S. alone.

Gregory [2] indicates that General Electric and Westinghouse are developing units for

operation near 2000°F. Teledyne Isotopes is developing a high temperature unit for operation

4.18
at a pressure of 3000 psi. Each of these involve materials corrosion and embrittlement

problems because of the high temperatures and pressures.

Electrolyzers are generally built in modular form [2,124] and could be scaled-up

readily to the plant size required at a nuclear power plant site without additional

materials problems. The largest electrolyzer plants now operating are about one-tenth

as large as will be required. The main materials requirements for electrolyzers are those

affecting cost and longevity.

4.3.2 Thermochemical

Water can also be decomposed by thermochemical decomposition. Thermochemical decomposition is appealing since thermal energy can be utilized directly without first generating

electrical energy, a thermodynamically inefficient conversion at present.

The production of significant proportions of hydrogen by direct thermal decomposition

requires a temperature of about 2500°C [11] and is generally considered as impractical and

inefficient with existing heat sources. Significant effort is being devoted to the development of efficient, lower temperature,

thermochemical decomposition processes [11,125-128]. These processes are composed of multistep chemical reactions from water to hydrogen at temperatures below 1000°C [8,124,126].

The proposed chemical reactions involve highly corrosive chemicals, such as high temperature

hydrobromic acid, further compounding the materials problem. Since the number of potentially

useful processes is essentially limitless, no specific material requirements can be specified

until a particular process is adopted. It is likely that structural material requirements

related to thermochemical hydrogen production will include high-temperature strength, corrosion resistance, and relative immunity to hydrogen embrittlement. Potentially useful materials are noble metals, graphite, and ceramics, such as aluminum oxide [129,130].

4.3.3 Other Production Methods

Steam reforming of hydrocarbons is a common method of hydrogen production. The

materials requirements for the extensively used method are well understood. Common structural steels find wide application in the petrochemical industry in spite of existing

serious hydrogen-related materials problems f68].

Bockris [125] and Maugh [11] describe more exotic methods of hydrogen production.

For example, the very high temperatures of a fusion reactor could be utilized to generate

photons with the correct energy to decompose water. Because of the highly speculative

nature of those techniques and the enormous basic developments which must precede their

application, it does not seem prudent to speculate on potential material requirements.

4.3.4 Hydrogen Liquefaction and Solidification

Because of the low density of hydrogen gas, many volume-limited applications, such

as ground and air vehicles, are not well suited to the use of hydrogen gas. Also, crosscountry gaseous hydrogen transfer by truck or stationary hydrogen gas storage is impractical.

Therefore, hydrogen is often liquefied or solidified to increase its density for more compact storage. Liquid or slush (mixture of liquid and solid particles) hydrogen is considered

to be the most viable option for use in aircraft [6,92,131,132] and as a somewhat less

4.19
attractive option for ground vehicles Til, 133]. If these applications develop, a sizeable

proportion (25%) of the total hydrogen usage will be in the form of liquid or solid. This

liquefaction capability will dwarf present facilities [133].

Bartlit, et al. [133] indicate that the largest existing hydrogen liquefaction facility

has a capacity of 60 tons/day. They feel that considerably larger plants can be built with

no additional technology development.

Daniels [13] has indicated that a material problem with turbine blade tips may develop

in large scale turbine expanders. Excessive blade erosion due to droplet impingement may

result.

4.4 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HYDROGEN TRANSFER AND STORAGE

Hydrogen produced at the power plant, possibly several miles at sea, must be transported

to the user site. Because usage rate fluctuates widely, large storage facilities will be

required for the storage of gaseous, liquid, or solid hydrogen. Hydrogen in gaseous, liquid, or slush form can be transported by pipeline or mobile tanks. Considerable experience has

been gained in the space program on the transfer and storage of liquid hydrogen [42,73,74,

91,112,134-139]. This experience shows that hydrogen in large quantities can be handled

safely with no serious materials problems

4.4.1 Gaseous Hydrogen

The principal problems to be expected in the transfer and storage of gaseous hydrogen

at ambient or high temperature are embrittlement and leakage. Embrittlement is most

significant at high pressures and ambient temperature and is also significantly influenced

by the purity of the hydrogen.

Relatively impure gaseous hydrogen has been handled for commercial and industrial

applications for many years [2-5,8,133] with no serious material failures. Based on recent experimental results, this is partly because the hydrogen transferred is not of

the extremely high purity used in the space program and in laboratory research. "Town gas"

or "manufactured gas" used during the past decades in the United States and still being

used abroad is approximately 50% hydrogen. Basilea, Italy distributes a gas containing

80% hydrogen for domestic use [133]. Gregory [2] and Daniels [131 indicate that Germany

operates several hundred kilometers of hydrogen pipeline at a pressure of 200 to 700 psi.

No special safety features beyond those for other flammable gases are used. The pipe is

seamless steel St. 35. 29 grade, similar to SAE 1015. Other shorter hydrogen gas pipelines

are in service such as the 8 inch diameter, 12 mile long pipeline, operated at 200 psi by

Air Products and Chemical, Inc. in Houston. No booster compressors are found along any

of the pipelines because of their relatively short lengths. Extensive storage experience

also exists through the commercial use of hydrogen cylinders operated to above 2000 psi.

These are hot-forged monolithic carbon steel cylinders; it is likely that the lack of

hydrogen related incidents is due to the lack of severe metallurgical variations such as those produced in a weld zone.

4.20
Research has been conducted for several years at Battelle Memorial Institute [140] to determine the effects of cathodic hydrogen-charging on pipeline materials. Steels with

61 ksi to 181 ksi yield strengths were tested under laboratory conditions. They concluded

that pipeline steel materials with yield strengths below 130 ksi would present no problems

under the usual ground water conditions. Groenveld, et al. [140] also performed field

studies of up to 8 years with buried sections of pipe. Their field results are consistent

with the laboratory results. This is a study of internal hydrogen embrittlement . Based

on the results of Chandler [60] on hydrogen environment embrittlement similar field tests

for hydrogen-environment embrittlement should also be conducted on pipeline materials.

Although hydrogen transfer and storage systems are envisioned to be relatively low

pressure (below 2000 psi) , the storage pressures of hydrogen gas, in some instances, is

much higher. And, in addition, the purity of the hydrogen can be very high. Both of

these factors contribute significantly to the embrittlement problem. Several instances

have been cited of failures of high pressure gaseous hydrogen storage tanks and gauges [41,

42,48,53,141,142]. Fortunately, none of these failures attained their full potential

destructiveness, and loss of life and property damage has been relatively small. In many

of these high pressure failures, material fracture has occurred far below design strength.

Embrittlement is the most serious material problem in a hydrogen economy and should

receive considerable support for materials development and a more thorough understanding of

hydrogen-environment embrittlement phenomena. Studies should be conducted on well-characterized research materials under controlled laboratory conditions and on specimens obtained from production run material; tests under actual field conditions. Embrittlement

of hard spots and welds, including the heat affected zone, has been especially troublesome

and must be closely scrutinized. Gaseous hydrogen-environment embrittlement has been

researched primarily in connection with the NASA space program [41,50,51,53,54] but con- siderable work remains to obtain a complete understanding of the mechanisms involved,

to be able to develop more immune materials, and to obtain design data for existing materials.

Plastic pipelines for hydrogen transfer should be researched to determine if any degradation

occurs and which materials are most compatible, especially from the standpoint of permeability.

Another area which should be investigated is the effect of additives, such as odorants, to gaseous hydrogen. Additives may either enhance or inhibit crack growth of containment

materials

.

4.4.2 Liquid and Frozen Hydrogen

Commercial and government liquid and slush hydrogen handling experience has been

primarily in conjunction with the NASA space effort and related research [73,74,76,112,120,

133-135,143]. The main research efforts in the space program have been directed toward

pump, transfer line, storage vessel, and insulation development [77,78,91,134,138,139,

144-146].

Long distance transport of liquid hydrogen is now routinely accomplished with trucks

(13,000 gallon capacity) and railroad tankers (28,000 gallon capacity). Because of the

low density of liquid hydrogen (71 grams/liter) these vehicles are limited by volume, not

weight. Boil-off losses of 1/4 percent per day are typical and for larger vessels the

4.21
losses can be maintained at smaller levels. Over shorter distances (a few thousand feet), vacuum jacketed transfer lines of inside diameters up to 20 inches and pressures up to 2000 psi are in use fl33] . Bartlit T133] also points out that reciprocating, centrifugal,

and axial flow pumps for a wide range of pumping volumes have been developed. At the

Nuclear Rocket Development Station in Nevada, for example, liquid hydrogen has been pumped

at rates up to 35,000 gallons /minute. Based primarily on NASA experience, the principal

technological material problems with liquid and slush hydrogen transfer have been with

pump bearings and seals, and economic insulation techniques f 92,142,144,146-150] . Because

of the lack of extensive experience, pump wear problems for continuous long term slush

hydrogen transfer are not definitive.

Storage vessels exceeding 500,000 gallons of liquid hydrogen are in use with boil-off

rates on the order of 0.05%/day. This is equivalent to a hold time of over five years.

The largest dewar built has a capacity of 900,000 gallons and Bartlit r 133 ] indicates that no further materials development is needed to go to four or five million gallon capacity,

which approaches the volume required for the needs of a hydrogen economy. The current cost

of such vessels is about $2.00 per gallon capacity. It is likely that liquid hydrogen will

be a strong contender in transportation applications. A liquid hydrogen storage vessel for

automotive use has been developed T133]. It is estimated that on a mass production basis

these will cost from 300 to $600. Research to develop lower cost structural materials, insulations, and fabrication techniques (such as the development of filament wound composite

vessels) could result in substantial economic savings.

If hydrogen is generated at sea-based plants it must be transported to land for use. Large liquid hydrogen tanker ships or barges [151] similar to the liquid natural gas ships now in use [152], may be the most attractive form of transfer. The insulation requirements

for a liquid hydrogen tanker will be more severe because of the lower boiling temperature;

however, the weight requirements (structural strength) will be reduced because of the lower

density of liquid hydrogen. Several million pounds of steel are used in the liquid con- tainers of a large LNG tanker and huge quantities of insulation are also required. Similarly

large quantities of steel and insulation are required for stationary storage vessels. The

reduction in capital cost, through a few percent reduction in material costs because of new materials development, is an obvious benefit.

The economics of piping liquid versus alternate methods of delivering liquid hydrogen

are examined in Chapter 6. Liquid hydrogen transfer through pipelines may be more economically feasible if it is combined with the transfer of electrical energy, via a low resistance

or a superconducting transmission line [153,154]. Another combination is the transfer of

liquid hydrogen, liquid natural gas, and electric power [133]. Novak [155] discusses a potential problem of cooldown flowrate limits imposed by thermal stresses. No technological

material breakthroughs are required in these proposed applications, but improved low cost

insulations, structural materials, and fabrication procedures may help to provide an econo- mically competitive system.

4.22
4.4.3 Hydride Storage

Hydrogen can also be stored by chemically combining it with various metals as a hydride. With the application of heat the hydride is dissociated and hydrogen gas is re- leased for use. Hydrogen densities larger than liquid hydrogen densities can be obtained

by this method and, therefore, it is of strong current interest f 156-160]. The main

drawback at the present time, for mobile applications, is the very high overall weight

and volume of such systems. Further research is warranted for the development of lightweight, inexpensive materials which absorb large quantities of hydrogen and readily liberate

hydrogen at near-ambient temperatures and pressures. The concept of hydride storage systems

is especially appealing for stationary applications.

4.5 MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS FOR HYDROGEN APPLICATIONS

The most prominent uses of hydrogen at present are in the petrochemical industry and

in the production of methanol and ammonia [121] . Hydrogen is also used in rocket propulsion and in commercial hydrogenation. The experience gained through the space program has

been monumental and the amount of liquid hydrogen used has dwarfed any other past applications [133,143]. Hydrogen has been used both in gaseous and liquid forms and preliminary

research has been performed on the use of hydrogen in slush form because of its higher

density [137,139,146,161-164]. Liquid and slush hydrogen are especially appealing for use

in aircraft and space vehicles. » In a hydrogen economy the emphasis in applications would change such that the major

portion of hydrogen would be used for space heating, commercial and domestic propulsion

systems, and the generation of electric power; that is, almost anywhere that fuel oil,

kerosene, gasoline, and natural gas are used today. The following sections discuss the

materials requirements imposed by the use of hydrogen for such applications. Because the

limitations of hydrogen-material compatibility are not yet well understood, considerable

effort must be directed toward equipment, material, and regulatory developments before a hydrogen-economy can be realized.

4.5.1 Heating

Hydrogen can be used for heating with some modifications in existing heating systems.

Space heating with hydrogen is appealing because of the potential of reducing flue heating

losses and a resultant gain in heating efficiency. The compatibility of materials in

existing systems has not been studied.

The advantages of using hydrogen for space heating can best be realized with conceptually new heating devices [165]. These devices would be based on flameless catalytic con- version of hydrogen and oxygen to water. Through the use of various catalysts one can achieve a wide range of combustion temperatures, ranging from temperatures in the cryogenic

range to 3000°C. Thus one can visualize a wall radiator heating a room by catalytically

combusting hydrogen in the wall at a temperature of 80°F or a burner on a stove operating

at 212°F, etc. Most of the past work has centered on classical catalytic materials such

as platinum and nickel but recent interest in the catalysis of the H

2 - 0^ reaction has

brought other materials under investigation [166-174]. Some of the materials being studied

are silicon carbide, thorium, platinum, nickel, silver, transition metal carbides, and copper.

4.23
The potential catalyst market in domestic applications is large and warrants sizeable

materials research. Studies should be directed toward the development of economic catalytic

materials for applications over wide temperature ranges.

4.5.2 Propulsion

The application of hydrogen fuel to propulsion, including automobiles, buses, trucks,

boats, small ships, aircraft, and spacecraft, represents a major undertaking. However,

the technical feasibility of converting conventional engines, both reciprocating and rotary,

has been demonstrated [10,131,132,175-181]. These conversions include a railroad engine

which operates on hydrogen fuel [182], but railroads are equally adaptable to electrical

power. Large ships may be better propelled by nuclear power, except in special instances,

such as fuel tankers where boil-off or part of the fuel load itself can be used for energy.

Experience with hydrogen operated engines is still limited, but it appears that problems

will be minor except in high pressure (above 2000 psi) applications. Jewett, et al. [41]

feel that many hydrogen-related materials problems will arise in the development of hydrogen

fueled engines. They strongly recommend doing tests on components for hydrogen service

equipment under operating conditions. Frick, et al. [65] have observed high temperature

embrittlement on Udimet; water had no inhibiting affect. Udimet is a space shuttle main

engine alloy. Quandt [183] is planning further research on hydrogen fueled gas turbines.

The principal concern in this area is again related to embrittlement phenomena.

Bartlit [184] has indicated the LASL is undertaking an extensive project to convert an automobile to hydrogen fuel and to build a prototype refueling station. A liquid hydrogen

tank for the vehicle is being built and impact tests are planned to test the material integrity.

They feel the structural integrity should be sufficient to withstand impacts which an occupant

can survive.

4.5.3 Electric Power Generation

Hydrogen will also find application for domestic and commercial electric power generation through the use of fuel cells and hydrogen fueled engines. The present efficiency of

large fuel cells is about 60% and the maximum efficiency is 83.5% at 25 °C [2,166]. Thus

considerable improvement is possible through the development of more effective electrode

materials, higher operational temperatures and pressures, and more efficient design. Similar to the existing situation for electrolyzers , a small percentage increase in efficiency

can amount to millions of dollars in energy and cost savings. ( Austin [166] performed an extensive survey of government sponsored research on fuel

cells and this work is also an excellent sourcebook of information on the state-of-the-art

and the principles of operation of fuel cells. Included in this work is a section on materials compatibility, listing many structural materials and their usefulness with various

fuel cell chemicals. Some advances have been made since this review, but currently realized

efficiencies suggest that his recommendations are still valid. He recommends research to improve the efficiency of fuel cells through the development of more effective electrodes

and electrolytes. He also recommends research directed toward the reduction of the amount

of expensive catalytic materials required, often platinum, and the development o,f less ex- pensive catalysts. It has been indicated that the thickness of catalytic coatings has reached

4.24
a lower limit (1 mg/cm ) [ 13 ] thus necessitating cheaper materials for further cost reduction. Another area which requires attention is the effect of additives or impurities

in hydrogen on catalytic materials. Poisoning of catalytic materials can seriously

shorten the life of these materials. A more complete and recent review of fuel cell

technology is presented by Berger [166a]

.

Fuel cell power capacities have increased into the kilowatt range, which are adequate

for many domestic and industrial applications. Units with capacities in the megawatt range are currently under development. Such units will be used for electric power generation.

The application of hydrogen fueled engines to generate electric power has been

described [144,176,177]. The materials requirements with these engines are the same as those described in the propulsion section.

In summary, materials requirements are dictated by higher temperature and pressure

operations of fuel cells; improved, lower-cost catalytic materials; and, again, structural

materials resistant to corrosion and embrittlement

.

4 . 6 RECOMMENDATIONS

As indicated earlier, it is difficult to recommend specific research in a given area

until existing data is critically evaluated and applications are well defined. Such a situation does not totally exist for the requirements of a hydrogen economy; however, based

on the previously mentioned recent reviews on various phases of this subject, the following

are recommended.

4.6.1 Structural Materials Research

(1) Perform on a continuing basis: compilations, reviews, critical analyses and

evaluations, and select best materials on the basis of physical properties data and

compatibility.

(2) Perform embrittlement studies over a wide range of applicable conditions on materials selected as a result of (1) to: (a) obtain a better understanding of embrittlement mechanisms, (b) determine how embrittlement depends on microstructure, temperature

and pressure, stress, strain rate, composition and other pertinent parameters, (c) determine effective inhibiting additives and protective coatings, and (d) develop reliable and

reproducible test methods for embrittlement characterization. Develop non-destructive test methods and life prediction techniques to detect or avoid incipient failure of structural

material. Acoustic, eddy current decay, and other NDT techniques should be studied for

application. Research should also be directed toward an evaluation of existing and new

theories [186-190] of embrittlement.

(3) Perform mechanical and thermal properties measurements, especially at low tem- peratures, on existing materials lacking in characterization and on new materials, especially

metals and composites and also polymers, ceramics and insulations.

(4) Develop new light-weight, high-strength materials for fabrication of vessels and

transfer lines. Examine the applicability of composite materials (e.g., filament wound

vessels) to domestic equipment. Direct research toward the development of low-cost, mobile

vessels for application to automobiles, aircraft, and ocean tankers.

4.25
(5) Consideration should be given to novel designs, for maximum use of unique

material properties and minimization of the developing material scarcity problem.

4.6.2 Insulation Research

(1) Improve standardization of low heat-flux measurement systems and develop

standard reference materials to improve reliability of measurements and facilitate

accurate intercomparisons.

(2) Perform research on existing and new insulation materials directed toward

the development of lower cost insulations and more effective system designs to minimize

heat losses, especially at thermal bridges.

4.6.3 Catalytic Material Research

Perform research on existing and new catalytic materials to obtain lower-cost, more

efficient materials. Research should optimize the quantity of material required in a catalytic device and recovery systems should be studied for material conservation. The

effect of hydrogen gas impurities and additives on the efficiency and life expectancy of

catalytic materials should be studied. Methods of reactivating poisoned catalysts should

be investigated.

4 . 7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my appreciation to members of the Cryogenics Division for their

assistance in the technical aspects of this review, especially Jesse Hord, Richard P. Reed,

and Richard H. Kropschot. I also wish to thank those outside of the division who generously

supplied information contained in the report, in particular, Neville Daniels, William

Chandler, T. P. Groeneveld, and A. R. Troiano, among many others too numerous to mention.

In addition, Ken Kozik's selfless assistance in retrieving and filing documents is gratefully acknowledged.

4.26
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4.32
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4.33
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4.34
[145] Dessau, P., Bearing Retainer Materials Development Final Report, Aerojet-General

Corp., Sacramento, Calif., Report N70-39767/NASA-CR-113168/RN-S-534 (Oct. 1969).

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.

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.

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1965)

.

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Liquid Hydrogen Barges, Proc. of the 2nd International Cryogenic Engr. Conf.,

Brighton, England p. 135-138 (1968).

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Art, presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Naval Architects and

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.

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Lines, Proc. of 7th IECEC (1972).

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Superconductive Pipeline, Proc. of THEME Conf, Univ. of Miami, Fla., (Mar. 1974).

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Hydrogen or Liquid Nitrogen Pipelines, Book, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering 15 , (Ed.) K. D. Timmerhaus, p. 346-353 (Plenum Press, New York, N.Y., 1970).

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of 7th IECEC (1972)

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(Mar. 1974).

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Cryogenics, Proc. of THEME Conf, Univ. of Miami, Fla., (Mar. 1974).

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The Formation and Properties of Rare-Earth and Transition Metal Hydrides, Proc.

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4.35
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West Chester, Pa., Rept. NASA-CR-54967/RR-66-49 (Jun. 1966).

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Washington, D.C. (Jul. 17-21, 1967).

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Fuel, Proc. of THEME Conf, Univ. of Miami, Fla., (Mar. 1974).

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Thompson and Co., Washington, D.C. Rept. NASA SP-120 (1967).

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Hydrogen-Oxygen Reaction at 78°K, J. Catal. 24> No. 3 p. 493-501 (Mar. 1972).

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Catalysts, Shell Development Co., Emeryville, Calif., Final Report NASA-CR-72118

(Jul. 1966).

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1973)

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2 Auxiliary Power Unit

for Space Shuttle, NASA-Lewis Tech. Memo. TMX-68084 Proc. of 7th IECEC (Sept. 1972).

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Hydrogen , (Ed.) R. B. Scott, W. H. Denton, and C. M. Nicholls, p. 149 (Macmillan and

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Combustion Engine Space Power System, NASA-CR-255 (1965)

4.36
[181] Anschutz, R. H., Hydrogen Burning Engine Experience, NASA Working Symposium on Liquid Hydrogen Fueled Aircraft p. 127-150 (May 15-16, 1973).

[182] Ordin, P., NASA, Cleveland, Ohio, Private Communication.

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,

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p. 112-117 (Feb. 1960).

4.37
4.9 APPENDIX

LIST OF RECENT AND ON-GOING HYDROGEN RELATED MATERIAL RESEARCH

Material research directed toward hydrogen applications is abundant. A listing of

the recent and current research is desirable to plan future research. The literature

collected for this investigation contains information regarding recent efforts. In order

to obtain a more complete listing, the following files were also searched for hydrogen

related materials research: Smithsonian Scientific Information Exchange, An Inventory of

Energy Research by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and the NASA Research and Technology

Operating Plan. The more pertinent of these efforts are listed in that which follows. A

listing of facilities, at which hydrogen related materials research has been recently conducted, is also included. The principal fields of interest are indicated. Because of the

large number of investigations which pertain in some manner to the applications of hydrogen

and oxygen, some significant omissions exist. For these unintentional omissions, the

author apologizes.

4.9.1 Material Development Projects

Title: Thermodynamic and Other Studies of Metal/Hydrogen Systems

Contact: K. A. Moon

Institution: U.S. Army, Materials & Mechanics Research Center, Watertown, Boston,

Massachusetts 02172

Summary: To obtain thermodynamic data for metal/hydrogen systems and to interpret the data

in terms of interactions within the solids. Improved materials or material may result via:

(1) Obtaining data directly applicable to materials design problems involving Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta. (2) Improved understanding of interstitial solutes, H, B, C, N, and 0, which profoundly affect strength, brittleness, and aging of metals. (3) Cooperation with other

AMXRC investigators on more applied R&D involving joining or sintering techniques which

employ metal hydrides.

Title: Composites

Contact: J. C. Freche

Institution: Lewis Research Center

Summary: The overall objective of this research is to develop fiber and laminate composite

materials, structures, and components for various aeronautical applications. Temperature

levels of interest range from cryogenic temperatures to over 250°F. The major objectives

for the programs are as follows: (1) To develop or synthesize improved polymers suitable

for use as matrix materials for temperatures up to 600°F. (2) To improve such properties

of polymer matrices as thermo-oxidative stability, shear strength (in association with

fibers) and toughness. (3) To develop carbon and boron fiber-polymer matrix composites

with greater strengths, moduli, fiber matrix bonds and toughness.

Title: Interdisciplinary Laboratories for Materials Research

Contact: R. A. Lad

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research

Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: The objectives are to: (1) Obtain new understanding of the relationships between

electronic, atomic, molecular and microscopic structures of solids and their useful mechanical, structural, electronic and chemical properties; (2) Employ the expertise existent in

universities to obtain knowledge in these areas and to aid in determining the best directions to follow in improving existing materials and obtaining new materials of direct interest to NASA programs. Research topics include interatomic forces in solids, corrosion,

diffusion, polymer rheology, composites, computer memory materials, hydrogen embrittlement

,

superconductivity, grain boundary mobility in ceramics, solid electrolytes, dispersion

strengthening, electromigration, spacecraft coating materials, crystal growth, computer

memory materials and others.

4.38
Title: Improved Performance Metallic Materials

Contact: H. Kato

Institution: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Albany, Oregon 97321

Summary: The objective is to develop metallic materials of construction specifically as follows: (1) Resistant to hydrogen embrittlement as encountered in pipeline steels con- tacting sour natural gas and oil. (2) Resistant to hydrogen fluoride-phosphoric acid media

which may be abrasive aqueous liquids or humid vapors at temperatures to 200°C. (3) Resistant to chlorine and chlorine containing sulfur at temperatures to 650°C.

Title: High Strength Materials

Contact: V. F. Zackay

Institution: University of California, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley,

California 94720

Summary: Relationships between chemistry, microstructure and mechanical properties are being developed to allow design of materials with superior combinations of strength,

ductility and toughness. The effects of lowering the stacking-f ault energy (thereby producing various mixtures of austenite (gamma) and bcc (alpha) or hep (epsilon) martensite)

will be further studied with respect to mechanical properties and susceptibility to hydrogen

embrittlement. Further corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, hydrogen embrittlement and

corrosion fatigue evaluations of several metastable austenites will be made to allow delineation of proposed fracture mechanisms. Accurate measurements of secondary incubation times

for the thermally-activated process will be made as a function of stress intensity level

and test temperature so that a mechanical-environmental analysis will be possible.

Other active facilities:

1. Institute of Gas Technology

Chicago, Illinois

Contact: D. P. Gregory

2. Naval Research Laboratory

Washington, D.C.

Contact: C. D. Beachem

3. North Carolina State University

Raleigh, North Carolina

Contact: R. B. Benson, Jr.

4.9.2 Hydrogen-Environment Embrittlement Projects

Title: Materials Environmental Compatibility for Space Shuttle

Contact: C. E. Cataldo

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics & Space Administration, Marshall Space Flight

Center, Huntsville, Alabama 35812

Summary: The objective of this study is to determine the effects of various environments

anticipated during fabrication, storage, and flight of the shuttle on structural materials,

both with respect to short term effects and long life effects. The studies covered under

this RTOP include the effects of high pressure gaseous hydrogen on materials, flammability

characteristics of materials in oxygen, corrosion susceptibility and outgassing characteristics of non-metallic materials.

Title: Fatigue, Fracture, and Life Prediction

Contact: G. Goodwin

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics & Space Administration, Ames Research Center,

Moffett Field, California 94035

Summary: The deleterious effects of stress corrosion on the mechanical properties of

aircraft and spacecraft structural metals are being studied in order to develop analytical

techniques and physical test criteria for predicting and minimizing such effects. In particular, an understanding of the embrittlement of metals by gaseous hydrogen will be sought.

4. Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Contact: J. E. Mrochek

5. Sandia Laboratories

Livermore, California

Contact: J. H. Swisher

4.39
4.9.3 Internal Embrittlement Projects

Title: Effect of Hydrogen on the Mechanical Properties of Titanium and Titanium Alloys

for Use in Naval Aircraft

Contact: E. S. Tankins

Institution: U.S. Navy, Air Vehicle Technology Department, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974

Summary: To study the effects of hydrogen absorbed at low temperatures on the embrittlement

of various titanium alloys used in naval aircraft.

Title: Use of Nuclear Techniques to Study Naval Aircraft Materials and Processes

Contact: D. A. Lutz

Institution: U.S. Navy, Air Vehicle Technology Department, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974

Summary: Fundamental studies of hydrogen embrittlement during chromium plating, of gas

absorption by high temperature alloys.

Title: Electrochemical and Metallurgical Aspects of Environmental Stress Cracking of

Alloys Used in Naval Aircraft Structures

Contact: J. J. Deluccia

Institution: U. S. Navy, Air Vehicle Technology Department, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974

Summary: The phenomena of stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement of naval aircraft

alloys in the simulated air-sea marine environment are being studied from a mechanistic

standpoint.

Title: Stress Corrosion and Hydrogen Embrittlement Characteristics of Missile Structural

Materials

Contact: J. T. Davidson

Institution: U.S. Army, Ground Support Equipment Laboratory, Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville,

Alabama 35809

Summary: To generate data on the susceptibility of precipitation hardening (PH) type

stainless steel alloys to stress-corrosion failure. Of major interest will be those PH type

alloys currently being utilized in Army missile systems as LANCE, DRAGON and TOW.

Title: Mechanism of Stress Corrosion Cracking 2841

Contact: H. H. Uhlig

Institution: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, School of Engineering, Cambridge,

Massachusetts 02139

Summary: To study the nature of the metal-ion interaction and the function of the tensile

stress involved in cracking. This project is concerned with the mechanisms involved in

stress corrosion cracking. To determine whether cracks generated in mild steel or austenitic

stainless by stress-corrosion are initiated and grow by local electrochemical action or whether a crack grows because the surface energy is reduced by the chemisorption of specific

ions. To differentiate between stress-corrosion cracking and cracking by hydrogen embrittlement, and to clarify the role of interstitial impurities in the behavior toward hydrogen ex- hibited by vacuum-melted, cold-worked alloys of iron with metals such as nickel, cobalt,

aluminum, or manganese.

Title: Navy Vehicle Design and Construction: Mechanisms of Hydrogen Embrittlement in

Metals and Alloys Used in Naval Structures

Contact: H. K. Birnbaum

Institution: University of Illinois, School of Engineering, Urbana, Illinois 61801

Summary: This research undertakes to clarify the mechanisms by which hydrogen can embrittle

metals and alloys, such as those used for Naval aircraft and ship structures. The Investigators are to study crack initiation and propagation in niobium-hydrogen and iron-hydrogen

alloys. Temperatures and hydrogen content are to be varied so that cracking may be studied

in alloys both with and without the presence of precipitated hydrides. Acoustic emission

techniques are to be used to follow crack growth and deuterium will be used as a substitute for hydrogen in certain cases to check diffusion constants and rates. Also, oxygen

doping (which alters the diffusion rate of hydrogen in niobium) will be used to determine

the effect of hydrogen diffusion rate on crack growth.

4.40
Title: Navy Vehicle Design and Construction: Investigation and Application of

Strengthening Methods to Titanium Alloys

Contact: A. W. Sommer

Institution: Rockwell International Corporation, International Airport, Los Angeles,

California 90009

Summary: This research project is aimed at providing needed strength improvements in

titanium and its alloys. The mechanical properties will be determined to obtain the

structure-property relationships. The interaction of hydrogen with dislocations in alpha

titanium will be followed by internal friction measurements.

Title: Navy Vehicle Design and Construction: Mechanisms of Hydrogen Embrittlement in

Metals and Alloys Used in Naval Structures

Contact: L. Nanis

Institution: University of Pennsylvania, School of Chemical Engineering, 203 Logan Hall,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19130

Summary: This research undertakes to clarify the mechanisms by which hydrogen can embrittle

metals and high strength alloys, such as those used for Naval aircraft landing gear assemblies. Iron, nickel, and titanium base alloys are being given controlled hydrogen distributions while under tensile stress. Hydrogen distribution and permeation rate is being correlated with stress-strain behavior and fracture characteristics using conventional metallurgical techniques.

Title: Navy Environment: Study of Hydrogen Embrittlement Mechanisms in High Strength

Steels

Contact: E. A. Steigerwald

Institution: TRW Incorporated, Cleveland, Ohio 44117

Summary: The objective of this research is to define the mechanisms by which hydrogen can embrittle high strength steels such as those used in landing gear of Naval aircraft and

rocket motor casings. The mechanical properties of various high strength steels with and

without hydrogen are being determined as a function of temperature, heat treatment, strain

rate, specimen geometry, and testing environment. The evaluation of the mechanical behavior

of these materials along with x-ray line broadening studies and permeability studies are being used to determine hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms and the factors which control the

embrittlement process.

Title: Fundamental Corrosion Studies: Hydrogen Embrittlement

Contact: L. Nanis

Institution: University of Pennsylvania, Laboratory for Research on Structural Matter,

203 Logan Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104

Summary: To link stress and hydrogen distribution in the study of hydrogen embrittlement

of steels by controlling of hydrogen distribution by electrochemical methods during actual

mechanical testing. Tensile specimens of 4340 steel with controlled hydrogen distributions

will be stressed to determine the interaction of hydrogen and microstructural features in

embrittled material.

Title: Environmental Sensitivity of Structural Metals - Liquid Metal Embrittlement

Contact: P. Gordon

Institution: Illinois Institute of Technology, School of Engineering, 3300 S. Federal

Street, Chicago, Illinois 60616

Summary: This research is an extension of on-going research on liquid metal embrittlement

to include the methodology of fracture mechanics. The areas to be investigated include:

(1) The effect of prior deformation on the fracture behavior of metals. (2) The role of

grain boundaries as the path for fracture propagation. (3) Experimental and theoretical

studies of materials hysteresis.

Title: Stress Corrosion and Hydrogen Embrittlement in Desalination Equipment

Contact: Prof. A. R. Troiano

Institution: Case Western Reserve University, School of Engineering, University Circle,

Cleveland, Ohio 44106

Summary: This program examined the resistance to SCC and hydrogen embrittlement in saline

solutions of high strength aluminum base alloys, austenitic and martensitic stainless steels

and monel.

4.41
Title: Investigation of the Effects of Hydrogen on the Structural-Mechanical Properties

of a Titanium-2 Nickel Alloy

Contact: R. E. Westerman

Institution: Battelle Memorial Institute, P.O. Box 999, Richland, Washington 99352

Summary: Determine the effects of hydrogen on the tensile, fatigue crack growth, fracture,

and acoustic emission behavior of 0.040 in. thick Ti-50A and Ti-2Ni strip.

Title: Stress Corrosion and Hydrogen Embrittlement in Desalination Equipment - Environmentally Induced Brittle Delayed Failure

Contact: Prof. A. R. Troiano

Institution: Case Western Reserve University, School of Engineering, University Circle,

Cleveland, Ohio 44106

Summary: This program explores the SCC of a variety of alloys exposed to saline solutions

as related to a hydrogen embrittlement mechanism.

Title: The Effect of Electrochemical Factors on the Stress-Corrosion Cracking of Titanium

Contact: J. F. Gloz

Institution: Ohio State University, School of Engineering, 190 N. Oval Dr., 102 Administration Bldg., Columbus, Ohio 43212

Summary: Current research is aimed at determining the amount and effect of hydrogen introduced into titanium under various electrochemical conditions. Also the effect of alloying

additions on the hydrogen concentration is being examined. A new and relatively simple

technique for determining low hydrogen concentrations in metals is being developed.

Title: Hydrogen Embrittlement - Steel

Contact: C. G. Interrante

Institution: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washington,

District of Columbia 20234

Summary: This new project is undertaken to establish limiting conditions in respect to strength levels, hydrogen content or effective hydrogen pressure, and temperature for the

changeover from microcrack propagation fracture behavior to fracture by ductile rupture.

Title: Hydrogen Embrittlement in Prestressing Steels

Contact: D. Bailey

Institution: University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, Newcastle Upon Tyne, England, United

Kingdom

Summary: The effects of composition, heat treatment, polarization potential, electroplating

and environmental conditions on the development of hydrogen embrittlement in prestressing

steels is being studied.

Title: Research on Corrosion and Inorganic Protective Coatings for Naval Aircraft Use Contact: S. J. Ketcham

Institution: U.S. Navy, Air Vehicle Technology Department, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974

Summary: Research into instrumental methods to detect hydrogen embrittlement with emphasis

on design of a portable version of the permeation apparatus for in-situ measurements (socalled barnacle electrode) ; hydrogen permeation studies on steels and titanium alloys;

characterization of corrosion behavior of composites, both metal fiber/metal matrices and

metal fiber/organic matrices; research on coating systems to minimize corrosion and embrittl

ment; and study of mechanism of cadmium embrittlement of high strength steels.

Title: Analysis of the Ductile-Brittle Transaction Temperature in Fe-Binary Alloys

Contact: W. W. Gerberich

Institution: University of Minnesota, School of Engineering, Institute of Technology,

Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414

Summary: A systematic study of both the flow and fracture characteristics of binary alloys

of iron is proposed so that the following salient factors involved in the ductile-brittle

transition temperature may be evaluated. (1) Atom size effect. (2) Metallic bonding

effect. (3) Concentration dependence. (4) Dislocation dynamics as applied to both flow

and fracture. In addition, several preliminary studies of dislocation and cracking mechanisms as associated with slow crack growth processes are being carried out. One of these,

associated with hydrogen embrittlement, promises to provide considerable insight into the

stress gradient effects on hydrogen diffusion.

4.42
Title: Effect of Environment on Fracture Behavior

Contact: H. H. Johnson

Institution: Cornell University, School of Engineering, 242 Carpenter Hall, Ithaca,

New York 14850

Summary: A detailed ^characterization of hydrogen "trapping" in iron and steels is

essential to an improved understanding of hydrogen brittleness and some stress corrosion

phenomena. Particular experimental attention is directed to the temperature dependence of

the trapping parameters. Identical strength levels will be obtained by two different processing routes, cold working and quenching and tempering. The first produces a microstructure resistant to stress corrosion; the quenched and tempered microstructure is more

susceptible.

4.9.4 Hydride Embrittlement Projects

Title: Precipitation and Dispersion Hardening in Hexagonal Alloys

Contact: Dr. N. S. Stoloff

Institution: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, School of Engineering, 110 - 8th, Troy,

New York 12181

Summary: This research has as its primary objective the study of the role of second phases

in the plastic deformation and fracture of metals of hep structure. Tests to determine

whether hydride cracking during plastic deformation limits strength at high hydrogen levels

will involve prestrain at 77 degrees K, followed by tests at 298 degrees K. The role of

oxygen in supressing cross-slip in hafnium-hydrogen alloys also will be investigated.

Title: Fatigue Behavior of BCC Metals

Contact: Prof. N. S. Stoloff

Institution: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, School of Engineering, 110 - 8th, Troy,

New York 12181

Summary: The objective of the proposed work is to determine the resistance of polycrystalline high purity vanadium to cyclic deformation. The test program will eventually be

extended to vanadium-hydrogen alloys.

Other Active Facilities (all types of embrittlement)

1. Alcoa Laboratories

Alcoa Center, Pennsylvania

Contact: P. D. Hess

2. Atomic Energy of Canada

Chalk River Nuclear Laboratory

Chalk River, Ontario, Canada

Contact: C. E. Ells

3. Atomic Energy of Canada

Whiteshell Nuclear Research Establishment

Pinava, Manitoba, Canada

Contact: A. Sawatzky

4. Battelle Memorial Institute

Columbus, Ohio

Contact: T. P. Groeneveld

5. Bethlehem Steel Corporation

Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

Contact: H. E. Townsend

6. Boeing Company

Seattle, Washington

Contact: R. G. Bassett

4.43
7. Brown-Boveri

Baden, Switzerland

Contact: M. 0. Peidel

8. Cambridge University

Cambridge, England

Contact: G. C. Smith

9. Case-Western Reserve University

Cleveland, Ohio

Contact: A. R. Troiano

10. Caterpillar Tractor Co. Peoria, Illinois

Contact: R. L. Straus

11. Carnegie-Mellon University

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Contact: I. M. Bernstein

12. Cornell University

Ithaca, New York

Contact: H. H. Johnson

13. Drexel University

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Contact: H. C. Rogers

14. Frankford Arsenal

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Contact: F. E. Sczerzenie

15. French Atomic Energy Commission

Pruyeres-Le-Chatel, France

Contact: J. P. Fidelle

16. Imperial College of Science and Technology

London, England

Contact: P. R. Swann

17. Institute of Gas Technology

Chicago, Illinois

Contact: D. P. Gregory

18. Lehigh University

Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

Contact: S. J. Hudak

19. Martin Marietta Coporation

Baltimore, Maryland

Contact: R. M. Latanision

20. Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts

Contact: R. M. N. Pelloux

21. McDonnell Douglas Corporation

St. Louis, Missouri

Contact: T. C. Grimm

22. NASA - Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, California

Contact: H. G. Nelson

4.44
23. NASA - Lewis Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio

Contact: J. R. Stephens

24. National Bureau of Standards

Boulder, Colorado

Contact: R. P. Reed

25. National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. Contact: C. Interrante

26. Naval Facilities Engineering Command

Washington, D.C.

Contact: R. A. McCoy

27. North Carolina State University

Raleigh, North Carolina

Contact: R. B. Benson, Jr.

28. Naval Research Laboratory

Washington, D. C. Contact: C. D. Beachem

29. Pennsylvania State University

University Park, Pennsylvania

Contact: H. Pickering

30. Rockwell International

Rocketdyne Division

Canoga Park, California

Contact: W. T. Chandler

31. Rockwell International, Science Center

Thousand Oaks, California

Contact: N. E. Paton

32. Sandia Laboratories

Livermore, California

Contact: J. H. Swisher

33. Savanah River Laboratories (DuPont)

Aiken, South Carolina

Contact: M. R. Louthan

34. T. R. W., Inc. Cleveland, Chio

Contact: C. S. Kortovich

35. University of Wisconsin

Madison, Wisconsin

Contact: D. Westphal

36. University of Illinois

Urbana, Illinois

Contact: H. W. Birnbaum

37. University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland

Contact: C. C. Chen

38. University of Paris

Orsay, France

Contact: J. P. Laurent

4.45
39. University of Minnesota

Minneapolis, Minnesota

Contact: W. W. Gerberich

40. University of California

Los Angeles, California

Contact: A. S. Tetelman

41. University of Technology

Loughborough, Leics, England

Contact: R. Haynes

42. U.S. Steel Corporation

Monroe, Pennsylvania

Contact: R. A. Oriani

43. Westinghouse Research Laboratory

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Contact: W. G. Clark

4.9.5 Embrittlement Inhibitor Projects

Title: Inhibition of Hydrogen Embrittlement in Alloys

Contact: K. E. Parr

Institution: U.S. Army, Structures and Mechanics Laboratory, Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville,

Alabama 35809

Summary: This research effort is directed to the gathering of experimental data to evaluate

the effectiveness of a thin nitrided surface layer in subduing or stopping hydrogen embrittlement in the Ti-6A1-4V alloy.

Title: Navy Environment: Hydrogen Embrittlement of High Strength Steels

Contact: H. W. Pickering

Institution: Pennsylvania State University, School of Earth Sciences, 201 Shields Bldg.,

University Park, Pennsylvania 16802

Summary: The objective of this research is to assess methods of reducing hydrogen embrittlement damage in high strength steels used in naval structures by control of surface properties.

Techniques will be investigated for modifying the surface of steels in order to reduce (A)

the rate of hydrogen adsorption, (B) the ease of hydrogen absorption, and (C) the diffusivity

of hydrogen. Methods of approach will include specific solute additions to surfaces, hydrogen

getter surface layers, and inhibitor layers. The ability of these methods to control hydrogen

entry and transport will be assessed by electrochemical methods, permeation measurements, and

fractography of ruptured specimens.

4.9.6 Hydrogen Diffusion Projects

Title: Controlled Thermonuclear Research - General Research and Development Studies of

Deuterium and Tritium Management for Thermonuclear Reactors

Contact: R. C. Vogel

Institution: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois

60439

Summary: This program involves an in depth study of the mechanisms and rates of diffusion

of hydrogen isotopes through a wide variety of materials of potential utility in the con- struction of fusion reactors. In the early stages, hydrogen permeabilities will be measured for niobium and vanadium as a function of both temperature and hydrogen partial pressure. The interactions of hydrogen v;ith these materials will also be investigated by x-ray

and micrographic techniques.

Title: Lattice Dynamical Theory of the Diffusion Phenomena

Contact: B. N. Achar

Institution: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont,

Illinois 60439

Summary: The theory of diffusion of interstitials will be studied in greater detail.

Numerical applications will be made to diffusion of hydrogen and deuterium in palladium.

4.46
Title: Diffusion of Interstitial Components in Titanium and Zirconium Alloys

Contact: S. J. Hruska

Institution: Purdue University, Materials Science Center, Executive Bldg., Lafayette,

Indiana 47907

Summary: The objective of this research was to determine the Ti-Zr phase diagram with

greater precision and to measure the diffusivity of hydrogen in Ti-Zr alloys.

Other Active Facilities

1. Institute fur Eisenhuttenkunde

der Rheinsch-Westf alschen

Technischen-Hochschule

Aachen, Germany

Contact: K. W. Lange

2. NASA - Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, California

Contact: H. G. Nelson

3. University of Nebraska

Lincoln, Nebraska

Contact: D. L. Johnson

4.9.7 Hydrogen and NDT Failure Detection Projects

Title: Development of an Electrochemical Device for In-Situ Determination of Embrittling

Hydrogen Content in Naval Aircraft Steel Components

Contact: D. Berman

Institution: U.S. Navy, Air Vehicle Technology Department, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974

Summary: To develop an electrolytic contact cell for the determination of hydrogen in high

strength steel aircraft structures and to correlate this with the degree of embrittlement

.

Title: Study of Acoustic Stress Wave Emission Phenomena and Its Application to the Early

Detection of Corrosion and Fatigue

Contact: R. Klinman

Institution: U.S. Navy, Air Vehicle Technology Department, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974

Summary: To study the fundamental mechanisms of acoustic stress wave generation and propagation in order to improve applicability of the method for detection and investigation

of stress and intercrystalline corrosion cracking, hydrogen embrittlement, and fatigue

phenomena.

Title: Nuclear Microprobe Hydrogen Detection Technique

Contact: G. M. Padawer

Institution: Grumman Corporation, S. Oyster Bay Rd., Bethpage, New York 11714

Summary: To acquire capability for detection and analysis of hydrogen at surface of high

strength metallic critical aerospace weapons systems parts.

Title: Applicability of Backscatter Mossbauer Effect to NDT for Hydrogen Embrittlement

of Navy Materials

Contact: R. C. Folweiler

Institution: Sanders Associates, Inc., 701 Concord Ave., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138

Summary: Provide a convenient, practical technique for the appraisal of the deterioration

modes of high strength steel. Hydrogen embrittlement, stress-corrosion hydrogen and re- sidual stress are the principal controllable factors of Navy materials.

Title: Stress-Corrosion Behavior of Prestressed Wires

Contact: S. Elices

Institution: Center for Public Works Studies, Madrid, Spain

Summary: The behavior of high-quality steel wires is being determined under different conditions; stress, corrosion brittleness through hydrogen, and cathodic polarization. An

easy and rapid test procedure, which is representative of the above phenomena, is to be

developed for use as a standard specification in Spain.

4.47
Other Active Facilities

1. Naval Air Development Center

Warminster, Pennsylvania

Contact: D. A. Berman

2. Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Contact: G. L. Powell

4.9.8 Hydrogen Production and Transmission Projects

Title: Energy Conversion, Energy Storage and Reconversion

Contact: W. L. Hughes

Institution: Oklahoma State University, School of Electrical Engineering, Whitehurst

Hall, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074

Summary: To develop a family of systems for storing electrical energy and thereafter

re-utilize the stored energy in various ways. In storage, major emphasis has been in the

development of high-pressure (1000 to 3000 PSI) moderate temperature (300 to 400 degrees

Fahrenheit) electrolysis cells, fuel cells and rechargeable fuel cells for the storage of

electrical energy in the form of high-pressure hydrogen gas (other alternatives include

hydrides and liquid hydrogen)

Title: Thermochemical Hydrogen Production

Institution: Institute of Gas Technology, Chicago, Illinois

Summary: Hydrogen can be produced by the decomposition of water using the heat generated

in a nuclear reactor. Multi-step chemical processes are being theoretically and experimentally examined. All intermediate chemicals are recycled so that the overall reaction

scheme produces only hydrogen and oxygen with water as the only raw material. A number of

different reaction schemes have been considered. Two of them have potential promise and are being analyzed in more detail.

Title: Energy Conversion and Storage

Contact: W. L. Hughes

Institution: Oklahoma State University, School of Engineering, 101 Gunderson Hall,

Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074

Summary: The original prime objective of the project was to develop an economical com- mercial electrolysis-fuel cell, the purpose of which would be to utilize off-peak electric

energy and water in the electrolysis mode to produce oxygen and hydrogen which would be

stored.

Title: Production of Hydrogen from Water

Contact: J. L. Russell

Institution: Gulf General Atomic, Inc., San Diego, California

Summary: To discover and develop closed thermochemical cycles for producing hydrogen from

water.

Title: Ocean Sited Power Plants

Contact: W. E. Heronemus

Institution: University of Massachusetts, School of Engineering, Amherst, Massachusetts

01002

Summary: The augmented effort will be applied to marine system conceptualizations and

feasibility studies of power generation from ocean temperature differences where the

boiler and condenser temperatures are about 75-85 degrees F (tropical surface waters) and

35-45 degrees F (bottom waters below 2000 feet), respectively. All components of a system

will be conceptualized and evaluated including hulls, heat exchangers, pumps, pipes,

electrolysis of water to hydrogen fuel, etc., for a 100-400 MW central power stations moored

in the Gulf Stream.

4.48
Title: A Hydrogen Energy Distribution System

Institution: Institute of Gas Technology, Chicago, Illinois

Summary: This study was undertaken to assess the feasibility of producing hydrogen from

nuclear energy and to determine whether any technical roadblocks exist which would prevent

its long-distance transmission and its in-city distribution and utilization.

Other Active Facilities

1. General Electric Company

Schenectady, New York

Contact: A. R. H. Wentorf

2. Euratom C.C.R.

Establishment of Ispra, Italy

Contact: C. Marchetti

3. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

Los Alamos, New Mexico

Contact: Mel Bowman

4.9.9 Hydrogen Storage Projects

Title: Chemical Energy Storage

Contact: J. M. Burger

Institution: Public Service Electric and Gas Company, 80 Park Place, Newark, New Jersey 07101

Summary: Develop a reliable, low cost chemical energy storage device to store electrical

energy during off-peak times and to deliver electrical energy for a duration of 10 to 12 hours

during heavy-load times. Also included is the development of a gas electric two-way transformer system utilizing hydrogen storage to produce electrical energy or pipeline gas.

Title: Vacuum Shell Cryogenic Tankage Fabrication for Possible Orbit to Orbit Shuttle Use

Contact: J. Kennedy, T. Nicastro

Institution: Signal Companies Incorporated, 1010 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, California

90017

Summary: Technical objective: The purpose of this effort is to fabricate a vacuum

jacketed tank with application to long term storage of liquid hydrogen. After fabrication

and delivery of the tank to the AFRPL a test program will be initiated to determine

thermodynamic performance of the tank using liquid hydrogen.

Title: Cryogenic Storage Technology

Contact: C. A. Aukerman

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: The general objectives of the programs under this RTOP are to provide technology

for various aspects of cryogenic thermal protection systems. The specific areas covered

by these programs are: (1) shadow shields for liquid hydrogen tanks, (2) a liquid hydrogen

mixing unit, (3) cryogenic tank supports, and (4) integrated thermal protection systems.

In each area, the objective is to demonstrate the feasibility of a new concept for improving the capability to store liquid hydrogen in space vehicles.

4.49
Title: Tankage Development and Evaluation

Contact: G. T. Smith

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: Design and fabrication of low cost, high performance reliable pressure vessels

for upper stage vehicles. Characterization of the growth of flaws which are deep with

respect to the material thickness. Both critical and subcritical flaw growth data will

be obtained in both aggressive and inert environments.

Title: Metal Hydrides

Contact: J. J. Egan, D. R. MacKenzie

Institution: Brookhaven National Laboratory; Upton, New York 11973

Summary: We plan to obtain PTC or exchange data or both on the hydrides of such metals

as the alkaline earths, thorium, zirconium alloys, vanadium alloys, AB5-type and other

rare earth alloys, and perhaps some ternary alloys. As regards hydrogen storage, experiments are planned which will increase our knowledge of the effects of minor components of

alloys on hydride reservoirs in conjunction with energy sources which will be investigated

both by engineering analysis and if possible with actual bench-scale integrated systems.

4.9.10 Propulsion Systems Projects

Title: Non-Polluting Engine Program

Contact: J. Agost, also with H. C. Wieseneck, Rockwell International Corporation

Institution: Commonwealth Edison Company, 3500 N. California Ave., Chicago, Illinois 60632

Summary: Commonwealth Edison Co., and Rocketdyne Division of North American Rockwell

Corp. are working on this joint plan to install an experimental "rocket" powered or non- polluting engine (NPE) to produce peaking power electricity at Edison's Joliet Station.

Title: Advanced H-0 Power System Technology

Contact: D. G. Beremand

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: This activity is directed toward the continued investigation and advancement of

Hydrogen-Oxygen Turbine engine technology. This work is in support of advanced H-0 Space

Power Systems (such as advanced Shuttle APU's) as well as the widening interest in non- polluting H-0 ground power systems. Potential areas of investigation include Stoichometric H-0 engines with water-injection-cooled combustors, utilization of water-cooled

turbines, and materials development for hydrogen turbines.

Title: Space Shuttle Auxiliary Propulsion

Contact: D. L. Nored

Institution: U. S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: The objective of this program is to provide improvements in the technology of

engine components for the auxiliary propulsion system of the space shuttle. The major

portion of this work will be devoted to advancements in the thruster assembly, including

the injector, thrust chamber, igniter, and valves. The operating conditions for experimental work are selected to fit the particular requirements of the space shuttle. This

includes operation with gaseous hydrogen/gaseous oxygen propellants at thrust levels in

the range from 1500-2000 pounds, chamber pressures from 100-150 psia, and appropriate

ranges of propellant inlet pressure and temperature.

Title: Space Storable Propulsion Technology

Contact: E. W. Conrad

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: The objective of this program is to provide component, subsystem and system

design criteria for propulsion systems using moderate cryogenic (space storable) and deep

cryogenic (hydrogen) propellants to demonstrate the performance and technology readiness

of propulsion modules using both propellant types for simulated mission of up to 1200 days.

4.50
Title: Advanced Liquid Rocket Propulsion Component Technology

Contact: J. W. Gregory

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: The objective of this program is to provide improvements in the technology of

liquid rocket propulsion, including (1) turbomachinery , (2) feed systems, (3) injectors

and thrust chambers, and (4) associated instrumentation. In turbomachinery, the major

efforts will be devoted to investigation of axial flow pumps, inducer design, cavitation

in cryogenic propellants.

Title: Advanced Combustors and Fuels

Contact: J. H. Childs

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: Research will be conducted on film cooling of combustor liners, multiple jet

penetration and mixing, new types of fuel injectors, and short-length, bleed-type combustor

inlet diffusers. Concluding research will be done on fuel system components and handling

techniques for liquid methane and liquid hydrogen fuels.

Title: Space Systems Propulsion

Contact: M. J. Saari

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: The objective of this study is to provide a point design of an LH^/LO^ engine of

about 10,000 pounds thrust.

Title: Development of a Pollution Free Hydrogen-Fueled Automobile

Contact: R. R. Adt, Jr. Institution: University of Miami

Summary: The object of this work is to optimize the design of the hydrogen-fueled engine,

fuel storage and delivery system.

4.9.11 Bearings, Seals and Lubricants Projects

Title: Bearings, Seals, and Lubricants

Contact: R. L. Johnson

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: Basic materials and lubricants studies as well as experiments and analyses with

actual components in vacuum, cryogenic, inert gas, and low viscosity fluid environments

will be conducted. The potentials of self-lubricating materials and film deposition methods

are being explored. Experiments and analyses of promising types of fluid film bearings and

seals for gas and low viscosity liquid applications are underway.

Title: Shuttle Lubrication, Bearings and Seals

Contact: R. L. Johnson

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: Materials and lubricants selection, development, design, theory, analysis and

experimentation of bearings and seals will be performed under extreme conditions associated

with (A) engine and (B) vehicle components subject to lubrication, friction, wear, and

hydraulics problems. Rolling element bearings and face type seals for hydrogen pumps of

shuttle engines will be operated under conditions simulating problem areas.

4.51
4.9.12 Fuel Cells Projects

Title: Direct Energy Conversion Research

Contact: M. Altman, G. L. Schrenk, H. Wroblowa

Institution: University of Pennsylvania, School of Engineering, 107 Towne Bldg.,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104

Summary: Electrocatalytic Materials for Oxygen Electrodes. Involves an investigation

of the electrochemical behavior and of structural changes occuring in doped Cu, Au alloys

during oxygen reduction in low temperature alkaline cells, aiming at development of a stable oxygen electrode containing no noble metals of Group VIII and outperforming platinum

based electrodes. The second goal is an examination of the theory of Bocciarelli which

led to construction of new electrocatalysts for oxygen and hydrogen electrodes.

Flow-Through Systems. The research covers the theory of flow-through electrodes by

including the diffusional effects hitherto neglected: development of a method of determination of the electro-active surface area of porous electrodes and production of low

catalyst load flow-through and gas diffusion electrodes.

Applied Surface Physics. Transport phenomena of electrons through surfaces will be

investigated with emphasis on applications in field ion microscopy and electrocatalysis

This will involve research in the kinetics and quantum mechanics of surface reaction,

adsorption/desorption processes, and tunneling through multi-layer adsorbates, both in vacuo and in the presence of solvents.

Title: Reactive Sensitivity of Fuel Cell Gas Mixtures

Contact: J. S. Greer

Institution: MSA Research Corporation, Evans City, Pennsylvania 16033

Summary: Mixtures of gases arising during the routine operation of candidate naval fuel

cells such as hydrazine-peroxide and hydrogen-oxygen types will be examined with respect

to the effect of pressure on their flammability limits. Where flammability is observed,

the ignitibility characteristics of the system will be studied as a function of pressure.

Ignition will be effected by spark, compression and thermal gradient. In addition, the

effect of selected catalysts and hypergolic (e.g., peroxide vapor) impurities on the

flammable mixtures will be observed. Negotiations are underway for an experimental study

of the effects of high pressure (in the range of 10,000 psi)

Title: Low Cost Matrix for Hydrocarbon Fuel Cell

Contact: B. S. Baker

Institution: Energy Research Corporation, Bethel, Connecticut 06801

Summary: The purpose of this contract is to develop an E^PO^ matrix technology. Suitable

matrices must be structurally and chemically invariant in hot H^PO^, be composed of low

cost raw materials, and be capable of inexpensive mass production. A second part of this

contract will examine low cost CO tolerant anodes for indirect hydrocarbon/air fuel cells.

Those materials exhibiting desirable characteristics will then be tested in single H /air

cells. Small amounts of platinum and platinum alloys will be supported on carbon ana

the resulting electrodes tested with l^-CO mixtures.

Title: Fuel Cell Safety

Contact: H. B. Urbach

Institution: U.S. Navy, Ship Research and Development Laboratory, Annapolis, Maryland 21402

Summary: Provide improved safety characteristics of candidate naval fuel cell powerplants

by development of data on material and component design selection and safety criteria

guidelines applicable to power supplies for deep submergence vehicles, and underwater

habitats.

4.52
Title: Thermocatalytic Hydrogen Generation from Logistic Fuels

Contact: 0. F. Kezer

Institution: U.S. Army, Mobility Equipment Research and Development Center, Fort Belvoir,

Virginia 22060

Summary: The objective of this investigation is to produce a lightweight, efficient gas

generation system operating on logistic hydrocarbon based fuels capable of producing

hydrogen for a fuel cell reactant. The first phase of this investigation is the derivation

of fundamental design and operational parameters for thermocatalytic hydrogen generators.

This effort will be centered around the investigation of basic parameters, techniques

and materials, applicable to the design and operation of thermocatalytic hydrogen generation

systems. This includes an investigation of the effect of fuel, catalyst, and temperature

on the products formed and will also involve a study of the mechanism of hydrocarbon

cracking.

Title: Regenerative Fuel Cells Follow-On for Satellite Secondary Power

Contact: J. K. Stedman

Institution: United Aircraft Corporation, Hartford, Connecticut 06118

Summary: Build an exploratory development base to support advanced development of a 20 watt-hr/lb hydrogen-oxygen regenerative fuel cell for energy storage for synchronous

orbit applications.

Title: Twenty watt-hr/lb Regenerative Fuel Cell (EOS)

Contact: R. Costa

Institution: Xerox Corporation, 3452 E. Foothill Blvd., Pasadena, California 91107

Summary: To develop an energy storage system capable of long life (5-7 years) cyclic

storage and release of 20 watt-hours or more of electrical energy per pound of storage

system on board synchronous orbit satellites. To design, develop, test and evaluate a single cell (nominal 1 volt unit) regenerative hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell (about 350

ampere-hour capacity) utilizing a KOH electrolyte matrix and concentric electrodes in a cylindrical configuration.

Title: Twenty watt-hr/lb Regenerative Fuel Cell (P+W)

Contact: J. Stedman, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Div.

Institution: United Aircraft Corporation, Hartford, Connecticut 06118

Summary: To develop an energy storage system capable of long life (5-7 years) cyclical

storage and release of 20 watt-hours or more of electrical energy per pound of storage

system on board synchronous orbit satellites. To design, develop, test and evaluate an integrated regenerative hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell stack utilizing separate electrodes for

charge and discharge and KOH critical components and a functionally complete regenerative

fuel cell system.

Title: Electrode-Electrolyte System for H

2 ~Air Fuel Cell

Contact: 0. J. Adlhart

Institution: Englehard Industries, Inc., Newark, New Jersey

Summary: The technical objective is to attain 180 ma/square centimeters from fuel cells

using a simulated cracker fuel (90 percent hydrogen, 10 percent methane plus trace of

carbon monoxide) and air as the oxidant at voltages of .60 or higher after 2000 hours.

Total noble metal catalyst loading are not to exceed 8 mg/square centimeters.

Title: Electrochemical Power Devices

Contact: H. J. Schwartz

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: Emphasis will be placed on technology leading to an advanced H

2 ~02 fuel cell

system for space shuttle applications.

4.53
Title: Low Cost Cathode Catalysts

Contact: B. S. Baker

Institution: Energy Research Corporation, Bethel, Connecticut 06801

Summary: The objective of this contract is to demonstrate high performance with low cost

fuel cell air electrodes. The specific goals are to develop cathodes with a catalyst cost

equivalent not more than $150/kW based on performance after 500 hours of constant current

drain in H.PO. electrolyte.

3 4 Title: Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells for Underwater Applications

Contact: D. R. Gormley

Institution: U.S. Department of Defense, Naval Ship Research and Development Center

Summary: The objective of this work is the exploratory development of naval hydrogenoxygen fuel cell powerplant modules over the range of 2 to 20 kW with capabilities

reaching 20 lb. and 0.2 cu. ft. per kW rated output, 0.8 lb. consumables per kW, and a maintenance free life of 3000 hours.

Title: Fuel Cell Materials for Underwater Power Sources

Contact: J. R. Bowen

Institution: U.S. Department of Defense, Naval Ship Research & Development Center, Naval

Ship R&D Laboratory, Department of Machinery Technology, Annapolis, Maryland 21402

Summary: Study the electrochemical and compatibility behavior of candidate fuel cell

materials for application in fuel cell power plants operation in deep-sea pressures as high as 10,000 psi. Present efforts involve materials for hydrogen-oxygen and hydrazinehydrogen peroxide fuel cells.

Title: Energy Storage and Generation

Contact: W. L. Hughes, H. J. Allison, R. G. Ramakumar

Institution: Oklahoma State University, School of Electrical Engineering, Stillwater,

Oklahoma 74075

Summary: Research and development on high pressure electrolysis, high temperature and

high pressure hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells, and development of a family of electric alternators

for which output frequency is independent of prime mover shaft speed, physical size is

about 1/4 that of conventional system (for same output frequency, power and efficiency).

Title: Corrosion-Resistant Materials for Electrochemical Cells

Contact: H. P. Silverman

Institution: TRW, Inc., TRW Systems, One Space Park, Redondo Beach, California 90278

Summary: Methods for determining compatability of materials with fuel cell electrolytes

and the environment of electrochemical cells will be investigated.

Title: Evaluation of Phosphoric Acid Matrix Fuel Cells

Contact: 0. J. Adlhart

Institution: Engelhard industries, 113 Astor Street, Newark, New Jersey 07114

Summary: To reduce the catalysts cost/kW of H„-air fuel cells were expanded to include

the examination of other reactants such as methanol and propane. Elevated temperatures,

as high as 250 degrees C, shall be used in order to increase the oxidation rate of hydrocarbons.

Title: Regenerative Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell Systems

Contact: H. J. Allison, R. G. Ramakumar

Institution: Oklahoma State University, School of Electrical Engineering, Whitehurst Hall,

Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074

Summary: Testing and development of rechargeable hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells.

Title: Family of Open Cycle Fuel Cell Power Plant Development

Contact: T. Shillet

Institution: United Aircraft Corporation, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, 400 Main Street,

East Hartford, Connecticut 06108

Summary: To design, develop and fabricate 1.5 kW fuel cell power plants and to design

0.5 kW, and 5 kW power plants.

4.54
Title: Electrode-Electrolyte System for H -Air Fuel Cell

Contact: 0. J. Adlhart

Institution: Engelhard Minerals & Chemicals Corporation, Engelhard Industries Division,

113 Astor Street, Newark, New Jersey 07114

Title: Fuel Cell Electrodes

Contact: D. Laverty

Institution: Brunswick Corporation, Materials Research Laboratory, Needham, Massachusetts

02102

Title: Thin Electrode Fuel Cells

Contact: J. Batzold

Institution: Esso Research & Engineering Company, P.O. Box 8, Linden, New Jersey 07036

Summary: The objective is to develop high performance alkaline, hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell

electrodes based on the technology developed under National Aeronautics and Space Administration grant NSG-325. Principally, efforts will be directed towards reduction of electrode

thickness, amount of catalyst and production problems for a given performance level.

Title: Hydrogen-Oxygen Power Systems

Contact: D. G. Beremand

Institution: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center,

Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: The objectives are to develop technology readiness for a hydrogen-oxygen APU to provide hydraulic and electric power for the space shuttle vehicle, and to evaluate the

performance potential and applicability of hydrogen-oxygen dynamic power systems for other

space and ground applications.

4.55

CHAPTER 5 INSTRUMENTATION FOR CRYOGENIC HYDROGEN FUEL

T. M. Flynn

5 . 0 SUMMARY

This chapter surveys state-of-the-art technology for cryogenic hydrogen instruments.

Recommendations for future work are outlined: adaptation of existing technology to commercial applications, development of new technology and integrating liquid hydrogen

measurements into the National Measurement System (NMS) are future priority tasks.

Since measurements are the basis of technology, and dictate the fineness of our physical observations and control, it is apparent that this part of hydrogen technology

is lagging. Our three conclusions are: 1) little is being done to bring the hydrogen

instrumentation technology of the space program to the market place, 2) if it were, adequate primary instruments and facilities do not exist to bring this part of the NMS under

control, and 3) no concerted effort exists to explore the consequences or exploit the

opportunities of new technological opportunities.

These conclusions appear to apply generally to each area of cryogenic instrumentation,

although, of course with varying degrees of severity. Specific analyses and conclusions

appear in each major instrumentation area in the following sections of this chapter. The

broad conclusions are: Pressure transducers are normally placed in a temperature controlled environment near room temperature. Some available pressure transducers are capable of performing satisfactorily at low temperatures, but new types such as piezoelectric, diode, electrokinetic, etc. may perform equally well or better. It is, therefore, necessary for the purpose of comparison

that all pressure transducers be tested at low temperatures and at various frequencies to determine their potential for hydrogen use. Because pressure sensing devices are widely

used (differential pressure flow meters, level gauges, and vapor pressure thermometers)

and because their cryogenic behavior is quite different from that of normal use, a systematic, well documented testing program is presently needed.

Temperature measurements are unquestionably in better shape than any other hydrogen

measurements. Adequate calibration facilities exist as well as a large body of knowledge

that together help keep this part of the NMS in control. Industrial type platinum resistance thermometers are routinely used, for instance. Improvements in their interchangeability would be desirable, as well as some simple thermometry for crude temperature indications and the monitoring of process trends.

Level detectors for liquid hydrogen were extensively developed during the space

program, but it is remarkable how little space hardware is actually used in the commercial sector. A deliberate effort to adapt space instrumentation to commercial and industrial applications seems worthwhile.

Primary instruments and facilities to calibrate liquid level devices do not exist, and

accordingly it is questionable whether this part of the NMS is in control. Furthermore,

a large body of knowledge and experience needs to be developed to move with assurance from

5.1
this relatively clean measurement to the practical measurement question of how much does the

tank really contain?

Density is an inferential measurement, and as such, it should be traceable to a national

standard, such as a national density reference system. Primary instruments to .calibrate

densitometers do not exist.

Several physical principles of hydrogen density measurement have been brought well

forward by the space program. Notable are the capacitance, vibration, and nuclear radiation attenuation schemes. Microwave methods are recently moving to the forefront. It is

felt that the pressing need now is to: a) commercialize these instruments for routine

engineering applications and b) provide an adequate national reference system.

Flow - There is no shortage of physical principles upon which to base a hydrogen

flowmeter. Depending on the need, they range from simple pressure drop meters to sophisticated mass reaction types. Flow, however, is a derived quantity and as such flowmeters

require traceability to a reference system to establish credibility. Thus flowmetering

needs fall into four categories: 1) flow reference systems, 2) possible use of substitute

fluids for calibrations, 3) extension to large flow rates, 4) standard codes and practices.

The latter requirement is basic to each area of instrumentation as hydrogen technology moves into the marketplace and becomes an influential member of the NMS.

5 . 1 INTRODUCTION

The national space program developed not only a complete technological base for

cryogenic instrumentation, but also many specific instruments themselves for particular

tasks in hydrogen propellant loading and utilization. Nothing remarkable has been done,

however, to bring these instruments to the market place for commercial and industrial use. A recent survey of the Smithsonian Science Information Exchange, Inc., revealed two hydrogen instrumentation projects. One was the development of a nuclear magnetic resonance

(NMR) flowmeter for the USAF, and the other was a modest NBS effort.

Thus one component of the problem of hydrogen instrumentation is that it is largely

static. Not much has been accomplished technically since the peak of the space program,

perhaps since 1969, or earlier, and surely there is little evidence of the commercialization of these instruments.

A second part of the problem arises from the way hydrogen measurements fit into the

NMS. As long as only a single agency or one sector of our economy (NASA, the aerospace

industry) were using essentially all of the results of their own measurements, then

that part of the NMS was internally consistent and in harmony with itself. Now however,

the prospects are that hydrogen is becoming commercialized and moving to the market place

and thus external consistency as well as internal consistency is now required to make this

part of the NMS work. Primary instruments and facilities to calibrate the derived quantities — liquid level, density, and flow — do not exist. Unlike pressure and temperature,

this part of the NMS is chaotic and needs to be brought under control.

The third part of the problem is perhaps a derivative of the fir9t. Because the

field is static, a crucial question is not being asked: are there predictable technological

5.2
developments that will either create a need for new hydrogen instruments or possibly provide

an altogether new measurement means?

5.2 PRESSURE

Pressure measurements in cryogenic systems have, for years, been made by simply

running gage lines from the point where the pressure measurement is desired to some con- venient location at ambient temperatures and attaching a suitable pressure-measuring device

such as the familiar Bourdon gage.

This system works quite well for most applications; however, there are disadvantages

to this straightforward approach that may introduce problems in many systems. The two most important are (1) reduced frequency response and (2) thermal oscillations. In addition, heat leak, uncertainties in hydrostatic head within gage lines, and fatigue failure

of gage lines could become significant in some applications. Such problems associated

with pressure measurement at cryogenic temperatures could be eliminated by installing

pressure transducers at the point of measurement, thereby doing away with gage lines. For

these reasons, we shall consider in the following discussion primarily those pressure

transducers which have an electrical output, and which can be "flush mounted" directly on

the cryogenic component under consideration.

5.2.1 Pressure Transducers

All pressure transducers, regardless of their particular type, share three major

subassemblies: (1) a force summing device which converts the force or pressure to a displacement, (2) a mechanical link to transmit this displacement and perhaps amplify it,

and (3) an electrical conversion device.

The force summing device may take any of several forms. It may be, for example,

a diaphragm, whether flat, corrugated, or encapsulated. It may also be a bellows, or a Bourdon tube, whether circular or twisted, or simply a straight tube which is stressed

under pressure.

The link may simply be a straight bar which transmits this displacement directly, or

it may be an involved series of linkages which magnifies the original displacement.

The electrical conversion device can also take many forms. It may be a variable

capacitor whose plate spacing depends upon the displacement and, hence, pressure. It may be a variable potentiometer in which the position of the wiper arm is determined by

the displacement and, hence, pressure. It may be any of several variable reluctance or variable inductance devices. It may also comprise a piezoelectric element, a strain gage,

or a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

.

Like all instruments, the output of a pressure transducer depends not only on the

primary input, in this case pressure, but also upon extraneous effects, such as the effect

of temperature on its various components. Erroneous pressure readings can be caused by

both steady state temperature effects and temperature gradient, or thermal shock effects.

5.3
5.2.2 Steady State Temperature Effects

Steady state temperature effects can be measured by simply calibrating a pressure

transducer at two or more different fixed temperatures, after a sufficient amount of time

has elapsed such that every component of the transducer is at the same temperature. There

will generally be noted both changes in sensitivity and also zero shifts. Dean [1] modeled

pressure transducers in an analytical form and demonstrated that the sensitivity shift is

primarily due to the differences in the thermal expansivities of the several components

which make up the transducer, and especially due to change in the elastic modulus as a function of temperature. Likewise, the zero shift can also be attributed to the difference

in the thermal expansivities of the several components of the pressure transducers, but

the more significant effect in this case is the change in the dimensions of the components

due to changes in temperature. If the electrical conversion device is used in some form

of a bridge network, additional zero shifts can occur from the inability of the bridge to perform adequate common mode rejection.

5.2.3 Thermal Shock Effects

So far we have been assuming that the pressure transducer is experiencing a uniform

temperature throughout its many components. The effect of temperature gradients across a pressure transducer can be measured by applying no pressure to the pressure transducer,

but subjecting it to a thermal shock by plunging it into a liquid cryogen. What is observed

is purely the thermal shock, or thermal gradient, effect. Some pressure transducers are known to suffer a permanent deformation, or offset, after being returned to their normal

operating temperature. It has been noted that many pressure transducers would, in fact, be

quite good thermometers.

Such erroneous readings can be explained if one considers a typical pressure transducer

that is made up of a bellows, a link, and a linear resistor. Under conditions of thermal

shock, the bellows will reach the new temperature environment at a different rate than the

linear resistor. The difference in the expansivity of these materials are drastically

different over a wide temperature range. Therefore, the contributions of the expansivities

of these components to the sensitivity coefficient is changed from the design condition,

causing a sensitivity shift. A compensating resistor is often placed in the bridge in

order to perform a common mode rejection to compensate for the temperature dependency of

the elastic modulus of the bellows. Unfortunately, this compensating resistor is often

several inches away from the bellows, so that its temperature gradients are quite different

from that member. In fact, if temperature gradients are expected for a pressure transducer installation, it may be beneficial to remove the electrical compensation, as the error thus induced may far exceed the error due only to the temperature dependency of the

elastic modulus.

The temperature gradient effect also causes zero shift. These zero shift effects are usually dissipated with time as all of the members of the pressure transducer reach the same temperature.

5.4
5.2.4 Methods of Avoiding Temperature Effects on Pressure Transducers

The most common solution to temperature effects is to avoid extreme-temperature en- vironments. When the pressure instrumentation point is subjected to such temperatures,

the standard procedure is to run tubing from the pressure source to a remote, stable temperature location. This is good procedure if the instrument engineer is interested in a frequency response of the order of 10 Hz

.

Another approach is to flush-mount one pressure transducer in the extreme environment

and another at the end of a tube as discussed above. The object is to measure static

pressure levels with the tube-mounted pressure transducer and dynamic pressures with the

flush-mounted transducer. The hope is that the temperature-shock contribution to dynamic

response will be small or of low enough frequency to separate easily.

A perhaps better but more complicated solution for cryogenic application is shown

in Figure 5.1. A short thin-walled tube connects a cryogenic transfer line or tank to a pressure transducer. A heater and a thermostat are attached to the transducer, regulating

the temperature to perhaps 27 °C. Insulation surrounds the transducer. Tube length is

long enough to reduce the power requirement to the heater to a few watts, hopefully without

excessively reducing the frequency response. It is important that the heater and tube

connection be arranged so that temperature gradients do not exist in the transducer. The

transducer must be oriented so that the liquid cryogen does not flow into the diaphragm.

5.2.5 Pressure Summary

Temperature, as an extraneous variable, can have a profound effect upon pressure

transducers, altering both the sensitivity of the instrument and its zero setting. Sensitivity shifts are primarily proportional to the spring constant and thus the Young's

modulus temperature dependency of the force summing member-be it a diaphragm, a bellows,

a Bourdon tube, or a capsule. Zero shifts are primarily due to dimensional instability

caused by temperature changes of the pressure transducer components, including the case

or frame. Temperature gradient effects are the combination of the above effects while the

transducer component temperatures are varying.

Proper design can reduce zero shift by locating the electrical sensing element so that dimensional changes are not detected as an input. Sensitivity shifts can be electrically compensated assuming a resistor can be found that has the desired resistance-temperature properties. Unfortunately there is not much that can be done about temperature

gradient effects except to avoid them. Component material and compensating resistors

that are carefully chosen for steady state temperature conditions lose their relationships

under transient conditions. However, it may be helpful to place the compensating resistor

as close to the force summing element as possible. Avoiding temperature gradients is a matter of heat transfer. Under cryogenic conditions enough insulation must be used to greatly extend the thermal time constant of the system.

Of all the measurements made on cryogenic systems, surely one of the most common must

be that of pressure measurement. Pressure measurements are made not only to determine the

force per unit area in a system, but also to determine flow rate (head type meters), quantity

5.5
WATER TUBE OR

THERMOSTATED

ELECTRIC

HEATER

COPPER BLOCK

PRESSURE

TRANSDUCER

INSULATION

SHORT

TUBE

HYDROGEN PIPELINE

FIGURE 5.1 - Temperature- Regulated Pressure

Transducer for Cryogenic Installation.

5.6
(differential pressure liquid level gages), and temperature (vapor pressure or gas thermometers) . Pressure measurements are thus fundamental to the smooth running of much of this

part of the National Measurement System (NMS)

.

While it is agreed that some available pressure transducers are capable of performing

satisfactorily at low temperature, other types, e.g., piezoelectric, diode, inductance,

reluctance, and electrokinetic devices may perform equally well or better. It is, therefore, necessary for the purpose of comparison, that all pressure transducers types be

tested at low temperature and at various frequencies to determine their potential for cryogenic use. Because pressure sensing devices often behave quite differently (from ambient

conditions) in a cryogenic medium, a systematic, well documented testing program is presently needed before all types can be evaluated and compared.

A cryogenic calibration system with varied capabilities is essential for the successful completion of such a program described above. The details of such a system have been

described by Arvidson [2].

5 . 3 TEMPERATURE

Most engineering measurements are made witn metallic resistance thermometers, non- metallic resistance thermometers, or thermocouples. Gas thermometers and vapor pressure

thermometers find little practical engineering application, and hence are mentioned only

briefly in the following paragraphs. A recent compilation of the commercial availability

of thermometers is given in "Measurements and Data" [3].

5.3.1 "FLUID" THERMOMETRY

Gas Thermometry . Constant-volume gas thermometry is familiar as a technique for

accurate realization of the thermodynamic temperature scale. In such work the P-T behavior is made as linear as possible by minimizing the extraneous volumes in the manometer and the connecting tubing. Troublesome corrections for these extraneous volumes

decrease with decreasing bulb temperature inasmuch as the proportion of gas in the bulb

increases. On the other hand, gas imperfection increases with decreasing temperature.

If, however, the sensing bulb is made small as compared to the external volume of the

system at ambient temperature, the characteristic is far from linear, the sensitivity

increasing greatly as the bulb temperature decreases. By using a Bourdon gage to show the

pressure in this device, a simple gas thermometer is achieved which is useful for such

purposes as monitoring the cool-down of cryogenic apparatus.

In order to obtain accurate results in gas thermometry it is necessary to correct

for (1) the imperfection of the gas, (2) the effect of the "nuisance volume" or the

volume of gas which is not at the temperature being measured, (3) the change of volume

of the bulb with changing temperature, (4) variations in the amount of gas adsorbed on the

walls of the gas thermometer bulb, and (5) the thermomolecular pressure gradient encountered

at extremely low pressures. Accordingly, for engineering applications, gas thermometry is

recommended for indicating the approximate temperature, or temperature trend. For precision

temperature measurements, the corrections required are usually too bothersome.

5.7
Precision Gas Thermometry falls in the category of fundamental thermometers

rather than empirical thermometers. It is much too demanding for common use. Vapor-Pressure Thermometry . As is well known, vapor pressure is a sensitive but nonlinear function of temperature providing convenient means for thermometry in limited ranges

of temperature which, unfortunately, do not join to provide continuous coverage of cryogenic

temperatures. For example, the range from 40 K to 50 K is above the range of neon and

below that of oxygen and nitrogen. Within its limits, however, this type of thermometer

is very accurate. In fact, one of the greatest advantages of vapor-pressure thermometers

at low temperatures is their extreme sensitivity in the range over which they can be used.

A temperature change of 1 Kelvin will result in a sizeable pressure change.

These thermometers are most accurate in the area of the normal boiling point of the

liquid used, and hence could be very useful, albeit over a very limited temperature range.

Hydrogen is especially troublesome because of the dependence of vapor pressure upon

ortho-para composition; however, hydrogen vapor pressure thermometers have been successfully

used under carefully controlled conditions where high accuracy over a very narrow span was

sought.

Advantages of this type of thermometry are that it is sensitive, can have good time

response, is not affected by magnetic fields, and needs no calibration. The primary disadvantage is that it can be used only between the triple point and critical point of the

fill liquid.

5.3.2 Metallic Resistance Thermometry

Since the resistivity of an element or compound varies with change in temperature,

it has in many instances been used as a simple and reliable temperature-measuring device.

Many elements or compounds, however, are not suitable for use in low-temperature resistance thermometry since they lack one or more of the desirable properties of an ideal

resistance thermometer. These properties include:

1. A resistivity that varies linearly with temperature to simplify interpolation.

2. High sensitivity.

3. High stability of resistance so that its calibration is retained over long

periods of time and is not affected by thermal cycling.

4. Capability of being mechanically worked.

While there exist a number of metals that are more or less suitable for resistance

thermometry, platinum has come to occupy a predominant position, partly because of excellent characteristics, such as chemical inertness and ease of fabrication, and partly be- cause of custom: that is, certain desirable features such as ready availability in high

purity and the existence of a large body of knowledge about its behavior have come into

being as its use grew and have tended to perpetuate that use. Its sensitivity down to

20 K and its stability are excellent. Its principal disadvantages are (1) low resistivity,

(2) insensitivity below about 10 K, and (3) a variation of the form of the resistancetemperature relation from specimen to specimen below about 30 K.

5.8
The significance of the first item is that the excellent sensitivity in the liquidhydrogen region cannot be realized unless the resistor has a high ratio of length to cross- sectional area. If it is a wire, it must be long and thin, which results in a bulky and

delicate resistor coil and complications in supporting and insulating it. If it is a film,

nonreproducible behavior due to differential contraction stresses between the film and

substrate is difficult to prevent.

The second disadvantage can be avoided only by using a different metal in which the

lattice vibrations persist to lower temperatures, inasmuch as these are responsible for

the temperature-dependent part of the resistivity: that is, a low value of the Debye

parameter 9^ is required. Indium has been proposed and ought to have useful sensitivity

almost down to its superconducting transition at 3.4 K. However, attention has been

diverted from it by the advent of successful germanium thermometers, and it has undergone

little or no commercial development.

The third disadvantage is at present the most troublesome one since it can demand

that each thermometer be separately calibrated.

A variety of platinum resistance thermometers (PRT) designed for engineering applications is now available. As with other transducers, these devices are subject to extraneous

effects (noise) . In this case, we wish to measure only the temperature dependence of the

resistivity. However, we may also unwittingly measure the strain dependency as well. To avoid this, the engineering thermometers are built tc imitate the strain free construction

of the precision laboratory type thermometers.

There are two basic designs for engineering use: immersion probes and surface temperature sensors. The immersion probes feature a high purity platinum wire encapsulated

in ceramic, or securely attached to a support frame. Features such as repeatability after

thermal shocks, time response in different environments, interchangeability , and mechanical shock tolerance differ between companies and specific designs. For the most part, the

specifications below represent typical values which might be used in preliminary designs,

but exact specifications must necessarily come from the manufacturer. The repeatability

of the typical immersion sensor is usually certified to be about ± 0.1 K at the ice point

after several thermal cyclings to cryogenic temperatures. For most thermometers this

repeatability figure is conservative. The time response is particularly difficult to assess in a general way because it depends critically upon the design and on the method

of testing. Flowing water, oil, or cryogenic liquids are often used as the test medium.

The time response of the capsule type PRT was previously given as 2 to 7 seconds, which

meant that in this time the sensor had reached the equilibrium temperature of the system

2 (ignoring I R heating) . In the case of the industrial PRT, dynamic systems are frequently

encountered. Convention has been to define the time response of a thermometer to be the

time it takes the sensor to reach 63.2% of the temperature of a step function temperature

change. With this definition of the time constant, a typical range of values for this

type of resistor is 0.1 to 3 seconds. Interchangeability is measured in terms of errors involved when more than one thermometer is used with a single R versus T relationship.

This becomes a major concern in operations where control resistors must be replacable

5.9
without system interruption, and where data reduction and calibration expense must be

minimized. Interchangeability is ordinarily specified at a given temperature, i.e.,

the resistance of the thermometers will not vary more than a specified amount at a certain

temperature. Immersion type sensors may generally be specified to have the same ice point

resistance to within an equivalent of about ± 1.5 K; surface sensors show slightly worse

interchangeability, ± 4 to 5 Kelvins at 0°C. Some manufacturers provide different grades

of interchangeability for particular models. Even after specifying a particular resistance

value at a given temperature, the slope of R versus T, which depends on purity and strain,

may vary from one thermometer to another.

The second type of industrial sensor is broadly known as a surface temperature sensor, whose geometry is such that they make good thermal contact with surfaces of various shapes.

Sensors are available for clamping around small tubing, fitting into milled slots, and

clamping under bolt heads. The principle advantages of these thermometers are that they are

small, typically 0.25 cm x 1.25 cm x 1.25 cm with perhaps a factor of two variation in any

dimension.

Both the immersion and the surface sensors are available in versions which have builtin bridge circuits. These bridge circuits allow adjustments to be made on individual

sensors to increase the interchangeability. Two, three, and four lead configurations are available in both the surface and immersion sensors. Joule heating must be guarded against

in all types of resistance thermometers by limitation of the measuring current.

5.3.3 Non-Metallic Resistance Thermometry

A number of semiconductors also have useful thermometric properties at low temperatures. A semiconductor has been defined as a material the electric conductivity of which

is much less than that of a metallic conductor but much greater than that of a typical

insulator. There are, however, at least three distinct differences between semiconductors

and pure metals as resistance thermometers. First, the sensitivity, (1/R) (dR/dT) , of a semiconducting thermometer in its useful range is usually much greater than that of a pure

metal thermometer. Second, the temperature coefficient of resistivity of semiconductors

is negative whereas for pure metals it is positive; for example, the dR/dT for a typical

semiconductor is -50 x 10 /K at 273 K, whereas for platinum at the same temperature it is

_3

4 x 10 /K. Thus the resistance of a semiconductor decreases with increasing temperature

while the opposite is true for a pure metal. Third, as mentioned in the definition for a semiconductor, the resistivity of a semiconductor is usually several orders of magnitude

greater than that of a pure metal. Consequently, a semiconducting thermometer element is

usually short and of relatively large cross section, so that its resistance will be readily

measurable.

The most promising semiconductors seem to be germanium, silicon, and carbon. The

latter, though not strictly a semiconductor, is included in this group because of its

similarity in behavior to semiconductors.

Of the three, germanium has received by far the most attention, and germanium resistance

thermometers are now available from several commercial sources. The resistance element is

usually a small single crystal. Inasmuch as the resistivity is high, the element can be

5.10
short and thick. It is mounted strain-free in a protective capsule. Because of this

combination of features, the germanium thermometer is both rugged and reproducible.

The major disadvantage associated with the use of germanium thermometers is the lack

of a simple analytical representation. Each thermometer must be calibrated by comparison

at many points in the range of interest if the inherent reproducibility of the thermometers is to be utilized.

Thermistors (thermally sensitive resistors) are essentially resistors made up of sintered

metal oxides. Frequently used materials are nickel, manganese, and cobalt oxides. The tem- perature-resistance relationship for this type of resistor has a negative slope much like the

carbon or germanium resistors. The fact that these resistors are becoming increasingly popular in measurement and control circuits is attested to by the number of companies selling

them [3]. The reasons for the increasing use are in part: 1) they are small which tends to make the time response significantly less than one second, 2) they are typically high resistance units which reduces the overall effect of lead resistances, and 3) their temperatureresistance characteristics are dependent on materials and procedures which allows thermometers

to be developed which are particularly sensitive in limited ranges of temperature.

There are, of course, disadvantages also. Items 2) and 3) above may be considered as disadvantages as well as an advantage: any one thermistor is not usable over a wide range

of temperatures due to its resistance becoming exceedingly high. The temperature dependent

behavior of thermistors is similar to that of the semiconductors discussed above. Manufacturing processes allow the tailoring of thermistors to be useful over a wide range of

temperatures.

5.3.4 Thermocouples

Thermocouples have the familiar advantage that the temperature-sensing junction can

be reduced in size to almost any desired extent, so that the disturbance to the object being

sensed can be made very slight, and the response time can be very fast. They also have a familiar disadvantage, namely, that rather small voltages must be measured. This disadvantage

is accentuated at low temperatures where the thermoelectric power, dE/dT, is usually smaller

than elsewhere. In addition, they have a less familiar but very serious disadvantage, namely,

that the net emf depends not merely on the materials nominally used for the two wires but

also on material inhomogeneities which, if located in a temperature gradient, will introduce

parasitic voltages. These inhomogeneities may arise from variations in chemical composition

or may consist of crystal lattice imperfections introduced, for example, by kinking the wires.

Their presence can be detected by various tests but cannot readily be corrected for, so that

testing merely serves to indicate whether a given wire should be discarded or not. The emf-temperature relationships of thermocouples are seldom simple over wide ranges

and, hence, functional representation is not usually attempted. Instead, a tabular relationship obtained by careful calibration of a thermocouple representative of a particular type

is adopted as a standard, and the fabrication of thermocouples of this type is controlled

to duplicate within close limits the characteristics of the standard. Where the emf-temperature relation must be known more closely, the user may calibrate the thermocouple at a few

5.11
well-spaced temperatures and, by reference to the standard table, construct a graph

of emf differences. Then, by interpolating in this graph, a correction to any measured

emf can be found, and by entering the standard table at the corrected emf, the temperature

is found. Some thermocouples commonly used in the hydrogen region include:

1. Gold (2.1 atomic % cobalt) vs. copper: Large thermoelectric power; the gold-cobalt

alloy tends to be less homogeneous than other commonly used materials and is unstable if

heated above 70°C.

2. Constantan vs. copper: Good homogeneity is possible.

3. Constantan vs. iron, or Chromel vs. Alumel: Advantageous only where the thermocouple is required to be used at both low and high temperatures.

Copper also has serious disadvantages: (1) Its thermal conductivity is very high.

This property reaches a maximum around 20 K and at this point may be from two to five times

greater than at room temperature. Now, the temperature of a thermocouple junction is determined partly by the heat conductance of the contact between the junction and the object or fluid to be measured. If the contact is noncrystalline and nonmetallic, its conductance

will be low and will decrease with decreasing temperature. This would be true if, for

example, the thermocouple were used to measure the temperature of a fluid or vapor, or if

it were used to determine the temperature of a solid surface to which it was glued or clamped

without metallic contact. Conversely, the conductance of the copper wire is high and increases

with decreasing temperature (down to 20 K) . Thus, the temperature of liquid hydrogen provides

a bad set of conditions under which it is difficult to eliminate the heat flow and hence the

temperature difference across the contact. (2) The thermoelectric power of copper is very

sensitive to transition-metal impurities and especially to iron at low temperatures. Both

of the above disadvantages of copper can be avoided by substituting a suitable alloy for it.

The alloy, silver (0.37 at. % gold) called silver-normal is currently being used.

5.3.5 Temperature Summary

Figure 5.2 summarizes some representative characteristics of the best known types of

cryogenic thermometers.

The terms "reproducibility" and "accuracy" require some explanation. By reproducibility

is meant the variability observed in repeating a given measurement using the best presentday laboratory techniques. Changes produced on thermal cycling of the thermometer to and

from ambient are included in this parameter. By accuracy is meant the significance with

which the thermometer can indicate the absolute thermodynamic temperature. This includes

errors of calibration as well as errors due to nonreproducibility , the former usually being

much more significant.

The approximate numbers given for these quantities represent good current practice.

It may be possible to do better by extreme care. On the other hand, in most engineering

measurements a lower order of accuracy is permissible, and this may allow relaxation of

certain requirements such as strain-free mounting of resistors, homogeneity of thermocouple

materials, purity of vapor-pressure fluid, sensitivity and accuracy of associated instruments,

etc.

5.12
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5.13
For temperatures above about 20 K, the metallic resistance thermometers are more sensitive than the nonmetallic resistance thermometers. Temperatures above 20 K can be measured

routinely with an industrial type platinum resistance thermometer with an accuracy of better

than 100 mK and time responses somewhat better than 1 second. Accuracy at the millidegree

level requires a precision capsule type PRT and careful calibration.

Carbon thermometers are generally used for low temperature measurements (T < 80 K)

when accuracies of ± 0.1 K or ± 1% of the absolute temperature are needed. Millidegree

accuracy is attainable using germanium resistance thermometers at temperatures below 20 K. The primary drawback to germanium thermometers is that no simple analytical representation

is available which represents the resistance versus temperature characteristics even for

a given class of doped germanium crystals. A many point comparison calibration is required

if all the inherent stability of the resistor is to be utilized.

Vapor pressure and gas thermometry offer sensitive methods of temperature measurement

with the advantage that no calibration is necessary. Further advantages are that these

transducers are not sensitive to magnetic fields or electric fields. In the case of vapor

pressure thermometers, the time response may be made comparable to the resistance thermometers . A sensible recommendation about which type to use cannot be made without knowing the

specific measurement requirements. The generalization most likely to hold true, however,

is the following: For crude temperature indications and monitoring trends, a gas thermometer

will probably be suitable. For more accurate work, vapor pressure or resistance thermometry

is recommended. For engineering application in this latter area, the need is for inexpensive devices that do not call for unique calibration.

5.4 LIQUID LEVEL

Liquid level is but one link in a chain of measurements necessary to establish the

contents of a container. Other links may include volume as a function of depth, density

as a function of physical storage conditions, and, sometimes discerning useful contents

from total contents (e.g., pumpable liquid vs. liquid and dense gas contained). Fortunately,

the actual discernment of the liquid-vapor interface (liquid level) is often the strongest

link in this measurement process due to the significant progress made here in the course of

the space program. Liquid level determinations are essential to propellant loading,

management, and utilization, and to other diagnostic or control functions, such as engine

cut off. As a result of this intense interest, hydrogen liquid level measurements can be made with an accuracy and precision comparable to that of thermometry, for instance, and

often with greater simplicity.

This period of development led to many different physical embodiments of liquid level

sensors, and there are as many ways of classifying these devices as there are authors who

write about them. One classification is by the principle of operation. This groups sensors according to the physics of the device, usually an impedance measurement (or mismatch) in some region of the electromagnetic spectrum. By this scheme, liquid level sensors are grouped as acoustic, optical, thermal, magnetostrictive, etc. This classification is helpful

if one is developing new instruments and needs to search the electromagnetic spectrum for a new type.

5.14
Another classification which includes the above is useful if one is interested in the

outcome rather than the input. Here, sensors are grouped by whether the output is discrete,

or digital (point sensors) or whether the output is a continuous analog of the measurand

(continuous sensors)

.

We shall use this latter classification understanding from the outset that the principle

of some point sensors can be stretched to make continuous sensors (e.g., capacitance measurements), and that no one type is intrinsically better than another for all cases. Special

requirements of the particular application and engineering trade-offs will govern the choice.

This chapter will conclude with some comments on the need for further research and development in this area.

5.4.1 Point Liquid Level Sensors

All liquid level sensors depend for their operation on the fact that there be a large

property change at the liquid vapor interface, a significant change in density, for example.

This may not always be the case if the fluid is stored near its critical point, for instance,

or if stratification has built up after prolonged storage. Be that as it may, point level

sensors are tuned to detect a sharp property difference and give an on-off signal. Several

of the more commonly used types are described below.

The thermal or hot wire type senses the large difference in heat transfer coefficient

between liquid and vapor. Since the heat transfer coefficient is much larger in the liquid

than it is in the vapor, one can expect, for a given power input, that the transducer will

have a different temperature and hence resistance in the liquid than in the vapor. It is

this change in electrical resistance which is actually sensed in a wheatstone bridge, and

hence these devices can be made both simple and fast. Protection in the form of a stillwell

is usually provided to prevent splashing or drops falling on the hot wire (sensing element)

from causing a false indication. Small platinum wires, solid carbon resistors and thinfilm carbon resistors are examples of sensing elements that are used.

The capacitive type depends upon the difference in dielectric constant between the

liquid and vapor which is essentially a function of the fact that the liquid is more dense

than the vapor. This sensor is usually made in the form of a bulls-eye, with alternate

rings forming the plates of the capacitor, and are installed so that the plane of the rings

is parallel to the liquid vapor interface. Detection is accomplished much like the hot-wire

sensor, above, but in a capacitance bridge rather than a wheatstone bridge.

The optical type senses the change in refractive index between the liquid and vapor,

which of course is closely related to the dielectric constant and density.

This type of transducer contains a light source and a light sensitive cell which are isolated from one another but which do communicate down a prism. The prism is cut in such

a way as to have total internal reflection when in gas, and yet let the light escape when

in liquid. This is possible since there is a difference in the index of refraction of the

5.15
liquid and the vapor, and since the critical angle for total internal reflection depends

upon the index of refraction. This type of transducer has a very high in-out signal ratio,

for the light detector is almost totally illuminated or not. There are also several acoustic or ultrasonic devices which depend upon the fact that

the damping of the vibrating member is greater in the liquid than in the vapor. Often,

a magnetostrictive element is driven at a constant power and is more or less dampened depending whether it is in liquid or in vapor. The end of these sensors is about the size

of a quarter dollar, but this does not in any way indicate the limit of its resolution.

These devices can be tuned to detect only a fraction of the total damping that would occur upon total immersion so that their sensitivity can be much smaller than the total end of

the device. Piezoelectric versions of this acoustic type liquid level sensor are also

available.

5.4.2 Continuous Liquid Level Sensors

Figure 5.3 illustrates several types of continuous liquid level sensors. Shown

schematically are: (a) a direct weighing scheme, (b) differential pressure, (c) capacitance,

(d) acoustic and (e) nuclear radiation attenuation.

Direct weighing schemes have indeed been used for hydrogen, but have been handicapped

by the fact that the weight of the container is often large compared to the weight of the

contents. In modern weigh-facilities the weight of the tank rarely exceeds the weight of

the contents (when the tank is full) . Calibrated balance weights and strain-gage load cells are most commonly used in this application.

Differential pressure measurements are simple to visualize, but difficult to realize

for liquid hydrogen. The "signal" is low due to the very low density of hydrogen and the

"noise" is high due to boiling and potential thermal oscillations at the lower pressure

tap. Also, the unknown level of the liquid in the gage lines can introduce hydrostatic

head errors. Capacitance sensors are widely used for the continuous measurement of the level of

liquid hydrogen. They do not truly follow the interface but sense the total contents of

the container. That is, the dielectric constant of the gas phase contributes to the

output signal, as well as that of the liquid phase. This can be a serious source of error

in hydrogen as the density of the cold gas (and hence its dielectric constant) is significant

compared to that of the liquid. This problem is especially troublesome in nearly empty

tanks, but is often compensated for by either: (a) segmenting the capacitor and ignoring

the output from those sensor sections located in the vapor phase as the liquid level drops

or (b) installing a few point sensors at critical levels and routinely calibrating the

continuous sensor against them. Rod-to-blade and concentric tube configurations are most common in this type of sensor.

In the acoustic device shown, the liquid itself is used as the transmitting medium.

In this case, a transmitter feeds an electric pulse to a transducer where it is converted

to an acoustic pulse traveling at sonic velocity to the liquid-vapor interface, reflected

back at the same speed to the transducer, where it is reconverted to an electric pulse,

5.16
Capacitance

Bridge

LIQUID

^7

GAS

Output

Signal

•Capacitor

Plates

Radiation

Detection

-:;c:z

Measuring Sound

Impulse Path

Calibration Sound Path

Output

Siqnal

Sound

Transducers

Timing

Circuil

Output

Sicmal

^Eadiation Source

(e)

FIGURE 5.3 - Continuous Liquid Level Sensors

5.17
and finally sent to a receiver. Knowing the velocity of sound in a given liquid, the pulse

transit time from transmitter-to-interface-to-receiver becomes an indication of liquid

level. In order to eliminate extraneous interfaces that may be caused by vapor bubbles in

the liquid, a tubular still-well often is used to isolate the measured fluid column from

such physical distrubances. Bubbles also may be suppressed by slight pressurization of the

vessel immediately prior to any measurement. Sometimes an acoustic racetrack of known path

length and variable time of flight is included to provide a measure of the density of the

fluid. The product of the two measurements tends to give an indication of the mass of the

fluid contained in the tank.

Nuclear Radiation Attenuation (NRA) has found some success in oxygen and nitrogen

systems, but comparatively little use for hydrogen. This is so because hydrogen is nearly

transparent to the commonly available sources of nuclear radiation, while the tank walls

are relatively "thick" to the same radiation. Hence the fundamental signal to noise ratio

is inherently low. Hydrogen does absorb beta radiation rather well, but then "windows" of

beryllium or equivalent light metals must be placed in the tank walls. On the whole, this

technique seems too sophisticated for simple engineering measurements.

Not shown, because the system consists of inserting a simple dipole antenna into the

tank, is RF cavity detection. In this system microwave energy is introduced into a tank

so as to energize it by setting up electromagnetic fields throughout the entire volume of

the tank. The tank interior is a dielectric region completely surrounded by conducting

walls. Such a system is called a cavity, and the resonant frequencies established are the

normal theoretical modes of the cavity. Considerable development work has been done very

recently on both uniform density fluids, and non-uniform density fluids and this technique

continues to show considerable promise for both mass-gaging and level-gaging in a variety

of cryogenic fluids, including hydrogen. RF transmission characteristics through coaxial

cables can also be used to detect liquid levels by measuring the time of flight of a RF

pulse through the cable [4,5]. This latter technique is called time domain ref lectometry

(TDR)

Heated platinum wires or ribbons have been used as continuous liquid level sensors

in cryogenic fluids but have found little application in hydrogen service. With continuing

improvements in superconducting materials it may soon be possible to use a superconducting

wire to detect liquid level in hydrogen containers — in the absence of magnetic fields,

materials already exist that are suitable for operation up to 23 K.

5.4.3 Liquid Level Summary

Extensive development of liquid hydrogen level detectors took place during the space

program, but it is remarkable how little space hardware is actually used in the commercial sector. A deliberate effort to adapt space instrumentation to commercial and industrial

application seems worthwhile.

Primary instruments and facilities to calibrate liquid level devices do not exist.

Unlike pressure or temperature measurements, this part of the national measurement system

is chaotic and needs to be brought under control.

5.18
5.5 DENSITY

Density measurements are closely akin to liquid level measurements because: 1) both

are often required simultaneously to establish the mass contents of a tank, and 2) the same physical principle may often be used for either measurement, since, as noted, liquid

level detectors sense the steep density gradient at the liquid-vapor interface. Thus, the

methods of density determination include the following techniques: direct weighing,

buoyancy, differential pressure, capacitance, optical, acoustic, ultrasonic, momentum,

rotating paddle, transverse momentum and nuclear radiation attenuation. Each of the

principles involved will be discussed along with its relative merits and shortcomings.

5.5.1 Direct Weighing Method

The direct weighing method of density determination measures the volume and weight of

the mixture to obtain density. Although direct weighing is not considered a field-type

instrument, it could serve as a primary calibration standard. Some of the advantages of

this method are the simplicity of the equipment, repeatability, good frequency response,

and the lack of dependence of pressure, temperature, and fluid inhomogeneities on the

measurement. A disadvantage of direct weighing is the poor sensitivity, due to the fact

that the entire system must be weighed or nulled out. 5.5.2 Buoyant Force Method

Density of a fluid may be measured by the buoyant force of the fluid upon a submerged plummet. This method is ideally suited for static laboratory use and involves

relatively simple equipment. The drawbacks of the buoyancy method are slow response, poor

sensitivity, and the need to make a remote reading of a mechanical displacement.

5.5.3 Differential Pressure Method

The differential pressure method measures the pressure of a vertical column of the

fluid which, along with the height of the column, gives the density. Advantages of this

method are: relatively simple equipment, small component size, and the possibility of

application as a field type instrument.

This method has several disadvantages. The method is dependent upon two separate

measurements, pressure differential and fluid liquid level. Errors in the accuracy of

either of these two separate measurements will affect the over-all method accuracy. Be- cause of the extreme low density of liquid hydrogen, the accuracy, the sensitivity, and

the hysteresis of the differential pressure measurement will be adversely affected. This

method also requires a sophisticated electronic system to compute the average fluid density.

5.5.4 Capacitance Method

The determination of density through capacitance measurements depends upon the fact

that the dielectric constant and density are related for simple fluids, such as hydrogen,

by the well-known Clausius-Mossotti function:

P = f(e - 1)/(e + 2)](l/p).

Where P is the macroscopic polarizability in units of induced dipole moment per unit mass

per unit applied field, and £ and p are the dielectric constant and density in cgs units.

5.19
Thus, a measure of the dielectric constant (capacitance measurement) is a direct measurement

of the density. Disadvantages include the well known problems of making good capacitance

measurements in the field without stray signals and erroneous temperature effects.

5.5.5 Optical Method

The optical method utilizes the relationship of spectral absorption to fluid density.

The density of hydrogen can be measured by measuring the amount of spectral absorption,

caused by the fluid, of an incident light source.

1 i *°

p = uT

ln r

where

p = density of fluid

u = absorption coefficient

C = light path length

I = measured intensity after passing through length C

I = incident intensity.

Using the infra-red spectrum, this method can determine the density of liquid hydrogen

because a number of spectral absorption lines exist in the range of 4100 to 5100 wave

numbers for these fluids. Such a method should have good frequency response, adequate

sensitivity, and not be restricted to homogeneous fluids. However, the problem of providing optical windows may be overwhelming.

5.5.6 Acoustic Method

The acoustic method utilizes the fact that the velocity of propagation of a sound wave in a fluid is directly related to the fluid density:

where

c = V K/p

c = velocity of propagation of a sound wave

K = bulk modulus, a constant for a particular fluid

p = density of the fluid

Solving the above equation for the fluid density yields:

p = K/c

2

, or

2 2

p = Kt /£ , where

£ = distance between the sound wave transmitter and

the sound wave receiver, and

t = time required for the sound wave to travel distance 2

Thus, fluid density is measured by measuring the time required for the sound wave to travel from the sound wave transmitter, through the fluid, to the sound wave receiver.

5.20
This method has been used for both static and dynamic fluid density measurements

with some success. Advantages of this method include a good frequency response and the

fact that there are no moving parts located in the fluid.

This method has several disadvantages such as a low signal to noise ratio, the fact

that fluid turbulence and fluid non-homogeneity will cause spurious echoes, and a bulky

instrument is required. Also, temperature effects that influence the fluid vessel geometry

may adversely affect performance.

5.5.7 Ultrasonic Method

The ultrasonic method measures the impedance of a crystal vibrating in a fluid; this

impedance can be related to the fliiids density. For instance, a piezoelectric crystal, in

torsional vibration, immersed in a fluid, has its electrical impedance related to the fluid

density by:

2 _ « (K. R — K„R ) 7t (LAI ,m „N 2 1 2 o

o where

:

p = density of the fluid

f = resonant frequency

m/ s = mass to surface ratio

R = impedance of the crystal at its natural frequency

R

q

= impedance of the ci

[i = viscosity of fluid

R^ = impedance of the crystal at its natural frequency in a vacuum

The terms and may be considered constant over a small fluid viscosity range. For density measurements where the fluid viscosity range is appreciable , a more general

equation is applicable:

„ (Af . - Af ) 2 u . m .2 total o

P - T ( 7

}

\i o where

:

Af ., = bandwidth at the half power point

total v v Af = bandwidth at the half power point in a vacuum

o

For most density measuring applications the fluid viscosity range is not too great,

therefore the first equation is applicable. In this case, sufficient accuracy is generally

achieved solely by measuring the impedance R and neglecting the term R . With this, fluid

density is related to impedance by:

P

CC R

2

,

This ultrasonic method of density measurement has advantages that include excellent

frequency response and sensitivity. Disadvantages of this method include the delicate

nature of the apparatus, the requirement of a quiescent fluid medium, and the viscosity

dependence.

5.21
5.5.8 Momentum Methods

Density can be measured by several momentum methods. The density of the fluid is

obtained by measuring fluid flow rate and fluid flow momentum.

For instance, the rotating paddle method is based on the principle that an aerodynamic

foil, if rotated through a fluid, will experience a measurable drag which can be related to density. The rotating paddle serves a two-fold purpose: density measurement and stirring

of the mixture. The equipment required is relatively simple. Disadvantages include

low frequency response and sensitivity, and the presence of moving parts in the fluid.

Density of a fluid can also be measured by the angular momentum method, which measures

the angular momentum of a rotating fluid and relates this momentum to density. As in the

rotating paddle method, the angular momentum method measures the density and stirs the

mixture. The equipment required is relatively simple. Disadvantages of this method

include the presence of bulky, moving parts in the fluid and the lack of any known investigation into the method's applicability to a static fluid density measurement.

One particular hydrogen momentum densitometer depends upon the fact that the mass of

any vibrating system is a primary factor in determining the dynamic characteristics of the

system. If the system is designed so that the fluid flowing through it measurably affects

the vibrating mass, a means of measuring fluid densities will have been provided.

The dynamometer, sensing the force exerted by passage of the fluid, generates a signal, (E ) , in phase with the motion and proportional to the maximum force, or:

E ~ F sin co.t . ac max f

If E is rectified, the resulting signal, (E, ), is proportional to the maximum

3.C Q C force, or:

E, ~ F dc max

The final relation for the fluid density takes the form:

p = a + b' E Jdc

where

a and b' are experimental constants.

This method will, hence, determine fluid density with the fluid in either a static

or dynamic condition.

Advantages of this method are in its frequency response, repeatability, and linearity.

This method also has advantages of being unaffected by fluid pressure effects, is not

dependent upon fluid homogeneity, and can be made fluid-material compatible.

This type of densitometer has been evaluated in oxygen and nitrogen systems but

application to liquid hydrogen will require higher sensitivities.

5.22
5.5.9 Nuclear Radiation Method

The nuclear radiation method utilizes the adsorption of radiation energy by the fluid

medium interposed between a radiation source and a radiation detector.

Typically, this method for hydrogen employs a beta or low energy gamma radiation source

so focused to impinge on the radiation detector placed on the opposite side of the fluid

container. The fluid may be in either a static or a dynamic condition. The adsorption of

a collinated radiation beam from the radiation source in the matter interposed between the

radiation source and the radiation detector is given by:

I = I exp (-VT)

where

:

I = intensity at receiver

I = intensity of source

' oV = linear adsorption coefficient

T = thickness of the adsorber.

V, the linear adsorption coefficient, is related to the density of the matter interposed between the source and detector by the expression:

V— = a

P

where p is the apparent or combined density of the matter interposed between the source

and detector. In this case p is the combined density of the fluid container, P c, and the

fluid, p^. o is the mass adsorption coefficient which for a particular fluid and con- tainer is a constant.

The fundamental adsorption equation may now be written in the form:

r 1=1 exp (-Kp

f

) where

:

I =1 exp (-p To) o o c c c

K = o

f T

f

.

For a fluid container having a fixed geometry, the intensity of radiation received

by the detecter is related to the density of the fluid inside the container by:

v

- *«v

Thus, a linear change in fluid density causes a linear change in output signal.

This method has a distinct advantage in the fact that no moving parts are inside the

fluid container. This method can be highly repeatable, and have little hysteresis error.

5.23
Primary disadvantages, besides those inherent to any radiation measurement include

the need for windows transparent to the radiation (or long counting times) and the need for

a fairly long adsorption path.

5.5.10 Density Summary

Density is an inferential measurement, and as such, it should be traceable to a national

standard, such as a national density reference system. Primary instruments to calibrate

densitometers do not exist.

Several physical principles of hydrogen density measurement have been brought well

forward by the space program. Notable are the capacitance, vibration, and nuclear radiation

attenuation schemes. Microwave methods (see Section 5.4.2) are recently moving to the forefront. It is felt that the pressing need now is to: a) commercialize these instruments

for routine engineering applications and b) provide an adequate national reference system.

5 . 6 FLOW

There are three basic types of flowmeters which are useful for liquid hydrogen. These

are the 1) pressure drop or "head" type, 2) the turbine type, and (3) the momentum type.

We shall discuss each in turn.

5.6.1 Head Meters

This type of meter embodies the oldest method of measuring flowing fluids. The distinctive feature of head meters is that a restriction is employed to cause a reduction in

the static pressure of the flowing fluid. This pressure change is measured as the difference

between the static heads on the upstream and downstream sides of the restriction.

Theoretical development of the flow equations for head type meters may be found in

publications of the ASME [6]. A simple expansion of Bernouilli's theorem leads to an equation of the form:

V ~ V gAP/p

where V is the velocity, p the density, g the gravitational constant and AP the pressure

drop. The form of the solution is independent of the particular embodiment of the flow

restriction, whether it be an orifice plate, venturi, or flow nozzle.

The appeal of these meters in cryogenics is more than simplicity and stems from the

possibility of eliminating the necessity for calibration, if proper design, application

theory and practices are followed. Design methods for orifices, flow nozzles, and venturi

tubes are available in publications of the ASME \6] . Recommended practice for flangemounted sharp-edge orifice plates can be found in publications of the ISA [7] and ISO [8].

5.24
t These recommendations which were developed for water can be corrected for thermal contraction of the flow device and used to provide suitable flow measurements at cryogenic temperatures. Reynolds number increases caused by the low viscosity of cryogens are treated in

the conventional way, i.e., by adjustment of the head meter discharge coefficient.

The characteristics of this class of meter are as follows. The device is strictly a volumetric meter, that is, it can of itself give no information regarding mass flow rate. With appropriate pressure sensing, the range can be extended up to 10 to 1. It is the

very nature of these devices that they generate a decrease in pressure by accelerating the

fluid. If we are dealing with a saturated cryogen, then this sudden decrease in pressure

could lead to vapor formation (cavitation) in the flowing stream and an erroneous flow

measurement.

Richards et al. [9] addressed themselves to the problem of potential cavitation in

head meters designed for cryogenic flow. Richards made many attempts to obtain points off

the calibration curve with the upstream static pressure lower than the equilibrium vapor

pressure. In spite of the fact that the downstream static pressure was as much as 10

inches of mercury below the vapor pressure, all of the points fell on the calibration curve, within the accuracy of the experiments . Although these particular experiments showed no ill-effects attributable to cavitation, it is good design practice to maintain static

liquid pressures within the meter well above the fluid saturation pressure. In spite of

all shortcomings, head meters are widely used and quite reliable.

The turbine-type volumetric flowmeter is probably the most popular of the various

flow-measuring instruments. This is partially due to a lack of direct mass-measuring

flowmeters, although the simple mechanical design and the demonstrated repeatability are sufficient merits of their own. The turbine-type volumetric flowmeter is a simple mechanism which consists of a freely

spinning rotor having N blades, each inclined at an angle a t*o the axis of flow. The rotor

is supported in guides or bearings mounted in a housing which forms a section of the pipeline.

The angular velocity (rpm) of the rotor may be detected by one of a number of methods; e.g.,

a permanent magnet encased in a rotor body will induce an alternating voltage in an inductive pickup coil mounted on the housing, or the core of the pickup coil may consist of a permanent magnet and the rotor constructed of a magnetic material so that the change in

magnetic circuit reluctance, as each rotor blade passes the coil core, causes an alternating

current to be induced in the coil. Capacitive and photoelectric methods of observing rotor

rpm have also been used. The primary requirement, however, is that the angular velocity

of the rotor be directly proportional to volumetric flowrate, or more correctly, to some average velocity of the fluid in the pipe. A mathematical description of the turbine-type

flowmeter is given by

5.6.2 Turbine Type Meters

03 = V tan a R

Q tan a R \ " A

r

5.25
where to is the rotor angular velocity, V is the average flow velocity at the rotor blades,

a is the rotor blade angle with the pipe axis, R is the average radius of rotor blade

center of pressure, Q is the volumetric flow rate, A^ is the internal cross-sectional area

of housing, and is the maximum cross-sectional area of rotor.

Deviations from this idealized mathematical expression can be expected because of (1)

retarding forces on the rotor such as fluid drag, mechanical friction from rotary and

thrust bearings, and transducer magnetic drag, (2) velocity profile variations, and (3)

swirl of the incoming fluid stream.

A variation of the turbine type meter is the "twin turbine" type. In this case, two turbines of different blade pitch are coupled together by means of an elastic restraint.

Because of the difference in pitch, they would tend to revolve at different speeds. However, this is prevented by the elastic coupling, so that they do revolve at the same

speed, but with a "phase angle" between them. The magnitude of the phase angle is a measure of the flow rate, and is said to be, in fact, a measure of the mass flow rate. The turbine type flowmeter is widely used for several reasons. It is, first of all, a simple mechanism. It generally is of a minimum physical size, therefore it is lightweight. This means a minimum mass to cool. It has a flow range of 10 to 1. The electrical

signal output is easily converted to digital, hence readily adaptable to telemetry systems.

It is self-propelled (fluid flow supplies the driving force) and no electric driving motors

are required. In case of bearing failure, which could jam the rotor, no further impedance

to flow results. There are no shaft or electrical seals required between the fluid and the

meter exterior. It has a record of good repeatability, and the meter has had extensive

use. While the turbine-type flowmeter has the above advantages, there are certain considerations which must be made when using the flowmeter in hydrogen service. For instance,

turbine meters can be damaged by excessive rotor speed from gasseous or two-phase flow.

As with some other meters with moving elements, protection must be provided through proper

piping design, venting, bleeding and cooldown procedures. Screens are sometimes installed

in the pipeline downstream of these meters to collect turbine blades in the event of an

overspin failure. Such screens are good insurance against damage to expensive pumping

equipment, etc. that may be located downstream of the turbine meter. Other considerations

governing turbine meters are: thermal effects which may cause dimensional changes of the

rotor blade and hence rotor speed; and change in the average velocity profile due to changes

in fluid viscosity [10]. Also, there is some pressure drop across these meters and they are subject to cavitation-induced errors as are the head meters.

To achieve the full potential of the turbine meter as a flow measurement element in

cryogenics, the meter must be calibrated at the cryogenic temperature and with the fluid

intended for use.

5.6.3 Vortex Shedding Meter

The vortex shedding meter is also a single-phase fluid rate-velocity meter, like the

turbine meters, but in a distinct class by itself.

5.26
The phenomena upon which it is based is the Karman vortex trail and its application

to the measurement of flow of liquids and gases is fairly recent I'll], probably because

only recently have sensors become available to detect the vortices.

The Karman vortex trail is used to explain certain phenomena associated with the

flow around cylinders, ellipsoids, and flat plates. For flow around a cylinder, for

instance, at Reynold's numbers above about 20, eddy's break off alternately on either

side in a periodic fashion. Behind the cylinder is a staggered, stable arrangement or trail of vortices. The alternate shedding produces a periodic force acting on the cylinder

normal to the undisturbed flow. The force acts first in one direction and then in the

opposite direction. Let f represent the frequency of this vibration in cycles per unit

time, D the diameter of the cylinder and V the undisturbed velocity. Experiments have shown

values of the dimensionless Strouhal Number, fD/V, to vary between 0.13 and 0.27.

If the frequency of the vortex peeling approaches or equals the natural frequency of

the elastic system consisting of the cylinder and its supports, the cylinder may have a small alternating displacement normal to the stream flow. (The vibration of some smoke

stacks, the vibration of some transmission lines, and the fatigue failure or progressive

fracture of some transmission lines have been attributed to this resonance phenomenon)

.

Such a meter was evaluated on liquid nitrogen at NBS [12]. It consisted of a bluff

body located normal to the flow stream and basically measured the average velocity of the

flow passing through the pipe. The frequency f of the vortex shedding was given approximately by

where V is the velocity in feet per second and D is the nominal meter diameter in feet.

The bluff body was in the shape of a modified delta with its base facing upstream.

The vortex sensors consist of electronically self heated resistance elements whose

temperatures and therefore resistances vary as a result of the velocity variations adjacent

to the body. These velocity variations reflect directly the action of the vortices as they

peel off from the downstream edge of the bluff body.

The precision of this meter was quite good (approximately 1/2 percent, 3a), but the

range of linearity was found to be about 5 to 1 rather than the expected 10 to 1. Since

these meters are quite new to cryogenic service, one can reasonably hope their performance

to improve with further experience. They have the advantage of no moving parts at the low

temperatures and therefore require minimum maintenance. The meter factor (pulses/gallon)

depends only on the inside diameter of the pipe and the width across the bluff body face.

Cryogenic evaluation is limited, but performance on liquid nitrogen and oxygen shows

promise.

5.6.4 Momentum Mass Flowmeters

Mass reaction or momentum flowmeters are of three types. There are those in which

an impeller imparts a constant angular momentum to the fluid stream and then the variable

torque on a turbine which removes this momentum is measured; there are those in which an

5.27
impeller is driven at a constant torque and then the variable angular velocity of the

impeller is measured; and those in which a loop of fluid is driven at either a constant

angular speed or a constant oscillatory motion and then the mass reaction measured.

One type of mass reaction flowmeter is shown in Fig. 5.4. The cylindrical. impeller

and turbine are coaxially mounted in the fluid conduit, but each on a separate shaft. The

axial vaned impeller imparts a constant angular momentum to the fluid while the axial

vaned turbine removes the angular momentum. A measure of the torque on the turbine, which

is elastically restrained, is a measure of the mass flow rate. This flowmeter employs

rotating elements in the fluid stream. Some consider the use of such rotating elements in

a cryogenic fluid stream a disadvantage since they are subject to mechanical failure. Ex- perience has shown however that the probability of such a failure is quite remote.

Another type of these mass reaction flowmeters is shown in Fig. 5.5. A single axial

vaned impeller is used in conjunction with a hysteresis drive and an exterior mounted drive

motor. Torque is maintained constant and the impeller speed is varied inversely with the mass flow rate. A measure of the impeller speed is a measure of the mass flow rate. This

scheme has the characteristics of high resolution at low flow rates and decreasing resolution as the flow rate increases. This flowmeter also employs a rotating element in the

4* fluid stream. The previous remarks concerning moving elements in a cryogenic fluid stream

apply here also.

Still another type of mass reaction flowmeter is shown in Fig. 5.6. This flowmeter

consists of a closed loop through which the fluid flows, a means of driving the closed loop

in a constant manner, and a means of measuring the mass reaction. Instead of rotating the

loop, as shown in Fig. 5.6, the loop is driven in an oscillating fashion, thus the measured mass reaction has an oscillating value. This oscillation of the loop eliminates the

need for rotating seals. While this flowmeter does not employ moving parts that are located

in the fluid stream, it does require a mechanical movement of the flow loop itself which

some consider a disadvantage.

The above described mass reaction flowmeters have in common the fact that momentum

must be imparted to the fluid stream and require that the mass reaction due to this momentum

be measured to determine the mass flow rate. The performance of these flowmeters were determined in a NASA sponsored flowmeter

evaluation program T13]. From the results of this program it appears that several

cryogenic mass flowmeters have been developed that are capable of liquid hydrogen mass flow

measurement accuracies on the order of ± 0.5 percent. There appears to be degradation of mass flow measurement accuracy however when subjected to a two-phase flow.

There are several other concepts of cryogenic fluid flowmeters that are available or are in development. Since they were not evaluated in the previously mentioned NASA-sponsored

program, definitive performance results, on the scale of the previously discussed mass flowmeters, are not yet available. These flowmeters are inferential mass flow measurement

devices having in common measurements of fluid density and fluid volume flow or fluid volume

flow- induced momentum.

5.28
FIGURE 5.4 - Axial Flow Transverse Momentum Mass Flowmeter

FIGURE 5.5 - Axial Flow Transverse Momentum Mass Flowmeter

Y

FIGURE 5.6 - Gyroscopic Transverse Momentum Mass Flowmeter

5.29
5.6.5 Flowmeter Summary

There is no shortage of physical principles upon which to base a hydrogen flowmeter.

Depending on the need, they range from simple pressure-drop meters to sophisticated mass reaction meters.

The need is thus not for more types of meters, but rather stems from the problem common to every type. Namely, flow is a derived , not an intrinsic, quantity. As such,

every flowmeter will require traceability to a reference system to establish its credibility. The general needs were perhaps best articulated in four categories by Mann [14]:

1. Flow Reference Systems . A study should be initiated to identify those systems

that are currently available to document the flow range, pressure and temperature capabilities, precision and accuracy relative to basic standards and multiple test fluid capability.

After establishing location and capability, a system of interlaboratory comparisons should

be initiated by exchange of test meters and performance data for these test meters as obtained on each reference system. This interlaboratory comparison using reference test

meters would identify systematic errors existing with respect to individual facilities

relative to the entire reference measurement system.

2. Substitute Fluids . A concerted program should be inititated and designed to determine the appropriateness of the use of substitute fluids for cryogenic flow metering

calibrations. This would include a program designed to determine the reasons for water

calibration errors experienced at cryogenic temperatures as well as experimental evidence

that other fluids (such as liquid nitrogen) may be used as a test fluid in place of

liquid hydrogen.

3. Large Flow . General purpose flow reference systems are at the present time

restricted to less than 200-300 gallons per minute. The trend for flow measurement is to higher and higher flow rates in excess of these values. The severity of modern constraints

placed on design and operation and the requirements both economical and technological for mass flow measurements to total uncertainties of less than one percent, suggest that a fresh look be taken at establishing a general purpose cryogenic flow research center. Such

a center would include as process fluids: water, liquid oxygen, liquid methane, liquid

3 nitrogen, liquid argon, and liquid hydrogen. Flow range should extend to 3.8 m /s (60,000 gpm)

with provision for pressure and temperature controls.

A cryogenic flow research center of this size and scope would impact on present oxygen

and hydrogen aerospace requirements, short term (10-20 year) energy importation programs

(LNG) , and long term requirements of a hydrogen-based energy system. The latter has tremendous potential in providing and distributing energy in an environmentally attractive

form using many existing fossil fuel type systems, but will require high density liquid

storage systems to make it a workable concept in certain cases.

4. Uniform Performance Method . Standard tests or codes should be developed and

adopted where possible for cryogenic flow measurement. The number of experimental points,

treatment of experimental data and reporting of error should be standardized to provide

common and effective criteria for meter evaluation.

In short, this branch of the National Measurement System needs to be brought under control, and such a program of quality assurance would have far ranging benefits, extending

greatly beyond only hydrogen technology itself.

5.30
5.7 REFERENCES

Tl] Dean, J. W., and Flynn, T. M. , Temperature Effects on Pressure Transducers, ISA Transaction 5_, 223-232 (1966)

.

[2] Arvidson, J. M. , and Brennan, J. A., Pressure Measurement, ASRDI Technology Survey,

(to be published)

.

f3] Measurements and Data ]_, No. 2, 101-112 (Mar-Apr 1973).

[4] Cruz, J. E., Rogers, E. H. , and Heister, A. E. , Continuous Liquid Level Measurements with Time-Domain Reflectometry, Book, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, 18, 323-327,

(Ed.) K. D. Timmerhaus (Plenum Press, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1973).

[5] Willis, W. L., Disturbance of Capacitive Liquid Level Gauges by Nuclear Radiation,

Book, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, 12, 666-672, (Ed.) K. D. Timmerhaus

(Plenum Press, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1967): See also, Willis, W. L., and Taylor,

J. F., Time Domain Reflectometry for Liquid Hydrogen Level Detection, Unclass. Rept.

LA-3474-MS, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico (Feb. 1966).

[6] ASME, Fluid Meters, Their Theory and Applications, 6th Edition (ASME, New York, N.Y.,

1971)

.

[7] ISA, Standard Practices for Instrumentation, Instrument Society of America, Pittsburgh,

PA. (1970).

[8] ISO Recommendation R-541, Measurement of Fluid Flow by Means of Orifice Plates and

Nozzles (Jan. 1967).

[9] Richards, R. J., Jacobs, R. B., and Pestalozzi, W. J., Measurement of the Flow of Liquefied Gases with Sharp-edged Orifices, Book, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering,

4-, 272-285 (Ed.) K. D. Timmerhaus, (Plenum Press, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1960).

[10] Grey, J., Journ. of ARS, 30, No. 2, 192 (Feb. 1960).

fll] Rodeley, A. E., Vortex Shedding Flowmeter, Measurements and Data, No. 18, (Nov. -Dec. 1969).

[12] Brennan, J. A., Stokes, R. W., Kneebone, C. H., and Mann, D. B., An Evaluation of

Selected Angular Momentum, Vortex Shedding and Orifice Cryogenic Flowmeters, NBS

Tech. Note No. 650 (Mar. 1974).

T13] Wyle Laboratories, Final Report, Contract No. NAS 8-1526, Liquid Hydrogen Mass Flow- meter Evaluation, (Jan. 1965).

[14] Mann, D. B., ASRDI Oxygen Technology Survey, Flow Measurement Instrumentation,

NASA SP-3084 (1974)

.

[15] Corruccini, R. J., Temperature Measurement in Cryogenic Engineering, Book, Advances

in Cryogenic Engineering 8_, 315-333, (Ed.) K. D. Timmerhaus (Plenum Press, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1963)

.

[16] Corruccini, R. J., Principles cf Thermometry (Measurement of Temperature), Treatise

on Analytical Chemistry, Part I, Volume 8, 4937-4990 (John Wiley and Sons, New York,

N.Y., 1968).

[17] Rubin, L. G., Cryogenic Thermometry: A Review of Recent Progress, Cryogenics 10_, No. 1, 14-22 (Feb., 1970).

[18] Sinclair, D. H., Terbeek, H. G., and Malone, J. H. , Cryogenic Temperature Measurement,

Cryogenic and Industrial Gases 5, No. 7, 15-22 (July-Aug. 1970).

[19] Sparks, L. L., Low Temperature Measurement, ASRDI Oxygen Technology Survey, Volume IV, NASA SP-3073 (1974). (For Sale by the National Technical Information Service,

Springfield, VA 22151, Price $3.75.)

[20] Roder, H. M., ASRDI Oxygen Technology Survey, Volume V: Density and Liquid Level Measurement Instrumentation for the Cryogenic Fluids Oxygen, Hydrogen and Nitrogen,

NASA SP-3083 (1974). (For sale by the National Technical Information Service,

Springfield, VA 22151, Price $3.75).

5.31
II
CHAPTER 6 TRANSMISSION OF HYDROGEN

C. F. Sindt

6.0 SUMMARY

Transmission and transport of hydrogen were studied to determine the most economical

:method of delivering liquid hydrogen. From economical considerations alone, hydrogen should

not be liquefied for transmission or transport except when delivery is across more than 200

km of ocean or unless hydrogen is to be used as a liquid. In practice, hydrogen is frequently

liquefied to facilitate transport, i.e., it is liquefied for convenience of transport and

delivery. When the final use requires liquid hydrogen, it can be transmitted as gas or

liquid, or the energy can be transmitted as electricity to produce hydrogen gas and to liquefy

it at the final destination. Costs of transmission, production, and liquefaction must all be

considered before the most economical method of delivering liquid hydrogen can be determined

in any specific delivery system.

For this study a 1200 MW electrical power plant was the assumed source of electrical

power to produce hydrogen gas and to run the liquefier. Because the electrical power

generation may occur some distance from the delivery terminal, liquid hydrogen transmission

distances of 80 and 1600 km were used in this analysis.

Costs of delivered liquid hydrogen were determined for the following energy transmission

systems: gaseous hydrogen pipeline, liquid hydrogen pipeline, electrical power line, electrical power line combined with liquid or gas pipeline, truck and rail transport of liquid,

and liquid transport by ocean tanker. The systems that combine electrical power lines and

gas or liquid pipelines used the electricity to liquefy gas or to pump and refrigerate

liquid in the pipeline. The costs of delivered liquid hydrogen varies with electrical

power costs; hydrogen costs were calculated for electrical costs ranging from 5 to 45

mills/kW-h

e

. For a transmission distance of 80 km and electricity costs of 12 mills/kW-h'

e

, the lowest delivered cost of liquid hydrogen was 19 mills/kW-h

t

; the transmission system

was the combined gas pipeline and electrical power line. For 1600 km distance and 12

mills/kW-h

e electricity costs, the lowest delivered cost of liquid hydrogen was 22 mills/

kW-h

fc

; the method of transport was ocean tanker. The lowest cost for hydrogen transmission

over land was obtained with the combined gas pipeline-electrical power line system (23

mills/kW-h

t

) . Truck and rail transport of liquid were more costly for both 80 and 1600 km

distances, but they may be preferable because they accommodate widely separated delivery

sites.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Transmission costs of hydrogen have been reported by others r 1—3 ] and some comparisons

have been made of costs to deliver hydrogen as liquid and gas. Gregory [1] has performed

detailed cost analysis of hydrogen gas transmission. Johnson [2] compares costs of gas

transmission and costs of transporting liquid in barges. He also gives some comparative

costs of transporting liquid and costs of delivering liquid hydrogen produced from coal

gasification and from nuclear power. From the data of Gregory and Johnson, it is apparent

that hydrogen should not be liquefied for transport over land if the end use does not

require liquid. We, therefore, did not analyze costs for delivering gaseous hydrogen but

6.1
concentrated on cost analysis for delivering liquid hydrogen to those users who require

hydrogen in liquid form.

Transport or transmission costs alone do not reflect the total cost of delivery of

liquid hydrogen. The complete system of production, liquefaction and transmission must

be considered because of the significant differences in the energy consumed in the

different systems. To obtain a comparison of the conventional methods of delivering

liquid hydrogen, eight systems were analyzed using six methods of transmitting or transporting energy over two distances. To keep the comparison of the systems on an equal basis,

it was assumed that a 1200 MW electrical power plant supplied energy to the systems, but

no specific energy sources for the power plant were considered. Each system was then

analyzed to determine the cost of delivering liquid to the user's storage dewar as a function of the cost of the electrical power.

6.2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS

The approach taken was that the hydrogen was to be produced by electrolysis using

power generated by some large electrical power plant such as a nuclear or solar plant.

Since solar power was considered, and sea-power plants are normally far at sea, the

transmission distance of 1600 km (approximately 1000 miles) was used as well as 80 km

(50 miles). The 80 km would be more typical for a nuclear plant.

The systems were evaluated for both transmission distances to get relative costs for

liquid at the destination. The systems considered were: (1) liquid hydrogen production

at the power plant and liquid transmission in a vacuum-and-Perlite insulated pipe; (2)

production of hydrogen gas at the power plant, gas pipeline transmission with parallel

electric power transmission to run the liquefier at the destination; (3) production of

gas at the power plant, gas pipeline transmission with gas used from the pipeline at the

destination to produce the liquefier power requirements; (4) electric power transmission

to the destination, gas produced by electrolysis and liquefied at the destination; (5) gas

and liquid produced at the power plant with truck transport of liquid; (6) gas and liquid

produced at the power plant with railroad transport of liquid; and (7) gas and liquid

produced at the power plant with ocean tanker transport of liquid. The last two systems were not considered for the 80-km transmission because railcar turnaround is a problem

for such short hauls and therefore does not compete with trucks, and for 80 km the large ocean tankers are not competitive with off-shore pipelines. The seven methods of transmission are depicted in figure 6.1.

6.3 SYSTEM ANALYSIS

To evaluate the methods of transmission to deliver liquid hydrogen to the user, the

integrated system, not just the transmission method, must be considered. The approach

used was to assign a power plant size of 1200 MW and to then size the components to fit

this power source. The first assumption was that the plant was devoted strictly to production of hydrogen liquid and that it operated at an average load factor of 90%. All

equipment was sized to take 100% of the power plant output. The second consideration was

that the cost of producing electricity varied depending on the power plant, fuel, location,

etc. Since cost of power is a major item in all systems, the analysis was made for

6.2
System 1, Liquid Pipeline

DJh.

POWER PLANT LIQUEFIER ELECTROLYZER

10" INSULATED PIPE STORAGE DEWAR

System 2, Parallel Gas Pipeline & Electrical Powerline

244 MW

POWER PLANT

IS ELECTROLYZER

STORAGE DEWAR

24" PIPE LIQUEFIER

System 3, Gas Pipeline

31—1

POWER PLANT ELECTROLYZER 24" PIPE LIQUEFIER STORAGE DEWAR

FUEL CELL System 4, Electrical Powerline

1200 MW

POWER PLANTV

LIQUEFIER STORAGE DEWAR ELECTROLYZER

System 5, Truck Transport

^12000 gal TANK - 15 LOADS/DAY

POWER PLANT LIQUEFER M ELECTROLYZER

STORAGE DEWAR

System 6, Railroad Transport

28000 gal TANK CAR ^ 5 CAR LOADS/DAY

POWER PLANT LIQUEFER ^ ELECTROLYZER

STORAGE DEWAR

System 7, Ocean Tanker

125,000 m

J

1 LOAD/ 16 DAYS

POWER PLANT LIQUEFER

ELECTROLYZER

STORAGE DEWAR

Figure 6. 1 Hydrogen supply systems.

6.3
electrical cost of 5 to 45 mills per kW-h. Cost of gas and power lines was taken from

Gregory fl] and the Federal Power Commission Report [4], Other costs used for the study are given in Chapter 2. The cost of the liquid hydrogen transmission pipeline (system 1) was estimated as

$490 per meter of length. The line size selected was 25 cm (10 inches) in diameter with

15-cm-thick insulation. Construction and installation costs were not available, as no such

line of the length considered has been used; therefore, the cost of installation was con- sidered to be near those of a power line. These costs were used because the installation of

the liquid line was aboveground to facilitate maintenance of vacuum and access for replacing

sections. The aboveground installation costs include purchase and clearing of right-of-way,

and construction of supports for the line. Although support structures would be much

smaller than for power lines, they would be much more frequent. This was the rationale

used to justify the relatively large installation cost for liquid hydrogen lines versus

gas pipelines.

The 80-km-long liquid hydrogen line was sized so that no pumping or refrigeration

stations were required along the way. The liquid was pumped to 2.02 MPa pressure at the

liquefier, then cooled enough so that normal boiling point liquid arrived at the end of

the 80-km line. This required the 15-cm-thick insulation.

The use of slush hydrogen was considered, but the constraint of delivering normalboiling-point liquid was met without adding the slush-producing equipment.

The selection of the line diameter was not optimized for minimum energy consumption,

but was selected to keep the velocity reasonably low so that the pressure drop in 80 km

could be met without excessive pumping pressures. A very detailed analysis would have

included transfer line costs as a function of pipe diameter and pressure loss, and then

balanced these costs with energy consumption for pumping and refrigeration. It was felt

that this type of detailed analysis was not warranted unless this preliminary comparison

of hydrogen transmission costs indicated that the liquid hydrogen pipeline was a good

choice.

For system 2 the gas transmission costs for a 24-inch (61 cm) pipe [1] were used

with appropriate adjustments for total gas flow. For the 80-km line, the gas compressors were considered to be located at the power plant and to be driven electrically. The

electrical power transmission costs were taken from The Federal Power Commission Report T4],

adjusting for the relatively short distance. The electric power line must supply approximately 244 MW, so the costs for a 230 kV line were used. Energy losses in the power line were negligibly small for this analysis.

The gas pipeline for system 3 was nearly the same as for system 2, since the change

in the required flow was not significant for cost evaluation. The big difference between

systems 2 and 3 was the back conversion of hydrogen gas to produce electricity to run the

liquefier. This conversion includes a significant loss of energy due to inefficiency.

Because fuel cells are estimated to be about 50% efficient, a fuel cell was considered

as the means of converting the hydrogen to electrical energy.

6.4
System 4 used a 500 kV power transmission line which is near peak efficiency at 1200 MW. Electrical losses were small but significant and so they were included.

Data for trucking costs for system 5 were taken from Elfel [5] and from current

charges for trucking of liquid hydrogen. The costs of trucking LNG given by Eifel [5] were thought to be valid for liquid hydrogen since equipment and regulations for hauling

are very similar.

Railroad costs from Eifel [5] were used for system 6 for the 1600 km transmission

distance. The railroad and trucking costs were adjusted for inflation which has occurred

since 1968.

Ocean shipping costs for system 7 were taken from the current shipping contracts for

LNG. These contracts include the cost of operation and of docking.

For the 1600 km transmission of hydrogen, the systems are very similar to those for

80 km except refrigerators and pumps are required every 80 km for system 1, and in systems

2 and 3 compressor stations are required every 105 km. Of course, electrical losses were

greater for the electrical transmission lines in systems 2 and 4. Another system similar to system' 1, identified as system 1A, was also analyzed for

the 1600 km distance. This system, which is a liquid pipeline with a parallel electrical

power line to supply power for the refrigerators and pumps, was considered when it became

evident that system 2 outperformed system 3. In system 1A a large portion of the power

is required to run the refrigerators and pumps so that the delivered energy is still low

but it is greater than system 1: In system 1 the inefficiency of converting the hydrogen

back to mechanical power to run the refrigerators and pumps is very significant and

reduces the delivered energy by a considerable amount.

For systems 5, 6, and 7, the gas produced during cooldown of the transport tanks was recycled through the liquefier. The liquid vaporized at delivery by transfer losses and

cooldown of the receiving hardware was considered lost from the liquid system; in practice, an effort would be made to recover this gas. The costs computed were costs of production (not selling costs) and consider the

total cost of capital, including interest, insurance, etc. to be 15 percent. Also, the

costs are only representative of actual costs for average installations. Actual costs vary

considerably; for instance gas line and power line costs may vary as much as 300% due to the area of installation.

6.4 RESULTS

The condensed results of the analysis are presented in table 6.1. System 2 is the

least expensive means of supplying the liquid on shore for both distances considered.

It is evident from the table that the systems delivering the most energy per year

are also those that deliver liquid hydrogen at the lowest cost. The largest single cost

item for most of the systems is the cost of electrical power and all of the systems were

limited to the same amount of electrical power. Thus, delivered energy is representative

of overall system efficiency.

For the 80 km transmission, liquid piping (system 1) and total electrical power

transmission (system 4) are competitive. The total gas pipeline transmission of system 3 suffers from the inefficiency of back converting gas to mechanical power to drive the

6.5
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6.6
liquefier. Even though trucking (system 5) appears costly, it may be highly favored

because of the flexibility of delivery locations and because no new technology is required

(such as development of fuel cells and large hydrogen compressors for gas pipelines). Also,

the liquid transfer losses of the truck system at delivery may be reduced below present

day losses by improved procedures and hardware. The transfer losses at delivery were con- sidered an entire loss from the system. In actual practice, this gas would very likely be

sold or used locally. This same argument holds true for the truck, railroad and ocean

tanker systems for the 1600 km distance.

For the 1600 km distance, the railroad system (system 6) is third lowest in cost; however, with improved transfer systems and use of boiloff gas, it could be more competitive

with the gas-electric system (system 2) . The railroad system does not require new technology.

Since the cost of electrical power generation varies significantly with location, method

of generation, cost of fuel, etc., the costs of producing and delivering liquid hydrogen

were determined for power costs ranging from 5 to 45 mills per kW-h. These costs are shown

in figures 6.2 and 6.3.

For the 80 km distance, the truck transmission seems to increase at a higher rate than

systems 1, 2, and 4; therefore, trucking may not be a good compromise if power costs are relatively high.

For 1600 km distance, railroad costs remain second to system 2 for the range of

electrical power costs and may be a good compromise. System 1A, using liquid transmission

and a parallel electric power line, still is not competitive because of the high costs of

the insulated pipeline and the high capital and operating costs of refrigerators stationed

every 80 km. The most economical means of moving very large quantities of liquid is by

ocean tanker if the source and use points are seaports.

A separate analysis was made to compare the system of transmission of hydrogen gas via offshore high pressure pipeline to the system of liquefaction and ocean tanker shipment. The cost for long distance offshore pipelines was estimated from one such line that

is to be constructed at a projected cost of 3.1 x 10^ $/km. Using this cost, a distance

of 1600 km, a cost of 12 mills/kW-h

e for electricity, and current shipping costs for LNG,

the ocean tanker shipping of liquid hydrogen was found to be less expensive than piping

gas for delivery of hydrogen in either liquid or gaseous state to a seaport.

6.5 CONCLUSIONS

As long as electrical power costs are below 15 mills/kW-h , the most practical means

e of supplying liquid hydrogen to users within about 100 km of the power plant is probably

by truck. This method offers more versatility in that trucks can deliver to many different

users. If the use is at a single installation, such as an airport, the gas pipeline with

a parallel power line to run the liquefier is probably the best choice. This system has

the added advantage of placing the liquefier so that any boiloff gases from storage, from

transfer, and from detanking operations can be recovered and reliquefied.

If the transmission distance is long, 1000 to 2000 km, the railroad delivery is attractive. As for the short haul trucking case, it is more versatile in delivery, since two or more large and widely separated users can be supplied with very little additional cost. If

6.7
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6.9
all use is confined to a single airport or all users are close to a large storage dewar,

the gas pipeline with the parallel electric power line looks to be most efficient and

practical; again, the liquefier is located so that boiloff gas from heat leak'and liquid

transfer can be reliquefied. For hydrogen transmission across the ocean, liquefying and

shipping is the most attractive.

6.10
6 . 6 REFERENCES

Gregory, D. P., A Hydrogen-Energy System, American Gas Association, Catalogue No. L21173 (1972).

Johnson, J. E., The Economics of Liquid Hydrogen for Air Transportation, Book,

Advances in Cryogenic Engineering 19, (Ed.) K. D. Timmerhaus, p. 12-22 (Plenum

Press, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1974).

Johnson, J. E., The Storage and Transportation of Synthetic Fuels, Report for

the Synthetic Fuels Panel, ORNL-TM-4307 (1973)

.

The Federal Power Commission, The 1970 National Power Survey, U.S. Government Printing

Office (1971).

Eifel, P. J., Comparative Costs of LNG Surface Transport, Gas Age 10, 20-23,

(October 1968)

.

6.11

CHAPTER 7 SOLAR ENERGY—LIQUID HYDROGEN

C. F. Sindt

7 . 0 SUMMARY

2 Using a solar collector area of about 110 m , year-round single-household energy

needs in Boulder, Colorado, can be provided if the excess energy collected in summer is

converted to and stored as liquid hydrogen for use in the winter; all space heating, hot

water, and electricity needs can be supplied. The system to collect the energy, produce

the hydrogen, and store it as liquid is complex; therefore, to be economical, it must be

large enough to serve a community of 100 or more households. Ten major components are needed for the system; however, all except the solar collector and hydrogen-air fuel cell

are commercially available.

The solar energy-liquid hydrogen system discussed herein has some advantages over more conventional solar energy systems. Several of these advantages are: (1) the system

has redundancy for supplying energy for space heating, hot water, and electricity, so it

will provide the required reliability for utilities; (2) the system is self-contained and

does not depend on energy sources external to the system during normal operation; and

(3) if the solar collector does fail, emergency energy can be supplied from an external

source in the form of liquid hydrogen.

Cost of energy delivered by the system will very likely be competitive with other

energy sources in the future. At solar collector costs of $30 per square meter, the

energy costs are about 1.5 times present electricity costs and at $20 per square meter,

the energy costs are about twice present energy costs for a Boulder home using propane and

electricity.

7 . 1 INTRODUCTION

In the northern half of the United States, the greatest part of the insolation occurs nearly six months out of phase from the greatest need for energy. To make solar energy

a practical year-round total energy source in these regions, long term storage of this

energy must be accomplished in a method compatible with other energy sources and compatible

with community development.

A preliminary study indicates that sufficient solar energy can be collected in some areas of the United States (such as the Missouri Valley, the Rocky Mountains, and the

Southwest region) to supply all of the residential energy needs of the average household

2 using 110 to 150 m of solar collector per residence. A solar system will provide the

energy for space heating, hot water, and electricity. To provide all three, the system

must store summer energy for winter use. The excess summer energy is stored as chemical

energy in the form of liquid hydrogen. The liquid is burned in the winter to make up the

energy deficiency which occurs because of the low winter insolation.

The solar energy-liquid hydrogen system is complex and is not economically feasible

as a single resident unit. It is more suited as a public utility supplying a minimum

7.1
of approximately 100 residences or an apartment complex of 100 households per energy plant.

Because energy for space heating must be distributed as a hot fluid—to keep heating efficiency high—the more condensed the community the less energy lost to pumping, heat transfer,

etc. Energy systems to supply 100 average households were analyzed.

7.2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS

Two solar energy systems were evaluated for comparison. One system stores energy as liquid hydrogen; the other systems stores energy as heat in aluminum oxide.

The first system (the solar energy-liquid hydrogen system) consists of ten components.

The largest and most costly component is the solar collector. The collector considered

is of the concentrating type as heat is required at temperatures to 755 K. A heat storage

unit is required that is capable of storing all of the heat accumulated during the longest

day of the summer and storing this heat at temperatures to 755 K. A heat engine such as

a Rankine or Stirling engine converts the heat in excess of that required for space heating to mechanical energy. The heat engine drives a dc generator which supplies power

to an electrolyzer to electrolyze water. The hydrogen from the electrolyzer is then

liquefied and stored in a dewar. Dewar boil-off gas is used in a hydrogen-air fuel cell

to produce electricity for the households when the generator is not running. Heat rejected

from the heat engine is used to heat water for domestic use. The system is depicted in

figure 7.1.

The operation of the system during the four seasons is generally as follows. During

the summer, heat is collected during the day and some is used immediately to run the engine

to generate electricity and produce liquid hydrogen. The remainder of the daytime heat is

stored "to be used during the night to run the engine and hydrogen producing equipment. Be- cause insolation is not constant, the short term heat storage is used so that the liquefier

will run nearly continuously. Boil-off hydrogen gas during this time of year is reliquefied.

Electricity for household use is taken from the generator and hot water from the rejected

engine heat. ' During the spring and fall, when space heating is required intermittently, hydrogen

is produced less frequently and only when excess heat is available. Thus, the heat storage

unit is used to store the energy in excess of the household requirements and when the

storage is near maximum, hydrogen is produced until the storage is at the lower temperature

limit. When the generator is not running, electricity is produced using boil-off gas in

the fuel cell.

In winter, if the sun shines, the solar collector produces nearly enough energy to meet the average space heating requirement. When it is cloudy, hydrogen is burned to supply heat and hot water. The fuel cell supplies electricity using boil-off gas or gasified

liquid. This arrangement provides for carrying the great excess of summertime energy into

the winter in the form of chemical fuel.

The second system studied (the solar energy-heat storage system) stores heat energy

in aluminum oxide at two temperatures. The system consists of a concentrating solar collector,

a low temperature heat storage unit, a high temperature heat storage unit, a heat engine, an electrical generator, and a hot water heater — see figure 7.2. Most of the solar energy

7.2
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7.3
7.4
collected in this system is stored at low temperature (360 to 755 K) for space and

hot water heating. The rest of the energy is stored at high temperature (645 to 755 K)

and is used to run the heat engine to drive the electrical generator. The solar collector

and the heat storage units must be large enough to supply the required heat, hot water,

and electricity needs for a specified period of cold, cloudy winter days.

7.3 SIZING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

To size the system components, the energy requirements of the average household were

needed. These were taken from a paper by P. A. Achenbach [1]. The data presented are from a subpanel report on total energy systems [2] and are for Baltimore, Maryland. These

seasonal data were adjusted to a Boulder, Colorado environment by using the ratio of the

sums of the respective geographic degree-days''' during the heating seasons. The monthly

heating loads for Boulder were obtained by using the appropriate fraction of this total

heating load as determined by the number of degree-days in each month.

No change was made to the cooling loads . The cooling loads were assumed to be

evenly distributed over the months of June, July, and August. Hot water and electricity

loads were assumed to be the same as those given for Baltimore.

Design trade-offs can be made in sizing units such as the solar collector, heat storage,

electrolyzer, and liquefier. Two extremes in solar collector sizes were analyzed in the

study.

The system using the smallest solar collector assumed that all energy collected over

and above the daily requirements was converted to liquid hydrogen and is one of the systems

described in section 7.2. For this system, the heat storage unit was small and was primarily used to run the engine; therefore, the assumed operating temperature levels of the

heat storage were 645 to 755 K. The heat storage media was assumed to be aluminum oxide.

The storage unit was sized so that the liquid hydrogen producing equipment would operate

24 hours a day during the summer. The heat engine, generator, electrolyzer and liquefier were sized to use this energy at maximum output. The fuel cell was sized to carry 200%

of the average monthly load with air conditioning. The liquid hydrogen storage dewar was

sized to accommodate the maximum amount of liquid that would accumulate if all of the excess energy were converted to liquid, i.e., enough hydrogen to last through 21 cold,

sunless winter days. This dewar contains enough liquid, as of January 1, to last 12

cold (sunless) winter days. A cold winter day was assumed to use 150% of the average

December day heat load.

The solar collector was assumed to be as small as possible so that just enough energy

is collected to run the system during an average year. The solar collector configuration

used was a parabola of revolution with an assumed collection efficiency of 70% of the

incident radiation. A concentration ratio of about 120 is required to attain the desired

temperature of 755 K. The total monthly insolance and the average percentage of possible

sunshine were taken from Strock [3]. The resulting available energy per square meter is

given in table 7.1.

1 The degree-days for a given day are equal to the difference between the daily mean

temperature (in degrees F) and a reference temperature of 65°F. The degree days in

any period are the sum of the daily degree-days.

7.5
The second system uses the largest solar collector, no hydrogen storage and requires

two temperature levels of heat storage, one for space heating and one for electrical

generation. The heat storage media was also aluminum oxide. Since space heating can use temperature as low as 360 K or lower, this energy was assumed to be stored at temperatures

ranging from 360 to 755 K. The energy storage for the generation of electricity was taken

at temperatures of 645 to 755 K. The high temperatures were used to keep the heat engine

efficiency at a reasonable level. The heat engine was therefore assumed to operate with

input temperature from 645 K to 755 K and rejection temperatures at 340 K. The assumed

thermal efficiency was 30% which is high for the lower temperature but reasonable for the

maximum temperature. This system was then sized to provide energy storage for a maximum

of 8 cold winter days.

Table 7.1 Solar heat at Boulder, Colorado, per month

Month W-h/m2

Jan. 98,667

Feb. 111,288

Mar. 166,629

Apr. 185,480

May 208,775

June 205,353

July 208,775

Aug. 185,480

Sept. 166,629

Oct. 111,288

Nov. 98,667

Dec. 92,018

7.4 ESTIMATED PERFORMANCE OF SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Each component of the system was assigned efficiencies comparable with existing equipment or in the case where equipment is not available, efficiencies were assigned similar

to the values predicted by those developing the equipment. The efficiencies used were 90%

for heat exchange, 80% for combustion, 30% for engine and generator combined, 78% for

electrolyzer, 51% for the fuel cell, 30% for the liquefier and 70% for the solar collector.

Of all efficiencies estimated, the solar collector is the least credible as no data were available for this type of collector.

7.5 COMPARISON OF THE OPERATION OF SYSTEMS

Since the hydrogen system is complex, system operation will require full-time monitoring. The collector temperature must be higher than the temperature of the storage unit before

heat can be added. The heat in storage must be compared to the projected space heating re- quirements before the decision is made to run the liquefier since liquefaction includes

7.6
several low level efficiencies that result in greater energy losses. In the summer the

liquefaction rate would need to be adjusted so that the operation is as near continuous as possible since warmup and cooldown of the liquefier represent energy losses.

Several features of the hydrogen system do provide for advantages over the simpler

system of dual temperature storage. The most significant advantage is that the liquid

hydrogen system can be fueled from an exterior source in the event of a component failure

or an extended local cold, cloudy period of weather. The fuel cell and the hydrogen-fired

boiler could assure continuous supply of electricity and heat as long as liquid hydrogen

was provided to the liquid storage dewar. This dewar has a capacity to handle 21 cold

winter days or 30 days of average winter-day energy consumption.

The second operational advantage is that the system normally has a minimum of 12 cold

winter days energy on hand as of January 1, where the nonhydrogen system can store only an 8-day supply. This 8-day supply of energy requires that the heat storage be at a maximum.

To get maximum heat storage, more than 16 totally sunny and consecutive days are required

preceding the 8 cloudy days. This is an unlikely series of events.

A third advantage of the liquid hydrogen system is that there is redundancy in the

heat and electrical supply in the event of a solar collector failure or an engine-generator

failure. The hydrogen-fueled boiler can provide space heating and the fuel cell provides

electricity. In the event of a fuel cell failure, the generator could be run from the

hydrogen-fueled boiler and the heat engine.

Stand-by heat and power sources could be supplied for the non-hydrogen system at additional costs.

7.6 COSTS

Capital, operation, and maintenance costs of each unit were determined from information taken from the literature. These costs are given in chapter 2. The cost of capital,

insurance, and profit was assumed to be 15% and was amortized over 20 years. This amortization time may be extensive for some components such as fuel cells and solar collectors.

Data on fuel cells are not available because commercial units have not been in existence

many years. Also, no data exists on solar collectors of the highly concentrating type required. Because of this lack of substantiated data, the 20-year period was assumed as the

most reasonable for all equipment. The unit cost that could not be estimated with any

degree of confidence was that of the solar collector. Since the solar collector is the

major cost item and actual costs were not known, a study of the effect of solar collector

cost on final energy cost was made for $20 to $110 per square meter of collector. The

capital costs of the other items used for the analysis are given in table 7.2. The re- sulting cost per kilowatt hour of energy versus cost per square meter of solar collector

is shown in figure 7.3 for three systems. The liquid hydrogen system and the system designated as an 8-day dual temperature system are the two systems described earlier. The

4-day single temperature system is a conventional non-hydrogen solar system considered

for comparison. In this system all heat is stored at 645 to 755 K and a maximum of 4 sunless, cold winter days of energy is stored. Also, for comparison purposes, the current

operating costs for similar households using electricity with natural gas, heating oil

and propane are shown and the separate cost of the electricity is shown. As is evident

from the figure, the total energy costs are very sensitive to the cost of the solar collector,

7.7
080

070

060

050 -

040

030 -

020

Calculated using 150% avg Dec.

and avg hot water & electrical

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temperature

heat load

load

storage

•BOULDE

*8 day dual

storage

SYSTEM

days storage

capaci ty

days supply on hand Jan. 1

temperature

LECTRICITY COST

--BOULDER WITH PROPANE @ 38<t/gal &

ELECTRICITY @2 . 52<t/ kW-h

t —BOULDER WITH OIL @ 30c/gal & ELECTRICITY @ 2.52<t/kW-h

-BOULDER WITH NATURAL GAS @ 8.5<t/100 ft

& ELECTRICITY @ 2.52<t/kW-h

I I I I I 20 40 60 80 100 120

COST OF SOLAR COLLECTOR, DOLLARS/m

Figure 7. 3 Cost of energy versus solar collector costs.
and the energy costs for the solar systems considered are all higher than current energy

costs where solar collector costs exceed $20 per square meter. The hydrogen system is

competitive with the other solar systems in the range of 40 to 70 dollars per square meter

solar collector costs and also provides the previously mentioned advantages.

Table 7.2 Size and cost of solar energy system per residence

(based on system components sized to service 100 residences)

Unit

Heat storage tank

A1

2 0

3 LH

2 Dewar

Engine and generator

Electrolyzer

Liquefier

Fuel cell

Size

3.85 m

3

15,495 kg

4500 liters

15.46 kW

24.3 kg/h

2.27 kg/h

2.45 kW

Cost (less solar collector)

Cost

$ 769.

$ 900.

$ 1340.

$ 471.

$ 1035.

$ 3000.

$ 678.

$ 8193.

Although many solar collector costs are proposed as low as $15 per square meter,

only the very simplest flat place collector costs can approach this value, and these

collectors provide energy at maximum temperature well below that required to run efficient

heat engines. These collectors also collect less energy per unit area; therefore, they

must be larger to collect the same amount of total energy. Since power generation is less

efficient using lower temperatures, the low temperature system requires more energy than

a high temperature system and, therefore, a larger solar collector. Thus, large area, low

temperature collectors are required and land costs become important. It was not determined

if the low temperature system produces electricity at lower costs than a high temperature

system because low temperature heat engines are not currently available. Consequently,'

the conventional high temperature heat engine was selected for analysis.

Electrical energy can also be supplied using photovoltaic cells, but the current state

of-the-art results in very expensive units of low efficiency. Again, there is a trade-off

if the photovoltaic cell can be produced cheaply. The trade-off occurs between large areas

of low efficiency cells versus less area of a higher efficiency solar collector system.

The current cells convert solar energy to electricity at efficiencies of 5 to 7% while the

efficiency of the electrical system proposed is about 20%. The proposed system includes

storage capability for cloudy days and for night time. To provide full-time power in a photovoltaic system, batteries or some other electricity storage media would be needed.

Cost comparisons of these systems were not justified at this time since their are no real

cost data for photovoltaic cells for commercial use.

7.9
7 . 7 REFERENCES

fl] Achenbach, P. R., Effective Energy Utilization in Buildings, Paper presented at 3rd Urban Tech. Conference, Boston, Massachusetts, (September 25-28, 1973).

[2] Subpanel Reports on Total Energy Systems, Urban Energy Systems, Residential Energy

Consumption, submitted by the Department of Housing and Urban Development, Federal

Council on Science and Technology (July 1972).

[3] Strock, C, Handbook of Air Conditioning, Heating and Ventilating (Industrial

Press, New York, N.Y., 1959).

7.10
CHAPTER 8 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF HYDROGEN

W. R. Parrish

8 . 0 SUMMARY

Large quantities of hydrogen are consumed in a variety of industries. Most of the

hydrogen is used in ammonia and methanol syntheses, hydrocracking , and hydrotreating.

Smaller quantities of hydrogen are needed in manufacturing drugs, processing metals, and

hydrogenating fats and oils.

Hydrogen consumption is expected to double by 1985; however, large scale coal liquefaction and shale oil processing will greatly increase the demand.

8 . 1 INTRODUCTION

9 In 1972, U.S. industries consumed roughly 6.5 x 10 kg of hydrogen [1] . More than 98

percent of this gas had a purity of less than 99.5 percent. The majority of the low purity

hydrogen went into petroleum refining and the production of ammonia and other chemicals.

High purity hydrogen (> 99.5 percent) was used in manufacturing drugs, processing metals, and

hydrogenating fats and oils. Table 8.1 gives a rough breakdown of hydrogen usage during

1972. Based on a 20-year trend, hydrogen consumption will nearly double by 1985; however,

two future technologies, coal liquefaction and shale oil production, could greatly increase

the demand.

Table 8.1 Estimated usage of hydrogen in 1972?"

Process % Ammonia Synthesis 35 Hydrocracking 30

Hydrotreating 21 Methanol Synthesis 8 Other 6

1. These estimates are from Harper [1].

8.2 PETROLEUM REFINING

There are two processes in refineries which use large quantities of hydrogen: hydrotreating and hydrocracking.

Hydrotreating uses hydrogen to reduce sulfur compounds in petroleum fractions to ^S,

which is easily removed, and to upgrade lubricating oils and kerosene. The process consumes roughly 500 cubic meters of low purity hydrogen for each cubic meter of hydrocarbon

liquid processed. The primary source of hydrogen for hydrotreating is catalytic reforming,

a process which increases the octane rating of gasoline components.

Hydrocracking is a catalytic process of increasing the hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of

high-boiling petroleum fractions such as low quality heating oil and tars. Thus, it con8.1
verts low value materials into the more valuable lighter hydrocarbons by breaking down

long-chained molecules. The process requires 4600 to 5000 cubic meters of hydrogen for

each cubic meter of feedstock converted. Based on current trends and anticipated expansion plans, hydrocracking will constitute the largest single use of hydrogen in this

country.

8.3 AMMONIA PRODUCTION

Each year, ammonia production consumes more hydrogen than any other process. It takes

around 20 cubic meters of low purity hydrogen to produce 1 kg of ammonia. Over 75 percent

of the ammonia is converted into fertilizer, and most of the remainder is used to manufacture explosives. Currently, natural gas is the major source of hydrogen for ammonia

production.

8.4 OTHER USES OF HYDROGEN

In addition to the above processes, hydrogen is used to produce various other chemicals

the major one being methanol. Methanol is used as a solvent and as an intermediate for the

production of many other chemicals. To a lesser extent hydrogen is used to produce oxoalcohols, cyclohexane, hexane, and many others.

Hydrogen plays a major role in the hardening of vegetable and fish oils e.g., the

production of margarine. Hydrogenating fatty acid oils, primarily cottonseed and soybean

oils, produces lard, oleo margarine, and shortening. Nonedible hardened oils are used in

the soap industry and to a lesser extent in leather dressings, electrical insulations and

pharmaceutical ointments.

Hydrogen is important in metallurgical ore reduction and annealing, in glass manufacturing, and in drug synthesis. However, these applications consume small quantities of

hydrogen when compared to petroleum refining and the production of ammonia and methanol.

8.5 FUTURE USES OF HYDROGEN

It is impossible to foresee all of the future applications of hydrogen in industry;

however, shale oil upgrading and coal liquefaction represent major potential consumers

of hydrogen. Whereas petroleum stocks usually contain sulfur compounds, shale oil can contain up to two percent nitrogen as well as one percent sulfur [2]. Therefore, shale

oil has to be hydrotreated to remove the nitrogen and sulfur before it can be used as a fuel oil or processed to make more valuable liquids. The hydrotreating requires roughly

3700 cubic meters of hydrogen per cubic meter of shale oil [2]. In terms of hydrogen consumed per unit of stock processed, coal liquefaction will

constitute the largest use. To produce one cubic meter of synthetic liquid requires

roughly 13,000 cubic meters of hydrogen, nearly 25 times more than required in hydrotreating

So, when coal becomes a major source of hydrocarbon liquids, vast quantities of hydrogen

will be needed.

8.2
8.6 REFERENCES

[1] Pennington, J. W. , and Harper, W. B., Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C.,

personal communication to the author (1974): See also Meadows, D. P., and

De Carlo, J. A., Mineral Facts and Problems, Edited by tf. A. Vogely, p. 97,

U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 650, Washington, D.C. (1970).

[2] Hellwig, K. C, Fergelman, S., and Alpert, S. B., Upgrading feeds by the H-Oil

Process, CEP 62_, No. 8, 71 (Aug. 1966).

8.3
i
CHAPTER 9 HYDROGEN FUE1 LITERATURE

Neil A. Olien

9 . 0 SUMMARY

The Cryogenic Data Center has as its mission the identification, acquisition, storage,

retrieval and critical evaluation of information and data on the properties of materials

at cryogenic temperatures. In addition, an information service is provided for the entire

field of cryogenics.

In 1973 a survey was made of the world's technical publications in order to add to our present coverage so that we can adequately review those publications containing information on hydrogen. Prior to this the coverage was adequate for cryogenic hydrogen, but it was necessary to add to the review in the energy field to locate hydrogen-fuel information.

In addition, a retrospective search has been made to locate papers in the literature prior

to 1973. This search is nearly complete and the results have been incorporated into a preliminary bibliography on hydrogen-fuel. A more complete version of this will be available in December 1974.

The Cryogenic Data Center has now published and distributed four copies of a quarterly

literature survey entitled Hydrogen-Future Fuel . This is completed each August, November,

February and May. Each issue lists some 300-500 references under 40 subject headings. An

author index is included with each issue.

The Cryogenic Data Center has been working with the Aerospace Safety Research and

Data Institute (ASRDI) of NASA since 1970 in an effort to compile all available information

on cryogenic fluid safety. The initial effort was on oxygen, but was expanded to include

rv/drcger. ir. 19"2. This effort has resulted in the Location and careful indexing and abstracting of over 500 safety-related papers on hydrogen safety. This information is now available for searching using an on-line search system operated by ASRDI.

A major data compilation is now underway which will produce a Hydrogen Properties

Handbook. This effort is also sponsored by ASRDI and will provide a single source, internally

consistent set of data for the thermophysical properties of hydrogen.

9 . 1 INTRODUCTION

All surveys, reviews and state-of-the-art assessments begin with, and must ultimately

rely on the literature covering the field. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize

the efforts made to provide an adequate coverage of the published, report and patent literature dealing with the possible widespread use of hydrogen as a fuel. There has, therefore,

been a large amount of cooperation between various groups within the Cryogenics Division

as regards the information covering the field of hydrogen fuel.

9.2 THE CRYOGENIC DATA CENTER

The Cryogenic Data Center was established [1] in 1958 to assist the staff of the

Cryogenics Division and other organizations within the National Bureau of Standards, other

Government Agencies, industry, and universities in keeping up with the flood of information

in this multi-disciplinary field. The field of cryogenics is, after all, defined by a temperature range rather than by subject or discipline.

9.1
From its inception the Center has been divided into two operational groups — a Documentation Group to provide information services in the field of Cryogenics and a Data

Evaluation Group to compile and critically evaluate thermophysical properties data of the

technically important gases. The latter group has produced Standard Reference Data for

the properties of helium [2], nitrogen [3], hydrogen T4] and argon [5], is completing work

on hydrogen and is beginning work on fluid mixtures. In addition a long term project,

supported by the NBS - Office of Standard Reference Data, has produced tables of transport

properties data for monatomic and polyatomic fluids [6,7] in the dilute and dense phase

regions. This effort also will soon become directed toward mixtures.

The Documentation Group maintains a thorough and systematic review of the current

published, report and patent literature by means of a regular review of over 350 primary

publications, supplemented by a cover-to-cover scan of some 30 abstracting services. The

first step in the operation of this information system is the preparation of a weekly

Current Awareness Service for the Cryogenics Industry. All important references listed in

this service are entered into an automated information storage and retrieval system. The

most important step in this entry process is careful subject indexing by professional

scientists and engineers. Once the information is in the information system it is available for retrieval by means of a number of access points and thus provides the basis for

a number of information products.

During the winter and spring of 1973 the staff of the Data Center made a thorough

survey of the world's technical literature to determine how best to cover the hydrogen fuel

field. The result, which was instituted in July 1973, was a net change of nearly 100 primary publications and 10 abstracting services reviewed. The new material being added to the information system to cover hydrogen amounted to an increase of over 20 percent (7500 -

8000 documents are entered in a normal year). This increase was not possible, of course, with a fixed budget and staff. The new additions were offset by reducing the coverage in

certain areas of solid state physics, notably the semiconductor field. This redirection of

effort during the past year has been a great success and quite healthy for the Cryogenic

Data Center. This new expanded coverage for hydrogen fuel has also been incorporated into

the Current Awareness Service and appears there under Section III - Energy.

9.3 SERVICES AND PRODUCTS OF THE CRYOGENIC DATA CENTER

The Cryogenic Data Center provides a number of services and products, most of which

are available on a cost reimbursable basis.

a) Current Awareness Service — a weekly bulletin averaging 8-10 pages

listing new publications in the fields of low temperature physics and chemistry,

cryogenic engineering and energy. Each issue contains a subject index. It has

been published each week since 1964. Subscriptions are available from the

National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151. Price:

$20/year-domestic; $25/year-f oreign (includes airmail delivery).

9.2
b) Superconducting Devices and Materials Quarterly — published each

January, April, July and October since 1968. This is a joint publication

including participation from staff of the Office of Naval Research, the

Naval Research Laboratory and Superconducting Technology, Inc. Each issue

includes approximately 300 - 500 references divided into 41 subject areas

and includes an author index. In addition a summary of the important papers

in each issue is included. This is written by Dr. Robert A. Kamper of the

NBS-Cryoelectronics Section and has proved to be a useful and popular column.

Subscriptions are available from the National Technical Information Service,

Springfield, Virginia 22151. Price: $20/year.

c) Liquefied Natural Gas — published each January, April, July and October

since 1970. This publication is sponsored by the American Gas Association

and covers this new and rapidly expanding industry which is closely related

to the hydrogen-fuel industry. Each issue includes 100-300 references listed

under 25 subject headings — an author index is included as well. Subscriptions are available from the National Technical Information Service,

Springfield, Virginia 22151.) Price: $20/year.

d) Hydrogen - Future Fuel is a new periodical which has been distributed

in August, November, February and May since August 1973. This publication

is a direct result of the efforts described in section 9.2. It is obvious

that a comprehensive publication could not be produced in August 1973 when

the effort was started in July. The first issue tapped the information

contained in the Cryogenic Data Center's information system and was, in essence, a selected bibliography of liquid hydrogen technology. Since

then, issues have listed mainly new references in the field. Each issue

contains 300 - 500 references listed under 40 subject headings and includes

an author index. Subscriptions are available without cost by writing to: Mr. Neil A. Olien, Cryogenic Data Center, National Bureau of Standards,

Boulder, Colorado 80302.

e) Specialized Bibliographies — The information bank maintained by the

Cryogenic Data Center now contains over 80,000 carefully indexed references

in the field of cryogenics. These include 20,000 references to the properties

of fluids, 35,000 references to the properties of solids, 15,000 references

on processes and equipment (including a very complete selection of U.S.

Patents) and 10,000 references to instrumentation and metrology. This

information bank can be tapped to provide specialized bibliographies on any subject. The searches are made by the same professional staff that

index the documents. This results in bibliographies containing maximum

information with minimum volume. Searches start with a minimum of $35

and average about $45. For further information contact Neil A. Olien,

Cryogenic Data Center, National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado 80302,

or telephone (303) 499-1000, ext 3257.

9.3
f ) Fluid Properties Computer Programs — The Data Evaluation Group has

developed a number of general purpose computer programs for fluid properties

which are made available on a cost reimbursable basis. For further information see Table 9.1.

g) Specialized Bibliographies — In order to expand the usefulness of the

Data Center's information bank we have begun a series of widely useful

bibliographies. Two of interest here are:

Liquefied Natural Gas Technology , October 5, 1973, Order

No. COM-74-10324 - $7.00, Foreign $9.50. Energy and

Superconductivity , March 20, 1974, Order No. COM-74-

10713 - $7.00, Foreign $9.50.

Send Orders to: National Technical Information Service

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, VA 22151.

In addition to these we have prepared a summary bibliography on hydrogenfuel. This is still a preliminary publication because it does not yet contain

all of the results of the efforts described in chapters 1 through 8. A more complete bibliography will be available in December of 1974. Requests should

be directed to: Neil A. Olien, Cryogenic Data Center, National Bureau of

Standards, Boulder, Colorado 80302.

9.4 HYDROGEN SAFETY INFORMATION

The Cryogenic Data Center has cooperated with the Aerospace Safety Research and Data

Institute (ASRDI) of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (located at Lewis

Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio) since 1970 in an effort to locate, catalog, carefully

index and evaluate the literature relevant to cryogenic fluid safety. Initially this

effort was directed toward oxygen safety, but has since been expanded to include hydrogen

and beginning October 1, 1974 methane and LNG. ASRDI has developed a sophisticated information system of which the information we have supplied on cryogenic fluid safety, com- prises a major part. In the near future, the ASRDI information bank will be available,

through a nationwide computer network, on a real-time basis.

9.5 HYDROGEN PROPERTIES HANDBOOK

The Data Evaluation Group, with funding from NASA-ASRDI, is currently completing a major compilation of the thermophysical properties of hydrogen. This will be similar to

a handbook [8] of oxygen properties prepared two years ago. The hydrogen effort will

bring together under one cover, data which are scattered throughout the literature. Even more important the data will be made internally consistent and will be extended into

regions for which data presently do not exist. The manuscript and associated tables will

be completed by October 1974. The medium of publication is a NASA Special Publication

which should be available in early 1975. The computer programs used to generate the tables

will be made available by NBS at cost.

9.4
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9.5
We feel that this Handbook will serve as the "Standard" data for hydrogen. This

will make it particularly useful as it will serve as the same data base for everyone when

cycles and processes involving hydrogen are compared. It is obvious that meaningful com- parisons cannot be made between competing systems unless a common data base is used.

This summarizes the efforts, products and services of the NBS-Cryogenic Data Center

for providing information services to the cryogenics industry and particularly that part

associated with the energy field. The emphasis of the Data Center's efforts is on the

low temperature portion of the hydrogen fuel field, although we do cover higher temperature

areas when those areas are related to cryogenic hydrogen.

9.6
9 . 6 REFERENCES

Olien, N. A., The Cryogenic Data Center, An Information Service in the Field of

Cryogenics, Cryogenics 11, 11-18 (Feb. 1971).

McCarty, R. D., Thermophysical Properties of Helium-4 from 2 to 1500 K with

Pressures to 1000 Atmospheres, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note No. 631,

161 pages (Nov. 1972)

.

Jacobsen, R. T., Stewart, R. B. , McCarty, R. D., and Hanley, H. J. M. , Thermophysical Properties of Nitrogen from the Fusion Line to 3500 R (1944 K) for

Pressures to 150,000 PSIA (10342 x 10

5 N/m2

), Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech.

Note No. 648, 162 pages (Dec. 1973).

McCarty, R. D., and Weber, L. A., Thermophysical Properties of Parahydrogen

from the Freezing Liquid Line to 5000 R for Pressures to 10,000 PSIA, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note No. 617, 169 pages (Apr. 1972).

Gosman, A. L., McCarty, R. D., and Hust, J. G., Thermodynamic Properties of

Argon from the Triple Point to 300 K at Pressures to 1000 Atmospheres, Nat. Stand. Ref. Data Series-Nat. Bur. Stand. No. NSRDS-NBS 27, 150 pages

(Mar. 1969).

Hanley, H. J. M. , and Prydz, R. , The Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity Coefficients of Gaseous and Liquid Fluorine, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 1, No. 4,

1101-1114 (Oct. -Dec. 1972).

Hanley, H. J. M. , The Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity Coefficients of Dilute

Argon, Krypton, and Xenon, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 2, No. 3, 619-642 (1973).

Roder, H. M. , and Weber, L. A., ASRDI Oxygen Technology Survey Volume I: Thermophysical Properties, NASA Spec. Publ. No. NASA SP-3071, 430 pages (1972).
NBS-114A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBSIR 75-803

2. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

SELECTED TOPICS ON HYDROGEN FUEL

5. Publication Date January 1975

6. Performing Organization CodeiH

7. author(S) j. Hord (Editor), W. R. Parrish, R. 0. Voth,

J. R. Hufit, T. M. Flvnn, C. F. Sindt, N. A. Olien

8. Performing Organ. Report No. *!

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No. 2750154

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP) 13. Type of Report & Period Covered Final

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less (actual summary ol most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.) The National Bureau of Standards played a vital role in developing hydrogen

technology for the space age and is now engaged in efforts to adapt and improve this

technology for the commercial use of hydrogen fuel. This document is a summary report

on selected hydrogen-fuel topics and was prepared to identify cost and technical barrier?!

to the commercial use of hydrogen fuel and to generate reference data for policyplanning, decision-making and design. Cryogenic hydrogen fuel technology is emphasized I in the economic and systems analyses reported herein. Using the best available

technical and economic data, hydrogen fuel is not currently cost competitive with

alternate fuels; however, we must not reject hydrogen on the basis of current economic

comparisons. Increased efficiencies of production, liquefaction, and energy conversion I may drastically change these comparisons-of-today as will increased fossil fuel prices

and more stringent environmental and pollution constraints. Hydrogen appears currently I marketable in certain integrated utility systems, in transoceanic transport of energy

produced far at sea, and is a necessary element in a wide variety of growing industrial I processes and in the liquefaction of coal. This publication identifies research and

development needs within selected areas of NBS competence and future research plans

are outlined.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons) Conservation; conversion; cost; cryogenics, economics;

embrittlement ; energy; hydrogen; industrial, instrumentation, liquefaction; literature;

materials; production; solar; storage; transmission; transportation; utilities.

18. AVAILABILITY Unlimited 19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

21. NO. OF PAGES

For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS UNCL ASSIFIED

1 Order From Sup. of Doc, U.S. Government Printing

Washington. D.C. 20402. SD Cat. No. CI 3 Office 20. SECURITY CLASS

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22. Price

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