Special 

JUNE 04 

Science Laboratories, Educational Institutions, and Students 

U.S. Department of Justice 

Office of Justice Programs 

National Institute of Justice 

REPORT 

Education and Training in Forensic Science: A Guide for Forensic 
U.S. Department of Justice 

Office of Justice Programs 

810 Seventh Street N.W. 

Washington, DC 20531 

John Ashcroft 

Attorney General 

Deborah J. Daniels 

Assistant Attorney General 

Sarah V. Hart 

Director, National Institute of Justice 

This and other publications and products of the National Institute 

of Justice can be found at: 

National Institute of Justice 

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij 

Office of Justice Programs 

Partnerships for Safer Communities 

www.ojp.usdoj.gov 
JUNE 04 

Education and Training in 

Forensic Science 

A Guide for Forensic Science Laboratories, 

Educational Institutions, and Students 

Developed and Approved by the Technical Working Group for 

Education and Training in Forensic Science 

NCJ 203099 
Sarah V. Hart 

Director 

Findings and conclusions of the research reported here are those of the authors and do not 

reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also 

includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of Juvenile 

Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime. 
Message From the Director


Forensic scientists play a pivotal role in the 

criminal justice system, providing crucial 

information about the evidence to the trier 

of fact. Because the work they do both 

at the crime scene and in the laboratory 

often must be used in court, it is especially important that the training and education of forensic scientists provide a solid 

scientific background and a broad base in 

criminalistics. 

Interest in forensic science has increased 

dramatically in the past 10 years. In 

response to this interest, many universities have begun to offer degrees in forensic science at both the undergraduate and 

graduate level. To ensure that these programs adequately prepare practitioners 

for their careers in operational laboratories, 

the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) has 

supported West Virginia University’s establishment of the Technical Working Group 

for Education and Training in Forensic 

Science for the purpose of recommending 

best practices for educational curriculums 

in forensic science. These recommendations encompass the current best practices 

and procedures for initial and continuing 

training models to provide those seeking to 

become forensic scientists with the educational and practical knowledge and skills 

necessary to effectively support their role 

in the criminal justice system. 

This publication is especially timely as 

President Bush has directed DOJ to 

undertake a $1 billion, 5-year program to 

improve the Nation’s capacity to use DNA 

evidence as a routine law enforcement tool. 

This capacity-building plan seeks to improve 

all aspects of the system—evidence collection, presentation, analysis, and use in 

court. Ensuring that this Nation has an 

adequate pool of trained forensic scientists is critical to achieving this goal. 

I commend the hard work of the members of the Technical Working Group that 

created this consensus document. They 

are representative of forensic science educators, laboratory directors, forensic science trainers, education professionals, 

prosecutors, and defense attorneys. Their 

collective expert knowledge, experience, 

and dedication to the task made this effort 

a success. 

Educational programs and training models 

will vary based on the needs of the particular organization and jurisdiction in which 

they are implemented. The criteria set forth 

in this document can serve as a guide for 

universities to promote quality education 

and training in forensic science disciplines 

by promoting a consistent approach while 

tailoring their programs to meet the needs 

of the applicable community. 

Sarah V. Hart 

Director, 

National Institute of Justice 

iii 

Technical Working Group on Education and 

Training in Forensic Science 

The Technical Working Group on Education 

and Training in Forensic Science (TWGED) 

is a multidisciplinary group of content area 

experts from across the United States and 

Canada, from both urban and rural jurisdictions, each representing his or her respective agency or practice. Each individual is 

involved in educating and/or training forensic scientists (as students or professionals). 

They represent academia, forensic science 

laboratories, professional forensic science 

organizations, and the legal system. 

At the outset of the effort to develop this 

Guide, the National Institute of Justice 

(NIJ) created a planning panel—composed 

of forensic science educators, crime laboratory directors, and trainers—to define 

needs, develop initial strategies, and steer 

the larger group. This planning panel first 

determined that an NIJ technical working 

group would provide the best approach 

for addressing the demonstrated needs. 

Additional members of the technical working group were then selected from recommendations solicited from the planning 

panel and national organizations, including the American Academy of Forensic 

Sciences, American Society of Crime 

Laboratory Directors, American Society 

of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory 

Accreditation Board, International Association for Identification, Drug Enforcement 

Administration, Federal Bureau of Investigation, George Washington University, 

West Virginia University, Marshall University, and the National Forensic Science 

Technology Center. 

During a 1-year period, the 47 members 

and 2 designees of the TWGED listed 

below worked together to develop this 

Guide: 

Education and Training in 

Forensic Science 

Planning Panel 

Dr. Jack Ballantyne 

Associate Professor 

Department of Chemistry 

University of Central Florida 

Orlando, FL 

Inspector Mark Dale 

Laboratory Director 

New York State Police 

Albany, NY 

Dr. Allison Eastman 

Supervisor of DNA Services 

New York State Police 

Albany, NY 

Linda Errichetto 

Laboratory Director 

Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department 

Forensic Laboratory 

Las Vegas, NV 

Dr. Terry Fenger 

Director 

Marshall University Forensic Science 

Center 

Huntington, WV 

Barry Fisher 

Director 

Scientific Services Bureau 

Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Office 

Los Angeles, CA 

Dr. Jane Homeyer 

Forensic Science Training Unit Chief 

Laboratory Division 

Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Quantico, VA 

v 
Peter Marone 

Central Lab Director 

Division of Forensic Sciences 

Commonwealth of Virginia 

Richmond, VA 

Dr. Carl Selavka 

Director 

Massachusetts State Police Crime 

Laboratory 

Sudbury, MA 

Dr. Ian Tebbett 

Education and Training Consultant 

University of Florida 

Gainesville, FL 

Dr. Michael Yura 

Director 

Forensic Identification Program 

West Virginia University 

Morgantown, WV 

Additional Technical 

Working Group Members 

Dr. José Almirall 

Director 

Forensic Science Program 

Florida International University 

Miami, FL 

Kathleen Barch 

Deputy Director 

Ohio Bureau of Criminal Identification 

and Investigation 

London, OH 

Dr. Clifton Bishop 

Curriculum Coordinator and Advisor 

Forensic Identification Program 

West Virginia University 

Morgantown, WV 

Garry Bombard 

Director of Training 

Illinois State Police Department 

Forensic Sciences Command 

Chicago, IL 

Dr. Robert Briner 

Director 

Southeast Missouri Regional Crime 

Laboratory 

Cape Girardeau, MO 

Dr. Michael Bourke 

DNA Manager 

Connecticut Department of Public Safety 

Meriden, CT* 

Dr. Yale Caplan 

Director 

National Scientific Services 

Baltimore, MD 

Elizabeth Carpenter 

Laboratory Director 

Oregon State Police Crime Laboratory 

Portland, OR 

Alan Clark 

Associate Deputy Assistant Administrator 

Office of Forensic Sciences 

Drug Enforcement Agency Headquarters 

Washington, DC 

Dr. Peter DeForest 

Professor of Criminalistics 

John Jay College 

City University of New York 

New York, NY 

Dr. Christopher D’Elia 

Vice President for Research 

State University of New York 

Albany, NY 

Dr. Jamie Downs 

Director/Chief Medical Examiner 

Alabama Department of Forensic Sciences 

Auburn, AL 

vi 
Dr. David Foran 

Assistant Professor 

George Washington University 

Department of Forensic Sciences 

Washington, DC 

Dr. James Fox 

Lipman Family Professor of Criminal 

Justice 

College of Criminal Justice 

Northeastern University 

Boston, MA 

Dr. Robert Fraas 

Director 

Forensic Science Program 

Eastern Kentucky University 

Richmond, KY 

Dr. Robert Gaensslen 

Director of Graduate Studies 

Forensic Science Program 

University of Illinois at Chicago 

Chicago, IL 

Dr. Howard Harris 

Director 

Forensic Science Program 

University of New Haven 

West Haven, CT 

Dr. Neal Haskell 

Forensic Entomologist 

St. Joseph’s College 

Rensselaer, IN 

Carol Henderson, J.D. 

Professor of Law 

Shepard Broad Law Center 

Nova Southeastern University 

Fort Lauderdale, FL 

Dwane Hilderbrand 

Scottsdale Crime Laboratory 

Scottsdale, AZ 

Karen Irish 

Director of Forensic Sciences 

Baltimore County Police Department 

Towson, MD 

Susan Johns 

Bureau Chief 

Illinois State Police 

Springfield, IL 

Dr. Graham Jones 

President 

Forensic Specialties Accreditation Board 

Medical Examiner’s Office 

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 

Dr. Karen Kershenstein 

President 

KWK Enterprises 

Fairfax Station, VA 

Kevin Lothridge 

Deputy Director 

National Forensic Science and Technology 

Center 

Largo, FL 

Joseph Polski 

Chief Operations Officer 

International Association for Identification 

Mendota Heights, MN 

Lawrence Presley 

Director of Criminalistics 

National Medical Services 

Willow Grove, PA 

Victor Reeve 

Laboratory Director 

California Criminalistics Institute 

Sacramento, CA 

Gerald Richards 

Richards Forensic Services 

Laurel, MD 

Dr. Kathy Roberts 

Assistant Professor 

California State University 

Los Angeles, CA 

Linda Rourke 

John Jay College 

City University of New York 

Bayside, NY* 

vii 
Dr. George Sensabaugh 

Professor of Biomedical and Forensic 

Sciences 

University of California 

Berkeley, CA 

Dr. Charles Tindall 

Director of Forensic Science 

Metropolitan State College of Denver 

Denver, CO 

Dr. Victor Weedn 

Principal Research Scientist and Director 

of Biotechnology and Health Initiatives 

Carnegie Mellon University 

Pittsburgh, PA 

Dr. Jeffrey Wells 

Associate Professor 

Department of Justice Sciences 

University of Alabama at Birmingham 

Birmingham, AL 

Wayne Williams, J.D.


Electronic Consultant/Attorney-at-Law


Hyattsville, MD


Amy Wong


Laboratory Director


Virginia Division of Forensic Science


Fairfax, VA


Kenneth Zercie


Assistant Director


Connecticut State Police Forensic 


Laboratory 

Meriden, CT 

*Designee who attended one meeting as 

a proxy for a TWGED member. 

viii 
Acknowledgments 

The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and 

West Virginia University (WVU) wish to 

thank the members of the Technical Working Group on Education and Training in 

Forensic Science (TWGED) for their extensive efforts and dedication to the enhancement of education and training in forensic 

science. The TWGED members, who are 

national experts representing academia, 

forensic science laboratories, professional 

organizations, and the legal system, generously gave their time to draft and review 

this document. In addition, thanks are 

extended to the agencies and organizations that TWGED members represent 

for their flexibility and support, which enabled the participants to see this project 

to completion. 

NIJ and WVU would like to thank all the 

individuals from various national organizations who responded to the request for 

nominations of experts with a wide 

expanse of knowledge and experience 

from different areas of forensic science, 

both in practice and education. It was from 

their recommendations that the members 

were selected. In particular, thanks to 

Mary Fran Ernst from the American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences, Keith K. 

Coonrod from the American Society of 

Crime Laboratory Directors, Robert S. 

Conley from the American Society of 

Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory 

Accreditation Board, Thomas C. Smith 

from the American Bar Association, 

Criminal Justice Section, Jennifer S. 

Mihalovich from the American Board of 

Criminalistics, Thomas Janovsky from the 

Drug Enforcement Agency, Dick Johnson 

from the National White Collar Crime 

Center, Dr. Michael Baer from the American Council on Education, Dr. Jay Siegel 

from Michigan State University, Dr. Ray H. 

Liu from the University of Alabama– 

Birmingham, Dr. David A. Rowley from 

the George Washington University, and 

Dr. Philip H. Yeagle from the University of 

New Haven. NIJ, WVU, and TWGED also 

would like to thank the numerous individuals and organizations who were sent a draft 

of the Guide for review and comment. 

WVU would like to thank President David 

Hardesty, Provost Gerry Lang, Vice President for Research John Weete, Director of 

the Forensic Identification Program Michael 

Yura, Forensic Identification Program 

Administrative Assistant Lori Britton, and 

Projects Director Max M. Houck for their 

commitment and dedication to the forensic 

sciences and this project. 

ix 

About This Report 

The results of forensic investigations often 

can be the difference between acquittal 

and conviction in a court of law. The validity of those results depends on the knowledge, skills, and experience of the forensic 

scientists working to obtain them. The 

National Institute of Justice, with support 

from the West Virginia University, created 

the Technical Working Group for Education 

and Training in Forensic Science (TWGED) 

to establish best practices for educating 

and training forensic scientists. The working group developed the consensus criteria and recommendations presented in this 

report. This information serves students as 

they prepare for a career in forensic science, educational institutions as they 

develop and revamp curriculums, and 

forensic scientists as they advance their 

knowledge, skills, and abilities in the 

constantly evolving forensic science 

disciplines. 

What does the working 

group recommend? 

A solid educational background in natural 

sciences with extensive laboratory coursework establishes the groundwork for a 

career in forensic science. Strong personal 

attributes, professional skills, certification, 

and professional involvement also are critical to the professional growth of prospective and practicing forensic scientists. 

Undergraduate degree. Undergraduate 

forensic science degree programs are 

expected to deliver a strong and credible 

science foundation that emphasizes the 

scientific method and problem-solving 

skills. Exemplary programs would be 

interdisciplinary and include substantial 

laboratory work, as most employment 

opportunities occur in laboratory settings. 

Natural sciences should dominate undergraduate curriculums and be supported by 

coursework in specialized, forensic, and 

laboratory sciences and other classes 

that complement the student’s area of 

concentration. 

Graduate degree. Graduate programs can 

move students from theoretical concepts 

to discipline-specific knowledge. Exemplary 

curriculums can include such topics as 

crime scenes, physical evidence, law/ 

science interface, ethics, and quality assurance to complement the student’s advanced coursework. Graduate programs 

should be designed with strong laboratory 

and research components. Access to 

instructional laboratories with researchspecific facilities, equipment, and instrumentation and interaction with forensic 

laboratories are required to enhance the 

graduate-level experience. By emphasizing 

written and oral communication and report 

writing, graduate programs can prepare 

students for future courtroom testimony. 

Forensic scientists have an ongoing obligation to advance their field through training 

and continuing professional development. 

Training programs should include written 

components (e.g., instructor qualifications, 

student requirements, performance goals, 

and competency testing), and their content should contain several core and 

discipline-specific elements guided by 

peer-defined standards. Continuing professional development—mechanisms through 

which forensic scientists remain current or 

advance their expertise—should be structured, measurable, and documented. 

Who should read this report? 

Forensic science laboratory managers involved with hiring and training forensic 

scientists, educational institutions that offer 

or are seeking to establish forensic science 

programs, and individuals beginning or continuing careers in forensic science. 

xi 

Contents 

Message From the Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Technical Working Group on Education and Training in Forensic Science . . . . . . v

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

About This Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Qualifications for a Career in Forensic Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Undergraduate Curriculum in Forensic Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11


Graduate Curriculum in Forensic Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19


Training and Continuing Education in Forensic Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Appendix A: Forensic Science Careers Outside the Traditional Forensic 


Science Crime Laboratory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Appendix B: Non-TWGED Reviewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Appendix C: Forensic Science Professional and Certification Organizations . . 41

Appendix D: Technical and Scientific Working Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Appendix E: Technical and Scientific Working Groups’ Educational Criteria . . . 45

xiii 

Introduction 

Forensic science plays a crucial role in the 

justice system by providing scientific and 

foundational information for investigations 

and the courts.1 The Technical Working 

Group on Education and Training in Forensic Science (TWGED) focused primarily 

on education and training in those disciplines traditionally and generally associated with the work of forensic science 

laboratories, commonly referred to as 

“criminalistics.” (For more information 

on criminalistics, see “What Is ‘Criminalistics’?”) Criminalistics is the profession 

and scientific discipline directed toward 

the recognition, identification, individualization, and evaluation of physical evidence in 

legal proceedings by the application of the 

natural sciences. There are many other 

forensic science specialty areas whose 

educational and training requirements are 

distinctly different from the traditional laboratory science areas, such as forensic 

computer science, forensic entomology, 

and forensic psychology; these are more 

fully described in appendix A. 

How to Use This Guide 

This Guide is intended for use by forensic 

science laboratories in hiring and training 

forensic scientists, educational institutions 

offering or seeking to establish forensic 

science programs, and individuals beginning or continuing careers in forensic 

science. 

Forensic science laboratories can use this 

Guide in a variety of ways. It offers suggested qualifications for prospective 

employees’ academic background, which 

may assist laboratories in posting and filling forensic science positions. The Guide 

also provides structure for the continuing 

education of practicing forensic scientists 

and training to enhance a current employee’s knowledge, skills, and abilities 

(KSAs). 

Educational institutions can use this Guide 

to gauge the curriculum and structure of 

their forensic science academic programs. 

As a reflection of the forensic science 

community’s needs and requirements, 

this Guide also may provide direction and 

ideas for the design or expansion of these 

programs. 

In addition, prospective forensic science 

students can use this Guide to assist them 

in evaluating forensic science academic 

programs. It can also provide guidance 

regarding the requirements, career paths, 

and expectations for a career in forensic 

science. 

Background 

As stated in NIJ’s 1999 publication 

Forensic Sciences: Review of Status and 

Needs, the educational and training needs 

“of the forensic community are immense. 

Training of newcomers to the field, as well 

as providing continuing education for seasoned professionals, is vital to ensuring 

that crime laboratories deliver the best 

possible service to the criminal justice 

system. Forensic scientists must stay up 

to date as new technology, equipment, 

1 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

W IS “CRIMINALISTICS”? 

“Criminalistics is the science and profession 

dealing with the recognition, collection, identification, individualization, and interpretation of 

physical evidence, and the application of the 

natural sciences to law-science matters. The 

term originated from the book Handbuch fur 

Untersuchungsrichter als System der 

Kriminalististik (3d ed., 1898) by Hans Gross, an 

investigating magistrate and professor of criminology at the University of Prague. He described 

the need for a scientifically trained investigator 

who could undertake certain technical aspects 

of an investigation and could also serve as liaison between scientific specialists who might 

This concept was popular in Europe, where a 

number of forensic science institutes were 

developed to apply the tools and techniques of 

the natural sciences to the investigation of 

inquiries.”a 

The following specialized areas may be included 

under the criminalistics umbrella: biology (inDNA analysis);b chemistry; toxicology; microscopy; analysis of controlled substances, fire 

debris, explosive residues, hairs, fibers, glass, 

soil, paint and other materials, and fingerprints 

and other impressions (such as footwear and 

tire tracks); questioned documents; toolmark 

and reconstruction patterns. 

Like other scientific and technical subjects, 

forensic science and criminalistics have specialized terminology that may not always be clear to 

nonspecialists. In addition, professionals in the 

field may not agree on the meaning of every 

ble, some of the terms used to describe specialized areas of criminalistics are discussed here. 

In biological evidence analysis, the term “forensic serology” was common for a long time 

because blood groups were among the individual features of blood and physiological fluids. 

“Serology” is the study of blood groups (blood 

types). In the 1970s, a number of proteins, some 

of which were enzymes, came into use as additional individual characteristics of blood and 

physiological fluids, and the term “forensic biochemistry” came into use. With the introduction 

of DNA typing in the mid-1980s, forensic scientists no longer used blood types, enzymes, or 

other proteins to characterize biological evidence. The term “forensic molecular biology” 

tries to capture forensic DNA analysis. “Forensic biology” usually now means the analysis 

of blood and physiological fluids, including DNA 

typing. Some specialized areas such as analysis 

of botanical evidence also are part of “forensic 

“Forensic chemistry” sometimes means the use 

of analytical chemical methods to analyze controlled substances (illegal drugs). It also commonly encompasses the use of chemical 

methods to analyze fibers, glass, soil, paint, and 

other materials. These materials have often 

been called trace evidence in forensic science, 

ognize that “trace” is a misleading term for this 

class of evidence. For one thing, it implies that 

ly true. Microscopy is commonly used to conduct these types of examinations. 

Fingerprint analysis includes automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS) technologies, 

methods for developing latent fingerprints, and 

fingerprint comparison and identification. The 

latter two areas are most often identified with 

criminalistics. 

the use of class and individual markings made 

by tools or firearms to attribute markings to specific tools or bullets and/or cartridge cases to 

specific weapons. 

Questioned documents, sometimes called 

“forensic document examination,” includes several different types of examinations: comparing 

HAT 

assist in the investigation of criminal activity. 

crime and, generally, in official governmental 

cluding biochemistry, molecular biology, and 

and firearms identification; and reconstruction 

term. To help make this document more accessibiology.” 

but lately, some professionals have come to recthere is a small quantity, which is not necessariToolmark and firearms identification refers to 

2 
handwriting with known handwriting samples to 

determine whether or not a document was written by a specific individual; examining machineprepared documents (e.g., typewriting) to 

determine what type of machine or whether a 

specific machine was used to prepare the docuidentification documents; and restoration of damaged or altered documents. 

“Reconstruction” uses physical evidence and its 

analysis to help put together past events in time 

and/or space. Reconstructions typically require 

the documentation and analysis of patterns such 

as bloodstain or glass fracture patterns. Reconstruction as a part of criminalistics usually 

implies not only studying patterns but also incorporating laboratory-based physical evidence 

analysis (and at times, analysis of the crime 

scene) into the final hypothesis. 

McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of 

McGraw-Hill, Inc., 2002. 

bold/italic type on 

first use to distinguish them from other text. 

ment; analysis of forgeries, counterfeit money, or 

Note 

a. Barnett, P. “Criminalistics,” 

Science & Technology, 9th ed. M. Licker (ed.). New York: 

b. Words defined in the glossary are set in 

EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE 

physical evidence, jury expectations, legal 

requirements, accreditation and certification requirements of laboratories and personnel, impending retirement of a large 

number of currently practicing forensic scientists, and increased public awareness 

of forensic science through the popular 

media. The increased demand places a 

greater responsibility on educational institutions and the forensic science community to meet this challenge. TWGED was 

created in response to the needs expressed by the justice system, including 

the forensic science and law enforcement 

communities, to establish best practices 

for training and education in forensic 

science. 

Origin of the Planning Panel 

and the Technical Working 

Group 

In the summer of 2001, the American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS), the 

American Society of Crime Laboratory 

Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board 

(ASCLD/LAB), and the American Society 

of Crime Laboratory Directors (ASCLD) 

encouraged NIJ and WVU to establish 

TWGED. NIJ and WVU selected a 10­

member planning panel. The members 

methods, and techniques are developed. 

While training programs exist in a variety 

of forms, there is a need to broaden their 

scope and build on existing resources.”2 

Forensic Sciences: Review of Status and 

Needs made a number of recommendations, including seeking mechanisms for— 

■	 Accreditation/certification of forensic 

academic training programs/institutions. 

■	 Setting national consensus standards of 

education in the forensic sciences. 

■	 Establishing independent, communitywide, consensus standard-setting bodies, such as Technical Working Groups. 

■	 Funding by NIJ of forensic academic 

research and development programs. 

■	 Ensuring that all forensic scientists have 

professional orientations to the field, 

formal quality-assurance training, and 

expert-witness training. 

In recent years, the demand for forensic 

scientists has increased for many reasons, 

including population demographics, increased awareness of forensic science 

by law enforcement, increased numbers 

of law enforcement officers, database 

automation in several categories of 

3 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

represented forensic science laboratory 

directors, educators, and trainers. The 

rationale for their involvement was twofold: They represented the diversity of the 

professional disciplines and each organization is a key stakeholder in the future of 

education and training in forensic science. 

The planning panel was charged with 

developing an outline for a guide for education and training in forensic science. The 

planning panel also was charged with identifying experts to serve as members of 

TWGED. 

Candidates for TWGED were recommended by law enforcement and forensic science organizations and educational 

programs that educate and train forensic 

scientists, prosecutors, and defense attorneys. The following criteria were used to 

select TWGED members: 

■	 Each member was nominated/selected 

for the position by the planning panel 

and/or national organizations. 

■	 Each member had specific knowledge 

in education and/or training in forensic 

science. 

■	 Each member could commit to the 

project for at least a 12-month period. 

Forty-nine experts (20 forensic science 

educators and trainers, 22 forensic science laboratory managers, 2 attorneys, 

and 5 experts from other organizations) 

from 20 States, the District of Columbia, 

and 1 Canadian province were invited to 

be members of the working group. This 

distribution of expertise brought together 

all of the necessary resources to produce 

this Guide. 

Chronology 

The planning panel meeting. In the summer of 2001, the planning panel met in 

Morgantown, West Virginia, to prepare the 

project objectives and begin the guide 

development process. The planning panel’s 

objective was to develop an outline for a 

guide based on existing programs in forensic science education and current models 

for forensic science training and present it 

for review to the assembled TWGED at a 

later date. During this initial session, the 

planning panel identified five distinct topics 

for inclusion in the Guide, which were distilled into four final sections. 

The Guide’s content has the following 

format: 

■ An introduction. 

■	 A section on model criteria that sets 

forth minimum recommendations. 

■	 A section on implementation that 

describes how to execute the 

recommendations. 

■	 A summary that justifies performing the 

procedures. 

TWGED meetings. In November 2001, 

TWGED met in Morgantown, West Virginia, 

and in January 2002, it met in San Diego, 

California. The group was separated into 

four committees to draft the sections of 

the Guide: Qualifications for a Career in 

Forensic Science, Undergraduate Curriculum in Forensic Science, Graduate Curriculum in Forensic Science, and Training/ 

Continuing Education in Forensic Science. 

An editor from Aspen Systems Corporation 

attended each of the breakout sessions to 

facilitate the drafting process. When the 

breakout sections were completed, the full 

TWGED assembled to evaluate their work. 

4 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE 

The planning panel reassembled in San 

Antonio, Texas, in March 2002 to review 

comments from the TWG and incorporate 

them into the Guide. 

In April 2002, TWGED met in Arlington, 

Virginia, to review, revise, and complete 

the initial document. The draft was edited 

and TWGED members were asked to recommend persons, organizations, or agencies they felt should comment on the 

draft. This draft was then sent to these 

stakeholder organizations and to all TWG 

members. (See appendix B for a list of 

non-TWGED reviewers.) 

Finally, in August 2002, the planning panel 

met in Las Vegas, Nevada, to review the 

latest draft, make revisions, and approve 

changes. In addition, the planning panel 

reviewed the Guide’s glossary, title, introduction, a list of forensic science professional and certification organizations 

(appendix C), and a list of the scientific 

and technical working groups (appendix D) 

and any published educational requirements from them (appendix E). 

Notes 

1. Words defined in the glossary are set in bold/italic


type on first use to distinguish them from other text.


2. National Institute of Justice, Forensic Sciences:


Review of Status and Needs, Issues and Practices,


Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice,


National Institute of Justice, February 1999,


NCJ 173412, p. 4.


5 

Qualifications for a Career in


Forensic Science 

Introduction 

Forensic science plays a crucial role in the 

criminal justice system. As an applied science, it requires a strong foundation in the 

natural sciences and the development of 

practical skills in the application of these 

sciences to a particular discipline. A forensic scientist must be capable of integrating 

knowledge and skills in the examination, 

analysis, interpretation, reporting, and testimonial support of physical evidence. A 

properly designed forensic science program should address these needs and 

strengthen the student’s knowledge, 

skills, and abilities in these areas. A combination of education and practical training 

can prepare an individual for a career in 

forensic science. 

Most of the Nation’s practicing forensic 

scientists are employed in crime laboratories associated with law enforcement or 

other government agencies. Forensic 

scientists come to the profession with 

diverse undergraduate science degrees. 

They also may go on to earn graduate 

degrees. This document contains suggestions for model programs in forensic science at both the undergraduate and 

graduate levels. A combination of personal, professional, and academic criteria will 

influence a prospective forensic science 

examiner’s suitability for employment. 

Government entities’ hiring processes are 

driven by civil service regulations or collective bargaining agreements that are specific to the branch of government, State, or 

locality. Private laboratories have their own 

hiring processes. The hiring process may 

include written and practical tests, phone 

interviews, and one-on-one personal interviews or interviews conducted by a panel. 

New employees may be hired provisionally or go through a probationary period. 

Provisional employment offers may be 

revoked either before or after reporting 

for duty. 

Model Candidate 

A model candidate for all forensic science 

practices possesses personal integrity, 

holds a baccalaureate degree (at a minimum) in the natural sciences, and has 

additional KSAs that fulfill the recommendations set forth in this Guide. 

Personal characteristics 

Because forensic science is part of the 

criminal justice system, personal honesty, 

integrity, and scientific objectivity are paramount. Those seeking careers in this field 

should be aware that background checks 

similar to those required for law enforcement officers are likely to be a condition 

of employment. The following may be conducted and/or reviewed before an employment offer is made and may remain as 

ongoing conditions of employment (this 

list is not all inclusive): 

■ Drug tests. 

■ History of drug use. 

■ Criminal history. 

7 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

■ Personal associations. 

■ Polygraph examination. 

■ Driving record. 

■ Past work performance. 

■ Credit history. 

■ Medical or physical examination. 

Personal candor in these areas is critical. 

In addition, an individual’s history of community service and outside activities may 

also be considered. 

Academic qualifications 

Forensic scientists need to have a strong 

fundamental background in the natural sciences. For example, new hires who analyze drugs, DNA, trace, and toxicological 

evidence in forensic science laboratories 

typically have a degree in chemistry, biochemistry, biology, or forensic science 

from an accredited institution. Although 

forensic scientists involved in the recognition and comparison of patterns (such as 

latent prints, firearms, and questioned 

documents) historically may not have 

been required to have a degree, the trend 

in the field is to strengthen the academic 

requirements for these disciplines and 

require a baccalaureate degree, preferably 

in a science. The academic qualifications 

required for some of the emerging disciplines, such as digital evidence, are currently being defined and will be published 

by the appropriate groups. Achieving the 

appropriate academic qualifications is discussed in greater detail later in this Guide. 

Copies of diplomas and formal academic 

transcripts are generally required as proof 

of academic qualification. Awards, publications, internships, and student activities 

may be used to differentiate applicants. 

Claims in this regard are subject to 

verification through the background investigation process. 

Professional skills 

A variety of skills are essential to an individual’s effectiveness as a forensic science 

professional, including: 

■	 Critical thinking (quantitative reasoning 

and problem solving). 

■ Decisionmaking. 

■ Good laboratory practices. 

■ Awareness of laboratory safety. 

■ Observation and attention to detail. 

■ Computer proficiency. 

■ Interpersonal skills. 

■ Public speaking. 

■ Oral and written communication. 

■ Time management. 

■ Prioritization of tasks. 

For some of these skills, systematic tools 

are available that may be used to measure 

skill or proficiency at or after the time of 

hire. 

Model Career Path for 

Forensic Scientists 

A model career path for a forensic scientist begins with formal education and 

continues with training, postgraduate 

education, certification, and professional 

membership. Exhibit 1 depicts stages of 

a career path in forensic science. 

8 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE 

Exhibit 1. A Model Career Path in Forensic Science 

Assessment 

by employer 

of KSAs 

Candidate 

Meet NO

pre-employment 

qualifications? 

Obtain required degree 

Ensure personal 

qualifications are met 

Develop professional skills 

Employment 

Casework and continuing 

professional development 

(e.g., certification, 

advanced degrees, etc.) 

Professional involvement 

(e.g., research, teach, 

present, mentor) 

Completion of 

initial training 

program for 

specific 

discipline 

Competency test 

YES 

YES 

Pursue 

additional 

discipline 

Credentials 

A forensic scientist’s career path should 

demonstrate continued professional development that is documented by credentials. A credential is a formal recognition of 

a professional’s knowledge, skills, and abilities. Indicators of professional standing 

include academic credentials, professional 

credentials, training credentials, and competency tests. Exhibit 1 underscores for 

students, laboratory managers, agency 

personnel, and the public how credentialing can positively impact the overall effectiveness of forensic science practice. 

Implementation: Keys to a 

Career in Forensic Science 

Pre-employment preparation 

Competitive candidates can demonstrate 

the knowledge, skills, and abilities that 

establish their readiness for a forensic 

science position. These KSAs may include 

areas important to all potential forensic 

science practitioners, including but not 

limited to quality assurance, ethics, professional standards of behavior, evidence 

control, report writing, scientific method, 

inductive and deductive reasoning, statistics, and safety. Documentation of coursework and practical experiences involving 

these KSAs can significantly enhance the 

objective information available to an 

agency evaluating potential new hires. 

On-the-job training 

After hire, on-the-job training by the hiring 

agency is common. This initial training is 

generally completed within 6 months to 3 

years of the date of hire, depending on the 

trainee, agency, and forensic science specialty. Some specialties have established 

peer-based objective standards adopted 

throughout the field, while others vary 

from agency to agency. 

Certification 

Accreditation applies to forensic science 

laboratories, whereas certification applies 

to analysts or examiners. Individuals 

whose competencies have been certified 

by an independent, peer-based, appropriately credentialed certifying body are highly desirable to employers. 

9 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

Outstanding laboratories seek certification 

from an organization that is accredited by 

the Forensic Specialties Accreditation 

Board or another program that is based 

on nationally or internationally recognized 

standards (see appendix C). A credible certification program requires a meaningful 

evaluation of credentials, examination, an 

ethics component, and periodic recertification. Recertification requires a person to 

undergo a minimum amount of continuing 

education and may require demonstration 

of continued competency. Certification has 

been used by some employers as a prerequisite for employment and/or advancement, and it may enhance an individual’s 

credibility as an expert witness. 

Professional involvement 

While casework is the primary focus of a 

forensic scientist, he or she can also strive 

to advance the profession. This may be 

accomplished through professional 

involvement: research; mentoring; teaching; and participating in professional organizations, community outreach, publishing, 

and other professional activities. 

Summary 

A strong educational background in the 

natural sciences, personal attributes such 

as honesty and integrity, and additional 

professional skills are necessary to prepare a candidate for a career in forensic 

science. In addition to formal academic 

education and employer-provided training, 

a level of self-motivated professional 

development, including certification and 

involvement in the field, provides tremendous growth opportunities for both experienced professionals and those entering 

the field. 

10 
Undergraduate Curriculum in


Forensic Science 

Introduction 

Forensic science is an applied science that 

covers an array of disciplines. Regardless 

of the area of forensic science pursued, an 

undergraduate degree in forensic science 

should be interdisciplinary, combining a 

strong foundation in the natural sciences 

with extensive laboratory experience. 

A model undergraduate forensic science 

degree program should provide a strong 

and credible science foundation that emphasizes the scientific method and the 

application of problem-solving skills in 

both classroom and laboratory settings. 

Graduates of an undergraduate forensic 

science program should have acquired 

KSAs that include scientific writing, public 

speaking, laboratory skills and safety practices, and computer software application 

skills. 

The strengths of a model undergraduate 

forensic science degree include— 

■ Preparation for becoming a forensic 

science professional. 

■	 Opportunities to establish a network of 

forensic science contacts. 

■	 An educational background directly 

linked to the work in a forensic science 

laboratory. 

■	 Exposure to the breadth of forensic 

science disciplines. 

■	 Acculturation into the forensic science 

and justice communities. 

■	 Provision of a foundation for professional 

certification. 

■	 Emphasis on a wide range of courses 

(e.g., public speaking, ethics, and statistics) that may not be required in the curriculums of other natural science majors. 

Most forensic science employment occurs 

in a laboratory setting. Results of laboratory analyses are typically used by law enforcement to investigate crimes, identify 

or eliminate suspects, and assist courts 

in reaching fair and just determinations. 

Although not exhaustive, the following list 

presents types of evidence typically examined by professionals working in forensic 

science laboratories (also see “What Is 

‘Criminalistics’?”): 

■ Controlled substances (drugs). 

■	 Toxicological specimens, including body 

tissues, body fluids, and breath. 

■	 Trace evidence, including hairs, fibers, 

paint, glass, and explosives and fire 

debris. 

■ Biological specimens, including DNA. 

■ Firearms. 

■ Fingerprints. 

■	 Impression evidence, including toolmarks, tiremarks, and shoeprints. 

11 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

■ Questioned documents. 

■ Crime scene. 

The science curriculum described herein 

is not generally required for prospective 

crime scene specialists; however, it is 

highly recommended. Students seeking 

to work in alternative areas of forensic science, such as forensic computer sciences, 

may require other curriculums or further 

specialized training (see appendix A). 

Model Curriculum: 

Undergraduate Degree 

in Forensic Science 

This section of the Guide provides minimum recommendations for a model 

undergraduate degree in forensic science. 

Such a degree provides an educational 

foundation that meets the current hiring 

requirements of forensic science laboratories. This curriculum emphasizes the 

strong natural science foundation that is 

essential to prepare a student for a successful career in forensic science. Refer 

to exhibit 2 for an overview of the model 

curriculum. 

This curriculum is not designed to produce 

case-ready forensic scientists. Laboratory 

managers, educators, and students may 

realize that prior to beginning casework, 

additional on-the-job training and possible 

postgraduate studies may be necessary to 

meet the specific needs of the individual 

employer. 

Peer-based working groups have promulgated specific education requirements 

(see appendixes D and E). Forensic science laboratories and graduate programs 

may require more than the recommended 

credit hours of specific coursework. 

University general education 

General education courses are courses 

that the university requires the student to 

take. They may include language, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, technical writing, computer science, and public 

speaking. The actual number of credit 

hours required may vary from university to 

university but generally ranges from 36 to 

40. Some forensic degree coursework 

may count toward fulfilling this requirement. Carefully selected general education courses can complement the 

student’s main program of study. 

Natural science core 

Certain natural science courses are 

required for any student in forensic science. Unlike other criminal justice professionals, a forensic scientist requires a 

foundation in chemistry, biology, physics, 

and mathematics. 

The minimum general core requirements 

recommended for undergraduate forensic 

science programs (34–38 total credit 

hours) include— 

■ General chemistry I and II and lab for science majors (8 credit hours). 

■ Organic chemistry I and II and lab (8 

credit hours). 

■ Biology I and II for science majors (4–8 

credit hours). (Classes with laboratory 

components are preferable, if available.) 

■ Physics I and II for science majors and 

lab (8 credit hours). 

■ Calculus (3 credit hours). 

■ Statistics for science majors (3 credit 

hours). 

12 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE 

Exhibit 2. Sample Curriculum for Forensic Science Undergraduate Degreesa 

Chemistry/Trace 

Evidence/Controlled 

Biology Substances 

Firearms/Impression 

Evidence/Questioned 

Toxicology Documents/Prints 

University General Courses required by the university, which may include language, humanities, social sciences, technical 

Education (36–40 hrs) writing, mathematics, computer science, and public speaking. Credit hours required will vary from university 

to university. Some forensic degree coursework may count toward fulfilling these requirements. 

Natural Science Core Biology I, IIb Biology I Biology I Biology I 

(34–38 hrs) Calculus 

General Chemistry I, IIb 

Organic Chemistry I, IIb 

Physics I, IIb 

Calculus 

General Chemistry I, II 

Organic Chemistry I, II 

Physics I, II 

Calculus 

General Chemistry I, II 

Organic Chemistry I, II 

Physics I, II 

Calculus 

General Chemistry I, II 

Organic Chemistry I, II 

Physics I, II 

Statistics Statistics Statistics Statistics 

Specialized Core 

(12 hrs) 

Biochemistry Analytic Chemistry 

Quantitativeb 

Analytic Chemistry 

Quantitative 

Inorganic Chemistry 

Genetics Inorganic Chemistry Biochemistry Instrumental Analysis 

Instrumental Analysis Instrumental Analysis Instrumental Analysis Optics/Lasers 

Molecular Biology Physical Chemistry Physical Chemistry Physical Chemistry 

Forensic Science Forensic Science Survey Forensic Science Survey Forensic Science Survey Forensic Science Survey 

Core (6 hrs) Forensic Professional Forensic Professional Forensic Professional Forensic Professional 

Practicec Practice Practice Practice 

Forensic Laboratory Forensic Biology Forensic Chemistry Forensic Chemistry Internship 

Science (9 hrs) Internship Internship Internship Microscopy 

Microscopy Microscopy Microscopy Physical Methods 

Physical Methods Physical Methods Physical Methods 

Additional Coursesd 

(19 hrs) 

Cell Biology 

Introduction to Criminal 

Justice 

Legal Evidence 

Microbiology 

Population Genetics 

Immunology 

Public Speaking 

Advanced Instrumental 

Analysis 

Drugs 

Introduction to Criminal 

Justice 

Legal Evidence 

Analytical Toxicology 

Materials Science 

Pharmacology 

Public Speaking 

Advanced Instrumental 

Analysis 

Drugs 

Introduction to Criminal 

Justice 

Legal Evidence 

Analytical Toxicology 

Pharmacology 

Public Speaking 

Crime Scene 

Image Analysis 

Introduction to Criminal 

Justice 

Legal Evidence 

Materials Science 

a. These examples are based on a minimum of 120 semester hours to obtain a degree. Credit hours as described above are meant to

indicate semester credit hours. 

b. Laboratory courses.

c. This course includes ethics, testimony, evidence, chain of custody, etc. 

d. Electives listed here are not exhaustive, and students may wish to tailor courses according to their areas of concentration.

Specialized science courses 

An undergraduate degree in forensic science is expected to be an interdisciplinary 

degree that includes substantial laboratory 

work and an emphasis on advanced (i.e., 

upper level) coursework in chemistry or 

biology. Students can use these additional 

courses to begin to specialize along a 

forensic science discipline track, such as 

forensic biology or forensic chemistry. 

Specialized science courses may be 

selected from any of the following (minimum 12 credit hours and minimum of 2 

laboratory courses): 

■ Biochemistry. 

■ Molecular biology. 

■ Genetics. 

■ Population genetics. 

13 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

■ Inorganic chemistry. 

■ Analytical/quantitative chemistry. 

■ Physical chemistry. 

■ Instrumental analysis. 

■ Cell biology. 

■ Pharmacology. 

■ Calculus II. 

■ Microbiology. 

If pursuing a career as a forensic DNA 

examiner, coursework in the above areas 

is required by the FBI Quality Assurance 

Standards for Forensic DNA Testing 

Laboratories.1 

Forensic science core 

It is essential to cover certain forensic science topics in specific courses or as portions of courses that combine several 

topics. Include the following topics as 

core elements in the forensic science 

curriculum: 

■ Introduction to law/justice system. 

■ Ethics/professional practice. 

■	 Forensic science specialty overview 

(survey course). 

S CREDIT HOURS 

■ 36–40 hours of general university 

requirements. 

■ 46–50 hours of natural and specified science 

courses. 

■ 15 hours of forensic science courses (9 of 

which should include laboratory work). 

■ 19 hours of additional courses. 

UMMARY OF 

Total: 120 credit hours 

■	 Evidence identification, collection, and 

processing. 

■ Quality assurance. 

■ Courtroom testimony. 

■ Technical or scientific writing. 

Forensic science laboratory 

courses 

In addition to a strong foundation in the 

natural sciences, forensic science professionals are expected to recognize concepts integral to forensic science, such as 

individualization, reconstruction, association, and chain of custody of evidence. 

Because the work product of a forensic 

scientist is used by the justice system, it 

is expected to meet legal as well as scientific standards. The following courses are 

designed to give the student an understanding of the application of scientific 

analysis to the legal system (a minimum of 

15 credit hours, for which a minimum of 9 

credit hours are expected to be laboratory 

science courses): 

■ Forensic chemistry and lab (3). 

■ Forensic biology and lab (3). 

■ Physical methods in forensic science 

and lab (3). 

■ Internship (up to 6) or independent 

study/research (up to 6). 

■ Microscopy and lab (3). 

Additional courses 

Students are advised to select additional 

courses (approximately 19 credit hours) 

that give them greater depth in their specific area of concentration (see exhibit 2 for 

examples). Additional courses may be necessary to satisfy admission requirements 

into some graduate programs. 

14 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE 

Implementation: Keys 

to Ensuring Curriculum 

Success 

Significant additional funding is necessary 

to bolster existing forensic science undergraduate programs and to create new programs. Funding can create an incentive for 

programs to provide students with the 

highest quality forensic science education. The following are essential for the proper 

implementation of a successful undergraduate academic program: 

Objectives and assessments of 

institutional effectiveness 

A program is expected to provide docu­ mented, measurable objectives, including expected outcomes for graduates. The 

program is expected to regularly assess its 

progress against its objectives and use the 

results to identify areas for program improvement and to modify the program 

objectives. 

Institutional support 

A forensic science curriculum is expected 

to enjoy a level of institutional support 

equal to other natural science programs 

(e.g., biology or chemistry). Forensic science undergraduate programs that are 

undersupported can be upgraded according 

to these recommendations, and new programs can be eliminated if the proper facilities and operating budgets are not 

available. Funding sources could include 

competitive Federal funding, other public 

and private sources, and the host college or 

university. Institutions are expected to provide an appropriate variety of courses and 

offer them often enough to allow students 

to complete the program in a reasonable 

amount of time. Full-time faculty 

An adequate number of full-time faculty 

members ensures continuity and stability 

to cover the curriculum and to allow an 

appropriate mix of instruction and scholarly 

activity. The faculty members’ interests 

and qualifications are expected to be sufficient to teach the courses and plan and 

modify the courses and curriculum. Faculty members are expected to have 

knowledge and experience appropriate to 

the course being taught and to recognize 

advisory duties as a valued part of their workload. Adjunct faculty Practicing forensic scientists, often required as adjunct faculty, are expected 

to have the knowledge and experience 

appropriate to the course being taught. 

However, it is essential that full-time faculty oversee the curriculum for all 

coursework and maintain institutional 

standards. Facilities 

Laboratories and computing facilities that 

are available, accessible, and adequately 

equipped and supported are essential to 

enable students to complete their course­ work and support the teaching needs and 

scholarly activities of the faculty. Such insti­ tutional facilities as the library, classrooms, 

and offices are expected to be adequate to 

support the program objectives. A library 

where faculty and students have access 

to books, periodicals, and electronic resources (with adequate support for database searching) is essential to a successful 

program. The institution is also expected to 

subscribe to several referred forensic science journals. 

Student support 

It is essential that each student has adequate and reasonable access to equipment currently being used in forensic 

science laboratories and appropriate to 

the course of instruction. This equipment 

may be located in the forensic science 

15 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

department, natural science department, 

or nearby cooperating operational forensic 

science laboratories. Students should be 

afforded ample opportunity to interact with 

their instructors and be offered timely 

and informed guidance about program 

requirements, course options, and career 

opportunities. Faculty support 

Sufficient support for faculty enables the 

program to attract and retain high-quality faculty capable of supporting the program’s objectives. Support is expected 

to include opportunities to attend professional meetings, recognition of scholarly 

activities, adequate time for administrative 

duties, and clerical support. 

Collaboration with forensic 

science laboratories Academic forensic science programs are expected to establish working relationships with forensic science laboratories, if 

possible. Collaboration can provide meaningful internships, employment opportunities, guest lecturers, adjunct faculty, direct 

interaction with forensic scientists, and 

cooperative research. Accreditation The institution granting the degree is expected to be accredited by an accrediting body recognized by the U.S. Department of Education. 

At the time of this writing, there is no 

mechanism for accrediting forensic science undergraduate programs. When this 

mechanism is implemented, it is strongly 

recommended that all such programs seek 

accreditation.2 

Accreditation provides 

many benefits, including— 

■	 An external means of program validation. 

■ A tool to help students select a program. 

■	 A means for forensic scientists and 

potential employers to judge graduates’ 

credentials. 

■ An improvement of program quality. 

■	 A high level of competency for 

graduates. 

Summary Forensic science is an applied multidisciplinary profession based on the natural 

sciences. Therefore, it is essential that students studying forensic science have education and training consistent with this 

scientific foundation. The strengths of an 

undergraduate forensic science education 

include professional preparation, networking, links to laboratories, work-related 

knowledge, and preparation for professional certification. Recommendations regarding this scientific foundation have been 

set forth as best practices for a proposed forensic science undergraduate curriculum. These recommendations include core 

natural science courses, extensive laboratory experience in both the natural and forensic sciences, special topics in forensic science, and other supporting course­ work. The forensic science undergraduate 

degree is designed to prepare students 

for entry into traditional forensic science 

laboratory employment and for graduatelevel education and training in many other 

disciplines. 

In addition, this section provides recommendations for implementing a successful forensic science program, including program objectives and assessments, institutional support, faculty qualifications, the 

role of adjunct faculty, facility requirements, support of students and faculty, 

collaborations with forensic science laboratories, and program accreditation. 

16 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE 

Notes 

1. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Quality Assurance 

Standards for Forensic DNA Testing Laboratories, 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal 

Bureau of Investigation, 1998, http://www.fbi.gov/ 

congress/congress02/forensicstd.htm. 

2. In fall 2003, the Forensic Science Education 

Programs Accreditation Commission (FEPAC)—a 

committee of the American Academy of Forensic 

Sciences—began a pilot accreditation program. 

FEPAC’s standards are based on this Guide. FEPAC 

plans to begin formal accreditation of undergraduate 

and graduate forensic science programs in 2004. 

17 

Graduate Curriculum in 

Forensic Science 

Introduction 

The minimum prerequisite for entry into a 

graduate-level forensic science program is 

a baccalaureate degree in forensic science 

or a natural science, in addition to such 

college or university requirements as 

grade point average and Graduate Record 

Examination scores. 

A fundamental background in the natural 

sciences is central to the education of 

a forensic scientist who examines physical evidence in a laboratory setting. A 

graduate-level forensic science program 

is expected to do more than educate students in theoretical concepts. It should 

provide the student with critical thinking 

ability, problem-solving skills, and advanced, discipline-specific knowledge. It 

is likely that increasing numbers of forensic scientists may seek graduate-level education in the forensic or natural sciences, 

which may facilitate career advancement. 

Most graduate programs in forensic science can lead to a master of science 

(M.S.) degree. The graduate curriculum 

recommendations later in this chapter 

refer to programs that award an M.S. in 

forensic science. Students earning this 

degree are expected to be prepared for 

employment in operational forensic 

science laboratories. 

A need also exists for doctoral programs in 

the natural sciences with an emphasis on 

forensic science research. Advanced education is necessary to prepare forensic 

scientists, academicians, and researchers 

for leadership roles in public and private 

laboratories and academic institutions. A 

full discussion of forensic science doctoral 

programs goes beyond the scope of this 

Guide. 

The forensic sciences encompass many 

disciplines. This section focuses on the 

following: 

■ Controlled substances (drugs). 

■	 Toxicological specimens, including body 

tissues, body fluids, and breath. 

■	 Trace evidence, including hairs, fibers, 

paint, glass, and explosives and fire 

debris. 

■ Biological specimens, including DNA. 

■ Firearms. 

■ Fingerprints. 

■	 Impression evidence, including toolmarks, tiremarks, and shoeprints. 

■ Questioned documents. 

■ Crime scene. 

An institution’s educational objectives 

and resources govern the nature of any 

graduate program, and these can vary 

considerably. The institution is expected 

to be strongly committed to programs 

intended to prepare students for a career 

in forensic science in accordance with 

these best practices. 

19 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

Model Curriculum: Graduate 

Degree in Forensic Science 

Existing graduate programs in North 

America include master of science in 

forensic science/criminalistics and master 

of science in a natural science (e.g., chemistry, biology) with a track or emphasis in 

forensic science. Program and other considerations have led to a wide variation 

in the content and structure of these 

programs. 

An exemplary program will contain the 

following elements (discussed in detail 

below): 

■ Forensic science topics. 

■	 Rigorous academic coursework in a 

specialized area(s). 

■ Research component. 

■ Laboratory component. 

■	 Interaction with operational forensic 

science laboratories and professional 

societies. 

■	 Qualified faculty with appropriate forensic science experience. 

■	 Sufficient faculty-to-student ratio and 

support personnel. 

■	 Adequate academic resources (library, 

journal subscriptions, laboratory space, 

equipment, etc.). 

■	 Student support in the form of assistantships and/or fellowships. 

Curriculum recommendations 

A bachelor of science degree in a forensic 

or natural science (or its equivalent coursework in a relevant field) is preferred for 

entering a forensic science graduate 

program. At a minimum, the courses 

described in exhibit 2 are expected to be 

prerequisites for entry into a graduate 

forensic science program. Other degrees 

may provide sufficient prerequisite courses 

for consideration. 

Master’s programs in forensic science can 

be organized in many ways to reflect the 

institution’s mission, the available facilities, 

and the interests and capabilities of the 

students and faculty. Regardless of how 

the program is organized, all graduate 

students are required to take the core 

curriculum consisting of a minimum of 

30 semester credit hours. Students who 

enter a graduate forensic science program 

with undergraduate coursework or degrees 

that emphasized forensic science may 

have their specific coursework adjusted 

to reflect this background. 

Syllabuses are expected to be current and 

describe the content of the course and 

required textbook(s). 

An exemplary graduate forensic science 

curriculum will contain the following 

topics: 

■ Crime scenes. 

■ Physical evidence concepts. 

■ Law/science interface. 

■ Ethics and professional responsibility. 

■ Quality assurance. 

■	 Specific course(s) covering the following 

topic areas: 

— Analytical chemistry and instrumental 

methods of analysis. 

— Drug chemistry/toxicology. 

— Microscopy and materials analysis. 

— Forensic biology. 

— Pattern evidence. 

20 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE 

Forensic science programs may offer 

specializations, tracks, or concentrations 

in different areas such as analytical chemistry or molecular genetics. All forensic 

science programs are expected to offer 

rigorous graduate-level academic course­ work in appropriate subjects. The syllabus 

descriptions should indicate that the 

courses are advanced, comprehensive, 

and current. Advanced courses may be 

scheduled regularly to enable students to 

take the courses in proper sequence and 

with reasonable flexibility. In addition, it is expected that a number of specialized 

graduate-level courses may be required to 

suit the students’ interests and enhance 

the research experience. A graduate seminar is recommended that includes regular 

attendance at presentations by experts on 

original research and other relevant topics. 

Research component The student is expected to conduct a 

research project, prepare a written report, 

and present the results of the research 

in a public forum prior to graduation. The 

research component of the program may 

include preparatory coursework in research methods and statistics. The ideal 

research project is well defined, stands a 

reasonable chance of completion in the 

time available, and requires the student 

to use advanced concepts and a variety of experimental techniques and instruments. Research in forensic science advances the 

body of knowledge and elevates the sta­ tus of the profession. 

Communication skills 

Effective written and oral communication 

skills are essential to the well-trained scientist. Forensic scientists are expected to 

be proficient in written and oral communication. Frequent exercises in writing and 

oral presentation are expected to be part 

of the forensic science curriculum and be 

critically evaluated by the forensic science faculty. 

Institutional accreditation The institution granting the degree is expected to be accredited by an accrediting body that is recognized by the U.S. 

Department of Education. Faculty requirements 

At least 75 percent of full-time science faculty teaching in a forensic science graduate program should have an appropriate 

doctoral degree; faculty who have had experience working in a forensic science 

laboratory are preferred. The scientific and 

educational capabilities of the faculty 

should be distributed over the major program areas, and courses should be taught 

by persons qualified in each specialty. 

Also, an adequate number of highly competent faculty allows for regular offerings 

of the full range of courses needed for 

graduate education in forensic science. 

Library requirements and 

information retrieval 

A library where faculty and students have 

access to books, periodicals, and electronic resources (with adequate support for 

database searching) is essential to a successful program. An institution with a 

broad spectrum of research activity may 

require extensive holdings and is expected 

to subscribe to several referred forensic 

science journals. Further, students are also expected to learn how to retrieve specific 

information from the enormous and rapidly expanding literature. 

Classroom and laboratory requirements 

Classrooms and laboratories are expected 

to meet appropriate academic and safety 

21 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

requirements for the number of students 

in the program. In addition to instructional 

laboratories, faculty and students are expected to have access to laboratories 

with research-appropriate facilities, equipment, and instrumentation. 

Laboratory experience The laboratory component is expected to 

include the use of appropriate instrumen­ tation and give students sufficient handson knowledge of forensic science and 

competence to— 

■	 Anticipate, recognize, and respond properly to chemical and biological hazards. 

■	

Keep legible and complete laboratory 

records. 

■	 Conduct qualitative and quantitative 

analyses. 

■	 Use and understand instrumentation 

and fundamental techniques. 

■	 Analyze data and evaluate experimental 

results. 

■	

Assess reliability of results and draw 

reasonable conclusions. 

■	 Communicate effectively through oral 

and written reports. 

Interaction with operational 

laboratories Academic programs are expected to interact with operational forensic science laboratories. Cooperative efforts may take the form of internships, adjunct faculty interaction, staying current in the discipline, collaborative research, visiting scientist 

programs, and seminars. 

An option within a graduate program may 

be a residency or fellowship based on 

the model that medical schools use that 

combines formal, structured specialty 

training with an academic program. These 

programs can serve as a valuable component of a comprehensive and experiential 

training program. Such a program can provide hands-on training and experience in 

a forensic specialty so the student can be 

ready to perform the casework after completing the program. This program option 

may include discipline-specific simulated 

casework analysis, oral boards, moot 

courts, data review and interpretation, 

and report writing. This option can extend 

the normal time for completion of a graduate degree. 

Implementation: Keys to 

Ensuring Graduate Program 

Success Funding 

Increased funding is essential for graduate forensic science education to meet the 

demonstrated needs of the profession. 

Currently, no sustainable source of State 

or Federal funding exists to support graduate education or research in forensic science. The National Institute of Justice has 

traditionally provided virtually all research 

funding for the forensic sciences, but additional funding from alternative sources is 

essential. 

In addition to State and private sources, 

funding may be available from the following Federal agencies: U.S. Department 

of Justice, National Science Foundation, 

National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Energy, National Security Agency, 

U.S. Department of Education, and U.S. 

Department of Commerce. In light of 

homeland security and terrorism concerns, funding may also be sought from 

the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, Federal Aviation Administration, 

U.S. Department of Defense, Food and 

Drug Administration, Federal Emergency 

22 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE 

Management Agency, and U.S. Department 

of Homeland Security. 

Support for graduate student education is 

essential to successful future operations 

of the graduate programs in forensic science. Ideally, this support may be provided 

to educational institutions in the form of 

competitive training grants. In addition, 

individual graduate research fellowships 

may be available. Programs may also take 

advantage of existing institutional graduate 

support mechanisms. 

Appropriate legislative bodies can allow 

programs to forgive student loans for graduates who obtain full-time employment in 

public forensic science institutions. 

In addition to research and student support, funding also is needed for the acquisition and maintenance of equipment and 

major research instrumentation and laboratory renovation. Institutions offering forensic science programs need to provide for 

ongoing costs associated with the laboratory component of the curriculum and program administration. 

Accreditation 

At the time of this writing, no mechanism 

exists for accrediting forensic science 

graduate programs. When this mechanism 

is implemented, it is strongly recommended that all programs seek accreditation. 

Accreditation provides many benefits, 

including— 

■	 An external means of program 

validation. 

■	 A valuable tool to help students select a 

program. 

■	 A means for forensic scientists and 

potential employers to judge the credentials of graduates. 

■ Improvement of program quality. 

■	 A high level of competency for 

graduates. 

23 

Training and Continuing Education


in Forensic Science 

Introduction 

This section outlines model criteria and 

implementation approaches for the training and continuing professional development of forensic scientists. Model 

criteria are presented separately for training to attain competency and for postcompetency continuing professional 

development. 

Training is the formal, structured process 

through which a forensic scientist reaches 

a level of scientific knowledge and expertise required to conduct specific forensic 

analyses. Appropriate training is required 

before an individual is assigned case 

analysis responsibilities. 

Continuing professional development is 

the mechanism through which a forensic 

scientist remains current or advances to a 

higher level of expertise, specialization, or 

responsibility. All forensic scientists have 

an ongoing obligation to remain current in 

their field through continuing education 

and other developmental activities noted 

in exhibit 1. Similarly, laboratory management and its parent agency have an ongoing responsibility to provide support and 

opportunities for this continuing professional development. 

Recognition of any training or continuing 

professional development requires proper 

documentation. The agency or training 

entity is expected to keep a permanent, 

official training record and provide the 

trainee with a copy. The trainee is encouraged to keep a personal copy of the 

training record. The training record may 

include— 

■	 Documentation that entry requirements 

have been satisfied. 

■	 Detailed description of program structure, content, and assessment. 

■ Trainee performance documentation. 

■	 Certificate or statement of successful 

completion of the training program. 

Model Criteria 

Model criteria are intended as a guide for 

formulating training and continuing professional development programs. These 

model criteria can provide a common 

framework across forensic disciplines and 

thereby help ensure that programs are 

consistent and contain essential elements. 

Training 

Model training criteria include entry 

requirements, program structure and 

content, assessment mechanisms, and 

documentation. 

Entry requirements should include— 

■	 Specified minimum academic and experiential requirements consistent with 

recognized, peer-defined standards (e.g., 

scientific working groups, American 

Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/ 

Laboratory Accreditation Board, and 

25 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

American Board of Criminalists) (see 

appendixes C, D, and E). 

■	 Applicant awareness that ongoing background security clearances and random 

drug testing may be required. Factors 

such as drug use, credit and criminal history, and personal references may affect 

career opportunities. 

Exemplary program structure includes the 

following written components: 

■ Learning objectives. 

■ Instructor qualifications. 

■ Student requirements. 

■ Detailed syllabus. 

■ Performance goals. 

■ Periodic assessments. 

■ Competency testing. 

Program content can be designed to include both discipline-specific and core elements. Core elements are essential topics 

that lay the foundation for entry into professional practice regardless of the specialty area. They include the following: 

■	 Standards of conduct—includes professional ethics training. 

■	 Safety—includes biological, chemical, 

and physical hazards. 

■	 Policy—includes such administrative and 

laboratory policies as standard operating 

procedures, quality assurance, accreditation, and security. 

■	 Legal—includes expert testimony, depositions, rules of evidence, criminal and 

civil law and procedures, and evidence 

authentication. 

■	 Evidence handling—includes interdisciplinary issues; recognition, collection, 

and preservation of evidence; and chain 

of custody. 

■	 Communication—includes written, verbal, and nonverbal communication skills; 

report writing; exhibit and pretrial preparation; and trial presentation. 

Discipline-specific elements guided by 

recognized peer-defined standards can be 

incorporated as appropriate. Topics 

include— 

■ History of the discipline. 

■ Relevant literature. 

■ Methodologies and validation studies. 

■ Instrumentation. 

■ Statistics. 

■ Knowledge of related fields. 

■ Testimony. 

The trainee’s progress is expected to be 

assessed at appropriate intervals. Assessment mechanisms may include— 

■ Oral exams. 

■ Written exams. 

■	 Laboratory practicals and laboratory 

exercises. 

■ Mock trials. 

■	 Assessment of technical performance 

by appropriate senior staff. 

Continuing professional 

development 

Continuing professional development 

encompasses competency maintenance, 

skill enhancement, and other aspects of 

professional activities. It is important that 

continuing professional development be 

structured, measurable, and documented. 

26 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE 

Structure. Courses for continuing professional development are expected to include 

the following predefined components: 

■ Learning objectives. 

■ Instructor qualifications. 

■ Detailed syllabus or program description. 

■ Assessment. 

■ Documentation. 

Measurement. Assessment mechanisms 

include— 

■ Oral exams or reports. 

■ Written exams or reports. 

■ Peer-reviewed publications. 

■ Instructor or presenter evaluation. 

■ Laboratory practicals and exercises. 

■ Observation of technical performance. 

Documentation. An agency is expected 

to keep a permanent, official record of 

employees’ continuing professional development activities. The employee is encouraged to keep a personal copy of his/her 

record. The agency’s record is expected 

to include a description of the activity, its 

format, and documentation of performance (when available), such as academic 

credit, continuing education credit, certificates, and/or abstracts of proceedings. 

Implementation: Making 

the Most of Training and 

Continuing Professional 

Development 

Training and continuing professional development based on the model criteria can 

be implemented in a variety of ways to 

maximize opportunities, minimize costs, 

and ensure high standards of professional 

practice. The examples below offer guidance for implementation. 

Approaches 

Different disciplines require varying levels 

and combinations of approaches. The 

approach depends on the relative degree 

of academic and experiential learning 

required to attain and maintain competency. For example, the questioned-document 

discipline may require more experiencebased skill, whereas forensic biology may 

require more academic knowledge. 

Some peer groups (see for example, 

appendixes C and D) provide guidance 

regarding frequency of training and continuing professional development. It is recommended that this guidance be 

considered when choosing any approach. 

Some approaches include— 

■ Instructor led. 

■ Professional conferences/seminars. 

■ Distributed learning. 

■ Apprenticeship. 

■ Residency. 

■ Internship. 

■	 Teaching and presentations by 

trainee/employee. 

■ Independent learning. 

Administration 

It is recommended that forensic laboratories establish a process to oversee, coordinate, and document all training and 

continuing professional development. 

Training and continuing professional development programs are expected to undergo external periodic audits. 

27 
SPECIAL REPORT / JUNE 04 

It is recommended that continuing education and training courses include— 

■ Qualified instructor(s). 

■ Written course syllabus/outline. 

■ Written course objectives. 

■ Instructor/course evaluation. 

■ Mechanism for student assessment. 

■ Documentation of student performance. 

■	 Quantifiable element, such as continuing 

education units, academic credits, number of hours, or points. 

Although seminars, lectures, professional 

meetings, and inservice classes may be 

less structured than a formal course, they 

also add to the professional development 

of forensic scientists. Content and attendance are expected to be documented 

and available for external audits. 

Sources 

The sources of training and continuing professional development can be internal 

and/or external to a forensic science laboratory. Training partnerships are valuable 

because they provide broad perspectives 

and facilitate consistency of professional 

practice. Sources include— 

■ Government agencies. 

■ Academic institutions. 

■ Training academies and institutions. 

■ Private industries and organizations. 

■ Professional societies. 

■ Mentors. 

Funding 

Resources are needed to properly support 

training and continuing professional development. In addition to their regular duties, 

qualified forensic scientists and supervisors are expected to receive time to continue professional development and to 

mentor trainees. Agency management is 

expected to plan for any effects that reallocating laboratory resources may have on 

case productivity. 

Agencies can partner to develop and provide intensive formal discipline-specific 

programs for trainees. These programs 

can relieve operational forensic science 

laboratories of the in-house mentoring 

needed to qualify individuals to conduct 

casework. This partnering model also can 

be extended to continuing professional 

development, with agencies working 

together to develop and provide standardized training curriculums and materials for 

use across several agencies. Although 

these partnerships can significantly reduce 

costs, funding for student attendance may 

still be needed. 

When considering the costs of continuing 

professional development, some scientific 

working groups recommend minimum 

mandatory “contact hours.” For example, 

the Scientific Working Group for the 

Analysis of Forensic Drug Samples 

(SWGDRUG) recommends that a minimum of 20 contact hours per year be 

devoted to continuing professional development for each drug examiner. FBI 

Quality Assurance Standards for Forensic 

DNA Testing Laboratories require 1 day of 

continuing professional development per 

year, and this has been adopted as the 

requirement for DNA examiners for compliance with ASCLD/LAB standards. 

In the absence of external guidelines on 

contact time per year, some agencies 

impose their own contact time requirements. Alternatively, some agencies 

28 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE 

specify a training and continuing professional development budget of, for example, $1,000–$1,500 per year for each 

examiner. Such funds are used to support 

travel and fees for both outside learning 

opportunities and implementation of inhouse programs. It is recommended that 

1–3 percent of the total forensic science 

laboratory budget be allocated for training 

and continuing professional development. 

The professionalism expected of forensic 

science staff requires that appropriate 

resources for training and development be 

provided by the parent agency. Forensic 

science is a labor-intensive undertaking, in 

which the quality, experience, and technical currency of personnel performing the 

work are paramount. Neglecting ongoing 

staff training and professional development 

can lead to organizational failure to meet 

stakeholder agencies’ service goals and 

quality requirements. 

Regardless of the mechanism used, it is 

essential that a reasonable foundation be 

put in place to offset the direct and indirect costs of an adequate program of 

training and continuing professional 

development. 

Summary 

Model criteria are presented as a framework for achieving and maintaining professional competency in forensic sciences. 

Implementation of these criteria will 

extend learning opportunities and promote 

high standards of professional practice. 

29 

Glossary 

Apprenticeship: A relationship where an individual works for an entity while learning 

skills. 

Biology: The science concerned with the growth, development, and functioning of living 

things. 

Certification: A peer-based voluntary process of credentialing that involves objective 

review of academic degrees, minimum mandatory experience in the discipline, and successful completion of a written examination. Certifying organizations should satisfy the 

requirements of ISO Guide 17024 for the accreditation of certifying bodies. See appendix 

C for a list of certifying organizations. 

Chemistry: The science that studies the structures, functions, transformations, and interactions of basic elements and matter. 

Competency Testing: The evaluation of a person’s ability to perform work in a functional 

area prior to the performance of independent casework. 

Continuing Professional Development: The mechanism through which an individual 

remains current or advances to a higher level of expertise, specialization, or responsibility. 

Core Elements: Concepts, theories, and information that represent the foundation of a 

science or area of study. 

Credentialing: Formal recognition of a professional’s knowledge, skills, and abilities 

(KSAs) in a particular field of expertise. This recognition is documented by academic 

degrees, professional certifications, and completion of specialty training programs. 

Crime Laboratories: Facilities that receive, process, and analyze evidence (obtained 

through civil or criminal investigations) using scientific or technical methods and opinion 

testimony with respect to such physical evidence in a court of law; equivalent to forensic 

science laboratories. 

Criminalistics: The profession and scientific discipline of recognizing, identifying, individualizing, and evaluating physical evidence in legal proceedings by the application of the 

natural sciences. 

Distributed Learning: Educational methods that use models of distant, distributed, or 

remote education, such as video, the Internet, networked multimedia, and independent 

or proctored study models. 

Forensic Science: The profession of assisting criminal and civil investigations and litigation through science. 

Forensic Science Laboratories: Facilities that receive, process, and analyze evidence 

obtained through civil or criminal investigations using scientific or technical methods and 

opinion testimony with respect to such physical evidence in a court of law; equivalent to 

crime laboratories. 

31 
Internship: An indepth educational or training program that offers a period of supervised 

practical experience in a forensic science setting. 

Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSAs): The level of information, qualifications, and 

experience needed to perform assigned tasks. Knowledge refers to acquired principles 

and practices related to a particular job; skills refer to acquired psychomotor behaviors; 

and abilities are the talents, observable behaviors, or acquired dexterity. 

Laboratory Exercises: An educational activity where scientific concepts, principles, and 

methods that relate to laboratory procedures are demonstrated. 

Laboratory Practicals: An educational testing situation that emphasizes hands-on methods and procedures. 

Materials Analysis: The characterization of composition and structure (including defects) 

of a material that is significant for a particular product, study of properties, or use. In 

forensic science, this typically refers but is not limited to the analysis of trace evidence. 

Natural Sciences: Sciences, such as biology, chemistry, or physics, that deal with the 

objects, phenomena, or laws of nature and the physical world. 

Personal Associations: Social and professional relationships that may reflect on the 

morals, values, and citizenship of an individual. 

Pre-Employment Qualifications: The suggested milestones, including a required 

degree, personal character qualifications, and professional skills, that should be obtained 

before seeking employment in a crime laboratory or a forensic science laboratory. 

Provisional Employment: Introductory period of employment that allows the employee 

and agency to determine if the employee is suited for the job. During the provisional 

employment period, employees may be terminated at the discretion of the appointing 

authority, without access to a grievance procedure. A normal provisional employment 

period is 6 to 12 months; however, it can be extended as specified in the agency’s 

policies. 

Professional Involvement: Activities that advance a profession, such as research, mentoring, teaching, and participating in professional organizations, community outreach, 

publishing, and others. 

Quality Assurance: Those planned and systematic actions necessary to provide sufficient 

confidence that a laboratory’s products and services will satisfy quality requirements. 

Residency: The tenure of a professional in specialized training, usually occurring after an 

internship. 

Trace Evidence: Any evidence that, because of its size or texture, is easily transferred 

from one location to another and retained there. Forensic science laboratories may categorize differently what constitutes trace evidence. 

Training: Training is the formal, structured process through which a forensic scientist progresses from a current level of scientific knowledge and expertise to the level of competency required to conduct specific forensic analyses. 

32 
Appendix A. Forensic Science Careers 

Outside the Traditional Forensic Science 

Crime Laboratory 

The primary focus of this document is the 

education and training of individuals working in forensic science laboratories. 

Careers outside the traditional forensic science laboratory span a wide range of activities, including pathology, engineering, 

anthropology, and others. Interested students should realize that in some of these 

fields, the total number of practicing forensic scientists is quite small, and career 

opportunities may be limited. In some 

cases, professionals function as part-time 

forensic science consultants. Most fields 

can be approached with an undergraduate 

degree in natural science followed by a 

forensic-based graduate program (e.g., an 

entomology degree followed by a graduate 

forensic entomology program). 

Students are advised to discuss possible 

career paths with established professionals in the field. Examples of forensic science careers outside traditional forensic 

science laboratories are described below. 

This list is not all inclusive, and the interested student may investigate other possible career areas in forensic science. 

Forensic Pathology 

Forensic pathologists are medical doctors 

who serve as medical examiners and 

sometimes as coroners. They determine 

the cause and manner of death through 

autopsies and death investigation. They 

are licensed physicians who have completed medical school, 5 years of pathology 

internship and residency, and 1 year of 

forensic pathology fellowship. They have 

passed general medical certification 

exams as well as pathology (anatomic 

pathology and/or clinical pathology) and 

forensic pathology board examinations 

administered by the American Board of 

Pathology. The principal professional 

organization is the National Association of 

Medical Examiners (http://www.thename. 

org). 

Forensic Psychiatry 

Forensic psychiatrists are medical doctors 

who serve as researchers and clinical practitioners in the many areas in which psychiatry is applied to legal issues. They 

conduct psychiatric evaluations to determine civil and criminal competence, psychological trauma, criminal responsibility, 

etc. Forensic psychiatrists may serve 

prison systems and mental hospitals and 

act as consultants to prosecutors and 

criminal defense attorneys. They are 

licensed physicians who have completed 

medical school and 4 years in psychiatry 

internship and residency and have 

received training in forensic psychiatry. 

They have passed general medical certification exams and psychiatry board examinations administered by the American 

Board of Psychiatry and Neurology 

(http://www.abpn.com). The principal professional organization is the American 

Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 

(http://www.emory.edu/AAPL). 

Forensic Psychology 

Forensic psychology applies the science 

and profession of psychology to questions 

and issues relating to the law and the legal 

system. Forensic psychology includes psychological evaluation and expert testimony 

33 
regarding such criminal forensic issues as 

trial competency, forensic behavioral analysis, civil commitment and guardianship, 

and others. Forensic psychologists must 

obtain a graduate degree, be licensed by a 

State board, and may be board certified by 

the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) (http://www.abpp.org). The 

American Academy of Forensic Psychology (AAFP) is the education and training 

arm of the American Board of Forensic 

Psychology (ABFP) (http://www.abfp.com), 

which is responsible for board certifications in forensic psychology. Both AAFP 

and ABFP are part of the ABPP. 

Forensic Nursing 

Forensic nurses perform a wide range of 

functions, including serving as sexual 

assault nurse examiners (SANEs) and case 

reviewers for medical malpractice attorneys. Forensic nurses are typically registered nurses, and some have bachelor of 

science degrees in nursing or graduate 

degrees. Many nursing educational programs now have specific forensic nursing 

curriculums. The principal professional 

organization is the International Association of Forensic Nurses (http://www. 

forensicnurse.org). 

Forensic Engineering 

In addition to the usual categories of engineering, engineering sciences include 

physics, chemistry, geophysics, etc. The 

forensic work of individuals in these fields 

is most often related to civil litigation, 

although occasionally their skills are needed in criminal casework. Forensic engineers usually have engineering degrees 

and, in the United States, are often registered professional engineers. Alternatively, 

scientists engaged in this work often have 

doctorates in their respective fields. The 

range of forensic activity in the engineering sciences includes accident reconstructions, product failure investigations, 

structural failure analysis, and related 

investigations. The American Academy of 

Forensic Sciences (AAFS) (http://www. 

aafs.org) has an engineering sciences 

section. Certification in the forensic engineering sciences is available from the International Institute of Forensic Engineering 

Sciences. 

Forensic Anthropology 

Forensic anthropologists are physical 

anthropologists who generate biological 

profiles (sex, age, height, etc.) for unidentified human skeletal remains, identify 

unknown individuals, and evaluate skeletal 

trauma. Forensic anthropologists are often 

university based and consult for medical 

examiner offices, although some are 

employed directly by medical examiner 

offices. They have graduate degrees in 

physical or forensic anthropology and may 

be certified by the American Board of 

Forensic Anthropology. The largest group 

of forensic anthropologists works for the 

military in the U.S. Army’s Central Identification Laboratory–Hawaii [Now the Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Command] 

(http://www. cilhi.army.mil). The principal 

professional organizations are AAFS, 

Forensic Anthropology Section, and the 

American Association of Physical 

Anthropology (http://www.physanth.org). 

Forensic Entomology 

Forensic entomologists are often university based and consult for medical examiners, coroners, law enforcement agencies, 

and attorneys. They use insect evidence to 

help reconstruct the circumstances (e.g., 

time of death, movement of the body) 

surrounding human death. Most are Ph.D. 

entomologists who have become board 

certified in forensic entomology by the 

American Board of Forensic Entomology 

(http://www.missouri.edu/~aqwww/ 

entomology). The principal professional organizations are AAFS and the 

34 
Entomological Society of America 

(http://www.entsoc.org). 

Forensic Odontology 

Forensic odontologists are dentists and 

oral pathologists who most often consult 

for medical examiner offices; few are 

employed full time by medical examiner 

offices. They identify people from dental 

structures and analysis/comparisons of 

bitemarks. They have received a D.D.S., 

D.M.D., or equivalent degree and been 

certified in forensic odontology by the 

American Board of Forensic Odontology. 

The principal professional organization is 

AAFS, Forensic Odontology Section. 

Forensic Computer 

Science/Digital Evidence 

Forensic computer specialists are computer and information scientists/technicians 

who may be involved in the recovery and 

examination of probative information from 

digital evidence. The types of evidence 

include both hardware (desktop computers, laptop computers, network servers, 

and other digital equipment including cameras, personal digital assistants, pagers, 

software programs, databases, electronic 

mail, etc.). The discipline of forensic computer science is, by comparison with the 

other forensic disciplines listed in this 

appendix, relatively new, and many areas 

of the field are not yet defined. Useful 

sources for information about forensic 

computer science are the National White 

Collar Crime Center (http://www.nw3c.org) 

and the Scientific Working Group on 

Digital Evidence (SWGDE) (http://www. 

swgde.org). 

Forensic Toxicology 

Forensic toxicologists are scientists who 

provide services in postmortem cases 

(support death investigations), human 

performance cases (driving under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs) and workplace testing (mandatory job-related 

alcohol/drug testing). Although some toxicologists work within the criminalistics/ 

crime laboratory structure, most work in 

other government and private laboratories. 

B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees are common. The work, which encompasses the 

determination and interpretation of drugs 

and their metabolites in biological fluids, 

requires significant training in chemistry, 

biology, physiology, and pharmacology. The 

principal membership organizations are 

the Society of Forensic Toxicologists 

(http://www.soft-tox.org) and the Toxicology Section of AAFS. Many toxicologists 

are certified by the American Board of 

Forensic Toxicology as Diplomates or 

Forensic Toxicology Certification Board 

Specialists. 

35 

Appendix B. Non-TWGED Reviewers


C.G.G. Aitken 

The University of Edinburgh 

Department of Mathematics and Statistics 

The King’s Buildings 

Edinburgh, Scotland, UK EH9 3JZ 

cgga@maths.ed.ac.uk 

Sanford Angelos 

Senior Forensic Chemist 

U.S. Department of Justice 

536 South Clark Street 

Suite 800 

Chicago, IL 60605 

forensicchem@21century.net 

Sevil Atasoy 

Director 

Institute of Forensic Science 

Istanbul University 

Adli Tip Enstitus 

34303 Cerrahpasa 

Istanbul, Turkey 

atasoy@turk.net 

Suzanne Bell 

Eastern Washington University 

Department of Chemistry 

226 Science Building 

Cheney, WA 99004 

suzanne.bell@mail.ewu.edu 

Robert Bost 

Director 

Master of Science in Forensic Science 

Program 

University of Central Oklahoma 

Department of Chemistry 

Edmond, OK 73034 

JoAnn Buscaglia 

FBI Academy 

Forensic Science Research Unit 

Quantico, VA 22135 

jbuscaglia@fbiacademy.edu 

Charles Cornett 

University of Wisconsin–Platteville 

Department of Chemistry and Engineering 

Physics 

One University Plaza 

Platteville, WI 53818 

W. Raymond Cummins 

Director 

Program in Forensic Science 

University of Toronto 

3359 Mississauga Road 

Toronto, Ontario, Canada L5L 1C6 

raymond.cummins@utoronto.ca 

Harold Deadman 

Department of Forensic Sciences 

The George Washington University 

Washington, DC 20052 

Hiram Evans 

Adjunct Professor 

California State University–Los Angeles 

San Bernardino County Sheriff’s 

Department Laboratory 

9500 Etiwanda Avenue 

Rancho Cucamonga, CA 91729-6979 

hiramevans@compuserve.com 

Ken Furton 

Director 

Forensic Science Programs 

Florida International University 

Miami, FL 33199 

furton@fiu.edu 

Brian Gestring 

New York City Office of Chief Medical 

Examiner 

520 First Avenue 

New York City, NY 10016 

David Gibo 

Associate Professor of Zoology 

University of Toronto 

3359 Mississauga Road 

Mississauga, Ontario, Canada L5L 1C 

37 
Dennis Hilliard 

Director 

Rhode Island State Crime Laboratory 

University of Rhode Island 

220 Fogarty Hall-URI 

41 Lower College Road 

Kingston, RI 02881 

dch@uri.edu 

Patricia Huck 

International Criminal Investigative 

Training Assistance Program (ICITAP) 

U.S. Department of Justice 

1331 F Street NW, #500 

Washington, DC 20004 

Tom Johnson 

Dean 

School of Public Safety and Professional 

Studies 

University of New Haven 

300 Orange Avenue 

West Haven, CT 06516 

tataj@charger.newhaven.ct 

Lawrence Kaplan 

Professor of Chemistry 

Williams College 

Chemistry Department 

Williamstown, MA 01267 

lkaplan@williams.edu 

Lawrence Kobilinsky 

Associate Provost 

John Jay College of Criminal Justice 

899 Tenth Avenue 

New York City, NY 10019 

lkjjj@cunyvm.cuny.edu 

Susan Land 

5304 South Broadway Circle 

#3206 

Englewood, CO 80110 

sland@ci.arvada.co.us 

Karl Larsen 

Illinois State Police 

Forensic Science Center 

larsena@isp.state.il.us 

Gary Laughlin 

McCrone Research Institute 

2820 South Michigan Avenue 

Chicago, IL 60616 

Richard Li 

Program Coordinator 

College of Criminal Justice 

Sam Houston State University 

Criminal Justice Center 

C–207 

Huntsville, TX 77341–2296 

cjc_rcl@shsu.edu 

Charles Lindqosf 

University of Alabama at Birmingham 

Department of Criminal Justice 

Birmingham, AL 35294 

clindqui@sbs.sbs.vab.edu 

Ray Liu 

Director 

Graduate Program in Forensic Science 

University of Alabama at Birmingham 

901 15th Street South 

Birmingham, AL 35294–2060 

rliu@sbs.sbs.uab.edu 

Bruce McCord 

Associate Professor 

Ohio University 

Department of Chemistry and 

Biochemistry 

136 Clippinger Laboratories 

Athens, OH 45701–2979 

mccord@ohiou.edu 

Jerry Melbye 

Director 

Forensic Science Program 

University of Toronto 

3359 Mississauga Road 

Mississauga, Ontario, Canada L5L 1C6 

melbye@credit.erin.utoronto.ca 

Marilyn Miller 

University of New Haven 

Forensic Science Department 

300 Orange Avenue 

West Haven, CT 06516 

mtm01_13@charger.newhaven.edu 

38 
Michael Moeller 

Department Head 

Department of Chemical and Industrial 

Hygiene 

University of Northern Alabama 

UNA Box 5021, 129 Wesleyan 

Florence, AL 35632 

Andre Moenssens 

Professor of Law, Emeritus 

University of Missouri–Kansas City 

5100 Rockhill Road 

Kansas City, MO 64110 

moenssensa@umkc.edu 

Turhon Murad 

California State University–Chico 

Department of Anthropology 

315 Butte Hall 

Chico, CA 95929–0400 

tmurad@csuchico.edu 

Niamh NicDaeid 

Strathclyde University 

Forensic Science Unit 

204 George Street 

Glasgow, Scotland, UK G1 1XW 

n.nicdaeid@strath.ac.uk 

Dale Nute 

Florida State University 

School of Criminology and Criminal Justice 

634 West Call Street 

Tallahassee, FL 32306–1127 

hdnute@mailer.fsu.edu 

David Petersen 

Assistant Director 

Bureau of Criminal Apprehension 

Forensic Science Laboratory 

1246 University Avenue 

St. Paul, MN 55104–4197 

david.b.petersen@state.mn.us 

Joseph Peterson 

University of Illinois at Chicago 

Department of Criminal Justice 

1007 West Harrison Street 

Chicago, IL 60607 

joepete@uic.edu 

Lawrence Quarino 

Director of Forensic Science 

Department of Chemistry 

Cedar Crest College 

Allentown, PA 18104 

lquarino@sprynet.com 

Rex Riis 

Director 

South Dakota Forensic Laboratory 

Miller-Matthews Building 

3500 East Highway 34 

Pierre, SD 57501 

rex.riis@state.sd.us 

Walter Rowe 

Professor of Forensic Science 

Department of Forensic Sciences 

The George Washington University 

Washington, DC 20052 

wfrowe@gwis2.circ.gwu.edu 

Richard Saferstein 

Forensic Science Consultant 

20 Forrest Court 

Mount Laurel, NJ 08054 

Jay Siegel 

Professor of Forensic Science 

School of Criminal Justice 

Michigan State University 

506 Baker Hall 

East Lansing, MI 48824 

Jay.Siegel@ssc.msu.edu 

Moses Schanfield 

Chair 

Department of Forensic Science 

The George Washington University 

102 Samson Hall 

2036 H Street NW 

Washington, DC 20052 

mschanfield@netscape.net 

Fred Smith 

Director, Forensic Science Program 

University of Alabama–Birmingham 

fsmith@uab.edu 

39 
James Starrs 

Professor of Law and Forensic Science 

The George Washington University 

720 20th Street, NW 

Washington, DC 20052 

Steven A. Steiner 

Associate Professor 

Department of Chemistry and Engineering 

Physics 

University of Wisconsin–Platteville 

1 University Plaza 

Platteville, WI 53818 

David Stoney 

McCrone Research Institute 

2820 South Michigan Avenue 

Chicago, IL 60616 

dstoney@mcri.org 

Peter Striupaitis 

Illinois State Police 

striupp@isp.state.il.us 

Pat Thiel 

Professor of Chemistry 

Iowa State University 

1605 Gillman Hall 

Ames, IA 50011 

J.W. Thorpe 

Strathclyde University 

Forensic Science Unit 

204 George Street 

Glasgow, Scotland, UK G1 1XW 

j.w.thorpe@strath.ac.uk 

40 
Appendix C. Forensic Science Professional and 

Certification Organizations 

Professional Organizations 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS), http://www.aafs.org 

American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors (ASCLD), http://www.ascld.org 

American Society of Questioned Document Examiners (ASQDE), http://www.asqde.org 

Association of Firearms and Tool Mark Examiners (AFTE), http://www.afte.org 

Association of Forensic Quality Assurance Managers (AFQAM), http://www.afqam.org 

California Association of Criminalists (CAC), http://www.cacnews.org 

California Association of Toxicologists (CAT), http://www.cal-tox.org 

Clandestine Laboratory Investigating Chemists Association (CLIC) 

International Association for Identification (IAI), http://www.theiai.org 

Mid-Atlantic Association of Forensic Scientists (MAAFS), http://maafs.org 

Midwestern Association of Forensic Scientists (MAFS), http://www.mafs.net 

National White Collar Crime Center (NW3C), http://www.nw3c.org 

Northeastern Association of Forensic Scientists (NEAFS), http://www.neafs,org 

Northwestern Association of Forensic Scientists (NWAFS), http://www.nwafs.org 

Society of Forensic Toxicologists (SOFT), http://www.soft-tox.org 

Southern Association of Forensic Scientists (SAFS), http://www.southernforensic.org 

Southwestern Association of Forensic Scientists (SWAFS), http://www.swafs.us 

Certification Organizations 

American Board of Criminalists (ABC)a 

American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA)b 

American Board of Forensic Document Examiners (ABFDE)a 

American Board of Forensic Entomology (ABFE)b 

41 
American Board of Forensic Odontology (ABFO)a 

American Board of Forensic Toxicology (ABFT)a 

American Board of Medicolegal Death Investigators (ABMDI)a 

American Board of Pathology—Forensic Pathology (ABP(FP)c 

American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology—Forensic Pathology (ABPN–FP)c 

Association of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners (AFTE)b 

Association of Forensic Document Examiners (AFDE)a 

Forensic Toxicologist Certification Board (FTCB)a 

International Association for Identification (IAI)a 

International Institute of Forensic Engineering Sciences (IIFES)a 

Notes 

a. Represented on the Forensic Specialties Accreditation Board (FSAB). 

b. Recognized as a certification board representing that discipline but not yet formally represented on FSAB. 

c. Accredited by the American Board of Medical Specialties. 

42 
Appendix D. Technical and Scientific Working 

Groups 

NIJ-Sponsored Technical Working Groups 

Technical Working Group for Bombing Scene Investigation (TWGBSI)


Technical Working Group for Crime Scene Investigation (TWGCSI)


Technical Working Group for Death Investigation (TWGDI)


Technical Working Group for Digital Evidence (TWGDE)


Technical Working Group for Eyewitness Evidence (TWGEYEE)


Technical Working Group for Fire/Arson Scene Investigation (TWGFASI)


Technical Working Group for Mass Fatality Forensic Identification (TWGMFFI)


FBI-Sponsored Scientific Working Groups 

Scientific Working Group on Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (SWGSTAIN)


Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE)


Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods (SWGDAM)


Scientific Working Group on Firearms and Toolmarks (SWGGUN)


Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study, and Technology (SWGFAST)


Scientific Working Group on Imaging Technologies (SWGIT)


Scientific Working Group on Materials Analysis (SWGMAT)


Scientific Working Group on Microbial Genetics and Forensics (SWGMGF)


Scientific Working Group on Forensic Document Examination (SWGDOC)


DEA-Sponsored Working Group 

Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs (SWGDRUG) 

National Center for Forensic Science-Sponsored 

Working Group 

Technical Working Group for Fire and Explosions Investigations (TWGFEX) 

43 

Appendix E. Technical and Scientific Working 

Groups’ Educational Criteria 

Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis System,” Forensic Science CommuniMethods (SWGDAM), “Training Guide- cations 4(2), 2002, http://www.fbi.gov/hq/ 

lines,” Forensic Science Communications lab/fsc/backissu/april2002/swgittraining.htm. 

3(4), 2001, http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/ 

fsc/backissu/oct2001/kzinski.htm. Scientific Working Group on Materials 

Analysis (SWGMAT), “Trace Evidence 

Scientific Working Group on Imaging Quality Assurance Guidelines,” Forensic 

Technologies (SWGIT), “Guidelines and Science Communications 2(1), 2000, 

Recommendations for Training in Imaging http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/fsc/backissu. 

Technologies in the Criminal Justice jan2000/swgmat.htm. 

45 

About the National Institute of Justice 

NIJ is the research, development, and evaluation agency of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

The Institute provides objective, independent, evidence-based knowledge and tools to enhance 

the administration of justice and public safety. NIJ’s principal authorities are derived from the 

Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, as amended (see 42 U.S.C. §§ 3721–3723). 

The NIJ Director is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Director establishes the Institute’s objectives, guided by the priorities of the Office of Justice Programs, the 

U.S. Department of Justice, and the needs of the field. The Institute actively solicits the views of 

criminal justice and other professionals and researchers to inform its search for the knowledge 

and tools to guide policy and practice. 

Strategic Goals 

NIJ has seven strategic goals grouped into three categories: 

Creating relevant knowledge and tools 

1. Partner with State and local practitioners and policymakers to identify social science research 

and technology needs. 

2. Create scientific, relevant, and reliable knowledge—with a particular emphasis on terrorism, 

violent crime, drugs and crime, cost-effectiveness, and community-based efforts—to enhance 

the administration of justice and public safety. 

3. Develop affordable and effective tools and technologies to enhance the administration of 

justice and public safety. 

Dissemination 

4. Disseminate relevant knowledge and information to practitioners and policymakers in an 

understandable, timely, and concise manner. 

5. Act as an honest broker to identify the information, tools, and technologies that respond to 

the needs of stakeholders. 

Agency management 

6. Practice fairness and openness in the research and development process. 

7. Ensure professionalism, excellence, accountability, cost-effectiveness, and integrity in the 

management and conduct of NIJ activities and programs. 

Program Areas 

In addressing these strategic challenges, the Institute is involved in the following program areas: 

crime control and prevention, including policing; drugs and crime; justice systems and offender 

behavior, including corrections; violence and victimization; communications and information 

technologies; critical incident response; investigative and forensic sciences, including DNA; lessthan-lethal technologies; officer protection; education and training technologies; testing and 

standards; technology assistance to law enforcement and corrections agencies; field testing of 

promising programs; and international crime control. 

In addition to sponsoring research and development and technology assistance, NIJ evaluates 

programs, policies, and technologies. NIJ communicates its research and evaluation findings 

through conferences and print and electronic media. 

To find out more about the National 

Institute of Justice, please visit: 

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij 

or contact: 

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