DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

S. W. STRATTON, Director

MISCELLAlSfEOUS PUBLICATIONS—No. 45

Buying Commodities By

Weight or Measure

[ Extract* adapted from Bureau of Standards Circalar No. 55, Meajurements for the Household]

DECEMBER 9. 1920

PRICE, 10 CENTS

Sold only by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing OfBoe Washington, D. C.

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1920

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

S. W. STRATTON. Director

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS—No. 45

Buying Commodities By

Weight or Measure

[Extracts adapted from Bureau of Standards Circular No. 55, Measurements for the Household]

DECEMBER 9, 1920

PRICE, 10 CENTS

Sold only by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office Washington, D. C.

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1920

CONTENTS

Page

I . Introduction 5

I. The Bureau of Standards' relation to the weights and measures of trade 5

II. Buying commodities by weight or measure 10

1. Measurement as a factor in purchasing 10

2. The elimination of false measure ic

3. National net-content-of-container law 12

4. Household weights and measures test set 13

(a) Accuracy needed in household measurement of purchases. 13

(&) Apparatus suitable for household inspection 15

(c) The weighing scale 16

(d) Liquid measures and graduate 17

(e) Dry measures 17

(/) Length measures 18

5. The use of the household set in checking amounts of commodities. 18

(a) Use of scale, in general 18

(6) Meat 19

(c) Poultry and fish ' 20

(d) Goods in original packages : 20

(e) Liquids in bulk 20

(/) Liquids in containers - 21

(g) Use of graduates 22

(h) Receptacles used -. 23

(i) Sale of dry commodities 23

6. State laws relating to dry commodities 26

(a) States requiring sales by weight 26

(6) States requiring definite weights 27

(c) States establishing legal or standard weights 27

{d) States requiring definite weights for sales by weight 28

(e) States not regulating this matter 28

(/) Checking dry commodities by dry measures 28

(g) Interpretation of State laws 28

7. Purchasing commodities 28

(a) In general 28

(b) By weight 29

(c) By liquid measure 29

(d) By dry measure 29

(e) By linear measure 30

(/) Checking total price charged 30

3
4 Contents

II. Buying commodities by weight or measure —Continued. Page

8. Special methods of checking certain commodities and containers. 31

(a) Coal 31

(6) Wood in cords 32 (0 Ice 33

{d) Determining capacity of tanks, boilers, silos, etc 33

(e) Rectangular tank 34

(/) Cylindrical tank 34

{g) Determining percentage of shortage 34

III. Kitchen measures 35

1. Kitchen measuring appliances 35

2 . Equivalents of capacity' units used in the kitchen 36

IV. Appendixes 38 Appendix i . Legal weights per bushel for various commodities 38 Appendix 2. Tables of weights and measures 40
BUYING COMMODITIES BY WEIGHT OR MEASURE*

I. INTRODUCTION

1. The Bureau of Standards' Relation to the Weights and Measures

of Trade

Ever since its inception in 1901 the Bureau of Standards has

taken the greatest interest in the elimination of fraud in commercial transactions. It has done all in its power to assist in

establishing proper State and local inspection services over the

weights and meastu-es used in trade.

As early as 1902 local investigations of the efficiency of the

inspection service in the city of New York were conducted by the

Biu-eau. In 1904 the Bureau conceived the plan of inviting

officials, having the custody of the State standards, to meet in

Washington to study the weights and measures situation, and the

first meeting was held at the Bm-eau in 1905. A meeting has been

held each year since, which is known as the Annual Conference on the Weights and Meastures of the United States. These meetings are very largely attended by weights and meastures officials,

by manufacturers, by representatives of commercial organizations,

and other persons interested, and are an important factor in standardizing the laws and practices in relation to weights and measures throughout the country.

In 1909 the Bureau of Standards was authorized by Congress

to imdertake an investigation of the general condition of the

weights and measures in commercial use throughout the United

States. Through this investigation deplorable conditions were

discovered. Only two or three States and a few of the larger

cities maintained at that time any efficient inspection service,

and negligence in this regard was costing the constmiing public

large sums of money and putting a premium on dishonesty

in competition. Shortage in weights and measures was found to

be a common condition. While there are many manufacturers

and merchants who are honest in their dealings, there is another

* Reprinted from original plates of Circular of the Bureau of Standards No. ss. Measurements for the Household, without change of either figure numbers or table numbers, but slightly amended in several cases for the purposes of this rublication, S
6 Miscellaneous Publications,

class, who, either through fraud, carelessness, or ignorance, fail to

deliver honest weight and measure to the consumer. The inaccuracy of scales and measures in use, and the weights of packages

ready for delivery or already delivered confirm this view. The

investigation mentioned above showed that every State in the

Union was suffering in this respect, conditions being especially bad

in those States which were entirely neglecting the subject.

TABLE 8 Summary of Apparatus Examined by Inspectors of Weights and Measures, Bureau of Standards

Articles tested

Percentage

correct or incorrect

Total number oi scales tested 10 034

Correct ' 5 535

Incorrect 4 499

Total number of weights tested (partly estimated) ' 12 211

Correct. Incorrect

Total number of dry measures tested

.

Correct. Incorrect

Total number of liquid measures tested.

Correct

Incorrect

Total apparatus of all kind5 inspected.

9 792

2 419

5 656

2 935

2 721

2 407

646

30 500

55.2 44.8

80.0

20.0

51.9

48.

1

73.2 25.8

Total number of stores visited, 3220 The Bureau's investigation showed that nearly 45 per cent of

all the scales tested were 3 or more per cent in error, and when

the rapidity with which a tradesman sells his wares is considered, even 3 per cent is a very important consideration; and when it reaches 12, as it did in a number of cases, the loss to the pvirchaser

is a serious one. The honest dealer, as well as the ptuchaser, suffers

from the existence of such fraud, since the possessor of such a

fraudulent scale can apparently undersell him and yet actually

receive more for his goods.

As an example, it was estimated that the consumers of the

coimtry lost annually more than $8 000 000 on short - weight

deliveries of one staule article of food.
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 7 By framing a model State law and a model city ordinance, by

interviewing governors, State legislators, and others on the general

subject, and by issuing reports on the conditions found, the

keenest interest was aroused. Since that time a large majority of

the States and many important cities have passed

weights and measiu-es laws

and ordinances and as a

result of these enactments

now have an increasingly

efificient inspection service to enforce honesty in

weight and measure. The efficient officials of

the States and cities realize that the best results can not be expected from

the inspection services unless the persons whom they

are appointed to protect

understand what should

be accomplished, and assist

and cooperate in revealing

bad conditions, and in thus

obtaining competent en- forcement of the laws.

Therefore, any person having evidence of shortage

in the weight or meastue

of commodities purchased

should communicate with

the local sealer or inspector

of weights and meastures,

where there is such an officer. If it is foimd that the State

or city has not taken an advanced stand in this matter and has no official to take charge of and investigate proper complaints, or has an official who is not inclined to take proper notice of

the matters which arise, then a protest against this lack of proFiG. 6i.

Straight-face spring scale ivith fraudulent slidingface

This is used ia buying. During the process of weighing

the buyer slides theface downward, thus greatly decreasing the indicated weight and defrauding the seller.
8 Miscellaneous Publications,

tection should be lodged with the government of the city or State,

coupled with a request that the matter be investigated and

steps taken to remedy the condition. The most efficient way

to obtain protection is, and should be, by the force of public

opinion, and with a sufficient volume of protest,

remedial legislation is practically assured.

The investigation by the Bureau of Standards

and by others has clearly sho-wn that some losses are likely to result from the improper, but not

Aj^^^lk fraudulent, use of some types of relatively correct

n3 apparatus such as would be found in first-class stores. By far the larger individual losses, however, are those resulting from the use of false \ weights and measures and by intentional cheaty ing, either with false or comparatively correct apparatus.

The methods of cheating and the types of false

apparatus exhibit great variety. (See Figs. 7, 9,

11,61,62.) Among the different types of false ca- pacity measures may be mentioned those having

movable or false bottoms; measures having a

portion of the height cut away from either the

top or bottom; measmres with staves removed

and the hoops and bottom adjusted accordingly;

"bottomless" measures which have relatively

small diameters and high sides, and which

although they may contain the proper number of

cubic inches—give incorrect quantities as they

do not permit a proper heap ; measures with false

interiors, such as have been foimd in milk cans and meastures for selling gasoline; and liquid measures used for dry commodities. This last practice is found in use to some extent in practically all parts of

the country and results in a shortage of about 14 per cent. It is one of those practices which has come into use largely through

"trade custom."

The use of correct scales of high quality is not always in itself a guarantee that correct amovmts will be given, for it is possible

Fig 62.

"Crab"

or "handcuff"

scale. The large ring, the

large hook, and the

larger capacity face and the small ring, small hook, and the

smaller capacity face, are intended to be used

together. By combining these parts incorrectly, results very

greatly in error are obtained, the most

common method o f use resulting in

shortages of 25 per

cent.
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure Q

for the user of correct scales to manipulate them to his own advantage, but fraud is more often committed with apparatus that

readily lends itself to that piupose. A type of scale which was

formerly common among certain classes of dealers is the straightface spring scale, designed to be held in the hand, with the

graduated face made movable so that the dealer might lower or

raise it so as to make the pointer indicate an amount less or

greater than the true weight, according to whether he was buying

or selling. Some even-arm balances of inferior construction may

be made to indicate falsely by placing the weights and commodities in certain positions on the pans. This is done in an apparently

unintentional manner by the dealer and would not be noticed by

the customer unless he were familiar with the action of such scales. Counter beam scales with a removable scoop and counterpoise

may very easily be used fraudulently by omitting the counterpoise when the scoop is in place. These are a few of many ways

in which short weights or measures may be given even with

apparatus which, upon a casual examination, may appear correct. False apparatus is sometimes very crude in construction and

this may easily be detected upon examination. The users of such

apparatus depend to escape detection upon the unsuspecting

attitude of the purchaser and their own dexterity in handling the

apparatus. In the majority of instances, however, tests with

standards are necessary.

17218°—20 2
11. BUYING COMMODITIES BY WEIGHT OR MEASURE

1. Measurement as a Factor in Purchasing

Many careful housewives scrutinize the apparent prices charged

for the various commodities and the quality of goods delivered.

But unless the quantity actually delivered is determined, the

actual cost price of the commodities is not ascertained. Dishonest

merchants may attract trade by quoting prices lower than the prevailing market price and then, by delivering amounts short in

weight or measure, actually receive either the full market price or even an enhanced price for the commodity. Not only do such

merchants make illegal profits on their goods in this way, but they

also attract trade to the detriment of merchants who quote a

higher price but deliver full amoimts and whose goods may therefore be even cheaper to the buyer than those of the dishonest

competitor.

2. The Elimination of False Measure

When fraudulent short weight or meastue is discovered the

purchaser should take steps to have the offender pimished, even

if the loss on the individual purchase is small, since other losses

from this cause may be important in the aggregate. To fail to do this neglects the rights of other pmchasers at that store who

may not have detected short weight or measure delivered to them,

and also the right of the honest merchant to protection, since his

trade may be taken away on accotmt of prices in his competitor's

store, which are apparently, but not actually lower ones. When

any purchaser finds that short weight or measirre is being delivered by any tradesman, a complaint should be made to the

local sealer or inspector of weights and measures, and details of

the imposition given. It is then the duty of the latter to prevent

further fraud by this tradesman. Only by concerted action of purchasers can dishonest practices of this kind be completely checked.

This comse might be more often followed were it not for the

fact that the average woman objects, and rightly objects, to appearing in mvmicipal court as complainant or witness in the ac10

12 Miscellaneous Publications

,

tion. But this is not necessary. The official receiving such a complaint need not take action upon the facts of the particular case or cases presented. Its only effect may be the pointing out

of a merchant whose business methods are questionable, and he

may then proceed to obtain information and evidence on his own

account. If upon investigation he is imable to gather evidence

of fraud, it indicates that the shortages discovered may have been

accidental and not the general rule; but if he does obtain such

evidence he may safely proceed on the assumption that the

frauds are deliberate ones, and his duty to proceed against the

merchant and to remedy conditions by legal action will be clear.

3. National Net-Content-of-Container Law

Congress recently enacted a law which is a very great aid in the

buying of foodstuffs in package form. This law is an amendment

to the pure-food act, and is popularly known as the "net-weight

amendment." In brief, it requires that foodstuffs in package

form must bear a statement showing the net amount of commodity actually contained in the package. Up to this time, in

purchasing food commodities in the original package, the housewife has usually been limited to comparisons of quality and apparent price, which is of course the price per package. In comparing two brands of a food in packages of equal size these comparisons were trustworthy. Wlien there was a difference in the

size of package, however, economy in buying could not be obtained from a knowledge of these two factors alone. (See Fig. 8.)

There might be a large difference in price per unit of quantity

which would outweigh an apparent difference in price per package,

or slight difference in the quality; but with the quantity labeled

upon each package the purchaser has all essential facts at hand

to compare unit prices.

Thus, we may compare two brands of package goods. Two

packages of raisins sell for 25 cents and 30 cents per package,

respectively. The purchaser might consider that the 30-cent

brand was worth 5 cents (or 20 per cent) more than the 2 5 -cent brand, but upon examination of the labels, however, if it appeared

that the latter contained 16 ounces and the former only 12 ounces, he might conclude that the difference in price outweighed the

advantages conceded for the higher priced package.
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 13

Again, a package of crackers may sell for 25 cents per package

and crackers in bulk for 25 cents per pound. The purchaser

might consider the package goods more desirable and disregard

the weight. Under these conditions the package brand would

naturally be selected. But the quantity is now marked on the

package. Suppose in the case mentioned above the weight is 10 ounces. The cost per pound of the package goods is therefore

40 cents and of those in bulk 25 cents, The knowledge thus con- veyed, that the brand somewhat better in quality or flavor was

60 per cent higher in price, might entirely outweigh the slight

difference in quality and persuade the purchaser that the bulk

goods were the better for the purpose. Therefore the careful

5 5

I

Fig. 3.Diagram of the equal-arm balance. {See Figs, i and 2) The pans of this balance are carried on the knife edges (the triangles shown at the bearing points under

the pans, at equal distances from the center or fulcrum knife edge) . The scale comes to balance when the weights on the two pans are equal. The load to be weighed is placed on one pan and known weights are added to the other until the scale is in balance. The correct name for this type is

'

' the equal arm stabilized

scale." purchaser should first examine the labels on the packages, observe

the net contents, and determine therefrom the price per unit

weight. If these precautions are neglected, much of the value

of an excellent protective statute will be lost.

4. Household Weights and Measures Test Set

(a) Accuracy needed in househoi^d measurement op purchases.—Every household should have a set of weights and measures by which purchases may be checked, and short weight or

short measure detected. The measuring apparatus should be

well made and of sufficient accuracy. Otherwise the measure- ments will not be reliable enough to warrant making a definite

complaint, except in cases of considerable shortage.
Miscellaneous Publications,
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 15

If measurements made with apparatus of uncertain reliability

show small apparent shortages, suspicion should fall upon the

apparatus, not the dealer,

until the apparatus has been

checked by suitable standards.

The purchasers of measuring apparatus will seldom be

able unaided to verify its ac- curacy. They should therefore have the various pieces

tested and sealed by the local

sealer of weights and measures at the time of purchase.

They should preferably be

purchased with the understanding that acceptance will

depend upon passing the

official tests.

ib) Apparatus suitable

FOR HOUSEHOLD INSPECTION.—The set of apparatus

(see Figs. 2 and 4) should in- clude the following:

Weighing scale.—A scale of

from 10 to 30 pounds capacity or more, graduated to i ounce or less. (A 20-pound

scale will be suitable.)

Liquid measures.—One

quart, i pint, and >< pint. A

4-ounce glass graduate subdivided to I dram or less for

measuring small quantities

of liquids and determining

the errors on larger amounts.

Dry measures.—Nest of %

Fig. 5.Diagram of the spring balance The load placed on the pan P stretches the two springs

S, S. The motion of the cross bar below the springs is transmitted through the vertical toothed bar or rack R

turning the small gear G , moimted on a spindle bearing the pointer I . The pointer rotates over the dial, a portion of which with the pointer is shown in dotted outline.

bushel to I quart. (See following

discussion as to the advisability of these.)
i6 Miscellaneous Publications,

Length measures.— yard measure, or a tape 3 or 6 feet in

length.

The specifications and tolerances to which the apparatus should

conform are usually obtainable at the local inspector's office. However, certain suggestions may be of value in this connection.

(c) The weighing scale.—Several varieties of scales for the

purpose of household weighings are obtainable. A very convenient form is a hanging

pan spring scale of

about 10 or 20 poimds

capacity. A scale of

this type has several

advantages. It automatically indicates the

weight of articles placed

upon it. (See Fig. 5.) It has, moreover, no

loose weights which are

liable to be mislaid. It may be suspended from

a bracket on the wall

and therefore does not

require table space. If a folding bracket is employed to swing the

scale back against the

wall, no space that can

be otherwise utilized to

advantage is required.

A fairly acciirate scale

Fig. 6.

Folding honseJwld scale of the sUelyard type

of this character can be ptirchased for a reasonable sum.

If table space is available, however, a counter beam scale of

either the equal or vinequal arm type may be preferred. (See

Fig. 3.) This has the advantage of being more reliable, but the

cheaper ones do not automatically indicate the weight, but require

the addition of loose weights or the moving of a sliding poise.

Coimter beam scales are usually higher in price than spring scales.
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 17

Another type of scale which is very suitable and which combines

many of the advantages of each of the types mentioned above, is a beam scale of the steelyard type designed to hang from a bracket,

and to fold back against the wall when not in use. Such a scale

often has a larger capacity than the common forms of the types

described above and thus may be used for every occasion which

may arise. Scales of this construction, designed expressly for

household use, are now on the market. (See Fig. 6.) A type of spring scale has been much used in the past, namely,

the so-called "family" scale, having the commodity pan or platform above the spring. Many of these are very cheap (often

costing only $1 or less) but have been found exceedingly inac- curate. Unless exceptionally well built and correspondingly

higher in price, this type is useless in properly checking the weight

of deliveries of commodities received.

(d) Liquid measures and graduate.—The liquid measures

should be cylindrical, or conical with the top diameter smaller than

the bottom diameter, and made of metal, enameled ware, composition, or similar and suitable material. They should be strong and

rigid enough to withstand ordinary usage without becoming bent,

indented, or otherwise damaged.

The graduate may be cylindrical or conical in shape. The

former is usually somewhat more accurate, while the latter is somewhat cheaper, is more easily cleaned, and can often be more

readily procured. The graduation marks should be correctly

placed and plainly numbered, so as to indicate readily the capacity

of the graduate at all points. They should also be straight, clearcut, and of sufficient length to allow accurate readings to be

made.

(e) Dry measures.—The dry measures should be made of metal,

or of well-varnished wood with a metal band around the top, or of similar and suitable material. They should preferably be

cylindrical. If they are conical, the top diameter should exceed

the bottom diameter by an amount not exceeding 10 per cent of

the latter. 17218°—20 3
1 8 Miscellaneous Publications,

The diameters should in no case be less than those given below:

Measure Minimum

diameters

Inches

J bushel 13i

1 peck lOi

i peck 8i

2 quarts 6i

1 quart 5|

1 pint 4

(/) Length measures.—The yard measure should be made of

well-dried wood with metal ends, or entirely of metal, or of other

material of which the form and dimensions remain reasonably

permanent under normal conditions. It should be subdivided

into inches and their fractions, and also into the customary fractional subdivisions ©f the yard, i. e., halves, quarters, eighths, and

sixteenths.

The tape should be of steel, or of wire-woven cloth when such

construction gives it sufficient strength and permanency. At

least I yard of this tape should be subdivided as above.

5. The Use of the Household Set in Checking Amounts of Commodities

The method of using this test set of weights and measures is quite simple, and the proper use will in most cases be evident to the

housewife. Only a few suggestions upon the less obvious points,

therefore, need be made here.

(a) Use of SCAI.E, IN GENERAi,.—The scale must be handled

carefully and be kept clean and dry. The scale must also be kept

in balance, otherwise every indicated weight will be incorrect.

The ordinary counter beam scale is in balance if the beam comes

to rest midway between the two stops which limit the swing. On

a scale with a reading face, such as a spring scale, the indicator

should point exactly to a definite and clear zero graduation.

Upon nearly every scale means of adjustment are provided by

the manufacturer. Thus, a counter balance of the beam type

is adjusted by turning the adjusting screw or balance ball, or by

adding weight to or subtracting it from the shot cup under the
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 19

pan, or by altering the amount of balancing material wherever

placed. Some spring scales may be adjusted as described. Others

are adjusted by loosening a screw in a slot in the indicator, turning

the latter on its pinion to the proper position, and then tightening

the screw. If the scale has a glass face, this must be removed

before the adjustment can be made. A properly constructed scale

will rarely get out of balance. Therefore these adjustments on

such a scale will not often have to be made.

For weighing on a beam scale the commodity should be placed on the pan ; the beam should be brought to a balance by moving

a sliding poise or by adding and subtracting loose weights. The

weights used should be accurately totaled or the exact graduation on the weighing beam read.

In weighing a commodity on a scale which automatically

indicates the weight, it is necessary only to make the reading

carefully. Fractional parts of ounces are sometimes estimated

by noting the exact position of the indicator between divisions.

If when reading the scale different readings are obtained upon

moving the eye to the right or left, or up or down, it is necessary

to take care that the eye is squarely in front of the point of the

scale which is being read.

If a commodity exceeds in weight the capacity of the scale,

it may sometimes be divided into two or more parts for checking

purposes, each not to exceed the capacity of the scale. By adding

the separate weights of the various portions the total weight of the

amount purchased is found.

The weight desired and the weight which should be furnished

is always the net weight of the commodity, i. e., the commodity

itself without wrappings or coverings of any kind. Therefore a commodity should not be weighed in a cardboard carton, or other

heavy coverings, or, if weighed with these, the coverings should

thereafter be weighed separately and this weight subtracted from

the gross or total weight.

(6) Meat.—When shortages are found in the weight of meat

purchased, a common excuse of the dealer is that the meat was

trimmed after being weighed, and it has often been found that

this excuse was used to cover up frauds in such sales. Therefore
20 Miscellaneous Publications,

the housewife should require that all meat trimmings should be

delivered to her by the dealer. This is fair, since they have been

purchased and paid for at regular prices; and it is economical

since they are often of use to the careful housewife. When such

a demand is made, the total weight delivered should never be

less than the amount charged for, and if it is so foimd a shortage

may legitimately be claimed.

(c) Poultry and fish.—Poultry drawn and dressed after

weighing can not easily be checked as to weight, since the housewife will seldom desire to have the feathers, head, claws, etc., delivered. By observation or experiment one can soon learn

what shrinkage in weight is naturally to be expected, and an

investigation should be made in cases in which this proper

shrinkage is exceeded. In cases in which fish are cleaned after

weighing, similar precautions should be observed.

(d) Goods in original packages.—The purchaser should

read the labels on the packages of goods pmchased and the accu- racy of the statements of quantity should be checked. If the

contents are not to be removed at once, the package may be

weighed gross when purchased and the weight noted on the outside. When empty the container may be weighed, and this

weight, subtracted from the gross weight noted previously, gives

the net weight. The law requires that this should equal that

printed on the label.

(e) Liquids in bulk.—If a liquid commodity is purchased in

bulk and only partly fills the receptacle in which it is delivered,

upon pouring it into the measure of the nominal size corres- ponding to the amount purchased, it should completely fill that measure. If it does not fill the measure the delivery is short.

If more of the same liquid of the same grade is at hand, the

shortage can be immediately determined by putting a definite,

noted quantity of the liquid into the graduate and from this

amount completing the filling of the measure. The difference

between the quantity of liquid remaining in the tolerance graduate

and the original amount put in it is the shortage.

If there is not at hand any more of the commodity, the liquid

under test may be poured out of the meastue and the measiure

filled up with water to the same point that the commodity
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 21

reached. This can usually be done by observing the top of the

wet ring around the measure left by the commodity. Then

by completing the filling of the measure with water from the

graduate, the shortage

may be found in the

manner described above.

(/) Liquids in containers. —Liquid c o m- modities bought in bottles, cans, or other containers may be checked

as above described, or the

following method may be

found easier. The point

to which the container is filled is first noted and

the contents removed.

Then, if the container is of the nominal size of one

of the liquid test measures, this measure is filled with water until the water is just level with the

top. This is then poured

into the container until it

is filled to the same point

as before. If any water

remains in the measure,

the delivery is short by

this amount. By pouring

this into the graduate and

noting its amount the

shortage is determined. (Be sure that the container is filled to the same point in the test that it was when delivered, as the amount

actually delivered and not the capacity of the container itself, is of

importance in this case.)

When the container is not of the standard size of one of the

test measures, the test is made as before, except that one of the

Fig. 7.Fraudulent ^-gallon measure {with side partially cut away, showing ^-gallon can inside) The purchaser sees only the s-gallon measure but the

3-gaIlon measure is the one which is filled—a delivery 40 per

cent short resulting.
22 Miscellaneous Publications,

measures must be filled more than once, or various measures and

the graduate must be used and the error determined on the last amotmt added. For example, if a bottle is marked "One gallon," the quart must be filled and poured into the container four

times, and the shortage, if any, determined on the last measurefull added.

Again, a bottle may be marked "

1J/2 quarts." In this case the

quart measure is filled and poured into the container, and then

the pint is filled and poured in. In this case the amount remainFiG. 8.

Three bottles of extract (front and side -views)

This shows the impossibility of correctly estimating the quantity of contents from apparent size of the

container. The bottle "U'hich is apparently smallest holds the most and vice versa.

ing in the pint measure is the total shortage, and this is determined as before.

A container may be marked "12 fluid ounces." As there are

1 6 fluid ounces in a pint, or 8 fluid otmces in a half-pint, the X-pitit

test measure and the 4-ounce graduate may be employed, or the

4-ounce graduate may be filled three times.

ig) Use of graduates.—To avoid mistakes in reading cone

graduates, it should be noted that these are sometimes more

finely subdivided at the base than at the top. For example, a
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 23

4-ounce graduate may be subdivided to }4 dram for the first 2 drams, to i dram for the next 6 drams, to 2 drams for the lemaining capacity up to 2 ounces, and to 4 drams, or half an ounce, for

the interval between 2 and 4 ounces. In filling the graduate to or reading it at any mark the graduate

should be held level, and the readings should be made at the main

surface of the liquid. The small amount of liquid which creeps

up the sides of the glass to a point higher than the main surface

of the liquid in the graduate should be disregarded.

(h) Receptacles used.—The size of a container or receptacle

is of importance when a certain amount of liquid commodity in

bulk is ordered from the merchant and there is sent to the store a

receptacle in which this amount is to be placed. Such containers

may not actually hold the amount ordered, yet often the container

is filled and the amount ordered is charged for. "Gallon" and

" half-gallon " oil cans, so-called, are often of a much smaller

capacity. "Quart" bottles frequently hold only one-fifth of a

gallon, or even less. Pails, demijohns, jugs, and other receptacles are not reliable as measures. Therefore, by means of the measures in the test set, determine the actual capacity of all receptacles that are to be used in buying. See that they contain at least

the full amount to be purchased in them.

(i) Sale of dry commodities.^—Dry commodities, when sold

in definite quantities, are commonly sold throughout the country

in one of three ways, namely, by weight, by dry measure, or by

numerical count. Since the method of sale in the last-mentioned

way is usually legal when the commodities are such as are susceptible of sale in this manner, and since tlie method of buying and

checking in retail sales is entirely obvious and presents no diffi- culties, no further mention will be made of it in the following

pages. Sales by liquid measure, while common in some sections, are illegal and are therefore not considered here. It should also

be noted that the sale of these commodities by guesswork methods,

as by the " bag " or " sack," are also neglected as not being germane

to the following discussion. It may be said generally that the

1 Ordinarily the term "dry commodity" means anything not in liquid form which is bought and sold, but for the sake of conciseness and brevity the term will be used in this circular as limited to those dry

products which are susceptible of measurement by dry capacity measures.
24 Miscellaneous Publications,

purchaser, for his own protection, should always demand some

definite amount.

Formerly the more common practice was to sell potatoes, apples,

onions, and other similar bulky commodities, as well as dried

beans, seeds, and other small commodities, by measure. This was

not imiversally true, since in the States of the Rocky Moimtain

and Pacific Coast sections such commodities have always been

Fig. 9.

Comparison of deliveries of "bottomless" type of measure and of the ordi- nary dry measure {both measures having the same capacity) The bottomless measure has so small a diameter that a proper heap can not be obtamed. Moreover the small diameter causes stacking, which leaves large unfilled spaces in case of bulky

commodities. When the potatoes in the right-hand measure (which contains the correct amount)

are transferred to the "bottomless" measure on the left, the potatoes overflowing on the table represent the shortage in delivery of this measure.

sold exclusively by weight, and the growing tendency in the

Kast and Middle West is to sell these commodities in this manner.

Massachusetts, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Chicago, for example, have

enacted legislation prescribing sales by weight. This is a long

step forward, because the use of dry measures is very unsatisfactory and unreliable.

This Bureau strongly advises all purchasers to order dry commodities by weight and to insist that they be sold to them in
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 25

this way. This method of deahng, it is beHeved, will be the

prevailing method in the future, since the dry-measure method

has always been unsatisfactory not only to the consumer but to the careful merchant as well. In checking dry commodities by weight it will be necessary to have a list of the weights per bushel included in the laws of the

State. These are given for the commoner commodities in Table 9.^

Fig. 10.

Comparison of deliveries of liquid quart and of dry quart Dry commodities are often illegally sold by the smaller liquid measure. The beans on the

table show the resulting shortage on a quart of commodity so measured. One need, therefore, only check the weight of the commodity with

the weight required by law.

Since it may not be possible in all cases to obtain dry commodities by weight, a set of dry measures is suggested in the

household testing outfit. If it is practicable, however, these

measiu"es should be omitted.

^ If a complete list of all commodities for which a legal weight is established by any State is desired, this can be procured from this Bureau upon request for Circular No. lo of the Bureau of Standards. This

circular is revised from time to time and changes made in the light of the latest legislation.
26 Miscellaneous Publications

,

If dry commodities are obtainable only by dry measure, the

buyer should understand what he is entitled to when buying in

this manner. The majority of the States allowing sales by measure require by law that large or bulky commodities, when sold by

meastu"e, be sold by "heaped measm-e." This term is variously

defined as "heaped in the form of a cone, the outside of the measure to be the base of the cone, and such cone to be as high

as the article will admit," or " heaped as high as may be without

special effort or design." The heaped bushel is usually considered

under either of these definitions to be ij4 "struck" bushels, i. e., in a heaped measure fom--fifths of the whole amount of commodity will be contained up to the rim of the measure and one-fifth

will be stacked in a conical form above the rim of the measure. Bven a larger " heap " than this has been required. Therefore, in

checking the delivery of bulky commodities by means of a dry

measure, the measure should be well heaped up, since, if it is not, one is not receiving the full amount of commodity to which he

is entitled. The term " bulky commodities " is in no case entirely

itemized in the law, but includes potatoes, onions, beets, carrots,

apples, pears, plums, peaches, Indian com in the ear, cucumbers,

parsnips, green peas unshelled, rutabagas, tomatoes, turnips, and some others. "Struck measure," however, is required for dried

beans, peas, and shelled com, berries and nuts of all kinds, seeds,

wheat, oats, rice, and other cereals, etc.

6. State Laws Relating to Dry Commodities

In the matter of the sale of dry commodities, the laws of the

various States differ. There is wide divergence in the wording

employed in the various statutes, and many have never been

interpreted by the higher courts. However, information is given

below as to the force and effect which it is believed the legisla- tures intended to give to the statutes.

(a) States requiring sai.es by weight.—Some States have

laws requiring that all dry commodities be sold by weight, while

others require that those for which a legal weight has been established, be so sold. In the latter class when a unit of dry measure

is called for, this must be determined by weight in accordance with

the standard schedule of weights per bushel. In some of these
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 27

States a special contract may be made by the parties, specifying some other method of sale. The list of States follows: Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Nebraska, Nevada, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, and Wisconsin.

In these States purchasers may demand that all orders be actually weighed before delivery, and that full weight as specified in

the State law be deHvered. It is desirable for purchasers to check

the deliveries by weight and compare them with the standard

legal weight.

(6) States requiring definite weights.—In the second class

may be grouped a number of States having statutes similar to each

other in wording and apparently similar in legal effect. These

statutes read somewhat as follows: "The bushel shall consist of, or will mean, a stated weight," sometimes with the qualification,

"When sold by the bushel." This list includes: California, Delaware, Illinois,^ Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont,

and West Virginia.

In these cases it appears to be the clear intent of the legislatures

that the weights stated in the laws should be delivered by the

dealers, whether the commodities in question are actually weighed

or whether they are measured. Therefore, although the purchaser has no legal right to demand that the commodities be

weighed by the dealer before delivery, it appears to be perfectly

proper to check delivery by weight and to demand that the legal

weight be delivered in all cases. As in the first group, some of

these States allow the statute to be superseded by special agreement and, therefore, the purchaser should be careful to refrain

from any action from which such agreement might be inferred.

(c) States estabushing legal or standard weights.—The

next group are those States which establish a legal or standard

weight per bushel, usually without a provision for a special agreement clause: Alabama, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia,

Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, North Carolina, and Rhode Island.

2 In some of the cities of Illiuois, notably Chicago, the conditions given under the first class of States

obtain, on account of a city ordinance to that effect.
28 Miscellaneous Publications

,

This list is shown separately from that immediately preceding on account of the distinctive wording of the laws. The meaning

is not essentially different and therefore the checking should be

done in the same way as is suggested there.

((f) States requiring definite weights for sai.es by

WEIGHT.—^The States in the next list establish a legal weight for

various commodities, but specifically limit it to apply to cases where

the sale is actually made upon a basis of weight: District of Columbia/ Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Virginia.

In these States if the purchaser has not demanded that the

transaction be upon a weight basis, the purchase must be checked

by the use of dry measures.

(g) States not regulating this matter.—Arizona, Washington, and Wyoming have no law establishing standard weights

per bushel or requiring sales of dry commodities by weight.

While dry measures appear to be legal in these States, the usual

practice is to sell dry commodities by weight and therefore they

will usually be checked by weight.

(/) Checking dry commodities by dry measures.—In States

of all the above classes if a legal weight for any dry commodity

is not established and it is not provided that dry commodities be

sold by weight only, the checking must be done by dry measures.

ig) Interpretation of State i^aws.— legal question is presented whether many of the above laws require for fractional

parts of the bushel, such as pecks, quarts, etc., the same fractional

parts of the legal weight established. However, a reasonable view

of the matter would be that such was the intention of the law.

Therefore, when a peck, quart, or other fractional part of a bushel

is purchased, the weight calculated by multiplying the legal bushel

weight by the fractional part of the bushel purchased may be used

for checking purposes.

7. Purchasing Commodities

(a) In general.—When a housewife makes her purchases in

person she should watch carefully the manner of selling the commodities in the store, for here frauds can often be avoided, and

complaints made at once will be very effective.

* The weight per bushel of potatoes only is established by law ia the District.
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure- 29

The first precaution to be observed is always to order a definite

amount of a commodity. When practicable, the buyer should

avoid asking for a "basket," a "can," or a "pail," since these

terms are not definite, or for "10 cents' worth," or a "quarter's

worth," etc., since in many such cases he will not know to how

much he is entitled, but rather he should specify a "pound," a "quart," a "peck," etc., as the case may be.

Next, the unit price of the commodity should be known, since

lack of this knowledge will prevent ascertaining the accuracy of the

price charged, even though full weight and measure is delivered.

Also it is businesslike to see that the exact amoimt in terms of

weight or measure is recorded upon your sales slip or bill and not

merely the kind of commodity and the total price of the amount

delivered.

(6) By weight.—In buying commodities by weight, the buyer

should note that the scale is correctly balanced before the commodity is put upon it, since many errors or frauds result from

scales set "fast."

While the commodity is being weighed the purchaser should

read the scale. If it is an equal arm scale operated with loose

weights, it must be brought to balance. It should be seen that

the proper weights are on the pan. If the scale has a poise sliding over a graduated beam, the beam must balance correctly and the

poise be in the proper notch. If the scale is automatic, having a

pointer traveling over a reading face, or a graduated face revolving

past a fixed point, the amount of weight indicated by the instrument after the pointer or chart has come to rest should be verified.

(c) By lyiQUiD MEASURE.—In observing sales by liquid measure

the buyer should see that the measures are clean, properly filled,

and that the full amount of the contents is poured out.

(d) By dry measure.—In observing sales by dry measure one

should see that the measure actually holds its full apparent

capacity; for example, that there is no false bottom in it. When

the measure has been filled, take care that bulky commodities are not stacked into it in such a way that large spaces are left between

the individual tmits and around the sides of the measure. Bulky

commodities should be well heaped up and fine commodities fill the measure level full. Also one should make sure that all of the

commodity in the measure is actually delivered.
30 Miscellaneous Publications,

(e) By linBar measure.—In observing sales by linear measure

the buyer must see that commodities like cloth are not unduly

stretched, and if counter tacks are allowed in place of linear measure, that the proper tacks are employed and the measurement is not made from one end to an intermediate tack marking some

fractional part of the full length purchased.

(/) Checking total price charged.—When the commodity

has been weighed or measured, the total price should be checked

by multiplying the amount purchased by the imit price so as to

:

. __J

Fig. II.

Fraudulent basket {with side partially cut away exposing smaller basket woven

inside, makingfalse sides and bottom) The purchaser sees only the outside basket but the inside basket is the one that is filled—a delivery short by an amount equal to the difference in sizes resulting.

check any inaccuracy in the dealer's computation. In many sales,

especially in the sale of meats, where even poimds are not often

delivered, it is very easy for the dealer, either accidentally or with

fraudulent intent, to overcharge a few cents on a purchase.

The above precautions are given to assist in preventing the

delivery of short amounts, but should not be relied upon to the

exclusion of the use of the test set of weights and measures in the

home. For it should be remembered that even though the

amounts delivered are correct according to the merchant's apparatus, still the accuracy of the latter may be imcertain.
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 31

8. Special Methods of Checking Certain Commodities and Containers

(a) Coal.—After coal has been deUvered, its weight can be

checked only roughly. If shortages are suspected, the details

should be reported to the local inspector, who should be able to reweigh the coal furnished, or at any rate check the weight of

the next delivery, if notified when this will occur. A weight ticket

should be furnished by the seller, showing the net weight of the

coal claimed to be delivered. The quantity of coal delivered

may be roughly checked by ascertaining the amount in the bin,

provided this is empty before the new coal is put in. If the bin

is rectangular, with a level bottom and vertical sides, this is accomplished as follows: Measure the exact length and the exact

width of the bin in feet and fractions of a foot. Then level off the top of the coal and measirre its depth in the same tmit. The

product of the length and width of the bin, multiplied by the

average depth of the coal will be the number of cubic feet of coal

in the bin. Multiply this result by the weight of the coal per

cubic foot, as given below, and the product will be the approximate number of pounds of coal in the bin. This evidence alone

would not be accepted by a comt, but it may be used to detect

gross shortages and as a basis of complaint to the local sealer. The average weight per cubic foot of anthracite (hard) coal

varies with the size into which it is broken, and with the kind of

coal or the vein from which the coal comes. The latter variation

is nearly 10 per cent, but the figures given below are the average

of several different kinds and will probably represent the average

coal purchased within 2 or 3 per cent. Red-ash coal is somewhat

lighter than that giving white ashes, hence, two sets of values are given below

:

Average Weight of Anthracite Coal in Pounds per Cubic Foot

Size White ash Red ash

Egg 57.0 53.0 Stove 56.5 52.5 Nut 55.5 52.0 Pea 53.5 51.0 Buckwheat 53.0 50.5
32 Miscellaneous Publications,

The weight of bituminous (common soft) coal varies even more

than that of anthracite, according to the locality from which the

coal comes, and about the best figure that can be used is 47 to 55

poimds per cubic foot.

Example.—Find the number of pounds of a white ash anthracite coal of nut size in a bin 6 feet long and 4 feet 3 inches wide,

with vertical sides, the coal filling the bin to an average depth of 2 feet 6 inches. Then, following directions and taking from the

above table the weight of a cubic foot of white ash nut coal as

55.5 pounds:

Area of bottom = 6 feet by 4.25 feet = 25.5 square feet. Volume of coal = 25.5 square feet by 2.5 feet = 63.75 cubic

feet. Weight of coal = 63.75 by 55-5 =353-8 poxmds.

If in this case 2 tons of coal were charged for, and the measure- ments were accurately made, the purchaser may be fairly certain

that full weight has not been delivered.

In a few localities, notably Maryland, District of Columbia, and

Philadelphia, coal is required to be sold by the gross or long ton

of 2240 pounds, while in others the net or short ton of 2000

pounds will ordinarily be employed.

(6) Wood in cords.—In purchasing wood by the cord one is entitled to and should receive for each cord, wood consisting of or equivalent to a pile, closely stacked, 8 feet in length, 4 feet in

breadth, and 4 feet in height. This is true whether the wood is in 4-foot lengths or whether it has been sawed and split before

purchasing. This latter point has been much misimderstood in

the past, and because wood may shrink somewhat when the

4-foot wood is sawed and split, many dealers have assimied that a

lesser amotmt of wood in this condition may be delivered for a

cord. There is no authority for this contention, and it must be

considered that a less amount of wood than 128 cubic feet, whatever be its condition at the time of sale and purchase, is not a

cord.^ If, however, one buys a cord of 4-foot wood, to be sawed

5 This is not true in Minnesota, where the law provides as follows (Laws of 1913, chap. 560, sec. 5): "Stand- ard Measurement of Wood.—In all contracts for sale of wood, the term 'cord ' shall mean 128 cubic feet of wood, in 4 foot lengths; and if the sale is of 'sawed wood, ' a cord shall mean no cubic feet when ranked,

or 160 cubic feet when thrown irregularly or loosely into a conveyance for delivery to the purchaser; and

if the sale is of 'sawed and split wood, ' a cord shall mean 120 cubic feet, when ranked, and 175 cubic feet when thrown irregularly and loosely into a conveyance for delivery."
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 33

and split before delivery, he may only demand 128 cubic feet of

4-foot wood, and must bear whatever natural shrinkage occurs in

the process of sawing and splitting.

To check the nmnber of cubic feet of wood in any pile of the

shape of a rectangular solid, measure the length, width, and

height of the pile in feet and multiply these three dimensions

together. The result is the number of cubic feet of wood in the

pile. (When the ends of the sticks are beveled, only one-half of

the length of the beveled part, usually known as the kerf or scarf,

is to be included in the measurement of the width.)

(c) Ice.—In checking the weight of deliveries of ice, the best

method of procedure is to weigh it immediately upon delivery.

If the piece of ice ptirchased weighs more than the scale will indicate, a rough check can be obtained by multiplying the volume

of the cake by the weight per imit of volume.

The weight of ice is 57.5 potinds per cubic foot; or, there are 30 cubic inches in a pound.

The volvune of the ice is determined as follows: If the piece

ftunished is a rectangular solid, that is, having a square or rectangular base and vertical straight sides, accurately measure the length,

width, and height of the ice in the same unit, and multiply these

dimensions together. The resiilt will be the volimie of the ice. Example.—Find the weight of a piece of ice in the shape of a

rectangular solid 1 5 inches long, 10 inches wide, and 8 inches

high. Then, following directions:

Volume, 15 by 10 by 8 inches = 1200 cubic inches.

Weight = 1 200 -7- 30 = 40 poimds.

{d) Determining capacity of tanks, boilers, silos, etc.—

If it is desired to measure the capacity of a tank an approximate

result can be obtained by measuring the dimensions and computing from these the cubical contents. In the following the

methods of determining the capacity of cylindrical and of rectangular tanks will be described. Care should be taken not to apply

the formulas to tanks of other shapes, since the results obtained

would be incorrect.

The measurements should always be of inside dimensions. If outside dimensions are the only ones which can be readily determined, and the thickness of the material is known, the inside
34 Miscellaneous Publications

,

dimensions can be obtained by subtracting the thickness of the

walls from these outside dimensions.

{e) RectanguIvAR tank.—In the case of a tank with a rectan- gular base and vertical straight sides, multiply the length by the

width by the height, expressed in the same unit of length.

(/) Cyundricai, tank.—In the case of a tank of the shape of a cylinder, the formula for computing the capacity is as follows:

Capacity = 0.785 (Ph,

where d = the diameter and h = the height.

Having determined the diameter and the height of the tank in

the same unit; for example, in feet: Square the diameter, that is, multiply it by itself, and multiply the result by the height. Multiply the product by 0.785 and the result is the capacity of the

tank in terms of the cube of the unit of length ; in this example,

cubic feet. (If the circumference is more easily obtained than the

diameter, the former may be measured and the diameter computed by means of the formula

3-14

where d = the diameter and c = the circumference.)

If the result is desired in gallons or in bushels, the result of the

calculation may be reduced to these units as follows

:

To reduce cubic inches to gallons divide by 231.

To reduce cubic feet to gallons multiply by 7.48. To reduce cubic inches to struck bushels, divide by 2150. To

reduce to heaped bushels divide by 2750. To reduce cubic feet to struck bushels divide by 1.244; to reduce to heaped bushels

divide by 1.59.

{g) Determining percentage of shortage.—The importance

of the shortage in a delivery depends upon its amount compared

with the total amount of commodity; or, in other words, the percentage of shortage. Thus, a shortage of i ounce on a total purchase of 10 pounds is often unimportant. An error of i ounce on each of ten i -pound packages is, however, a serious one, since

the shortage on the same total weight of 10 pounds is 10 ounces. The percentage of shortage is determined as follows: Divide the

shortage by the total amount of commodity, expressed in the same
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure 35

U7iit. One hundred times this is the percentage of shortage.

This percentage of shortage indicates the number of cents a buyer

loses on the doUar by reason of the shortage.

To iUustrate the percentage of shortage, consider a shortage of I ounce on 10 pounds. The shortage is given in ounces.

Therefore, reduce the total amount to ounces, in order to have

both figures in the same unit. There are 16 ounces in i pound.

Therefore in 10 pounds there are 160 ounces. Divide i (the shortage) by 160 (the total amount) which gives 0.00625, or 0.625 per

cent. Therefore, the total loss on a purchase of one dollar's worth

is 0.62 or H of a cent. Similarly, a shortage of i ounce on a pound would be 6.2 per cent, or 6 cents on the dollar.

Fig. 60.

Meastires iised iti the kitchen For cooking and other purposes in the kitchen, the following capacity measures are useful: A four- ounce glass graduate, a teaspoon measure (with half and quarter fractions), and a cup measure (of glass or metal). The cup measures shown have the same capacity (8 fluid ounces), although the thinner walls

of the altiminum measure make it smaller in appearance.

III. KITCHEN MEASURES

1. Kitchen Measuring Appliances

In the kitchen more accurate weights and measures are gradually coming into common use as the units used are becoming

better defined. Domestic science departments of schools and col- leges are largely responsible for this advance.

The basis of the kitchen system of weights and measures is the

standard cup, a measure holding 8 fluid ounces—that is, one-half

liquid pint—and used to measure either dry or liquid commodities.
36 Miscellaneous Publications

One of these cups, subdivided into thirds, fourths, or both, should

be procured, since the ordinary china cups vary greatly in size. A special set of spoon measures (from one-fourth teaspoonful up)

will be found convenient, since ordinary spoons also vary in size. Moreover, neither the ordinary cup or spoon is adapted to measuring of fractions of their capacity.

2. Equivalents of Capacity Units Used in the Kitchen

The measures of capacity used in the kitchen are based upon

the standard cup, as follows:

In the above table all measures are level full. The equivalents

given will permit the use of the large glass graduate for measuring

liquids in cooking.

In Table 7 are given equivalents of units commonly used in cooking and for other household purposes.

3 teaspoonfuls 4 tablespoonfuls

1/2 cupful

2 gills

1 cupful

2 cupfuls

1 tablespoonful=4 drams

1/4 cupful=2 fluid ounces

1 gill=4 fluid oimces

1 cupful=8 fluid ounces

8 fluid ounces

16 fluid ounces

1 pint

1 quart

16 fluid ounces

4 cupfuls
Buying Commodities by Weight or Measure

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Oh o

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IV. APPENDIXES

Appendix 1. Legal Weights per Bushel of Various Commodities

Apples

1

Blue-grass

seed

Cottl

Flaxseed

(linseed)

Hungarian

grass

seed

Jurisuiction concerned 1

Apples

a [

Apples,

dried 1

Barley Beans

a

Beets [

Buckwheat

Carrots Clover

seed

6 Indian

or

maize

Shelled Com

meal

"

Cotton

seed

a

Cranberries Cucumbers

Hemp

seed

Federal Government 650 648 i)60 642 656 656 Alabama 24 47 60 56 C46 32 Arizona Arkansas ^50 24 48 (60 14 52 60 S( 48 56 50 40 52 Colorado 48 60 14 52 60 56 SO

50 44 Connecticut 48 25 48 60 /eo 48 "56 60 56 !744 55

56 C44 District of Columbia

<i48 24 48 A 60 56 48 i32 Georgia 24 47 f60 14 52 60 56 c48 30 56 44 Hawaii 48 56 Idaho d4g 24 48 60 56 J14 50 50 60 5€ 48 56 44 50

Illinois 24 48 «60 60 14 52 50 60 56 56

56

; 4£ 32 33

33

48 56 44 50 Indiana 48 25 48 60 60 14 50 50 60 50 4848

S£ 44 Iowa 48 24 48 "160 56 14 48 50 60 "50 56 48 56 44 50 Kansas 50 24 48 60 60 il4 48 50 60 fc70 56 48 56 44 Kentucky 24 47 f60 14 56 60 56 50 56 44 50 Louisiana 32 56 ^aine 44 25 48 60 60 48 50 60 56 50 ^44 56 44 48 Maryland dSO 28 48 oi60 14 48 50 60 56 48 56 44 50 Massachusetts 48 25 48

48

60 60 48 50 60 56 050 50 ^44 32 55 Michigan 48 22 60

" 14 48 60 30 50 40 56 44 SO Miimesota d50 28 48 60 50 14 50 45 60 »48 56 36 48 56 SO 48 Mississippi 26 48 '60 14 48 60 56 c44 32 56 44 SO Missouri 48 24 48 60 14 52 50 60 56 50 33 48 56 44 48 Montana 45 48

48

60 "50 14 52 50 60 56 50 56 44 50 Nebraska 48 d48

' 24 m60 56 ;14 50 50 60 "50 «.-70 56 48 48 56 44 Nevada 24 48

48 60 56 ;14 50 50 60 t70 56 48 56 48 56 New Hampshire . . New Jersey48

48

25 P60 60 48 50 60 '"50 56 50 32 56

25 48 60 60 14 48 50 60 56 50 !744 32 48 56 44 50 New Mexico New York

454824

25 4848

60

60

56 14 5248 50

50

6060

" 56 56

56 5050

32 S4448 56

55 44 50 North Carolina ^48 24 48 ?60 50 14 50 50 r60 56 130 48 56 44 48 North Dakota 50 28 48 60 60 14 42 45 60 56 "36 48 56 50 48 Ohio 48 24 48 60 56 SO 50 60 *68 56 48 56 44 SO Oklahoma 48 24 48 60 60 " 14 52 SO 60 56 SO 32 48 56 44 48

Pennsylvania 45 25 47 m60 56 14 48 SO 60 56 SO 40 50 56 44 SO Rhode Island 48' 25 48 60 50 48 50 60 56 SO S44 56 44 SO South Carolina tfSO, 24 m60 50 "14 50 50 >-60 56 C48 S30 48 56 44 48 South Dakota . 48 24

' 48 i"60 56 14 48 50 60 56 50 48 56 44 SO Tennessee 24 48 m60 50 14 50 SO r60 56 28 48 56 44 48 Texas d50 28 48 «60 60 14 52 50 60 56 cSO 32 32 48 56 44 48 Utah. Vermont 48 48 60 60 48 50 60 56 56 50 32 48 55 50

Virginia "28 48 960 "u 48 50 60 56 48 "36 56 "44 48 Washington ^45 28 48 42 60 56 56 West Virginia 24 48 m60 56 14 52 56 60 " '56 '48 i32 36 "50 56 44 SO Wisconsin 44 25 48 60 50 14 50 50 60 56 SO !>44 35 "So 56 44 48 Wyoming

" Not defined.

6 For customs purposes only. Bolted; unbolted, 48 pounds.

d Green apples. "White beans. /Sugar beets and mangel-wurzel.

g Sea-island cotton seed ; upland cotton seed, 30 pounds.

A Shelled.

< Sea-island cotton seed, 44 pounds.

) Native blue-grass seed; English blue-grass seed, 22 pounds.

^ Indian corn in ear.

' Unbolted, 48 pounds. TM Dried beans. n Sv\'eet corn,

o Cracked corn. p Small white beans.

g Soy beans.

r Red and white.

J Seed of long staple cotton, 40 pounds.

t Bolted, 46 pounds. u Green.

V Sea-island cotton seed.

38
Appendixes 39

Appendix 1. Legal Weights per Bushel of Various Commodities—Continued

Onions

leed

round Peas Potatoes

Jurisdiction

(0

cfi

l-(

bO w i•© concerned CO bo e to M

e

tna w ard w

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B C tfi

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otat &

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ID .9 S

3

CD % ft A A Ph « H H

Federal Govern032 657 650 050 m 32 60 60 55 56 60

Arl^ansas 50 32 57 14 60 60 50 14 56 60 57 60

32 54 60

32 57 60 56 45 60

32 52 45 60 60 54 56 45 60

60

District of Columbia

.

60 Florida 50 32 56 d54 22 55 60 56 56 54 60

32 57 25 60 60 55 56 45 55 60 Hawaii 32 56 60 Idaho 50 32 57 48 «60 60 50 56 45 56 60

Illinois 50 32 57 /30 14 50 48 920 58 32 A60 60 SO 14 56 45 56 55 60 Indiana 50 32 57 14 55 48 50 60 55 14 56 45 60 55 60 Iowa 50 32 52 /28 14 45 48 22 45 50 »60 60 50 14 DO 45 50 60

'50 32 57 48 45 e60 60 50 56 45 56 55 60 Kentucky 50 32 57 J36 14 24 60 60 55 56 45 60 60 Louisiana 32 32 60 Maine 50 32 52 14 45 48 920 58 60 60 54 14 56 45 56 cSO 60

K50 32 54 14 '40 22 mdp 60 60 14

-

DO 45 60 60 60 Massachusetts 32 52 45 48 920 58 28 "60 60 54 •56 45 56 55 60 Michigan 50 32 54 14 60 60 56 "i4 56 45 58 60 Minnesota 48 32 52 /28 14 42 48 22 45 "60 60 ' 55 14 56 45

' '50 55 60 Mississippi 50 32 57 24 60 60 54 56 45 55 60 Missouri 50 32 57 028 14 44 48 48 56 p60 60 56 14 56 45 45 942 60 Montana 32 57 50 45 60 60 56 45 50 60 Nebraska 50 32 57 /28 41 50 48 22 45 HO 60 50 14 56 45

' '56 55 60 Nevada 50 32 57 50 48 f60 60 50 56 45 56 56 60 New Hampshire 32 52 45 48 920 58 60 60 54 56 45 56 55 60 New Jersey 50 32 57 028 14 50 48 920 58 /1 60 60 54 14 56 45 56 55 60 New Mexico 50 32 57 /30 14 42 48 22 48 60 60 50 56 45 50 56 60 New York 32 57 60 60 54 56 45 60 North Carolina 50 32 '57 /28 14 50 ^50 22 ''60 56 56 "u 56 45 56 50 60 North Dakota 50 32 52 /28 14 42 22 45 60 60 46 56 45 50 60 60 Ohio 50 32 56 s28 50 48 60 60 50 56 45 56 60 60 Oklahoma 50 32 57 028 ' 'i4 44 48 22 48 56 60 60 55 ' U 56 45 45 942 60 Pennsylvania 50 32 50 «28 14 50 48 22 50 56 ^60 60 54 14 56 45 60 60 60 Rhode Island 50 32 50 50 48 60 60 54 56 45 56 50 60 South Carolina '50 32 '•56 /28 14 50 r50 23 36 ''60 60 50

' 'ii 56 56 50 60 South Dakota '50 32 52 /30 14 48 48 20 45

' '50 ''60 60 54 14 56 ' '45 50 55 60 Tennessee '50 32 '•56 "28 14 50 '•50 23 ^56 30 ^60 60 50 14 56 45 56 50 60 Texas 50 32 57 /30 14 50 50 920 58 60 60 55 14 56 45 55 55 60 Utah Vermont 50 32 52 45 48 920 58 48 60 60 54 14 56 45 56 60 60 Virginia 50 32 57 14 50 22 "60 56 56 40 56 45 60 55 60 Washington 32 m45 60 56 60 West Virginia 50 32 55 /28 14 42 48 23 50 "60 60 50 14 56 45 56 55 60 Wisconsin 50 32 50 S32 44 48 48 60 60 54 14 56 45 56 42 60 Wyoming

a Not defined.

6 For customs purposes only.

c Common English turnips. d Green peaches.

e Shelled, dry. / Top sets; bottom sets, 32 pounds.

a Roasted; green, 22 pounds.

h Dried.

i Hungarian.

j Bottom onion sets. k German and American.

/ Peaches (peeled); unpeeled, 32 pounds.

m Cowpeas; dried peas, 60 pounds. n Smooth; wrinkled, 56 pounds. Top onion sets. p Including split peas. g Common turnips.

r Matured.

1 Not stated whether top or bottom sets.

t German, Missouri, and Tennessee millet seed. M Bottom onion sets, 32 pounds.

V Black-eyed and other cowpeas. w Green.
APPENDIX 2 TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Apothecaries' Fluid Measure

Apothecaries' Weight

Avoirdupois Weight

27 11/32 grains

16 drams

16 ounces

25 pounds

28 pounds

60 minims =1 fluid dram

8 fluid drams=l fluid ounce

16 fluid ounces= 1 liquid pint

8 liquid pints =1 gallon

(British measures differ irom above)

20 grains =1 scruple

3 scruples=l dram

8 drams =1 ounce

12 ounces =1 pound

= 1 dram

=1 ounce

= 1 pound

= 1 short quarter

= 1 long quarter

. , ^ J J . ^Jshort hundredweight= 100 pounds

4 quarters =1 hundredweights, . , , . °, , Uong hundredweight =112 pounds

20 hundredweight= 1 ton. Circular Measure

(short ton=2000 pounds

\long ton =2240 pounds

Cubic Measvure

60 seconds =1 minute

60 minutes =1 degree

90 degrees =1 quadrant

4 quadrants=l circle or circumference

1728 cubic inches=l cubic foot 27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard

144 cubic inches=l board foot 128 cubic feet =1 cord Dry Measure

2 pints =1 quart

8 quarts=l peck

4 pecks = 1 bushel

1 barrel (for fruit, vegetables, and other dry commodities)=7056 cubic inches=105 dry quarts Kitchen measures. See Section 3, page 35

Linear Measure

12 inches =1 foot 3 feet =1 yard

5 1/2 yards=l rod or pole 40 rods =1 furlong

8 furlongs =1 statute mile (1760 yards, or 5280 feet) 3 miles =1 league 4°
Appendixes 41

Linear Measures (special)

1000 mils =1 inch

72 points = 1 inch

4 inches=l hand

7.92 inches=l surveyor's link

9 inches=l span

6 feet =1 fathom

40 yards = 1 bolt (cloth) 10 chains=l furlong

6080.20 feet =1 nautical mile= 1.1516 statute miles Liquid Measure

4 gills =1 pint

2 pints =1 quart

4 quarts =1 gallon

31 1/2 gallons— 1 barrel

2 barrels =1 hogshead Paper Measure

For small papers the old measure is still in use:

24 sheets= 1 quire

20 quires=l ream (480 sheets) For papers put up in cases, bundles, or frames the following measure is now used:

25 sheets= 1 quire

20 quires=l standard ream (500 sheets) Square Measure

144 square inches=l square foot 9 square feet = 1 square yard

30 1/4 square yards =1 square rod or perch

160 square rods =1 acre

640 acres =1 square mile

36 square miles =1 township (6 miles square)

7.92 inches=l link (Gunter's or surveyor's)

100 links =1 chain (=66 feet) 80 chains=l mile

Sxurveyor's Area Measure

625 square links =1 (square) pole or square rod

16 (square) poles =1 square chain (surveyor's)

10 square chains or 160 square rods=l acre

Surveyor's Measure

640 acres 36 square miles Time Measure

Troy weight

60 seconds = 60 minutes=

24 hours = 7 days

365 days

366 days

= 1 square mile = 1 township

1 minute

1 hour

1 day

1 week

1 year

1 leap year

Carat (for precious stones)=200 milligrams,

values in various countries. Karat (fineness of gold)=l/24 (by weight) gold

18/24 pure gold.

24 grains =1 permyweight

20 pennyweights= 1 ounce

12 ounces =1 pound (Troy) The carat was formerly an ambiguous term having many

For example, 24 karats fine=pure gold; 18 karats fine=
42 A ppendixes

International Metric System

In the international metric system the fundamental imit is the meter—the unit of length. From this the

units of capacity (liter) and of weight (gram) were derived. All other imits are the decimal subdivisions

or multiples of these. These three units are simply related; e. g., for all practical purposes 1 cubic deci- meter equals 1 liter and 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram. The metric tables are formed by combining

the words "meter," "gram," and "liter" with the six numerical prefixes, as in the following tables:

Prefixes Meaning TTnits

milli- = one thousandth

1 1000

1

0. 001 "meter' for length

centi- = one hundredth

100

.01

deci- = one tenth

110

.1

Unit = one 1 " gram ' n for weight or mass

deka- = ten 10

hecto- = one hundred 100 one thousand

"liter"" for capacity

kilo- 1000

o One meter= 39-37 inches; i liter= 1.0567 liquid quarts: i gram=o.o35 avoirdupois ounce.

UNITS OF LENGTH UNITS OF CAPACITY UNITS OF WEIGHT (OP MASS)

millimeter= 0.001 meter milliliter= 0.001 liter milligram= 0.001 gram

centimeter= .01 centiliter= .01 " centigram= .01 "

decimeter= .1 deciliter= .1 " decigram= .1 " METER= 1 LITER= 1 GRAM= 1 dekameter= 10 dekaliter= 10 " dekagram= 10 "

hectometer= 100 " hectoliter= 100 " hectogram= 100 "

kiIometer= 1000 kiloliter= 1000 kilogram= 1000 "

UNITS OF AREA

The table of areas is formed by squaring the length measures, as in our common system. For land measure 10 meters square is called an "ARE" (meaning "area"). The side of one are is about 33 feet. The hectare is 100 meters square, and, as its name indicates, is 100 ares, or about 2 1/2 acres.