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NBS TECHNICAL NOTE 1146

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/ National Bureau of Standards

Moisture Detection in Roofing

by Nondestructive IVIeans—

A State-of-the-Art Survey

QC

100

.U5753

N0.11A5

1981

C.2

n
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The National Bureau of Standards' was established by an act of Congress on March 3, 1901. The Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the Nation's science and technology

and facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the Bureau conducts

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the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology.

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'Headquarters and Laboratories at Gaithersburg, MD, unless otherwise noted; mailing address Washington, DC 20234. ^Some divisions within the center are located at Boulder, CO 80303.
Of iTAWDABDS

Moisture Detection in Roofing AuriTtssi

I " T-r- rDavid R. Jenkins

Robert G. Mathey

Lawrence I. Knab

Center for Building Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, DC 20234

Sponsored by:

The Directorate of Engineering and Services U.S. Air Force Washington, DC 20330

S-^^

""^ Co,

not i^c ^ CajuUdcioo by Nondestructive Means—

A State-of-the-Art Survey ^^^^'^

6.^

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler. Director

Issued July 1981
National Bureau of Standards Technical Note 1 146

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note 1 146, 82 pages (July 1981) CODEN: NBTNAE

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1981

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402

Price $4.25

(Add 25 percent for other than U.S. mailing)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This report was sponsored by the Directorate of Engineering and Services,

U.S. Air Force, Washington, DC 20330. The authors wish to acknowledge

with thanks Mr. John F. Stanton and Mr. Michael R. Toriello of the U.S.

Air Force, for project coordination and their valuable technical and

administrative assistance.

iii
Moisture Detection in Roofing By

Nondestructive Means

A State-of-the-Art Survey

by

David R. Jenkins*, Robert G. Mathey**, and Lawrence I. Knab**

ABSTRACT

A literature survey is presented of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods for detection of moisture in roofing systems. The methods discussed include the use of capacitance-radio frequency instruments, capacitance-microwave

instruments, nuclear meters, and thermal infrared scanners. For each method the principles of operation are reviewed and the measured properties which

are affected by moisture are identified. Factors other than moisture which my affect the response of the instruments are also described for each method. These factors produce responses which are similar to those due to moisture and include non-uniformities in the roofing system, roof construction details, and building equipment. The use of each NDE method in actual moisture surveys is reviewed. ^

It is emphasized in the report that the validity of roofing moisture surveys depends on both a knowledge of the factors noted above and a familiarity with roofing practice. Furthermore, cores of the roofing system at selected points

are needed to confirm NDE observations.

To define operating conditions for infrared scanners, calculated temperatures of roof surfaces over dry and over wet insulation are presented for representa- tive night and day conditions.

Key words: built-up roofing, moisture, moisture detection, nondestructive

evaluation, nondestructive testing, roofing, thermal resist ance.

Professor of Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL. on assignment to the National Bureau of Standards under provisions of the Intergovernmental Personnel Act.

** Center for Building Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, DC

iv
Table of Contents

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENT iii

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF TABLES vl

LIST OF FIGURES vi

1. THE ROOFING SYSTEM: MOISTURE AND ITS DETECTION 1

1 .

1

General 1 1.2 The Structural Deck 2

1.3 Decks with Poured-ln-place Insulation 4

1.4 Insulation 5

1 .

5

Roofing Membrane 6

1.6 Nondestructive Moisture Detection 8

2. CAPACITANCE-RADIO FREQUENCY INSTRUMENTS 11

2.1 Dielectric Properties of Materials 11

2.2 Moisture and Dielectric Properties 12

2.3 Instrumentation 14

3. CAPACITANCE-MICROWAVE INSTRUMENTS 15

3.1 Dielectric Properties at Microwave Frequencies 15

3.2 Instrumentation 16

4. NUCLEAR METER 21

4.1 Neutron Scattering and Thermal Neutron Detection 21

4.2 Moisture and Neutron Scattering 23

4.3 Application to Roofing 23

5. THERMAL INFRARED 26

5.1 Background Information 26

5.2 The Thermal Radiation Phenomenon 29

5.3 Factors Which Affect Surface Temperature 32

5.4 Airborne Infrared Scanners 43

5.5 Portable Infrared Scanners 48

6. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 53

6.1 Roofing System Characteristics 53

6.2 Nondestructive Moisture Surveys 53

6 .

3

Capacitance-Radio Frequency 56

6.4 Capacitance-Microwave 57

6.5 Nuclear Meter 59

6.6 Thermal Infrared Scanners 63

6.7 Considerations for the Selection and Use of NDE Methods.. 69

7

.

REFERENCES 71
List of Tables

Page

Table 1. Steady-State Roof Surface Temperatures 38

Table 2 . Nondestructive Moisture Detection 70

List of Figures

Figure 1 . Typical Roof Cross-Section 3

Figure 2 , Microwave Bridge Moisture Detection System 17

Figure 3. Block Diagram of the FM-CW Electromagnetic System 19

Figure A. Backscatterlng Mode of a Nuclear Meter 22

Figure 5. Schematic of Infrared Camera 27

Figure 6. Monochromatic Emissive Power of a Black Body Radiator 30

Figure 7. Electromagnetic Spectrum 33

Figure 8. Roof Surface Temperature, TgQ, for Dry and Wet Insulation .... 35

Figure 9. Typical Grid Array for Roof Inspection 55

Figure 10. Typical Capacltance-Radlo Frequency Moisture Detection

Instrument 58

Figure 11 . Nuclear Meter 60

Figure 12. Nuclear Meter 61

Figure 13 . Nuclear Meter 62

Figure 14. Portable Infrared Scanner System 64

Figure 15. Portable Infrared Scanner System 65

Figure 16. Portable Infrared Scanner System as used in Helicopter

Observation 68

vi
1. THE ROOFING SYSTEM: MOISTURE AND ITS DETECTION

1.1 GENERAL

Good roofing performance in industrial, commercial, and public buildings is

important to the U.S. economy, since there are many buildings of these types

and since they, in large measure, have large ratios of roof area to wall area.

The built-up roofing installed each year would, it has been estimated, cover

Washington, DC and part of its suburbs [1].

Most roofs do perform satisfactorily. However roof failures, which are

estimated to be 5 to 15 percent of the total roofs in the United States, can be

costly [1, 2]. While a number of failure processes may be involved, a roofing

system has failed when moisture penetrates it. Penetrating moisture could

lead to degradation in both the mechanical and the thermal properties of the

materials comprising the system.

This report deals with nondestructive techniques for detection of moisture in

roofing. Moisture data revealed by these techniques can be used to determine

what action should be taken, be it roof repair or replacement, at a time when

the moisture problem is of limited extent. It is far cheaper to solve moisture

problems of limited extent than those that have expanded during years of neglect.

Ideally, nondestructive evaluation should be a tool of preventive maintenance,

and should supplement visual inspection of roofing.

A roof system consists of a structural deck, thermal insulation, and a waterproofing membrane. Depending on internal humidity conditions and geographic

location, a vapor retarder between the structural deck and the insulation may

be specified. Moisture can be present in the membrane, the insulation, or the
deck but the bulk of the moisture is usually found in the insulation. In order

to give an impression of the variety of materials which are used in roofs, the

typical makeup of each of the roofing system components will be reviewed.

1.2 THE STRUCTURAL DECK

A sketch of a typical roofing system is shown in figure 1. Although most new

structural decks are fabricated from steel, reinforced concrete or plywood

decks are also common [3]. These materials have sufficient strength to be

regarded as load bearing. Cold formed steel decks are available in wide rib,

intermediate rib, and narrow rib configurations of the type indicated in the

sketch (figure 1). Reinforced concrete decks may be cast-in-place, precast, or

prestressed units. Pl)rwood is generally used as a structural deck when the roof

structural framing members are wood. Plywood is a better thermal insulator than

reinforced concrete since it has a thermal conductivity value of about 1/10 that

of concrete.

Wood fibers bonded with portland cement or other binder are pressed into planks

or boards which are used as a deck material called structural cement-fiber (or

mineralized wood fiber). Typically 2-inches thick, these planks are placed

dry in the manner of precast concrete slabs. While the strength levels attainable with structural cement-fiber are not comparable with the strength levels

of Portland cement concrete, structural cement-fiber is a much better insulator.

In fact, structural cement-fiber and plywood have similar values of thermal

conductivity [3].
Built-up

membrane

Floodcoat +

mineral surfacing

Insulation

Deck

(Steel deck shown)

Vapor

retarder

Figure 1. Typical Roof Cross-Section
As noted earlier, structural decks can retain original moisture or can become

wet due to moisture migration. In particular, plywood and structural cementfiber can hold substantial amounts of moisture. Moisture may migrate through

steel (laps or joints), concrete, or plywood decks from the building interior

and may, in turn, migrate to the insulation if a vapor retarder is not present.

When conducting a nondestructive evaluation to detect moisture it should be

remembered that moisture in the structural deck material itself may affect the

results.

1.3 DECKS WITH POURED-IN-PLACE INSULATION

In addition to the purely structural decks described above, there is an intermediate category of poured-in-place deck which combines some structural rigidity

with good insulating properties [3]. The poured-in-place or "wet deck" materials

include the insulating concretes and gypsum concrete. Both are relatively low

strength materials which must be placed over steel or concrete decks or over

formboard to produce acceptable structural integrity. The insulating concretes

include those with expanded aggregate (vermiculite or perlite) and the so-called

cellular concretes [4]. Vermiculite is an expanded mica aggregate and perlite

is an expanded volcanic glass aggregate. They are combined with portland

cement to give a concrete in the 15 to 50 Ib/ft^ (240 - 800 kg/m^) density

range. In cellular concrete, a preformed foam is added to a water-cement slurry.

Here the air voids replace some of the aggregate, the proportion depending on

the unit weight desired. All of the insulating concretes are good insulators

having thermal conductivities when dry of 0.55 to 1.20 Btu»in/hr •ft^.'F (0.079

to 0.173 W/m»K) [5]. Gypsum concrete, it should be noted, is a distinctly

different material containing no portland cement [3]. It is placed over
formboard and is reinforced by integral subpurlins and wire mesh. Gypsum sets

rapidly and attains its strength rapidly, not requiring the extended curing

time of Portland cement. However, it may have a substantial moisture content

for an extended period of time. Gypsum is a slightly less efficient insulating

material than insulating concrete with a thermal conductivity, when dry of about

1.7 Btu«in/hr»ft2.°F (0.25 W/m«K) [5].

All of the so-called "wet deck" materials discussed in this section can be

pumped onto the roof surface, can be worked to provide slope-to-drain, and

will have a virtually joint-free surface. In addition, all can hold substantial

amounts of original moisture and can become wet due to moisture migration from

the interior of the building or the structural deck.

1.4 INSULATION

Rigid board insulation in the roofing system provides a barrier to heat flow

but has essentially no structural strength. Consequently, it must be supported

on a structural deck. While insulation is usually installed in new construction,

nearly one-quarter of the new or reroofed installations has no insulation at

all [6]. Perlite insulation board, which is made from expanded volcanic glass

aggregate, cellulosic fiber and asphalt, is the most commonly used material [6].

Glass fiber boards, made from compressed glass fiber wool with binder, is the

next most commonly used insulation in new and reroofed installations [6]. The

conductivity of perlite board is about 0.36 Btu«in/hr 'ft^ '"F (0.052 W/m»K),

while glass fiber board has a value of 0.25 Btu»in/hr«ft2«°F (0.036 W/m»K) [3].

Ranking third in frequency of use are the closed cell foam plastic insulation

boards polystyrene and polyurethane. The advantage of polystyrene and polyurethane is their high insulating value, particularly the latter, which has a

5
thermal conductivity of 0.16 Btu*in/hr«ft2.*F (0.023 W/m»K) [3]. Compared to

the other insulations, these should be more impermeable to water because of

their closed-cell-foam structure, but water can be forced to migrate into them.

Composite insulation boards are available in which polyurethane is laminated

with either perlite or glass fiber insulation. The mineral materials should be

placed next to the deck to improve the fire rating.

Rigid board insulation will in general retain more moisture than other roof

components. Thus, moisture in the insulation will most likely cause a response

in the nondestructive evaluation instruments.

1.5 ROOFING MEMBRANE

The exterior membrane protects the other roofing components and the building

from exterior water intrusion. The most common membrane is composed of roofing

felts bonded by bitumen hot moppings and then f loodcoated with bitumen. In the

majority of roofing installations, three plies of felts are used [6]. However,

four plies are used in many cases. Such membranes are called bituminous builtup membranes. Because bitumen weathers when exposed to direct solar radiation,

mineral surfacing is generally embedded in the flood coat.

Roofing bitumens are asphalt or coal tar pitch. Asphalt is the heavy residue

from vacuum distillation of petroleum. The softening point of this material

is increased by passing oxygen through it in a "blowing" still. Four types of

roofing asphalt are designated in ASTM D-312 [7] ranging from Type I for dead

level roofs to Type IV for special steep slope applications. Coal tar pitch,

which is used in less than 5 percent of the built-up roofing, is a coke oven byproduct. It has properties similar to Type I asphalt. Coal tar pitch is used
in low slope or dead level roofing [3]. It is noted that good roofing practice

requires a slope of at least 1/4 inch per foot.

There are three types of roofing felts in use today, namely: organic, asbestos,

and glass fiber [3]. Basically the felt is a porous mat which is saturated

with asphalt or coal tar pitch. Organic felts are generally fabricated from

fiberized wood and paper, with the wood fiber acting as the matrix builder.

Asbestos felts are made in roughly the same manner as organic felts but with

asbestos fibers forming the matrix. Glass fiber mats contain either filamentary or continuous strand glass fibers combined with a phenol-formaldehyde

binder. Felts manufactured from the above materials are produced as (a) saturated felts, (b) coated sheets which are both saturated and coated with asphalt,

and (c) mineral surfaced sheets which are coated sheets having mineral granules

embedded in one surface.

Felts in the built-up membrane may contain moisture which has penetrated

through cracks or breaks in the flood coat. Although the roofing felts can

not hold large amounts of moisture as compared to insulations, the moisture

could have a large effect on the nondestructive moisture detection instrumentation due to its location near the exterior surface. More important than moisture in the felts is the existence of cracking through the roofing membrane

which would allow moisture to penetrate into the insulation. This is probably

the major mechanism by which moisture collects in the insulation. Therefore,

regions surrounding cracks or breaks in the membrane should be investigated

for the presence of moisture.
Since the built-up roofing membrane is, in effect, assembled on the construction

site, the possibility of variations in membrane makeup exists. For example, the

number of plies may not be the same throughout, the thickness of bitumen moppings

between plies may vary, and the thickness of mineral surfacing may change from

point-to-point. Variations of this type may cause a response in the nondestructive evaluation equipment which could be mistaken for water.

1.6 NONDESTRUCTIVE MOISTURE DETECTION

Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques should provide information on whether

moisture is present in a roof, the amount of moisture present, and the extent

of the area affected by moisture.

From the foregoing, it is clear that nondestructive techniques for detecting

moisture in roofs should be applicable to a variety of materials and material

combinations. Although moisture may be found primarily in the insulation, it

can be in the deck and in the ply-felts of the membrane. Due to the many

point-to-point changes in roofing system construction which could be present,

nondestructive evaluation instruments may display a change in response from one

area of the roof to another that is not due to moisture. In spite of these

difficulties, means for detecting moisture are available but they require careful evaluation and interpretation of instrument readings.

Nondestructive evaluation is an excellent supplement to visual inspection

since moisture may be present even when the roof surface appears to be free of

cracks, and dry. Persons familiar with roofing materials and their performance

should conduct the roof inspections.
Two techniques which are destructive to some degree but are widely used in

roofing moisture detection will be discussed briefly before describing the non2 destructive methods. These techniques are used frequently in combination with

the nondestructive techniques.

The first of these destructive moisture detection methods is the well known

coring or gravimetric technique in which material is actually cut out of the

roofing system. A limited number of cores for reference purposes is recommended

with all nondestructive techniques and NDE survey results will indicate the key

locations to be cored. Usually membrane and insulation are removed by means of

a knife, saw, or hole-cutter. Moisture in the insulation is determined by the

gravimetric method in which a quantity of insulation is weighed as it comes from

the roof (samples or cores should be placed in plastic sealable bags on the

roof) and then weighed again after oven drying. Of course, the roof must be

patched by approved methods as soon as possible after taking cores. When coring

is used in combination with nondestructive evaluation, generally only a few

cuts into the roofing system have to be made.

The second technique is the resistance probe or resistivity measurement

technique. It is relatively simple to use and is to some extent destructive

since the roofing membrane must be punctured by the probes. Most instruments

employ two closely spaced probes in one testing component and a meter-battery

assembly which is quite small and portable. Probes are insulated except at the

tips so that the region being measured lies between the tips of the probes.

Consequently, the moisture content at various distances below the surface can

be determined. However, it is not always clear just how much material is being
sampled. This is a particular problem when dealing with a many-component

roofing system which contains water.

Operation of the resistance probe is very simple. A voltage is impressed

between the probes and the current is measured. The instrument should be calibrated using wet and dry insulation of the type being inspected.

The probes have been used for moisture detection in plaster, brick, or concrete.

Somewhat similar procedures have been used for soil resistance determination

where a 4-pin method is employed.

This report reviews the state-of-the-art for four methods of nondestructive

evaluation of moisture in roofing. These methods include the use of

capacitance-radio frequency instruments, nuclear meters, infrared scanning

cameras, and capacitance-microwave instruments. The first three of these

methods are available commercially, while the microwave systems discussed are

not at present marketed for moisture detection surveys but they are included

since they may have promise for the future. All of the methods have been used

in the field.

An investigation at the National Bureau of Standards, which was recently

completed, involved a comparision of NDE techniques under laboratory conditions

[8]. The response of the instruments to increasing amounts of water in the

insulation of built-up roofing specimens under controlled conditions of specimen

construction and testing was evaluated.

10
2. CAPACITANCE-RADIO FREQUENCY INSTRUMENTS

2.1 DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Instrumentation of this type responds to changes In either the dielectric

constant, k, which Is a measure of the ability of a material to store electrical energy, or In the dielectric loss angle, 6, which Is related to the energy

lost In an alternating electric field. Insulators can be characterized by

these dielectric properties as well as by resistance. The capacitance of a

material, C, Is the product of the dielectric constant and the capacitance of a

vacuum, Cq, or

C = kCo.

The dielectric constant also Is a measure of the ease with which an electric

field can be set up In a material. This Is related to the behavior of the

dlpoles In the material. When an electric field Is applied, the dipoles (which

may be slmpllstlcally pictured as dumbbells with a positive charge at one end

and a negative charge at the other) In a material are created or become aligned

If they already exist but are randomly oriented. The amount of energy required

for this alignment Is expressed by the dielectric constant. Two kinds of

dlpoles can be found In roofing materials. In Ionic materials such as dry

roofing, the positive Ions and the negative Ions are displaced In opposite

directions in an electrical field thus forming dipoles aligned in the field

direction. In molecules such as water, randomly oriented permanent dipoles

exist which tend to align or become preferentially oriented in an electrical

field [9].

In an alternating electrical field which might be created by capacitance

Instruments, phase shifts between voltage and charge may occur. If there are

11
resistive losses in the material, the voltage creating the field and the charge

are out of phase. The dielectric loss angle is a measure of this phase difference. The power loss is also related to the dielectric loss angle. Another

parameter, the dielectric loss factor, is the product of the dielectric constant

and the tangent of the dielectric loss angle, that is

Loss factor = k tan 6

2.2 MOISTURE AND DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES

Water in a roofing system increases the dielectric constant since its randomly

oriented dipoles require a large amount of energy to align them. For example,

the dielectric constant for materials like dry roofing ranges from 1 to 5 while

the dielectric constant for water is about 80. The dielectric constant changes

very little with frequency until it undergoes a sharp drop in a frequency range

centered at about 2 x 10^0 Hz for water or other materials which have permanent

dipoles. Water also affects the dielectric loss factor of dry material but this

effect is frequency dependent. For example, the dielectric loss factor shows a marked variation in magnitude in both the radio frequency (1 x 10^ to 30 x 10^

Hz) range and again in the upper microwave range [9, 10, 11].

An estimate of the relation between volume fraction of moisture and the

dielectric constant in wet roofing can be made by assuming that the dielectric

constant of a mixture of materials is equal to the volume weighted sum of the

individual dielectric constants, then

kc Vc = k^ v^ + ki Vj

12

•iisem.
where: k^. = Dielectric constant of the combination

k^ = Dielectric constant of water

kx = Dielectric constant of insulation

V^ = Volume of water

Vj = Volume of insulation

V^, = Volume of the combination " V^ + Vj

Dividing through by V^,

kc = k„ -ii + kr —

c c which shows that the dielectric constant, k^,, of the combination varies

linearly with the volume fraction of water, V^^/V^., using the volume weighted

sum approach. A similar relationship could be derived for the dielectric loss

factor at a given frequency. Equipment characteristics may change this linear

relationship at low moisture contents. In addition, a threshold level of moisture may need to be present before any instrument indication is apparent.

Moisture may also have a profound effect on the uniform electrical field which

might be present in the dry insulation. Regions of high dielectric constant,

such as wet regions, distort the field so that the spacing of the field lines

is closer there than in dry regions. In cases where the moisture is not uniformly distributed, errors in interpretation could occur since the reading

might not be representative of the entire roofing system. Water on the surface

of a roofing system may also modify the electrical field. Again readings which

are not characteristic of the roofing system could be obtained.

13
2.3 INSTRUMENTATION

Radio frequencies (1 x 10^ to 30 x 10^ Hz) are used in most commercial

instruments for moisture determination. On the other hand, when large moisture

contents are encountered, frequencies in the VHF range (100 x 10^ to 300 x 10^

Hz) can be used. Equipment is commercially available which measures either

dielectric constant or dielectric loss factor [12]. Some manufacturers' literature indicates that moisture content readings should be accurate to less than

+ 2 percent.

Instruments based on these principles have been used for 40 years by paper

mills, textile mills, and wall board manufacturers to measure moisture in their

products. Thus the various items of equipment are in an advanced state of

development and have taken advantage of recent developments in electronics to

enhance their dependability and portability. Available instruments make use of

various electrode configurations. These electrodes, which are attached to a constant-frequency alternating-current source, establish a field in the material

to be tested and influence the depth of penetration of the field. Current or power loss can be measured.

These instruments are lightweight and readings can be rapidly taken. When used

in roof moisture surveys, readings are taken at selected points, for example,

the intersection points of a grid laid out on the roof surface. A 5 ft x 5 ft

(1.53 m X 1.53 m) grid has been used by one supplier of capacitance moisture

determination service. Point measuring instruments which include capacitance,

microwave, and nuclear types all have the same limitation in that they detect

moisture in a relatively small region near the instrument and the result is

considered to be representative of all material in that grid section.

14
Consequently, wet areas smaller than the grid dimensions might not be detected

in the grid measuring approach.

Use of radio frequency equipment in roofing moisture detection should follow a

general pattern that would also apply to other point measuring instruments.

First, the wet-to-dry threshold reading should be established for a particular

roofing system. This involves setting a dry base line reading for known dry

areas based on coring results. Second, previous experience with roofing systems

of similar construction would be used to relate the instrument reading to the

amount of moisture present. Note that it is the relative reading or the amount

that the wet reading differs from the dry that is significant. Third, the

results of the readings taken at all points of the grid would be used to delineate the wet regions on a plan view of the roof. There are few references in

the literature regarding the use of capacitance devices for measuring moisture

in roofing applications. Two trade journal articles by a moisture detection

service discuss the moisture problems in roofs and how their instruments may

be employed [12, 13]. Technical publications are not available in the literature to verify the interpretation of their results.

3. CAPACITANCE-MICROWAVE INSTRUMENTS

3.1 DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES AT MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES

Microwaves, that is electromagnetic waves in the frequency range 10° Hz to 2.6

X 10^^ Hz, have been employed in several different ways in moisture detection

instrumentation. In all cases the propagation or reflection of microwaves is

modified by the material involved and the modification can be related to the

dielectric constant or the dielectric loss factor which were discussed in Section 2.1. While these instruments were not developed specifically for roofing

15
moisture detection, all have had limited success in some type of moisture

measurement application.

A discussion of the theoretical interaction of transmitted and reflected

microwaves with dielectrics is presented by Hoekstra and Cappillino [11], They

demonstrate that either reflection or transmission modes could be used in

detecting changes in the dielectric constant and dielectric loss factor and

thus in detecting changes in moisture content. However, in both cases, for a fixed frequency input, it was found that specimen thickness had a marked effect

on the result and thus had to be known. The authors predicted that for moisture detection, an input pulse containing a frequency shift (between input and

output) would be related to moisture content. This concept was used in the

device developed in the Boulder Laboratories of National Bureau of Standards

and described in Section 3.2.

3.2 INSTRUMENTATION

One device, which was developed at the Cold Regions Research and Engineering

Laboratory (CRREL) of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, is a microwave bridge

or simply a waveguide with two arms [14] (see fig. 2). The sensing arm of the

waveguide has one wall removed in a region which can be placed in contact with

the material to be surveyed. The reference arm is instrumented so that the

reference wave can be matched in phase and amplitude to the wave in the sensing

arm. When the waves are recombined, one is 180° out of phase with the other

and, if perfectly matched, the output is zero. During testing, the wave in the

sensing arm can pass out of the waveguide into the test material, and its phase

and amplitude are modified relative to the wave in the reference arm. The

response In terras of phase shift and amplitude attenuation depends on the

16
e

<u 4J

en>^o

•HP

CJ

a) •uQ

Q)

}-i

•u

CD •HOs

0)bC 13

•H

Vj PQ

0)>>o

5-1 CJ •H

5-1 d

bO

•H

17
dielectric constant and the dielectric loss factor, which are functions of

moisture content of the test material. The system has been used to assess the

degree of cure in concrete by measuring its moisture content. The equipment is

not commercially available. It has been tried in roofing applications, but with'

erratic results caused, probably, by the layered structure of roofing systems.

A commercially available device, which is similar to the one described above,

utilizes a resonant microwave cavity [15]. An opening in the side of the cavity

allows the test material to influence the resonant frequency. Rather sharp

resonances are obtained, thus making it relatively easy to detect a frequency

shift due to changes in the dielectric constant of the material. This easily

portable and stable instrument is used in the paper industry.

Another non-commercial microwave system was developed by the Boulder

Laboratories of National Bureau of Standards. This is a frequency modulated,

continuous wave (fm-cm) instrument operating in the 1 x 10^ to 2 x 10^ Hz

frequency band. It transmits a signal which is reflected from an object or surface in a roof and is compared with an undisturbed reference signal [16]. The

device is represented by the block diagram of figure 3. Microwave frequency is

varied linearly with time for both the roof signal and the reference signal.

If the roof signal arrives later at the mixer than the reference signal, the

frequencies will be different and the frequency difference can be detected.

The time of travel of the roof signal depends on the dielectric constant of the

material traversed. A signal proportional to the product of the two frequencies is displayed. Peaks occur at points corresponding to interfaces in the

system being analyzed and the spacing of the peaks depends on the specimen

thickness and dielectric constant. If, for example, the specimen thickness is

18
Sweep

generator

Microwave

signal

generator Transmit

horn

Reference

signal input

Roof signal input

Receive

horn

Figure 3. Block Diagram of the FM-CW Electromagnetic System

19
known, the dielectric constant can be calculated from the distance between

peaks. The system has been used for measuring coal layer thickness. As noted

earlier, the application of this system for detecting moisture in roofing is

being evaluated.

Impulse radar is another possible approach for detection of moisture in roofing

although probably too bulky for field application at present. This system uses

short duration pulses which are comparable to frequencies ranging from VHF to

microwave and the differences in travel time or in amplitude for various echos

are measured. The dielectric constant of the material traversed can be calculated from the results [17]. It is used primarily in geophysical applications

for subsurface profiling [18]. Studies at CRREL showed the impulse radar could

detect both variation in moisture content in built-up roofing and degree of cure in concrete [17],

All of the systems discussed in this section should be regarded as being in the

development stage from the point of view of moisture detection in roofing.

While they may not be suitable for routine moisture surveys at this time, they

have potential for possible future development. In roofing practice, these

systems would be point measuring instruments. Thus they would be used by

taking readings at the intersections of a grid laid out on the roof surface and

would have the disadvantages inherent in all point measuring instruments.

20

"W
4. NUCLEAR METER

4.1 NEUTRON SCATTERING AND THERMAL NEUTRON DETECTION

Nuclear meters are used in the measurement of both moisture content and density

in soils, port land-cement concrete, asphaltic concrete, and roofing materials.

These meters, in brief, consist of a radioactive isotope source, a detector

or counting device, and readout equipment. For some meters the radioactive isotope source is shielded. In commercial meters, the isotopes used are radium

226-beryllium, cesium 137, or americium 241-beryllium which are packaged in

such a way that the radiation hazard is relatively low. These isotopes produce

primarily two types of radiation, namely: gamma rays from cesium 137 or fast

neutrons from radium-beryllium and americium-beryllium.

Gamma rays or gamma photons are used exclusively in density measurement and,

while this is applicable to roofing materials, it is not the primary interest

here. If the source is cesium 137 and the detector is a gamma photon detector,

density would be measured by a backscattering process in which the photons

collide with atoms in the material and follow an irregular path to the detector

[19, 20].

Fast neutrons from radium-beryllium or americium-beryllium are involved in

moisture content measurements. Referring to figure 4, fast neutrons from the

source enter the material and are both scattered and slowed down by collision

with the nuclei of the atoms composing the material. Nuclei of all materials

slow down the neutrons by momentum exchange but the speed reduction is greatest

for collisions with hydrogen nuclei which have about the same mass as the neutrons. Some of the slow neutrons or thermal neutrons are scattered in such a

way that they reach the slow neutron detector and are counted for a specified

21
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M

•^ £ ^

o o fl«

CO o ^

^ f CO j5

u

(U

0) rHU

4-1O

(U

c

•H

COo

COo

CO n

(U

00

•rt

lAA^VvvrJ

u>

22
period of time. The thermal neutrons reaching the detector are much more

likely to have collided with a hydrogen nucleus than other atomic nuclei since

the scattering cross-section of hydrogen is greater than for other atoms likely

to be present. In short, the activity of the detector is principally due to

neutron collisions with hydrogen nuclei. Generally, the detector measures

the backscattering of slow neutrons which have collided with hydrogen nuclei

in the surface region, since nuclei at a large distance from the source have

little influence. However, the depth of measurement may be 2 to 8 inches

(0.05 to 0.20 m) in soils [19, 20].

4.2 MOISTURE AND NEUTRON SCATTERING

The presence of water in a material, such as roofing or soil, furnishes

hydrogen nuclei for this slowing process. Since the activity in the detector

is related to the total amount of hydrogen present in the surface region, the

interpretation of the reading as being due to moisture alone may not be valid.

The asphalt in a membrane or other hydrocarbons in the insulation may contribute to a reading. Suppose that a series of readings has been made on a roof

and the lowest reading is treated as the dry insulation reading. If a nuclear

meter reading is made at a selected point and the reading is greater than the

"dry" reading, this might be caused by a higher moisture content or, it might

be due to a greater bitumen thickness [21].

4.3 APPLICATION TO ROOFING

The nuclear meter is a "point" measuring device because backscattering from

surface material in the immediate neighborhood of the instrument is measured.

Since the neighborhood is "small" compared to the area of a grid, it may not

be representative of the entire area. When measurements are made at the

23
intersections of a grid on the roof surface, wet areas smaller than the grid

dimensions could be missed, A 10 ft by 10 ft (3,05 x 3,05 m) grid is frequently

used with the nuclear meter.

Although not directly related to moisture determination in roofing, it should

be noted that gamma ray and fast neutron sources have been used in the soils

and concrete fields since the early 1950 's. Typical of early work in backscattering of slow neutrons in concrete is that of Pawliw and Spinks [22],

They found that the volume of material which has an influence on backscattering

varied with the water content. Representative of early work on soil moisture

determination is that of Davidson, Biggar, and Nielsen [23], Gurr [24, 25],

Ferguson and Gardner [26], and Rawlins [27], The researchers just cited, [23-

27], employed a gamma ray transmission technique. Commercially available

nuclear meters, rather than the laboratory set-ups noted above, have been widely

used for soil moisture and soil density measurements in the field. Waterways

Experiment Station of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has evaluated many of

these devices and they concluded that soil water contents can be determined

rapidly by nuclear meters with sufficient accuracy for most field work [20].

However, individual instrument calibration curves were required to obtain this

accuracy [28]. In general, the success of the nuclear meter in the soil area

encouraged its application to roof system moisture measurement. Application

of the nuclear meter to identify wet roof areas began in the early 1970' s. Some

of the disadvantages of the method are that a reference dry reading must be

established for each roof and that variation in thickness of mineral surfacing

can cause uncertainty in meter reading [21].

24
In field use of nuclear meters, the user is interested in establishing a

wet-to-dry threshold reading and in determining how roof construction variables

affect the readings. One approach to obtaining this information is contained

in a comprehensive set of roof observations and analyses carried out by Waterways Experiment Station [29] . Roofs of several different types and at various

locations were surveyed using a 10 ft x 10 ft (3,05 m x 3.05 m) grid for taking

readings. Core samples were taken on each roof at various positions including

edges, center span, and expansion joints. A statistical data reduction scheme

for the nuclear meter readings was followed. The analysis dealt with roofs

which had wet areas, i.e., had some wet as well as some dry cores. In each of

these cases, the threshold reading was determined from bimodal frequency versus

meter reading histograms, i.e., histograms for dry areas and histograms for wet

areas. The threshold reading was defined as the lowest reading expected in a

wet area. Clearly, this procedure requires a substantial amount of data

analyses.

•

Another interesting result of the study was a demonstration that readings near

the edge of the roof or near expansion joints were greater than readings away

from edges or joints. This was probably due to greater bitumen thickness near

edges or joints. Suggested average correction factors are given for these

areas where membrane thickness may be greater than average.

While statistical approaches like the above are valuable, verification of wet

and dry regions by taking cores is also very important. The number of construction variables which occur in roofing is sufficient that statistical prediction

alone should not be depended on.

25
There have been a number of field studies in which areas of roofs identified as

wet by infrared scanner systems also gave wet indications by nuclear meters.

This is true for both airborne infrared scanner results, [29, 30] and on-theroof hand-held infrared scanners [31, 32, 33]. In these field studies, it

should be noted that the nuclear meter was not regarded as the primary moisture

detection instrument but was siiiiply compared with the infrared system.

5. THERMAL INFRARED

5.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Infrared instrumentation of the scanner type has been widely used in roof

moisture detection, in assessing the relative heat loss through walls, and in

aerial reconnaissance. These instruments, called thermographic instruments,

sense the intensity of radiation from a surface, such as a roof surface, and

display a monochrome image whose density corresponds to radiation intensity.

The radiant energy levels can be interpreted as surface temperatures if the

emittance of the surface is known. Since the surface temperature, for fixed

omittance, is responsible for the instrument indication, it follows that moisture must cause a change in surface temperature for its presence to be known.

Briefly, infrared scanners consist of a sensing or camera-like unit and a

display or recording unit. The elements of the camera unit are shown schematically in figure 5 and these components scan the viewed area and focus the

individual "points" on a sensor or radiation detector. As shown in figure 5,

the radiant flux which is related to the temperature of the selected viewing

area passes through an infrared transparent lens and a mechanical-optical

scanner. The mechanical-optical scanner, which consists of rotating or

vibrating mirrors or prisms, provides a vertical and horizontal scan of the

26
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CO CO

4^ 0> ^^

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27
virtual image from the lens. In airborne scanners, this mechanical-optical

system scans in the lateral direction only and scanning in the other direction

is provided by motion of the aircraft along the flight path. Finally, the

infrared beam from a small region of the total image is focussed on a photorvoltaic detector which is sensitve to infrared radiation. Commercial infrared

cameras often use either an indium-antimonide or a mercury-cadmium-tellurium

detector. Systems using the former detector sense radiation in the 2 x 10~" to

5,6 X 10~" m wavelength band while systems which use the latter operate in the

8 X 10~" to 14 X 10~" m wavelength band. The signal output of the detector is

used to modulate the beam intensity of a cathode ray tube (CRT) in the display

unit. Grey tones in the CRT image correspond to various radiation intensities

(or apparent radiance temperatures). Operation of the system is much like that

of a video or television system and thermograms are made by photographing the

"picture tube" display.

There are four characteristics of infrared scanners which make them distinct

from the NDE methods of the previous sections. First, simultaneous measurements

of apparent roof temperatures can be made over large areas in the field of view

and not just at selected grid intersections. Second, the quantity measured is

well defined and thus ambiguities do not arise over the volume of material

sampled, although differences in material thicknesses may affect response.

Third, observations can be made at a great distance from the roof surface as in

the remote sensing mode. Fourth, the ability to detect moisture in a roofing

system depends upon heat flow through the roof.

28
5.2 THE THERMAL RADIATION PHENOMENON

A few observations on the physical mechanism of thermal radiation may be

helpful In relating physical properties to the radiation Intensities. Energy,

In the form of thermal photons, Is emitted from any surface which Is at a temperature above absolute zero. The Intensity of the radiation Is greater at

higher surface temperatures and has a different distribution of wavelengths

depending on the surface temperature. This Is shown In figure 6 for a black

body. The black body, an Idealization, is more properly defined as a perfect

absorber, that is, no photons are reflected by the body itself. In a black

body, all energy leaving the surface is emitted, not reflected. One practical

observation that comes from figure 6 is that working with a surface at higher

temperatures results in much higher radiation intensities.

The monochromatic emissive power plotted in figure 6 can be expressed in

equation form as follows:

2 IT hc^

^(^) = X^CeWXkT.i)

where: h = Planck's constant

c = Speed of light

k = Boltzmann's constant

X = Wavelength of radiation

T = Absolute temperature

This is called the Planck distribution function or Planck's Law. q(X) is the

monochromatic emissive power or the rate of energy emission per unit area per

unit wavelength at wavelength X. Another way of defining q(X) is

29
CM

20 -

15

00

00S2 10

Locus of

peak

intensities

1

1 1 1 1

180T(82.2°C)

120°F (4«.9°C) -

60°F(15.6°C)

0°FM7.8°C)

50 ?

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

WAVELENGTH, lO'^m

Figure 6. Monochromatic Emissive Power of a Black Body Radiator

30
q(X) =_dQ_

dX

where: Q = Total emissive power

The above Implies that Q represents the area under one of the curves In

figure 6, or

Q = / q(X) dX

o

If the formal Integration over all wavelengths Is carried out, we obtain

Stefan's Law for a black body,

Q= ^i^

where: a = Stefan-BoIt zmann constant

T]^ = Absolute temperature of black body radiator

The monochromatic emissive power curves in figure 6 are calculated for

temperatures which may be encounted in roofing moisture analysis. Note that

the peak occurs at a wavelength which decreases as the surface temperature

increases. For example, the peak occurs at X = 8.2 x 10~" m at 180**F while the

peak occurs at X = 11.4 x 10~° m at 0°F. The image intensity in the infrared

scanner would be equal to the area under the curve in the interval of wavelengths to which the instrumentation was sensitive. For some scanners this

would be 2 X 10"^ to 5.6 x 10"^ m.

It should be noted that infrared photographic emulsions, which are used in

aerial photography or in conventional photography, are not suitable for recording

thermal infrared radiation from objects in the 0*F to 180°F temperature range

[34]. The longest wavelength to which this film is sensitive is 1 x lO""" m and

31
it is clear from figure 6 that observed intensities would be negligible at that

wavelength.

To aid the reader in converting from wavelength to frequency, which was used in

earlier sections, figure 7 presents a plot of the two parameters. This might

be thought of as a frequency-wavelength conversion chart for electromagnetic

radiation. The frequency-wavelength of the various types of phenomena which

have been discussed are also plotted.

5.3 FACTORS WHICH AFFECT SURFACE TEMPERATURE

As noted earlier, thermal infrared scanners can only be effective for moisture

detection in the roof system if the presence of the moisture produces a change

in surface temperature. Since the moisture will primarily be located in the

insulation, it would be expected that a change in heat flow through the roof

must occur if moisture is to affect the surface temperature. Moisture will

influence two heat transfer parameters, the thermal conductance and the heat

capacity. By definition, heat capacity is the product of density and specific

heat. Laboratory test results indicate that thermal conductance of insulation

increases with moisture content. Heat capacity of insulation also increases

with the moisture content. Because wet insulation has a higher conductance

and a higher heat capacity than does dry insulation, the roof surface over wet

areas will exhibit different temperatures than the surface over dry areas.

Further, moisture in the insulation will influence the roof surface temperature

under both steady-state (where conductance governs) and transient conditions

(where both conductance and heat capacity are involved).

32
WAVELENGTH, meters

10* 10^ 1 10'^ 10"* 10-^ lO'®

1 1 1 1 Microwaves

1 1 1 Visible

-J

Radio

1 1 1 Infrared Ultraviolet

, I i 1 L

104 106 108 lOlO 1012 1014 1016 lolB

FREQUENCY, Hz

Figure 7. Electromagnetic Spectrum

33
To Illustrate the effect of moisture on the surface temperature, consider two

relatively common cases. In the first case, shown on the left side of figure 8,

heat flows outward through the roof since the interior temperature, T^^, is

higher than the exterior temperature, Tq, and the membrane surface radiates

energy to the night sky. In the second case, shown on the right side of figure

8, heat flows inward through the roof because of the higher external temperature

and solar radiation impinging on the membrane surface. Roughly, the first case

corresponds to nighttime conditions particularly during the winter while the

second case corresponds to daytime conditions in the summer.

Using an exact mathematical solution [35], a theoretical analysis was performed

for one-dimensional heat flow through a slab of thickness, A, which is bounded

by air at temperature, Tq, on the exterior and by air at temperature, Tj^, on

the interior. This roughly simulates a roofing system like that shown in

figure 8. From this analysis, it was predicted that the temperature of the

exterior surface of the slab should be:

Tso = Ji [ah Xn e-^n^J + T^ + (Ti - T^) J

total

+ R^ (1 - !o )(„ i^^ . ,1^^^)

^total

In the above equation, Bj^ depends on the total thermal resistance of the slab,

on the resistance of air layers at the exterior and interior surfaces, and on

the slab thickness, A. Also, A^ and Xj^ depend in turn on Bj^, on the initial

temperature distribution through the slab, and on the steady-state temperature

distribution in the slab. The steady-state temperature is discussed below.

Other factors are defined as follows:

34
: (Tso) INITIAL

Dry insulation

Wet insulation

Steady state

TIME, t

Tso

Steady state^^T^^^

//^Dry insulation

//^^ Wet insulation

-|TS0),H|T|AL

TIME, t

T3 TolLow)

Tso To '"'8"'

Direction of

heat flow

Ti (High)

y Direction of

heat flow

Ti (Low)

Figure 8. Roof Surface Temperature, Tgo. ^or Dry and Wet Insulation

35
t = Time (h)

TgQ = Exterior surface temperature ("F)

Tq = Exterior air temperature ("F)

Tj^ = Interior air temperature ("F)

K = Diffusivity (ft^/h) = A/Rroof P*S

^roof ~ Thermal resistance of the slab or simulated roof

(h • ft2 . 'F/Btu)

p = Density of the slab or simulated roof (Ibm/ft^)

Cp = Specific heat of the slab or simulated roof (Btu/lbm'F)

R = Thermal resistance of the exterior air layer (h • ft • *F/Btu)

2

Rj^ = Thermal resistance of the interior air layer (h • ft • 'F/Btu)

^total ~ ^o "*" ^i "*" ^roof ~ Thermal resistance of the slab and the

exterior and interior air layers (h • ft^ • **F/Btu)

o = Absorptance of the slab or roof surface

2

Ij = Total radiation incident on the slab or roof surface (Btu/h • ft )

e = Emittance of the slab or roof surface

2

I ^ = Total radiation emitted from the slab or roof surface (Btu/h • ft )

In the equation for TgQ, the first term is the transient term which indicates

that TgQ varies with time according to an exponential law at "short" times.

This is represented by the curves plotted in figure 8. As time increases the

magnitude of the transient term decreases and at "long" times the last two terms

or steady-state terms predominate. The horizontal dashed lines in figure 8

represent the steady-state temperatures. To give some idea of what is meant by

"long" time for a roofing system, calculations of the cooling of the Earth's

surface at night indicate that the transient period could be as long as 4 hours.

36

OH
In practice, adequate time must be allowed for steady-state conditions to be

established or approached and an allowance of several hours is reasonable.

Curves are plotted in figure 8 for both dry and wet insulation. For outward

heat flow as indicated in the left hand portion of figure 8, suppose that

the sequence starts with Tg^ relatively large and that Tq drops to a winter

night value. In that case, the roof surface over dry insulation cools to

a lower steady-state temperature than the roof surface over wet insulation.

For inward heat flow as indicated in the right hand portion of figure 8 (the

summer day case) the sequence starts with Tqq at the low night value and

Tq rises to a high summer day reading. The roof surface over dry insulation

will warm to a higher steady-state temperature than the roof surface over

wet insulation under these conditions. The predicted situations of the last

two paragraphs have been confirmed by roof temperature measurements and by

other calculations [36, 37, 38, 39],

In order to give the reader an idea of numerical values of the roof surface

temperatures which could be expected in the situations described above,

calculations of steady-state temperature for a typical roofing system have

been made and the results summarized in table 1. The steady-state surface

temperature is obtained by eliminating the transient terms in the previous

equation for Tg^, resulting in

el , + ^tot T = -^ + ^I + cd. °^' RoCRtot - Ro) '° Ro (Rtot - Ro) ^^

37
Table 1. Steady-State Roof Surf,ace Temperatures

Condition Ti To Wind ^so ^so ATso

(°F) Cf) Speed

(mi/h)

dry

insul.

(°F)

wet

insul.

(°F)

(^'F)

72 20 1.2 14.5 13.3

Winter 11 20 5 12.4 17.5 5.1

Night 11 20 10 15.2 18.3 3.1

11 20 15 16.5 18.8 2.3

11 40 22.0 30.9 8.9

Winter 11 40 5 32.4 34.9 2.5

Night 11 40 10 35.2 37.2 2.0

11 40 15 36.5 37.9 1.4

78 60 43.8 49.6 5.8

Sununer 78 60 5 52.7 54.5 1.8

Night 78 60 10 55.7 57.2 1.5

78 60 15 56.7 57.7 1.0

78 100 159.3 149.1 -10.2

Summer 78 100 5 130.7 126.8 -3.9

Day 78 100 10 120.5 118.3 -2.2

78 100 15 115.3 113.9 -1.4

38
Since the emitted radiation, lout* ^^^ ^® represented as

^out " ^so »

the above equation can be solved for TgQ. For the results repo

the thermal resistances were:

Component ^^tot ~ ^o^dry (^tot ~ ^o^wet

3/8 in membrane [5] 0.33 0.33

2 in perlite insulation 5.00 [5] 1.19 [40]

Steel deck [5] Negligible Negligible

Interior surface [5] 0.61 0.61

5.94 2.13

2 Resistances listed are in hr « ft » F units. The resistance oJ BTU

air layer, Rq, is calculated from [41]

1— = 0.5 + 0.38W

Ro

where W is wind speed in mi/h. The incident sky and solar radla

depends on the exterior air temperature, Tq, and varies from a v

53.8 Btu/hr»ft^ at T^ = 20 °F under night, clear-sky, conditions

300 Btu/hr«ft^ at T^ = 100°F under day, clear-sky, conditions.

The roofing membrane thermal resistance would be typical for fou

15 organic felts with gravel surfacing. A twor-inch perlite insu

assumed and the wet insulation resistance value which would char

rial having 50% moisture by volume is based on recent work at NBl

that this is extremely wet insulation. The interior temperature

conditions is taken to be 72 "F (22 "C) while for summer condition:

be 78°F (26°C). Two winter night exterior air temperatures are :

a rough indication of the effect of the inside to outside temper.

39
The values presented in table 1 for steady-state roof surface temperatures

support the general observations already made. For the winter night conditions

representing outward heat flow, the roof surface over wet insulation is warmer

than the roof surface over dry insulation. The greatest dry-to-wet temperature

difference occurs when the external wind speed is zero. Conversely, the least

dry-to-wet temperature difference occurs at the maximum convection condition

(i.e., 15 mi/h (24 k/h) wind speed). Further, the dry-to-wet temperature difference is greater for an exterior air temperature of 20 °F (-6.7 °C) than for an

exterior air temperature of 40°F (4,4°C).

For summer night conditions, we have an exterior temperature of 60 °F (16 °C) and,

as before, the roof surface over wet insulation is warmer than the roof surface

over dry insulation. However, the dry-to-wet temperature difference is less

than for either of the winter night cases. In spite of this the temperature

differences are thought to be large enough for most infrared scanners to detect

the presence of wet insulation.

For summer day conditions, the roof surface over the wet insulation is cooler

than the roof surface over the dry insulation. Again the greatest dry-to-wet

temperature difference is found when the exterior wind speed is zero. Note

that the exterior air temperature, 100 °F (38 °C), is extreme for many parts of

the United States. It was selected to provide as large an exterior to interior

temperature difference as could be reasonably expected.

Since a large dry-to-wet temperature difference provides greater contrast in

the thermogram and thus easier identification of wet areas in the insulation,

it is clear that low exterior wind speed and low exterior temperature give

40
better night observation conditions than high wind speed and high exterior

temperature.

Recall that the wet insulation is extremely wet in this example. Thus the

predicted roof surface temperatures over wet insulation are higher under night

conditions and lower under day conditions than would be the case if the insulation were not as wet.

To this point, predicted surface temperatures have been discussed. However,

the infrared scanner actually senses an apparent radiance temperature, T^p.

There are two basic reasons for this. First, the roof not only emits radiation

because it is at temperature TgQ but also it reflects radiation from the night

sky, the sun, and other sources. For roofs which have an emittance of about

0.9, about 0.1 I^jj would be reflected. Even at night, this amount of reflected

radiation makes a significant contribution to the total radiation from the roof

surface. Second, the scanner "sees" only a part of this emitted plus reflected

radiation since it is sensitive to a limited range of wavelengths. As noted,

detectors operate in the 2 x 10"^ to 5.6 x 10"^ m or in the 8 x 10"^ to 14 x

10~" m wavelength ranges. Consequently, to calculate the area under one of the

curves in figure 6, we do not integrate over all wavelengths but only between

the appropriate wavelength limits, or

X2

Q =

J q(x) dX.

Xl

This does not result in Stefan's Law but another relationship which can be

approximated as

Q = CT^

41
over a limited temperature range. The values of C and n depend on the specific

wavelength range, Xi to X2, which is selected.

After some algebraic manipulation an expression for T^p is obtained:

= [e T_"+ (l-e)7rl.j 1/n

Using this equation, apparent radiance temperatures, T^p, were calculated for

the various cases listed in table 1. Although they differ from those listed,

the apparent radiance temperature differences between points over dry and wet

insulation are virtually the same as the corresponding "actual" surface

temperature differences.

CRREL [31] has observed that differences between wet and dry areas are obscured

when viewing in the daytime with hand-held infrared equipment. A "mottled" or

"blotchy" appearance of the thermogram seems to be responsible for this. Thus

while there are predicted temperature differences in the roof surface over wet

and over dry areas, infrared scanners may not be able to detect these

differences.

Reflected radiation may be the cause of the "mottling" seen by CRREL, since

local variations in flatness and local changes in reflectance could result in

different intensities of radiation sensed by the equipment. Thus T^p could

vary from point to point for fixed Tqq. A similar effect can occur at night

when reflected radiation from the night sky is considered but the effect is

smaller than the solar effect during daylight.

42
As noted above, roof surface temperatures different from the dry background

temperature or "anomalies" in the roof surface temperature pattern may be caused

by moisture. "Anomalies" can also be caused by structural members such as roof

joists, by reinforcement in concrete or by subpurlins in insulating concrete

decks. They can be caused by variations in the insulation thickness or by

abrupt changes in the membrane construction such as changes in the number of

felts or thickness of bitumen. Any structural feature which alters heat flow

through the roof and heat storage in the roof can influence the surface temperature pattern and thus the thermographic image. In addition, hot air from

vents and the like can increase surface temperature which could be interpreted

incorrectly. Finally, the roof surface temperature can be altered by surface

convection (wind) which may vary from point to point on the roof. Some of

these problems and their effect on surface temperature have been discussed

by Link [37] and by Goldstein [36]. Careful interpretation of the results from

an infrared scanner is certainly necessary, and the interpreter must be familiar with roofing construction and roofing problems. It is recommended that

cores must be taken for verification of suspected wet areas.

5.4 AIRBORNE INFRARED SCANNERS

Airborne infrared scanners comprise a particular class of instruments which are

used in remote sensing or aerial reconnaissance applications. By definition

they are aircraft mounted systems in which the scanner operates in the direction lateral to or normal to the flight path. The forward motion of the aircraft provides scanning of the field along the flight path. In general, precise

control of aircraft heading, attitude, and ground speed is necessary for

good results. When the aerial mapping mode of operation is used, the data

43
are recorded on film or on magnetic tape. Viewing and Interpretation Is done

on the ground. The Manual of Remote Sensing [42] Is a good general source of

Information on this topic. Infrared surveys of the type just described are

available through a number of consultants and aerial mapping firms, Including

for example [30, 43, 44]. Several different manufacturers produce thermal

Infrared scanners (see table 8-2 of Reference [42]), and these employ sensors

which operate in both the 2 x 10"^ to 5.5 x 10"^ m and the 8 x 10^ to 14 x

10~" m wavelength ranges.

The thermal and spatial resolving ability of the airborne scanner should be

understood if the system is to be used correctly in roofing moisture detection.

Basically the problem is one of detecting "small" temperature differences

between "points" in an image of a roof, or very likely several roofs, and other

terrain features. Thus wet insulation might be present but the temperature

difference between points on the roof surface over the wet Insulation and dry

insulation would be too small to detect. Similarly, wet insulation might be

present but the region affected would be too small to be sensed.

Temperature resolution in airborne infrared scanners, and in other Infrared

scanners, is not a constant value, e.g. 0.5 "F (0.3''C). Minimum detectable

temperature differences depend on the temperature of the surface viewed [37].

This is demonstrated by applying the following equation

Q^ = eoCtJ - T^

)

for a grey surface and the full spectrum of wavelengths. Qi is the total

emissive power. If T^ = 102 °F (39 "C) and T2 = 100 "F (38 *C), there is a 2**F

(1°C) temperature difference and Q^ equals 2.18 Btu/h«ft^. If Tj = 22 "F

44
(-5.6*0) and T2 = 20''F (6.7*C), Q^ equals 1.37 Btu/h'ft^. It Is seen that for

a particular temperature difference (here 2°F), higher temperatures induce a

greater total emissive power than lower temperatures. Note that Qi represents

the total radiation from the surface and that the scanner would respond to only

a part of this radiation because it is sensitive to a limited wavelength band.

As discussed to this point, the temperature resolution problem is no different

in airborne infrared from that in hand-held infrared. However, some airborne

infrared scanners have an automatic gain control feature which creates some

unique problems in roofing moisture detection. A large temperature difference

between roof and surroundings can pose a particular problem. Because of the

automatic gain control, the available range of intensities is adjusted to fit

between the observed temperature extremes. Of course, the image will be all

black or all white at the ends of the intensity range and might show the roof

area as totally white or totally black. In other words, the problem may arise

when the roof surface is the "hottest" or the "coldest" object in the field of

view. Link [37] discusses this problem in some detail.

Spatial resolution in infrared scanners refers to the size of the "spot" on the

ground that is viewed at a given instant of time. The sensitive part of the

infrared detector is small (typically 0.35 x lO^^ m in diameter) in size. When

this region on the detector is projected through the optical system to the

field plane (see figure 5), the size of the region on the field plane is magnified and depends on the distance of that plane from the infrared camera. For

many infrared systems, the resolution, which is defined as the solid angle subtended by the sensitive part of the detector, ranges from 1.0 to 2.5 milliradians measured from the optical axis [41]. For example, at 1,000 ft (305 m)

45
altitude the radius of the "spot" would be 2 ft (0.6 m) if the angle is 0.002

radian.

In addition to the two types of resolution already discussed, there is an

atmospheric resolution or atmospheric attenuation of the radiation intensity to

be considered. This is minimized by using the 8 x 10~" to 14 x lO"" m wavelength range since there is high atmospheric transmission at these wavelengths.

Low flight altitudes have the advantage of shortening the transmission path

length which may reduce atmospheric attenuation [41].

The Waterways Experiment Station (WES) of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has

evaluated airborne infrared from fixed wing military reconnaisance aircraft as

a tool for detecting moisture in roofing systems. While military reconnaisance

aircraft were used in the WES work, it is thought that their observations may

apply in general to the method. Preliminary work was done, under WES guidance,

at Offutt Air Force Base in November, 1974. This activity provided the techniques which were used in subsequent work and led to the conclusion that airborne

infrared was a valid method for rapid evaluation of roofs of an entire installation [29, 37]. In May, 1976, a program of observation and evaluation was

performed at Pease Air Force Base and at Offutt Air Force Base. A total of

nearly 250 buildings were surveyed [38]. In each of the locations, measurements

were made of roof temperatures over dry areas and over previously identified

wet areas. This was done to establish that the maximum temperature difference

between wet and dry areas occurred roughly between 10 p.m. and midnight and

flights were made within that time period. In all cases the thermal infrared

scanners in the reconnaisance aircraft sensed in the 8 x 10"^ to 14 x 10"^ m

wavelength band.

46
A summary of the WES recommendations follows. First, roofs which were

identified as having possible moisture problems on the basis of the airborne

survey should be further checked with hand-held infrared. Second, all available data on roof characteristics and construction should be assembled to reduce

the number of "false alarms", i.e., areas which were warmer due to anomalies

other than water in the roofing system. Third, flights should be made on clear

nights having low humidity. Fourth, fifty percent, or more, overlap between

adjacent flight paths should be enforced. Fifth, for the photographic recording

mode, film negative or film positive is preferable to prints. Sixth, slow flying aircraft operated at a low altitude, e.g., 1,000 ft, should be used [30, 39,

45],

A different application of airborne infrared, although one involving the same

parameters, is the evaluation of the thermal resistance or insulation performance of residential roofs. The purpose, of course, is to identify roofs with

little or no insulation. Recent analyses have shown that the apparent temperature sensed by the equipment can be affected as much by variations in roof

emittance, outdoor temperature variations, local wind speed variations, and

transmission of the atmosphere as by varying amounts of thermal insulation [36,

41]. Burch [41] reported that for pitched roofs of residential buildings there

is little chance that an uninsulated roof could be distinguished from an insulated one since the factors noted above would override. However, he found that

in the case of flat built-up roofs of commercial buildings it is possible that

uninsulated roofs could be distinguished from those that are insulated.

Among the organizations which have used airborne Infrared Imagery to evaluate

Insulation performance are the Remote Sensing Institute of South Dakota State

47
University [46], the Ontario Centre for Remote Sensing [47], and the

Environmental Research Institute of Michigan [48], Note that the difficulty

in identifying roofs with little or no insulation does not stem from the image

quality but rather from the multiple factors which can affect local image

intensity. Very careful interpretation is necessary as in the case for

moisture detection.

5.5 PORTABLE INFRARED SCANNERS

Portable infrared scanners are compact, light-weight instruments which can be

hand carried or hand held. As discused in the following, there are a number of

available systems of this type which can be moved about a roof by an individual.

The sensor or camera-like unit, in particular, is small and portable similar to

a home movie camera. The accompanying display or recording unit is also small

and can be carried by the same person or be placed on a cart. Because of the

small size of the sensor unit, it can easily be handled by an observer in a

helicopter. The operating principles were discussed in Section 5.1.

As has been discussed previously, thermal infrared scanners, portable or

airborne, measure the apparent radiance temperature pattern on a roof if the

emittance of the roof surface is known. Variations in emittance over a roof do

not appear to be a problem since both a gravel surface and a smoota bitumen

surface have an emittance nearly equal to one [31, 49]. An exception to this

is an aluminized bitumen surface which has a markedly different emittance [50].

If the emittance varies from one region to another, an observer might mistakenly

interpret this as a temperature change when none actually exists.

48

I
The previous discussion (Section 5.3) indicates that it is necessary to sense

small temperature differences if the roof survey is to detect areas of wet

insulation. As shown by the example summarized in table 1, the temperature

contrast between wet and dry areas may be small, e.g., 2 to 3®F (4 to S'C).

Portable scanners used on the roof have an advantage over more remote sensing

since they are uninfluenced by atmospheric attenuation and since the temperature

range covered on the display unit can be adjusted to conform to ambient conditions. The isotherm feature which is available on some commercial units may be

useful here also.

The value of a roof survey is enhanced if wet areas can be detected when small

and when litle damage has been done. To assure that small wet regions are not

missed, it is important to improve spatial resolution by shortening the distance

from the camera to the roof. Using portable scanners on the roof surface

shortens the distance to the greatest practical extent. In Section 5.4 spatial

resolution was discussed, and it was assumed that the solid angle substended by

the sensitive area of the detector was 0.002 radian. This means that, at a

distance of 5 ft (1.5 m), the radius of the smallest "spot" which could be

detected is 0.01 ft (0.003 m) or 0.12 in. CRREL field experience confirms that

smaller anomalies could be detected when observing on the roof than when

observing from the air [51].

The field work discussed in this Section of the report was done by Cold Regions

Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) in cooperation with Waterways

Experiment Station (WES) and Facilities Engineering Support Agency (FESA). All

are activities of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The reported field work is

the primary effort on the part of the Federal government relative to the use of

49
infrared in moisture detection in built-up roofs and is well documented. There

has been parallel activity in the private sector but because of proprietary

considerations it has not been widely discussed in the open technical literature. The cooperative activity led by CRREL began in 1975 [31]. Since then,

they have surveyed a large number of roofs at many installations, both military

and nonmilitary. Many types of building have been involved [32, 49, 52, 53],

CRREL compared the operation of several commercially available systems and two

systems developed by the U.S. Army Night Vision Laboratory [30, 32, 51]. Two

commercial systems, one operating in the 2 x 10~" to 5.6 x 10~" m wavelength

range and one operating in the 8 x 10~" to 14 x 10"" m wavelength range,

successfully detected wet insulation. In addition, one of the Night Vision

Laboratory systems, the AN/PAS-10, also was successful in locating wet insulation in roofs [32, 51]. Inability to sense small temperature differences is

not necessarily a reflection on instrument quality or sensitivity. Rather it

may be a matter of the display capabilities or format of the system which may

not allow a small, full scale temperature range to be displayed on the screen

of the instrument or to be recorded by the instrument.

Since the radiation detector used in the successful commercial portable infrared

scanners must be cooled by liquid nitrogen, provisions must be made by users of

such equipment to obtain the relatively small amounts needed. This may pose a

minor logistics problem when surveying roofs in remote locations. Further, the

liquid nitrogen should be handled carefully by experienced personnel since it

can cause frostbite or topical freezing if it contacts the skin.

50
As a result of the extensive roof survey experience, Toblasson and Korhonen of

CRREL have developed a number of recoaunendatlons to facilitate and enhance

portable Infrared scanner work. The first of these recommendations is to make

a daytime "reconnaissance" of the roof. Usual features can be observed from a

helicopter or from the roof surface and conventional photographs made for

planning or later identification of anomalies [31, 51, 54]. The second and

perhaps the most Important recommendation is to make the actual infrared survey

at night. As shown by the calculated temperatures presented in table 1, good

contrast between roof surface temperatures over wet insulation and over dry

insulation can be obtained if time is allowed for steady-state conditions to

develop. A substantial steady-state period develops only at night. Another

reason for night surveys is the "mottling" or "Interference" which appears on

thermograms made in daylight hours. This effect probably is due to erratically

reflected solar radiation as discussed in Section 5.3 [52, 53]. A photograph

illustrating this point is contained in Reference [31] . Night surveys can be

made from a helicopter if a large number of roofs are involved but on-the-roof

surveys are most reliable because of the greater spatial resolution possible

[31, 51, 54, 55]. CRREL experience Indicates that there is very little difference between working in warm weather or in cold weather as long as the work is

done at night after approximate steady-state conditions develop [31] . Obviously

the diurnal atmospheric temperature variation occurs during all sessions. A

third recommendation is to outline the wet or "hot" areas with spray paint.

These areas can be photographed the next day for a permanent record. If the

roof is surveyed at some later time these markings can serve as a check as to

whether the area is still wet and whether new wet areas have developed. Further, with the wet areas marked, cores can be taken the next day to check on

51
actual wet or dry status of the insulation [31, 56, 57]. This leads to the

fourth recommendation and that is to take as many cores as seems feasible.

Although coring is destructive rather than purely nondestructive, it is the

only method available to confirm whether wet (or dry) irsulation is present.

CRREL has developed some coring techniques which involve a unique device to

cut 3 in (0.08 m) diameter cores from membrane and insulation [31, 32, 52, 53,

55, 56, 58].

Tobiasson and Korhonen have concluded from the CRREL field work that portable

infrared scanners can locate wet areas in roofs even though the wet areas are

small. Coring data for the most part confirm this [55, 56]. Since it permits

inspection of every square inch of roof surface, infrared is preferred by CRREL

over other nondestructive evaluation methods such as nuclear meters, capacitanceradio frequency meters, or capacitance -microwave devices [33]. Another general

CRREL observation was that while some roofs contain wet insulation covering

large portions of the roof, most roofs surveyed have small wet areas associated

with vents, other penetrations, or flashing flaws [31, 49, 58]. Their catalogue

of sources of spurious anomalies, that is anomalies or warm areas caused by

something other than wet insulation, include: hot air exhaust on the roof,

space heaters below the roof, hot rooms such as boiler rooms, variations in

the amount or type of insulation, non-uniform convective cooling on the roof

surface, radiation from adjacent buildings, extra thick membrane, and variations

in thickness of gravel surfacing [31, 57]. Incidentally, blistering did not

show up as a thermal anomaly [58].

52
6.0 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 ROOFING SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

A typical low-slope roof is a layered, multi- component system in which a variety

of material choices can be made for each component. The makeup of the roofing

system and its supporting structure is not the same at every point of the roof.

Therefore, the first step in a roofing moisture survey is to obtain as much

information as possible about the roof to be surveyed. This can be done by

consulting roof plans, by discussion with owner's representatives, and by visual

inspection.

Since the bulk of the moisture is likely to be in either the poured insulation

or the rigid board insulation, the roofing moisture survey requires that material

below the roofing system surface be examined. Moisture levels in the insulation

must be determined and this can be done by coring and by nondestructive evaluation. Coring is destructive, in that it requires a roof repair, but it is the

most reliable way of getting quantitative data on insulation moisture contents.

Nondestructive evaluation should always be accompanied by some coring to confirm

instrument readings. The insulation is not the only roofing component which

may be wet, however, since both concrete and plywood decks may contain considerable moisture. Moisture in the deck may not be readily detected by

nondestructive evaluation instruments placed on the membrane.

6.2 NONDESTRUCTIVE MOISTURE SURVEYS

The purpose of a nondestructive moisture survey is to locate moisture inside the

roofing system. The information is then used to delineate the boundaries of wet

areas and, possibly, the amount of moisture present. This is accomplished by

measuring some property or parameter of the roofing system which is affected

53
by moisture. That property or parameter may be affected by changes In other

characteristics such as roofing geometry, materials, or environment. The

ability to identify instrviment responses due to factors other than moisture

varies from system to system.

Another unknown with nondestructive moisture detection Instruments Is the

volume of material which is sampled. This would be no problem if the roofing

systems were homogeneous with a uniform distribution of moisture. However,

roofing systems are composed of several materials In a layered configuration

with moisture not uniformly distributed even in the Insulation. The result Is

that the instrument readings correspond to average properties In the volune

sampled. The interpreter of the reading must asstime that the average properties

in the sample are "typical" for that location.

Most nondestructive moisture evaluation Instruments may not respond correctly

if there is standing water, ice, or snow on the roof surface. Reliable readings

cannot be made in these areas.

All of the instruments and systems covered in this report are designated to be

used on the outside surface of the roof or above this surface In an airborne

application. One of two methods of data taking is followed during NDE roof

surveys. In one case, a grid is laid out by marking intersection points on the

roof surface and readings are taken at those points (see figure 9). Readings

may be taken at closer spacings when attempting to identify moisture entry

paths. Typical grid dimensions are 5 ft x 5 ft (1.5 m x 1.5 m) or 10 ft x 10

ft (3.0 m X 3.0 m) . Obviously, the reading at a grid point is assumed to be

characteristic of the neighboring material. In the other case, or the full-field

54

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o

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*JO

0)aCOaM

U^Oo

<4-l

•rl

1-1

cdo

•H3

GO

•H

55
case, the instrument sees all points in the field of view in the same way that

a photographic camera would see all points in a scene. Since relatively small

wet areas would not be missed, more complete information is obtained. For both

grid and full-field cases, the final result could be a wetness contour map.

For any nondestructive moisture detection system, the user needs to establish

several reference parameters. First, the reading or response for a dry area on

the roof being inspected needs to be known. Second, the change in reading or

response representing the dry-to-wet threshold should be determined. Third, if

at all possible, the relation between change in reading or response and moisture

content should be empirically determined. To be realistic, rarely is the third

parameter known to any degree of certainty. Very likely the relation depends on

the specific construction details of the roofing system and thus cannot be

generalized. In any case, a large change in reading or response from the dry

value probably means more moisture is present.

Along with visual inspection observations and coring data, the results of the

nondestructive moisture survey can be used to evaluate the condition of a roof

and to select areas where replacement may be necessary.

6.3 CAPACITANCE-RADIO FREQUENCY

Instrumentation in this category measures the dielectric constant or dielectric

loss factor in material which lies in the radio frequency electrical field

established by the device. These devices have various electrode configurations

which control the shape of the electrical field. Generally, it is possible to

control the depth of penetration of the electrical field although the presence

of moisture does influence the field configuration. Since water has a

56
dielectric constant and dielectric loss factor which are different from those

of other insulators, its presence has a significant effect on the readings.

When taking readings on a typical built-up roof however, it is difficult to

determine whether the field penetrates deeply enough into the insulation of

the roofing system to give a reading which is "typical" of its moisture condition. Since the distance of the electrode from the material surface can affect

the results, some problems may be anticipated when working on a gravel-surfaced

roof. One moisture detection service recommends that their instrument should

not be used on gravel thicknesses greater than 5/8 in.

Meters of this type (figure 10) are quite compact and readings are taken by

placing the unit on the roof surface. The grid measuring system is used.

Capacitance measuring instruments have been used for over 40 years in paper,

textile, and wall board production and thus are highly developed measurement

systems. Currently, instruments specifically for roofing moisture detection

cannot be purchased but a patented moisture survey service is available.

6.4 CAPACITANCE -MICROWAVE

This class of instruments measures the dielectric constant in a higher frequency

alternating field than used in the radio frequency method. For most insulations

which would be found in a roofing system, the dielectric constant measured in

this microwave frequency range would not be much different from that measured

in the radio frequency range. However, the frequency or shorter wavelength

radiation has a greater tendency to reflect from interfaces in the system.

None of the microwave systems have been sufficiently developed to be used for

field moisture surveys but some do appear to be promising. They would be grid

measuring instruments.

57
~^'}w:c "V ^^

^^.

'^i-

< r^ r

*t ^^«-

^

iu * ' *'^^-,

.?:

J^y

• • s*-

1 •'

•4 -> '/ <• H

'

'

• - **<. • '"

J j;',- ^d

Figure 10. Typical Capacitance-Radio Frequency Moisture

Detection Instrument

58
r

I

I

6.5 NUCLEAR METER

Nuclear meters contain a radioactive isotope source of fast neutrons. These

neutrons enter from the roof surface and are slowed down and scattered by

colliding primarily with hydrogen nuclei. The slowed neutrons (thermal neutrons)

which are directed back to a nearby point on the roof surface are counted by a

sensor also contained in the nuclear meter. Moisture in the portion of the

roofing system which is sampled furnishes many hydrogen nuclei. Thus, wet

insulation would tend to increase the count or instrument reading. However,

hydrocarbons present in the bitumens of the built-up membrane also contain

hydrogen so that variations in the bitumen thickness might be interpreted as

variations in water content.

Both gravel thickness and deck type may influence the reading level. Similar

to the situation for the capacitance-radio freqency method, it is difficult to

predict how deeply into the roofing system a fast neutron would penetrate before

being scattered back to the detector. There are indications that depth of

penetration may depend on the total amount of hydrogen present. In any case,

the depth needs to be sufficient to give a reading which is typical of the

material in that vicinity. Much field work has been done with nuclear meters

on actual roofs. Examples of commercially available Instrumentation are shown

in figures 11, 12, and 13. Based on surveys of many roofs and roof types,

statistical techniques for establishing a dry-to-wet threshold reading have

been developed. Results also show that careful calibration of the meter is

necessary.

Nuclear meters are small and easily portable. The radioactive isotope in all

cases is packaged in such a way that the radiation hazard is minimized. Other

59

t
Figure 11. Nuclear Meter

60

1
Figure 12. Nuclear Meter

61
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62
forms of the nuclear meter have been used for many years in soil moisture and

soil density determination.. In roofing moisture detection, the grid measurement

system is employed.

6.6 THERMAL INFRARED SCANNERS

Thermal infrared scanners respond to the infrared radiation which is emitted or

reflected from a roof surface. Radiation levels can be interpreted as roof

surface temperatures if the emittance is known. The format of the thermal

infrared system is much like that of a portable TV camera and monitor as shown

in figures 14 and 15. Grey tones displayed on the screen correspond to infrared radiation levels or apparent radiance temperatures. For example, cooler

portions in the viewed surface area appear to be dark while warmer portions are

light. A large region on the roof can be viewed at one time including an

entire roof if the camera is airborne. Within the spatial resolution limit

discussed below, all points in the field of view can be "seen" simultaneously.

Clearly, this is a full-field method, in contrast to the grid method of

measurement

.

In order to detect moisture, the surface temperature must be affected differently

by dry and by wet insulation. This depends on the heat conduction through the

roofing system, convection on the inside and outside roof surfaces, and net

radiation into the outside roof surface. Both field experience and calculations

for typical roof thermal conditions show that, under most conditions, roof

temperatures over dry insulation and over wet insulation are sufficiently

different to be detected by the infrared scanners. Since the surface temperature over wet insulation is higher than the surface temperature over dry insulation at night, the observer would look for light or "hot" anomalies in the

63
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64
Figure 15. Portable Infrared Scanner System

65
field of view. This condition applies when the outside temperature is lower

than the inside temperature.

Conditions for detection of wet areas are improved by large inside-to-outside

temperature gradients and low wind velocities at the outside surface. Since

both radiation to the roof surface and reflection of radiation from the roof

surface can have a large effect on the temperature sensed by the scanner, it is

preferable to work at night when solar, radiation is not present. Another

advantage of working at night is that steady-state conditions are approached

over a relatively long period of time and this allows a large roof to be surveyed under virtually the same thermal conditions. During the day, steadystate conditions are not approached. The season of the year is not, in itself,

important provided the inside-to-outside temperature gradient is large enough

and ponded water, ice, or snow are not present.

Any roof feature which influences either heat flow through the roof or the roof

surface temperature directly may cause an instrument response similar to that

caused by moisture. These include: (1) variations in supporting structure, (2)

variations in thickness of membrane, insulation, or deck, (3) localized heat

sources under or on the roof surface, and (4) variations in surface convection

over a large roof.

Airborne thermal infrared scanners which are mounted in fixed wing aircraft are

operated in essentially an aerial mapping mode or in an aerial reconnaisance

mode. Even for low altitude (i.e., 1,000 ft) flyovers, these systems may not

produce the detailed information necessary for all roofing moisture surveys.

This occurs primarily because the radiation sensor occupies a solid angle of

66
about 0.002 radian in the optical system. At 1,000 ft altitude, this means that

radiant energy variations over a spot 4 ft in diameter or a square 4 ft on an

edge would not be detected. A spatial resolution problem then arises because

the system could detect wet areas larger than this spot size but might not

detect smaller wet areas. The principle advantage of the system is that a

large number of roofs can be surveyed in a short period of time.

A variation of the above is the use of a portable or hand-held infrared scanner

in a helicopter for a large single-roof or a multiple-roof survey. In this

configuration, shown in figure 16, the distance from the roof is reduced so

that the spatial resolution problem is less severe. Field experience suggests

that this type of airborne system may be effective.

Portable infrared scanners, such as those shown in figures 14 and 15, are

sufficiently light-weight to be used on the roof surface. Being able to work

on the roof surface gives several advantages over airborne systems. First, the

temperature range can be selected for maximum contrast coupled with the greatest

sensitivity. Second, the spatial resolution is good since the camera-to-roof

distance is short and the area covered by the radiation detector spot is small.

Detection of small wet areas is essential since field experience shows that

most roofs have small wet areas. Third, areas identified as wet can be outlined on the roof surface as the survey is being done.

A number of portable infrared scanner systems have been compared in field

surveys and systems are commercially available which performed well in roof

moisture detection.

67
68

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6.7 CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SELECTION AND USE OF NDE METHODS

A. The equipment and NDE methods discussed in this survey are intended to

locate areas containing moisture in a roof system. Moisture in insulation

is of primary interest. Nondestructive methods allow these interior

regions to be examined.

B. Several significant features of three commercially available nondestructive

moisture detection systems and one laboratory system are compared in table 2,

The features compared are depth of penetration or volume sampled, grid versus full-field data taking format, data presentation format, and nonmoisture

parameters which affect response.

C. Nondestructive evaluation should always be accompanied by visual inspection

of the roof and by core-taking to verify moisture contents.

D. Results of nondestructive roof moisture surveys can be presented in the

form of moisture contour maps and all systems discussed are adaptable to

this approach.

E. Selection of nondestructive moisture evaluation equipment should be based

on:

- Cost of equipment, personnel, and data analysis.

- Skill of personnel required to operate equipment and to collect and analyze

data.

- Knowledge of the roofing system and the effects of the construction and

environmental variables on the NDE method.

- Purpose of moisture survey (routine maintenance, reroofing evaluation,

etc.)

- Reliability and quality required in survey results.

69
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70
7. REFERENCES

[I] Griffin, C. W. , Jr., Manual of Built-up Roofing Systems, McGraw-Hill

Book Co., New York, (1970).

[2] Bushing, H. W. , Mathey, R. G. , Rossiter, W. J., Jr., and Cullen, W. C,

Effects of Moisture in Built-up Roofing — A State-of-the-Art Literature

Survey, National Bureau of Standards Technical Note 965, (July 1978).

[3] Good, William A., Editor, The Built-up Roof, National Roofing Contractors

Association, (1978).

[4] Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, Eleventh Edition, Portland Cement

I Association, (1968).

' [5] Good Roofs Save Energy — NRCA Energy Manual, National Roofing Contractors

Association.

[6] Pinpoint Shows Energy Advances, The Roofing Spec, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 13-15,

I (May 1978).

[7] Standard Specification for Asphalt for Use in Constructing Built-up Roof

Coverings, D312-71, American Society for Testing and Materials Annual

Book of ASTM Standards, Part 15, (1978).

[8] Knab, L. I., Mathey, R. G., Jenkins, D, R. , Laboratory Evaluation of

I Nondestructive Methods to Measure Moisture in Built-up Roofing Systems,

National Bureau of Standards Building Science Series 131, (January 1981).

[9] Ruoff, A. L. , Materials Science (Chapter 30. Dielectrics) Prentice-Hall

Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, (1973).

[10] von Hippel, A., Dielectrics and Waves, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New

York, London, (1954).

[II] Hoekstra, P. and Cappillino, P., An Analysis of Nondestructive Sensing of

Water Content by Microwaves, Research Report 295, Cold Regions Research

and Engineering Laboratory, (July 1971).

[12] Anderson, R. G. , How to Extend the Life of Your Plant Roof, Paper Age,

(September 1976).

[13] Anderson, R., How Wet is Wet?, Roofing, Siding, and Insulation, (July 1976).

[14] Arcone, S. A. and Delaney, A. J., Results of Microwave Moisture Sensing

Tests Performed in Insulation Materials, December 11-12, 1978, Letter

Report Submitted to National Bureau of Standards, (May 15, 1979).

[15] Baum, G. A. and Brennan, D. G. , Methods of Measuring the Moisture Content

of Paper: Part VII, The Scan Pro FEP30 Microwave Moisture Gage, Report No.

42, Institute of Paper Chemistry, (February 13, 1978).

71
[16] Ellerbruch, D. A. and Belsher, D. R., FM-CW Electromagnetic Technique of

Measuring Coal Layer Thickness, NBSIR 76-840, (May 1976), or Ellerbruch, D. A. and Belsher, D. R, , Electromagnetic Technique of

Measuring Coal Layer Thickness, IEEE, Trans, on Geoscience Electronics,

Vol. GE-16, No. 2, pp. 126-133, (April 1978).

[17] Morey, R. and Kovacs, W., Detection of Moisture in Construction Materials,

CRREL Report 77-25, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Labortory,

(September 1977)

[18] Morey, R. M., Continuous Subsurface Profiling by Impulse Radar, Conference

on Subsurface Exploration for Underground Excavation and Heavy Construction,

American Society of Civil Engineers, (August 1974),

[19] Standard Test Method for Moisture Content of Soil and Soil-Aggregate in

Place by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth), ANSI/ASTM D3017-78, American

Society for Testing and Materials Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 19,

(1981).

[20] Rosser, T. B., Ill, and Webster, S. L., Evaluation of Nuclear Methods of

Determining Surface In Situ Soil Water Content and Density, Miscellaneous

Paper S-69-15, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, (April

1969).

[21] Hedlin, C. P., The Use of Nuclear Moisture Density Meters to Measure

Moisture in Flat Roofing Insulations, Research Paper 636, Division of

Building Research, National Research Council of Canada, (1974).

[22] Pawliw, J. and Spinks, J. W. T., Neutron Moisture Meter for Concrete,

Canadian Journal of Technology, Vol. 34, pp. 503-513, (1957).

[23] Davidson, J. M. Biggar, J. W., and Nielsen, D. R. , Gamma-Attenuation for

Measuring Bulk Density and Transient Water Flow in Porous Materials,

Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 68, No. 16, pp. 4777-4783, (August

15, 1963).

[24] Gurr, C. G. , and Marshall, T. J., Unsaturated Permeability—Its Measurement

and Its Estimation From Other Properties of the Material, Transactions

International Congress on Soil Mechanics, Vol. 1, pp. 306-309, (1960).

[25] Gurr, C. G., Use of Gamma Rays in Measuring Water Content and Permeability

in Unsaturated Columns of Soil, Soil Science, Vol. 94, pp. 224-229, (1962).

[26] Ferguson, A. H. and Gardner, W. H., Water Content Measurement in Soil

Columns by Gamma-Ray Absorption, Soil Science Society American Proceedings,

Vol. 26, pp. 11-14, (1962).

[27] Rawlins, S. L. , A Theoretical and Experimental Examination of the Validity

of Diffusion Analyses as Applied to Unsaturated Flow of Soil Water, Ph.D.

Dissertation, Washington State University, (1961).

72
I [28] Webster, S. L. , Determination of In-Place Moisture and Density by Nuclear

Methods, Instruction Report 74-1, U.S. Array Engineer Waterways Experiment

Station, (April 1974).

[29] Link, L. E., Jr., Interim Report on Nondestructive Roof Survey Techniques,

U.S. Arvay Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, (June 1976).

[30] Link, L. E., Jr., Guide for Rapid, Nondestructive Roof Moisture Surveys,

(Draft Report), U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, (April

1977).

[31] Tobiasson, W. , Korhonen, C, and van den Berg, A., Hand-Held Infrared

Systems for Detecting Roof Moisture, Proceedings of the Symposium on

Roofing Technology, National Bureau of Standards, (September 21-23, 1977).

[32] Tobiasson, W. , Detecting Wet Roof Insulation With a Hand-Held Infrared

Camera, Workshop on Built-up Roofing, Directorate of Facility Engineering,

U.S. Army Corps, of Engineers, (July 15-16, 1975).

[33] Tobiasson, W., and Korhonen, C, Summary of Corps of Engineers Research on

Roof Moisture Detection and the Thermal Resistance of Wet Insulation,

Special Report 78-29, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory

(December 1978).

[34] Thermal Photography, Kodak Tech Bits, Vol. No. 1, (1976) and Beers, W. A.,

Cooling Hot Spots with Thermography, I.R.I.E. Conference, St. Louis,

(August 1976).

[35] Carslaw, H. S., and Jaeger, J. C, Conduction of Heat in Solids, 2nd Ed.,

Oxford University Press, New York, (1959).

^[36] Goldstein, R. J., Application of Aerial Infrared Thermography to the

Measurement of Building Heat Loss, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 84, Part 1,

(1978).

[37] Link, L. E., Jr., Thermal IR Techniques: A Possible Reconnaisance Tool

for Roof Maintenance, Waterways Experiment Station, (1974).

[38] Link, L. E., Jr., Roof Moisture Surveys at Pease AFB, New Hampshire, and

Offutt AFB, Nebraska, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,

Miscellaneous Paper M-77-2, (January 1977).

|[39] Link, L. E., Jr., Airborne Thermal Infrared and Nuclear Systems for

Detecting Roof Moisture, Proceedings of the Symposium on Roofing Technology,

National Bureau of Standards, pp. 252-260, (September 21-23, 1977).

[[40] Knab, L. I., Jenkins, D. R. , and Mathey, R. G. , The Effect of Moisture on the Thermal Conductance of Roofing Systems, National Bureau of Standards

Building Science Series 123, (February 1980).

73
[41] Burch, D. M., The Use of Aerial Infrared Thermography to Compare the

Thermal Resistances of Roofs, National Bureau of Standards Technical Note

1107, (August 1979).

[42] Re-^ves, R. G. , Anson, A., and Lander, D. , (Eds), Manual of Remote Sensing,

American Society of Photogrammetry, Vol. 1, p. 379. Vol. 2, p. 953, (1975).

[43] Bnchure: "Thermocore Roof Analysis," Tremco, 10701 Shaker Blvd.,

Cleveland, Ohio 44104, or Electronic Scanners Probe Problem Roofs;

Roof ing-Siding-Insulation, (February 1976).

[44] Brochure: "Infrared Heat Sensing" Photo Science, Inc., 7840 Airpark Road,

Gaithersburg, Maryland 20760.

[45] Built-up Roof Management Program, AFP 88-36 (TEST), United States Air

Force, OPR; HQ SAC/DEM; Chapter 6, IR Users Guide, (1978).

[46] Biorkland, J., Schmer, F. A., and Isakson, R, E., A Report on the Use of

Thermal Scanner Data in an Operational Program for Monitoring Apparent

Rooftop Temperatures, Tenth International Symposium on Remote Sensing of

the Environment, Ann Arbor, Michigan, (1975).

[47] Lawrence, G. A., Ontario Centre for Remote Sensing Airborne Thermal

Sensing Program for the Detection of Building Heat Loss, First Canadian

Symposium on Thermography and Energy Conservation, Toronto/Montreal,

(December 2-3, 1976).

[48] Sampson, R. E., Applications of Infrared Technology to Buildings, First

Canadian Symposium on Thermography and Energy Conservation, Toronto/

Montreal, (December 2-3, 1976).

[49] Tobiasson, W. , Korhonen, C, and Dudley, T., CRREL Roof Moisture Survey,

Ten State of New Hampshire Buildings, Cold Regions Research and Engineering

Laboratory, (February 1977).

[50] Korhonen, C, Tobiasson, W., and Dudley, T., The Infrared Detector:

Thermograms and Roof Moisture, ASHRAE Journal, p. 41-44, (September 1977).

[51] Tobiasson, W. , Korhonen, C, and Dudley, T., Trip Report Secoid Joint

CRREL, WES, FESA Roof Moisture Study Fort Devevis (May 24-27, 1976), Cold

Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, (July 27, 1976).

[52] Tobiasson, W. , and Korhonen, C, Detecting Moisture in Roof Insulation

With a Hand-Held Infrared Camera, Proceedings of the August 12-14, 1976

Second International Symposium on Cold Regions Engineering, University of

Alaska, (1977).

\ [53] Tobiasson, W., and Korhonen, C, Trip Report Alaska and Washington State,

Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, N.H. , (AprilMay 1975).

74 I

1
I

[54] Korhonen, C, Transmittal of Roof Moisture Information for Building 705,

Fort Eustis, Virginia, CRREL-EC, Cold Regions Research and Engineering

Laboratory, (March 28, 1977).

[55] Tobiasson, W., Preliminary Results of the Second CRREL Roof Moisture Survey

at Fort Devevis CRREL-EC, (June 7, 1976)

[56] Tobiasson, W., and Korhonen, C, CRREL Roof Moisture Survey, Pease AFB

Hospital, Cold Regionns Research and Engineering Laboratory, (1976).

[57] Korhonen, C, Tobiasson, W. , and Dudley, T., CRREL Roof Moisture Survey,

Pease AFB, Buildings 33, 116, 122, and 205, Special Report 77-2, Cold

Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, (January 1977),

[58] Korhonen, C, Dudley, T., and Tobiasson, W. , CRREL Roof Moisture Survey,

Building 208, Rock Island Arsenal, Special Report 7 7-43, Cold Regions

Research and Engineering Laboratory, (December 1977).

I

75

U S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981 350-180/8566
NBS-n4A (REV. 2-8C) U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET (See instructions)

1. PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO. NBS TN 1146

2. Performing Organ, Report No 3. Publication Date

July 1981

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Moisture Detection in Roofing by Nondestructive Means

A State-of-the-Art Survey

5. AUTHOR(S)

David R. Jenkins, Robert G. Mathey, and Lawrence I. Knab

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than NBS. see irt struct ions)

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

7. Contract/Grant No.

8. Type of Report & Period Covered

Final

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street. City, State. ZIP)

The Directorate of Engineering and Services, U.S. Air Force

Washington, DC 20330

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

I I Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FlPS Software Summary, is attached.

11. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If clocument includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here) A literature survey is presented of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods for

detection of moisture in roofing systems. The methods discussed include the use of

capacitance-radio frequency instruments , capacitance-microwave instruments , nuclear

meters, and thermal infrared scanners. For each method, the principles of operation

are reviewed and the measured properties which are affected by moisture are identified.

Factors other than moisture which may affect the response of the instruments are also

described for each method. These factors produce responses which are similar to those

due to moisture and include non-uniformities in the roofing system, roof construction

details, and building equipment. The use of each NDE method in actual moisture

surveys is reviewed.

It is emphasized in the report that the validity of roofing moisture surveys depends

on both a knowledge of the factors noted above and a familiarity with roofing practice.

Furthermore, cores of the roofing system at selected points are needed to confirm NDE

observations.

To define operating conditions for infrared scanners, calculated temperatures of roof

surfaces over dry and over wet insulation are presented for representative night and

day conditions.

12. KEY WORDS fS;x to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only proper names; and separate key words by semicolons)

built-up roofing; moisture; moisture detection; nondestructive evaluation;

nondestructive testing; roofing; thermal resistance.

13. AVAILABILITY

[IX] Unlimited

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rX] Order From Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

I I Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA, 22161

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PRINTED PAGES

82

15. Price

$4.25

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