Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee 

on Housing and Community 

Opportunity, Committee on Financial 

Services, House of Representatives 

United States General Accounting Office 

GAO

March 2004 FLOOD MAP 

MODERNIZATION 

Program Strategy 

Shows Promise, but 

Challenges Remain 

GAO-04-417 
www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-04-417.

To view the full product, including the scope 

and methodology, click on the link above. 

For more information, contact William O. 

Jenkins, 202-512-8777, jenkinswo@gao.gov. 

Highlights of GAO-04-417, a report to the 

Chairman, Subcommittee on Housing and 

Community Opportunity, Committee on 

Financial Services, House of 

Representatives 

March 2004

FLOOD MAP MODERNIZATION 

Program Strategy Shows Promise, but 

Challenges Remain 

Through its map modernization program, FEMA intends to use advanced 

technologies to produce more accurate and accessible digital flood maps 

available on the Internet. These maps are expected to improve community 

efforts to reduce the impact of floods, increase property owners’ use of flood 

insurance, and improve community, state and federal efforts to reduce the 

risks of other natural and man-made hazards. 

In developing digital flood maps, FEMA plans to incorporate data that are of 

a level of specificity and accuracy commensurate with communities’ relative 

flood risk. According to FEMA, there is a direct relationship between the 

types, quantity, and detail of the data and analysis used to develop maps and 

the costs of obtaining and analyzing those data. Although FEMA ranked the 

nation’s 3,146 counties from highest to lowest risk, it has not yet established 

data standards that describe the appropriate level of detail, accuracy, and 

analysis required to develop digital maps based on risk level. Without such 

standards, FEMA cannot ensure that it uses the same level of data collection 

and analysis for all communities in the same risk category. Such standards 

can also help FEMA to target its map modernization resources more 

efficiently by matching the level of data collection and analysis with the level 

of flood risk. 

FEMA has developed partnerships with states and local entities that have 

begun mapping activities and has a strategy on how to best work with these 

entities. However, the overall effectiveness of FEMA’s future partnering 

efforts is uncertain because FEMA has not yet developed a clear strategy for 

partnering with communities with less resources and little or no experience 

in flood mapping. By developing such a strategy, FEMA will be better able to

identify and use the most effective approaches to engage all of its partners in 

map modernization. 

Comparison of Old Paper and New Digital Map Sections in North Carolina 

Source: North Carolina Department of Emergency Management.

Paper flood map section Digital flood map section

Flood maps identify areas at 

greatest risk of flooding and 

provide the foundation for the 

National Flood Insurance Program 

(NFIP) managed by the Federal 

Emergency Management Agency 

(FEMA). The maps are used by 

(1) communities to establish 

minimum building standards 

designed to reduce the impact of 

flooding, (2) FEMA to set insurance 

rates, and (3) lenders to identify 

property owners who are required 

to purchase flood insurance. Nearly 

70 percent of all flood maps are 

more than 10 years old, according 

to FEMA. In an effort to update its 

flood maps, FEMA is implementing 

a $1 billion, 5-year map 

modernization program. GAO was 

asked to review the progress of 

FEMA’s map modernization 

program. 

To help ensure that FEMA’s map 

modernization program achieves 

its intended benefits, GAO is 

making several recommendations. 

FEMA should address differences 

among the communities for which 

flood maps are being developed—

whether those differences arise 

from different levels of flood risk 

or different levels of capacity and 

resources to assist with flood 

mapping. 
Page i GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Letter 1

Results in Brief 3

Background 5

Map Modernization Intends to Use Advanced Technologies to 

Produce More Accurate and Accessible Digital Flood Maps 9

FEMA Expects Map Modernization to Increase the Likelihood 

Maps Will Be Used for Risk Management 16

FEMA’s Strategy for Map Modernization Shows Promise, but 

Challenges Remain 29

Conclusions 40

Recommendations 41

Agency Comments 42

Appendix I Objectives, Scope, and Methodology 44 

Appendix II Users of Flood Maps 47 

Appendix III GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments 49 

GAO Contacts 49

Staff Acknowledgments 49

Table 

Table 1: FEMA’s Objectives for Map Modernization and Our 

Observations on the Objectives and Challenges 30

Figures 

Figure 1: Age of the Nation’s Current Flood Map Inventory 9

Figure 2: Key GIS Layers or Themes for Digital Flood Maps 11

Figure 3: Comparison of Original and Updated Floodplain for Plum 

Creek in Douglas County, Colorado 13

Figure 4: Use of LIDAR Technology 15

Figure 5: Comparison of Old Paper and New Digital Map Sections 

in North Carolina 16

Figure 6: Expected Benefits of Map Modernization 18

Contents 
Page ii GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Figure 7: Comparison of FEMA and Sarasota County Floodplain 

after Remapping 20

Figure 8: Impact of Capital Improvement Project on Floodplain in 

Sarasota County 22

Figure 9: Expanded Floodplain Boundary for Regulating New 

Construction in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina 23

Figure 10: Flooding in Greenville, North Carolina, during Hurricane 

Floyd 27

Figure 11: Example of Spill Response Model in Harris County, 

Texas 28

Figure 12: Comparison of Cumulative FEMA Funding for Mapping 

Data with the Total Cumulative Dollar Value of Mapping 

Data Produced through CTP Program 36

Figure 13: Status of Remapping in North Carolina 38

Abbreviations

CTP Cooperating Technical Partner 

DHS Department of Homeland Security 

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency 

GIS Geographic Information Systems 

LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging 

NFIP National Flood Insurance Program 

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reproduce this material separately. 
Page 1 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

March 31, 2004 

The Honorable Robert W. Ney 

Chairman 

Subcommittee on Housing and Community Opportunity 

Committee on Financial Services 

House of Representatives 

Dear Mr. Chairman: 

Floods inflict more damage and economic losses upon the United States 

than any other natural disaster. During the 10 years from fiscal year 1992 

through fiscal year 2001, flooding caused over 900 deaths and resulted in 

approximately $55 billion in damages.1

 Since its inception 36 years ago, the 

National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) has combined the development 

of flood maps to identify the areas at greatest risk of flooding with 

mitigation2

 efforts to reduce or eliminate flood risks to people and 

property and the availability of insurance that property owners can 

purchase to protect themselves from flood losses. To date, the flood 

insurance program has paid about $12 billion in insurance claims, 

primarily from policyholder premiums, that otherwise would have been 

paid, at least in part, from taxpayer-funded disaster relief. 

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is responsible for 

managing the NFIP, including the development of flood maps.3

 Accurate 

flood maps that identify the areas at greatest risk of flooding are the 

foundation of the NFIP. The maps are principally used by (1) the 

 1

Data are from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in cooperation with the National Weather 

Service. 

2

Mitigation is defined by the Federal Emergency Management Agency as sustained action 

that reduces or eliminates long-term risk to people and property from hazards and their 

effects. 

3

Prior to March 2003, FEMA was an independent agency whose Federal Insurance and 

Mitigation Administration was responsible for managing the flood insurance program. The 

Homeland Security Act of 2002, P.L. 107-296 (Nov. 25, 2002), transferred FEMA and all its 

responsibilities to the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate within the new 

Department of Homeland Security. This transfer was effective March 1, 2003. Currently, the 

Mitigation Division within FEMA is responsible for the flood insurance program, including 

flood map modernization. 

United States General Accounting Office 

Washington, DC 20548 
Page 2 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

approximately 20,000 communities participating in the NFIP to adopt and 

enforce the program’s minimum building standards for new construction 

within the maps’ identified floodplains, (2) FEMA to develop accurate 

flood insurance policy rates based on flood risk, and (3) federally 

regulated mortgage lenders to identify those property owners who are 

statutorily required to purchase federal flood insurance. Under the 

National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, as amended,4

 property owners 

whose properties are within the designated floodplain and have a 

mortgage from a federally regulated financial institution are required to 

purchase federal flood insurance. Flood maps can become outdated for a 

variety of reasons, such as erosion or community growth and development 

that can affect the drainage patterns of rainwater. Thus, flood maps must 

be periodically updated to assess and map changes in the boundaries of 

floodplains that result from community growth, development, erosion, and 

other factors that affect the boundaries of areas at risk for flooding. 

According to FEMA, limited funding for flood mapping has resulted in a 

backlog of outdated maps. FEMA estimates that as of March 2004 nearly 

70 percent of the nation’s flood maps were more than 10 years old and 

reflected outdated data that could affect the ability to accurately identify 

current flood hazard areas. 

With congressional support and funding, FEMA has embarked on a 

$1 billion, 5-year effort to update the nation’s flood maps. Recognizing that 

FEMA is currently in the early stages of its map modernization effort, our 

objectives for this review were to answer the following questions: (1) How 

is map modernization intended to improve the accuracy and accessibility 

of the nation’s flood maps? (2) What are the expected benefits of more 

accurate and accessible flood maps? (3) To what extent does FEMA’s 

strategy for managing the map modernization program support the 

achievement of these benefits and what, if any, limitations could affect the 

implementation of the strategy? 

To answer these questions, we analyzed available information from FEMA 

on the program’s purpose, objectives, and status and met with agency 

officials in headquarters and in the regional offices to discuss the 

program’s progress. We also conducted site visits to states and 

communities that have already begun to modernize their flood maps and 

interviewed industry organizations such as the Association of State Flood 

Plain Managers, the National Association of Flood and Stormwater 

 4

See 42 U.S.C. 4001 et seq. 
Page 3 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Management Agencies, and the National Emergency Management 

Association. We conducted our work from April 2003 to March 2004 in 

accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. See 

appendix I for more details on our scope and methodology. 

Through map modernization, FEMA intends to produce more accurate and 

accessible flood maps by using advanced technology to gather accurate 

data and make the flood maps, and the digital information on which they 

are based, available on the Internet. For example, displaying map data in 

digital Geographic Information Systems format permits consistent, 

accurate display and ready electronic retrieval of a variety of map features, 

including elevation data and the location of key infrastructure, such as 

utilities. According to FEMA, nearly 70 percent of the nation’s 

approximately 92,222 flood maps are more than 10 years old, and many of 

these maps no longer reflect current flood hazard risks because of such 

changes as erosion and development that can alter drainage patterns and 

thus the areas at highest risk of flooding. Moreover, since many flood 

maps were created or last updated, there have been improvements in the 

techniques for assessing and displaying flood risks. 

FEMA expects that by producing more accurate and accessible digital 

flood maps through map modernization, the nation will benefit in three 

ways. First, communities can use more accurate digital maps to reduce 

flood risk within floodplains by more effectively regulating development 

through zoning and building standards. Second, accurate digital maps 

available on the Internet will facilitate the identification of property 

owners who are statutorily required to obtain or who would be best served 

by obtaining flood insurance. Third, accurate and precise data will help 

national, state, and local officials to accurately locate infrastructure and 

transportation systems (e.g., power plants, sewage treatment plants, 

railroads, bridges, and ports) to help mitigate and manage risk for multiple 

hazards, both natural and man-made. 

FEMA’s strategy for managing map modernization is designed to support 

the expected program benefits, but FEMA’s approach to implementing the 

strategy raises several concerns that could hamper the agency’s efforts. 

FEMA’s implementation approach is based on four objectives: 

(1) establish and maintain a premier data system, (2) expand outreach 

and better inform the user community, (3) establish and maintain effective 

partnerships, and (4) achieve effective program management. 

• Establish and maintain a premier data system: Although FEMA’s 

efforts to establish a new data system could result in more accurate 

Results in Brief 
Page 4 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

flood maps and make it easier to access and use the revised flood 

maps, FEMA has not yet established clear standards for the types, 

quantity, and specificity of data collection and analysis associated with 

different levels of flood risk. FEMA has ranked the nation’s 

3,146 counties from highest to lowest flood risk. According to FEMA, 

communities at the highest risk of flooding require the most extensive, 

detailed data and analysis, but the same level of data collection and 

analysis may not be necessary to create accurate, useful maps for 

communities with lower flood risks. Defining the level of data 

collection and analysis for different levels of risk is important because 

obtaining and analyzing flood map data is time-consuming and 

expensive, and the more detailed and specific the data, generally the 

greater the effort and costs required to obtain it. By identifying the 

types, quantity, and specificity of the data and analysis needed for 

communities based on their risk, FEMA can better ensure that data 

collection and analysis is consistent for all communities with similar 

risk and that it is using its resources efficiently while producing maps 

that are accurate and useful for communities at different levels of flood 

risk. FEMA acknowledges the need to develop such standards, but has 

not yet developed draft standards or included this task into its map 

modernization implementation plan. 

• Expand outreach and better inform the user community: FEMA’s 

planned expanded outreach efforts are intended to increase public 

awareness and obtain community acceptance of the updated flood 

maps because the updated information could potentially identify 

changes in floodplain boundaries and, therefore, affect property 

owners, including whether or not their property’s location may require 

them to purchase federal flood insurance. FEMA’s intended outcome 

for these outreach efforts is to reduce community vulnerability to 

natural and man-made hazards and increase participation in the flood 

insurance program. Because FEMA does not have the authority to 

require that affected property owners take steps to mitigate their 

properties against flood risks or to ensure that owners whose 

properties are in the floodplain purchase flood insurance, effective 

outreach is essential to ultimately achieve these benefits. 

• Establish and maintain effective partnerships: FEMA’s objective 

for building and maintaining mutually beneficial partnerships is 

designed to facilitate and support the efficient production and effective 

use of maps. FEMA recognizes that local, state, and federal agencies, 

that have been working on mapping activities for years, have the 

resources and potential to positively affect the quality and quantity of 

the data collected and improve the way these data are used. In 
Page 5 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

addition, these partnerships can enable FEMA to leverage its resources 

and reduce the federal costs of map modernization. FEMA has 

developed a strategy for partnering with these agencies to encourage 

greater involvement in map modernization, including the contribution 

of resources. However, the overall effectiveness of the agency’s future 

partnering efforts is uncertain because FEMA has not yet developed a 

clear strategy for partnering with communities that have few resources, 

limited mapping capability, and little history of flood mapping 

activities. 

• Achieve effective program management: In March 2004, FEMA 

awarded a performance-based contract to a single contractor to 

oversee map modernization that includes performance measures to 

gauge the success of its efforts. Through a staffing analysis, FEMA has 

determined that it needs 75 staff with specific, identified skills to 

effectively monitor and manage the contract and overall map 

modernization program. As of March 2004, FEMA had hired 1 of the 

75 staff, had developed plans to hire or transfer 43 others, but had not 

yet determine how it would acquire the remaining 31 positions. FEMA 

has not clearly defined performance measures related to whether (1) 

the revised maps meet any established standards for accuracy and 

(2) outreach efforts have been successful in increasing the community 

and individual awareness and use of flood maps. 

To help ensure that FEMA’s map modernization program achieves its 

intended benefits, we make recommendations to the Secretary of 

Homeland Security to direct the Undersecretary of Emergency 

Preparedness and Response to address data and analysis standards, 

partnering with state and local governments, and program management. 

We provided a copy of our draft report to the Department of Homeland 

Security (DHS) for comment. In its oral comments, DHS generally 

concurred with the report’s findings and recommendations and provided 

technical comments that we incorporated where appropriate. 

FEMA is the primary federal agency responsible for assisting state and 

local governments, private entities, and individuals to prepare for, 

mitigate, respond to, and recover from natural disasters, including floods. 

FEMA’s NFIP has served as a key component of the agency’s efforts to 

minimize or mitigate the damage and financial impact of floods on the 

public, as well as to limit federal expenditures needed after floods occur. 

Background 
Page 6 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

In 1968, to address the increasing amount of flood damage, the lack of 

readily available insurance for property owners, and the cost to the 

taxpayer for flood-related disaster relief, the National Flood Insurance Act 

of 1968,5

 created the NFIP. Since its inception, the program has sought to 

minimize flood-related property losses by making flood insurance 

available on reasonable terms and encouraging its purchase by people 

who need flood insurance protection—particularly those living in the 

areas at highest risk of flooding known as special flood hazard areas. The 

program identifies and maps flood-prone areas in the country, makes flood 

insurance available to property owners in the nearly 20,000 communities 

that currently participate in the program,6

 and requires floodplain 

management efforts to mitigate flood hazards on the part of participating 

communities. 

FEMA’s flood maps are one of the basic, essential tools for flood hazard 

mitigation in the United States. FEMA estimates that the maps are used an 

estimated 30 million times annually in the private and public sectors. 

FEMA uses the maps to identify the floodplain boundaries in which flood 

insurance is required and to set flood insurance rates. Mortgage lending 

institutions use the maps to determine who is required to purchase flood 

insurance and ensure that flood insurance is purchased and maintained for 

these properties. Community planning officials, land developers, and 

engineers use the maps for designing new buildings and infrastructure to 

be safe from flooding. See appendix II for more information on the various 

stakeholders that use and rely upon flood maps. 

Flood maps provide the basis for establishing floodplain building 

standards that participating communities must adopt and enforce as part 

of the program. For a community to participate in the program, any 

structures built within special flood hazard areas—also known as 100-year 

floodplains7

—that have a 1 percent or greater chance of experiencing 

flooding in any given year must be built according to the program’s 

building standards whose purpose is to minimize flood losses. A key 

component of the program’s building standards that must be followed by 

participating communities is a requirement that the lowest floor of the 

 5

P.L. 90-448, (Aug. 1, 1968). 

6

Also included are Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. 

7

For clarity and ease of discussion throughout the report, we use the term “floodplain” in 

all discussions where we address the special flood hazard area or 100-year floodplain. 
Page 7 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

structure be elevated to or above the base flood level—the elevation at 

which there is a 1 percent chance of flooding in a given year. The 

administration has estimated that local governments’ compliance with the 

program’s standards for new construction is saving over $1 billion 

annually in flood damage avoided. 

Flood maps also provide the basis for setting insurance rates and 

identifying properties whose owners are required to purchase flood 

insurance. When the NFIP was created, the purchase of flood insurance 

was voluntary. To increase the impact of the program, however, Congress 

amended the original law in 1973 to require the purchase of flood 

insurance in certain circumstances. Flood insurance is required for 

structures in special flood hazard areas of communities participating in the 

program if (1) any federal loans or grants were used to acquire or build the 

structures or (2) the structures have outstanding mortgage loans made by 

lending institutions that are regulated by the federal government. Owners 

of properties without mortgages or properties with mortgages held by 

unregulated lenders were not, and still are not, required to purchase flood 

insurance, even if the properties are in special flood hazard areas. 

Federal regulations require that FEMA communicate potential changes in 

flood risk to the public when it decides to initiate a flood mapping study 

and when it is ready to release preliminary maps. At the beginning of the 

mapping process, FEMA is required to notify community stakeholders.8

When FEMA is ready to release preliminary maps, the agency must publish 

the proposed base flood elevations in the Federal Register for public 

comment and notify the community of the results of the study.9 When the 

final map is approved and implemented, FEMA publishes another Federal 

Register notice.10 

 8

FEMA is required to contact community stakeholders, such as the state coordinating 

agency and other appropriate community officials, to discuss the scope and methodology 

for the proposed flood map study. 44 C.F.R. sec. 66.5. 

9

FEMA is required to publish the proposed flood elevations in a prominent local newspaper 

at least twice during the 10-day period following the notification of the community chief 

executive officer. Property owners have 90 days from the second newspaper publication to 

appeal the proposed flood elevations. 44 C.F.R. secs. 67.4, 67.5. 

10Final flood elevations must be published in the Federal Register and copies sent to the 

community chief executive officer, all individual appellants, and the state-coordinating 

agency. 44 C.F.R. 67.11. 
Page 8 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

In the early 1990s, some of the data and information FEMA collected to 

develop flood maps were becoming available in digital format. In 1994, the 

President issued Executive Order 12906, which mandated that standards 

for digital geographic data be applied uniformly across the federal 

government. Anticipating that electronic data would soon become the 

standard vehicle for information delivery and in an attempt to make flood 

map production more cost-effective and efficient, FEMA developed a 

prototype for a digital flood map. 

In 1997, FEMA developed its initial flood map modernization plan that 

outlined the steps necessary to update the nation’s flood maps to digital 

format and streamline FEMA’s operations in raising public awareness of 

the importance of the maps and responding to requests to revise them. 

This initial plan and subsequent updates to the plan reflected the 

recommendations of the Technical Mapping Advisory Council created by 

Congress and active from 1995-2000. The council provided a number of 

recommendations which were aimed at making the digital flood map the 

future method for assessing flood hazard risk and setting federal insurance 

rates. Recognizing the importance of updating the nation’s flood maps, 

Congress appropriated additional funds in fiscal years 2000-2002. FEMA 

used these funds to launch its map modernization program through such 

activities as developing new flood mapping standards and procedures, 

expanding the Cooperating Technical Partner (CTP) program that 

recognizes and encourages state and local participation in flood hazard 

data development and maintenance and developing some digital flood 

maps. In fiscal year 2003, Congress appropriated $150 million, allowing 

FEMA to initiate a full-scale update of the nation’s flood maps called the 

Multi-Hazard Flood Map Modernization Program,11 an effort FEMA expects 

to take about 5 years and cost about $1 billion. In fiscal year 2004, 

Congress appropriated an additional $200 million for map modernization, 

and the administration has requested an additional $200 million for fiscal 

year 2005 to continue the program. FEMA has established four primary 

objectives for implementing map modernization: (1) establish and 

maintain a premier data collection and delivery system, (2) expand 

outreach and better inform the user community, (3) build and maintain 

mutually beneficial partnerships, and (4) achieve effective program 

management. In March 2004, FEMA awarded a performance-based 

 11For clarity and ease of discussion throughout the report, we use the term “map 

modernization” in all discussions where we address the Multi-Hazard Flood Map 

Modernization Program. 
Page 9 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

contract for overseeing map modernization that includes contractor 

performance measures for each of these objectives. 

Through map modernization, FEMA intends to produce more accurate and 

accessible flood maps by using advanced technology to gather accurate 

data and make the resulting information available on the Internet. 

Currently, many of the flood maps in FEMA’s inventory do not accurately 

reflect the true flood hazard risks because over time, new development 

and other factors altered watersheds and floodplains faster than the maps 

could be updated. For the most part, the $35 million to $50 million in 

annual flood insurance policy fees has been the only source of funding for 

updating flood maps, and according to FEMA, the agency has not been 

able to keep the maps updated with the funds available. As a result, nearly 

70 percent of the nation’s approximately 92,222 flood maps12 are more than 

10 years old and many of these maps reflect inaccurate data, according to 

FEMA. Figure 1 shows the age distribution of the current map inventory. 

Figure 1: Age of the Nation’s Current Flood Map Inventory 

Over time, physical conditions in watersheds and floodplains can change, 

and improvements in the techniques for assessing and displaying flood 

 12The 92,222 flood maps represent nearly 20,000 communities. 

Map Modernization 

Intends to Use 

Advanced 

Technologies to 

Produce More 

Accurate and 

Accessible Digital 

Flood Maps 

12% 54%

16%

18%

10-15 years old

<5 years old

>15 years old

5-10 years old

Source: FEMA.
Page 10 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

risks are made. FEMA plans to use the latest technology, such as 

Geographic Information Systems (GIS), to create accurate digital flood 

maps. GIS technology provides the foundation for achieving FEMA’s goals 

of melding different types and sources of data to create the new digital 

flood maps and making the new digital flood maps available to a variety of 

users over the Internet. 

The primary function of GIS is to link multiple digital databases and 

graphically display that information as maps with potentially many 

different types of “layers” of information. When layers of information are 

formatted using the same standards, users can potentially overlay various 

layers of information about any number of specific topics to examine how 

the layers interrelate. Each layer of a GIS map represents a particular 

“theme” or feature, and one layer could be derived from a data source 

completely different from the other layers. For example, one theme could 

represent all the streets in a specified area. Another theme could 

correspond to the topography or elevation data of an area, and others 

could show aerial photography and streams in the same area. These 

themes are all key elements needed to create flood maps that accurately 

depict floodplains and can be used to identify properties in these areas. In 

preparing for full-scale implementation of map modernization, FEMA has 

established standards and graphic specifications for digital flood maps 

created with GIS. Figure 2 shows the concept of data themes in GIS for 

flood maps. 
Page 11 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Figure 2: Key GIS Layers or Themes for Digital Flood Maps 

Source: FEMA.
Page 12 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

GIS technology also enables the creation of more accurate and accessible 

maps than would be possible with older mapping methods and technology. 

The majority of FEMA’s flood map inventory was produced using manual 

techniques that have inherent accuracy and accessibility limitations. For 

example, in creating traditional paper flood maps, field measurements 

taken by surveyors would have been transferred by hand to paper base 

maps. If the paper base map contained any inaccuracies, then the fieldsurvey data could be shown in the wrong place on the final flood map. 

This would then result in floodplain boundaries being shown in the wrong 

place. 

Recent remapping efforts in Douglas County, Colorado, show the accuracy 

of digital maps using GIS technology compared with paper maps created 

using manual techniques. As seen in figure 3, some areas (around cross 

section J) shown outside the floodplain on the original map will be shown 

in the floodplain based on the updated flood hazard information from a 

new mapping study using GIS technology. More critically, some areas 

shown outside the floodplain on the original map will now be shown in the 

floodway, the most dangerous area of the floodplain (greatest depth, 

highest flood water velocity). According to FEMA and community 

officials, the limitations of the manual techniques used to create the 

original map contributed to the resulting inaccuracy. 

Douglas County, Colorado 
Page 13 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Figure 3: Comparison of Original and Updated Floodplain for Plum Creek in 

Douglas County, Colorado 

Using GIS technology to create digital flood maps minimizes mapping 

errors and improves accuracy because each data component (e.g., 

streams, streets, etc.) would have a common geographic reference system. 

By their nature, paper flood maps have limited accessibility as compared 

with a digital map that can be made available on the Internet. The 

expansion of Internet connectivity in recent years has substantially 

Source: FEMA and Denver Urban Drainage and Flood Control District.

Cross section J

Updated floodway

Updated floodplain

Original floodway

Original floodplain
Page 14 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

enhanced the potential value of digital maps created with GIS because 

now it is possible to locate and connect data from many distinct GIS 

databases to develop analytical information on almost any topic that is 

associated with physical locations. Digital flood maps created according to 

FEMA’s standards are intended to provide users not only with the ability 

to determine the flood zone and base flood elevations for a particular 

location, but also with the ability to access other information like road, 

stream, and public land survey data. Communities could use this 

information for a variety of purposes, including decisions on future 

development and evacuation routes. 

As part of map modernization, FEMA has promoted the use of a variety of 

advanced technologies to improve the accuracy of flood maps. In recent 

years, for example, where it deems it appropriate, FEMA has promoted the 

use of Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) remote sensing technologies 

to generate highly detailed, digital elevation data. Elevation data are a key 

component needed to determine flood risk and identify floodplain 

boundaries. According to FEMA, for very flat areas where small changes in 

elevation can have a large impact on where flood plain boundaries are 

drawn, LIDAR can provide the level of detail needed to accurately 

delineate these boundaries. Communities can also use detailed, digital 

elevation data for planning and land development purposes. Figure 4 

shows an airplane equipped with laser-pulsing sensors using LIDAR to 

gather digital elevation data to measure the contours and crevices that 

determine where floodwaters collect. 
Page 15 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Figure 4: Use of LIDAR Technology 

The state of North Carolina has been utilizing GIS and LIDAR technology 

to develop new flood maps. As of February 2004, 8 counties had received 

new effective flood maps, and 28 counties received new preliminary maps, 

which are now under community review. The state has gathered elevation 

data through LIDAR for 80 percent of the state. The maps and LIDAR and 

other data can be freely accessed and downloaded by anyone who has 

access to the Internet (http://www.ncfloodmaps.com). The state, 

dependent on continued FEMA funding, expects to have the entire state 

remapped by 2008. Figure 5 compares a digital flood map section 

produced by North Carolina with the same area on the original paper map. 

North Carolina’s Use of GIS 

and LIDAR to Develop and 

Deliver Revised Flood Maps 

Source: Harris County Flood Control District.

Laser 

scanner
Page 16 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Figure 5: Comparison of Old Paper and New Digital Map Sections in North Carolina 

FEMA expects map modernization to increase the likelihood that the more 

accurate and accessible maps will be used for risk management purposes. 

Specifically, FEMA expects the new maps to be used to (1) improve flood 

mitigation, (2) increase flood insurance participation, and (3) improve 

“multi-hazard” mitigation and risk management capabilities. First, FEMA 

expects communities to be able to use these new and revised maps to 

better manage and mitigate flood risk by regulating floodplain 

development through building codes, ordinances, and regulations. Second, 

the new maps also have the potential to help increase flood insurance 

participation because they will more accurately identify those properties 

that are in the floodplain and whose owners would be required to 

purchase flood insurance. Compared with the existing paper maps, 

accessing the new maps through the Internet will make it much easier for 

lenders to identify property owners who should have flood insurance. In 

addition, the newly revised flood maps should more accurately identify all 

FEMA Expects Map 

Modernization to 

Increase the 

Likelihood Maps Will 

Be Used for Risk 

Management 

Source: North Carolina Floodplain Mapping Program.

Paper flood map section Digital flood map section
Page 17 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

properties in the floodplain, including those whose owners do not have a 

mortgage or whose mortgage is held by a lender that is not federally 

regulated. Accurately identifying these property owners should assist 

FEMA and communities in targeting their outreach about the importance 

of flood insurance. Third, the data and infrastructure developed by map 

modernization is also expected to help national, state, and local officials 

mitigate and manage risk from multiple hazards, both natural and manmade. Accurate digital maps can provide more precise data on such things 

as the location of hazardous material facilities, power plants, railroads, 

and airports to state and national officials for planning development as 

well as to assess internal weaknesses and evacuation routes. (Fig. 6 

highlights these expected benefits.) 
Page 18 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Figure 6: Expected Benefits of Map Modernization 

The more accurate and updated flood hazard information produced 

through map modernization is expected to help improve flood mitigation 

in participating communities. The NFIP requires participating 

communities to adopt and enforce building standards based on the 

floodplain boundaries and base flood elevations when maps are updated. 

For example, the lowest floor of structures in new construction must be 

elevated to at least the base flood elevations identified on the maps. 

FEMA’s policy is to monitor communities to ensure that they have adopted 

building standards that meet the minimum NFIP criteria and to ensure that 

they are effectively enforcing these standards. If communities fail to 

establish and enforce minimum NFIP flood plain building standards, 

FEMA can suspend availability of federal flood insurance. 

Communities also may use updated flood hazard data to take actions to 

mitigate flooding that go beyond adopting the building standards required 

by the NFIP. For example, communities may use the data from the maps 

to identify where to conduct capital improvement projects designed to 

Map Modernization Is 

Expected to Improve 

Flood Mitigation 

More accurate and 

accessible digital 

flood maps

Improved flood 

mitigation

NFIP

benefits

Mandatory

Adoption and 

enforcement of 

building standards

Mandatory

Purchase of insurance 

enforced by lenders

Voluntary

Purchase of insurance 

by others who would 

benefit

Voluntary

Capital improvement 

projects and

enhanced standards 

Improved multihazard mitigation and 

risk management

Increased flood

insurance 

participation

Map Modernization

Other

benefits

Source: GAO.
Page 19 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

mitigate flooding of structures in the floodplain. In addition, FEMA has 

established a Community Rating System that provides discounts on flood 

insurance premiums for those communities that take mitigation actions 

beyond those required by the NFIP. 

Sarasota County, Florida, is in the process of modernizing its flood maps 

and has been using the maps and the models behind them to implement 

stormwater capital improvement projects whose purpose is to mitigate the 

flood risk for structures now located in the floodplain. These efforts have 

also resulted in lower insurance premiums for property owners. 

In the late 1990s, because Sarasota County officials believed that current 

maps did not accurately reflect changes to the floodplain that had 

occurred due to development and other factors, they began an effort to 

aggressively remap the county’s watersheds using GIS and new flood 

modeling technologies. At the time, the county had experienced several 

significant flooding events where hundreds of properties not depicted in 

the floodplain on its 11-year old maps were damaged. Figure 7 shows both 

the increase and decrease in the floodplain based on the county’s 

remapping efforts. 

Sarasota County’s Use of Flood 

Map Data for Storm Water 

Capital Improvement Projects 
Page 20 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Figure 7: Comparison of FEMA and Sarasota County Floodplain after Remapping 

The county has been using the maps to implement storm water 

improvement projects such as retention ponds and levees that are 

designed to improve drainage and, therefore, alter the floodplain. 

Ultimately, these projects would result in structures no longer being in the 

floodplain. County officials estimate that they have reduced the number of 

structures in the floodplain by 75 percent (from 800 to under 200) through 

Source: Sarasota County Center for Watershed Management.

Coastal floodplain - not studied

Reduction in FEMA floodplain

Floodplain unchanged

Expanded county floodplain
Page 21 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

these projects. According to these officials, the reduction in their 

Community Rating System rating from an 8 to a 6 was due in large part to 

their remapping efforts. They estimate that this reduction is saving the 

community over $1 million a year in flood insurance premiums. Figure 8 

shows an example of the impact one such capital improvement project 

had on the floodplain in Sarasota County. 
Page 22 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Figure 8: Impact of Capital Improvement Project on Floodplain in Sarasota County 

Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, provides another example of how 

communities may use revised maps as a basis for adopting and enforcing 

building standards that exceed the standards required by the NFIP. 

Mecklenburg County, 

North Carolina 

Source: Sarasota County Center for Watershed Management.

Bahia Vista/Lockwood Ridge before levee project:

1962 flooding.

Bahia Vista/Lockwood Ridge Levee Project:

post project picture.

Levee project

Revised floodplain

Historical floodplain removed by levee project
Page 23 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

In February 2004, Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, issued final digital 

maps that not only show the floodplain boundaries and base flood 

elevations used by FEMA to set insurance rates, but also include local land 

use maps designed to guide future development. (See fig. 9.) These maps 

are more restrictive than the FEMA maps, which are used for setting 

insurance rates. The county uses these maps to require that the lowest 

floor of all new construction is built an additional foot above the future 

minimum base flood elevation identified by the map. Engineering and 

economic studies estimate that this higher standard will save over $300 

million in structure and content losses due to future flooding. As in the 

case of Sarasota County, adopting these higher standards should result in 

a better Community Rating System rating for the county and reduce 

insurance rates for property owners. 

Figure 9: Expanded Floodplain Boundary for Regulating New Construction in 

Mecklenburg County, North Carolina 

Map modernization has the potential to help increase flood insurance 

participation. The accuracy of the new maps should better identify at-risk 

property owners who would be best served by obtaining flood insurance 

whether or not the owners would be required to purchase insurance under 

the NFIP’s mandatory purchase requirement. Moreover, the digital, GISbased maps should make flood risk information more accessible to a 

Map Modernization Is 

Expected to Help Increase 

Flood Insurance 

Participation 

Source: Charlotte-Mecklenburg Storm Water Services.

Future land use 

floodplain

FEMA floodplain
Page 24 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

variety of users such as lenders and community officials who could 

conduct targeted outreach at these property owners. 

Recent outreach activities conducted during remapping in Wilson and 

Johnston counties in North Carolina provide an example of the types of 

information that can be provided to communities and property owners 

through outreach efforts during map modernization. 

As part of its map modernization program, the state of North Carolina 

holds two meetings. The first meeting is held with the county and 

community officials and floodplain administrators, and the second 

meeting is open to the general public. The purpose of the meetings is to 

provide an overview of the state’s program; an outline of flood hazard data 

changes between the current maps and preliminary revised maps; and 

guidance on the use of the maps, including how to view and download 

data from the state’s Web site. After the state had completed preliminary 

studies and maps for Wilson and Johnston counties, community officials 

used the digital, GIS-based maps to identify structures that are located in 

the newly identified floodplain. The counties then sent out letters to these 

property owners that 

• notified them that their property was in a floodplain, 

• provided a telephone number to call for more information, 

• announced upcoming public meetings where the preliminary maps 

would be discussed, and 

• identified the state’s Internet site where the flood maps could be 

viewed (Wilson County). 

By providing this information in advance, property owners could know 

before the meeting whether their property was in the newly designated 

floodplain. According to community officials, their outreach activities 

provided the information necessary for the public to become aware of 

their risk and know what actions could be taken to mitigate these risks. 

It is important to note, however, that FEMA, states, and communities do 

not have the authority to ensure that property owners who are subject to 

the mandatory purchase of flood insurance requirement actually purchase 

flood insurance. It is the federally regulated lenders’ responsibility to 

ensure that borrowers purchase flood insurance and that the insurance 

policy is maintained throughout the loan’s life as each new lender 

Outreach Efforts in Wilson and 

Johnston Counties, North 

Carolina 
Page 25 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

servicing the loan becomes aware that the affected property is at risk for 

flooding. Furthermore, owners of properties without mortgages or 

properties with mortgages held by unregulated lenders are not required to 

purchase flood insurance, even if the properties are in floodplains. 

FEMA expects that the data developed, collected, and distributed through 

map modernization will help national, state, and local emergency 

managers mitigate and manage risk posed by other natural and man-made 

hazards. Accurate digital base maps provide more precise data to state and 

national officials for planning, such as the location of hazardous material 

facilities, power plants, utility distribution facilities, and other 

infrastructure (bridges, sewage treatment plants, buildings, and 

structures). According to FEMA, map modernization will also support 

DHS’s overall goal to reduce the nation’s vulnerability to terrorism by 

providing GIS data and capabilities to other departmental functions. For 

example, more accurate information on transportation systems such as 

railroads, airports, harbors, ports, and waterways should be helpful in 

assessing internal weaknesses and evacuation routes. 

North Carolina’s use of information collected during flood mapping to 

develop a flood-inundation application exemplifies how the data collected 

through map modernization can be used for other risk management 

purposes. 

Leveraging the work done through the floodplain mapping program, North 

Carolina is in the process of establishing a real-time flood-inundation and 

flood forecast mapping Web application that will provide the public with 

valuable safety information during weather events. During a storm, the 

application will provide maps and information over the Internet that 

display which land area, roads, and bridges are inundated by floodwaters. 

Furthermore, to help ensure that the public is aware of high flood risk 

areas, the state plans to develop an automated alert network that will 

utilize different media to notify and warn emergency managers, law 

enforcement, and the general public. North Carolina is currently working 

with television broadcasters in the region to broadcast warnings and upto-date safety information based upon information provided through the 

Web application. The majority of deaths during Hurricane Floyd, which hit 

North Carolina in 1999, occurred to individuals driving over floodinundated roads and bridges. North Carolina hopes that their real-time and 

forecasted inundation mapping application will help to prevent such 

deaths during future storm events. 

Map Modernization Is 

Expected to Improve 

Multi-Hazard Mitigation 

and Risk Management 

Capabilities 

Flood-Inundation Application 

Developed by North Carolina 
Page 26 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

The flood forecasting component of North Carolina’s flood-inundation and 

forecasting application was recently tested during Hurricane Isabel, which 

struck in September of 2003. Using data collected by North Carolina, the 

National Weather Service released an experimental Peak Forecast 

Inundation Web site for predicting the flooding effects of the hurricane. 

This was a new level of capability for the National Weather Service by 

forecasting flood-inundation throughout a major portion of the river basin 

rather than focusing solely on fixed forecasting locations. The 

implementation of this new flood forecasting technology will greatly 

enhance North Carolina’s flood warning Web application. 

Figure 10 shows an example of how the flood-inundation application is 

intended to work. As floodwaters rise and spread out over the landscape, 

the flood-inundation application will produce maps to show the extent of 

flooding and when roads, critical facilities, and other structures will 

become flooded. The following maps show flooding in Greenville, North 

Carolina, and are based on flood levels caused by Hurricane Floyd. 
Page 27 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Figure 10: Flooding in Greenville, North Carolina, during Hurricane Floyd 

Harris County, Texas, offers another example of how the digital data 

developed through map modernization could be used to plan for and 

respond to man-made disasters. 

To demonstrate the multi-hazard use of the digital data, community 

officials showed how a spill response model could be developed to 

determine the path of a petroleum spill at a Houston area refinery. The 

model, developed with digital data by a private consultant, uses both 

elevation data and aerial imagery collected through map modernization to 

provide officials and emergency response personnel critical information to 

determine the path of a chemical spill and potentially impacted 

waterways. This information should provide local officials with valuable 

Harris County, Houston, Texas 

Normal view. September 15, 1999.

September 17, 1999.

Source: North Carolina Floodplain Mapping Program.

September 20, 1999.

Greenville Greenville

Greenville Greenville

Tar River Tar River

Tar River Tar River
Page 28 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

information to aid in their mitigation and evacuation efforts and to protect 

natural habitats. The figure shows how petroleum at a Houston area 

refinery would probably flow from specific tanks if ruptured. 

Figure 11: Example of Spill Response Model in Harris County, Texas 

LIDAR data also provide a basis for three-dimensional modeling of the 

location of buildings, tanks, and equipment that could be used to 

determine the optimal location for fire-fighting equipment at the same 

refinery. The reach of a water jet can be placed against the 3-D model to 

Source: Harris County Flood Control District.
Page 29 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

determine the extent of coverage and identify obscured structures in the 

“shadow” of other structures that would limit or block the reach of the 

water jet. This same 3-D model could also be used in a vulnerability 

analysis to locate potential targets within a given area that are at risk from 

gunfire or hand-held rockets. 

FEMA’s strategy for managing map modernization is intended to support 

the achievement of the expected program benefits of improved flood 

mitigation, increased NFIP insurance participation, and improved multihazard mitigation and risk management capabilities. However, FEMA’s 

approach to implementing the strategy poses several challenges that could 

hamper the agency’s efforts. FEMA’s approach is based on four objectives. 

Two objectives FEMA hopes to achieve through map modernization—

building and maintaining a premier data collection and delivery system 

and expanding outreach and better informing the user community—have 

the potential to improve the use of flood maps for improved flood 

mitigation and increased NFIP participation, as well as multi-hazard risk 

management. The other two objectives—building and maintaining 

mutually beneficial partnerships and achieving effective program 

management—are intended to facilitate the achievement of the first two 

objectives and their intended benefits efficiently and effectively. 

Table 1 provides a brief description of FEMA’s four objectives for map 

modernization and the challenges facing implementation. 

FEMA’s Strategy for 

Map Modernization 

Shows Promise, but 

Challenges Remain 
Page 30 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Table 1: FEMA’s Objectives for Map Modernization and Our Observations on the Objectives and Challenges 

Objective Description GAO Observations 

Establish and maintain a premier data 

collection and delivery system 

Create a GIS- and Internet-based system 

that provides easy access to reliable flood 

hazard data and other data collected 

during the mapping process. The system 

will be available to states and communities 

to input and use data, therefore, enabling 

easier and less time-consuming data 

maintenance and the use of the 

information for multi-hazard risk 

management purposes. 

FEMA has ranked the nation’s counties 

based on risk. However, FEMA has not yet 

established data collection and analysis 

standards for communities with similar risk. 

Without such standards, FEMA cannot 

ensure that the level of data collection and 

analysis is consistent across all communities 

with similar risk. 

Expand outreach and better inform the 

user community 

Raise the awareness of flood map users 

of their risk of flooding through increased 

outreach efforts and educate the public on 

how they can use flood maps and other 

hazard data to mitigate natural and manmade disasters. 

FEMA’s outreach strategy is based on a 

recognition that it has no direct authority to 

ensure that many map modernization 

benefits are achieved, but must rely on 

others—e.g., mitigation efforts by individual 

property owners and lender enforcement of 

mandatory flood insurance purchase. 

Build and maintain mutually beneficial 

partnerships 

Develop strategies for forming and 

enhancing relationships with all states and 

communities resulting in their active 

participation in the production of flood 

hazard data. This is intended to help 

improve the long-term quality of flood 

data, ensure that the maps meet local 

needs, and capitalize on local and regional 

knowledge and resources to achieve the 

effective production and efficient use of 

flood maps at a reduced cost to the 

federal government. 

States and communities with limited 

resources and technical capabilities are likely 

to pose a challenge to FEMA’s ability to fund 

and implement mapping activities. FEMA has 

not yet developed a strategy for how to 

partner with communities that do not have 

the resources, capabilities, or motivation to 

initiate and sustain mapping activities. 

Achieve effective program management Develop a flexible program management 

structure that clearly evaluates the 

program’s performance and identifies 

continuous improvement strategies to 

most effectively and efficiently conduct 

mapping activities that result in highquality flood maps. 

Using current staffing levels, FEMA may be 

challenged to effectively oversee the contract 

and the map modernization program. In 

addition, although FEMA has established 

measures to assess achievement of its 

program objectives, its measures for its 

objectives to develop a premier data system 

and to expand outreach and better inform the 

user community are not clearly defined or 

fully developed. 

Source: GAO analysis. 

The goal of FEMA’s objective to develop a new data system using the 

latest technology is more efficient production, delivery and, thereby, the 

use of flood maps. As discussed previously, FEMA hopes to accomplish 

this by using geographic information systems technology that provides the 

foundation for the production and delivery of more accurate digital flood 

maps and multi-hazard data that is more accessible over the Internet. 

In Its Efforts to Establish a 

New Data System, FEMA 

Has Not Yet Established 

Data Standards for 

Different Levels of Risk 
Page 31 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

In developing the new data system to update flood maps across the nation, 

FEMA’s intent is to develop and incorporate flood risk data that are of a 

level of specificity and accuracy commensurate with communities’ relative 

flood risks. According to FEMA, there is a direct relationship between the 

types, quantity, and detail of the data and analysis used for map 

development and the costs associated with obtaining and analyzing those 

data. FEMA believes it needs to strike a balance between the relative flood 

risk faced by individual communities and the level of analysis and effort 

needed to develop reliable flood hazard data if it is to update the nation’s 

maps efficiently and effectively. 

FEMA has ranked all 3,146 counties from highest to lowest based on a 

number of factors, including, among other things, population, growth 

trends, housing units, flood insurance policies and claims, repetitive loss 

properties, and flood disasters. On the basis of this ranking, FEMA 

established mapping priorities. However, FEMA has not yet established 

standards on the appropriate data and level of analysis required to develop 

maps based on risk level. FEMA has historically applied the same 

minimum standards for all flood maps and supporting data.13 FEMA’s 

Guidelines and Specifications for Flood Hazard Mapping Partners

provides guidance for selecting the level of analysis and effort to produce 

flood hazard data and have generally been used on a case-by-case basis.14

The guidelines do not specify standards to be used for all mapping 

projects within a given risk category. Without establishing standards for 

different categories of risk, FEMA cannot ensure that it uses the same 

level of data collection and analysis across all communities within the 

same risk category. These standards could also provide a consistent basis 

for estimating the costs of developing maps in each risk category. 

According to FEMA, the agency plans to develop standards that can be 

applied to different levels of flood risk as part of a 5-year map 

modernization implementation plan. FEMA expects this plan to be 

completed by the end of fiscal year 2004; however, at the time of our 

review, FEMA had not yet developed draft standards or incorporated this 

task into its implementation plan. 

 13For example, FEMA implemented digital base map standards in 1998 and LIDAR 

standards in 2000. 

14These guidelines describe detailed methods of analysis used for high-risk areas and less 

detailed methods used in low-risk areas. 
Page 32 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

FEMA’s objective to expand the scope and frequency of its outreach 

efforts is intended to increase community and public acceptance of 

revised maps and use of those maps. Historically, FEMA has only 

contacted communities when initiating remapping and again when 

preliminary maps are completed. These expanded outreach efforts reflect 

FEMA’s understanding that it is dependent on others to achieve the 

benefits of map modernization. For example, under the structure of the 

NFIP, FEMA is dependent on communities to adopt and enforce FEMA’s 

minimum building standards and on mortgage lenders to ensure 

compliance with mandatory flood insurance purchase requirements. To 

expand the scope of its outreach efforts, FEMA plans to involve a wide 

variety of community participants—e.g., mayors, emergency managers, 

lenders, property owners, insurance agents, and developers—in the 

mapping process. To expand the frequency of outreach, FEMA intends to 

increase community involvement, awareness, and participation 

throughout the entire flood mapping process. Through a continual 

education process, FEMA’s goal is to inform property owners and others 

potentially affected by remapping efforts of steps they can take to mitigate 

the risk of flooding, the types of damage and costs caused by flooding, and 

the benefits of flood insurance. 

According to FEMA, if a community is involved in and understands the 

map modernization process, the community is more likely to accept and 

trust the accuracy of the final, revised maps and is more likely to use the 

maps’ hazard data to mitigate natural and man-made disasters. Conversely, 

if affected property owners do not understand why their communities are 

being mapped (or remapped) or why their property is now in a flood zone, 

the unexpected additional expense of new or increased flood insurance 

premiums can form the basis of significant community opposition to map 

modernization activities and lead to formal appeals, litigation, and delays 

in implementing map changes. 

We visited several communities that have nearly completed or are engaged 

in revising flood maps and talked with relevant officials about recent 

mapping projects and the importance of outreach efforts. The experience 

of Pinellas County, Florida, shows the potential consequences of a limited 

outreach effort while the experiences of the Harris County Flood Control 

District in Houston, Texas, and Hillsborough County, Florida, show the 

potential benefits of a more expanded outreach strategy. 

Officials in Pinellas County, Florida, rejected revised flood hazard maps 

developed by FEMA that raised base flood level elevations and placed 

FEMA’s Objective to 

Expand Outreach Efforts 

Recognizes the Agency 

Must Rely on Others to 

Achieve Map 

Modernization Benefits 

Pinellas County, Florida 
Page 33 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

areas in newly established flood zones. According to community and 

FEMA officials, FEMA did little to communicate with the community and 

the public during the mapping process. According to FEMA, the agency 

was only required to inform the community when the remapping project 

was initiated in 1993 and again after the proposed maps were completed 

and provided to the community for comment in December 1997. County 

officials subsequently appealed the preliminary maps. According to local 

officials, expanded outreach efforts by FEMA throughout this process 

could have helped the community understand why the county was being 

mapped and how the new maps reflected the true flood risks of the 

properties shown in revised flood zones. After working closely with FEMA 

and mapping contractor officials, the community finally accepted and 

implemented the maps by establishing new building standards in 

September 2003. 

The Harris County Flood Control District in Houston, Texas, took steps to 

expand stakeholder and community outreach by releasing up to date flood 

hazard map information on its Web site (http://www.tsarp.org). County 

officials have also worked closely with the local newspaper to release 

information on the updated flood hazard information to the public. In 

addition, the county has held individual meetings with the county’s 

35 flood plain managers to ensure that they understood the new flood 

maps and were able to convey that information to citizens; hired a public 

relations consultant to provide guidance on how to better utilize the media 

to disseminate flood map information; and conducted a poll survey to 

ascertain public opinion about flood hazard risk and to develop strategies 

to better convey flood hazard information. County officials also developed 

several committee groups to relay flood maps information that is 

audience-specific, such as a technical discussion group that reviews 

technical issues related to revising the flood maps and verifies 

methodological assumptions. 

Hillsborough County officials have conducted extensive outreach while 

continuing to work with FEMA throughout the remapping process. To help 

ensure that insurance companies, real estate agents, county workers, and 

citizens utilize flood maps in a more efficient and effective manner, a 

stakeholders outreach coalition was formed in March of 2003. The purpose 

of this coalition is to create an information campaign for individual 

property owners and businesses that will be directly impacted by the new 

maps. The coalition includes representatives from the county’s Citizen 

Advisory Committee, the insurance industry, real estate brokers, builders, 

lenders, engineers, surveyors, and various county departments. 

Hillsborough County is working in cooperation with FEMA to have final 

Harris County, Houston, Texas 

Hillsborough County, Florida 
Page 34 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

maps in late 2004 and create a successful outreach program that could be 

duplicated throughout the nation. 

FEMA’s expanded outreach efforts are intended to educate the public of 

the potential flood risk in communities and to encourage them to take 

action. Communities that participate in the NFIP are required to establish 

floodplain management ordinances that require new and substantially 

improved structures in newly designated floodplains to meet NFIP 

building standards. However, if a property was not located in the 

floodplain in the old map, but is in the floodplain in the new revised map, 

NFIP floodplain management regulations do not require those owners to 

implement mitigation measures unless they make substantial 

improvements to the structure.15 FEMA cannot compel affected property 

owners to take steps to mitigate their properties against flood risks or to 

purchase flood insurance. Under current notification requirements, 

federally regulated lenders, not FEMA, serve as the primary channel for 

notifying property owners whose mortgaged properties are subject to 

flood insurance requirements. When property owners seek new 

financing—through purchase or refinancing—federally regulated mortgage 

lenders are required to determine if the property is in the floodplain, and, 

if so, require the purchase of flood insurance. Lenders are not required to 

monitor map changes or to notify property owners with existing 

mortgages whose properties are identified in a floodplain by remapping if 

they are not aware of the change in status.16

Nonetheless, if federally regulated lenders become aware of flood map 

changes that affect properties for which they hold mortgages through 

FEMA notifications or flood zone determination companies,17 then they 

must notify the property owner and require the purchase of flood 

insurance. The information that must be provided to property owners is 

 15If a community determines that the cost of improvements to a home or business equals or 

exceeds 50 percent of the market value of the building, the building is considered a 

“substantial improvement” and must meet the NFIP’s minimum requirements. 

16In making loans, federally regulated lenders are required to ensure that property owners 

purchase flood insurance if their mortgages are secured by a structure located in a 

floodplain. Lenders are also required to check the flood hazard status of a property when 

triggered by statutory tripwires, such as loan renewal or extension. 

17Many lenders use flood zone determination companies to determine whether properties 

require flood insurance as a result of loan origination, loan assumption, or map changes. 

These companies use FEMA flood maps and other data to ascertain if properties are 

situated in flood zones. 
Page 35 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

limited to notifying property owners that their structure is in a floodplain, 

providing a definition of a flood plain, and requiring the purchase of flood 

insurance if they live in a participating NFIP community. As a result, 

FEMA’s outreach efforts are important for supplementing the formal 

requirements for notifying communities and property owners of map 

changes. 

FEMA’s objective for building and maintaining mutually beneficial 

partnerships is intended to facilitate and support the efficient production 

and effective use of flood maps. According to FEMA, local, state, and 

federal partners that have invested resources and assisted in managing 

mapping activities have the potential to positively affect the detail, 

accuracy, and quantity of the data collected and improve how these data 

are used. As part of their strategy for partnering, FEMA provides guidance 

to the states on how to develop “business plans” that document planned 

efforts to develop states’ and communities’ capability and capacity to 

oversee the collection, analysis, and implementation of flood data in their 

state and community and to justify funding for these efforts. According to 

FEMA, 38 states have begun drafting such plans. FEMA intends to use 

these state business plans to help prioritize its continuing efforts to 

develop map modernization partners. 

FEMA’s Strategy for 

Partnering with States and 

Local Communities Does 

Not Include Communities 

with Few Resources to 

Assist in Flood Mapping 
Page 36 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Through its Cooperating Technical Partners (CTP) program, FEMA has 

developed partnerships with a variety of states and communities that have 

developed their own data and provided their own funds to help update 

local flood maps. Since 2000, FEMA has leveraged millions of dollars in 

funding from 171 partners (states and local communities) for producing 

maps through its CTP program. For example, from fiscal years 2000 to 

2002, FEMA used $70 million of its federal map modernization funding 

along with state and local funds to develop what FEMA has estimated to 

be more than $155 million worth of new mapping data. Figure 12 compares 

FEMA’s cumulative funding for new mapping data through the CTP 

program with the total cumulative dollar value of data produced with 

partner contributions since the program was established in 2000. 

Figure 12: Comparison of Cumulative FEMA Funding for Mapping Data with the 

Total Cumulative Dollar Value of Mapping Data Produced through CTP Program 

According to FEMA, partnering has other benefits as well. For example, in 

the long-term, those states and communities with whom FEMA has 

established partnerships may be more likely to accept final map changes, 

expand their capabilities, and assume greater responsibility for 

0

50

100

150

200

Total cumulative dollar value of data produced with

partner contributions

Cumulative FEMA funding for new mapping data

2000 2001 2002 

Source: FEMA.

Dollars (in millions)

Year
Page 37 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

periodically developing and incorporating updated flood data, resulting in 

cost savings to FEMA. FEMA’s partnership with the state of North 

Carolina provides an example of a state assuming greater responsibility 

for producing and maintaining flood maps. 

According to North Carolina officials, the devastating flooding and 

subsequent damage that occurred from Hurricane Floyd in 1999 led the 

state of North Carolina to take action to address the limitations of the 

existing FEMA flood maps. Approximately 80 percent of the homes 

damaged or destroyed during Hurricane Floyd were not depicted in the 

floodplain on the state’s flood maps. In 2000, North Carolina became the 

first Cooperating Technical State under FEMA’s CTP program, agreeing to 

assume primary ownership and responsibility of flood maps for all North 

Carolina communities. Since then, according to state floodplain mapping 

officials, the state has contributed approximately $41 million towards the 

overall floodplain mapping program. On the basis of this amount, North 

Carolina has covered approximately 65 percent of the total cost to date for 

the remapping effort. To date, 8 counties had received new effective flood 

maps and 28 counties received new preliminary maps, which are now 

under community review. (See fig. 13.) 

FEMA’s Cooperating Technical 

Partnership with the State of 

North Carolina 
Page 38 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Figure 13: Status of Remapping in North Carolina 

Some states and communities with few resources and technical capacities 

or little history of flood mapping activities are likely to pose a challenge to 

FEMA’s ability to fund and implement mapping activities. For example, we 

talked with flood management officials in several smaller communities in 

Montgomery County, Texas; Santa Cruz County, Arizona; and Larkspur, 

Colorado. These officials said that their communities lacked either the 

funding needed to develop flood data, the technological capability to 

develop digital flood data and use geospatial information systems, or, in 

some cases, the community support needed to conduct mapping activities. 

One approach for obtaining additional resources, capabilities, and 

community support would be for FEMA to facilitate coordination with 

other agencies within the state that have a stake in, or could benefit from, 

mapping activities. For example, state departments of transportation can 

Source: North Carolina Floodplain Mapping Program.

Effective maps

Preliminary and post preliminary maps

Map data review in progress

Elevation data created or collected

Yet to be studied
Page 39 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

benefit from information in FEMA’s geospatial information system, such 

as elevation data, in developing and implementing state roads and bridges. 

North Carolina was able to get its state transportation department to help 

fund the development of elevation data used for flood maps. FEMA has 

not yet developed a strategy for how to partner with communities that do 

not have the resources, capabilities, or motivation to initiate and sustain 

mapping activities. Such a strategy could focus on how to assist these 

potential partners in garnering community resources and developing 

technological capabilities, how to coordinate with other agencies in their 

state, and how to integrate these efforts with FEMA’s community outreach 

efforts to gain community support for mapping activities. 

In March 2004, FEMA awarded a performance-based contract to obtain 

assistance from a nationwide mapping contractor to manage tasks 

associated with the significant expansion of the map modernization 

program. Unlike many traditional government service contracts, which 

emphasize inputs rather than outcomes, a performance-based contracting 

approach gives the contractor the flexibility to determine how best to 

achieve the outcomes and links payment to the contractor’s ability to 

achieve these outcomes—an approach supported by our past work in 

federal contracting. Overseeing these types of contracts requires agency 

staff with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to monitor the contractor’s 

efforts using performance measures that accurately measure agreed-upon 

outcomes. 

FEMA may be limited in its ability to effectively manage the contract, as 

well as the significant expansion of tasks associated with a five fold 

increase in funding and related mapping activities that will continue to be 

performed by agency staff. These tasks include managing grants for many 

new mapping partners and administering contracts with independent firms 

to develop and process a significantly larger quantity of flood data to 

support local efforts. A staffing needs assessment completed by FEMA in 

December 2003 identifies a need for an additional 75 staff with additional 

skills, including contracting and program management capabilities. In 

appropriating fiscal year 2004 map modernization funds, Congress 

included a provision that would allow FEMA to use up to 3 percent, or 

$6 million, for administrative purposes. As of March 2004, FEMA had filled 

1 of the 75 positions by reallocating existing resources. According to 

FEMA, it plans to fill another 33 positions using the administrative funding 

identified in the fiscal year 2004 budget. In addition, FEMA also plans to 

fill an additional 10 positions by moving staff from other FEMA 

departments or filling vacancies. However, at the time of our review, 

New Program Management 

Contract Is PerformanceBased, but FEMA May 

Have Difficulty Overseeing 

the Contract and 

Measuring Achievement of 

Program Objectives 
Page 40 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

FEMA had not yet established a plan for filling the remaining 

31 headquarters and regional positions. 

One element of effective program management is establishing 

performance measures to determine how well FEMA is achieving its map 

modernization program objectives. FEMA has established performance 

measures for all four of its program objectives. However, FEMA’s 

measures for two of those objectives that directly support the use of flood 

maps for risk management—to develop a premier data system and to 

expand and better inform the user community are not clearly defined or 

fully developed. 

FEMA’s principal measure for developing and maintaining a premier data 

collection and delivery system is the percent of the national population 

with community-adopted, GIS data-based flood maps. However, this 

measure does not indicate whether the maps themselves meet any FEMAestablished standards for accuracy. As noted earlier, FEMA has not yet 

defined the minimum level of data collection and analysis for communities 

with similar risk. 

To measure the progress and success of expanding and better informing 

the user community, FEMA established performance measures related to 

the percent increase in communities’ awareness and use of new maps. 

FEMA plans to use surveys as the primary means of measuring increased 

community awareness and use of the new maps. However, FEMA has not 

yet fully developed an operational definition of how it plans to measure 

“awareness” or “use,” for example, that reflect mitigation steps taken or 

the purchase of flood insurance. Because the link between revising maps 

and the use of maps in terms of increased NFIP participation is not direct, 

we recognize that it may be a challenge to develop a performance measure 

that accurately reflects the impact on NFIP participation rates of efforts to 

expand and improve outreach. Nonetheless, without developing such a 

measure (or measures), FEMA will be less able to ensure that its map 

modernization program will have resulted in one of FEMA’s primary 

intended benefits. 

FEMA’s map modernization strategy recognizes the limits of the agency’s 

authority to directly achieve such key intended map modernization 

benefits as increased, effective flood mitigation efforts and increased flood 

insurance participation rates by property owners whose properties are 

within the most hazardous flood areas—those in which there is at least a 

1 percent chance of flooding in any given year. At the same time, FEMA 

recognizes that it has finite resources for completing map modernization 

Conclusions 
Page 41 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

and needs to leverage its resources with assistance from state and local 

communities. Both the credibility of the maps as accurate and useful and 

stakeholders’ understanding of how the maps can be used to reduce flood 

risk and flood damage will be instrumental in enhancing the probability 

that the maps will be used to achieve their intended benefits. 

FEMA’s outreach strategy for involving stakeholders in map 

modernization appears to be reasonable. Even with these outreach efforts, 

the credibility and likely use of the maps can be compromised if there is a 

perception that similar communities are not treated similarly during map 

modernization. Establishing and implementing data collection and analysis 

standards for communities with similar risk can help to assure 

communities that map development for all communities within the same 

risk category will be consistent and comparable. Such standards can also 

help FEMA to target its map modernization resources more efficiently by 

matching the level of data collection and analysis with the level of flood 

risk. Similarly, by developing strategies for partnering with state, and local 

flood management stakeholders with lower levels of capabilities and 

resources, FEMA will be better able to leverage available resources and 

identify the most effective approaches to engaging its partners in the 

remapping process. 

To the extent that FEMA does not have appropriate numbers of staff with 

the requisite skills, it may have limited ability to provide effective 

monitoring and oversight of its new performance-based contract, whose 

contractor has been charged with much of the day-to-day work of map 

modernization that formerly FEMA performed. Finally, in some cases, the 

performance measures established for the program and the contractor 

may not be sufficient to permit FEMA to measure whether map 

modernization is achieving its intended benefits. Without useful 

operational definitions for its planned surveys to measure map acceptance 

and use, FEMA cannot reasonably measure and demonstrate whether map 

modernization has achieved its intended benefits in such areas as 

community and individual flood mitigation efforts or increased flood 

insurance purchase rates. 

To help ensure that FEMA’s map modernization achieves the intended 

benefits of improved flood mitigation, increased flood insurance 

participation, and improved multi-hazard mitigation and risk management 

capabilities through the production of more accurate and accessible flood 

maps, we recommend that the Secretary of Homeland Security direct the 

Undersecretary of Emergency Preparedness and Response to take the 

following four actions: 

Recommendations 
Page 42 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

• Develop and implement data standards that will enable FEMA, its 

contractor, and its state and local partners to identify and use 

consistent data collection and analysis methods for communities with 

similar risk. 

• Develop and implement strategies for partnering with state and local 

entities with varying levels of capabilities and resources. 

• Ensure that it has the staff capacity to effectively implement the 

nationwide mapping contract and the overall map modernization 

program. 

• Develop and implement useful performance measures that define 

FEMA’ s progress in increasing stakeholders’ awareness and use of the 

new maps, including improved mitigation efforts and increased 

participation rates in purchasing flood insurance. 

We provided a draft of this report to DHS for its review and comment. We 

met with DHS and FEMA officials, including FEMA’s Mitigation Division 

Acting Deputy Director, to discuss the report. In providing oral comments, 

DHS and FEMA generally agreed with the report’s contents and provided 

us with minor technical comments, which we have incorporated where 

appropriate. In addition, DHS and FEMA generally agreed with our 

recommendations and provided the following comments: 

• To address the data standard recommendation, FEMA said that it plans 

to refine existing standards, in coordination with stakeholders, to 

ensure consistent data collection and analysis for all communities 

commensurate with their flood risk. 

• To address the recommendation concerning partnering strategies to 

address varying levels of capabilities and resources, FEMA said that it 

would continue to collaborate with stakeholder groups to develop an 

effective strategy to include states and communities with varying levels 

of capabilities and resources. 

• To address the recommendation to ensure that the agency has the staff 

capacity to effectively implement map modernization and oversee the 

contract, FEMA said that it has begun to take steps not only to fill 

44 positions for fiscal year 2004, as noted in the report, but is also 

developing a plan to ensure that additional staffing needs are met in 

fiscal year 2005 and beyond. 

• To address the recommendation to develop and implement 

performance measures for increasing stakeholders’ awareness and use 

of flood maps, FEMA said that it plans to refine performance measures 

Agency Comments 
Page 43 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

for this map modernization objective to make them more useful and 

quantifiable. 

We will send copies of this report to the Secretary of Homeland Security. 

We will also make copies available to others upon request. In addition, this 

report will be available at no charge on GAO’s Web site at 

http://www.gao.gov. If you or your staff have any questions about this 

report, please contact me at (202) 512-8777 or at jenkinswo@gao.gov. 

Major contributors to this report are listed in appendix III. 

Sincerely yours, 

William O. Jenkins, Jr. 

Director, Homeland Security and Justice Issues 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 44 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

To describe how map modernization is intended to improve the accuracy 

and accessibility of the nation’s flood maps, we interviewed Federal 

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) headquarters officials and 

agency officials in three of the regional offices: Region IV in Atlanta, 

Georgia; Region VIII in Denver, Colorado; and Region VI in Denton, Texas. 

To assess the reliability of FEMA’s data regarding the number and age of 

the nation’s flood maps, we interviewed officials knowledgeable about the 

data and the systems that produced them and determined that the data 

were sufficiently reliable for the purposes of this report. We also reviewed 

key FEMA documents that describe how map modernization is intended to 

use advanced technology to improve the accuracy and accessibility of 

flood maps. 

Realizing that map modernization is in the early stages of implementation 

and information on its impact is limited, we conducted site visits in states 

and communities that have already begun to modernize their flood maps. 

To identify potential locations for site visits, we spoke with FEMA 

Mitigation Division officials and representatives from the following 

professional organizations: Association of State Flood Plain Managers, 

National Association of Flood and Stormwater Management Agencies, 

National Emergency Management Association, and the Mapping Coalition. 

The selected site visits represent areas that have recently experienced 

considerable population growth, a high National Flood Insurance Program 

(NFIP) base, or a high number of repetitive flood loss claims. Over 

64 percent of all NFIP policies are located in the states selected for site 

visits, and over 40 percent of all repetitive loss properties are located in 

the states in which we conducted site visits. 

Our site visits involved reviewing key documents, graphics, and other 

information related to our reporting objectives. Site visits included the 

following locations: 

• Hillsborough, Sarasota, and Pinellas counties of Southwest Florida 

• Maricopa County, Arizona 

• State of North Carolina 

• Mecklenburg County, North Carolina 

• Harris County, Texas 

• State of Colorado 

To describe the expected benefits of map modernization, we interviewed 

FEMA officials in their Mitigation Division in Washington, D.C., and 

obtained documents and graphics from FEMA officials describing the 

benefits the agency expects to result from map modernization activities. 

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 45 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

We also interviewed state and local officials on the potential multi-hazard 

benefits of map modernization and obtained documents and graphics 

illustrating the expected benefits. 

To determine the extent to which FEMA’s strategy for managing the map 

modernization program supports the achievement of the expected benefits 

of more accurate and accessible maps, we first reviewed previous 

documents published by FEMA and others on map modernization. 

Throughout our review, we remained in constant contact with FEMA 

officials in their Mitigation Division to monitor the development of FEMA’s 

prioritization of fiscal year 2003 funded mapping projects and the 

implementation of the overall map modernization approach. 

To identify areas where FEMA’s implementation of map modernization is 

limited, we gathered and synthesized the experiences and challenges 

identified through documentation and interviews provided from various 

sources, including: 

• FEMA headquarters and regional officials; 

• site visits and selective review participants; 

• professionals in the Association of State Floodplain Managers, National 

Association of Stormwater Management Agencies, the National 

Emergency Management Agency, and Arizona Association of 

Floodplain Managers; and 

• private industry representatives in the fields of flood zone 

determinations, engineering, technology and program consulting, real 

estate sales and development, and home mortgage lending. 

We also conducted additional research to determine whether limitations 

existed in FEMA’s implementation of its outreach approach for its map 

modernization program. We obtained information on the roles and 

responsibilities of FEMA and lenders to communicate changes in flood 

hazard status. We also reviewed and synthesized applicable laws, 

regulations, and guidance regarding notification of flood hazard risk to 

identify all parties designated to inform property owners of changes in the 

flood hazard maps. We interviewed FEMA mapping and insurance 

officials, state, community, and National Flood Determination Association 

officials as well as conducted site visits to ascertain information on 

current processes for communicating changes in flood hazard status. 

Additionally, we interviewed FEMA’s general counsel to obtain the 

agency’s position on statutory requirements for notification of property 

owners after remapping. 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 46 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

To further analyze the strengths and limitations of FEMA’s implementation 

approach, we also reviewed FEMA’s Inspector General’s reports related to 

flood mapping and reviewed our previous work and guidance in the areas 

of performance-based contracting and performance measurement that 

relate to the objectives of map modernization. 

The information regarding deaths and damages due to floods was 

considered background information and was not verified. We conducted 

our review from April 2003 through March 2004 in accordance with 

generally accepted government auditing standards.
Appendix II: Users of Flood Maps 

Page 47 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

The principal stakeholders that use FEMA flood maps and the nature of 

their use are described in this appendix. 

State and local floodplain managers/community planners: use flood 

maps to make floodplain management decisions for each of the nearly 

2 million development permits issued for new structures nearly 20,000 

NFIP participating communities that have maps. They are responsible for 

establishing and enforcing land-use and construction ordinances that 

comply with minimum NFIP standards. 

Insurance companies and agents: use flood maps to determine actuarial 

rates for flood insurance policies. Private insurance companies that sell 

NFIP-backed flood insurance use the flood maps to determine the proper 

premium rate for a flood insurance policy. There are approximately 

250,000 new policies rated and sold each year. 

Lenders: use flood maps to determine the flood risk status of mortgaged 

properties at loan origination and through the entire life of the mortgage. 

Each of the 10 to 15 million federally related mortgage transactions each 

year requires that the flood maps be consulted to determine whether the 

structure secured by the loan is located in the floodplain on the current 

flood map. 

Flood zone determination companies: use flood maps to determine 

property locations relative to flood hazard areas on behalf of mortgage 

lenders that typically contract this service to companies with expertise in 

making flood zone determinations and the capability to make many 

determinations quickly. 

Individual property owners: use flood maps to better understand their 

flood risk status. 

Land developers: use flood maps to assist in designing developments that 

are safe from flood hazards. 

Surveyors: use flood maps to prepare elevation certificates for structures. 

These help owners determine their flood risk by comparing the mapped 

flood elevations to the building’s lowest floor elevation. 

Engineers: use flood maps when designing flood mitigation projects and 

to site and design new buildings and infrastructure. 

Appendix II: Users of Flood Maps 
Appendix II: Users of Flood Maps 

Page 48 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

Real estate professionals: use flood maps to determine the flood risk 

status of properties in the community. 

State and local disaster and emergency response officials: use flood 

maps to prepare for all disasters, issue hazard warnings, and implement 

emergency response activities and aid in the rebuilding and reconstruction 

phases. 

Other federal agencies: use flood maps in implementing Executive 

Order 11988, Floodplain Management, for federal actions proposed in or 

affecting floodplains. 
Appendix III: GAO Contacts and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

Page 49 GAO-04-417 Flood Map Modernization 

William O. Jenkins, Jr. (202) 512-8777 

Christopher Keisling (404) 679-1917 

In addition to those named above, Mark Abraham, Leo Barbour, Mark 

Braza, Grace Coleman, Christine Davis, Michelle Fejfar, Brian James, Kirk 

Kiester, and Meg Ullengren made key contributions to the report. 

Appendix III: GAO Contacts and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

GAO Contacts 

Staff 

Acknowledgments 

(440190) 
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