1^ |UJTM|" United States Department of Commerce

I ^J I^^P I National Institute of Standards and Tectinology

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, A111D3 M7aH7E

NIST

PUBLICATIONS

NIST Technical Note 1284

The Role of Bench-Scale Test Data

in Assessing Real-Scale Fire Toxicity

Vytenis Babrauskas, Richard H. Harris, Jr., Emil Braun,

Barbara Levin, Maya Paabo, and Richard G. Gann

QC —

100

U5753

#1284

1991

C.2

,6/57^3

NIST Technical Note 1284

The Role of Bench-Scale Test Data

in Assessing Real-Scale Fire Toxicity

Vytenis Babrauskas

Richard H. Harris, Jr. Emil Braun

Barbara C. Levin

Maya Paabo

Riciiard G. Gann

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

January 1991

e.

<'-.

U.S. Department of Commerce

Robert A. Mosbacher, Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology

John W. Lyons, Director
National Institute of Standards U.S. Government Printing Office For sale by the Superintendent

and Technology Washington: 1991 of Documents

Technical Note 1284 U.S. Government Printing Office

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Washington, DC 20402

Tech. Note 1284

110 pages (Jan. 1991)

CODEN: NTNOEF
Table of Contents

Page

1. Introduction 2

Definitions 2

Representing real fires in fire tests 3

The role of CO in building fires 4

Predicting toxicity 5

Assumptions, objective, and scope of work 5

Assumptions 5

The pilot project objective and scope 7

2. Experimental techniques 10

Test Materials 10

Bench-Scale measurement methods 11

NBS Cup Furnace method 12

The SwRI/NIST Method 17

Cone Calorimeter 22

Medium-Scale tests 25

Real-Scale tests 30

Tests conducted 30

Test arrangement 31

The test rooms 31

Measurements taken 31

3. Results 36

Elemental analysis results 36

Bench-Scale results 37

NBS Cup Furnace Method 37

SwRI/NIST apparatus 44

Cone Calorimeter 47

Medium-Scale results 54

Real-Scale results 56

Details of tests conducted 56

4. Analysis of results 60

5. Discussion 69

The equal LC50 hypothesis 69

The primary toxic gases hypothesis 73

The equal yields hypothesis 75

The N-Gas hypothesis 77

The type of death hypothesis 81

Alternative acceptable levels of agreement 84

Page iii
Table of Contents (continued)

Page

6. Conclusions 85

The validation hypotheses 85

Assumption as to the level of agreement 86

The bench-scale toxicity methods 86

The NBS Cup Furnace method 86

The SwRI/NIST method 87

General remarks 87

9. Acknowledgments 89

10. References 90

Appendix A 95

Appendix B 99

Appendix C 103

Page iv
List of Figures

Page

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8

Figure 9

Figure 10. Figure 11. Figure 12. Figure 13. Figure 14. Figure 15. Figure 16. Figure 17. Figure 18.

General view of the NBS Cup Furnace method 13

Gas sampling arrangements in the NBS Cup Furnace method 15

Impinger gas sampling in the NBS Cup Furnace method 16

General view of the SwRI/NIST method 18

Major dimensions of the SwRI/NIST method 19

General view of the Cone Calorimeter 23

General view of the Furniture Calorimeter 26

Construction of the test cribs 27

Layout of the burn room/corridor/target room used for real-scale tests 32

Installation of animal boxes in the real-scale tests 34

Typical time variation of gases within the 200 € animal box 42

Heat release rates measured in the Cone Calorimeter for DF 50

Heat release rates measured in the Cone Calorimeter for RPU 51

Heat release rates measured in the Cone Calorimeter for PVC 52

Heat release rates measured in the Furniture Calorimeter for cribs 55

Heat release rates measured for DF in the real-scale tests 65

Heat release rates measured for RPU in the real-scale tests 66

Heat release rates measured for PVC in the real-scale tests 67

Page V
List of Tables

Page

Table 1. Elemental analysis of the materials in the study 37

Table 2. Chemical results for DF using the NBS Cup Furnace method 38

Table 3. lexicological results for DF using the NBS Cup Furnace method 39

Table 4. Chemical results for RPU using the NBS Cup Furnace method 40

Table 5. lexicological results for RPU using the NBS Cup Furnace method 41

Table 6. Chemical results for PVC using the NBS Cup Furnace method 43

Table 7. Toxicological results for PVC using the NBS Cup Furnace method 45

Table 8. Chemical and toxicological results for DF using the SwRI/NIST

Toxicity method 46

Table 9. Chemical and toxicological results for RPU using the SwRI/NIST

Toxicity method 47

Table 10. Chemical and toxicological results for PVC using the SwRI/NIST

Toxicity method 48

Table 11, Cone Calorimeter data summary 49

Table 12. Carbon balance for Cone Calorimeter results 53

Table 13. Comparison of crib results to predicted values 54

Table 14. Summary of real-scale tests 57

Table 15. Release rates, yields, and related quantities measured in the

real-scale tests 61

Table 16. Chemical and toxicological results for DF in real-scale tests 62

Table 17. Chemical and toxicological results for RPU in real-scale tests 63

Table 18. Chemical and toxicological results for PVC in real-scale tests 64

Table 19. Comparison of results for LC50 70

Table 20. Yields of CO 71

Table 21. Yields of CO2 72

Table 22. Yields of HCN 73

Table 23. Yields of HCl 74

Table 24. Comparison of the lists of primary gases 75

Table 25. Comparison of bench- and real-scale toxicity results for DF 78

Table 26. Comparison of bench- and real-scale toxicity results for RPU 79

Table 27. Comparison of bench- and real-scale toxicity results for PVC 80

Table 28. Types of animal deaths 82

Page vi
The Role of Bench-Scale Test Data

in Assessing Real-Scale Fire Toxicity

by

Vytenis Babrauskas, Richard H. Harris, Jr., Emil Braun,

Barbara C. Levin, Maya Paabo, and Richard G. Gann

Abstract

The need was seen for establishing a methodology by which bench-scale fire toxicity methods could

be validated against real-scale room fires. The present study is the result of a pilot project in this area. Appropriate validation hypotheses have been put forth and examined in the context of some

initial data. Three materials - Douglas fir, rigid polyurethane foam, and PVC - were examined in

real-scale and bench-scale methods. The real-scale test environment was a post-flashover fire in a three-compartment (room, corridor, room) geometry, with the test specimens comprising wall lining

materials. The bench-scale methods examined were the NBS cup furnace method and a new

developmental protocol referred to as the 'SwRI/NIST' method. The N-gas Model was applied to the analysis of the data and was found to be consistent with most of the data. The methods were compared for similarity of gas yields, of primary gases, and of types of death. Differences were found

in individual cases, but most of those were readily explainable on the basis of an understanding of the

test conditions. As a result of these studies, a factor-of-3 agreement between bench-scale and real- scale results was established as both useful and practical.

PCEYWORDS: fire tests; fire toxicity; poly(vinyl chloride); radiant heat; rigid polyurethane foam;

room fire tests; wood materials.

Page 1
1

Introduction

In recent years, bench-scale testing for the toxicity of combustion products has been assuming a

significant role. For example: (1) Some governmental bodies have mandated testing of certain

product classes [1]. (2) Manufacturers have been exploring the use of these tests to try to judge

the quality of their products. (3) Fire protection engineers have been demanding suitable tests so

that they could use them in the course of providing state-of-the-art building fire safety analyses. In response to such needs, a number of bench-scale toxicity methods have been designed over the last 10 or 15 years. Kaplan et ah discuss most of these methods in detail [2]. These methods were

generally developed empirically and intended only for the screening against 'supertoxicants,' with little thought as to whether their data could be validly used in mathematical computations of building fire histories. More recently, it is becoming accepted in the profession that arbitrary bench-scale fire

tests, not validated against real-scale fires, have little value [3]. This need for validation, of course,

pertains just as well to fire toxicity tests as to flammability tests. In recent years, NIST has conducted

three investigations [4] in this area. Two [5], [6] focused on the special problems of upholstered furniture toxicity, while the third [7] examined the issues associated with fire-retardant (FR)

treated products. During the course of 1989, Congress provided a special appropriation to NIST to begin examining these issues in a systematized way. The role of this pilot study, as developed in the

present report, has been to establish the logical basis for validation of bench-scale toxicity methods

and to obtain some preliminary experimental data towards that validation. The present report will discuss the needed hypotheses. Based on a single real-scale scenario and on a relatively small number

of test materials, several bench-scale toxicity tests will be examined for validity. The role of the work

for completing the study, if funded, will be to examine further test materials and, possibly, additional

real-scale scenarios and additional bench-scale tests.

Definitions

The discussion of fire toxicity requires that the meaning of certain terms be made clear. For our

purposes here, we will focus exclusively on inhalation toxicity, since inhalation is the primary means

through which toxicants enter the body during exposure to fire smokes. There is not yet universal

Page 2
agreement on terms; for clarity, in this report, we will define the following, which are in general

agreement with current usage:

Toxic potency — toxicity of the smoke from a specimen of material or product, taken on a perunit-specimen-mass basis. When the testing is for a lethality end-condition, the toxic potency is determined as an "LC50," which stands for the concentration which will be lethal to 50% of the

exposed animals during a specified exposure time. The units are in concentration, i.e., mg/€. It must

be emphasized, however, that toxic potency is not an inherent property of a material. The LC50 is a variable which depends upon the test animal, the test apparatus and specimen combustion

conditions, and the length of the exposure time. The latter is particularly important, since for many

substances the value of the LC^q tends to be inversely dependent on the exposure time [8]. For

fire toxicity, a 30-minute exposure time (along with a 14-day post-exposure observation period) has

often been specified [9].

Fire hazard — generally, this is taken to be a measure of the seriousness of the exposure

conditions which threaten the physical well-being of the occupant. The hazard may come from

various sources, for example, smoke inhalation, direct flame burn, injuries due to ceiling collapse, or

inability to escape due to lack of visibility.

Toxic fire hazard — this term is a sub-set of "fire hazard," occurring when the hazard being

considered is due to inhalation of toxic combustion products alone. Toxic potency is one, but not the

only, factor in toxic fire hazard. Mass loss rate and flame spread rate, among other factors, also play

a dominant role [10].

Bench-scale tests commonly referred to as 'toxicity tests' are tests for toxic potency alone. For

judging the effects of fires in real scale, however, considerations of toxic potency alone are not

sufficient — only the assessment of fire hazard, or at a minimum, toxic fire hazard can satisfy the true needs of the building designer, regulator, engineer, or other person who needs to quantify the effects

of fire.

Representing real fires in fire tests

The courses of real-scale building fires can be dramatically diverse. Most fires will change their

character as time goes on — some phases of the fire can be smoldering, others can consist of open

flaming; some can be fuel-rich, others can be fuel-lean. Thus, there is certainly no such thing as a standard fire. To simplify, a British Standard [11] classifies fires into six types:

Decomposition

(a) Smoldering (self-sustained)

(b) Non-flaming (oxidative)

(c) Non-flaming (pyrolytic)

Developing fire (flaming)

Fully developed (flaming)

(a) Relatively low ventilation

(b) Relatively high ventilation.

Page 3
For each, it describes in general terms certain combustion conditions. Such a framework is quite

useful when discussing fire scenarios. What is important to realize is that just by selecting one of the

six fire types, one does not end up with unique, well-described, widely applicable combustion

conditions.

If designed according to current engineering views [3], bench-scale property measuring methods are, by contrast, designed for a single, unique combustion condition (e.g., a fixed specimen heating flux,

fixed form of ignition, specified oxygen concentration of the combustion air, etc.). The reason for

this is, of course, that only by such simplification is there any hope of being able to use their data in the modeling of fires. Such a bench-scale test can, then, only correspond to one limited combustion

condition among all the possible real-scale combustion conditions. The bench-scale test can, instead,

be designed so that the specimen combustion conditions are either non-constant during the test, e.g., [12], or are modified by the behavior of the specimen under test (feedback boundary conditions). In such a case, there is, from the very start, no real way of relating any of the test output to the real- scale fire to be modeled. For the purposes of the present study, we will assume that we are concerned with bench-scale tests which are, essentially, of the fixed-combustion-conditions type.

To avoid the above dilemma, two solutions might be considered. (1) Re-run the bench-scale test at numerous test conditions, so as to span the domain of real-scale combustion conditions of interest.

For practical reasons, this is normally an unaffordable option. (2) Determine which real-scale fire the single, selected bench-scale combustion conditions do correspond to, then study only that fire. The disadvantage is that by making such a limitation most fires of practical interest shall have been

excluded. Instead, we will try to define a proper role for bench-scale tests which is useful and which

does have generality.

The role of CO in building fires

Due to the overwhelming importance of carbon monoxide (CO) in fire deaths [13], efforts have

recently been focused on understanding the production of CO in building fires. Much is still unknown, however, one of the conclusions to be drawn from a recent workshop organized on this subject [14] is that this toxicity is not primarily a materials issue. Instead, the available data point

to the interpretation that for large-scale fires, during room flashover, most materials produce the same yield^ of CO. The data scatter in this observation is to within about a factor of two. Furthermore, it requires that we consider the same ventilation conditions (with air supply expressed

as a fraction of what is required to completely combust the fuel in question) and consider neither very

tiny nor extremely well-ventilated fires. Under those conditions — which correspond to the fires most

likely to cause death or injury, in any case — the present experimental data state that the type of fuel

being burned is a minor factor in determining the CO yield. We emphasize that two different

materials showing the same CO yield may represent very different toxic hazard levels if the burning

rate is different, however!

The yield of a chemical species x is defined as (kg species x produced)/(kg specimen mass

lost).

Page 4
Predicting toxicity

A tool that we have available to help us make sense of the toxicity of building fires is a concept which

has recently come to be called the 'N-Gas Model.' According to the N-Gas Model [15], the toxic

potency of most materials is determined by measuring the concentrations of a relatively small number

of toxic gas species. Since such a chemical analysis cannot flag obscure, but toxicologically potent

contributing species, it must be followed by a biological check test. Results from this check test are then used to decide if the chemical analysis of the principal toxic species correctly included all the

gases actively contributing towards the toxicity, or whether a significant fraction of actual toxicity is not accounted for. This concept of attempting to predict as much as possible from gas concentration

measurements is applicable to both large- and small-scale fire tests. Whenever possible we will attempt to use this principle in our present work, to minimize the testing effort, to reduce the usage

of animals, and especially, to increase our understanding of actual fire mechanisms.

The toxic potency data also have to be placed in the larger context of hazard. In the most advanced

design case toxic potency data are supplied to a full-featured building fire model [16]. Copious

other data are also provided to this model, so that complete predictive calculations can be produced.

Practical applications of fire modeling have not quite reached this level yet, and certainly existing

building codes and regulatory requirements have not. Thus, in trying to answer the question of how

the toxic potency data will be put to use, we must establish a realistic context of engineering

methodologies which are viable today. An example of such an approach is using the N-gas model,

coupled to a set of engineering formulas for combining toxic potency with burning rate into a unified

expression of toxic fire hazard [10]. We will try to place the work done here in that context.

Assumptions, objective, and scope of work

Assumptions

With the above discussion in mind, we start with some fundamental assumptions.

Assumption 1. Real-scale fires can have fire growth stages showing various combustion regimes.

Note: The six BSI types discussed above are a reasonable point of departure for the scenarios,

although some simplification may be possible. For example:

• 'non-flaming (pyrolytic)' and 'non-flaming (oxidative)' are rarely a problem, since the smoke

mass is likely to be small compared to the smoke from the flames causing the pyrolysis.

Pyrolysis from a non-flaming source (e.g., electrical overheating) produces little smoke, but

would need to be considered separately if that pyrolysate were especially toxic.

• 'developing fire (flaming)' is likely to be similar to "fully-developed, relatively high

ventilation."

• 'smoldering' requires a physically larger sample than can be accommodated by the current

bench-scale toxic potency measurement devices.

Page 5
This leaves two principal scenarios:

• flaming (low ventilation) and

• flaming (high ventilation).

Considering now the flaming fires, we can narrow our interest to growing fires. (The converse, flaming fires which burn at a slow but constant rate, are rare enough to be considered special cases.)

The common situation of a growing, flaming fire is that until flashover occurs, the hot gas layer is confined to the upper half of the room of the fire and of the corridor or the adjoining room into

which the gas may be flowing. Thus, occupants of these adjoining rooms are not likely to be

threatened until after flashover has occurred. Once flashover has occurred, the hot gas layer drops

much lower and the combustion products are likely to threaten occupants of the adjoining spaces.

(With such fires, of course, any occupants of the room of fire origin are highly at risk from thermal

exposure and cannot be expected to survive a flashed-over fire.) We do not elaborate here further on the dynamics of building fires, since comprehensive references, e.g., [17], are available. With

this typical fire course in mind, we will place the emphasis in this study on post-flashover behavior.

This is consistent with the conclusions of the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), who

have determined that the problem of toxicity in fire deaths is primarily with post-flashover fires

[18].

We wish to emphasize that while the fire scenario chosen above is a very common one, it is certainly

not the only one of concern. For most other scenarios, however, generalization is not possible and

specific details must be considered. As an example of such specialized analysis, Ref. [19] is especially instructive.

Assumption 2. Real-scale tests, even without animals, are not affordable for each potential fire scenario.

Note: A real-scale fire test is the only one which can have intrinsic validity, i.e., if the fire scenario was correctly chosen and proper instrumentation was provided, its data do not require any further

proving to accept their validity. All other tests must be validated in comparison to such a real-scale

test. The real-scale fire test will normally be a fully-furnished room fire test. The word 'real-scale'

is used here to denote a test fire which not only uses full-sized test items, but also reproduces other

features of the real building fire (such as appropriate ventilation, or the presence of other nearby

surfaces or combustibles). Because the real-scale fire test cannot include all features of all building

fires, it will yield results that only can be generalized with care.

Assumption 3. The purpose of a bench-scale toxic potency measurement is to provide data for a

calculation (model) of fire hazard.

Note: Bench-scale tests are also sometimes used for direct product selection or as go/no-go

regulatory implements; applications of this kind are outside of the scope of the present work.

From the above three assumptions it is useful to draw some corollaries.

Page 6
Corollary A. A bench-scale toxic potency measurement protocol is necessary that, for each type of

fire scenario, provides:

• [Primary] Data sufficient to construct an LCg^ that portrays the real-scale value to within an accepted uncertainty. This is the major concern that underlies the present study.

• [Secondary] Data sufficient to:

(i) follow the change in toxic potency that occurs as the smoke moves through

the building and

(ii) combine the contributions of several burning materials during the fire.

Discussion: The functions (i) and (ii) above can be performed by calculational means ('N-Gas

Model'). In such a case, the following demands are then placed on the data from the bench-scale

protocol:

• The principal toxicants must be identified and must be the same in the bench-scale test as at real-scale.

• A valid calculation method must use these toxicants and their concentrations to produce the

real-scale LC^q, within an accepted uncertainty.

A small failure rate is acceptable for the above two demands, especially if there is guidance as to how

to recognize error-prone situations.

Corollary B. Either a different apparatus, a different set of operating conditions, or a different

calculation method may be necessary for generating LC50 values for the same burning materials for

different stages of a fire.

Assumption 4. Agreement to within a factor of two between predicted and real-scale toxic potency

measurements shall be considered acceptable.

Note: For those validation hypotheses which are computational in nature (as opposed to yes/no), a

specific, numeric criterion is needed so that validation success could be judged. This factor is to be

derived from considering the actual data needs. For any particular application of toxic potency data,

computations will not be useful unless certain limits to uncertainty are met. The purpose of this study

is not to develop procedures for computations of fire hazard or risk. Thus, a value for the above

factor will be taken as a given and will not be derived. Depending on the applications considered,

factors of greater or less than two may also be appropriate.

The pilot project objective and scope

The long-term objective for much of today's toxicity research is to produce fully-validated test methods

and calculation protocols whereby the toxicity component of fire hazard could be computed

numerically to a known, acceptable uncertainty.

Page 7
The objective for this pilot project has been to make material advances in determining the validity of

bench-scale tests and procedures. Specifically, it was desired to express clearly the assumptions of

and the expectations from the validation procedure. The validation exercise was then to be started

in the pilot project for:

• only one real-scale fire scenario • a small number of bench-scale protocols, and • a limited, initial set of test materials.

We note that for both this project and for the long-term objective, the validation exercise constitutes

proof by enumeration. This, of course, is a weak form of demonstration and requires considerable

data to be amassed before credence can be placed.

Conversely, proof by logic can only be applied in very limited areas of fire toxicity. The main prior

example has been in excluding bench-scale methods from use in representing those fire regimes where

the actual combustion conditions are widely different from those in bench-scale [20].

Validation hypotheses Based on the above background and assumptions, and on the findings of

the preceding studies [4], [7], we now put forth several validation hypotheses. The results amassed

in the pilot project will then enable us to reflect on which of these hypotheses are the most useful.

We further note that it may be that a combination of hypotheses, rather than a single one, is needed.

The equal LC^q hypothesis: LCjq values, as measured in the bench-scale test and in the real-scale one, agree to within the acceptable uncertainty.

The primary toxic gases hypothesis: The bench-scale test shows the same primary toxic gases as the

real-scale test.

[To use this hypothesis, we will have to define precisely what we mean by 'primary gases.' This we

do in the Discussion Chapter, below.]

The equal yields hypothesis: The yields of the primary toxic gases are the same, to within the

acceptable uncertainty, in the bench-scale and in the real-scale tests.

The N-Gas hypothesis: The real-scale and the bench-scale results agree, to within the acceptable

uncertainty, with predictions based on measured gas concentrations and computations made according

to the N-Gas Model.

The type of death hypothesis: The type of death (within- or post-exposure) is similar for the benchscale and for the real-scale tests.

With the data generated here, we will then propose a unified (hypothetical) protocol of measure- ments at bench-scale and of calculation procedures to predict real-scale toxic potency within the

accepted uncertainty.

Fire scenario In accordance with the description of the fire types above, we will select a single

real-scale fire scenario. This is a fire which starts small, grows until it reaches flashover, continues

Page 8
burning in flashover, then gradually decays. Wall coverings are chosen as the combustibles here. A

future paper will re-analyze prior data, such as in [4]-[7] to enlarge the data base.

Test methods encompassed The work reported in this publication comprises the following

experimental studies:

Bench-scale toxicity tests: NBS Cup Furnace Method

A developmental method using a radiant heat source

Other bench-scale tests: Cone Calorimeter

Medium-scale test: Furniture Calorimeter

Real-scale test: Room/corridor/room experimental facility

Page 9
Experimental techniques

Test Materials

The choice of the materials to be used for the initial validation was based on the desire to have at least three materials which behave substantially differently, both in their toxicological action and in their combustion behavior. For ease of analysis of the data and of relating to fire models, it was

decided that wall lining materials would make the best choice. Thus, the materials selected needed

to be well-behaved when used as a wall lining, i.e., they should not show excessive propensity to melt,

delaminate, or prematurely fail structurally. The three materials selected were:

• Douglas fir (DF) planking, 45 mm thick, 550 kg/m density • Rigid polyurethane (RPU) foam, 25 mm thick, 96 kg/m"^ density • Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheets, 12.7 mm thick, 1490 kg/nv' density

None of the products tested was described as being fire-retardant treated.

The DF was obtained from a local lumber company. It was received as 'green' lumber and was

conditioned for several months in our laboratories to reduce moisture content to a suitable level.

The RPU was obtained from General Plastics Manufacturing Co., Tacoma, WA^ as Last-A-Foam

R-9306. The manufacturer describes the thermal conductivity as being 0.030 W-m"^-K"^ We note

Certain commercial equipment, instruments, or materials are identified in this paper in order

to specify the experimental procedure adequately. In no case does such identification imply

recommendation or endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor does it imply that the equipment or material identified is necessarily the best available for the

purpose.

Page 10
that the results of ultimate analysis (see Results, below) appear to raise doubts as to whether the

material supplied could be properly considered as non-flame-retardant treated.

The PVC sheets were supplied by BFGoodrich. These were made from a commercial, weatherable,

thermoformable rigid PVC sheet compound, based on a medium molecular weight poly(vinyl chloride)

homopolymer and stabilized with tin mercaptide. It contains weatherable acrylic impact modifiers and

weatherable pigments (mainly titanium dioxide and calcium carbonate). It does not contain any

acrylonitrile derivative. While the exact formulation is proprietary, the manufacturer states the

overall composition, by weight, as being approximately:

PVC 78%

Acrylic impact modifiers 7%

Tin mercaptide 2%

Titanium dioxide 2%

Calcium carbonate 8%

Processing aids 3%

In mounting the PVC material in the real-scale tests (see below), it was necessary to use a glue. The

glue used was 3M Fastbond 30, which is a nonflammable contact cement.

Bench-Scale measurement methods

The validation method, as developed here, can be used for assessing the pertinence of numerous

bench-scale methods. In this pilot study, we selected two bench-scale test methods^. One was

selected because of the large amount of experience with the method, both at our laboratories and

at others. The second one was selected since it represents a concurrently ongoing effort into

developing a bench-scale method with an improved combustion module. This list does not include

additional methods not because we could find none other of merit, but rather because this is only a

pilot study.

• The NBS Cup Furnace method [9]. This method prescribes both flaming and non-flaming

test conditions. In the present work, only the flaming tests were relevant. • A procedure newly developed at NIST, based on the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI)

apparatus [21]. This will be referred to as the SwRI/NIST method in this report.

In the experiments using the SwRI/NIST method, sufficient number of tests were not run to determine LC^g values by standard statistical procedures. The objective was, instead, to identify a range within which the LC50 would occur.

Our institution was involved in the development of both of the bench-scale toxicity methods

described in this study. To clearly distinguish between them, we describe the first as the 'NBS

Cup Furnace Method' and the second as the 'SwRI/NIST Method.' The SwRI/NIST Method

is still in the process of development and neither the name nor all of the protocol particulars

have been finalized.

Page 11
NBS Cup Furnace method

General: The acute inhalation toxicity of the combustion products of the Douglas fir, rigid

polyurethane foam, and PVC was assessed using the combustion system, the chemical analysis system

and the animal exposure system (Figure 1) that was designed for the NBS Cup Furnace Method [9]. The materials are decomposed in a cup furnace located directly below the animal exposure chamber

such that all the combustion products from the test materials are evolved directly into the chamber.

In these experiments, all tests were conducted in the flaming decomposition mode. The flaming mode

in this method was not designed to simulate post-flashover conditions; it is not clear how one would

modify the method to achieve such representation. Thus, the 'standard' operating conditions were

used. The autoignition temperatures of the materials were determined according to the procedure

described in the NBS Cup Furnace Method and the furnace was set at approximately 25 ° C above

this autoignition temperature. During the animal tests, a sparker was used to ensure that the material

would flame as early as possible.

The animal exposure system (Figure 1) is a closed design so that most of the gases and smoke are kept in the 200-L rectangular chamber for the duration of the experiment. For some chemical

compounds (e.g., HCN, HCl, and NOj^), atmospheric samples taken for analysis were not returned

(explained in detail below). In each animal exposure experiment, six rats were placed in restrainers

which were then inserted into the six portholes located along the front of the exposure chamber such

that only the heads of the animals were exposed. Insertion of the material sample into the preheated

cup furnace started the exposure. The animals were exposed to the test atmospheres for 30 min.

The toxicological endpoint was death which occurred either during the 30-min exposures or the postexposure observation period (at least 14 days). If the animals were still losing weight at the end of

the 14-day observation period, they were kept and weighed daily until they showed signs of recovery

(3 days of weight gain) or died. The percentage of animals dying in each experiment was plotted to produce a concentration-response curve from which LCgg values were calculated. The LC5Q in these

cases is defined as the mass of material placed in the furnace divided by the exposure chamber

volume (mg/€) which caused 50% of the animals to die during the exposure only or during the

exposure plus the post-exposure observation period. The LC^g values and their 95% confidence

limits were calculated by the statistical method of Litchfield and Wilcoxon [22]. All animals

(including the controls) were weighed daily from the day of arrival until the end of the post-exposure

observation period.

Animals: Fischer 344 male rats, weighing 200-300 g, were obtained from Taconic Farms

(Germantown, NY). They were allowed to acclimate to our laboratory conditions for at least 7 days

prior to experimentation. Animal care and maintenance were performed in accordance with the

procedures outlined in the National Institutes of Health's "Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory

Animals." Rats were housed individually in suspended stainless steel cages and provided with food

(Ralston Purina Rat Chow 5012) and water ad libitum. Twelve hours of fluorescent lighting per day were provided using an automatic timer.

Page 12
CO, CO2, O2

sampling port

Pressure

relief panel

Gas return

port

NOx

sampling

port

HCN

sampling

port

Impinger ^—Animal ports

sampling port

Furnace

Figure 1. General view of the NBS Cup Furnace method

Page 13
Exposure Chamber Atmospheric Gas Measurements: The following gases: O2, CO, CO2,

HCN, NOjj, HCl, and HBr were monitored by extraction from the animal exposure chamber of the

NBS Cup Furnace Method (Figure 2).

Carbon monoxide and CO2 were measured continuously by non-dispersive infrared analyzers and the

obtained values were accurate to within 100 and 500 ppm, respectively. Oxygen concentrations were

measured continuously with a paramagnetic analyzer and were accurate to within ±0.1% of the O2

concentration. The CO, CO2, and O2 data were recorded by an on-line computer every 15 s. All

combustion products and gases that were removed for these analytical measurements were returned

to the chamber. For measurement of HCN, a 100 ji€ sample was taken approximately every 3 min

with a gas-tight syringe and analyzed with a gas chromatograph equipped with a thermionic detector [23]

and the results were accurate to within 10% of the HCN concentration.

The concentration of HCN was also determined by ion chromatography (IC) using the same Ion

Chromatograph and detectors described in Appendix A of [7]; HCl was also determined by the same

technique. The IC measurements were done by two alternative methods. The first method involved

bubbling a portion of the gases generated in the animal exposure chamber through tared, 25 m^

impingers containing approximately 20 mi of an appropriate eluent (90% 5 mM KOH; 10%

acetonitrile). The apparatus is diagrammed in Figure 3. The PTFE filter (0.45 jim nominal porosity)

in this test was 25 mm in diameter. The flow was generated with a sampling pump and regulated with

a rotameter. The flow was nominally 30 m^/min and verified prior to each test with a soap bubble

meter attached to the tube that protruded into the animal exposure chamber. The duration of the

test was 30 min. After the test, the impingers were weighed and the weights recorded. Initially, each

impinger was analyzed separately and the PTFE filter containing the soot was placed in the first impinger. Since the carry over from the first impinger to the second was less than 10%, subsequent

tests were analyzed with the contents of the two impingers combined.

The second IC method for determining the concentration of HCN and HCl involved the use of gas

sampling bulbs. Combustion products were collected in evacuated gas sampling bulbs of known

volume, from a sampling port at nose level in the animal exposure chamber. The bulbs were weighed

and then approximately 5 m€ of the IC eluent was injected into the bulbs; the bulbs were reweighed

and the amount of eluent used was recorded. The bulbs were shaken vigorously for 1-2 minutes.

The resulting solutions were transferred to plastic bottles, diluted to volume with eluent to a range

within the calibration of the IC and analyzed.

The concentration of NO^^ was measured continuously by a chemiluminescent NO^^ analyzer Model

14A (Thermo Environmental Instruments, Franklin, MA). The analyzer is equipped with a molybdenum converter (set at 375 ° C) which reduces NO2 to NO before reacting with ozone. The

reaction of NO with ozone produces electronically excited NO2 which relaxes, emitting light that is detected by the instrument. In order to minimize the total gas volume removed during the animal

exposure experiments, the chemiluminescent analyzer was modified so that the sample flow was

reduced to about 25 m€/min. The calculated NO^^ concentrations are accurate to within 5% of the

NOjj concentration. One should note that a molybdenum converter prevents interference from HCN

usually seen with a stainless steel converter. The amount of NO and NO2 in the NO^ can be

determined from the analyzer data, since two flow modes are available: in the first (NO) mode, a

direct path of the sample gas to the reaction chamber is used, with only the NO producing a signal.

Page 14
R

CO2

Detector

0.5 //min.

CO

Detector

0.5 //minHJ

02

Detector L

Pump

R

I- PRV

Excess Combustion

Gases

0.5 //min.

Analyzed Combustion Gases

2 //min.

Combustion

Animal

Exposure

Box

Gases

25 m//min

I TI

HCN Sampling

Port / "LiUlAjUir

NOx

Detector

Animal Exposure

Ports

mpinger Sampling Port

R - Rotameter PRV - Pressure Relief Valve

Figure 2. Gas sampling arrangements in the NBS Cup Furnace method

Page 15
200 L

animal box

25 ml impingers

Soap bubble meter

Rotameter

» To atmosphere

Vent valve

25 ml empty trap

Figure 3. Impinger gas sampling in the NBS Cup Furnace method

Page 16
In the second (NO^) mode, the sample gas passes through the Mo converter and is changed to NO.

Thus, the instrument responds to the total oxides of nitrogen. The amount of NO^ is estimated from

the difference of the two signals.

The SwRI/NIST Method

General: This procedure, performed at SwRI, used the same apparatus (but not the same test protocol) as the proposed NIBS protocol (July 27, 1988) for toxicity testing. This method is intended,

to a first approximation, to simulate post-flashover fire conditions. Unlike in the NIBS protocol, the

procedure used here does not derive an 'irradiation time' or IT50 hazard index. In the section below,

we will describe the work done in the present report; the reader should be advised that the

procedure is developmental and will, in all likelihood, change in the future.

Figure 4 shows a general view of the apparatus; Figure 5 shows major dimensions. A modified

procedure was developed at NIST for conducting tests so that additional needed information is obtained, and also so that the combustion products from the burning of the entire thickness of the

specimens are evaluated, not just those from the surface layer. The procedure entails exposing full- thickness specimens to the heaters and allowing them to burn up essentially completely. The amount

of pyrolysate generated is adjusted by changing the size of the exposed specimen face, and not its thickness or its time of exposure to heat. This procedure was followed by Grand and Switzer [24]

in an exploratory manner. A closed system was used for these tests, consisting of a combustion cell connected to an animal exposure chamber by a chimney. Tungsten quartz lamps were used as the

radiant heat source. Preliminary tests were conducted with analytical measurements, followed by

animal (rat) exposures.

Animal Exposure Chamber: The animal exposure chamber was a clear polymethylmethacrylate

chamber with a 200 liter nominal volume. It had inside dimensions of 1.22 x 0.37 x 0.45 m. In its critical dimensions it is identical to the chamber used in the NBS Cup Furnace Method. It had a door on one of the longer sides for access to the smoke shutter, for cleaning the inside of the

chamber, and for providing fresh air for the animals immediately prior to testing. There were six ports for animals to be exposed in a head-only exposure. A plastic bag with at least a 20 ^ volume

was attached to an end port of the chamber to provide for gas expansion.

Combustion Cell: The combustion cell was a horizontal quartz tube with a 130 mm inside diameter

and 324 mm long. It was sealed at one end and had a large standard taper outer joint at the other

end. A sealed inner joint served as a removable plug for the open end. The top of the cell had a rectangular opening parallel to the axis of the cylinder with a 'collar' which allowed it to fit securely

into the chimney. The bottom of the cell had a hole for the rod connecting the specimen support

and the load cell.

Chimney: The chimney was a stainless steel assembly 30 x 300 mm (inside dimensions) and 300 mm

high. It connected the combustion cell to the animal exposure chamber. It was divided into three

channels by stainless steel dividers. The effect of the three channels was to create a heat pump

action by inducing smoke to flow up the center channel, while air from the animal exposure circulated

back down the other two outer channels.

Page 17
1

Chimney

lid

Combustion

cell

Animal exposure ports -(^-^

Expansion

bag port

Chimney

Radiant heaters

- Sample platform

Load cell

Figure 4. General view of the SwRI/NIST method

Page 18
Expansion bag port

u u u u u u

395

50 63

Oxygen

sampling

1240

Animal exposure ports oooooo

-Access door- J

470

Chimney

Radiant heaters

-Load cell

J

^St^^— Combustion

3-F cell

Figure 5. Major dimensions of the SwRI/NIST method

Page 19
Gas Analyzers: The apparatus was equipped with gas sampling ports, by which the concentrations

of CO, CO2, and O2 were monitored with gas analyzers. These were measured in the animal

chamber, although preliminary explorations had shown that the levels in the combustion cell are not

greatly different.

Animals: The test animals were young adult male Sprague-Dawley albino rats weighing between 250

and 350 g. The animals were obtained from a reputable supplier that certified its animals to be free

of major respiratory pathogens. Maintenance and care of the animals was performed by qualified

personnel in accordance with guidelines of the American Association of Laboratory Animal Care and

regulations of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The animals were identified and housed in a separate quarantine area for a minimum of 7 days prior to testing. During the quarantine period, the

animals were observed daily and weighed periodically. The animals were housed no more than two

to a cage. The environment was properly ventilated and controlled to a temperature of 23 ± 3 ° C

and a relative humidity of 50% ± 15%. The animal room had a 12-h light/dark cycle.

Setting Up and Calibrating the Apparatus: The inside of the animal exposure chamber was

cleaned prior to each test and a clean gas expansion bag was attached. All lines, filters, and traps for

the gas analyzers were checked for satisfactory flow rates. The radiant heaters, gas analyzers, and

load cell were calibrated.

Test Procedure: All specimens were conditioned for 5 days at a temperature of 23 ± 3°C and

a relative humidity of 50% ± 10%.

Tests with blackened specimens To get adequate information needed for fire modeling, it is necessary

to obtain times to ignition. The heaters used in the apparatus have a spectral distribution which is different from that of real fires. It was considered that the ignitability of the specimens could be

measured more realistically by blackening the surfaces of the specimens, thereby making the net heat

flux absorbed similar to what occurs from flames in room fires. Initial tests were run on each sample

with the surface blackened with a thin layer of carbon black (no organic binders used). These

samples were the full maximum specimen size of 76 x 127 mm (3x5 in.), with the actual product

thickness. The purpose of these initial tests was to determine the time to ignition and the specimen

mass loss rate; since the effects of surface blackening could not be discounted as influencing the

toxicity, blackened specimens were not used for any toxicity runs. Since it was desired to obtain

ignitability and mass loss rate data under ambient air conditions, neither of the doors to the animal

exposure chamber was closed, and the specimens were, thus, vented to the outside. The specimen

irradiance used was 50 kW/m^.

Iterative tests for LC^^q The procedure used can be summarized as an iterative method for determining

the LC50 by reducing the surface area of the specimen exposed, but not changing the thickness, which

is always the natural product thickness, up to 51 mm (2 in.) maximum. The procedure, when carried

through as described, converges upon a final value of LC50. In the present study, only an approximate

determination of LC50 was made, due to the exploratory nature of the work.

Each specimen was wrapped on all sides except the exposed surface with a double sheet of aluminum

foil and then mounted into the specimen holder. The specimen surface was not blackened for the

Page 20
LC50 tests. The specimens were weighed on a laboratory balance capable of ± 0.01 g. The

specimens were weighed alone, with the aluminum foil, and with the aluminum foil in the specimen

holder. After the specimen was mounted in the holder of the quartz furnace, the spark ignitor was

placed 25 mm (1 in.) from the top of the specimen and in the center of the specimen surface.

lb start the test, the combustion cell was closed and all timing and recording devices were readied.

The power to the radiant heat lamps and ignitor were activated simultaneously with the start of the

timers and recording devices. The power to the lamps was manually adjusted during the test to the

desired 50 kW/m^ irradiance, in accordance with a predetermined calibration.

The time to ignition of the specimen was recorded. Any unusual characteristics in the spread of

flame across the specimen surface were noted. The smoke movement from the combustion cell into

the animal exposure chamber was observed. Any unusual actions (e.g., lack of circulation, heavy

deposition on the walls or leakage out of the apparatus) were recorded. The spark ignitor was kept on for the duration of the irradiation.

The first test (or several tests) in each series did not use animals, but was for analytical chemical

purposes only. By examining the values of CO, CO2, and O2 recorded during the test, it was possible

to decide if the full specimen area of approximately 92 cm^ would be excessive and 100% animal

mortalities might be expected.

The actual first test for LC5Q where animals were used, typically involved a reduced specimen surface

area, determined from the analytical results. For tests using animals, the rats were placed in their

restrainers and placed into the appropriate ports in the animal exposure chamber. The doors of the

exposure chamber were closed immediately prior to testing. Fresh air can be supplied by a fan in

order to insure ambient conditions to the animals until just prior to exposure.

The oxygen concentration within the animal chamber was monitored during the entire test. During

some tests, the oxygen level was adjusted by adding supplemental oxygen, so that the ultimate value

of O2 reached would not drop as low as it naturally would. The flow rate of the test atmosphere to the analyzers was checked periodically and adjusted if necessary.

The chimney lid was closed and the power to the radiant heat lamps turned off at approximately 15

minutes, as indicated in test results. This was done to decrease the heating of the animals, since after

that there was negligible further specimen mass loss. The animal exposure was continued for a total exposure time of 30 min (unless all of the animals died in less than 30 min). The behavior of the

animals was recorded during exposure. The times to cessation of breathing for any and all animals

that died during exposure were recorded.

At the end of the 30-min period, the animals were removed from the exposure chamber quickly. The

exposure chamber was vented with a high capacity exhaust system. After the specimen holder had

cooled sufficiently, it was removed from the combustion cell, placed in a hood, and cooled to ambient

temperature. The specimen still wrapped in the aluminum foil was removed from the holder and

reweighed and the weight recorded.

Page 21
The live animals were carefully observed for any signs of toxic effects (e.g., difficulty in breathing,

convulsions) upon removal from the exposure chamber and regularly during the post-exposure period.

The number of animals that died during exposure, 1 h after exposure, and daily for up to 14 days

post-exposure was recorded.

Tests with additional specimens of different exposed areas are then done until enough data points are accumulated to permit deriving an LC50 value. In the present study, only an approximate value

of LC50 was obtained by bracketing the desired region without obtaining a unique number.

Cone Calorimeter

The Cone Calorimeter, even though it is not a bio-assay toxicity test method, was included to obtain

additional data on specimen combustion behavior. This is convenient to do, since a single test can

yield a large number of measurements characterizing specimen performance.

The APPARATUS: The Cone Calorimeter (Figure 6) was initially presented in 1982 as an improved

technique for measuring rate of heat release on bench-scale specimens [25]. Its operation

involves an application of the oxygen consumption principle. The oxygen consumption principle

[26] states that for most combustibles there is a unique constant, 13.1 MJ/kg O2, relating the

amount of heat released during a combustion reaction and the amount of oxygen consumed from the

air. Thus, using this principle it is only necessary to measure the concentration of oxygen in the

combustion stream, along with the flow rate.

The air flow past the specimen is generally set at 24 €/s. This results in a highly fuel-lean combustion

condition. Thus, when operated in the standard mode, the combustion may not be indicative of a post-flashover fire. Experiments are underway to explore the actual effects of widely varied

fuel/oxygen ratios in this apparatus.

In the Cone Calorimeter, specimens of a material or product to be tested are cut into a 100 x 100 mm size. The thickness depends on the type of product tested, and can range from 6 to 50 mm.

The specimen edges are protected from burning, and the specimen can be oriented either horizontally or vertically. In the present studies, all specimens were tested horizontally, face up, at full product

thickness.

The specimen is heated by an electric heater in the shape of a truncated cone, hence, the name Cone

Calorimeter. The irradiance to the specimen can be set to any desired value from zero to 110

kW/m^. If required, external ignition of the specimen is provided by an electric spark. Since a uniform, controlled irradiance is provided, the ignition times themselves, as measured, constitute a suitable test for ignitability.

The specimen is mounted on a load cell and its mass, along with all other instrument data, is recorded

every 5 s. A few years ago, when shortcomings of existing smoke measuring tests were becoming evident, a smoke measuring system was developed for the Cone Calorimeter. This comprises a He-Ne laser

Page 22
Laser extinction beam Including

temperature measurement

Temperature and differential pressure measurements taken here

-Soot sample tukje location

Exhaust

blower

Soot collection filter

Exhaust

hood

Vertical orientation

Figure 6. General view of the Cone Calorimeter

Page 23
beam projected across the exhaust duct. The monochromatic light is monitored by a solid-state

detector. A second detector serves as a reference, to guard against effects of drift and of laser power

fluctuations. The optical system is designed to be self-purging, and does not use optical windows.

Further details of the smoke measuring system have been given in [27].

An overview of the design features, along with the specifications and limitations of the Cone

Calorimeter has recently been published [28].

The procedures: The test procedures to be used in the Cone Calorimeter are described in ASTM

standard [29] and in an accompanying user's guide [30]. These procedures were followed in the present study. To specify the test conditions fully requires specifying the irradiance, the

specimen orientation, the use of spark ignition, the test irradiance and any special specimen

preparation techniques. The specimen thickness was, in each case, the actual product thickness.

Each specimen was wrapped in a single layer of aluminum foil and tested in the horizontal

orientation, using electric spark ignition. A wire grid, intended to restrain intumescing specimens, was found to be needed and was used for the RPU and PVC samples. Three irradiances were used:

35, 50, and 75 kW/m^. In the typical case, three runs were made under each set of conditions.

Additional measurements were made to determine the yields of HCl and HCN. A single, test-average

yield of these gases was obtained by using impinger sampling and analyzing the solutions by ion

chromatography. The instrumentation and the analysis procedures used were identical to those

recently reported [7].

Data Collected: The data to be derived from the bench-scale tests in the Cone Calorimeter

constitute a very large set, and can be analyzed in a multitude of ways. The most important variables

which are presented include the following:

• peak rate of heat release (kW/m^)

• rates of heat release averaged over various time periods, starting with the time of

ignition (kW/m^)

• effective heat of combustion (MJ/kg). This will be less than the oxygen-bomb value

of the heat of combustion, since the combustion is incomplete,

• percent specimen mass lost (%)

• time to ignition (s)

• average smoke obscuration (m^/kg). Smoke production from a material has the

rational units of m^, representing the extinction cross-section of the smoke. This is normalized by the amount of specimen mass lost (kg).

• average yields of each of the measured gas species (kg/kg). For the purpose of this study, these measurements were of the greatest interest.

Page 24
Medium-scale tests

The medium-scale tests were conducted in the Furniture Calorimeter. It is not appropriate to test wall lining materials, as such, in the Furniture Calorimeter, which is designed only for testing freestanding commodities. However, in the real-scale tests a source of ignition for the room walls was

needed. It was judged that the simplest ignition source would be a crib made of the same material

and placed next to the wall. (If other, more realistic, ignition sources were used, the analysis of data

would have become much more difficult since each test would then comprise two different materials

being tested.) It is possible to test cribs in the furniture calorimeter; thus, it was decided to obtain

additional information on the performance of the test materials by burning cribs made of these

materials in the Furniture Calorimeter. The burning conditions of cribs are quite different from those

in a burning wall. Therefore, if these features are factors in the yields of toxicants from fullydeveloped fires, differences should appear in the analysis of the data.

The furniture calorimeter [31] was designed to measure the heat release and mass loss rates of

furniture items burning in the open air. The basic principle of the apparatus is very similar to that

of the Cone Calorimeter, since oxygen consumption calorimetry is also used here. Unlike in the

Cone Calorimeter, however, there is no provision of imposing an overall radiant heat flux on the

specimen. The specimen is merely ignited by whatever means are appropriate to the commodity

being tested. Since the oxygen inflow is not restricted in this apparatus, the resultant combustion

conditions are intended to simulate a fire environment most like a pre-flashover fire. A diagram of

the Furniture Calorimeter is given in Figure 7.

The furniture calorimeter was employed to verify crib design in terms of the expected heat release

rates and duration of burning. This information was necessary to determine the usefulness of these

cribs as ignition sources for the compartment wall burning tests. Each crib was ignited with a 130 mm

diameter pool containing 100 ml of heptane. The ignition fuel was centered below each crib. This was sufficient to ignite the wood and rigid polyurethane foam cribs but not the polyvinylchloride

(PVC) crib. The PVC crib never developed any sustained burning and self-extinguished shortly after

the ignition fuel was completely consumed.

Crib Design

A crib is a regular array of sticks, commonly used in fire testing as a controlled source of combustion

(Figure 8). The heat release rate of a burning crib can be determined by

Q = A/i^xw, (1)

where

Ahj. effective heat of combustion of the crib material (MJ/kg)

ihf fuel mass burning rate (kg/s).

Page 25
r

Laser

Photometer

Thermocouple

5D

Collection

hood

r

\r

-//-

-//-

-a

-Soot

sampling

Gas sampling

<—=

^Tripper

/ plate Bidirectional

L/ 4 ^ velocity

1 probe

I, ,1 Radiometer Load cell

(water cooled)

^

Thermocouple

Plenum

To exhaust stackFigure 7. General view of the Furniture Calorimeter

Page 26
Figure 8. Construction of the test cribs

Page 27
The mass burning rate of a crib is a function of crib material, porosity, effective surface area, and

stick dimension (thickness of a square stick).

Equations for predicting the burning rates of wood cribs are summarized in [32]. For freeburning cribs, the mass loss rate is the lesser of the rates given by eq. 2 or eq. 3, below.

1 ^

D

(2)

jhy = 4.4x10"* —

m. [D)

(3)

where

D stick thickness (m)

H crib height (m)

m^ initial crib mass (kg)

S clear spacing between sticks (m)

t time since ignition (s)

V fuel surface regression velocity (m/s).

The velocity of fuel surface regression, in turn, is given by:

p

(4)

Equation (3) refers to a burning regime where the rate of mass loss is restricted due to tight packing

of sticks; we will not be using cribs burning in this regime in the present study.

The peak mass loss rate, according to this model, occurs right after ignition and is obtained by setting

t = in eq 2.

The primary source of data available on the burning of RPU cribs is from [33]. The density of

the cribs studied there was about seven times that of the present specimens; thus, applicability of

these equations is not clear. Nonetheless, the following equations were used:

m^'^ = cD-^' (5)

and

Page 28
\j = m"f X ADLnN (6)

where

L length of stick (m) n number of sticks per layer

N number of layers

and c (kg • m'^"^ • s'^) is characteristic of the material. For the rigid polyurethane studied in [33], a value of c = 1.2 x 10'^ was seen. The equation is used to describe a 'steady-state', rather than peak,

burning rate of the crib. For the same time comparison with wood data, a value of c = 0.88x10

was suggested.

Delichatsios [34] studied the parameters controlling the fire growth of wood cribs. He found that

the time for the flames to spread from a small ignition source below the center of a wood crib to the

outer edge of a crib could be described by

'. ' -Az m m

where | is a material dependent parameter. Equation (7) was taken as the time to reach 'steadystate' burning. From the work of Delictiatsios, ^ was taken as 0.045 s"^ for wood. For rigid

polyurethane foam, ^ was estimated from [33] as 0.03 s'^.

The duration of 'steady-state,' tg, was based on the mass loss between 5% weight loss and 55%

weight loss and the mass burning rate of a crib such that

^ ^

("tsS " ^s) (g)

where

m55 sample mass at 55% of total mass m5 sample mass at 5% of total mass.

Cribs were designed such that the Q of a single crib would not be sufficient to flashover the

compartment, but would be sufficient to ignite the material lining the wall. The actual designs of the

cribs chosen are given below. No data are available in the literature for PVC cribs; therefore, PVC

cribs were made according to the dimensions of the RPU crib.

Page 29
Wood Crib:

Total Crib Size:

stick length:

square stick: stick space:

sticks/layer:

layers/crib:

crib mass:

580 X 580 X 445 mm (W X L X H)

580 mm

45 mm (D)

89 mm (S)

5

10

23 kg

Rigid Polyurethane Crib:

Total Crib Size:

stick length:

square stick: stick space:

sticks/layer:

layers/crib:

crib mass:

330 X 330 X 254 mm (W x L x H)

330 mm

25 mm (D)

51 mm (S)

5

10

1.0 kg

Polyvinyl chloride Crib:

Total Crib Size:

stick length:

square stick: stick space:

sticks/layer:

layers/crib:

crib mass:

330 X 330 X 254 mm (W x L x H)

330 mm

25 mm (D) [formed by two pieces of 12.7 mm sticks]

51 mm (S)

5

10

16 kg

The cribs were constructed as shown in Figure 8 and were held together with nails. The cribs were

sized so that the wall materials would be sufficiently well ignited to lead to room flashover, but that

flashover would not be so soon after ignition that pre-flashover measurements would be made

difficuh.

Real-Scale tests

Tests conducted

For each of the materials, a preliminary real-scale test was conducted with no test animals. The

purpose of this test was to obtain gas data to ascertain whether suitable conditions for exposing the

animals existed. The animal testing sequence consisted of at least two real-scale tests for each

Page 30
material. This allowed animal exposures to be made at slightly different times and, thus, better

approximate an LC50.

Test arrangement

The real-scale test facility comprised a collinear burn room/corridor/target room arrangement, similar,

although not identical, to that used in a previous study [7]. Figure 9 shows the layout. The burn

room was lined with the test material on the end wall. The ignition source was, typically, one of the

cribs described in the previous sections (but this varied according to the specific test; see Results).

The measurements were taken primarily in the target room. The dimensions were:

The test rooms

Room sizes:

Burn Room: 2.4 m wide x 3.7 m long X 2.4 m high

Corridor: 2.4 m wide x 4.6 m long x 2.4 m high

Target Room: 2.4 m wide x 3.7 m long x 2.4 m high

Doorway Openings:

Burn Room/Corridor Opening: 2.03 m high x 0.76 m wide

Target Room/Corridor Opening: 2.03 m high x 0.76 m wide

Target Room/Atmosphere Opening: 1.75 m high x 0.95 m wide

The openings were chosen so as to provide for a well-ventilated fire during crib burning, but so as to be under-ventilated after the onset of flashover [35].

Walls and ceilings were made of 12.7 mm-thick gypsum wallboard, covered by 12.7 mm-thick Marinite.

Floors were of reinforced concrete.

Measurements taken

Measurements were taken in three basic locations:

(1) Burn room.

(2) Target room.

(3) Collection hood.

The burn room instrumentation included:

• Thermocouple trees, to determine vertical temperature distribution and the average upper

gas layer temperature. One tree located in the doorway opening, second tree in a room

corner away from fire source. • Static pressure probe, located 0.075 m above floor level, to assist in determining doorway flow

rates. • A video camera with a wide angle lens for video taping of each test.

Page 31
All dimensions in meters

0.95

i,>jM.m!iMum»!!,,u!,j'mmmmmimmu..i,km!M'im,A:i,

Target room X ]o.76

Corridor

0.76

T,P

miit»m'iismmm:iumm''xmm'!mv>!m,«i:mmii!x>Mmmmwi!iim 3.7

->+<- 4.6 ->HBurn room

3.7

2.4

C - Crib

X - Sampling port for gases to animals

T - Thermocouple tree P - Static-pressure probe

S - Sprinkler

Figure 9. Layout of the burn room/corridor/target room used for real-scale tests

Page 32
The target room instrumentation included:

• Animal exposures to upper layer gas concentration. • Measurements of O2, CO, CO2, and HCN at the bypass line ahead of the animal exposure

chambers. • Gas temperature at animal sampling probe location. • Measurements of O2, CO, CO2, HCN and NO,^ in the animal exposure chambers. • Gas temperature in the animal exposure chambers. • Thermocouple tree at exit doorway. • Static pressure probe at exit doorway.

The collection hood instrumentation included:

• Total exhaust gas flow rate • Concentrations of O2, CO, and CO2.

• Measurement of smoke obscuration.

Animal exposures Animal measurements were made by sampling the atmosphere near the ceiling

of the target room. These target room gases were pumped to and through a set of three animal

exposure boxes, located in an adjacent room. Six Fischer 344 male rats, of identical specification as described for the NBS Cup Furnace test, were exposed in each chamber in a head-only mode.

The boxes were set up to have a flow of combustion products through them from the start of the test. At the start, all animal exposure chambers contained only ambient air. As the test progressed and

the exposure chambers began to fill with combustion products, it was possible to replace different

amounts of the ambient air by closing the sampling valve at a predetermined time or CO

concentration.

The sampling port was located 25 mm below the ceiling level of the target room, situated in the

center of the room. A blower motor was installed to draw a constant flow of combustion products

through the sampling port, past the take-off valves feeding three animal exposure chambers (details

of the animal test chambers are shown in Figure 10), and then back into the target room. The rate of sampling from the target room for the first two tests was 10.1 and 9.7 €/s. However, this sampling

rate was found to be too fast and the blower motor was changed to a smaller capacity (2.0 - 2.9 €/s)

for the remaining tests.

The sampling line from the target room to the exposure boxes was 5.1 m in length; the first 1.4 m

of the sampling line was 0.047 m inside diameter stainless steel tubing, the remaining 3.7 m was 0.051

m inside diameter glass tubing. Orifice plates were placed into the lines supplying each exposure

chamber and the bypass line so that the flow of gases into each box was approximately one fourth

that of the total flow from the target room. The constant flow geometry minimized the delay times

between opening the valve to an animal chamber and actually filling it with combustion product. The

target room discharge initially was located at one of the ceiling corners, but was moved to discharge

into the hood.

Page 33
Animal exposure chambers

In from

target room

Orifice plate

IC sampling port

Gas sampling bulb port

Bypass line

<—

Back to ^

exhaust hood

Orifice plates

Gas sampling

line / cold trap

Pump- <D

SIDE VIEW END VIEW

Figure 10. Installation of animal boxes in the real-scale tests

Page 34
Gas measurements The permanent gases, O2, CO2 and CO, in each of the animal exposure

chambers were measured continuously. Oxygen concentrations were measured with paramagnetic

analyzers and CO2 and CO were monitored with infrared analyzers.

Impinger sampling for IC analysis of the acid gases HCl, HBr, and HCN generated in the target room

was done with an apparatus similar to that shown in Figure 3. To detect the presence of NOj^,

measurements of HNO3, and HNO2 were also made. A sampling rate of 0.9 €/min was used, with

the gases being drawn from a sampling port in the bypass line shown in Figure 10. The impingers

contained dilute KOH solution (5 - 20 mM). Gas samples were collected for 5-min intervals.

Combustion products were also collected in evacuated gas sampling bulbs from a sampling port in the

bypass line shown in Figure 10 and from ports located on the side of each animal exposure chamber.

The combustion products were analyzed for HCN by GC [23] and for HCN and other acid gases by

IC. For the IC analyses, the previously described techniques were used.

Ignition cribs Ignition was with cribs made of the same material as the test wall material. The

dimensions and construction were as described above.

Page 35
Results

Elemental analysis results

A sample of each of the materials tested was submitted to a commercial laboratory for determining

the elemental composition of the specimens. The results are given in Table 1. Note that the

presence of CI in the wood is not a measurement error. Presence of CI was also noted in ion

chromatography analysis during the real-scale tests. The source of this small amount of impurity in the test specimens has not been identified; it may be a residue from storage adjacent to other

materials at the suppliers.

Based on the elemental analysis results, it is possible to compute what we shall term the 'notional'

values of yields. These will be computed assuming that:

all N goes to HCN

all CI goes to HCl

all C that did not go to HCN goes to CO2

all H that did not go to HCN or HCl goes to H2O.

Thus, in the latter two cases, the yield of CO2 is computed as

/co, = 3.67

14

(9)

and the yield of H2O as 4o = 18 H - —N - 14 35.5

CI (10)

Page 36
Table 1. Elemental analysis of the materials in the study

Element Sum for elements

Material C H O N CI Br P analyzed

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (%) <%)

DF 48.06 6.23 45.26 0.040^ 52" <58 0.0021 100 RPU 64.75 6.61 21.53 6.36 1.37 <92 0.12 >99

PVC 38.05 4.93 3.69 0.004^ 43.08 <62 <0.08 89.7

a.b.

Nitrogen by Kjeldahl

ppm

Material

Notional yields for complete combustion

Yield CO2

(g/g)

Yield H2O

(g/g)

Yield HCN

(g/g)

Yield HCl

(g/g) DF 1.76 1.12 0.077 0.00005 RPU 2.17 1.10 0.123 0.014 PVC 1.40 0.67 0.008 0.443

where C, N, H, and CI denote the mass fractions in the fuel of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and

chlorine, respectively. It is not, of course, expected that actual yields measured in any of the tests should correspond to these notional yields listed in Table 1; nonetheless, they are useful as indicators.

A significant amount of chlorine was found in the RPU upon analysis. This strongly suggests that

while the material may not be claimed as FR by its manufacturer, for the purposes of understanding

its fire behavior it may be more appropriate to consider it as being FR-treated.

Bench-Scale results

NBS Cup Furnace Method

The results are given in Tables 2 - 7. Note that the respiration rates of the animals were not

monitored, thus, the yields of CO2 are not corrected for the (relatively small) contribution due to respiratory expiration from the animals.

Page 37
Table 2. Chemical results for DF using the NBS Cup Furnace method

Mass/chamb)er vol. Initial temp, of

furnace''

Average gas concentration*

Loaded

(mg/e)

Consumed

(mg/e)

O2

(%)

CO

(ppm)

CO2

(ppm)

HCN

(ppm)

HCl

(ppm)

NO,

(ppm)

40

44c

45

46*=

47

50

40 NM

45

46

47

50

524

527

527

524

526

524

17.9

17.8

17.5

17.6

17.6

17.7

3400

3700

3800

3800

3800

4000

27000

28000

32000

27000

30000

29000

NM

NM

NM

NM

NM

NM

ND

61 NM

340 NM

NM

NM

5 NM

9 NM

NM

a. Average for the 30 min period.

b. The autoignition temperature was 510 °C. Flaming was initiated with a sparker and started between

0.5 and 2.5 min and continued for 4.8 to 6.3 min.

c. Analytical test, no animals. ND Not detected. NM Not measured.

Mass/chamber vol. Maximum gas concentration Yields

Loaded

(mg/t)

Consumed

(mg/e)

CO

(ppm)

CO2

(ppm)

CO

(gig) C02^

(g/g)

40

44

45

46

47

50

40

44d

45

46

47

50

5900

7200

6800

7500

7700

8300

33000

33000

38000

33000

37000

38000

0.17

0.19

0.18

0.19

0.19

0.19

1.5

1.3

1.5

1.3

1.4

1.4

d. Estimated

e. CO2 values not corrected for respiration of the animals

Autoignition Temperatures: The autoignition temperatures of Douglas flr, the rigid polyurethane

foam, and the PVC were found to be 510, 550, and 600 °C, respectively. Since these tests were

performed in the flaming mode, the temperature of the furnace was set 15 to 25 °C above the

predetermined autoignition temperature.

Chemical and Toxicological Results: In the Tables, the average gas concentrations are obtained from the integrated areas under the instrument response curves for the 30-min animal

Page 38
Table 3. Toxicological results for DF using the NBS Cup

Furnace method

Mass/chamber vol. FED^ No. died/ no. tested

Latest day

of death Loaded

(mg/e)

Consumed

(mg/e)

WE

WE

+PE

WE

WE

+PE

40

45

47

50

40

45

47

50

0.86

1.00

0.98

1.00

NA

NA

NA

NA

0/6

3/6

3/6

4/6

0/6

3/6

3/6

4/6

a. FED values were calculated based on CO, CO2, and 02- NA Not applicable

PE Post-exposure

WE Within exposure

exposure period divided by 30 minutes (i.e., ppm-min/30 min). Figure 11 illustrates the specific results from one particular test (RPU at 12 mg/€) to give an indication of how closely average values

represent the time-varying actual measurements.

Based on the data given, LC5Q (mass consumed) values were computed as follows, with the 95%

confidence interval given in parentheses:

Material

DF

RPU

PVC

Within exposure

(mg/€)

46 (41-51)

13 (12-14)

>20

Within exposure + 14 days

46 (41-51)

11 (10-13)

20 (18-22)

The N-Gas Model was used to analyze the results. This model is based on studies of the toxicological

interactions of up to five gases - CO, CO2, HCN, HCl, and reduced O2 - and has been developed at NIST [15],[36],[8]. It is based on the observation that the probability of animal lethality should

become 50% when the sum of the terms contributing to an effective exposure dose is close to 1.0. This summation is sometimes termed the 'Fractional Effective exposure Dose,' or FED [37]. The

following equation used in this series of experiments was empirically derived to predict the death of

50% of the animals either within the 30-min exposures or within the 30 min plus post-exposure

period.

Page 39
Table 4. Chemical results for RPU using the NBS Cup Furnace method

^ Massychamber vol. on''

Initial temp,

of furnace

Average gas concentrat

Loadec1 Consumed O2 CO CO2 HCN HCl no/

(mgli) (mglO CC) (%) (PPin) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) iPPm)

10 10 577 19.5 1500 12000 140 NM NM

12 12 574 19.2 1800 14000 140 26 NM

14 14 572 19.1 2000 15000 160 NM NM

15 15 575 19.3 2100 13000 170 6 NM

15^ 15 575 19.4 1900 12000 180 64 50

20^ NM 577 18.8 3000 17000 290 IT 35^

40^ 40 574 18.3 5200 20000 440 290 50

a.b.

Average for 30 min period.

The autoignition temperature was 550 °C. Flaming was initiated with a sparker and started between 2 and 30 s and continued for 0.95 to 1.5 min.

c.d.

e.NM

Not by liquid impingers, instead a single grab sample (gas) was taken. Average NO^^ was measured by both chemiluminescence (values in table) and ion NO^ was not detected by ion chromatography.

Analytical experiment - no animals exposed. Not measured

chromatography.

Mass/chamber vol. Maximum gas concentration Yields

Loaded Consumed CO CO2

(ppm)

HCN

(ppm)

Hcl f (ppm)CO

(gig) COjS

(gig) HCN

(gig)

Hcl

(mgjt) (mgli) (ppm) (gig)

10 10 1810 14000 170 NM 0.21 2.6 0.019 NM

12 12 2070 16000 180 26 0.20 2.3 0.017 0.003

14 14 2480 17000 210 NM 0.20 2.2 0.017 NM

15 15 2580 15000 230 6 0.20 1.9 0.017 0.001

15 15 2350 13000 220 64 0.18 1.6 0.016 0.006

20 20'" 3570 18000 370 27 0.21 1.6 0.020 0.002

40 40 6720 22000 640 290 0.20 1.0 0.018 0.011

f. HCl values are an average for 30 min.

g. CO2 values not corrected for respiration of the

h. estimated NM not measured

animals

Page 40
Table 5. Toxicological results for RPU using the NBS Cup

Furnace method

Latest day of death

Mass/chamber vol. FED^ No. died/ no. tested

Loaded

(mgie)

Consumed

(mglC)

WE

WE

+PE

WE

WE

+PE

10

12

14

15

10

12

14

15

1.0

1.1

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.4

1.6

1.6

0/6

3/6

4/6

5/6

2/6

5/6

5/6

6/6

1

1

1

1

a. FED values were calculated based on CO, CO2, HCN, and O2

PE Post-exjxDsure

WE Within exposure

FED = m[CO\

[CO.] - b

[HCN\

LC,, HCN

[HCl\

LC,, HCl

21 - [OJ

21 - LC,,0^

(11)

where the numbers in the brackets indicate the actual concentration of the gases in ppm (CO, CO2,

HCN, HCl) or percent (O2). FED = 1 predicts that approximately 50% of the animals should die.

For the formula as presented above, experimental data indicate that the 50% probability of mortality occurs at FED = 1.1, with 1 -standard deviation error bars of ± 0.2.

The LC50 value of HCN is 200 ppm for 30-min exposures (WE) or 150 ppm for 30-min exposures

plus post-exposure deaths (WE + PE). Animal lethalities for HCl exposures are not evaluated solely

WE, since the effect is only manifested PE; the LC50 for HCl (WE -I- PE) is taken as 3700 ppm.

The LC50 value for O2 is 5.4%. The terms m and b equal -18 and 122000, respectively, if the CO2

concentrations are 5% or less (where 1% is equivalent to 10,000 ppm). For CO2 concentrations > 5%, these values become m = 22.7 and b = -39,000.

For all materials, CO, CO2, and O2 were included in the FED computation. HCN and HCl were

added if they were produced by the material. The HCl term was only used in the prediction of the

(WE + PE) effect.

The results were similar to those found previously in this laboratory for Douglas fir and for different

samples of rigid polyurethane foam and PVC [9]. In the case of the Douglas fir, all deaths occurred

during or immediately after the 30-min exposures and the LC50 value was 46 mg/€. The FED value was based on the combined toxicity of CO, CO2 and O2 and correctly predicted the deaths of the

animals. In other words, when the FED value was 1.0, three or four out of the six exposed animals

died.

Page 41
25,000 r

20,000 -

^ 15,000

E

Q.

o

o

d

o

10,000 -

5,000

300 600 900 1200 1500 1800

TIME (seconds)

Figure 11. Typical time variation of gases within the 200 € animal box

Page 42
Table 6. Chemical results for PVC using the NBS Cup Furnace

method

Mass/chamber vol. Initial Average Gas Concentrations^

Loaded Consumed furnace O2 CO CO2 HCl

(mgie) (mgie) rc) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

17d 15 623 20.1 980 6900 2500

17 16 623 19.8 1200 9300 2100

18 NM 625 20.1 1000 6500 2800

IS** 16 623 19.8 1300 9300 2800

20'' 18 625 19.8 1400 9000 3700'=

20 18 623 19.9 1300 7900 3000

a. Average for 30-min period.

b. The autoignition temperature was 600 °C. Flaming was initiated with a !>parker and

started between 0.67 and 1.83 min and continued for 0.75 to 2.07 min.

c. Based on bulbs taken at 10 and 2() min.

d. Glue on both sides of specimen.

MassA;hamber vol. Maximum gas concentration Yield

Loaded Consumed CO CO2 HC1« CO COjf HCl

(mm (mgiq (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (gig) (gig) (gig)

17 15 1200 9100 2500 0.09 1.1 0.25

17 16 1500 13000 2100 0.11 1.5 0.20

18 16 1600 12000 2800 0.11 1.4 0.26

20 18 1700 12000 3700 0.11 1.2 0.30

20 18 1600 11000 3000 0.10 1.1 0.25

e. HCl values are an average for 30 min.

f. CO2 values not corrected for respiration of the animals.

In the case of the rigid polyurethane foam, all deaths occurred during the 30-min exposures or within

the first 24 h following the exposures. The within-exposure LC5Q value was 13 mg/€; whereas, the

within- plus post- exposure LC^q value was 1 1 mg/€. The FED values based on CO, CO2, HCN and

O2, appear to be somewhat high, compared to actual observed lethalities. In other words, some

percentage of the animals died within-exposure at N-Gas values of 1.1 to 1.3 and within- plus postexposure at FED values of 1.3 to 1.6. The later value would suggest that an antagonistic effect may

be occurring.

Page 43
No deaths occurred during the 30-min exposures to PVC smoke; all deaths occurred during the first 2 days of the post-exposure observation period. The LC^q value was 20 mg/^. The FED values

successfully predict the post-exposure deaths and the absence of within exposure fatalities (Table 7).

Note in Table 6 that some additional tests were performed on the PVC samples which included a coating of glue, since glue was used for mounting in some of the real-scale tests, as described

subsequently.

The yields were computed on the basis of a nominal 200-L exposure chamber volume and a nominal

room temperature. No correction was made for any (small) amount of box leakage.

. ^ [CO ppm] X 0.23 /j2)

1000 X [mass sample consumed (g)]

^ [CO^ %] X 3.9

^j3^

^* [mass sample consumed (g)]

^ ^ [HCN ppm] X 0.22 /^4^ "^^ 1000 X [mass sample consumed (g)]

, ^ [HCl ppm] X 0.29 ^^^s ^^ 1000 X [mass sample consumed (g)]

SwRI/NIST apparatus

The results for the SwRI/NIST tests are given in Tables 8-10. The time-varying behavior of the

gases in the 200 € animal exposure box used in this test showed a very similar pattern as did the NBS

Cup Furnace behavior, illustrated in Figure 11.

The scope of the investigation did not include an exact determination of the LC5o- Instead,

approximate values (reported to one significant figure) were obtained as follows:

Page 44
Table 7. Toxicological results for PVC using the

NBS Cup Furnace method

Mass/chamber vol. FE

ValiDue^ No. died/no. tested Latest day of Loaded death

(mgie)

Consumed

(mgie)

WE WE

WE +PEWE +PE

17 15 0.21 0.90 0/5 1/5 1

17 16 0.28 0.84 0/6 1/6

18 NM 0.22 0.99 0/6 3/6 2

18 16 0.29 1.0 0/6 2/6 1

20 18 0.31 1.3 0/6 4/6 1

20.1 18 0.29 1.1 0/6 3/6 1

a.NM

PE

WE

FED values based on CO, COj,

O2, and HCl for WE plus PE. Not measured

Post-exposure

Within-exposure

and O2 for WE and CO CO2,

Material

DF

RPU

PVC

Within exposure

(mg/€)

100 - 200

20 - 30

> 30

Within exposure + 14 days

(mg/€)

100 - 200

20 - 30

20 - 30

The analysis of FED values and of the gas yields was done in an identical manner for this test as for

the NBS Cup Furnace method. The FED calculations for predicted lethalities were based on the

formula given in the preceding section, which was derived on NBS Cup Furnace studies; thus any

apparatus-dependence specific to the SwRI/NIST method are not taken into account. Same as for

the NBS Cup Furnace method, a nominal 200 (. box volume was assumed.

Only plain PVC samples were tested in the SwRI/NIST method, unlike the NBS Cup Furnace tests, where some PVC + glue samples were included.

For DF and RPU, all animal deaths occurred during the exposure. For PVC, there were no animal

deaths within the exposure, all of the deaths occurring post-exposure.

Page 45
Table 8. Chemical and toxicological results for DF using the SwRI/NIST Toxicity method

Mass loss At end of test Irrad. bpec. inii. iiiiie name

Time Area Mass (g) (%) to ign. Out CO2 CO 0,

Test (min.) (cm'^) (g) (s) (s) (%) (ppm) (%)

DF-A 16 12 - 7.5 93 53* 442 3.2 1500 18.6''

DF-A3 20 38 23.87 21.4 90 65 493 10.6 4700 13.7 DF-A4 15 37 23.74 20.6 87 70 503 10.3 2800 16.3 DF-A5 15 58 31.42 27.9 89 70 420 5.1 11000 12.0''

DF-A6 15 58 35.10 31.5 90 64 AM 11.6 5500 18.5 DF-MLl 15 92 57.62 - 55 488 - 21.0 DF-ML2 15 92 65.58= - 13^' 540 - 21.0

DF-1 15.5 86 48.06 41.7 87 71 570 11.6 7400 14.8

DF-2 17 70 48.06 42.5 90 81 549 4.3 5700 17.8

DF-3 15 36 22.40 20.2 90 57 639 6.7 2800 19.5

a. Out at 86 s, re-ignites at 240 s. b. No oxygen added.

c. Includes 0.38 g lampblack.

d. Blackened surface.

Smoke

Cone. Animal lethality FED

Value CO

30-min

CT

HCN

30-min

CT Yield Yield

(mglt)

P<DSt WE CO CO2

Test

Exposure Same

Day

Ex

SL

poreToD€tal -ad WE

+PE

(ppmmin)(ppmmin) (g/g) (g/g) DF-A 0.045 1.6

DF-A3 0.053 1.9

DF-A4 0.031 1.8

DF-A5 0.088 0.66

DF-A6 0.040 1.3

DF-1 210 6 - - (3 1.1 1.1 130,000 - 0.041 1.0

DF-2 217 5 - - 5 1.1 1.1 120,000 - 0.031 0.36

DF-3 101 () 0.47 0.47 52,000 - 0.032 1.2

Page 46
Table 9. Chemical and toxicological results for RPU using the SwRI/NIST Toxicity

method

Test

Init. Mass

(8)

Mass Loss Time

to

ign.

(s)

Flame Out

(s)

At end of lest Irrad. Time

(min.)

Spec. Area

(cm^)

(g) (%) COo

(%)

CO

(ppm)

O2

(%)

HCN''

(ppm)

RPU-A 12 97 24.06 20.57 85 21 277 8.9 7100 12.0^ -

RPU-1 15 58 13.75 12.97 94 23 318 2.9 4800 14.8 100 RPU-2 15 29 7.00 6.66 95 25 270 1.5 3500 18.8 120 RPU-3 15 16 4.00 3.87 97 26 230 0.7 1700 19.6 60 ML-1 15 97 22.47'' 21.4 95 4C 383 - - 21.0 -

a.b.

c.d.

No oxygen added. Mass includes 0.46 g lampblact

Surface blackened. Does not show steady state.

FED CO

30-min

HCN

30-min

CT

Animal lethality Value cr Yield Yield Yield Smoke Post WE CO COt HCN

Cone. Expo- Same lixpo- Total + (ppm- (ppmTest (ms/e) sure day sure Dead WE PE min.) min.) (Sis) (Sis) (Sis) RPU-A 0.080 1.6 RPU-1 65 6 6 1.7 1.9 130,000 3000 0.087 0.82 0.0019 RPU-2 33 6 6 1.1 1.3 85,000 2900 0.12 0.83 0.0044 RPU-3 19 0.57 0.65 43,000 1500 0.10 0.64 0.0034

Cone Calorimeter

The data obtained in the Cone Calorimeter are summarized in Table 11. The values are averages

of, typically, three runs each. The within-laboratory variability (repeatability, r) and the variability

between laboratories (reproducibility, R) have been established for this method [29] and are given,

for the case of the peak heat release rate, q^g^' ^^•

Page 47
Table 10. Chemical and toxicological results for PVC using the SwRI/NIST Toxicity

method

Mass 1X5SS Time

to

ign.

(s)

Flame

Out

(s)

At end of test

Test

Irrad. Time

(min.)

Spec. Area (cmh

Init. Mass

(g)

(g) (%) CO2

(%)

CO

(ppm)

O2

(%)

HCP

(ppm)

FS-1 10 4.0 3.96 3.62 91 56 250 2.0 1400 19.1 3100

FS-2 10 4.8 4.23 4.23 85 45 270 1.9 1600 18.8 3800

FS-3 10 7.0 5.62 5.62 89 49 295 2.2 2100 18.8 4000

FS-4 10 8.7 6.75 6.75 85 57 2% 2.6 2700 18.2 5700

a. Does not shov\i steady state; values given are peak values.

FED CO HCl

30-min

CT

(ppmmin.)

Yield CO

(gig)

Yield CO2

(gig)

Yield HCl

(gig)

Animal lethality Value 30-min

CT

(ppmTest min.)

Smoke

Cone.

(mg/e)

Exposure Same

Post Expo- Total WEWE

+

day sure Dead PE

FS-1 18 0.32 0.64 33,000 36,000 0.086 2.0 0.25

FS-2 21 3 3 0.38 0.86 40,000 53,000 0.089 1.6 0.26

FS-3 28 1 1 0.47 0.87 53,000 45,000 0.087 1.4 0.21

FS-4 34 6

Wf-.y 6 0.59 1.3 66,000 76,000 0.090 1.4 0.24

r = 13.3 + 0.131^„

R = 60.4 + 0.1414'

(16)

(17)

where r and R are computed for the 95% probability level and are in the same units (kW/m^) as is

4max- Uncertainty ranges for other variables derived in the test are generally similar and may be

found in [29].

Figures 12 through 14 show the rate of heat release curves obtained. Note that the values reported

in Table 11, being averages of several runs, may not agree exactly with the curves shown in the

corresponding Figures, which illustrate only a single run each. The variable *MLR' shown in Table 1

is the mass loss rate over 90 - 10 period, that is, over the period starting when 90% of the mass burned still remains, and stopping when 10% remains. Note that the effective heat of combustion

for RPU is similar to a handbook value of 22.7 [38], whereas the value for PVC is about half of

the handbook value of 16.9 for pure material.

Page 48
Table 11. Cone Calorimeter data summary

Material Flux

(kWIrn^) Mass

(g)

Mass

Burned

(%)

MLR

(glm^s)

Ignition

Time

(s)

Peak

(kWIrn^)

Peak Time

(s)

Total

(MJIm^)

Eff.

(MJIkg)

35 209.5 77.6 5.6 39.8 175 60 111 11.8 DF 50 209.3 81.1 6.1 14.0 184 35 227 11.8

75 181.9 83.5 6.8 3.7 283 23 208 12.1

35 24.9 78.3 4.7 3.4 160 25 43 19.7 RPU 50 25.0 Sl.l 4.8 3.0 191 20 52 21.1

75 24.6 82.9 8.5 2.7 234 215 47 18.9

35 91.5 78.2 12.8 69.8 147 530 11 9.5 PVC 50 90.3 80.1 14.9 34.8 147 283 72 8.9

75 90.5 81.6 20.4 15.4 189 243 66 7.9

Material

1 Yie Id Flux

(kWIm'^) CO

(kglkg) CO2

(kglkg) HCl(kglkg) HCN(kglkg) TUH^

(kglkg) Smoke(m^lkg)

35 0.005 0.85 0.004 ND 0.0012 16 DF 50 0.003 0.98 0.005 ND 0.0008 22

75 0.003 1.01 0.006 ND 0.0006 38

35 0.060 1.06 0.030 0.005 0.014 840

RPU 50 0.080 1.16 0.013 0.005 0.012 820

75 0.042 1.20 0.027 0.004 0.014 990

35 0.075 0.41 0.30 ND 0.038 1000 PVC 50 0.076 0.37 0.32 ND 0.043 1100

75 0.066 0.29 0.30 ND 0.054 1200

a. Total Unburned Hydrocarbons, C

ND Not detected. H4 equivalent.

Since enough diagnostic measurements, including total unburned hydrocarbons, are available for the

Cone Calorimeter, it is possible to check the results by the use of carbon balance. We shall assume

that the unburned hydrocarbons are CH4, that all residual char is pure carbon, and that the yield of

soot is given according to

Page 49
Csl E

0)CDD

Q)

CD

O

CD JZ

O

CDD

01

300

250

200

150

100

50

: 35 kW/m^

; 50 kW/m'

: 75 kW/m'

600 200 1800 2400

Time (s)

3000

Figure 12. Heat release rates measured in the Cone Calorimeter for DF

Page 50
CN

Q)

if) D

CD

D

(D

O

(D

D

300

250

200

150

100 ;-

50

: 35 kW/m'

: 50 kW/m'

: 75 kW/m^

120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 10801200

Time fs

Figure 13. Heat release rates measured in the Cone Calorimeter for RPU

Page 51
CNJ

CD

(/) D

CD

D

CD

O

CDD

300

250 -

200

50

00 -

50

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

: 35 kW/m

: 50 kW/m^

: 75 kW/m

-

^Z**^ \. \

"^i rt/'^v^y •. "^ \

-

• 1 If V " •

'^^ \

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 10801200

Time (s)

Figure 14. Heat release rates measured in the Cone Calorimeter for PVC

Page 52
/.soot 12,000

(18)

where ctj is the specific extinction area (m /kg) and 12,000 is the assumed extinction area for pure

graphitic carbon [39]. Then, the fraction of carbon recovered from the fuel is determined

according to

44-^^02 12

28':/.CO

12

29":jhcn "*"

.. ^ -/ V

char 12,000

(19)

Table 12. Carbon balance for Cone Calorimeter results

Material Flux

Fraction of C

from carbon

Average for Fraction of C Percent

the 3 fluxes from elemental accounted for

(kW/m^) balance analysis

DF 35 0.46

50 0.46 0.46 0.48 95%

75 0.44

RPU 35 0.61

50 0.55 0.59 0.65 91%

75 0.61

PVC 35 0.47

50 0.46 0.46 0.38 119%^

75 0.44

a. See text.

where the yield values of species x are denoted as

'/x'- This comparison is made in Table 12. For DF

and RPU, very reasonable recovery rates of 95% and 91% are seen. For PVC, the calculations

indicate a C recovery of 119%. Since this exceeds 100%, it is obviously not correct. By referring to Table 1, we can see that whereas the analyzed elements for the other materials constitute ~ 100%

of sample mass, from the PVC sample these accounted for only 90%, consistent with the

manufacturer's composition description given in Chapter 2. To get a second estimate, we can

Page 53
postulate that the remaining 10% of specimen mass constitutes inerts which will always remain in the

char. Then, in the equation above we need to substitute (f^har ' 0.10) for the f^^j^^^ term. With this adjustment, the average fraction of C from carbon balance becomes 0.35 for PVC, instead of 0.46. The percent accounted for is then 92%. Thus, it is now entirely plausible that the fraction of C

recovered for PVC should be in the range 92% - 119%.

Medium-Scale results

Even though the medium-scale articles tested were ignition cribs, rather than actual end-use articles,

the test data obtained in the Furniture Calorimeter should be indicative of performance to be

expected in a medium scale. Thus, we will also examine the crib data from a toxicity point of view,

in addition to verifying their behavior as ignition sources for room fires.

Table 13. Comparison of crib results to predicted values

DF RPU

Predicted Measured Predicted Measured

Peak q (kW) 480 420 - 260

Steady-state q (kW) 315 330 275 212

Time to steady-state (s) 80 410 60 40

Duration of steady-state (s) 400 440 80 60

Total heat released (MJ) - 290 - 20 CO2 yield (kg/kg) - 1.6 - 2.5 CO yield (kg/kg) - 0.01 - 0.08

The results of furniture calorimeter tests on the cribs are summarized in Table 13. For use of the

cribs as ignition sources, the table compares the predicted and the measured values of heat release.

The actual heat release rates for DF and RPU are shown in Figure 15. Once the ignition fuel was

consumed, the PVC crib did not burn. While no real steady-state heat release rate was observed in any furniture calorimeter tests, an approximation of the average heat release rate was determined by

averaging the heat release rate values during the period between 5% weight loss and 55% weight loss. This is comparable to the average heat release rate values reported by Quintiere and McCaffrey [33].

For DF, the actual time to achieve this 'steady-state' burning was longer than predicted, 410 s versus 80 s. This was due to the differences in the ignition source. In the studies on which the predictions were based, the ignition source surface area was greater than the crib plane area, while in this work

the ignition source area was much smaller than the crib plane area. It, therefore, took longer to achieve total crib involvement in the present work as compared to the previous work.

Page 54
500

400 -

0)

D 300

(D

00

O

0) 200

(D

D

Q) 00 -i

^ 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Time (s)

Figure 15. Heat release rates measured in the Furniture Calorimeter for cribs

Page 55
The comparison for the RPU shows a comparably good correlation between the predicted and

measured values for the time to, the duration of, and the intensity of the 'steady-state' heat release

rate. The duration of 'steady-state' burning was the same, 60 s. The RPU crib developed 'steadystate' burning in only 40 s. This was more rapid than the predicted 60 s.

Thus, the DF and RPU cribs, as designed and tested, were seen to be appropriate as ignition sources. The PVC crib was not appropriate, since it did not show sustained burning. Thus, a different source — a gas burner - was required for tests of PVC walls.

For comparison with other results on the same test materials. Table 13 also gives the yields of gas

species that were measured.

Real-Scale results

Details of tests conducted

General There were 12 real-scale tests performed in the burn room-corridor-target room facility

shown in Figure 9. With one exception, the test materials were mounted on the back wall of the test room. In the case of the Douglas fir, the planks, once nailed to the wall, were monitored for

moisture content. Actual testing was not started until the wood moisture dropped to below 10%.

Four tests were done for the Douglas fir, three for the rigid polyurethane foam, and five for the

PVC. At least one test for each material was analytical (no animals used), the remaining tests being

with animals. A summary of the tests is in Table 14. The ignition source for the Douglas fir and

rigid polyurethane was cribs ignited with 100 m€ of heptane contained in a pan centered under the

crib. Since furniture calorimeter testing showed that a PVC crib would not burn enough to ignite a wall, the ignition source for the PVC tests was a line burner located on the floor and in the center

of the test wall; burner output was 450 kW. The latter value was chosen to be similar to the peak

values obtained from cribs of the other materials and also to be sufficient to ignite the PVC wall

material. For safety reasons, the gas supply to the burner was to be shut off when, in the judgement

of the test operator, a flame no longer existed in the vicinity of the burner.

The main features of the real-scale tests conducted are summarized in Table 14. Narrative

descriptions are given below, while a test log for each test is contained in Appendix A

FS Analytical DF 1: This analytical test consisted of an end wall and a side wall of the ASTM room

paneled with 2.4 m lengths of the boards, each approximately 20-mm thick by 250-mm wide. The

boards were mounted vertically on 20-mm furring strips which were nailed on top of a layer of

calcium silicate board. Each board was attached by screw-gunning with 75-mm long screws, using four screws per board. Wall moisture was measured at 8.5% to 10% before the test. A crib was placed

into the corner and ignited. The combustion products were pumped from the target room at a rate of 7.0 €/s and into the animal exposure chambers shown in Figure 10. This test provided excessive

combustion rates, due to too much fuel being liberated. It was decided to proceed with the remaining

Page 56
Table 14. Summary of real-scale tests

Test Identification Date Type Crib Location Comments

1 FS Analytical DF 1 9-27-89 Analytical Corner Two walls; too much fuel

2 FS Analytical DF 2 10-24-89 Analytical center of wall,

1 m above floor One wall

3 FS Animal DF 1 11-2-89 Animal Center of wall,

1 m above floor One wall

4 FS Animal DF 2 11-9-89 Animal Center of wall, on floor One wall

5 FS Analytical RPU 11-14-89 Analytical Center of wall, on floor One wall

6 FS Animal RPU 1 11-16-89 Animal Center of wall, on floor One wall, Two cribs

7 FS Animal RPU 2 11-20-89 Animal Center of wall, on floor One wall, Two cribs

8 FS Analytical PVC 1 11-28-89 Analytical No crib used One wall. Line burner, Wall collapsed

9 FS Analytical PVC 2 12-1-89 Analytical No crib used One wall, Line burner. Burner turned

off

10 FS Animal PVC 1 12-5-89 Animal No crib used One wall, Line burner. Burner

turned off

11 FS Animal PVC 2 12-7-89 Animal No crib used One wall. Line burner. Burner

turned off

12 FS Animal PVC 3 12-11-89 Animal No crib used One wall. Line burner, Burner

turned off

tests with only the back 2.4 x 2.4 m wall paneled. No data from this first test will be presented in this report.

FS Analytical DF 2: This was an analytical test. Only the end wall was covered with wood, the

boards being, in this case, mounted horizontally. The boards were attached by screw-gunning with

Page 57
75-mm long screws. Eight screws were used in each board. No furring strips were used for mounting

the test materials in this test nor in any of the subsequent tests. Wall moisture was measured to be

7.5% to 9% prior to this test. A crib was placed 1.4-m above the floor on a stand and in the center

of the wall. The combustion products were pumped from the target room at a rate of 10.1 ^/s.

FS Animal DF 1: This was an animal test done with the same wall and crib configuration as the

previous test. Wall moisture was 7% to 8% prior to this test. Gases from the target room were pumped at a rate of 9.7 €/s to the animal exposure chambers. A recorder was connected to the CO

analyzer of the top animal exposure chamber to monitor the CO concentration with time. The

assumption was made that the CO concentration in all of the animal exposure chambers would

approximate the concentration in the top animal exposure chamber. Decisions as to when to close

the animal exposure chambers were made based on this CO concentration. This CO monitor was

used in the remaining tests. The bottom, middle, and top animal exposure chambers were closed at 515, 515, and 720 s, respectively. Animals were placed in the filled exposure chambers shortly after

the chambers were closed. The middle exposure chamber leaked; no animals were exposed in this chamber. The wall and crib configuration used in this test did not result in flashover.

FS Animal DF 2: Since the previous test did not reach flashover, it was desired to obtain a test history where flashover was reached. This was done by using the same wall configuration, but placing

the crib on the floor in the center of the wall. During the previous test it had been noted that the

animal boxes filled too rapidly. Thus, for this and subsequent tests, a smaller pump was put in its place, with the gases being pumped from the target room at a rate of 2.9 €/s. The bottom, middle,

and top boxes were closed at 805, 930, and 1785 s, respectively. Animals were placed in the bottom,

middle, and top exposure chambers at 1000, 1310, and 1830 s, respectively.

FS Analytical RPU: This was an analytical test with rigid polyurethane foam. The wall was

constructed with two 1.2 x 2.4-m panels mounted vertically. The test panels were attached to the

calcium silicate substrate by use of screws and washers. A total of 24 screws per panel were used. A

crib was placed on the floor raised slightly by single bricks and in the center of the wall. Combustion

products were pumped from the target room at a rate of 2.6 €/s.

FS Animal RPU 1: This was an animal test with rigid polyurethane foam. During the previous test, the fire did not reach flashover, nearly died out, then picked up again and did reach flashover. Such

erratic course of a fire was considered undesirable for obtaining representative gas samples, thus it was decided to increase the ignition source to two cribs. The wall was constructed in the same manner as the previous test, but two cribs sitting on the floor side by side and elevated with single

bricks served as the ignition source. Combustion products were pumped from the target room at a

rate of 2.5 €/s. The bottom, middle, and top animal exposure chambers were closed at 180, 460, and

780 s, respectively. Animals were placed in the bottom, middle, and top exposure chambers at 240,

480, and 810 s, respectively.

FS Animal RPU 2: This was an animal test conducted in the same manner as the previous test. Combustion products were pumped from the target room at a rate of 2.4 ^/second. Combustion

products from the bypass line were collected in impingers and gas sampling bulbs and analyzed as previously described. The bottom, middle, and top animal exposure chambers were closed at 240,

360, and 480 s, respectively. Animals were placed into the bottom, middle, and top animal exposure

chambers at 770, 520, and 990 s, respectively.

Page 58
FS Analytical PVC 1: This was an analytical test with PVC. The wall was constructed with two 1.2 X 2.4 m panels mounted vertically, and attached with screws to the calcium silicate substrate. Since

a crib failed to provide adequate ignition, the aforementioned line burner was used as the ignition source. A separate test was performed in the burn room to calibrate the output from the burner.

Combustion products were pumped from the target room at a rate of 2.4 €/s. Shortly after ignition

(< 180 s), the panels collapsed onto the line burner and put the flame out; the gas to the line burner was turned off at 210 s. This essentially ended the test even though dark smoke continued to billow

through the rooms for some time. Only 3.2 kg of material, as determined by weight difference, was consumed in this test. This test arrangement failed the project objective of not collapsing during test.

FS Analytical PVC 2: This was a repeat analytical PVC test. To prevent the collapse of the test material, the panels were erected by first gluing the PVC sheets onto 13 mm thick gypsum wallboard

panels, using 3M Fastbond 30, nonflammable, contact cement. The composite PVCAvallboard

assembly was then screw-gunned onto the calcium silicate substrate with the same arrangement of

screws as were the RPU specimens. Also, a thermocouple was placed over the line burner to indicate

if the flame went out. This safety feature allowed for the gas to be turned off before an explosion

could occur from the raw gas supplied to the burner. The flame went out after approximately 3 min

and the gas was turned off. The material consumed in this test was 10.9 kg, as determined by weight

difference. The combustion products were pumped from the target room to the animal exposure

chambers at a rate of 2.3 €/s. During this test, in addition to the impinger samples normally collected

from the bypass line ahead of the animal chambers, gases were also collected in gas sampling bulbs

from a short, heated stainless steel line (about 1.5-m length) drawing from a point 0.3-m below the

ceiling of the target room. These samples were collected to ascertain whether the HCl concentration was decreasing as a result of the longer distance from the target room to the animal exposure

chambers. Results of these tests indicated that the HCl concentration in the upper layer as determined with the gas sampling bulbs was 31,000 and 23,000 ppm after 120 and 240 s, respectively;

whereas the HCl concentration at the bypass line (measured during a 5-min sampling interval which

included both the 120 s and the 240 s events) was 4000 ppm. This indicates that a significant amount

of HCl was being lost in the feed line to the animal chambers. Since it was not possible to increase

the diameter of the already-large tubing, nor to find any better substitute for glass, the sampling

system was not changed.

FS Animal PVC 1: This was an animal test with PVC done with the same room construction as the

previous analytical test. Gases were pumped from the target room at a rate of 2.4 €/s. The line

burner flame extinguished in about 450 s, and the gas was turned off shortly thereafter. The bottom,

middle, and top animal exposure chambers were closed at 180, 300, and 420 s, respectively; animals were placed into the bottom, middle, and top exposure chambers at 210, 330, and 440 s, respectively.

FS Animal PVC 2: This was an animal test done similarly to the previous test. Gases were pumped

from the target room to the animal exposure chambers at a rate of 2.2 €/s. The bottom, middle, and

top exposure chambers were closed at 135, 180, and 235 s, respectively; animals were placed in the

bottom, middle, and top exposure chambers at 160, 210, and 280 s, respectively. The burner

extinguished in about 500 s, and the gas was turned off.

FS Animal PVC 3: This was an animal test done similarly to the previous test. Gases were pumped

from the target room to the animal exposure chambers at a rate of 2.0 €/s. The bottom, middle, and

Page 59
top exposure chambers were closed at 155, 210, and 460 s, respectively; animals were placed in the

bottom, middle, and top exposure chambers at 180, 240, and 495 s, respectively. As in the previous

test, the burner went out and the gas was turned off after about 500 s.

Analysis of results

The main results of heat, gas, and smoke measurements are given in Table 15. Toxicological results

and additional chemical measurement data are given in Tables 16 - 18.

Specimen mass loss rate computations Most of the data given are obtained by straightforward means

from the measuring instruments. The test room, due to practical difficulties, could not be equipped

with weighing devices to monitor specimen mass. Thus, a computational procedure had to be derived

whereby approximate mass loss rates could be derived from stack measurements. Appendix B

describes the algorithms used for this computation.

Since heat release rates are considered the most crucial data in describing room fires, the complete

heat release rate curves are given for all tests (Figures 16 - 18). Since the burn room used

corresponded to the ASTM standard room [40], it is known that flashover occurs at slightly over 1000 kW. For this work we will assume that flashover occurs exactly at the time that the 1000 kW

rate is reached.

Yields of gas species The yields of CO, CO2, and smoke could be obtained directly from

measurements made in the exhaust stack. Exhaust stack instrumentation was not available for

determining the yields of HCl and HCN. Thus, the values reported in Table 15 are estimates based on measurements of CO2 and HCl or HCN in the bypass line ahead of the animal boxes. The HCl

and HCN yields were computed as

JHCl rrrt i aa ^CO, , ^

'

/.c. = ^^^^''^x^x/co (21)

ICO,^,^ 44 '^^w

where ^qq stack ^^ ^^^ y\e\di of CO2 as measured in the exhaust stack. This value is then multiplied

by a HCI/CO2 (or HCN/CO2) ratio to arrive at the desired yield. This ratio requires measuring of

HCl or HCN. These HCl and HCN measurements were based on 5-min average impinger samples,

taken at the bypass line ahead of the animal boxes. The comparable CO2 concentration, for the same

time and location, was then also needed. This was taken as the value measured in the target room,

near the point where the sampling line to the animal boxes started out.

For all the gas species, only test-average values of the yields have been computed. It was not possible

to separate out the contributions of the pre-flashover and the post-flashover periods. Such separation

Page 60
Table 15. Release rates, yields, and related quantities measured in the real-scale tests

Peak

Total Total Approx.

heat fraction Total

hp?it fn Total Total

Test release

rate released (MJ)

flashover

(s)

lost'' (kg)

mass

lost CO(kg) CO2

(kg) smoke(m^)

FS analytical DF2

(kW)

860 748 40

(%)

28 3.6 47 1300

FS animal DFl 860 788 - 42 29 3.0 50 1900

FS animal DF2 1570 1670 657 49 34 5.7 86 2900

FS analytical RPU 1550 422 387 10 63 1.4 22 3700

FS animal RPU 1 1400 397 177 16 94 2.0 25 3300

FS animal RPU 2 1440 504 137 13 76 1.3 28 3500

FS analytical PVC 1 730 134 - 3.2" 6 0.78 3.1 1500

FS analytical PVC 2 1390 204 147 u" 20 2.0 7.3 4100

FS animal PVC 1 1510 813 189 15 28 6.5 16 12000

FS animal PVC 2 1570 799 158 19 35 5.4 14 11000

FS animal PVC 3 1310 298 158 5.4 10 2.5 1.7 5200

Test

FS analytical DF 2

CO

(kglkg)

0.091

CO2

(kglkg)

1.2

Yields

HCl

(kglkg) HCN

.(^/^ . ...

Smoke

Jrn^lkg)

33

FS animal DF 1 0.072 1.2 - - 46

FS animal DF 2 0.12 1.8 - - 59

FS analytical RPU 0.14 2.2 - 0.009 360

FS animal RPU 1 0.12 1.5 - 0.005 200

FS animal RPU 2 0.10 2.2 - 0.011 270

FS analytical PVC 1 0.25 0.96 0.12 - 480

FS analytical PVC 2 0.19 0.67 0.22 - 380

FS animal PVC 1 0.43 1.1 0.19 - 800

FS animal PVC 2 0.29 0.78 0.18 - 590

FS animal PVC 3 0.47 0.32 0.09 - 970

a. Based on calculational method given in Appendix B unless noted otherwise.

b. Based on actual weighed values of material prior to and after the test.

Page 61
Table 16. Chemical and toxicological results for DF in real-scale tests

Test Animal

exposure chamber

Time

chamber

closed

(s)

Time

animals

inserted

(s)

Average gas concentration

CO

(ppm)

CO2

(ppm)

HCl

(ppm)

O2

(%)

NO,

(ppm)

FS Animal DF 1 bottom

middle

top

515

720

695

1068

6600 72000

chamber leaked -

1500 34000

NM

no data NM

13.0

17.3

NM

NM

FS Animal DF 2^ bottom

middle

top

805

930

1785

1000

1310

1830

890

930

2900

53000

63000

35000

50

3

16

15.8

14.8

17.2

12 ND

11

Test

Animal

exposure chamber

Smoke

Cone.

(mglC)

Time'' FED^ No.died/no. tested Latest day

WE WE + of PE death PEWE WE + PE

FS Animal DF 1 bottom

middle

top

88

40

PRE

PRE

1.9

0.56

NA

chamber k NA

6/6

;aked - no dat

0/6

6/6

a

0/6

FS Animal DF 2 bottom

middle

top

59

72

42

PO

PO

PO

0.57

0.61

0.86

NA

NA

NA

0/6

0/6

0/6

0/6

0/6

0/6

-

a. Pump was changed in this test to one with a lower flow rate (2.9 €/s). b. PRE= pre-flashover; TR= transition; PO=post-flashover

c. FED values were calculated on CO, COj, Oj.

NA Not applicable.

ND Not detected. NM Not measured. WE Within exposure PE Post-exposure

Page 62
Table 17. Chemical and toxicological results for RPU in real-scale tests

Test

Animal

exposure chamber

Tmie Time Average gas concentration

closed inserted

(s) CO

(ppm)

CO2

(ppm)

HCN

(ppm)

O2

(%)

NO/

(ppm)

HCP

(ppm)

FS Animal RPU 1 bottom 180 240 1300 32000 95 18.0 ND 60

middle 460 480 1700 48000 120 15.4 15 130

top 780 810 1200 25000 55 18.4 5 110

FS Animal RPU 2 bottom 240 770 1300 40000 90 16.1 5 50

middle 360 520 1700 48000 120 15.3 15 60

top 480 990 1500 45000 110 15.5 10 40

Animal Smoke

cone. (mgli)

Time

b

FED^ No.died/no. tested Latest day of PE death

Test number exposure chamber

WE WE + PEWE WE + PE

FS Animal RPU 1 bottom

middle

top

30

42

22

TR

PO

PO

0.93

1.4

0.67

1.1

1.6

0.79

0/6

1/6

0/6

1/6

5/6

0/6

4

FS Animal RPU 2 bottom

middle

top

35

42

39

PO

PO

PO

1.0

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.6

1.5

1/6

3/6

1/6

2/6

3/6

6/6

2

a. A single grab sample.

b. PRE= pre-flashover; TR= transition; PO=post-flashover

c. FED values were calculated on CO, COj, HCN, and Oj for WE, and on CO, COj, HCN, Oj, and HCl

for WE + PE. ND Not detected. WE Within-exposure

PE Post-exposure

Page 63
Table 18. Chemical and toxicological results for PVC in real—scale tests

T}»ct Animal

Time

chamber

closed

Time

animals

inserted

(s)

Average gas concentration

CO

(ppm)

CO2

(ppm)

HCN

(ppm)

O2

(%)

HCP

(ppm)

chamber

FS Animal PVC 1 bottom 180 210 4400 22000 NM 16.9 490

middle 300 330 5600 27000 NM 16.4 1100

top 420 440 8300 >52000'' NM 13.0 1300

FS Animal PVC 2 bottom 135 160 2300 18000 NM 18.2 360

middle 180 210 3700 17000 NM 18.0 820

top 235 280 5500 34000 NM 15.3 1400

FS Animal PVC 3 bottom 155 175 2700 16000 NM 18.1 470

middle 215 240 4100 20000 NM 17.6 750

top 460 495 4400 28000 NM 17.1 480

Test

Animal

exposure chamber

Smoke

cone. Time

c FED^ No.died/no. tested Latest day of WE WE + PE death PE

WE WE + PE

FS Animal PVC 1 bottom 37 TR 1.1 1.2 3/6 3/6 -

middle 46 PO 1.4 1.7 6/6 6/6 -

top NA PO 2.6 3.0 6/6 6/6 -

FS Animal PVC 2 bottom 29 PRE 0.59 0.68 0/6 0/6 -

middle 29 PO 0.84 1.1 0/6 0/6 -

top 56 PO 1.5 1.9 6/6 6/6 -

FS Animal PVC 3 bottom 27 TR 0.65 0.78 0/6 0/6 -

middle 34 PO 0.95 1.2 0/6 0/6 -

top 46 PO 1.1 1.2 5/6 5/6 -

a. Average of three bulb

b. Highest reading possib

c. PRE= pre-flashover;

'

d. FED values were calcu PE. NA Not available NM Not measured

WE Within exposure PE Post exposure

samples,

le on inst rR= tran

lated on

rument;

sition; P CO, CO

actual ave O=post-fl

2, and O2

rage was h

ashover.

for WE an

gher.

d on CO, CO2, O2, and HCI for WE +

Page 64
2000

CD

O

1500

0)

00 1000

o

(D

0)

O

(D

X

500

500

Time (s)

Figure 16. Heat release rates measured for DF in the real-scale tests

000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Page 65
2000

^^^ 1500

CDD

CD

00 1000

D

CD

o

CD X

500

Analytical 1

Animal 1

Animal 2

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Time (s)

Figure 17. Heat release rates measured for RPU in the real-scale tests

Page 66
2000

(D

O

L_

CD

(f) a

(D

o

CD

1500 -

1000 -

500

--- Analytical 2

•

1 f

' »--• Animal 1 1 '••

1 Animal 2

», Animal 3

Mi \

'

j

1

': / 1 i\

• \• \

1

\

1 \

500 1000 1500

Time (s)

Figure 18. Heat release rates measured for PVC in the real-scale tests

Page 67
can be possible in other real-scale test arrangements where the specimen mass loss rate is monitored

directly. In the present series, however, the mass loss had to be estimated from gas readings. While

approximate values could be derived for the entire test period, computations made during the time

when the (small) amount of mass is being lost pre-flashover could not be done with confidence.

Computation of LC^q values A direct measurement of the specimen mass which entered each animal

box could not be made. To get an indirect estimate of the LC5o's, we use the measured values of

CO2 and CO in the animal boxes, along with the elemental analysis results for the materials. Taking

a nominal 200 € box volume and a temperature of 298 K, the relationship between grams of carbon

in the box and the gas measurements is:

grams C = 9.78x10"^ \ppm CO +ppm COX (22)

Using the values given in Table 1, and allowing for an additional 10% of fuel carbon which became

species other than CO2 and CO, it is now possible to give:

Material To obtain fuel concentration in the box (mg/€'),

multiply [ppm CO2 + ppm CO] by

DF 1.12x10-^

RPU 0.84x10-^

PVC 1.42x10-^

The results are given in Tables 16 - 18, along with the notation as to whether the animal data were

obtained pre-flashover, during (transition), or post-flashover. We will not consider further the preflashover data, and will consider the transition and the post-flashover data combined as denoting the

post-flashover period.

From the above data, we can derive approximate values of the LCcg for the real-scale tests.

Material Within exposure

(mg/^)

Within exposure + 14 days

(mg/€)

DF

RPU

PVC

> 70

40-50

35-45

> 70

30-40

35-45

Page 68
Discussion

In Chapter 1 we postulated four promising validation hypotheses. We now must examine how well

the bench-scale methods compare against them, based on the data collected in the pilot project. With

this in hand, we will also be able to reflect on the utility or suitability of the proposed validation

hypotheses themselves.

The equal LC^q hypothesis

LC^Q values, as measured in the bench-scale test and in the real-scale one, agree to within the

acceptable uncertainty.

We will first compare the LC^q values of the two bench-scale methods, then compare bench-scale

results to real-scale findings.

Comparison between bench-scale tests The values of LC5Q obtained in the two bench-scale toxicity

methods are compared in Table 19. These values are related to each other in roughly a similar

proportion, but are different between the two test methods by factors of about 1.5 to 3. Based on

the postulated validation criterion of results agreeing to within a factor of two, successful agreement

is seen for only some test materials, but not for others. To find out why that is so, we need to examine the yields of the gases in these tests. A comparison of yields is given in Tables 20-23.

Looking at the yields of CO (Table 20), we can see for PVC the values in the NBS Cup Furnace

method and the ones in the SwRI/NIST methods are roughly similar. For RPU, the values in the

NBS Cup Furnace are about twice as high, while for DF they are about a factor of five to seven

higher. Thus, such differences in CO yield are, not unexpectedly, showing up as differences in LC^q

values.

It has already been pointed out that the generation of CO in fires is predominantly associated with

ventilation and geometry effects in the actual real-scale environment [14]. Furthermore, available

data indicate that CO yields in real-scale, post-flashover fires tend to a value of, very roughly, 0.2

kg/kg, with that value being largely independent of the material being burned. These are effects a bench-scale test cannot, reasonably, be asked to reproduce. The yield of CO produced in a specific

bench-scale test will depend on the test in question; in general, however, these yields tend to be lower

Page 69
Table 19. Comparison of results for LC50

Method (mglC)

DF RPU PVC

NBS Cup Furnace 41-51 10-13 18-22

SwRI/NIST method 100-200 20-30 20-30

Real-scale > 70 30-40 35 - 45

a. Values based on 30 min exposure + 14 day post-exposure period;

given as the 95% confidence interval for NBS Cup Furnace results, and as approximate ranges for SwRI/NIST results.

Material DF RPU PVC

MLR (kglm'^ -s) 6.11 X 10-3 4.84 X 10-^ 14.9 X 10-5

h,(s) 14.0 3.0 34.8 NBS Cup Furnace data

LC50 (mg/e) 41-51 10-13 18-22

LC5o(corr) (mg/C) 21-24 9-12 16-19

nilOO (S) 8.9 2.4 3.6

[CO] (ppm) 3800 1800 1400

relative FED 0.02 0.1 - 0.2 0.03

SwRI/NIST data

LC50 (mg/e) 100 - 200 20 - 30 20-30

LC5o(corr) (mg/€) 21 - 23 14-19 13 - 17

"iioo (s) 31.3 5.3 4.2 CO (ppm) 4000 2600 1600

relative FED 0.01 - 0.02 0.1 0.02 - 0.03

than 0.2 kg/kg. Appendix C gives details on how LC50 measurements made in bench-scale tests where

CO yields are not equal to 0.2 can be computationally adjusted, using a relative FED concept, to correspond to f^-Q = 0.2. Such calculations have been performed and are given in Table 19. The

necessary values of m" are taken as the MLR values from the Cone Calorimeter (Table 11) at a flux of 50 kW/m^. The value of A is taken as l/(ignition time).

The result for these relative FED's are shown in Table 19. It can now be seen that, on this basis,

the toxicity of DF and PVC are identical in the two methods to within their respective error bands.

Page 70
Table 20. Yields of CO

Method Test conditionsDF RPU PVC

NBS

Cup Furnace

flaming 0.2 0.2 0.1

SwRI/NIST a 0.03 - 0.04 0.09 - 0.12 0.09

Cone

Calorimeter

35 kW/m^ 0.005 0.06 0.08

50 kW/m^ 0.003 0.08 0.08

75 kW/m^ 0.003 0.04 0.07

Furniture

Calorimeter

average 0.013 0.08 b

steady-state 0.012 0.06

Real-scale in exhaust

stack

0.07 - 0.12 0.10-0.14 0.2 - 0.5

a. Range for the following tests DF: DF-A4, DF-A6, DF-1, DF-2, DF-3

RPU: RPU-1, RPU-2, RPU-3

PVC: FS-1, FS-2, FS-3, FS-4

b. Not measurable, due to no sustained burning.

The FED results for RPU are not within the respective error bands, but still are well within a factor

of two. On the assumption that the treatment in Appendix C is accurate for the present

configuration, the above analysis confirms that the differences in the two methods are mostly due to differences in CO production.

For RPU, the remaining differences between the methods in FED value can be addressed on the

basis of HCN yield. Table 4 shows that the yield of HCN in the NBS Cup Furnace method is about

0.017, while Table 9 gives the comparable yield in the SwRI/NIST method as 0.004. These

differences are substantive. For the NBS Cup Furnace method, the fraction of FED accounted for

by the HCN is 140/150 = 0.93, while for the SwRI/NIST method it is approximately 90/150 = 0.60. This difference in HCN yield can essentially explain the residual difference between the methods.

It is not surprising that the generation of HCN, similarly as it is for CO, should be different in a thermal-immersion test, such as the NBS Cup Furnace method, from the radiant heat combustion

system of the SwRI/NIST apparatus. Which is 'right,' however, remains to be established.

On the basis of these concepts, it can also be convenient to consider a 'corrected LC5Q,' which is the

LC50 that would have been measured, had the CO yield been exactly = 0.2. These values are also

Page 71
Table 21. Yields of CO,

Method Test conditions DF RPU PVC

Notional value

for complete

combustion

— 1.76 2.17 1.40

NBS

Cup Furnace

flaming 1.3 - 1.5 1.6 - 2.6^ 1.1 - 1.5

SwRI/NIST b 1.0 - 1.8 0.6 - 0.8 1.4 - 2.0

Cone

Calorimeter

35 kW/m^ 0.9 1.1 0.4

50 kW/m^ 1.0 1.2 0.4

75 kW/m^ 1.0 1.2 0.3

Furniture

Calorimeter

average 1.6 2.1 c

steady-state 1.6 1.4 c

Real-scale in exhaust

stack

1.2 - 1.8 1.5 - 2.2 0.3 - 1.1

a. Excludes results at the highest (40 mg/^) loadii

b. Range for the following tests DF: DF-A4, DF-A6, DF-1, DF-3

RPU: RPU-1, RPU-2, RPU-3

PVC: FS-1, FS-2, FS-3, FS-4

c. Not measurable, due to no sustained burning.

igreported in Table 19. The agreement for DF between the two bench-scale methods on the basis of

LC5o(corr) is spot-on, while for RPU and PVC it is still within a factor of two.

Thus, for the present data set, it can be concluded that the raw LC50 data from the two bench-scale

methods, do not agree to within the factor of two, but do agree when adjusted for CO.

Comparison of bench-scale to real-scale data Comparing now the bench-scale data to the real-scale. Table 19 shows that for the NBS Cup Furnace method the raw LC50 RPU data do not agree with

the real-scale results to within a factor of two, while the PVC data are marginally at about a factor

of two discrepancy. An estimate of the real-scale DF LC50 could not be obtained. The data from

the SwRI/NIST method agree comfortably to within a factor of two for both RPU and PVC.

Page 72
Table 22. Yields of HCN

Method Test conditions DF RPU PVC

Notional value

for complete

combustion

— 0.077 0.123 0.008

NBS

Cup Furnace

flaming — 0.016 - 0.020 -

SwRI/NIST a - 0.002 - 0.004 -

Cone

Calorimeter

35 kW/m^ - 0.005 -

50 kW/m^ - 0.005 -

75 kW/m^ - 0.004 -

Real-scale in bypass line

ahead of the

animal boxes

— 0.005-0.011 —

a. Range for the following tests RPU: RPU-1, RPU-2, RPU-3

If the comparison is made in terms of the bench-scale LC50 values corrected for a CO yield of 0.2,

then Table 19 shows that RPU agreement is still not achieved for the NBS Cup Furnace and is, now,

only marginally achieved to within a factor of two for the SwRI/NIST method. For PVC, the

corrected LC5Q data from the NBS Cup Furnace method remains marginally a factor of two away

from the real-scale results, while the SwRI/NIST method values are about a factor of three apart.

Thus, in the present test series it is found, on the basis of raw bench-scale LC50 values, that

agreement of the SwRI/NIST method to the real-scale results is within a factor of two, while for the

NBS Cup Furnace method it is within a factor of three. On the basis of bench-scale LC50 values

corrected to a CO yield of 0.2, both bench-scale methods can only achieve agreement to the real-scale

data to within a factor of three.

The primary toxic gases hypothesis

The bench-scale test shows the same primary toxic gases as the real-scale test. A criterion which should be satisfied for successful validation is that the list of gases which contribute

a statistically significant amount to the FED should be the same for a bench-scale test being validated

Page 73
Table 23. Yields of HCl

lllll;:: Method Test conditions DF RPU PVC

Notional value

for complete

combustion

— 0.00005 0.014 0.443

NBS

Cup Furnace

flaming - - 0.20 - 0.30

SwRI a - - 0.21 - 0.26

Cone

Calorimeter

35 kW/m^ - - 0.30

50 kW/m^ - -

75 kW/m^ - - 0.30

Real-scale in bypass line

ahead of the

animal boxes

— — 0.09 - 0.22

a. Range for the following tests DF: DF-A4, DF-A6, DF-1, DF-2, DF-3

RPU: RPU-1, RPU-2, RPU-3

PVC: FS-1, FS-2, FS-3, FS-4

as it is for the real-scale test. These we are calling ptimary gases. The criterion of significance might,

ideally, be the 95% confidence interval for interlaboratory reproducibility. Interlaboratory data are not available at present. Instead, we will use a preliminary value for the repeatability confidence

interval (ie., obtained in only a single laboratory). Based on our studies of pure gases and gas

mixtures, a value of 0.20 is used as the criterion of significance. This means that only those gases

contributing 0.20 or more to the FED are listed. The comparative lists of primary gases are given

in Table 27. Since CO and CO2 only occur in the FED formula as a combined entity, they are so handled here. Note that the lists in Table 27 are made up based on actual test measurements — the

computational adjustment to CO data is not reflected in this tabulation. Table 27 clearly serves to

illustrate the pilot nature of this project - the list of fuels studied is small, and so the list of primary

gases that can be assembled is also limited.

On the whole, the primary-gas lists are the same, with a few exceptions: oxygen concentrations are

clearly not well represented in bench-scale burning. This is not surprising, since the details of a fire's fuel/air history cannot reasonably be represented in a bench-scale device. The second difference, at

first surprising, is that while HCl is on list for the two bench-scale tests, it is not for the real-scale

PVC tests (the real-scale FED contribution is 0.13, which is below the 0.20 statistically significant

limit). This is because the wall losses to the sampling duct reduce the value of HCl available at the

Page 74
Table 24. Comparison of the lists of primary gases

Material^ NBS Cup Furnace SwRI/NIST apparatus Real-scale tests DF CO/CO2, O2 CO/CO2 (not determined)

RPU CO/CO2, HCN CO/CO2, HCN CO/CO2, O2, HCN

PVC CO/CO2, HCl CO/CO2, HCl CO/CO2, O2

a. Runs analyzed for each method correspond, as closely as possible, to one

producing 50% animal lethalities. For the real-scale tests, pre-flashover data

are excluded.

measuring point; indeed, the toxicity results for these FS tests show no PE deaths, contrary to what

would be expected if HCl were a significant contributor. Thus, this is an anomaly in terms of the

sampling procedure, but it is explainable.

Based on these investigations, then, is the primary-gases hypothesis viable? The hypothesis is viable,

if two points are accepted.

• Combustion condition differences may result in substantially different levels of oxygen

depletion. Thus, disagreement on whether oxygen depletion is or is not a primary gas may

reflect merely the supply of oxygen to the apparatus and not an intrinsic toxicity characteristic

of the test material.

• Species highly prone to losses by surface sorption may be lost enough in one test to fall below

the cut-off value, while not falling as low in another.

In cases such as the above for HCl, where losses in the bench-scale method are lower than in the

real-scale test, it should be proper to retain them on the primary gases list, especially when, as for

HCl, methods for computing the losses [41], as well as using them in room fire hazard computation programs [42], are available.

The two bench-scale methods examined in the pilot project, then, do not show an unexplainable

discrepancy when compared against the real-scale results for the three test materials used.

The equal yields hypothesis

The yields of the measured toxic gases are the same, to within the acceptable uncertainty, in the benchscale and in the real-scale tests.

The yields of gases are compared in Tables 20-23. As stated above, the values for the real-scale

tests could only be derived as test-average numbers. It may be reasonably assumed, however, that

for the post-flashover period, the CO yields are higher than the test average, while the CO2 yields

Page 75
are correspondingly lower. For the SwRI/NIST results, since the test runs covered a wide range of

conditions, only those which capture the main thrust of the data were compared; the exact test identifications are given in each of the tables.

For PVC, the CO yields are very similar for all of the less-than-room-scale tests. For RPU, the CO

yields in the SwRI/NIST apparatus, the Cone Calorimeter, and the Furniture Calorimeter are, essentially, similar; the value from the NBS Cup Furnace method, however, is about twice that of

the remaining tests. For DF, the Cone Calorimeter gives the very low yields characteristic of

materials without FR additives. The CO yield from the Furniture Calorimeter is a factor of four

higher, while for the SwRI/NIST method it is a factor of three higher yet. Finally, for the NBS Cup

Furnace method, the CO yield for DF is nearly an order of magnitude greater than for the Furniture

Calorimeter.

For the real-scale tests, the CO yields for DF and RPU were both around 0.1. For the PVC tests, this range is 0.2 - 0.4. Both sets of values are typical of results normally obtained in fully-involved

room fires [43]. Whether the difference between 0.1 and 0.2-0.4 is due to different fuel/air

mixtures being represented in the respective samples, or whether this represents an actual, small fuel

effect, cannot be stated at this time. Confirming the statements made earlier that bench-scale tests do not predict CO yields in real-scale, none of the bench-scale tests show the same trends as seen

in the real scale.

The yields of CO2 are similar in the NBS Cup Furnace and in the Furniture Calorimeter. The results from the SwRI/NIST method are also within the same range, except for RPU, which shows about half

the yield as do the two preceding methods. (We remind the reader here that for neither of the

methods is the CO2 yield corrected for the respiration of the animals; this, however, is a small effect

and would not likely be seen in the data scatter.) The Cone Calorimeter yields for all three materials are lower than for the other methods; this factor ranges from about two for DF and RPU to three

for PVC. Such low values possibly reflect an instrumentation irregularity, since CO2 yields in the

Cone Calorimeter are normally significantly closer to the notional yields for complete combustion.

Within a broad band, the real-scale test results reflect the trends noted in the bench-scale.

The yields of HCN in the SwRI/NIST apparatus are lower than in the real-scale by about a factor

of three. The yields in the NBS Cup Furnace, by contrast, are high by about a factor of 2.5. The

Cone Calorimeter yields agree with the real-scale to within about a factor of two.

The yields for HCl agree very closely in the NBS Cup Furnace method and in the SwRI/NIST

apparatus. These values are about one-half of what would happen if all of CI were recovered as HCl.

This difference is not at all difficult to understand, since there are losses both in the exposure

chamber and in the sampling system. This effect has been documented by Galloway and associates

[44]. The values for the Cone Calorimeter are also very similar to the values obtained in the

toxicity tests.

For real-scale HCl yields, it was, as discussed above, impossible to sample in such a way as to not lose a significant portion. This is not unrealistic from the point of view of fire modeling — an individual

with his face very close to the fire will suffer ill consequences way beyond HCl exposure. From the

point of view of a simple comparison of yields, difficulties are presented. Thus, the data in Table 23

Page 76

I
on real-scale HCl yields are not directly comparable to values obtained in the bench-scale toxicity

tests, which even though significant [44], are still not as large. With this in mind, the 0.1 - 0.2 value

from the real-scale tests is not too far apart from the 0.2 - 0.25 seen in the bench-scale tests.

In summary, this hypothesis is not readily met. The yields in the bench-scale toxic potency tests are equal to those in the real-scale to v^ithin a factor of two only in some cases, the exceptions being:

• For CO the agreement is not critical, since it is already noted that bench-scale test conditions are not expected to simulate the real-scale ones.

• For HCN, the values with the SwRI/NIST method were about a factor of three lower than ones in the real scale, while the values in the NBS Cup Furnace were about a factor of 2.5

higher.

The N-Gas hypothesis

The real-scale and the bench-scale results agree, to within the acceptable uncertainty, with predictions

based on measured gas concentrations and computations made according to the N-Gas Model.

The data needed to make these comparisons are given in Tables 25 - 27. For the real-scale tests, we

will only consider the post-flashover (including transition period) data. We will primarily focus here on the within-exposure + post-exposure results, although the results obtained solely in the WE period

are also tabulated. For clarity, we state results here to only one decimal place.

Page 77
Table 25. Comparison of bench- and real-scale toxicity results for DF

NBS CUP FtJRNACE METHOD

FED value" Deaths WE WP + PE WE WE + PE

0.86

0.98

1.0

1.0

0.86

0.98

1.0

1.0

0/6

3/6

3/6

4/6

0/6

3/6

3/6

4/6

SWRI/NIST METHOD

FEDvalue^ Deaths

WE WE + PE WE WE + PE

0.47

1.1

1.1

0.47

1.1

1.1

0/6

5/6

6/6

0/6

5/6

6/6

REAL-SCALE Tests FED value* Deaths WE WE + PE WE WE + PE

o.se''

0.57

0.61

0.86

1.9*'

0.56

0.57

0.61

0.86

1.4

0/6

0/6

0/6

0/6

6/6

0/6

0/6

0/6

0/6

6/6

a. FED value based on CO, COj, and Oj.

b. Pre-flashover measurement; all others are transition or post-flashover.

Page 78
Table 26. Comparison of bench- and real-scale toxicity results for RPU

NBS CUP FURNACE METHOD

FED value^ Deaths WE WE + PE WE WE + PE

1.0 1.3 0/6 2/6

1.1 1.4 3/6 5/6

1.3 1.6 4/6 5/6

1.3 1.6 5/6 6/6

SWRI/NIST METHOD

FED value* Deaths WE WE + PE WE WE + PE

0.57 0.65 0/6 0/6

1.1 1.3 6/6 6/6

1.7 1.9 6/6 6/6

Real-Scale Tests

,.,:,..,,.,:,,:„;.::,,,,, FED value* Deaths WE WE + PE WE WE + PE

0.67 0.79 0/6 0/6

0.93 1.1 0/6 1/6

1.0 1.2 1/6 2/6

1.3 1.5 1/6 6/6

1.4 1.6 1/6 5/6

1.4 1.6 3/6 3/6

a. FED value based on CO, CO2, O2, and HCN.

For the NBS Cup Furnace method, 50% animal lethalities occur at: DF: 1.0 RPU: 1.3 - 1.4 PVC: 1.0 - 1.3

For the SwRI/NIST method, 50% animal lethalities occur at: DF: 0.5 - 1.1 RPU: 0.7 - 1.3 PVC: 0.9 - 1.3

Page 79
Table 27. Comparison of bench- and real-scale toxicity results for PVC

NBS CUP FURNACE METHOD

FED value* Deaths

WE WE + PE WE WE + PE

0.28 0.84 0/6 1/6

0.21 0.90 0/5 1/5

0.22 0.99 0/6 3/6

0.29 1.0 0/6 2/6

0.29 1.1 0/6 3/6

0.31 1.3 0/6 4/6

SWRI/NIST METHOD

FED value* Deaths WE WE + PE WE WE + PE

0.32 0.64 0/6 0/6

0.38 0.86 0/6 3/6

0.47 0.87 0/6 1/6

0.59 1.3 0/6 6/6

Real-Scale Tests FED value* Deaths

WE WE + PE WE WE + PE

0.59*' 0.68 0/6 0/6

0.65 0.78 0/6 0/6

0.84 1.1 0/6 0/6

0.95 1.2 0/6 0/6

1.1 1.2 3/6 3/6

1.1 1.2 5/6 5/6

1.4 1.7 6/6 6/6

1.5 1.9 6/6 6/6

2.6 3.0 6/6 6/6

a. FED value based on CO, CO2, O2, and HCl.

b. Pre-flashover measurement; all others are transition or post-flashover.

Page 80
For the real-scale tests, 50% animal lethalities occur at: DF: (not determined)

RPU: 1.2 - 1.6

PVC: 1.2

Since pure gas studies using the formulas for the FED already given show that the expected LC^q

occurs at 1.1 ± 0.2, we would expect all of the above results to lie within the range 0.9 to 1.3. For

most of the data, the above results indeed do bear this out. The exceptions are: RPU in all tests, and the wide uncertainty intervals of the SwRI/NIST data. The wide uncertainty intervals of the

SwRI/NIST method merely reflect the fact that the data were of an exploratory nature, and a

sufficient number of tests was not run to narrow down to a small interval. The RPU results for the

NBS Cup Furnace and for the real-scale tests are somewhat higher than the expected range. This

has been noticed in previous studies [45] and indicates that lethalities observed when decomposing HCN-producing materials are lower than when studying pure gas mixtures. This is considered to be an antagonism between HCN and NO2. It occurs since NO2 is emitted when N-containing

materials are burned, but not when gas mixtures with HCN (but no NO2) are used. Work is ongoing

in our laboratories to quantify this effect and to incorporate it into the N-Gas Model. When the NGas Model is updated to include both NO2 and the interactions between HCN and NO2, this anomaly is expected to be resolved.

We conclude that the present 5-gas Model successfully predicts the results of present test series to within a factor of two in all cases and to within 30% in most cases.

The type of death hypothesis

The type of death (within- or post-exposure) is similar for the bench-scale and for the real-scale tests.

It is possible that test animals may die under similar exposure conditions in two different test methods. Such agreement may be fortuitous if the causes of death are notably different. In a basic

analysis, we distinguish between narcotic gases, which cause lethalities during (or very shortly after)

the exposure, and irritant gases, which typically cause lethalities several hours or days post-exposure.

Thus, if in the case of one test method the lethalities are all within-exposure, and with a second

method the lethalities occur post-exposure, then it is clear that the two test methods are not

measuring the same behavior, even if numeric toxic potency values should agree. The purpose of the

present validation hypothesis, then, is to assure ourselves that such a disparity is not ignored.

Details of the type of the deaths (within exposure or post-exposure) of the animals for the tests conducted are given in Table 28. Within-exposure deaths are defined as those that occur during the

30 min exposure or within 5 min following the exposure. Post-exposure deaths are defined as those

that occur later. The normal period for post-exposure monitoring is 14 days. During this period

animal weights are monitored daily. If the animal is still losing weight on day 14, the time is extended

until the animal dies or recovers, as determined by three successive days of weight gain. For the

real-scale tests, only the results in the post-flashover (including transition) period have been included.

The type-of-death results can be summarized as:

Page 81
Table 28. Types of animal deaths

Toxicity method Within-exposure deaths^ Post-exposure deaths'^

DF

NBS Cup Furnace 10/24 0/14

SwRI/NIST 11/18 0/7

Real-scale'^ 0/18 0/18

RPU

NBS Cup Furnace 12/24 6/12

SwRI/NIST 12/18 0/6

Real-scale*^ 6/36 11/30

PVC

NBS Cup Furnace 0/35 14/35

SwRI/NIST 0/24 10/24

Real-scale*^ 26/48 0/22

a. Reported as: (no. died within exposure)/(total no. of animals exposed).

b. Reported as: (no. died after exposure)/(no. of animals remaining at start of post-exposure period).

c. Excluding tests where the gases were sampled in the pre-flashover period.

Material Toxicity test method

NBS Cup Furnace SwRI/NIST Real-scale

DF within within (no deaths)

RPU within & post within

(inconclusive)

within & post

PVC post post within

The actual numbers in Table 28 should not be used to compare the different test procedures directly

because the number of deaths are related to the amount of decomposed material and concentrations

Page 82
of toxic gases in the animal chambers and these concentrations differed in each experiment. Rather,

these numbers are provided to indicate that a substantial number of animals were tested to determine

whether animals are affected primarily within the exposures or post-exposure or both. However, if

all the animals die within the exposure, it is not possible to see post-exposure effects.

The results on DF from both bench-scale methods indicate that deaths of the animals occurred only

within exposure and not post-exposure. A statement about real-scale animal lethalities with DF

cannot be made since post-flashover fire conditions did not result in any animal lethalities.

The results on RPU show that deaths of the animals occurred both within and post-exposure in the

NBS Cup Furnace Method and in the real-scale tests. By contrast, only within-exposure deaths were

observed with the SwRI/NIST test procedure. However, in the SwRI/NIST case, only three

experiments were conducted. In two experiments, all the animals died during the 30-min exposure

and in the other experiment, the concentration was too low to cause deaths within or post. Therefore, the experimental data do not, in fact, answer the question as to whether post-exposure deaths

would be observed with RPU in the SwRI/NIST method had more animal data been available at concentrations in the vicinity of the LCggIn the case of the PVC experiments, both the bench-scale tests agreed in that all the deaths were

post-exposure. However, in the real-scale tests, no post-exposure deaths were observed following the

30-min exposures. In these tests, there was sufficient concentrations of CO, CO2, and low O2 to account for the within-exposure deaths. If HCl were additive at all concentrations, one would have

expected to see some post-exposure deaths. However, it appears that there is a no observable effect

level (NOEL) for HCl even in the presence of other toxic gases. The data generated in this series

of experiments suggest that 820 ppm of HCl is lower than the threshold lethal concentration and

concentrations of this level or less do not provide any additive toxicity in combination with the other

gases. However, there are data from SwRI [46] for pure gas mixtures containing CO and HCl,

where effects are observable at the 600 ppm level, so this point deserves further exploration.

The type-of-death hypothesis appears to be sound and should be used. When considering gas species

which are prone to wall losses (such as HCl), the same caveat as for the equal-yields hypothesis

should be added: type-of-death agreement may not be observed if a readily-losable species is a significant contributor to toxicity of the mixture, and if it undergoes much different losses in the two

methods being compared.

The two bench-scale methods were successfully validatable under this hypothesis, with the following

limitations:

• Sufficient data for RPU were not obtained with the SwRI/NIST method to state definitively

if the validation hypotheses was or was not fulfilled for the method using this particular

material.

• For both bench-scale methods, PVC did not agree with the real-scale results since the

conditions of the caveat were not fulfilled - the losses of HCl were significantly higher in the

real-scale test than in the bench-scale methods.

Page 83
Alternative acceptable levels of agreement

From the discussion above it can be seen that on several validation hypotheses the bench-scale

methods had difficulty in providing data to within a factor of two agreement to the real scale. As

mentioned at the beginning of this study (Assumption 4), the factor of two was selected as a reasonable target from the point of view of providing data with a wide usefulness of application. It becomes of interest now to consider if a somewhat relaxed assumption as to the needed agreement

would enable the bench-scale tests being studied to be more successfully validated.

We can, then, briefly re-examine the results above from the point of view of seeking a factor-of-3

agreement.

• The equal-LC5o hypothesis is met, under such an assumption, by both the NBS Cup Furnace

and the SwRI/NIST method.

• The primary toxic gases hypothesis continues to be met by both methods.

• The equal-yields hypothesis is met by both methods. While the present data, then, show

agreement even for CO, to within a factor of three, combustion considerations suggest that a proviso be maintained requiring expected CO yields to be obtained by means other than

direct measurement within the bench-scale toxicity apparatus.

• The N-Gas hypothesis, which was well-met for both methods under the factor-of-2

assumption, of course, continues to be met.

• The conclusions for the type-of-death hypothesis are not affected by numerical considerations

of the error margin.

Page 84
Conclusions

The present study has been a pilot study, intended to systematize methodologies and start providing

indicative data. The task was made more complex by the fact that, simultaneously with this validation

effort we have also been developing a new bench-scale test procedure (the SwRI/NIST method), the

data from which form an integral part of the validation. Nonetheless, even with this brief exploration,

it is possible to make some conclusions both about test methods and about the proper course for test validation. Viewed as another step in CFR's efforts in this area, by including more aspects of

validation, more bench-scale tests, and more test materials, we extend and generalize previous

conclusions [4]. We will first make the conclusions with respect to the validity of the validation hypotheses themselves,

then reflect on the usability of the bench-scale test methods in representing post-flashover real-scale

fires, and finally conclude with some general remarks.

The validation hypotheses

The equal LC^q hypothesis

This hypothesis is fundamentally sound. In practice, it can be difficult to confirm, since it requires an LC5Q determination in the real-scale tests. Under some scenarios, such as the present one, computations of the LC50 in real-scale tests require indirect computations and significant

simplifications. Unless bench-scale toxic potency methods are developed wherein combustion

conditions are specifically managed to replicate real-scale CO yields, the basis of comparison should

involve bench-scale LC50 data computationally corrected to reflect expected real-scale CO generation.

The primary toxic gases hypothesis

This hypothesis is seen to be sound, with the following constraints: the oxygen levels and the amount

of losses (of gas species prone to losses) must be similar for the bench-scale method and for the realPage 85
scale fire. This requirement may limit certain bench-scale tests to representing only certain types of

fires.

The equal yields hypothesis

This hypothesis is sound. It is also one of the most stringent that we have available. It should not

be applied to CO, since numerical procedures for post-correcting test results are available.

The N-Gas hypothesis

This hypothesis is sound and is especially promising since it serves to unify biological measurements

and analytical chemistry computations.

The type of death hypothesis

This hypothesis is reasonable and should be applied. Just as for the primary-toxic-gases hypothesis,

similarity of losses of toxicologically significant species between the two methods being compared is required.

Assumption as to the level of agreement

The data collected during this study showed that for several of the validation hypotheses being

considered, the two bench-scale methods had difficulties in achieving a factor-of-2 agreement with

the real scale. In most of those cases, agreement was achieved when the allowable error band was expanded to be a factor-of-3. It is still reasonable to assume that bench-scale data which reflect real- scale fires to within a factor-of-3 will be useful for assessing fire hazards and risks. Thus, we will now

make conclusions on the validation of the bench-scale methods by using a factor-of-3 criterion.

The bench-scale toxicity methods

The NBS Cup Furnace method

The previous study [4] has shown this method to be acceptable under the equal-LC5o hypothesis; the

scenario and the materials tested in the present study corroborate this at the factor-of-3 level.

The yield data in the present study for non-CO species show the method to be acceptable, using a factor-of-3 agreement criterion. (Real-scale CO yields should be computed by appropriate means and

not by measurements taken in the bench scale.)

The N-Gas hypothesis is adequately proved out.

The primary toxic gases hypothesis is proved out, except for well-evident reasons stated in the caveat.

Page 86
For a very limited data set, the type of death hypothesis is also proved out, except for matching of

HCl losses.

The SwRI/NIST method

This method was not included in the previous study; the equal-LC5o hypothesis is proved out in the

present study.

The yield data in the present study for non-CO species show the method to be acceptable, using a factor-of-3 agreement criterion. (Real-scale CO yields should be computed by appropriate means and

not by measurements taken in the bench scale.)

The N-Gas hypothesis is adequately proved out.

The primary toxic gases hypothesis is proved out, under the same caveat conditions as for the NBS

Cup Furnace method.

General conclusions on the type of death hypothesis cannot be made due to lack of sufficient data.

General remarks

Bench-scale toxicity tests cannot be fully and adequately specified without knowing the real-scale fire types which they are to represent. When the real-scale fire characteristics are known, an attempt

should be made to match oxygen depletion and loss (for gas species prone to being lost) conditions

in the bench-scale test.

The bench-scale methods considered here were being examined solely for validity in representing

flaming, post-flashover room fires. Their applicability to other, less common fire scenarios, has not

been examined in this study.

We see bench-scale toxicity test methods as being the most promising when used in the context of

the N-Gas Model. For such application, existing data indicate that both of the bench-scale methods

studied are successful.

Since bench-scale oxygen/fuel ratio conditions, and therefore the CO generation, will rarely

correspond to those in real-scale fires, the data should be treated in a context of a method, such as the one illustrated, which can correct the effects of this disparity.

The study does establish that bench-scale toxic potency methods can give useful data, to within a factor-of-3 agreement with real-scale.

All five validation hypotheses examined were found to be sound and generally applicable; certain ones

required further constraints (such as matching of gas species losses) to be applicable in a particular

situation. As a minimum, to prove validity of a bench-scale toxic potency method, it is necessary to examine the type-of-death hypothesis, plus one of the four remaining hypotheses. Which one of

those four hypotheses is selected will depend on the application to which the test data is to be put.

Page 87
The N-Gas hypothesis and the primary toxic gases hypothesis are easier to meet than are the equalLC50 hypothesis and the equal-yields hypothesis. Design methods should be encouraged which rely on the easier-to-meet hypotheses.

The examination of the type-of-death hypothesis was seriously limited due to the small amount of

data available; future studies in this area would be desirable.

Further validation with different materials and composites is desirable. To the extent that the toxicity

test is to be used for searching for very rarely found species, however, validation by enumeration is not feasible.

Only homogeneous materials were examined in this study. The performance of bench-scale toxic

potency tests in treating composite specimens must be assessed before actual test protocols are developed. Such capability may form an additional criterion in selecting an appropriate bench-scale

test method.

The SwRI/NIST developmental method is promising for future use; its development continues after

the end of the present pilot study. One of the development tasks will be to derive all of the crucial

needed test information needed for toxic fire hazard assessment (LC50, MLR, and ignition time) in the same apparatus.

Finally, this study has not addressed other requirements, besides validity, which a successful benchscale method will have to meet so as to be able to provide sufficient data for the prediction of fire toxicity. Some of these considerations have been examined in an earlier study [47].

Page 88
Acknowledgments

The portions of this work dealing with PVC were funded by BFGoodrich, with Dr. M. M. Hirschler

as contract monitor. Dr. G. Smith of BFGoodrich provided valuable assistance during the real-scale

tests with PVC. R. Peacock and P. Martin were of essential help in reducing real-scale test data.

N. Eller, M. Navarro, and R. McCombs assisted with bio-assay studies and data analysis. R. Zile

provided real-scale fire testing services. Dr. W. J. Parker developed the equations for estimating mass

flows in the exhaust duct from gas analyzer and Cone Calorimeter data. The work done by Dr. A.

F. Grand and co-workers at SwRI was essential in examining the performance of the SwRI/NIST test method.

Page 89
1

References

[1]. New York State Uniform Fire Prevention and Building Code, Article 15, Part 1120:

Combustion Toxicity Testing (9 NYCRR 1120).

[2]. Kaplan, H.L., Grand, A.F., and Hartzell, G.E., Combustion Toxicology. Technomic Publishing,

Lancaster, PA (1983).

[3]. Babrauskas, V, and Wickstr5m, U.G., The Rational Development of Bench-Scale Fire Tests for Full-Scale Fire Prediction, pp. 813-822 in Fire Safety Science — Proc. of the Second

International Symposium (1988). Hemisphere Publishing, New York (1989).

[4]. Braun, E., Gann, R.G., Levin, B.C., and Paabo, M., Combustion Product Toxic Potency

Measurements: Comparison of a Small Scale Test and "Real-World" Fire, /. Fire Sciences. 8,

63-74 (1990).

[5]. Braun, E., Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Gurman, J., Holt, T, and Steel, LS., Fire Toxicity Scaling

(NBSIR 87-3510). [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1987).

[6]. Braun, E., Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Gurman, J.L., Clark, H.M., and Yoklavich, M.F., LargeScale Compartment Fire Toxicity Study: Comparison with Small-Scale Toxicity Test Results

(NBSIR 88-3764). [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1988).

[7]. Babrauskas, V, Harris, R.H., Jr., Gann, R.G., Levin, B.C., Lee, B.T., Peacock, R.D., Paabo,

M., Twilley, W., Yoklavich, M.F., and Clark, H.M., Fire Hazard Comparison of Fire-Retarded

and Non-Fire-Retarded Products (NBS Special Publication SP 749). [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand.

(1988).

[8]. Levin, B.C., Gurman, J.L., Paabo, M., Baier, L., and Holt, T, Toxicological Effects of

Different Time Exposures to the Fire Gases: Carbon Monoxide or Hydrogen Cyanide or to Carbon Monoxide Combined with Hydrogen Cyanide or Carbon Dioxide. Proceedings of the

U.S.-Japan Panel on Fire Research and Safety (UJNR), Natl. Bur. Stand. (1987).

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[9]. Levin, B.C., et al., Further Development of a Test Method for the Assessment of the Acute

Inhalation Toxicity of Combustion Products (NBSIR 82-2532). [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1982).

[10]. Babrauskas, V, Toxic Hazard from Fires: A Simple Assessment Method, pp. 16.1 to 16.10

in Fire: Control the Heat...Reduce the Hazard, QMC Fire & Materials Centre, London (1988).

[11]. Toxicity of Combustion Products (PD 6503: Part 2: 1988). British Standards Institution,

London (1988).

[12]. Alarie, Y., and Anderson, R.C., Toxicologic and Acute Lethal Hazard Evaluation of Thermal

Decomposition Products of Synthetic and Natural Polymers, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 51,

341-362 (1979).

[13]. Nelson, G.L., Canfield, D.V, and Larsen, J.B., Carbon Monoxide — Study of Toxicity in Man,

pp. 93-104 in Eleventh Intl. Conf. on Fire Safety, Product Safety Corp., San Francisco (1986).

[14]. Pitts, W.M., Executive Summary for the Workshop on Developing a Predictive Capability for

CO Formation in Fires (NISTIR 89-4093). Natl. Instit. Stand. Technol. (1989).

[15]. Babrauskas, V, Levin, B.C., and Gann, R.G., A New Approach to Fire Toxicity Data for

Hazard Evaluation, ASTM Standardization News. 14, 28-33 (Sept. 1986).

[16]. Bukowski, R.W., Peacock, R.D., Jones, WW, and Forney, C.L., Technical Reference Guide

for the HAZARD I Fire Hazard Assessment Method (NIST Handbook 146, Volume II). Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. (1989).

[17]. Drysdale, D.An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, Wiley, Chichester, England (1985).

[18]. National Institute of Building Sciences, report to be issued.

[19]. Levine, R.S., and Nelson, H.E., Full-scale Simulation of a Fatal Fire and Comparison of

Results with two Multi-room Models (NISTIR 90-4268). Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. (1990).

[20]. The Fire Model, Draft Technical Report, ISO/TC 92/SC 3AVG 1 (1990).

[21]. Grand, A.F., Southwest Research Institute, private communication.

[22]. Litchfield, J.T., Jr. and Wilcoxon, E, A Simplified method of evaluating dose-effect

experiments. /. Pharmacol, and Exp. Therapeut. 96, 99-113 (1949).

[23]. Paabo, M., Birky, M.M., and Womble, S.E., Analysis of hydrogen cyanide in fire environments. /. Comb. Tox. 6, 99-108 (1979).

[24]. Grand, A.F. and Switzer, W.G., Southwest Research Institute, private communication.

[25]. Babrauskas, V, Development of the Cone Calorimeter — A Bench-Scale Heat Release Rate

Apparatus Based on Oxygen Consumption (NBSIR 82-2611). [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1982).

Page 91
[26]. Huggett, C, Estimation of Rate of Heat Release by Means of Oxygen Consumption Measurements. Fire and Materials. 4, 61-65 (1980).

[27]. Babrauskas, V, and Mulholland, G., Smoke and Soot Data Determinations in the Cone

Calorimeter, pp. 83-104 in Mathematical Modeling of Fires (ASTM STP 983). American

Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia (1987).

[28]. Babrauskas, V, The Cone Calorimeter — A Versatile Bench-Scale Tool for the Evaluation

of Fire Properties, pp. 78-87 in New Technology to Reduce Fire Losses & Costs, S.J. Grayson

and D.A. Smith, eds., Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, Lxjndon (1986).

[29]. Standard Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products

using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter (E 1354). American Society for Testing and

Materials, Philadelphia.

[30]. Twilley, W. H., and Babrauskas, V, User's Guide for the Cone Calorimeter (Spec. Publ. 745).

[U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1988).

[31]. Babrauskas, V, Lawson, J.R., Walton, W.D., and Twilley, W.H., Upholstered Furniture Heat

Release Rates Measured with a Furniture Calorimeter (NBSIR 82-2604). [U.S.] Natl. Bur.

Stand. (1982).

[32]. Babrauskas, V, Free-burning Fires, pp. 2-1 to 2-15 in The SFPE Handbook ofFire Protection

Engineering, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Boston (1988).

[33]. Quintiere, J.G., and McCaffrey, B.J., The Burning of Wood and Plastic Cribs in an Enclosure,

2 vols. (NBSIR 80-2054) [U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1980).

[34]. Delichatsios, M.A., Fire Growth Rates in Wood Cribs, Combustion and Flame. 27, 267-278

(1976).

[35]. Babrauskas, V, Upholstered Furniture Room Fires — Measurements, Comparison with

Furniture Calorimeter Data, and Flashover Predictions, /. of Fire Sciences. 2 5-19 (1984).

[36]. Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Gurman, J.L., and Harris, S.E., Effects of exposure to single or multiple combinations of the predominant toxic gases and low oxygen atmospheres produced

in fires. Fund. & Appl. Tox. 9, 236-250 (1987).

[37]. Hartzell, G.E., Grand, A.F., and Switzer, WG., Modeling of Toxicological Effects of Fire

Gases: VII. Studies on Evaluation of Animal Models in Combustion Toxicology, /. Fire

Sciences. 6, 411-431 (1988).

[38]. Tables and Charts, pp. 5-117 to 5-133 in Fire Protection Handbook, 16th edition, A.C. Cote

and J.L. Linville, eds. National Fire Protection Assn., Quincy, MA (1986).

[39]. Babrauskas, V, and Mulholland, G., Smoke and Soot Data Determinations in the Cone

Calorimeter, pp. 83-104 in Mathematical Modeling of Fires (ASTM STP 983). American

Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia (1987).

Page 92
[40]. Proposed Standard Method for Room Fire Test of Wall and Ceiling Materials and

Assemblies, 1982 Annual Book of Standards, American Society for Testing and Materials,

Philadelphia (1982).

[41]. Galloway, F.M., and Hirschler, M.M., Model for the Mass Transfer and Decay of Hydrogen

Chloride in a Fire Scenario, pp. 35-57 in Mathematical Modeling of Fires (ASTM STP 983).

American Society for Testing and Materials (1988).

[42]. Jones, WW, Refinement of a Model for Fire Growth and Smoke Transport, Tech. Note

1282 Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. (1990).

[43]. Mulholland, G., private communication (1989).

[44]. Galloway, F.M., Hirschler, M.M., and Smith, G.F., Model for the Generation of Hydrogen

Chloride from the Combustion of Poly(vinyl chloride) under Conditions of Forcefully

Minimsed Decay, European Polymer J. 25, 149-158 (1989).

[45]. Levin, B.C., Paabo, M., Gurman, J.L., and Harris, S.E., Effects of Exposure to Single or Multiple Combinations of the Predominant Toxic Gases and Low Oxygen Atmospheres

Produced in Fires, Fund, and Appl. Toxicology. 9, 236-250 (1987).

[46]. Hartzell, G.E., Grand, A.F., and Switzer, W.G., Modeling of Toxicological Effects of Fire

Gases: VI. Further Studies on the Toxicity of Smokes Containing Hydrogen Chloride, /. Fire

Sciences. 5, 368-391 (1987).

[47]. Levin, B.C., Babrauskas, V, Braun, E., Gurman, J., and Paabo, M., An Exploration of

Combustion Limitations and Alternatives to the NBS Toxicity Test Method (NBSIR 85-3274).

[U.S.] Natl. Bur. Stand. (1985).

[48]. Levin, B.C., data to be published.

Page 93

Appendix A

Log of Large-scale Test Observations

Test: FS Analytical DF 2

Time(s) Event

-60 data logger on

ignition of crib 220 upper smoke layer forming

270 wall involved

315 upper half of corridor obscured by

smoke

460 fire almost obscured by smoke

660 smoke beginning to recede; visible wall

completely engulfed in flame

1153 crib collapsed

1250 wall stopped burning

2285 remnants of crib still burning; video off

Test: FS Animal DF 1

Time(s) Event

-60 data logger on

crib ignited

210 wall involved

300 smoke beginning to fill upper layer of

corridor

370 smoke layer drifting downward almost

half the height of the corridor

410 heavy black smoke starting to obscure

corridor completely

570 corridor completely obscured

570-690 fire not visible because of heavy smoke

690 smoke lessening

820 visible wall completely engulfed in flame

1280 crib collapsed

1425 visible wall flames now out except for small flamelet at a seam; crib remnants

still burning

2890 crib still burning at joints; video off

Test: FS Animal DF 2

Time(s) Event

-60 data logger on

ignition of crib 240 wall involved

290 smoke layer beginning to form

430 smoke layer half way down height of

corridor

480 charred wall evident

665 visible wall completely engulfed

690 smoke obscuring whole corridor

728 corridor completely obscured

765 smoke receding

1260 crib starting to collapse

1380 wall out except at joints

2620 part of wall collapsed onto remnants of

crib 3930 walls still burning; video off

Test: FS Analytical RPU 1

Time(s) Event

-60 data logger on

crib ignited

36 wall involved

47 black smoke filling upper layer

102 corridor obscured

260 smoke lessening

300 fire visible again

330 thick, black smoke billowing in corri- dor obscured fire again

505 fire visible again; thick black smoke

still billowing in upper layer

720 visible flames out 1550 video off

Page 95
Test: 1FS Animal RPU 1 Test: FS Analytical PVC 2

Time(s) Event Time(s) Event

-60 data logger on -60 data logger on

cribs ignited burner on

40 wall involved 30 black smoke filling upper layer

55 upper layer filling with black smoke 115 corridor obscured

157 corridor obscured 180 burner turned off 240 smoke started to lessen 290 smoke beginning to recede

255 heavy smoke once again obscured 360 test wall visible whole corridor 990 video off 384 fire visible 750 visible flames out Test: FS Animal PVC 1

3610 video off Time(s) Event

Test: FS Animal RPU 2

Time(s) Event -60 data logger on

35

burner on

upper layer filling with black smoke

-60 data logger on 135 corridor obscured

cribs ignited 370 corridor beginning to clear 34 wall involved 600 wall visible; flaming evident

60 upper layer filling with black smoke 450 burner turned off 105 corridor obscured 2220 flames out

385 flames visible 5120 video off 720 flames out

2835 video off Test: 1FS Animal PVC 2 PVC

Test: FS Analytical PVC 1

Event

Time(s) Event

Time(s)

-60 data logger on

burner on

-60 data logger on 25 wall blackening

burner on 30 black smoke filling upper layer

36 thick black smoke filling upper layer of 130 corridor completely obscured

corridor 278 smoke receding

106 corridor completely obscured 278-700 heavy black smoke in corridor, wall was

210 burner turned off burning

720 video off 420-540 burner turned off 1090 last visible flame out 2190 video off

Page 96
Test: FS Animal PVC 3

Time(s) Event

-60 data logger on

burner on

28 wall behind burner charred

33 upper layer filling with smoke

121 corridor completely obscured

280 fire visible 420-540 burner turned off 840 fire out 2400 video off

Page 97

Appendix B

Indirect calculation of specimen mass loss rates

Since in the present series of real-scale tests it was not possible to equip the test room with a load

cell which would measure specimen mass loss rates, an indirect technique needed to be adopted. A

technique was developed whereby the specimen mass loss rate is calculated based on Xqq , Xqq, and

smoke measurements in the exhaust duct.

^

This could be determined in a straightforward manner if concentrations of CO, CO2, O2, H2O, HCl,

HCN, and soot were measured in the exhaust stack. Since H2O, HCl, HCN, and soot are not

measured in the real-scale exhaust stack, indirect information from the Cone Calorimeter must be

used. In order to determine the H2O concentration in the exhaust duct, a C/H ratio is derived from

the measurements of CO, CO2, and H2O in the Cone Calorimeter. The yields of HCl and HCN are assumed to be the same in the real-scale test as those measured in the Cone Calorimeter. To derive

the real-scale soot yields, reliance is placed on the real-time smoke photometer. The relationship

given in [39] is used. According to this relationship, the soot yield and the smoke specific extinction area are related by the constant of 12,000 m extinction area per kg of soot (as contrasted to the

values reported in Table 11, which are the extinction areas per kg oi sample burned).

Nomenclature

fj, yield of species z, as determined from Cone Calorimeter measurements (kg z/kg fuel)

k extinction coefficient measured in exhaust stack stream (m'^)

rh mass loss rate of specimen and ignition source (kg/s)

rh^ flow rate of species z in exhaust stack (kg/s)

rh^QQj mass flow rate of soot in exhaust stack (kg/s)

Q total heat release (kW)

Tq 273 K

Tg exhaust stack temperature (K)

V volume flow rate in exhaust stack (m-^/s), at the actual temperature where the photometer is located

X mole fraction (mol/mol)

Page 99
7 molar C/H ratio, as measured in the Cone Calorimeter (

- )

yOj soot density (kg/m^)

o-j specific extinction area of soot (12,000 m /kg)

superscript A - refers to concentrations in the analyzer

superscript S - refers to concentrations in the exhaust stack

The specimen mass loss rate is computed on the basis of having information about the molecular

composition of the fuel pyrolysates and on being able to measure flow rates of certain products of

combustion.

The mass loss rate of the specimen is identically equal to the mass flow rate of the combustion

products being generated, minus the mass flow rate of the oxygen being removed:

m = rrico^ + w^^ ^ ^np * ^soot ^ ^hci ^ ^hcn i^o^-K, B(l)

w = <J) 22.4

(T \

o T

kV

a. ^ ^ ^ fna^ ^ fncN ^

13100

B(2)

where

^ = ^'^ P. B(3)

and

(t)=44X* ^l^Ko ^ IS^Io B(4)

The concentrations measured in the CO and CO2 analyzers must be corrected to account for the

trapping of the water, in order to determine their actual concentrations in the exhaust stack. Hence,

4) = (UX^o, -^ ^-8^co)(l - 4,0) - ISX^o B(5)

Since the concentration of H2O is not being measured in the exhaust stack, its value will have to be

estimated.

Page 100
A C/H ratio, y, is defined as the molar ratio of carbon to hydrogen that is going into CO2, CO, and

H2O; this does not include contributions of C or H which go into HCl or HCN, since the latter are not measured in real scale.

Y

= y^ + y^

2X

-{X.CO. '^ ^^coj- B(6)

H.O 2X1

Solving for X^ q.

^^co2 "*" ^co)

2y + -^002 "*' ^co

B(7)

Since the yields of CO2, CO and H2O (i.e., (qq , Iqq, fpj q) ^re measured in the Cone, the molar

ratio 7 is expressed in terms of these yields:

Y

= [l/co^^/co

JH^O

B(8)

* = (44X^0,^28X^0,)

2^ "^Xf^o *Xqq

18(Xco^+Xco)

2"^ '^XQQ^+Xf-.Q

B(9)

(j) = (44X^0^^28X^0^) (2y) ^ mX^o^^X^o)

2"^ "^Xf^Q^+Xf^Q

B(10)

_ (18+88y)Xco,-^(18+56y)Xco B(ll)

Page 101
4> 22.4

m =

o T

k V

o^ 13100 B(12)

^ JHCl h>HCN

Finally giving:

m =

22.4

( T \ (44y+9)X^o,+(28y+9)X^o

Ko, - ^to - 2y

, kV Q

o^ 13100 B(13)

^ JHCl f}'HCN

Page 102
Appendix C

Computations with the FED

Basic computations

From [10] we take that the toxic fire hazard can be represented as proportional to an exposure dose,

specifically, the Fractional Effective Dose, FED, which for burning materials is computed as

FED = m"xA

VxLC

C(l)

50(c)

and where we take

LC.50(c) %1

m

C(2)

We have written an explicit '(c)' to remind us that the units here are a concentration.

The toxicity data from gases, however, as opposed to burning solids, are usually expressed in (vol/vol),

specifically (ppm) units. To convert to volume units,

rr = 29 1000 rr

^^50(v) - j_jg5 j^ ^^50(0

24,500

^

MW ^('>

C(3)

where MW is the molecular weight of the gas in question.

The basic measurement in a combustion test such as the Cone Calorimeter or the furniture

calorimeter is the gas yield, /, being the kg of the particular gas produced, per kg of fuel burned.

When more than one toxic gas is being evolved, the FED equation becomes

FED m"xA /x

X '^'^SO-x (c)

C(4)

Page 103
Converting this to the appropriate form so we could use ppm units for LC5o's, gives

FED - ^^Y: f'^^ . C(5)

Augmenting CO to correct value by post-computation

Based on the equations shown above, it is also possible to set down a method for correcting benchscale toxicity test results to a required CO level. It has been adequately noted {e.g., in a recent NIST

study [7]) that the yield of CO observed in various bench-scale test apparatuses tends to be much less than is produced in the real scale. Furthermore, this deficit is proportionately greater for non-FR

materials, than PR ones. Thus, in addition to a general scaling error, there tends to be a further bias

in bench-scale tests against FR materials. It may be possible to correct this by complicated physical

measures, such as adding CO to the test box during the bench-scale or by carefully adjusting oxygen

levels to encourage CO production. Such techniques would be difficult to implement for routine

testing.

It has also recently been observed [43] that for post-flashover fires, a nearly constant CO yield is seen, provided that an effective secondary combustion ("re-incineration") plume does not form at the

doorway or window opening. For preliminary hazard analysis purposes, it is conservative to neglect

the possibility of such re-incineration of the CO produced. Then, the possibility emerges that for a bench-scale test such as the NIBS method, targeted at post-flashover fire conditions, the effect of a correct amount of CO may be restored by computational means.

Considering Equation C(l), above, let us suppose the material now has two components: that which

is measured by animals in the LC5Q determination, plus that due to the additional yield of CO which

should have been induced in the apparatus, but was not.

Then,

FED - -

V

m" ^nco

+ LC LC

C(6)

Here, the LC50.C0 (c) ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ potency of CO in units of (kg/m^). The actual value of the LC50.

(-0(0) depends on the amount of CO2 which is simultaneously present in the atmosphere. This effect

is not a very sensitive function of the quantity of CO2, and for this purpose it can be assumed that

LC50.C0 (v) ~ ^000 ppm for typical values of CO2 being present [48]. This can be converted to appropriate units by the use of Equation C(3).

Page 104
The mass evolution rate of this CO-equivalent supplement term is:

. // mtiCO m" X Afco C(7)

where

A/,CO [required yield of CO] - [measured yield of CO]. C(8)

For post-flashover fires examined by Mulholland, the typical value of [required yield of CO] = 0.2

(kg/kg). To within the experimental scatter of the data, this value is independent of the type of

combustible that was burned.

Then,

FED m"xA AXCO

LC^ LC50-CO (c)

C(9)

A/,CO

^ ^ [CO] 0.200 28

0.2 - -5^ X

m100 24.5x10^

C(10)

where

[CO] = Avg. CO measured in box (ppm)

0.200 = volume of 200 L box (m^)

m^^oo ~ n^^^^ ^^ specimen burned (kg)

Combining above, gives final answer:

FED m"xA

LC

+ 44 - 5.0x 10 -5 [CO]

50 m100

C(ll)

Note that the units of LC50 above are (g/€). Converting to common units, get:

Page 105
FED = m"xA 10^

LC

+ 44 - 5.0x 10-2 \Pg\

50 m100

C(12)

where the units are:

LC50 = (mg/€)

[CO] = (ppm)

m100 (g)

Finally, V is a property of the room geometry, not of the combustible being burned. It is not known

when comparing products by themselves. Furthermore, the expression for A would involve constants

which are, again, extraneous for comparing two different materials. Therefore, for examining the

performance of combustibles it is appropriate to derive a 'relative FED' by normalizing out V by

setting it equal to 1.0, and setting A = Hirelative FED m 10^

LC

+ 44 - 5.0x 10-2 \CO\

50 m100

C(13)

For some purposes it is desirable to express the results as a 'corrected LC50.' From Eq. C(9), get:

\

C(14)

LC^ (corr) =

1 ^

A/,CO

LC^Q LC^_(.Q

(^)

Giving,

LC50 (corr) — + 44x10-' - 5.0x 10-5 [CO]

LC.50 m100

where the units of LC5Q(corr) = (mg/€).

C(15)

Page 106
NIST-114A

(REV. 3-69) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NUMBER

NIST/TN-1284

2. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER

3. PUBUCATION DATE January 1991

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE The Role of Bench-Scale Test Data in Assessing Real-Scale Fire ^oxicit'

S. AUTHOR(S) Vytenis Babrauskas, Richard H. Harris, Jr., Emil Braun, Barbara C. Levin, Maya Paabo, and

Richard G. Gann

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (IF JOINT OR OTHER THAN NIST, SEE INSTRUCTIONS)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

GAITHERSBURG, MD 20899

7. CONTRACT/GRANT NUMBER

8. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERiOS COVERED

Final

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (STREET, CITY, STATE, ZIP)

Same as item #6

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

DOCUMENT DESCRIBES A COMPUTER PROGRAM; SF-185, FIPS SOFTWARE SUMMARY, IS ATTACHED.

11. ABSTRACT (A 200-WORD OR LESS FACTUAL SUMMARY OF MOST SJQNIFICANT INFORMATION. IF DOCUMENT INCLUDES A SIGNIFICANT BIBUOGRAPHY OR

LITERATURE SURVEY, MENTION IT HERE.) The need was seen for establishing a methodology by which bench-scale fire toxicity

methods could be validated against real-scale room fires. The present study is the

result of a pilot project in this area. Appropriate validation hypotheses have been

put forth and examined in the context of some initial data. Three materials - Douglas

fir, rigid polyurethane foam, and PVC - vjere examined in real-scale and bench-scale

methods. The real-scale test environment was a post-flashover fire in a 3-compartment

(room, corridor, room) geometry, with the test specimens comprising wall lining materials.

The bench-scale methods examined were the NBS cup furnace method and a new developmental

protocol referred to as the "SwRI/NIST" method. The N-gas Model was applied to the

analysis of the data and was found to be consistent with most of the data. The methods

were compared for similarity of gas yields, or primary gases, and of types of death.

Differences were found in individual cases, but most of those were readily explainable

on the basis of an understanding of the test conditions. As a result of these studies,

a factor-of-3 agreement between bench-scale and real-scale results was established as both useful and practical.

12. KEY WORDS (6 TO 12 ENTRIES; ALPHABETICAL ORDER; CAPITALIZE ONLY PROPER NAMES; AND SEPARATE KEY WORDS BY SEMICOLONS)

Fire tests; fire toxicity; poly (vinyl chloride); radianc heat; rigid polyurethane foam; room fire tests; wood materials.

13. AVAILABIUTY UNUNITED

FOR OFFICIAL DISTRIBUTION. DO NOT RELEASE TO NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS). X

X ORDER FROM SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, DC 20402. ORDER FROM NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS), SPRINGFIELD, VA 22161.

14. NUMBER OF PRINTED PAGES 110

15. PRICE

ELECTRONIC FORM iV U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE; 1991 —281-557 Ih Q h 11

I

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