December 2006



Understanding Similarities

and Differences between

Accrual and 

Cash Deficits

GAO-07-117SP

United States Government Accountability Office

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GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Two key measures that have been used as indicators of the government’s annual fiscal condition 

are the unified budget deficit measured primarily on a cash basis and the net operating cost measured 

on an accrual basis for financial statement purposes. The unified budget deficit has historically 

been the focus of budget debates and media reports in part because it closely approximates the 

government’s short-term borrowing needs.1 Cash accounting can also be useful for controlling 

spending in the current year. However, the cash measure of fiscal condition, which is similar to 

keeping a checkbook, by nature excludes information about the long-term consequences of today’s 

policy decisions and operations. Indeed, understanding our nation’s long-term fiscal outlook is 

important because, as GAO’s long-term simulations show, current fiscal policy is unsustainable.2

The accrual measure primarily provides more information on the longer-term implications of today’s 

policy decisions and operations by showing certain costs incurred today but not payable for years 

to come, such as civilian and military pensions and retiree health care. 

While cash and accrual measures each serve different purposes, they present complementary 

information and can be used together to provide a more comprehensive picture of the government’s 

fiscal condition today and over time. The goal of this primer is to improve understanding of the 

accrual deficit by describing (1) how it is similar and different from the more commonly reported 

cash budget deficit, (2) the key drivers behind changes in accrual deficits relative to cash budget 

deficits, and (3) how the two measures complement each other and give a fuller picture of the 

government’s overall fiscal condition. 

Throughout this report, we primarily used data from the Financial Report of the United 

States Government, referred to in this report as the Financial Report, which is prepared by the 

Department of the Treasury, in coordination with the Office of Management and Budget.3 However, 

the reader is cautioned not to focus on the precise amount of the accrual deficit, its components, or 

their change from year to year because significant issues regarding the reliability and presentation 

of the federal government’s financial information still need to be addressed. GAO is responsible 

for auditing the consolidated financial statements of the U.S. government, but we have been unable 

to express an opinion on them because the government could not demonstrate the reliability of 

significant portions of the financial statements or that the reconciling differences between accrual 

and cash deficits were complete. The primary reasons for this disclaimed opinion are described in 

this primer. 

Preface

1

The unified budget deficit is net of any Social Security surplus. See p. 1 for more information.

2

GAO, The Nation’s Long-Term Fiscal Outlook: September 2006 Update, GAO-06-1077R (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 15, 2006). 3

For a guide to understanding the Financial Report see GAO, Understanding the Primary Components of the Annual Financial Report of the United 

States Government, GAO-05-958SP (Washington, D.C.: September 2005). 

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 

The Financial Report can be found on the Department of the Treasury’s website at http://

www.fms.treas.gov/fr/index.html. Information on the most recent President’s budget can be 

found on the Office of Management and Budget’s website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/

budget/. 

This primer is structured in a question and answer format. The key questions are shown at 

the top of each page. To find the answers, flip to the page with your question highlighted. For 

easy reference, key terms are defined in the glossary located in appendix I—these glossary terms 

appear in bold type the first time they are used in the text. Many definitions come from A Glossary 

of Terms Used in the Federal Budget Process.4 Other related GAO products are listed at the end 

of this report. 

Unless otherwise indicated, the years referred to in the primer are federal fiscal years, which 

run from October 1 through September 30.

This report was prepared under the direction of Susan J. Irving, Director, Federal Budget 

Analysis, Strategic Issues, who may be reached at (202) 512-9142 or irvings@gao.gov if there are 

any questions. Gary T. Engel, Director, Financial Management and Assurance, and his staff also 

provided key assistance. He may be reached at (202) 512-8815 or engelg@gao.gov. Contact points 

for our Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this 

report. Copies of this report are available upon request. In addition, this document will be available 

at no charge on the GAO Web site at http://www.gao.gov.

4

GAO, A Glossary of Terms Used in the Federal Budget Process, GAO-05-734SP (Washington, D.C.: September 2005). Other terms are based on the 

Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board’s (FASAB) Statements of Federal Financial Accounting Standards, Current Text, vol. 2 (Washington, 

D.C.: June 30, 2004).

David M. Walker

Comptroller General of the United States

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 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Preface

How Are Cash and Accrual Deficits Measured?

The Unified Budget Deficit—The Net Cash Deficit

Net Operating Cost—The Accrual Deficit

What Purpose Does Each Measure Serve?

How Are Cash and Accrual Deficits Similar? How Are They Different?

How Are Cash and Accrual Deficits Similar?

How Are Cash and Accrual Deficits Different?

How Do You Get to the Cash Deficit from the Accrual Deficit?

What Drives Changes in Cash and Accrual Deficits from Year to Year?

What Areas Explain the Largest Differences between Cash and Accrual Deficits?

How Are Military Employee Benefits Recorded in the Cash and Accrual Deficits?

How Are Civilian Employee Benefits Recorded in the Cash and Accrual Deficits?

How Is Veterans Compensation Recorded in the Cash and Accrual Deficits?

How Are Environmental Liabilities Recorded in the Cash and Accrual Deficits? 

How Are Insurance Programs Recorded in the Cash and Accrual Deficits?

How Are Capital Assets Recorded in the Cash and Accrual Deficits?

How Can Accrual and Cash Measures Complement Each Other?

Other Measures Are Also Needed to Understand the Government’s Fiscal Condition

Some Federal Programs Use Both Cash and Accrual Measures in the Budget

but More Could Be Done

Appendix I: Glossary of Key Terms

Appendix II: Budget Outlays Measured on an Accrual Basis

Appendix III: Obligational Accounting

Related GAO Products

Ordering Information

Contacts

Contents



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This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright protection in the United States. 

The published product may be reproduced and distributed in its entirety without further permission from 

GAO. However, because this work may contain copyrighted images or other material, permission from the 

copyright holder may be necessary if you wish to reproduce this material separately.

Abbreviations

CFS consolidated financial statements of the United States government

CSRS Civil Service Retirement System

DOD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

FERS Federal Employee Retirement System

Financial Report Financial Report of the United States Government

GAAP generally accepted accounting principles

OMB Office of Management and Budget

NFIP National Flood Insurance Program

PBGC Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation

PP&E property, plant, and equipment

Treasury Department of the Treasury

VA Department of Veterans Affairs

Image Sources

Front cover: GAO.

Inside front cover: GAO.

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GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

The Unified Budget Deficit—The Net Cash Deficit

The federal budget5 is the government’s primary financial planning and control6 tool. It helps 

establish national spending priorities and the allocation of resources. It also helps ensure that the 

government spends taxpayers’ money in accordance with applicable laws. The President submits his 

forward-looking budget to Congress each February and the Department of the Treasury (Treasury) 

reports the budget results in October after the end of the fiscal year.

The unified budget deficit (or surplus) is the federal budget’s “bottom line.” It represents 

the actual amount by which total outlays exceed receipts (or receipts exceed outlays), including 

any Social Security surplus. For the budget deficit, receipts and outlays are primarily measured 

on a cash basis7 —that is, they are recorded when cash is received or paid, similar to keeping a 

checkbook. Because the budget deficit is primarily measured on a cash basis, it is hereafter called 

the cash budget deficit or simply cash deficit.

The unified budget is a comprehensive measure of all federal activities, including those that 

are on-budget and off-budget. The on-budget deficit includes all budgetary accounts other than 

those designated by law as off-budget. The off-budget accounts are the Postal Service and Social 

Security trust funds. In fiscal year 2005, the unified budget deficit was $319 billion as reported in the 

Financial Report of the United States Government, hereafter referred to as the Financial Report.8

It was composed of a $494 billion on-budget deficit, a Postal Service surplus of $2 billion and a 

Social Security surplus of $173 billion.

How Are Cash and Accrual

Deficits Measured?

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

5

For purposes of this primer, the “federal budget” is used broadly to include not only planning but also the end fiscal result of that plan (i.e., the fiscal effect of 

spending and revenue laws in effect for any given fiscal year).

6

The federal government uses obligational accounting to track and control the use of funds. However, in the context of the government’s fiscal condition, Congress 

and the public tend to focus on the cash deficit—and more recently the accrual deficit. Because of the attention to these two measures, this primer focuses on them. 

More information on obligational accounting is in app. III.

7

Credit programs and certain interest payments are not measured on a cash basis in the budget. For more information see app. II.

8

The final deficit number published in the President’s budget was slightly lower—$318 billion. However, the Financial Report reconciles the cash and accrual 

measures of fiscal condition, so we will use the number reported therein. 

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP

Net Operating Cost—The Accrual Deficit

Similar to a corporation’s annual report, the Financial Report is the federal government’s 

annual general-purpose report of accountability to the American public on its finances. Some 

primary goals of the Financial Report are to provide a comprehensive overview of the cost9 of 

the federal government’s operations, the sources used to finance them, and the implications of 

long-term obligations and commitments.10 However, significant issues regarding the reliability and 

reporting of this financial information still need to be addressed. The Financial Report is prepared 

by Treasury, in coordination with the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). GAO is responsible 

for auditing the consolidated financial statements of the United States government (CFS). OMB 

requires the Financial Report to be published in December following the end of the fiscal year. 

For example, the Financial Report for fiscal year 2005, which ended on September 30, 2005, was 

published in December 2005.

The net operating cost (or net operating revenue) is found in the Financial Report. Net 

operating cost (or net operating revenue) is the amount by which expenses exceed revenue (or 

revenue exceeds expenses). For this measure, expenses are recorded on an accrual basis—in 

the period when goods are used or services are performed as opposed to when the resulting cash 

payments are made.11 In some cases, expenses are estimates of amounts that will be outlays in the 

future and thus depend on assumptions for interest rates, inflation, and wage growth, among other 

things. 

Most revenues in the Financial Report are recorded on a modified cash basis.

12 This means 

they are essentially recorded when collected, but there is an accrual adjustment for some taxes due 

that have not been paid by the taxpayer and refunds due to taxpayers that have not been paid by 

the government. A modified cash basis of accounting is used in part because of inherent limitations 

estimating the amount of revenue arising from underlying events (e.g., taxpayers may not know 

their taxable income until after the underlying event, they may not file returns on their due dates, 

or they may underpay). 

For simplicity, the net operating cost (or net operating revenue) is hereafter called the accrual 

deficit (or surplus).

9The term “cost” can have different meanings depending on the context in which it is used. Throughout this report, cost is used in a general sense to mean the value 

of resources used to produce a program, provide a service, or achieve an objective.

10Unless otherwise noted, the term “commitments” is used in this report to mean potential draws on future resources that flow not only from the law but also from 

public expectations.

11Accrual accounting, which is also used by private business enterprises for financial reporting, is generally the basis for U.S. generally accepted accounting principles 

(GAAP) for federal government entities. However, for some revenue, a modified cash basis of accounting is used and is also considered as GAAP.

12While most revenue, including taxes, duties, and fines, are recorded on a modified cash basis, revenues from providing goods and services to the public at a price 

(e.g., user fees, premiums) are recorded on an accrual basis.

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

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 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

What Purpose Does Each Measure Serve?

The cash basis of accounting has traditionally been used for federal budgeting for several 

reasons. Because cash can be tracked throughout the year it can be useful for controlling spending 

in the current year. Also, because the time between the occurrence of a transaction that commits 

the government to make a payment and the cash flow to make the payment is relatively short for 

many program areas, the cash measure provides adequate information about the government’s total 

commitment at the time budget decisions are made for these programs. Finally and perhaps most 

notably, the cash budget deficit closely approximates the government’s short-term borrowing needs 

and so is a widely used and traditionally accepted measure of the government’s effect on current 

financial markets. 

There are several areas, however, in which outlays measured on a cash basis do not provide 

complete information about the total amount of the government’s obligation upfront when 

decisions are made. For some of these program areas, the budget records outlays on an accrual 

basis. Perhaps the best known of these are credit programs—loans and loan guarantees. Appendix 

II provides more information on which programs’ outlays are measured on an accrual basis and 

how they affect the cash budget deficit. 

Accrual measures are useful for understanding the government’s annual operating cost, including 

costs incurred today but not payable for years to come. As such, it adds a longer-term focus to 

the government’s financial picture by providing more information on longer-term consequences of 

today’s policy decisions and operations. Under federal accounting standards, the long-term costs 

for social insurance (primarily Medicare and Social Security) are not included in the accrual deficit. 

However, the Statement of Social Insurance provides information about the future costs of these 

programs.13

Finally, financial accounting standards are intended to result in the provision of financial 

information that will be useful for decision making. Once the information reported in the financial 

statement is auditable, it would provide integrity to related information in the budget, including 

actual receipts and outlays, if the amounts are materially consistent and reliable. 

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

13The Statement of Social Insurance has been included in the required supplemental stewardship section of the Financial Report and will be incorporated into the 

primary financial statements for fiscal year 2006.

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 

The cash and accrual deficits are based on the same underlying activities—the differences arise 

due to the timing of when the costs of certain activities are recognized. For the accrual deficit, 

costs are recognized when goods are used or services are performed. For the cash deficit, costs 

are recorded when cash payments are made for goods received or services performed. For many 

program areas, the timing difference is small but for others the timing differences can amount to 

billions of dollars each year. For example, in 2005, the reported accrual deficit was $760 billion—

more than twice the size of the $319 billion cash deficit. 

Not only are some of the differences caused by timing large, but they can cause the cash and 

accrual deficits to send different signals. For example, accrual and cash measures have sent 

different signals about whether the government is in surplus or deficit. Figure 1 shows that in 2001 

the budget was running a cash surplus but the accrual measure showed a large deficit.

Figure 1: The Cash and Accrual Measures of Fiscal Surplus and Deficit

How Are Cash and Accrual Deficits Similar? 

How Are They Different?

Source: Treasury.

Note: Data from unaudited Financial Reports. In some years, the budget deficit reported in the Financial Report differs from the final deficit number published in the President’s 

budget. For example, the 2005 Financial Report issued in December 2005 reported a $319 billion cash budget deficit. However, the final deficit number published in the President’s 

budget 2 months later was slightly lower—$318 billion.

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

The two measures can also send different signals about the direction in which the government’s 

fiscal condition is heading. For example, although both measures were in deficit in 2005, the cash 

budget deficit decreased from the previous year while the accrual deficit increased. This leads to 

questions of how the two measures are similar, how they’re different, and what drives changes in 

the two measures. 

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

-1000

-800

-600

-400

-200

0

200

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Dollars in billions

Fiscal year

Cash surplus/deficit

Accrual surplus/deficit

-515

-365

-668

-616

-412

-319

-760

-375

-158

127

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10 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

How Are Cash and Accrual Deficits Similar?

Since revenue is primarily recorded on a modified cash basis in the financial statements, there 

is very little difference between cash receipts and accrued revenue.14

On the spending side, many programs are also recorded similarly because the time between the 

occurrence of the underlying transaction and the cash flow is relatively short. So, for some program 

areas such as federal employee salaries and grants there is little difference between accrual and 

cash measures. Figure 2 below illustrates this point using federal salaries.

Figure 2: Cost of Federal Salaries Reflected Similarly in Accrual and Cash Deficits

10

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

Source: GAO.

14The budget uses the term “receipts” while the financial statements use “revenue.” Both have the same meaning.

 For federal salaries, the time between when salaries are earned and when they are paid 

is short—a little over a week. Under accrual accounting, an expense for federal salaries is 

recognized when the salaries are earned. Under cash accounting an outlay is recorded in 

the following week when the salary is paid. At year’s end, there is little difference between the 

cash and accrual measure of salaries because both include salary payments or expenses for 

roughly 52 weeks of work.

However, the cash and accrual measures may not include the exact same 52 weeks of salary. 

Because the accrual deficit includes an expense as the salary is earned, regardless of when 

paid in cash, it will include the 52 weeks of salary earned in the current year. However, the 

cash deficit includes cash payments for salaries earned in the prior year and excludes cash 

payments for salaries earned in the last week of the current year that will be paid in the next 

year. 

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP

Cash and accrual measures are also similar in that they both exclude the value of

• future payments for certain contingencies and financial commitments and

• future benefits for entitlement programs, including social insurance.

Neither contingencies nor financial commitments are reflected in the cash deficit until 

the government makes the cash payment. Only some contingencies are reflected in the accrual 

deficit—those that are assessed as “probable” as to the likelihood of loss and can be reasonably 

measured. However, many contingencies are not reflected in the accrual deficit in part because it 

is difficult to anticipate the amount to be paid. Contingencies assessed as “reasonably possible” as 

to the likelihood of loss, or assessed as “probable” as to the likelihood of loss but that cannot be 

reasonably measured, are not included in the accrual deficit but are disclosed in the notes to the 

financial statements. For example, in fiscal year 2005, possible estimated losses of $1.2 billion to 

$7.9 billion from administrative claims and legal actions were assessed as “reasonably possible” 

and therefore not included in the accrual deficit. Also, the potential costs associated with future 

natural disasters are not recorded in the accrual deficit even though the public anticipates and has 

received large amounts of assistance following natural disasters. Finally, financial commitments, 

such as contracted goods or services that have not yet been delivered, are not recorded in the 

accrual deficit until the goods or services are delivered but are disclosed in the notes to the financial 

statements.15

While both the cash and accrual deficits include payments to current beneficiaries for entitlement 

programs, including social insurance, neither the cash nor accrual deficit reflects the serious future 

fiscal challenges of Social Security, Medicare, and other social insurance programs. Future scheduled 

benefits and estimated receipts are included in the Statement of Social Insurance.16 However future 

benefits are not a liability under federal accounting standards.17 

11

15Even though they are not reflected in the cash budget deficit, the budget records an obligation, or legal liability, under obligational accounting at the time the 

government enters into a contract. See app. III for more information on the differences in when transactions are recorded under obligational accounting compared to 

accrual and cash accounting.

16The Statement of Social Insurance has been included in the required supplemental stewardship information section of the Financial Report. Beginning with fiscal 

year 2006, the statement will be incorporated into the primary financial statements and audited. Information on the effect of large social insurance programs on the 

budget can be found in GAO-06-1077R.

17A liability is recorded for unpaid amounts due at the end of the fiscal year. This is similar to how other countries budget and account for social insurance. See GAO, 

Accrual Budgeting: Experiences of Other Nations and Implications for the United States, GAO/AIMD-00-57 (Washington, D.C.: Feb. 18, 2000).

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

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12 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

How Are Cash and Accrual Deficits Different?

The differences between cash and accrual deficits are almost entirely on the spending side since 

revenues are recorded similarly in the budget and financial statements. Differences arise when a 

cost is accrued (and affects the accrual deficit) in 1 fiscal year but paid (and affects the cash deficit) 

in another fiscal year. 

While there are a number of areas in the federal government where differences exist, the six 

listed below account for the largest differences between accrual and cash deficits: 

• civilian employee benefits,

• military employee benefits,

• veterans compensation, 

• environmental liabilities (e.g., cleanup and disposal),

• insurance programs, and

• capital assets.

For all of these areas except capital assets, the key difference between the accrual and cash 

measures is the annual change in the liability. Each year as expenses are accrued, those that are 

not paid (and not reflected in the budget) increase the government’s liability. As such, the liability 

represents unpaid expenses. The change in the liability from year to year is generally equal to 

accrued expenses less cash payments made to cover expenses. Figure 3 illustrates this point using 

federal employee benefits other than salaries.

Figure 3: Difference between Accrual and Cash Measures of Federal Employee Benefits

• The first statement shows how much it costs on the accrual basis of accounting to operate

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

 The accrual deficit includes an accrued expense for each current employee’s pension and 

other retirement benefits, which are earned during the employee’s working years but not paid 

until sometime in the future when the employee retires. 

The cash budget deficit does not include retirement benefits earned today, but it does reflect 

payments made to current retirees. (These cash payments reflect past expenses.) 

The difference between the accrued retirement benefits recognized and cash payments made 

during the year is generally the change in the liability from year to year. It is also the amount 

of the difference between the accrual and cash measures due to employee benefits. 

Source: GAO.

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 13

Capital assets are treated differently. When capital assets such as structures and equipment 

are purchased, the budget recognizes the full cost up front in order to provide decision makers with 

the information and incentives to make efficient decisions at the only time that they can control the 

cost.18 Specifically, the cost of a capital asset is recorded as an outlay and included in the cash budget 

deficit when the asset is paid for. However, under the accrual basis of accounting used in the financial 

statements, the cost of the asset is initially recorded on the balance sheet. The cost of the asset is 

then spread over its expected useful life to match the asset’s cost with its use. Therefore, each year 

the accrual deficit only reflects 1 year’s worth of cost, called depreciation expense. Figure 4 below 

illustrates this point.

Figure 4: Difference between Accrual and Cash Measures of Capital Assets

Let’s assume that the federal government purchased a building this year for $50 million and 

expected the building to be used for the next 50 years. The cash budget deficit would reflect 

the $50 million cost this year. The accrual deficit would only reflect a $1 million depreciation 

expense (assuming a straight-line depreciation method)a in the current year. The remaining 

cost of the asset would be reflected in the accrual deficit over the next 49 years at an annual 

expense of $1 million. 

Source: GAO.

a

The straight-line depreciation method assumes the asset will provide an equal amount of benefit each year. The annual depreciation expense is calculated by dividing the purchase 

price of the asset (less its estimated salvage or residual value) by the estimated useful life of the asset. 

18For capital assets, budget authority for the asset’s cost must generally be provided up front before the asset can be purchased.

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

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14 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

How Do You Get to the Cash Deficit from the Accrual Deficit?

The Financial Report includes a statement called Reconciliation of Net Operating Revenue (or 

Cost) and Unified Budget Surplus (or Deficit), hereafter called the “reconciliation statement,” that 

provides a crosswalk between the net operating cost (accrual deficit) and the unified budget deficit 

(cash budget deficit). Figure 5 below shows the general relationship underlying the reconciliation 

statement and how to get to the cash budget deficit from the accrual deficit. 

Figure 5: Moving from the Accrual Deficit to the Cash Budget Deficit (Using Fiscal Year 

2005 Numbers to Illustrate)

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

Source: Treasury.

625.3 (see on fig. 6)

-760.0 (see on fig. 6) 1

2

-13.2 (see on fig. 6) 4

-318.5 (see on fig. 6) 5

– 170.6 (see on fig. 6) 3

+

+

Accrual surplus/

deficit (-)

(revenue - expenses)

The accrual deficit is equal to 

revenue less expenses in the current 

year. Some expenses are accrued but 

not paid in the current year and so are 

not reflected in the cash budget 

deficit. So, to get to the cash budget 

deficit from the accrual deficit, unpaid 

expenses are removed. Because 

accrued expenses enter into the 

accrual deficit as a negative, unpaid 

expenses are added to the accrual 

deficit in order to remove them and 

get to the cash budget deficit. 

Conversely, cash outlays not related to 

current year expenses, such as those 

for capital assets, are not included in 

the accrual deficit but are included in 

the cash budget deficit (i.e., they have 

already been subtracted from 

receipts). Thus, such cash outlays are 

subtracted from the accrual deficit to 

get to the cash deficit.

Dollars in billions

Net amount of all

other differences

(i.e., the “plug”

needed to force the 

statement to balance)

Cash

surplus/deficit (-)

(receipts - outlays)

Accrued

expenses in 

excess of cash 

outlays

Cash outlays that 

do not involve 

current year 

expenses

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 14 12/1/2006 1:27:35 PM
Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 15

Figure 6 summarizes the reconciliation statements contained in the CFS for fiscal years 2001–

2005. In the figure, annual changes in liabilities can be either positive or negative:

• If accrued expenses exceed cash payments, liabilities increase (a positive change). A 

positive change represents accrued expenses that are in the accrual deficit but not the cash 

budget deficit. 

• If cash payments exceed accrued expenses, liabilities decrease (a negative change). A 

negative change represents cash payments that are not included in the accrual deficit but 

are included in the cash budget deficit. 

Figure 6: Crosswalk between Accrual and Cash Deficits/Surpluses

Notes: Data reported in the unaudited Financial Reports for fiscal years 2001–2005.

aThe change in insurance liabilities was not included in the reconciliation statement prior to the Financial Report for 2005. The 2005 reconciliation statement 

included comparative data for both 2004 and 2005.

bThe final deficit number published in the President’s budget was slightly lower—$318.3 billion. 

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Net operating cost

(i.e., accrual deficit) -514.8 -364.9 -667.6 -615.6

Components of accrual deficit not part of the cash budget deficit

Fiscal year (dollars in billions)

Changes in liability for military employee benefits (see p. 20) 406.8 32.4 101.1 143.4 169.6

Changes in liability for veterans compensation (see p. 24) 139.3 157.3 105.6 -30.0 197.8

Changes in liability for civilian employee benefits (see p. 22) 50.1 38.9 83.9 68.7 62.3

Changes in environmental liabilities (see p. 26) 5.7 -33.8 -23.1 -0.7 10.6

Depreciation expense (see p. 30) 21.4 20.5 71.2 89.9 79.7

Changes in insurance liabilities (see p. 28) a a a 37.0a 31.0

Other (e.g., disposals/revaluations of capital assets) (see p. 30) 42.2 25.2 47.1 -4.1 74.3

Total 665.5 240.5 385.8 304.2

Components of cash budget deficit not part of the accrual deficit

Outlays for capitalized fixed assets (see p. 30)

Net amount of all other differences (i.e., the “plug” needed to force the 

statement to balance) (see p. 16)

-34.4 -40.9 -102.0 -112.1 -146.6

Other (e.g., principal repayments on precredit reform loans) 17.1 6.6 12.5 -12.0 -24.0

Total

Net amount of all other differences

-6.4 1.0 -3.5 23.2

Unified budget surplus/deficit

(i.e., cash surplus/deficit) 127.0 -157.7 -374.8 -412.3

625.3

-760.0

-17.3 -34.3 -89.5 -124.1 -170.6

-318.5b

-13.2

2

1

3

4

Source: Treasury.

5

Information available on www.fms.treas.gov/fr/index.html

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 15 12/1/2006 1:27:35 PM
16 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

While the reconciliation statement is useful for illustrating which program areas explain large 

differences between the cash and accrual measures in each year, too much focus should not be 

placed on the amounts shown for items listed in the reconciliation statement—nor the actual 

amount of the accrual deficit itself—for a number of reasons, which are discussed below.

First, as of 2005, Treasury has not been able to identify all items needed to reconcile the accrual 

and cash deficits. As a result, certain items that would cause the accrual and cash deficits to be 

different are not itemized in the reconciliation statement. To make the statement balance, Treasury 

includes an entry—labeled “net amount of all other differences”—that is needed to force the 

statement into balance (i.e., a “plug”). In 2005, this entry was $13.2 billion (or 3 percent of the total 

difference between the accrual and cash budget deficits).19

Second, we identified material weaknesses relating to some of the areas listed in the reconciliation 

statement—namely capital assets, environmental liabilities, and military postretirement health 

benefits.20 Errors in the reported expenses for these areas could lead to errors in the amount of 

the accrual deficit itself. For example, the failure to report a depreciation expense for a certain 

capital asset would tend to result in an understatement of the accrual deficit while overreporting 

depreciation expense would overstate the accrual deficit. 

Finally, the accrual deficit itself includes an amount needed to force the CFS into balance (i.e., 

a “plug”). The accrual deficit should typically equal the annual change in net position, which is the 

difference between the assets and liabilities reported in the balance sheet. However, Treasury could 

not completely reconcile the difference between ending and beginning of year net position and thus 

included an amount labeled “unreconciled transactions affecting the change in net position” to force 

the CFS into balance. Also, as part of our audit of the CFS, we identified a number of issues, including 

problems relating to the compilation of the CFS and the reconciliation of intragovernmental activity 

and balances between federal agencies.21

19For more information on the issues GAO identified with the reconciliation statement and related recommendations see GAO, Financial Audit: Process for 

Preparing the Consolidated Financial Statements of the U.S. Government Needs Improvement, GAO-04-45 (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 30, 2003).

20See pp. 15–26 for information on weaknesses in the reported expenses of these program areas.

21For a list of GAO’s recommendations addressing these and other weaknesses in the financial statements, see GAO, Financial Audit: Significant Internal Control 

Weaknesses Remain in Preparing the Consolidated Financial Statements of the U.S. Government, GAO-06-415 (Washington, D.C.: Apr. 21, 2006).

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 16 12/1/2006 1:27:36 PM
Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 17

What Drives Changes in Cash and Accrual 

Deficits from Year to Year?

In recent years, both cash and accrual measures show a general deterioration in the government’s 

fiscal condition. This deterioration was due to both tax and spending legislation, sometimes in 

response to outside events, such as the attacks of September 11, 2001 and the ensuing economic 

slowdown, operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, and Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, which together 

affected the government’s operating costs and revenue. 

Some changes in the cash deficit from year to year can be and have been due to changes in 

dates when cash is scheduled to be paid or received. For example, when October 1 falls on a 

weekend, certain federal payments due on that date, such as salaries for military employees, are 

paid in September. This shifts the cash outlay into the previous fiscal year. However, because these 

benefits are recorded as expenses when due and payable, the shift in the payment date would not 

affect the accrual deficit. In contrast, Congress sometimes changes the due date for tax payments, 

which can shift cash receipts from one year to the next. For example, Congress changed the 

corporate tax payment due date from September 15, 2001, to October 1, 2001, resulting in a shift of 

about $23 billion in revenue from fiscal year 2001 to 2002. Because revenues are generally recorded 

when collected in both the cash and accrual deficits, the change in the tax due date would affect 

both the cash and accrual deficits.

However, the accrual deficit has also been driven by three additional factors:

• legislation that obligates future government resources, 

• changes in methods or assumptions for estimating long-term liabilities, and 

• changes in federal accounting standards.

For example, enacting a law that expands future federal employee retirement benefits or 

insurance programs would be reflected immediately in the accrual deficit but would not affect the 

cash budget deficit until future years when the benefits are paid. Indeed, the largest change in the 

accrual deficit in recent years occurred between 2000 and 200122 when legislation was passed that 

extended TRICARE—health care benefits for military employees—to Medicare-eligible military 

retirees and their beneficiaries. This change alone increased the estimated value of future benefit 

payments and the accrual deficit by over $290 billion in 2001. However, because these benefits will 

not be paid until future years, the cost was not reflected in the cash budget deficit.

22The accrual measure went from a surplus of $40 billion in 2000 to a deficit of $515 billion in 2001—a swing of about $555 billion.

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from 

Year to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 17 12/1/2006 1:27:36 PM
18 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from 

Year to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

Second, whereas the cash measure is sensitive to changes in dates when cash is scheduled to be 

paid or received, accrual measures are sensitive to changes in assumptions—such as future salary 

increases, changes to the general price level, interest rates, and technology—used to estimate future 

payments. For example, some future payments are discounted into present value terms using 

nominal interest rate assumptions. Changes in interest rates can and have caused changes—and 

sometimes large ones—in expenses and the accrual deficit. For example, the change in interest 

rate assumptions drove wide swings in the liability for veterans compensation in recent years. This 

liability increased by $105 billion in 2003, decreased by $30 billion in 2004, and then increased by 

$228 billion in 2005. From 2003 to 2004, the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) raised its longterm interest rate assumption from 4.91 to 5.23 percent. In 2005, VA reduced its long-term interest 

rate to 4.74 percent. 

Finally, changes in federal accounting standards can also drive large changes in the accrual 

deficit without any effect on the cash budget deficit. For example, beginning in fiscal year 2003, a 

new accounting standard was adopted that required national defense equipment to be capitalized—

that is, included on the balance sheet—and depreciated. Prior to 2003, the purchases of national 

defense equipment were expensed in the year they were bought and the assets were not capitalized 

or depreciated.23 A primary reason for the increase in the amount of capitalized assets reported in 

the reconciliation statement from $40.9 billion in 2002 to $102.0 billion in 2003 was the capitalization 

of national defense equipment purchased in 2003. Also primarily as a result of national defense 

equipment being capitalized, the depreciation expense more than tripled from $20.5 billion in 2002 

to $71.2 billion in 2003. 

While a lot of variation in the accrual deficit may lead some to believe the measure is less reliable 

than the cash measure, the changes often result from improvements in government estimation 

methods or the implementation of new accounting standards. This suggests that caution must be 

taken when interpreting year-to-year changes in the accrual deficit. Sometimes a change in the 

accrual deficit may not mean a change in fiscal condition, but rather a change in the government’s 

methods of measuring its condition. As the reliability issues we raised in our audits are addressed, 

the accrual deficit will become a more meaningful complement to the cash measure. 

23National defense equipment was considered stewardship property, plant, and equipment and reported as required supplemental stewardship information to the 

financial statements..

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 18 12/1/2006 1:27:36 PM
Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 19

What Areas Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash and Accrual Deficits?

In the following pages, we provide more detailed information on the six areas that explain the 

largest differences between accrual and cash deficits. As we stated before, the six areas are

• military employee benefits,

• civilian employee benefits,

• veterans compensation,

• environmental liabilities (e.g., cleanup and disposal),

• insurance programs, and

• capital assets.

 We explain how each area’s costs are reflected under the two measures and how the numbers 

in the reconciliation statement are developed. Also, because changes in the accrued liability for 

these programs can lead to changes in the accrual deficit without any corresponding changes to the 

cash budget deficit, we explain what drives the accrual measures of each area and the key events or 

changes in assumptions that led to large changes in their liabilities from fiscal years 2001 to 2005.

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 19 12/1/2006 1:27:36 PM
20 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Source: Treasury.

Table 1: Military Employee Benefit Liabilities

Dollars in billions

Fiscal year

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

1,309.7 1,342.1 1,443.2 1,586.6 1,756.2

Pensions 708.3 730.0 739.0 837.7 895.4

Postretirement health 580.9 592.0 683.0 725.3 833.9

Other (e.g., insurance) 20.5 20.1 21.2 23.6 26.9

406.8 32.4 101.1 143.4 169.6

Pensions 17.8 21.7 9.0 98.7 57.7

Postretirement health 388.6 11.1 91.0 42.3 108.6

Other (e.g., insurance) 0.4 -0.4 1.1 2.4 3.3

Change in liability from previous year

Accrued liability

Note: Data from unaudited Financial Reports for 2001 to 2005. 

The change in liability from the previous year (in the highlighted row of table 1) represents 

the primary difference between accrual and cash measures of military employee benefits. The 

change in liability is generally equal to expenses accrued for current workers less cash outlays to 

pay current retirees’ benefits, which were expensed in the past. Therefore a positive change in the 

liability represents accrued expenses in excess of cash outlays. Because accrued expenses enter 

into the accrual deficit as a negative, one must add the change in liability to the accrual deficit to 

get to the cash deficit.

How Are Military Employee Benefits Recorded in the 

Cash and Accrual Deficits?

Military

Employee

Benefits Veterans

Compensation

Environmental

Liabilities Capital

Civilian

Employee

Benefits

Military employee benefits include retirement benefits, such as pensions, health benefits, and 

insurance, for military personnel who remain on active duty for 20 years or more. The cash budget 

deficit reflects the payments made to retired military in the current year but not the estimated longterm costs.24 However, the accrual deficit reflects an expense for the estimated long-term cost of 

military pensions and other retirement benefits during the years the service members are working. 

The expense reflects services rendered in the current year, accrued interest on the outstanding 

liability, and adjustments for any pension plan amendments or deviations between actual experience 

and assumptions used to estimate past expenses.

Table 1 shows the accrued liabilities—or the actuarial present value of the expected cost of 

military employee benefits that is unpaid at the end of the reporting year—and the corresponding 

year-to-year change in liabilities from 2001 to 2005. 

24The Department of Defense (DOD) makes contributions for some retirement benefits but the payments are intragovernmental—that is, they are recorded as outlays 

by DOD and receipts by the military retirement trust funds. Since no cash actually leaves the government, such contributions do not affect the governmentwide cash 

deficit. See app. II for more information.

Insurance

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 20 12/1/2006 1:27:36 PM
Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 21

What Drives Changes in Military Employee Benefit Liabilities?

Changes in the military employee benefit liabilities have accounted for large swings in the 

accrual deficit without any corresponding change in the cash budget deficit. The largest change 

in the military employee benefit liability during the period of 2001 to 2005 was due to a change in 

law. In 2001, the liability for military employee benefits increased by $406.8 billion. A large part of 

the increase—over $290 billion—stemmed from the initial nonrecurring effect of the 2001 National 

Defense Authorization Act (Pub. L. No. 106-398). This legislation extended TRICARE—health care 

benefits for military employees—to Medicare-eligible military retirees and their beneficiaries. Prior 

to 2001, military retirees who were eligible for Medicare relied on Medicare benefits. 

The change in liability has also varied from year to year because of differences between actual 

experience and what was originally assumed. For example, from 2004 to 2005, the change in the 

military health liability was $108.6 billion. According to the Department of Defense (DOD), about 

$60 billion of this change reflects higher-than-assumed health care cost growth.

It should be noted that DOD was unable to provide support for a significant portion of the 

reported military retiree health liability. DOD’s auditors found that DOD’s systems could not 

accurately report the costs of health care provided by DOD facilities or develop reliable projections 

of future health care costs and the military retiree health liability. 

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 21 12/1/2006 1:27:37 PM
22 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

How Are Civilian Employee Benefits Recorded in the 

Cash and Accrual Deficits?

Civilian employees earn pension and other retirement benefits over the course of their working 

years, but these benefits are not paid until the employee retires. Currently, pensions represent 

the largest civilian employee benefit, and postretirement health benefits are a relatively small but 

growing share of civilian employee benefits. In the cash budget, the payments made to retired 

employees are recorded as outlays and reflected in the cash budget deficit. Any contributions made 

by employees are recorded as receipts and offset part of the cash outlays.25 However, the accrual 

deficit reflects an annual expense for the estimated long-term cost of these benefits each year as the 

employee renders his or her services. The annual expense includes the pension, health, or other 

benefits accrued for current workers, accrued interest on the outstanding liability, and adjustments 

for any changes to assumptions or the plans’ benefits and any deviations between actual experience 

and assumptions. Contributions made by employees towards pension, health, or other benefits are 

recorded as earned revenue, which offset part of the expense.26

The reported civilian employee benefit liabilities—or the present value of the benefits that have 

been earned but not paid at the end of the reporting year—and the changes in liabilities are shown 

in table 2. 

25Agencies also make contributions for some accrued pension benefits but the payments are intragovernmental—that is, they are recorded as outlays by one 

agency and receipts by the civil service retirement and disability trust fund. Since no cash actually leaves the government, such contributions do not affect the 

governmentwide cash deficit. See app. II for more information. Most civilian agencies are not required to make contributions for future health and life insurance 

benefits.

26Agency contributions are also recorded as earned revenue but since these contributions are intragovernmental, they are netted out in the CFS. 

Note: Data from unaudited Financial Reports for 2001 to 2005. 

Military

Employee

Benefits

Veterans

Compensation

Environmental

Liabilities Capital

Civilian

Employee

Benefits Insurance

Table 2: Civilian Employee Benefit Liabilities

Dollars in billions

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

1,359.2 1,398.1 1,482.0 1,550.7 1,613.0

Pensions 1,112.9 1,129.8 1,190.4 1,230.2 1,273.8

Postretirement health 205.2 221.4 244.4 266.1 290.7

Other benefits 41.1 46.9 47.2 54.4 48.5

50.1 38.9 83.9 68.7 62.3

Pension 41.0 16.9 60.6 39.8 43.6

Postretirement health 7.2 16.2 23.0 21.7 24.6

Other benefits 1.9 5.8 0.3 7.2 -5.9

Source: Treasury.

Change in liability from previous year

Accrued liability

Fiscal year

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 22 12/1/2006 1:27:37 PM
Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 23

The change in the liability from the previous year (in the highlighted row of table 2) is the 

primary difference between what is recorded in the accrual deficit and the cash budget deficit for 

civilian employee benefits. The change in liability is generally equal to the accrued expense less 

payments made to current retirees during the current year. Therefore a positive change in the 

liability represents accrued expenses in excess of cash outlays. Because accrued expenses enter 

into the accrual deficit as a negative, the change in liability is added to the accrual deficit to get to 

the cash deficit.

What Drives Changes in Civilian Employee Benefit Liabilities?

Changes in civilian employee benefit liabilities can affect the accrual deficit with no corresponding 

change to the cash budget deficit. The accrued benefit expense depends on assumptions and 

projections for salaries, years of service, interest rates, inflation, and other economic and 

demographic variables. As such, deviations between actual experience and these assumptions can 

lead to large changes in the civilian employee benefit liability and the accrual deficit itself. For 

example, the change in liability attributed to pensions in 2002—$16.9 billion—was lower than in 

2001—$41.0 billion—because actual pay raises given to federal employees and the cost of living 

allowance given to retirees were both less than previously assumed. As a result, the previous year’s 

liability was reduced because of these deviations from the assumptions. Conversely, the change in 

liability attributed to pensions in 2003—$60.6 billion—was significantly larger than 2002 because 

actual pay raises were larger than assumed. 

Most of the year-to-year changes in the postretirement health liability were also due to differences 

between actual experience and assumptions about health care costs and utilization. Health care cost 

trends have been more volatile than factors underlying estimates of pension benefit liabilities (e.g., 

wage growth and cost of living allowances); hence, estimates of postretirement health liabilities can 

be more volatile than pension liability estimates.

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 23 12/1/2006 1:27:37 PM
24 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Source: Treasury.

Table 3: Veterans Compensation Liabilities

Dollars in billions

Fiscal year

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

691.9 849.2 954.8 924.8 1,122.6

Change in liability from previous year 139.3 157.3 105.6 -30.0 197.8

Accrued liability

The veterans compensation program provides eligible veterans and their survivors with benefits 

to compensate for the loss of potential earnings due to service-connected disability or death. The 

cash budget deficit reflects compensation payments made in the current year to current veterans 

but not the estimated costs of future benefits. However, the accrual deficit reflects an expense 

for future payments to current veterans already receiving benefits, veterans that aren’t currently 

receiving benefits but will in the future, and a portion of those in active military service assumed by 

the VA to become eligible for benefits in the future. 

Table 3 shows the reported veterans compensation liability—or the present value of the estimated 

cost of future benefit payments earned but not paid at the end of the year—and the corresponding 

change in each year from 2001 to 2005. 

Note: Data from unaudited Financial Reports for 2001 to 2005. 

The difference between the cash and accrual measures of veterans compensation is the change 

in the liability from year to year (in the highlighted row of table 3). The change in the liability is 

generally equal to accrued compensation expense plus accrued interest on the outstanding liability 

less benefits paid to current beneficiaries. As such, a positive change in the liability represents 

accrued expenses (in excess of cash payments). Because accrued expenses enter into the accrual 

deficit as a negative, one must add the change in liability to the accrual deficit to get to the cash 

budget deficit. 

How Is Veterans Compensation Recorded in the 

Cash and Accrual Deficits?

Military

Employee

Benefits

Veterans

Compensation Environmental

Liabilities Capital

Civilian

Employee

Benefits Insurance

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 24 12/1/2006 1:27:37 PM
Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 25

What Drives Changes in Veterans Compensation Liabilities? 

Changes in the veterans compensation liability can affect the accrual deficit with no corresponding 

change to the cash budget deficit. VA estimates the compensation liability using assumptions for 

the number of beneficiaries, life expectancy, future cost of living adjustments, and interest rates, 

among other things, and the liability is sensitive to changes in these assumptions. 

Indeed, the veterans compensation liability experienced wide fluctuations in recent years driven 

by changes in assumptions. The liability increased by $105.6 billion in 2003, decreased by $30.0 billion 

in 2004, and then increased by $197.8 billion in 2005. These large swings resulted not from changes 

to benefit provisions, laws, or regulations, but from changes in the assumptions used—primarily for 

interest rates—to estimate the value of future benefits. Beginning in 2004, VA used current marketbased interest rates—rather than historical averages—on Treasury securities to discount future 

payments into present value terms for presentation in the financial statements. Interest rates can 

be—and have been—quite volatile, which can lead to volatility in the reported liability. Increases 

in the interest rate used to discount the liability would reduce the liability whereas decreases in 

the interest rate would increase the liability. For example, from 2003 to 2004, rates on longer-term 

Treasury securities increased from 4.91 to 5.23 percent, leading to a $30 billion reduction in VA’s 

liability. Conversely, for the next year, VA reduced its long-term interest rate assumption from 5.23 

percent in 2004 to 4.74 percent in 2005. Reducing the interest rate resulted in a higher present value 

estimate of future benefit payments and thus a greater liability. 

Cadef_v6_450495_tr.indd 25 12/1/2006 1:27:37 PM
26 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Source: Treasury.

Table 4: Environmental Liabilities

Dollars in billions

Fiscal year

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

306.8 273.0 249.9 249.2 259.8

DOE 238.3 209.7 183.4 181.7 189.8

DOD 63.3 59.3 61.5 64.3 65.0

Others 5.2 4.0 5.0 3.2 5.0

5.7 -33.8 -23.1 -0.7 10.6

DOE 4.1 -28.7 -26.2 -1.7 8.1

DOD 0.1 -4.0 2.2 2.8 0.7

Others 1.5 -1.2 1.0 -1.8 1.8

Change in liability from previous year

Accrued liability

Federal, state, or local laws and regulations require the federal government to clean up 

hazardous and radioactive waste resulting from its operations (e.g., nuclear submarines and 

nuclear weapons). While the cash deficit reflects cleanup costs when they are paid, accounting 

standards require agencies to recognize in their financial statements each year a portion of the 

estimated probable and measurable environmental cleanup costs associated with assets as they 

are used operations, even though cleanup will not actually occur for many years. In addition, 

agencies are required to include estimates to clean up and dispose of existing contamination and 

waste resulting from nuclear weapon production during World War II and the Cold War—also 

called “legacy waste.” These estimates make up the majority of the Department of Energy’s (DOE) 

environmental liabilities. 

Each year a portion of the estimated total cleanup costs for operating assets is to be recognized 

as an expense. Accounting standards require that this allocation be based on a systematic and 

rational method, such as the expected life of the asset and the amount of capacity used each period. 

So, for example, a nuclear submarine may have an estimated useful life of 10 years and estimated 

cleanup costs of $80 million. Under a straight-line allocation method, the expense and liability 

accrued in each year of its life would be $8 million. This $8 million would be reflected in the accrual 

deficit for that year but not the cash budget deficit. In contrast, any increase to the estimated cost 

of cleaning up legacy waste must be recognized in full in the period it is identified. Table 4 shows 

reported environmental liabilities from 2001 to 2005 and the change in the liability each year.27 The 

change in the liability from the previous year (in the highlighted row of table 4) represents

27For assets in operation, cleanup costs are recognized over the expected life of the asset and thus the reported liability does not include the full cleanup cost until the 

end of the asset’s life.

Note: Data from unaudited Financial Reports for 2001 to 2005. 

How Are Environmental Liabilities Recorded in the 

Cash and Accrual Deficits?

Military

Employee

Benefits

Veterans

Compensation

Environmental

Liabilities Capital

Civilian

Employee

Benefits Insurance

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 27

accrued expenses in the current year less payments for current year cleanup activities, which 

were expensed in the past:

• If accrued expenses exceed cash payments, liabilities increase and a positive change is 

shown (see 2001 and 2005). 

• If cash payments exceed accrued expenses, liabilities decrease and a negative change is 

shown (see 2002, 2003, and 2004). 

To move from the accrual deficit to the cash deficit requires adjustment for these accrued 

expenses and cash payments. Because accrued expenses (in excess of cash payments) enter into 

the accrual deficit as a negative, they must be added to the accrual deficit in order to get to the cash 

deficit. Conversely, cash payments in excess of accrued expenses are subtracted from the accrual 

deficit to get to the cash deficit.

What Drives Changes in Environmental Liability Estimates?

Estimates of cleanup costs are inherently uncertain. Estimates must assume the use of current 

technology and involve making a number of assumptions about the level of restoration of the site; 

detailed projections about the schedule of funding and cleanup activities; and inflation. Costs (and 

hence the liability) may also change if there is a change in the laws or regulations determining the 

level of restoration. For example, restoration to “pristine condition” would have a higher cost than 

restoration to a point deemed to “pose no near-term health risks.” 

The changes in DOE’s estimated environmental liability in 2002 and 2003 illustrate the role 

assumptions play in these estimates. DOE reduced its environmental liability estimate by $28.7 

billion in 2002 and $26.2 billion in 2003 primarily by assuming it could accelerate the timing of 

cleanup activities, which would lead to cost savings. However, we reported in 2005 that while 

some progress had been made under its accelerated approach, it is not likely DOE will achieve its 

projected cost reductions in part because the plan depends on technological improvements and 

changes in regulatory requirements that may not occur as planned.28 

While the accrual deficit reflects more long-term environmental cleanup costs than does the cash 

deficit, it does not include all long-term cleanup costs and some of the costs recorded may not be reliable. 

For example, if no technology exists to clean up the site, the costs are not measurable and agencies do 

not accrue expenses for the site. Also, we identified some issues with DOD’s environmental liability 

estimates. For example, DOD’s estimates have not reflected major changes to federal accounting 

standards that became effective in 2003. Also, the Navy had not been estimating and reporting all 

costs for disposing of spent nuclear fuel produced by its nuclear ships and submarines.29 

28GAO, Nuclear Waste: Better Performance Reporting Needed to Assess DOE’s Ability to Achieve the Goals of the Accelerated Cleanup Program, GAO-05-764 

(Washington, D.C.: July 29, 2005).

29GAO, Environmental Liabilities: Long-Term Fiscal Planning Hampered by Control Weaknesses and Uncertainties in the Federal Government’s Estimates, GAO06-427 (Washington, D.C.: Mar. 31, 2006).

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28 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Sources: Treasury, PBGC, and the Department of Homeland Security.

Table 5: Insurance Liabilities

Dollars in billions

2004 2005

62.2 93.2

PBGC 60.8 69.8

NFIP 1.4 23.4

17.0a 31.0

PBGC 16.3 9.0

NFIP 0.7 22.0

Change in liability from previous year

Insurance liability

Fiscal year

The federal government insures individuals and firms against a variety of risks, such as loss of 

deposits from bank failures, crop failures, property damages from flood, and loss of pension benefits. 

Although there are many federal insurance programs, only two—the National Flood Insurance 

Program (NFIP) and the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation (PBGC)30—are separately listed in 

the Financial Report for 2005. 

Budget reporting for insurance programs focuses on annual cash flows. Outlays are recorded 

when claims are paid and collections for insurance programs—such as premiums—are recorded 

in the budget when received. For example, in 2005, NFIP paid about $3.3 billion in claims and 

collected about $2.1 billion in premiums. Its net effect on the cash budget deficit was a net outlay 

of about $1.2 billion. 

In contrast, the Financial Report records expenses or losses for estimated insurance claims 

when events have occurred or are probable to occur and can be reasonably estimated. Accordingly, 

losses are recognized as a liability in the balance sheet when claims have not been paid and 

generally represent a difference between the cash and accrual deficits. Whether or not the increase 

in insurance liability constitutes the majority of the difference between the accrual and cash deficits 

depends on the type of federal insurance program that has been reported in the CFS. Table 5 shows 

the reported liabilities as of the end of 2004 and 2005 and the change in liability from the previous year.

30Although PBGC’s financial activity and balances are shown in the Financial Report, under current law PBGC’s liabilities may be paid only from PBGC’s assets and 

not from the General Fund of the Treasury or assets of the government generally. 

Notes: Data from unaudited Financial Report for 2005, PBGC 2004 Annual Report, and Department of Homeland Security Performance and Accountability Report 

2005. Insurance programs were not specifically reported in the reconciliation statement prior to 2005. Because the Financial Report for 2005 only includes 

information on fiscal years 2004 and 2005, we did not include information prior to 2004 in table 5.

a

Total for PBGC and NFIP only; does not equal total reported in CFS.

How Are Insurance Programs Recorded in the 

Cash and Accrual Deficits?

Military

Employee

Benefits

Veterans

Compensation

Environmental

Liabilities Capital

Civilian

Employee

Benefits Insurance

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 29

For NFIP, the difference between the accrual and cash deficit is the change in insurance liabilities, 

which reflects claims approved but not paid and estimated claims for events that have occurred. The 

increase in the NFIP liability from 2004 to 2005 accounted for $22 billion of the $31 billion increase in 

insurance liabilities for the year. This means that the accrual deficit was $22 billion greater than the 

cash budget deficit due to changes in NFIP’s liability. Because the accrued expense for NFIP enters into 

the accrual deficit as a negative, the change in the liability must be added back to the accrual deficit to 

get to the cash deficit.

PBGC is somewhat different than NFIP and other insurance programs. For PBGC, the difference 

between the cash and accrual measures is not simply the change in the liability from the previous year. 

The difference between the cash and accrual deficits attributable to PBGC is also due to changes in 

the value of plan assets, whereas assets are not an important factor for NFIP’s reconciliation. The 

difference between the cash and accrual deficits attributable to PBGC is composed primarily of 

(1) losses (i.e., the difference between the present value of estimated future benefits and plan assets) 

that are recorded in the Financial Report for completed and probable pension plan terminations and 

(2) cash benefit payments that are recognized in the budget. The loss represents the amount PBGC 

estimates it will ultimately be responsible for. Because losses are included in the accrual deficit as a 

negative they are added back to the accrual deficit to get to the cash deficit. This total loss amount is 

not specifically identified in the reconciliation statement.

What Drives Changes in Insurance Programs?

The change in the NFIP liability each year is driven by external factors such as natural disasters 

that produce floods and damage property. In the 2 years shown in table 5, flood insurance had the 

largest single-year effect on the insurance liability and the accrual deficit. The $22 billion increase in 

the flood insurance liability in 2005 was primarily a result of Hurricane Katrina. Many insurance claims 

from individuals who lost property from flooding as a result of Hurricane Katrina were not yet paid at 

the end of the fiscal year.31

The economic health and benefit obligations of companies that sponsor defined-benefit pension 

plans are the primary drivers of accrued losses recognized by PBGC. PBGC estimates the loss for 

pension plans that are probable to be terminated in the near future by assessing macroeconomic 

conditions that can influence firms and investments and the specific performance of particular 

companies. In 2004 PBGC recognized losses due to probable plan terminations of $14.4 billion, 

primarily due to the struggling airline industry. The loss also includes adjustments for deviations 

between actual experience and PBGC’s estimates and the underlying assumptions. As mentioned 

above, the loss represents the primary difference between the cash and accrual deficits but is not 

equal to the change in liability in table 5.32

31GAO identifies a list of high-risk federal programs that warrant attention by both Congress and the administration. NFIP was added to the list for 2006. See GAO’s 

High-Risk Program, GAO-06-497T (Washington, D.C.: Mar. 15, 2006). 32PBGC’s Single-Employer Insurance Program has been listed on GAO’s High-Risk List since 2003. See GAO-06-497T.

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30 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Source: Treasury.

Table 6: Capital Asset Accounts

Dollars in billions

Fiscal year

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Depreciation expense 21.4 20.5 71.2 89.9 79.7

Property, plant, and equipment disposals and revaluations 0 0 13.0 0.2 47.8

Outlays for capitalized fixed assets -34.4 -40.9 -102.0 -112.1 -146.6

Components of cash budget deficit not part of the accrual deficit

Components of accrual deficit not part of the cash budget deficit

The federal government acquires a wide variety of capital assets for its own use including land, 

structures, equipment, vehicles, and information technology. The differing treatment of capital 

assets between the budget and the financial statements is part of the reconciliation between the 

accrual deficit and the cash budget deficit. Table 6 below shows the components of the reconciliation 

statement attributable to capital assets. 

33The book value is the amount paid less depreciation already recognized.

Note: Data from unaudited Financial Reports for 2001 to 2005. 

To determine the accrual deficit (or the annual cost of operations), the financial statements 

recognize the expense for a capital asset by spreading its cost over its expected useful life. This 

is known as depreciation expense and increases the accrual deficit each year of the asset’s life. 

Depreciation is not recognized in the cash deficit so it must be added back to the accrual deficit to 

get to the cash deficit. 

In addition, capital assets may be sold or destroyed or revalued to reflect the true value of the 

asset. For a sale, the difference between the amount that is received for the asset upon disposal 

and the book value of the asset is recognized in the accrual deficit but not in the budget deficit.33 The 

budget deficit reflects a cash receipt for the full amount of the sale. Similarly, if an asset is destroyed 

or revalued to reflect a better estimate of its value, this is recognized in the accrual deficit but not 

the cash deficit. Disposals and revaluations can increase or decrease the accrual deficit and must 

be accounted for when reconciling between the accrual and cash measures.

How Are Capital Assets Recorded in the 

Cash and Accrual Deficits?

Military

Employee

Benefits

Veterans

Compensation

Environmental

Liabilities Capital

Civilian

Employee

Benefits Insurance

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 31

In the budget, outlays made to purchase capital assets are recorded on a cash basis. Outlays 

are recorded when capital assets are paid for and therefore the cost of the asset increases the cash 

budget deficit in the year that the outlay is made. The cash cost of accrued expenses (in excess of 

assets—called “capitalized fixed assets” in table 6—must be subtracted from the accrual deficit to 

get to the cash budget deficit.

What Drives Changes in Depreciation Expense and Capitalized Assets?

Changes in accounting standards such as what assets are included in capitalized assets or how 

assets are depreciated can cause changes in accrual measures. For example, prior to 2003, the 

depreciation of national defense equipment (e.g., ships, aircraft, combat vehicles, and weapons) 

was not reflected in the accrual deficit because national defense equipment was reported as part of 

“stewardship assets,” which were not on the balance sheet, and thus not depreciated. Beginning in 

2003, a change in accounting standards required that DOD’s national defense equipment be recorded 

as capitalized assets on the balance sheet and depreciated. The primary reason for the increase 

in the depreciation expense from $20.5 billion in 2002 to $71.2 billion in 2003 was the addition of 

these DOD assets. It is important to note that the change in accounting standards changed what was 

reported on the balance sheet and not what was actually owned by the government.

Prior to the accounting change relating to national defense equipment, the cost of purchasing 

such equipment was not included in the reconciliation statement because it was reflected in both 

the accrual and cash budget deficits. Under the accounting change, the cost of purchasing national 

defense equipment is now capitalized and therefore not included in the accrual deficit, while such 

costs are still included in the budget deficit. The capitalization of purchases of DOD’s national 

defense equipment was a primary contributor to an increase in the amount of capitalized assets 

reported in the reconciliation statement from $40.9 billion in 2002 to $102.0 billion in 2003.34 

Although the addition of national defense equipment to the balance sheet accounted for a large 

part of the increase in capitalized assets and depreciation expense, too much focus should not be 

placed on the exact size of the increase. As we have reported in the past, the federal government 

can not satisfactorily determine that capital assets are properly reported in the CFS. A majority 

of capital assets are the responsibility of the DOD and it has not maintained adequate systems or 

sufficient records to provide reliable information on these assets.

34The increase in outlays for capitalized assets reported in the reconciliation statement only reflects assets that were purchased in 2003. The total increase in the 

balance sheet as a result of adding national defense equipment that was purchased in previous years was much greater..

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32 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Neither the accrual nor the cash budget deficit alone provides a full picture of the government’s 

fiscal condition or the cost of government. For example, the cash deficit provides information 

on borrowing needs and current cash flow. The accrual deficit provides information on the 

current cost of government, but it does not tell one how much the government has to borrow in 

the current year to finance government activities. Also, accrual deficits provide more information 

on the longer-term consequences of current government activities but by nature do not include 

information about the timing of payments and receipts, which can be important. Therefore, just 

as investors need income statements, statements of cash flow, and balance sheets to understand a 

business’s financial condition, both cash and accrual measures are important for understanding the 

government’s financial condition. Cash and accrual measures together provide a more complete 

picture of the government’s fiscal stance today and over time; however, additional measures of the 

long-term implications of existing programs and tax policies are needed to have a fully complete 

picture. 

Other Measures Are Also Needed to Understand the Government’s Fiscal Condition

Beyond accrual and cash budget deficits, there are even more measures, statements, and 

information that are used or could be used to more fully understand the government’s fiscal 

condition, including

• projected cash flows of large spending and tax programs,

• summary present value measures of large spending and tax programs,

• reports on the nation’s fiscal exposures,

• governmentwide financial statements of fiscal sustainability, and

• a summary annual report.

Some of this information is currently available, but more should be developed or made more 

transparent. For example, the long-term cash flow is projected for Social Security and Medicare. 

These cash flow projections help in understanding the expected timing of future payments and 

receipts and hence the potential effect of these programs on future borrowing needs and financial 

markets. Summary present value measures are a way to show the long-term expected cost of 

current or proposed policies in a single number. These are also available for Social Security and 

Medicare. However, projected cash flows and summary present value measures are still needed 

for other major spending and tax programs—both existing programs and new programs or benefits 

being considered by Congress. 

How Can Accrual and Cash Deficit Measures 

Complement Each Other?

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 33

Measures or statements that illustrate the future cost of government as a whole would also be 

beneficial. For example, we have suggested that OMB report on the nation’s fiscal exposures—the wide 

range of responsibilities, programs, and activities that may explicitly or implicitly expose the federal 

government to future spending. This would include reporting liabilities, obligations, commitments, 

contingencies, and implicit promises embedded in current policy or public expectations.35 Some of 

these, such as environmental cleanup and disposal costs and postretirement benefits, are reported in 

the financial statements as liabilities. Others, such as financial commitments, certain contingencies, 

and future social insurance benefits are not reported as liabilities but are reported elsewhere in the 

Financial Report.36 Pulling all these together into one presentation would improve transparency 

and may prompt more explicit deliberation of the government’s long-term fiscal commitments.

An even more comprehensive statement illustrating the long-term fiscal sustainability of the 

government as a whole, including future tax receipts and the cost of providing basic government 

services such as education and defense, might also be useful. Improved reporting would also 

involve a summary annual report that summarizes in a clear, concise, and transparent manner key 

financial and performance information embodied in the Financial Report. Such a report could be 

useful to both Congress and the American people.

Some Federal Programs Use Both Cash and Accrual Measures in the Budget but More 

Could Be Done

Some federal programs use both cash- and accrual-based measures but more can be done. For 

example, agencies pay the cost of accrued pension benefits for some civilians (i.e., those hired since 

1984) and military personnel (i.e., those in service after October 1, 1984) as they are earned. While 

the accrued cost is not reflected in the budget’s bottom line (i.e., the cash deficit),37 information on 

the full cost of current services is available to decision makers responsible for resource allocation. 

However, the full cost of all pensions (i.e., employees hired before 1984), retiree health, environmental 

liabilities, and insurance are still not recognized in the budget when the commitments are made. 

35GAO, Fiscal Exposures: Improving the Budgetary Focus on Long-Term Costs and Uncertainties, GAO-03-213 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 24, 2003).

36Information on the long-term costs of social insurance programs has been included in the required supplemental stewardship information section of the Financial 

Report and a Statement of Social Insurance will be incorporated into the primary financial statements for the first time for fiscal year 2006.

37See app. II for more information.

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

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34 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Accrual measures can be used to a greater extent to inform decision making. Although longterm estimates, including those used in the accrual deficit, are inherently uncertain, cash measures 

alone do not provide information about the longer-term consequences of today’s decisions. We 

have previously suggested38 that Congress consider expanding the selective use of accrual-based 

measures in the budget to program areas where it would enhance spending control and provide 

more information on the full cost at the time decisions to commit the government are made (i.e., 

up front).39 We identified several alternative approaches for Congress and the Executive Branch to 

consider that would improve the recognition of long-term costs in the budget. For example, accrual 

budgeting could be adopted for programs that currently do not capture the long-term commitment 

entered into by the government such as:

• employee pension programs,

• retiree health programs for federal employees,

• federal insurance programs, and

• environmental clean up.

The bottom line is that having one measure without the other does not provide complete 

information about the government’s fiscal condition. The government—just like businesses and 

individuals—should not ignore the balance in its checking account or its longer-term financial 

picture.

38See GAO, Budget Issues: Budgeting for Federal Insurance Programs, GAO/AIMD-97-16 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 30, 1997), Long-Term Commitments: Improving 

the Budgetary Focus on Environmental Liabilities, GAO-03-219 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 24, 2003), and GAO/AIMD-00-57.

39For purchases of capital assets, we do not recommend the use of accrual accounting for budget decisions because it would sacrifice up-front control of budgetary 

resources. Recording depreciation rather than the purchase cost would delay budget recognition of the resource commitment.

How Are 

Cash and

Accrual

Deficits

Measured?

What Drives 

Changes in Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits from Year 

to Year?

How Are Cash 

and Accrual

Deficits Similar? 

How Are They 

Different?

How Can 

Accrual and 

Cash Measures 

Complement 

Each Other?

What Areas 

Explain the Largest Differences 

between Cash 

and Accrual 

Deficits?

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 35

Appendix I: Glossary of Key Terms

Term Definition

Accrual basis The basis of accounting whereby revenue is recognized when it is earned and expenses are recognized in the 

period incurred, regardless of when cash is received or paid.

Accrual deficit The term used in this report to refer to the net operating cost. (See net operating cost.) 

Actuarial liability A liability based on statistical calculations and actuarial assumptions, which are conditions used to resolve

uncertainties in the absence of information concerning future events affecting insurance, pension expenses,

and so forth. 

Budget authority Authority provided by federal law to enter into financial obligations that will result in immediate or future outlays

involving federal government funds. 

Capital assets Land, structures, equipment, intellectual property (e.g., software), and information technology (including

information technology service contracts) that are used by the federal government and have an estimated

useful life of 2 years or more.

Capitalized Recorded as an asset on the balance sheet.

Some capital assets may not be reported on the balance sheet if they fail to meet the entity’s criteria (e.g., a 

dollar threshold) for balance sheet reporting.

Cash basis The basis whereby receipts are recorded when received and expenditures are recorded when paid, without 

regard to the accounting period in which the receipts are earned or the costs are incurred.

Cash budget deficit,

cash deficit

The term used in this report to refer to the unified budget deficit. (See unified budget deficit.)

Contingency An existing condition, situation, or set of circumstances involving uncertainty as to possible gain or loss to an 

entity that will ultimately be resolved when one or more future events occur or fail to occur.

Cost For purposes of this primer, the value of the resources used to produce a program, provide a service, or

Depreciation The systematic and rational allocation of the acquisition cost of an asset, less its estimated salvage or residual

value, over its estimated useful life.

Disclaimer of opinion A statement in an auditor’s report indicating the inability of the auditor to express an opinion on the fairness of 

the financial statements referred to in the report.

Expense Outflow or other use of assets, or incurrence of liability, during an operating period as a result of providing

goods, services, or other activities the benefits from which do not extend beyond the present operating

period.

Financial commitment For federal proprietary accounting, contractual obligations that require the future use of resources.

Incur To sustain, become liable for; the term is said of a cost, expense, loss, or debt.

Legal liability Under obligational accounting, a claim that may be legally enforced against the government. It may be created 

in a variety of ways, such as by signing a contract, grant, or cooperative agreement by operation of law. (See 

also obligation.)

Liability For federal proprietary accounting, a probable future outflow or other sacrifice of resources as a result of past 

transactions or events.

Modified cash basis

Net operating cost The excess of expenses over tax revenue. (See revenue; expenses.)

Net operating

revenue

The excess of tax revenue over expenses. (See revenue; expenses.)

achieve an objective.

A term used to describe the federal government’s hybrid system for accounting for revenues from taxes

and duties. Under a modified cash basis, revenue is recognized when received in cash except for tax

receivables (taxes owed from taxpayers but not yet collected) and refunds payable (refunds owed to taxpayers

but not yet paid by the federal government), which are both measured on an accrual basis.

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36 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Term Definition

Obligation A definite commitment that creates a legal liability of the government for the payment of goods and services

ordered or received, or a legal duty on the part of the United States that could mature into a legal liability by 

virtue of actions on the part of the other party beyond the control of the United States. 

Obligational

accounting

The accounting systems, processes, and people involved in collecting financial information necessary to 

control, monitor, and report on all funds made available to federal entities by legislation, including permanent,

indefinite appropriations as well as appropriations enacted in annual and supplemental appropriations laws

that may be available for 1 or multiple fiscal years.

Off-budget Those budgetary accounts (either federal or trust funds) designated by law as excluded from budget totals. As

of the date of this primer, the revenues and outlays of the two Social Security trust funds (the Old-Age and

Survivors Insurance Trust Fund and the Disability Insurance Trust Fund) and the transactions of the Postal

Service are the only off-budget accounts. The budget documents routinely report the on-budget and off-budget

amounts separately and then add them together to arrive at the consolidated government totals. (See also onbudget; unified budget deficit; unified budget surplus.) 

On-budget All budgetary accounts other than those designated by law as off-budget. (See also off-budget; unified budget

deficit; unified budget surplus.)

Outlay The issuance of checks, disbursement of cash, or electronic transfer of funds made to liquidate a federal

obligation.

Present value The worth of a future stream of returns or costs in terms of money paid immediately (or at some designated

date). A dollar available at some date in the future is worth less than a dollar available today because the latter 

could be invested at interest in the interim. In calculating present value, prevailing interest rates provide the

basis for converting future amounts into their “money now” equivalents.

The net present value is the present value of estimated future cash inflows minus the present value of cash

outflows.

Receipts Collections from the public based on the government’s exercise of its sovereign powers, including individual

and corporate income taxes and social insurance taxes, excise taxes, duties, court fines, compulsory licenses,

and deposits of earnings by the Federal Reserve System. Total governmental receipts include those specified

as off-budget by law. Total receipts are compared with total outlays in calculating the deficit or surplus. 

Revenue As used in federal accounting, an inflow of resources that the government demands, earns, or receives by

donation.

As used in the congressional budget process, a synonym for governmental receipts.

Stewardship property,

plant, and equipment

Property owned by the federal government and meeting the definition of one of the following two categories:

• Heritage Assets—property, plant, and equipment (PP&E) of historical, natural, cultural,educational, or artistic 

 significance, or 

• Stewardship Land—land other than that acquired for or in connection with general PP&E.

The acquisition cost of stewardship PP&E is generally recognized as a cost when incurred. However, multiuse 

heritage assets, such as the White House, are used in an entity’s operations and are reported as capitalized

assets on the balance sheet.

Unified budget deficit The amount by which the government’s on-budget and off-budget outlays exceed the sum of its on-budget

and off-budget receipts for a given period, usually a fiscal year. (See also off-budget; on-budget.)

Unified budget

surplus

The amount by which the sum of the government’s on-budget and off-budget receipts exceed the sum of its 

on-budget and off-budget outlays for a given period, usually a fiscal year. (See also off-budget; on-budget.)

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 37

Appendix II: Budget Outlays Recorded on an Accrual Basis

Outlays in the cash budget deficit are primarily measured on a cash basis. However, there are 

some areas, such as federal credit programs, pensions, insurance, and environmental liabilities, 

where cash measurement does not reveal the full extent of the government’s commitment up front 

when the commitment is made. In some of these areas, the budget records outlays on an accrual 

basis rather than cash. The accrual-based outlays for program areas shown in table 7 affect the 

bottom line cash budget deficit. However, accrual-based outlays for other program areas shown in 

table 8 do not affect the bottom line cash budget deficit because the outlays are paid by one agency 

to another (i.e., intragovernmental) and so offset each other. Only payments that flow from or to 

entities outside the government affect the cash budget deficit.

a

Some outlays from the Department of the Treasury to pay interest on special Treasury securities held by some federal trust funds are also recorded on an accrual 

basis but they are intragovernmental and do not affect the cash deficit.

Source: GAO.

Table 7: Budget Outlays Measured on an Accrual Basis That Affect the Cash Budget Deficit

Program area Budget treatment

Credit programs Outlay recorded for the credit subsidy cost, which is the net present value of the estimated

cash flows over the life of a loan or loan guarantee (excluding administrative costs).

Interest on the debt held by the public Outlay recorded when interest accrues on public debt securities,a not when payments are

made.

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38 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

a

FERS is the retirement system for civilian employees hired after 1983. The Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) provides defined benefits to most federal 

employees hired before 1984. Currently, federal agencies pay only about 40 percent of the pension costs for CSRS-covered employees.

b

Under the Floyd D. Spence National Defense Authorization Act of Fiscal Year 2001 (Pub. L. No. 106-398), the Secretary of Defense was required to make contributions 

into the Medicare-Eligible Retiree Health Care Fund. However, beginning in 2006, DOD stopped making contributions because the Ronald W. Reagan National Defense 

Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2005 (Pub. L. No. 108-375) directed the Department of the Treasury to make the annual contribution instead of DOD. 

For additional information on program areas where the budget does not recognize their total 

commitment up front, see GAO reports titled Accrual Budgeting: Experiences of Other Nations 

and Implications for the United States, GAO/AIMD-00-57 (Washington, D.C.: Feb. 18, 2000) and 

Fiscal Exposures: Improving the Budgetary Focus on Long-Term Costs and Uncertainties, GAO03-213 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 24, 2003).

Source: GAO.

Table 8: Intragovernmental Outlays/Receipts Measured on an Accrual Basis That Do Not Affect the Cash Budget Deficit

Program area Budget treatment

Federal Employees Retirement System

(FERS) pensions

Civilian agencies are charged for the full cost of pension benefits as they accrue for

employees covered by FERS.a An accrual-based outlay is recorded by the employing

agency for accruing pension costs not covered by employee contributions. The receipt is

recorded by the civilian retirement system. Since no cash actually leaves the government,

there is no effect on the governmentwide cash deficit.

Only cash outlays from the civilian retirement system to current retirees are reflected

in the cash budget deficit.

Military pensions The Department of Defense (DOD) is charged for the accrued cost of military pension

benefits as they accrue. An accrual-based outlay is recorded by DOD for accruing

pension costs. The receipt is recorded by the military retirement system. Since no cash

actually leaves the government, there is no effect on the governmentwide cash deficit.

Military retiree health for Medicare-eligible

retirees

DOD is charged for the accrual cost of retirees’ health care for benefits received by

annuitants who are eligible for Medicare. An accrual-based outlay is recorded by DOD

and the receipt is recorded by the Medicare-eligible military retiree health fund.b Since no

cash actually leaves the government, there is no effect on the governmentwide cash

deficit.

Only cash outlays from the military retirement system to current retirees are reflected

in the cash budget deficit.

Only cash outlays from the Medicare-eligible military military retiree health fund to

current retirees are reflected in the cash budget deficit.

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 39

Appendix III: Obligational Accounting

In addition to cash and accrual accounting, Congress and federal agencies also track funds 

using obligational accounting—a separate and distinct administrative control through which federal 

agencies control, monitor, and report on the status of the funds at their disposal. 

Obligational accounting differs from cash and accrual accounting by when transactions are 

recorded. For example, an agency can incur a legal liability (i.e., a claim that may be legally enforced 

against the government) in a variety of ways, such as by signing a contract, grant, or cooperative 

agreement, or by operation of law. When an agency creates a legal liability, it “obligates” itself to pay 

and records an obligation against available funds. Recording the obligation effectively sets aside 

those funds for the actual cash outlay. Under cash and accrual accounting, the recognition of the 

legal liability doesn’t show up until later. No transaction is recorded under accrual, or proprietary 

accounting, until the entity accepts the goods or services, at which point an account payable and 

related expense will be recorded. Under cash accounting, an outlay is recorded when the obligation 

is liquidated.

The federal budget and budget process largely use obligational accounting. The obligational 

system of accounting is rooted in the Antideficiency Act.1 It is through this obligational accounting 

that federal agencies ensure compliance with the fiscal laws that Congress has enacted including 

the Antideficiency Act, the “recording statute,” and the “purpose” and “time” statutes. Thus, if an 

agency controls its obligations, it is unlikely to overspend its appropriations. 

A detailed discussion of obligations and obligational accounting can be found in GAO’s Glossary 

of Terms Used in the Federal Budget Process, GAO-05-734SP (Washington, D.C.: September 2005), 

appendix III, page 120.

1

The Antideficiency Act prohibits an officer or employee of the United States government from: obligating or spending in excess or in advance of an appropriation, 

accepting voluntary services except in emergencies, and obligating or spending in excess of amounts apportioned or in excess of amounts permitted by agency 

regulations that subdivide amounts apportioned.

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40 GAO-07-117SP Accrual and Cash Deficits

Related GAO Products

The Nation’s Long-Term Fiscal Outlook: September 2006 Update. GAO-06-1077R. 

Washington, D.C.: September 15, 2006.

Financial Audit: Significant Internal Control Weaknesses Remain in Preparing the 

Consolidated Financial Statements of the U.S. Government. GAO-06-415. Washington, 

D.C.: April 21, 2006.

Environmental Liabilities: Long-Term Fiscal Planning Hampered by Control 

Weaknesses and Uncertainties in the Federal Government’s Estimates. GAO-06-427. 

Washington, D.C.: March 31, 2006.

A Glossary of Terms Used in the Federal Budget Process. GAO-05-734SP. Washington, 

D.C.: September 2005.

Understanding the Primary Components of the Annual Financial Report of the United 

States Government. GAO-05-958SP. Washington, D.C.: September 2005. 

Financial Audit: Process for Preparing the Consolidated Financial Statements of the 

U.S. Government Needs Improvement. GAO-04-45. Washington, D.C.: October 30, 2003.

Fiscal Exposures: Improving the Budgetary Focus on Long-Term Costs and 

Uncertainties. GAO-03-213. Washington, D.C.: January 24, 2003.

Long-Term Commitments: Improving the Budgetary Focus on Environmental 

Liabilities. GAO-03-219. Washington, D.C.: January 24, 2003.

Accrual Budgeting: Experiences of Other Nations and Implications for the United 

States. GAO/AIMD-00-57. Washington, D.C.: February 18, 2000.

Budget Issues: Budgeting for Federal Insurance Programs. GAO/AIMD-97-16. 

Washington, D.C.: September 30, 1997.

Budget Issues: Budgeting for Federal Capital. GAO/AIMD-97-5. Washington, D.C.: 

November 12, 1996.

(450495)

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Accrual and Cash Deficits GAO-07-117SP 41

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