NISTIR 6538

Fire Service Needs Workshop Proceedings

San Antonio, Texas, October 13-15, 1999

William D. Walton

Nelson Bryner

Daniel Madrzykowski

James R. Lawson

Nora H. Jason, Editors

United States Department of Commerce Federal Emergency Management Agency

Technology Administration United States Fire Administration

National Institute of Standards and Technology
NISTIR 6538

Fire Research Needs Workshop Proceedings

San Antonio, Texas, October 13-15, 1999

William D. Walton, Nelson Bryner, Daniel Madrzykowski, James R. Lawson and Nora H. Jason,

Editors

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8644

July 2000

Sponsored in part by:

U.S. Department of Commerce Federal Emergency Management

William M. Daley, Secretary Administration

Technology Administration James Lee Witt, Director

Dr. Cheryl L. Shavers, Under Secretary for Technology U.S. Fire Administration

National Institute of Standards and Technology Carrye B. Brown, Administrator

Raymond G. Kammer, Director
ii

NOTICE

This Proceedings is the official transmittal of the workshop recommendations to the co-sponsor,

U.S. Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency. It reflects the combined

input of the workshop participants and not necessarily the views of the U.S. Fire Administration

or the National Institute of Standards and Technology.
iii

CONTENTS

Page

AGENDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

1.0 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................1

2.0 RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................3

2.1 General Recommendations .............................................3

2.2 Search and Rescue ....................................................4

2.3 Salvage and Overhaul .................................................6

2.4 Suppression .........................................................7

2.5 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.6 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.7 Fire Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.8 Public Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.9 Fire Fighter Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.10 Personal Protective Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.11 Fire Fighter Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.12 Special Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.13 Mutual Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.14 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.15 Dispatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.16 Incident Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.17 Record Keeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.0 FIRE SERVICE NEEDS WORKSHOP ATTENDEES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
iv

AGENDA

FIRE SERVICE NEEDS WORKSHOP

U.S. Fire Administration

San Antonio, TX

October 13-15, 1999

Wednesday, October 13, 1999

08:30 AM Registration

09:00 AM Welcome - Carrye B. Brown, US Fire Administrator

09:15 AM Background and Workshop Purpose - Bob McCarthy, USFA

09:30 AM Introduction of Attendees

09:45 AM Charge to the Workshop Panels - Doug Walton, NIST

Overall considerations (tactics, equipment, new technology, codes and standards,

testing and evaluation)

10:00 AM Introductory Breakout Session - Working Panel Orientation

10:15 AM Break

10:30 AM Workshop Panel Session - Firefighting Operations (search and rescue, water

supply, suppression, ventilation, exposure protection, salvage and overhaul), First

Session

12:00 noon No Host Lunch

01:15 PM Workshop Panel Session - Firefighting Operations, Second Session

02:45 PM Break

03:00 PM Workshop Panel Session - Firefighting Operations, Third Session

03:30 PM Group Review and Discussion

04:30 PM Administrative Announcements and Adjournment

Thursday, October 14, 1999

08:30 AM Group Review

09:00 AM Workshop Panel Session - Special Fires (high rise, industrial, urban/wildland,

disasters, marine, crash fire rescue)

10:30 AM Break

10:45 AM Workshop Panel Session - Fire fighter Health and Safety (protective clothing,

SCBA, PASS, building collapse, tracking, rehabilitation, fitness), First Session

12:15 PM No Host Lunch

01:15 PM Workshop Panel Session - Fire fighter Health and Safety, Second Session

02:45 PM Break

03:00 PM Workshop Panel Session - Fire Mitigation (prevention, public education, plan

review, preplanning, inspections)

04:00 PM Group Review and Discussion

05:00 PM Administration Announcements and Adjournment
v

Friday, October 15, 1999

08:30 AM Group Review

09:00 AM Workshop Panel Session - Communications and Information Technology

(dispatch, incident command, record keeping, mutual aid)

10:30 AM Break

10:45 AM Final Review

11:45 AM Closing Remarks

12:00 noon Adjournment
1

FIRE SERVICE NEEDS WORKSHOP

San Antonio, Texas

October 13-15, 1999

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The mission of the United States Fire Administration (USFA) is to reduce life and economic losses

due to fire and related emergencies, through leadership, advocacy, coordination with Federal

agencies, and in partnership with fire protection and emergency services communities. Through Fire

Administration leadership, a National Fire Research Agenda is developed with input from federal,

state and local partners. Using this agenda, with a commitment to excellence, the USFA provides

public education, training, technology, and data initiatives as follows:

Public Education: Develops and delivers fire prevention and safety education programs in

partnership with other Federal agencies the fire and emergency response community, the

media, and safety interest groups.

Training: Promotes the professional development of the fire and the emergency response

community and its allied professionals. To supplement and support state and local fire

service training programs, the National Fire Academy develops and delivers educational and

training courses having a national focus.

Technology: Works with public and private groups to promote and improve fire prevention

and life safety through research, testing, and evaluation. Generates and distributes research

and special studies on fire detection, suppression and notification systems, and on fire and

emergency responder health and safety.

Data: Assists State and local entities in collecting, analyzing and disseminating data on the

occurrence, the control and the consequences of all types of fires. The National Fire Data

Center, which administers the National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS), describes

the Nation’s fire problem; proposes possible solutions and national priorities; monitors

resulting programs; and provides information to the public and fire organizations.

The Building and Fire Research Laboratory at the National Institute of Standards and Technology

conducts research related to the measurement and prediction of fire related phenomena and has a

memorandum of understanding with the Fire Administration. The agreement calls for cooperation

between the two agencies in the areas of planning, information exchange and technology transfer to

improve fire safety.

As part of an ongoing effort to update and sharpen the National Fire Research Agenda, the Fire

Administration in cooperation with the Building and Fire Research Laboratory, at the National

Institute of Standards and Technology held two workshops to obtain input from the fire community.
2

The first focused on the needs of the fire service and was held October 13-15, 1999, in San Antonio,

Texas. At that workshop, 32 members of the fire service representing national fire service

organizations and a wide range of fire departments in both size and location were asked to identify

the needs of the fire service. Areas of emphasis included fire fighting operations, fire fighter health

and safety, large fire incidents, fire mitigation, communications and information technology. A list

of the attendees is provided at the end of this report.

The second workshop was held October 20th, 1999, in Emmitsburg, Maryland and focused on the

needs of the fire protection community beyond the fire service. Representatives of professional

organizations, trade associations, and building code organizations were invited to present there

research needs. The findings from that workshop are presented in a separate report.

The attendees at the Fire Service Needs Workshop were divided into two panels. The panel

members were preselected to provide a uniform distribution of fire department sizes on each panel.

A panel chair was preselected to run the panel sessions. Each of the panels was given the same

charge, which was to identify needs of the fire service. The panels were asked not to specifically

address needs in the areas of financial issues, labor relations, emergency medical service, hazardous

materials response, special rescue services or fire investigation. Some of these issues have been

addressed in other workshops and some would best be addressed by a panel of experts in that field.

The operation of the panels was left to the panel chairs and each chair appointed an assistant. Two

recorders from the Building and Fire Research Laboratory at the National Institute of Standards and

Technology were assigned to each panel. The recorders were familiar with fire service issues and

jargon and took the notes which served as the basis for this report. The recorders did not participate

in the discussions. At the final session of the workshop the panels were combined since some

participants had to leave early. A third panel chair was appointed for this session since the each of

panels had developed a team spirit and it would have been difficult to merge the two panels using

either of the panel chairs. 

In order to ensure the panels covered the complete range of topics, the panel chairs were given a list

of topic areas to be sure they addressed. The panel chairs could include other topics and reallocate

the time as they saw necessary. For needs identified, the panelist were asked to rate its relative

priority as high, medium or low.

The findings of the two panels were similar and were merged to form this report. Nearly identical

needs identified by both panels have been combined. There is, however, some redundancy as similar

needs were identified but with a different emphasis. The needs have been organized into categories

to simplify reading; however, some needs span more than one category. The needs within each

category have been ordered from high to low priority although the order within a priority is arbitrary.

The editors of this report have made every effort to accurately record the needs as presented by the

panels. No effort has been made to verify or provide references for the statements made by panel

members and used in this report.
3

2.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 General Recommendations

Need: Organize fire service leadership to be more effective in lobbying, marketing and educational

efforts.

Background: The fire service needs to speak with a united voice to maximize its effectiveness.

Areas which should be addressed include staffing, funding, public policy and

code issues.

Priority: High

Comments: The fire service needs to select appropriate target audience (public and

politicians) and not just talk to others in the fire service. The fire service needs

to use data generated from completed and proposed studies to support its

position.

Need: Make emerging technologies, new programs and support services available to as broad a

section of the fire service as possible.

Background: There is a wide disparity in the accessability of resources between small rural,

suburban combination, and municipal departments.

Priority: High

Comments: Unfunded mandates create hardships on small departments. It can be difficult to

comply with National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and Occupational

Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) standards and regulations for the fire

service. There is a need to explore issues on a regional basis.

Need: Change in the fire service culture.

Background: Fire safe behaviors need to be a cultural priority. Fire fighters are intensively

schooled and culturally reinforced in suppression efforts. Prevention needs to be

given the same priority. Modify the current fire service culture that rewards and

glamorizes unsafe behaviors and migrate to a culture that rewards safe behavior.

Priority: High

Comments: Fire Service needs to speak with united voice to maximize its effectiveness.
4

Need: Every issue identified in this workshop has an associated training need.

Background: Research organizations need to partner with training entities throughout the

development process. This would enable better understanding of findings,

conclusions, delivery of training and implementation of technology/programs.

Priority: High

Comments: Training is the principal means for conveying information and transferring

technology within the fire service.

Need: Improve transfer of technology to fire departments and individual fire fighters.

Background: There are many new technologies being developed, but they are not always

available to fire departments/fire fighters. There would be less effort wasted in

developing duplicate technologies if current technology could be disseminated

in timely and efficient manner. The fire service needs to avail itself of the

government technology transfer offices.

Priority: High

Comments: New technology needs to be fire fighter friendly, intuitive, durable and easy to

use. New technology needs to be continuously updated. There are specialized

technologies used in urban search and rescue which may be useful in fighting

structural fires.

2.2 Search and Rescue

Need: Develop standard search and rescue procedures which would provide principles and standard

patterns for search and rescue operations.

Background: There are a wide range of search patterns and approaches used by different

departments. For example, some departments search left and others search right.

The problem is most acute if departments from different jurisdictions are present

at the fire scene. Different search patterns could result in areas of the building

being left unsearched. If a search team encounters difficulties, a second team

using a different search technique could have difficulty locating the first team.

Priority: High /Medium

Comments: Departments may have different criteria for primary versus secondary searches.
5

Need: Develop sensors to detect hazards in building including toxic smoke, thermal radiation,

hazardous chemicals, and structural failure.

Background: Fire fighters typically arrive at an incident without adequate information on

hazards in/around fire scene. First responders need to be able to quickly access

hazards before beginning search and rescue and fire suppression activities.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Building preplans are not always up to date and although they may identify the

building contents, they cannot indicate the conditions within the building at the

time of arrival.

Need: Fire safety standards for burglar bars on windows and doors.

Background: Burglar bars are often installed on windows and doors that may serve as a means

of escape during a fire. The bars are frequently fixed and cannot be opened by

the building occupants in the event of a fire. In most jurisdictions there is no

requirement that burglar bars have a quick release mechanism for use by building

occupants in the event of a fire.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Burglar bars are most often a problem in residential and small buildings not

subject to fire inspections.

Need: Develop new technology for forced entry.

Background: Means are needed to more quickly enter security doors with burglar bars so that

rescue and fire suppression activities may begin.

Priority: Low/Medium

Comments: Security doors and burglar bars impede rescue and fire suppression activities.

Automobile hood systems restrict access to engine compartments.
6

2.3 Salvage and Overhaul

Need: Better understand the postfire environment.

Background: As the fire environment has changed over the past 20 years, it is reasonable to

assume the postfire environment also has changed.

Priority: Medium/High

Comments: Evaluate the postfire environment in terms of atmosphere, structural stability,

work methods (wait to overhaul), and proper personal protective equipment for

overhaul.

Need: Develop technology to scan personnel and equipment for contamination and determine the

type of decontamination required.

Background: Equipment may be exposed to hazardous materials on fire scene. It is not always

obvious which equipment is contaminated and how best to decontaminate it.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Most fire fighting equipment is simply washed at the scene or at the fire station.

Need: Identify in real time hazardous levels of gaseous compounds in the postfire environment. 

Background: Fire fighters know there are potentially dangerous atmospheres, but cannot

qualify or quantify them at time of overhaul.

Priority: Low

Comments: Fire fighters generally remove self-contained breathing apparatus after the fire is

out, potentially exposing themselves to hazardous levels of carbon monoxide and

other gases.
7

2.4 Suppression

Need: Investigate and improve water additives to improve fire fighting properties, including

increasing heat capacity, and longer durability of exposure protective coating systems.

Background: Research has been conducted on agents to improve water flow in hoses; however,

other agents need to be thoroughly evaluated. While some foam agents provide

immediate protection to a structure, the foam dries out and flakes off with time.

Additional additives may improve durability of the foam.

Priority: High

Comments: Additives are needed for both salt and fresh water applications.

Need: Develop methods to evaluate the effectiveness of alternative fire fighting agents.

Background: The only information available to the fire service on many types of agents is that

which is supplied by the manufacturer.

Priority: High

Comments: There are a number of alternatives to “plain water” for fire suppression and fire

control. Examples are foams, emulsifiers, gels, water additives, multiple agents,

and high pressure water mist.

Need: Develop a “smart” nozzle for fire suppression, and develop ways to maximize efficiency of

fire suppression delivery systems. 

Background: Nozzles that supply the most efficient flow rates and patterns would assist in fire

suppression tasks. Nozzles that provide feedback to the fire fighter should be

investigated.

Priority: Medium

Comments: The issues that need to be studied and quantified include pressure, flow rate,

spray pattern, and drop size.
8

Need: Analyze and develop an accurate method of determining required flow rates for structural

fire suppression. 

Background: Fire growth rates appear to have changed over the last twenty years and

predictive formulas need to be updated to accurately calculate realistic flow rates.

Priority: Medium

Comments: What flow rates are actually required to extinguish a given fire with different

diameter hose lines.

Need: Develop a system to quickly identify the proper type of foam and application method.

Background: Currently the application of foam is not always based on a complete

understanding of the capabilities of the foam for use in a given situation. There

are a number of different foams available, and some fire departments may have

several types of foam available. In some instances it is difficult to determine

which type of foam is best for a particular fire and how to apply that foam.

Priority: Medium/Low

Comments: Training is important for the proper selection and use of foam. Upkeep and

maintenance of foam systems is difficult. Foam storage and foam life limits are

not fully understood. Foam concentrate and generation systems are expensive.

There is a need for methods to make rapid decisions on foam use. Examine the

possibility of a sensor to determine the type of foam needed or a key pad on the

apparatus to select the type of foam and application method.

Need: Deliver water to the fire in an efficient and economical way.

Background: Delivering water to a fire is a key element in the fire service and yet there is still

a great deal not known about the performance and reliability water delivery

system components. The weight and size of water distribution system

components (hose and nozzles) adds to the stress on the fire fighters.

Priority: Medium/Low

Comments: There is a need to investigate the whole system of delivering water including,

drop sizes, couplings, weight of devices, nozzle design, the durability of ultralightweight hose, equipment usability, capability and reliability. Investigate the

use of tracers to determine the way water is being used.
9

Need: Develop standard sizes for connectors for all hoses, nozzles, standpipes, hydrants and

apparatus.

Background: Non-uniformity in sizes of connectors as well as apparatus specific fittings delay

or prevent quick access to water supplies.

Priority: Low

Comments: Although the issue of standardization of threads has been addressed for many

years there are still a number of different “standards” and a wide variety of

connector sizes. For example, many shipboard fire fighting connectors are

different than those used by municipal fire departments.

Need: Explore alternatives to tanker shuttles for rural water supply.

Background: Shuttles are time consuming and provide a limited water supply.

Priority: Low

Comments: Explore the use of inexpensive dry hydrants and the use of extinguishing agents

other than water.

Need: Address water supply issues related to former federal facilities that have been taken over by

local governments. 

Background: Distribution systems and private protection systems have not been updated or

maintained generally.

Priority: Low

Comments: The state of the fire protection systems may not be considered when the facility

is taken over by the local government.

Need: Study the impact of microbiological induced corrosion on private protection systems and

water distribution systems.

Background: Corrosion of any kind causes reduced flows and can cause private protection

systems to be less effective.

Priority: Low

Comments: Corrosion takes place slowly over a long period of time and its impact on water

delivery may go unnoticed.
10

Need: Evaluate methods for testing private protection systems. 

Background: Current methods are cumbersome and expensive.

Priority: Low

Comments: Many fire departments do not have the resources to test private water supply and

fire protection systems.

Need: Establish guidelines for use of smooth bore and fog nozzles to produce the most effective

result in fire suppression. 

Background: There are many opinions concerning the most effective use of smooth bore and

fog nozzles in fire fighting. Little data exists that quantifies the most effective

application of these fire suppression tools.

Priority: Low

Comments: Fire fighters need guidelines to assist them in selecting which type of nozzle to

use for a specific fire suppression task.

Need: Improve the capability and reliability of fire apparatus water pumps.

Background: Fire service pumps have not changed a great deal in recent years. Develop

information on the common failure points and maintenance needs for current

pump designs.

Priority: Low

Comments: The fire service has not fully investigated the use of “new” pump technologies

developed for military applications.
11

2.5 Ventilation

Need: Understand the effective use of ventilation.

Background: Many of the tactics for ventilation have remained unchanged for years even

though building construction and building contents have changed. These changes

may result in more rapid fire growth and spread which may not be adequately

addressed by existing tactics.

Priority: Medium

Comments: There is a need to evaluate existing ventilation techniques including positive

pressure ventilation. Roof and high rise ventilation safety remains an issue as a

cause of fire fighter injuries and fatalities. Research on ventilation techniques is

needed to improve the efficiency.

Need: Explore methods other than ventilation to reduce the negative effects of smoke on visibility

during fire fighter operations.

Background: Limited visibility caused by particulate matter in smoke makes suppression

operations more difficult.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Develop a soot removal additive which, when added to air, would reduce soot in

smoke.

Need: Develop reliable and economical smoke evacuation systems for residential occupancies.

Background: Smoke detectors and sprinklers are doing a good job of detecting and suppressing

fires, but they do not remove the smoke. The majority of fatalities in residential

occupancies are caused by smoke inhalation.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Requirements in residential occupancies are difficult to implement.
12

Need: Evaluate changes in the design of positive pressure ventilation fans. 

Background: Exhaust gases from gasoline engine powered positive ventilation fans frequently

enter the buildings being ventilated.

Priority: Low

Comments: Exhaust gases should be routed so they are not blown into structure causing

carbon monoxide poisoning. Gas engines should function and not leak fuel when

positioned at various angles.

Need: Develop guidelines for most effective use of positive pressure ventilation, including when

it should and should not be used.

Background: Fire fighters need to select the best method from range of choices. Information

should be developed comparing positive pressure ventilation with traditional

ventilation methods.

Priority: Low

Comments: Investigate the use of heating, ventilation, air conditioning and vent systems that

work in conjunction with automatic suppression systems.

2.6 Operations

Need: Develop a means for fire fighters to sense and understand the thermal environment around

them while fighting a fire.

Background: Fire fighters are encapsulated in their protective clothing and equipment and have

lost valuable signs that help to define the thermal environment around them.

This loss of perception results in fire fighters entering thermal environments that

may be dangerous.

Priority: High

Comments: There are no universal guidelines indicating when a fire fighter should stop

entering a high temperature area. Sensing coat technology may be useful for this

purpose. Thermal conditions from the sensors should be transmitted back to the

incident commander.
13

Need: Study and quantify fire fighting environments that are currently being faced by the fire

service.

Background: The last study on fire fighting environments was conducted about twenty years

ago. Many changes have been made in building construction, materials, interior

finishes, and furnishings. Fire fighting equipment and tactics have also changed

over this same period.

Priority: High

Comments: Fire environments should studied for a range of occupancies. Fire spread

characteristics need to be quantified and the types of materials burning should be

identified. Research is needed on fire loads, heat release rates, thermal

environments, combustion gases, smoke movement, gas flow conditions and

pressures. This environmental information should be linked with the selection,

use, and performance of fire fighters’ personal protective clothing.

Need: Develop a sound criteria for assessing if an interior attack or an exterior attack is more

appropriate.

Background: Fire fighter injuries and fatalities are occurring when the only life risk is that of

the fire fighter.

Priority: High

Comments: There is a strong commitment on the part of the fire service to extinguish fires.

This is a difficult tradition to change.

Need: Develop technologies that will make elevators a more useful tool for the fire service.

Background: Elevator use is limited by the potential danger; however, the potential for

increasing the effective use of elevators is recognized. Efforts are needed to

expand the capabilities of elevators for occupant evacuation and effective fire

fighting.

Priority: High

Comments: Elevators need to be made more user friendly. Elevators need better fire

protection, perhaps including encapsulation to protect them from the fire

environment. Improvements in elevator safety may make them usable to

evacuate from a fire. Improvements are needed to protect hoisting cables and

systems. Standard operating procedures need to be developed for the use of

elevators in fire fighting.
14

Need: Develop a data repository to collect information on performance of equipment and the impact

of actions.

Background: Currently there is no widespread means to determine the experience of other

departments with respect to equipment problems and failures, and the

effectiveness of methods, deployment and tactics.

Priority: High

Comments: The existing data bases do not provide a complete picture and are not always

useful. This information would be useful in determining the reliability and

durability of equipment. The fire service community cannot take full advantage

of the resources and experience of the large departments.

Need: Develop a demographic profile of fire departments to assist long range planning. 

Background: The governance, financial, political and social structure of fire departments are

not well known. This lack of knowledge makes it difficult to develop long range

plans to ensure adequate delivery of emergency services in the future.

Priority: High

Comments: A few states (e.g., Iowa) have done detailed studies which have yielded some

unexpected results.

Need: Evaluate fire department response performance relative to fire behavior.

Background: Fire department location, deployment and staffing are not necessarily matched to

the actual behavior of the fire. Response times are based on “rules of thumb” for

fire growth and not based on research.

Priority: High

Comments: The fire service needs to know if, on average, they will arrive at the scene of a

fire in time to substantially reduce the loss of life and property.
15

Need: Better evaluation, standards, training, and understanding of the capabilities and limitations

of thermal imaging systems.

Background: New thermal imaging devices are appearing on the market, and their use is

becoming more widespread. There is a need to incorporate the use of thermal

imaging units into fire ground tactics. Currently there is no effective way to

evaluate different units, and there are no standards for the performance and

operation of the units.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Remote transmission of images to the incident command is available on some

systems, and its use needs to be further investigated. Costs of the units is still

high. Combination systems including infrared, low light and video may show

promise for the future.

Need: Improvements in apparatus design.

Background: Fire apparatus is getting bigger and more expensive. The use of large apparatus

can limit the access to the fire scene. Standards for fire apparatus may limit the

introduction of innovative design which are small and maintain the same

capabilities.

Priority: Medium

Comments: The fire service needs to take advantage of military technology.

Need: Determine the extent to which it is possible for the fire service to be proficient at delivering

a large number of services.

Background: The fire service is being expected to deliver more speciality services at a greater

level of proficiency.

Priority: Medium

Comments: The community has the expectation that fire departments will deliver a wide

variety of service in a fast and efficient manner . Although fire departments have

specialized units, for example Hazardous Materials (HAZMAT) and Urban

Search and Rescue (USAR), the first responding units are expected to take the

appropriate action prior to the arrival of these specialized units.
16

2.7 Fire Prevention

Need: Examine the political, social, and economic impact of requiring automatic sprinklers in all

buildings.

Background: It has long been known that automatic fire sprinkler systems are an effective

means for controlling or suppressing fires in buildings. Economic and political

concerns have prevented the more widespread adoption of mandatary sprinkler

requirements.

Priority: High

Comments: A comprehensive analysis should be conducted to compare all the costs involved

including fire departments, insurance, direct and indirect loss and system cost.

Many in the fire service feel that, in general, automatic fire sprinklers should be

required in all new structures.

Need: Develop low cost quick response automatic extinguishing systems for residential and other

occupancies.

Background: Public perception of the cost, potential for damage, and installation applicability

is not accurate.

Priority: High

Comments: Improved public education is needed. Partnerships should be developed with

groups such as the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) and realtors.

An issues that needs to be addressed is the fear of accidental activation.

Improvements in residential suppression systems would need to be addressed in

codes and standards.

Need: Develop very early fire detection systems which track changing fire conditions, reduce false

alarms and increase reliability.

Background: Investigate the integration of multiple detectors (fire, gas, motion) into one unit.

Detectors should be designed with self-diagnosis. Residential detectors for

hearing impaired are too expensive.

Priority: High

Comments: Although residential smoke detector have contributed to reducing the loss of life

in fires, there is still a substantial opportunity for improvement.
17

Need: Develop support for local jurisdictions to elevate funding and activities in fire prevention

through national and state policies, research and incentives.

Background: Nationally and locally fire prevention programs have not been adequately

supported. Fire service leaders need to network more effectively with outside

organizations to enhance support for fire prevention programs.

Priority: High

Comments: The fire service needs to investigate new partnerships with architects, builders,

public officials and others. The fire service leadership and organizations need to

fund these activities. Fire prevention can be self supported through fee

schedules.

Need: Explore ways to develop economic partnering with private and public sectors entities to

reward fire safe behavior procedures and construction.

Background: Using economic incentives may help improve compliance and raise awareness.

Priority: High

Comments: Explore relationships with the construction and insurance industries. Evaluate

the impact on changes to the Insurance Services Organization (ISO) ratings of

communities.

Need: Examine the demographics of fire incidents.

Background: Most fire departments recognize that there are greater instances of fires in certain

areas; however, this information is frequently not used to direct fire prevention

activities.

Priority: Medium/High

Comments: Issues that need to be addressed include human behavior and the incident rate in

comparable communities. This could include the use of graphical information

systems (GIS) to plot fire frequency, fire loss, occupancy, hazardous materials

and inspection frequency demographics to indicate areas in which to concentrate

fire prevention and education activities.
18

Need: Develop more effective partnering with industries to incorporate improved fire safety into

product design.

Background: Industry could design more fire safety into products. For example, automobile

industry could include uniform and easier access to engine compartment to

extinguish engine fires.

Priority: High/Medium

Comments: In many cases, fire safety and the interaction of the products with fire fighting

activities are not considered in the design of new products.

Need: Develop a computer-based universal yet flexible inspection and preplan system.

Background: This development of an improved system could help deliver needed building

information at the time of an incident in a uniform and understandable format.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Although there are preplan systems commercially available, there is still room for

improvement. Ideally the system should be easy to use, be computer-aided

design (CAD) compatible, and able to quickly produce information in a uniform

format.

Need: Improve the ability to assess the risk (to the public and fire service) before and during a fire.

Background: As the number of fires have declined, the older fire officers with significant

experience are retiring and the younger officers do not have the same level of

experience.

Priority: Medium

Comments: There is a need to assess the risk before the fire as part of the preplan. This

includes the ability to determine when offensive versus defensive tactics are in

order, that is, when is it appropriate to cease firefighting operations.
19

Need: Improve fire department involvement in plan review.

Background: Fire department involvement in building plan review is inconsistent across the

country.

Priority: Medium/ Low

Comments: The impact of the fire department involvement in the plan review process is not

well known. Studies are needed to show how fire department involvement in the

plan review process impact the level of fire safety in a jurisdiction.

Need: Evaluate the impact of performance based codes on fire safety.

Background: The model building and fire codes in the United States are moving from

prescriptive based to performance based. The impact on the level of fire safety

in a community has not been demonstrated. Much of the development of

performance based building codes is taking place without input from the fire

service.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Countries such as New Zealand are ahead of the United States in the move to

performance based codes. The impact of performance based codes on fire safety

in these countries should be examined.

2.8 Public Education

Need: Quantify the effectiveness of current public education programs and their delivery systems.

Background: Fire safe behaviors need to be a cultural priority. There also is a need to explore

new program development and delivery systems. Many feel the focus on and

support to public education has declined.

Priority: High

Comments: There needs to be a K- 12 mandated school curriculum. Partnerships need to be

developed with teachers and educational associations, state departments of

education, colleges, universities and others. Fire prevention issues for the elderly

could be developed in partnership with the American Association of Retired

Persons (AARP). Multi-cultural curriculums which are flexible enough to

address local issues. Juvenile fire setters still need more emphasis. The United

States Fire Administration (USFA) should re-institute annual public education

conferences.
20

Need: Develop strategies for better customer service and relations.

Background: Fire departments do not have the same level of public consciousness as police

departments. Public awareness and fire prevention activities may only take place

during Fire Prevention Week and throughout the year.

Priority: High

Comments: Develop a national marketing plan. Public education in schools is not widely

used around the country. Investigate the integration of fire stations into other

community buildings to increase public awareness. Returning to the community

after the fire helps to reinforce fire safety and helps the community recover.

There needs to be a national protocol to identify the cause of civilian fire deaths.

Need: Improve service to communities with diverse populations.

Background: Communities are a diverse collection of individuals with different languages, and

culture, social, economic, and political backgrounds. The fire service has not

always been quick to recognize and consider the diverse needs of the community

when developing plans for delivering emergency services.

Priority: High/Medium

Comments: Many cities are rapidly changing and the fire service needs to respond to these

changes in the way it delivers services.

Need: Make fire prevention and public education knowledge an integral part of every fire fighters

skill set and make it culturally acceptable.

Background: Fire fighters are extensively schooled and culturally reinforced in suppression

efforts. Prevention needs to be given the same priority.

Priority: High

Comments: Change fire fighter title to public safety educator. Support public education at the

station level and reward fire fighter participation. Use fire fighters and teachers

to deliver the program to the public.
21

2.9 Fire Fighter Safety

Need: Improve fire ground accountability by electronically scanning personnel entering and exiting

fire building.

Background: Even though there have been advances in technology in recent years, it is still

difficult to track fire fighters at the fire scene. New technology is needed which

automatically tracks fire fighters entering and leaving buildings. The system

needs to operate without inferring with fire fighting operations or adding a

burden on incident commanders.

Priority: High

Comments: Bar codes are being introduced to track cleaning and maintenance of gear.

Need: Improve fire fighter accountability through better location tracking of fire fighters.

Background: At present there is no system available to locate individual fire fighters within a

building. Global positioning satellite (GPS) technology is being successfully

used to track fire apparatus. Unfortunately, current GPS technology works poorly

or not at all within buildings. If fire fighters become injured or incapacitated, the

ability to quickly locate the fire fighters is critical for rescue.

Priority: High

Comments: The tracking system needs to be reliable, easy to use, and affordable without

requiring substantial personnel or interfering with radio transmissions. It needs

to track personnel in three dimensions within a building.

Need: Modify current fire service culture that rewards and glamorizes unsafe behaviors.

Background: The is a long history in the fire service of preforming heroic acts to save lives and

property. However, these same acts result in unnecessary fire fighter injuries and

loss of life. Even though there has been an increased emphasis on safety, acts

that unnecessarily endanger fire fighters are still rewarded.

Priority: High

Comments: Modifying the current fire service culture that rewards and glamorizes unsafe

behaviors is a significant challenge. The fire service needs to reward safe

practices and enforcement of standard operating procedures. Safety related

training needs to take place at all levels from recruits to incident commanders to

the department leadership.
22

Need: Develop smart personal protection equipment technology.

Background: Efforts are underway to develop systems for fire fighter accountability, tracking,

remote sensing of the fire environment, remote sensing of the fire fighter’s

physical condition and the fire fighter’s well being. Generally these systems

involve individual devices with differing protocols and methods of operation.

Ideally all of these systems could be combined into a single unit. This unit could

possibly use a heads up display and could be combined with thermal imaging.

Priority: High

Comments: The proliferation of new technology devices with differing protocols and signals

could lead to both a physical and information overload of fire fighters. A

multitude of systems also presents a challenge to incident commanders who will

need to provide resources to manage the information. Differing systems used by

different fire departments could result in inference and confusion at large

incidents.

Need: Provide awareness training for all fire fighters on weapons of mass destruction including

chemical, radiological, and biological hazards.

Background: The fire service is likely to be the first on the scene at an incident involving a

weapon of mass destruction. Most fire departments currently unprepared to

respond to these types of incidents.

Priority: High

Comments: Although there are teams with specialized training and equipment to deal with

weapons of mass destruction, it typically would be some time before they would

arrive at an incident. The fire service would be expected to initially treat victims

and reduce the hazard. Without proper training and equipment, it is possible the

first responders could become victims of the event.
23

Need: Accurate, comprehensive fire fighter injury and fatality reports.

Background: Most departments do not have adequate procedures for investigating and learning

from these incidents. In many cases the investigators are too close to the case and

are reluctant to expose inadequacies within the department. Many reports lack

adequate details regarding the factors that contributed to injuries or fatalities.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Reports need to discuss not only the facts of the case but the impact of training

and tactics which lead to the injury or fatality. For example, were the victims

operating within department guidelines and were appropriate risk management

principles applied? Were the decisions appropriate and were civilians lives

saved as a result of injury or fatality?

Need: Develop improved driver and passenger apparatus seats.

Background: Driver and fire fighters must ride on fire apparatus wearing personal protective

equipment. This makes it difficult to effectively use seat belts.

Priority: Medium

Comments: A possible resource is the United States Fire Administration (USFA) Manual on

Ergonomic Apparatus Design.

Need: Develop nationally approved emergency driver training certification program.

Background: Traffic accidents remain a significant cause of fire fighter injuries and fatalities.

Although some departments have excellent emergency driver training programs,

there is still opportunity for improvement. Successful and effective programs

could be used models.

Priority: Medium

Comments: The United States Fire Administration (USFA), National Volunteer Fire Council

(NVFC) and Indiana University of Pennsylvania amongst others have programs

that could serve a basis for a national program.
24

Need: Develop methods for identifying and signaling the possibility for structural failure.

Background: Structural failure causes many fire fighter injuries and deaths. Tools are needed

to measure and predict the possibility of structural failure.

Priority: Low/Medium

Comments: Modern buildings are constructed using technology that provides a balance

between strength and cost. This has resulted in lighter structural systems such as

wood truss joists using small dimensioned lumber. Structural failure may occur

after relatively short burn times.

2.10 Personal Protective Equipment

Need: Validate thermal protective performance of protective clothing with full scale mannikin tests

including different positions and various levels of dress.

Background: Current tests are conducted in the laboratory with small samples. There are some

tests with mannikins, but only at one dress level and with the mannikin in the

standing position. Fire fighters wear a variety of garments under protective gear

and frequently operate in the crawling position.

Priority: High

Comments: Evaluate different positions including kneeling, crawling and sitting. Various

levels of dress should be examined including wearing uniforms, tee shirts and

shorts, and nothing under the protective clothing.

Need: Improve fire fighters personal protective equipment (PPE).

Background: Although there have been advances in personal protective in recent years, there

area still areas in which the performance could be improved. Further, it is

difficult to determine the expected performance of current equipment.

Priority: High

Comments: Issues that need to be addressed include: 1) the relationship between the

temperatures outside and inside protective clothing, 2) the use of heat sensing

devices to provide feedback on the fire environment, 3) the use of breathable

versus non-breathable vapor barriers, 4) the fit of boots, 5) the interface of

components from different manufacturers, 6) methods to track service life, and

7) cleaning procedures.
25

Need: Better characterization of the use time for self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)

cylinders during actual fire ground conditions.

Background: Nominal 30 minute cylinders do not usually last for 30 minutes. A more realistic

rating system is needed for SCBA compressed air cylinders.

Priority: High

Comments: Most fire fighters know that the expected use time for cylinders is less than their

nominal rating.

Need: Reexamine the thermal protective performance requirements and test methods in the

National Fire Protection Association Standard 1971.

Background: Field testing indicates that fire fighter experience heat flux up to 4 calories and

burn injuries occur from 1 calorie or less exposure. Current test protocol uses

2 calories.

Priority: Medium

Comments: More detailed studies of the fire environment encountered by fire fighters are

needed. There is a tradeoff between providing increased thermal protection from

the fire and increasing heat stress from heat generated by the fire fighter. The

issue of the effectiveness of protective clothing after use and cleaning needs to

be addressed.

Need: Improve training on the proper selection and use of personal protective equipment based

upon the event.

Background: Although there have been improvements in the design of personal protective

equipment, in some case the training on the limitations, use and care of the

equipment has not changed.

Priorities: Medium

Comments: Personal protective equipment designed for structural fire fighting is not

interchangeable with equipment designed for wildland use.
26

Need: Develop fully encapsulated fire fighter protective clothing.

Background: Although modern protective clothing provides better protection than the boots,

coats and helmets of a few years ago, the interface between components is a

potential site for burn injuries.

Priority: Medium

Comments: One piece encapsulated protective clothing may be the trend of the future.

Need: Improve compatibility of self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).

Background: SCBA cylinders are not compatible between manufacturers.

Priority: Low

Comments: SCBA cylinders cannot be shared at fire incident involving different departments

with SCBA’s from different manufacturers. 

Need: Improve respirator protection for wildland fire fighters.

Background: Fire fighters working wildland fires may require different equipment than urban

fire fighters.

Priority: Low

Comments: Self-contained breathing apparatus used for structural fire fighting is generally

unacceptable for use in wildland fires.

2.11 Fire Fighter Health

Need: Research to address health issues associated with radio equipment and other transmitters.

Background: There have been studies which indicate female health problems associated with

800 MHz radios. There are rumors of problems with other technologies, but it

is difficult to obtain information.

Priority: High

Comments: There have been studies such as the 1993 emergency medical study in New York

City and studies with cell phones but the issue has not been resolved.
27

Need: Establish and maintain fire fighter wellness and fitness programs and requirements.

Background: Fire fighters must pass entrance physicals and performance test but many

departments do not have programs that continue throughout a career. Poor fitness

and stress can contribute to injuries and fatalities.

Priority: High

Comments: The International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF) and International

Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC) fitness program and the Department of

Defense have developed model programs. Issues that need to be addressed

include: 1) the effect of heat and cold, 2) rehabilitation recovery cycles, 3) sleep

deprivation, 4) alternating work schedules, 5) length of duty times and 6) drug

screening.

Need: Study occupational hazards associated with fire fighting.

Background: Occupational health hazards have been studied other occupations but not for fire

fighters. There may be a need to change practices, equipment and training.

There is a need for a national injury reporting system to track the nature and

cause of fire fighter injuries.

Priority: High

Comments: Possible medial issues associated with fire fighting include: cancer, respiratory

illness, reproductive problems, hepatitis, stress, high blood pressure, stroke, heart

attack, mental health, impaired hearing, infectious diseases, burns, wounds,

strains, breaks, and effects of residual products of combustion on the body.

Need: Improved techniques for conflict resolution.

Background: Conflict resolution historically has been handled without the benefit of formal

training. This results in an inconsistent approach and also can lead to a escalation

of problems.

Priority: High

Comments: Issues which need to be addressed include peer resolution, workplace violence

and diversity training. The Occupational Health and Safety Administration

(OSHA) is believed to be developing a standard.
28

Need: Develop methods for improving leadership and supervision in the fire service.

Background: The fire service is migrating from an organization that just extinguishes fire to

an organization that is expected to provide a wide range of emergency services

with increasing professionalism. Further the fire service workforce is becoming

more diverse. These transitions demand capable leaders with a wide range of

skills.

Priority: High/Medium

Comments: The high level fire service leadership finds it spends a significant amount of time

on personnel, budget, and other issues rather than directing fire suppression

activities. These challenges require new and diverse leadership skills.

Need: Develop guidelines for rehabilitation procedures and study the effectiveness.

Background: A relatively new area of concern is the rehabilitation of fire fighters after

incidents. This can include both physical and psychological rehabilitation. 

Priority: Medium

Comments: Extensive studies of the rehabilitation needs for fire fighters have not been

conducted.

Need: Develop techniques for dealing with external violence.

Background: Fire fighters in some areas are being exposed to increasing levels of external

violence not only at the fire scene but also when they are in the community and

even in the station. Fire fighters have traditionally not been given training for

dealing with external violence.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Fire fighters need improved training, including how to deal with a diverse

community and potentially new equipment for dealing with violence.
29

Need: Improve the fire station environment.

Background: Most fire fighters spend a considerable amount of time in the fire station. The

fire station is expected to serve a wide variety of purposes. Frequently these

purposes are in conflict with each other since some are industrial and some are

residential.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Issues include: infection control, diesel exhaust, storage of personal protective

equipment, workout rooms, study rooms, rest rooms, laundry, sleeping quarters

(semi-private versus bunk rooms), availability of information resources, alarm

notification, separation of living quarters from other areas, noise control,

kitchens, appliance shut-offs connected to alarms, automatic fire sprinklers and

security.

Need: Evaluate the impact of carbon monoxide from large wildland fires on fire fighters.

Background: Wildland fire fighters do not usually use self-contained breathing apparatus.

Unlike structural fire fighters, wildland fire fighters are frequently near the fire

scene for long periods of time.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Some research indicates wildland fire fighters are exposed to high levels of

carbon monoxide. Wildland fire fighters also may be exposed to elevated levels

of carbon monoxide in base camps which are near the fires. These issues may

apply during the overhaul after building fires.

Need: Job validated hearing test for fire fighters.

Background: Standard hearing tests have not been validated for the fire service. There is no

testing and certification process for hearing aids under firefighting conditions.

Hearing aids for fire fighters are subject to background noise, heat, and moisture.

Priority: Medium/Low

Comments: Hearing is critical to communications on the fire ground. Compromised

communications under fire fighting conditions creates a potential threat to the

safety of the fire fighter, the public and others working at the incident.
30

2.12 Special Fires

Need: Enhance fire resistant cab design for wildland fire fighting vehicles.

Background: There have been numerous events in which fire fighters near apparatus were

overrun by wildland fires. One strategy to provide a safe haven for the fire

fighters is to provide apparatus with a fire resistant cab. Presently the fire

exposure the cab would have withstand during a fire is not documented.

Priority: High

Comments: Wildland fires within cities are becoming an increasing problem as cities expand

into the wildland environment. Fire resistant cabs could use water from the

apparatus to enhance protection. Breathing air supplies may be required within

the cab.

Need: Develop methods to share resources during man-made and natural disasters.

Background: Large man-made or natural disasters create conditions which exceed the

capabilities of even the largest fire departments. Presently, there are only limited

area systems to provide for the sharing of resources beyond normal mutual-aid

agreements. Federal partners for assistance in large disasters need to be

identified.

Priority: High

Comments: The two areas in which there is nationwide deployment of emergency services

resources are wildland fire fighting and urban search and rescue (USAR). The

units could serve as models for developing other emergency service deployments.

Need: Develop national high rise fire fighting training curriculum.

Background: Although high rise buildings have existed for a long time, fires in these buildings

still present a significant challenge to fire fighters. Although some cities have

excellent training programs for high rise fire fighting, many don’t.

Priority: High

Comments: Issues associated with fires in high rise buildings include: 1) fire alarms and false

alarms, 2) accountability for residents and fire fighters, 3) ventilation, 4) atriums,

5) exterior fire movement, 6) areas of safe refuge, 7) use of stairwells, and

8) automatic fire suppression systems.
31

Need: Adapt small computer technology to the fire service.

Background: Small hand held computers are widely used in business and have many potential

applications in the fire service.

Priority: High

Comments: Some of the possible areas of application include prevention, training, identifying

target hazards, foam applications and fire fighter and equipment accountability.

Need: Develop information on the hazards associated with modern transportation vehicle fires.

Background: New technology is being used in automotive systems that increase dangers to fire

fighters.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Modern transportation systems have items such as fuel cells, nitrogen assisted

shocks, magnesium engines and structures, pneumatic bumpers, air bags that

present hazards to fire fighters.

Need: Develop operational procedures for off airport aircraft fire fighting and rescue operations

with structural fire apparatus.

Background: Most aircraft accidents occur off airports and away from trained crash fire

fighting crews. Further most airport crash fire departments are not well trained

and equipped to deal with structural fires.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Most fire departments lack the training and equipment for aircraft fire fighting.

Need: Develop a central source of information on major fire incidents.

Background: Presently, there is no central repository for the actions taken and lessons learned

on major fire incidents. A central information source would allow departments

to learn from the positive experiences of others.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Possible locations for the repository would be the United States Fire

Administration (USFA) or the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
32

Need: Develop disaster simulators for the public.

Background: The fire service needs more effective ways to train the public to deal with

disasters such as earthquakes, tornadoes, or fires. 

Priority: Medium

Comments: The Japanese have developed building simulators in which the public can

experience simulated fires and earthquakes and learn the proper safety

procedures. There are some programs in the United States but they do not appear

to be as sophisticated as the Japanese system. The effectiveness of the use of

simulators needs to be evaluated.

Need: Develop protocols for dealing with rave parties.

Background: Rave parties are a relative new phenomena and seem to be most common in the

West and the Midwest. Organizers of the party rent a warehouse or outdoor area

and advertise and sell tickets to the event without disclosing the exact location.

On the day of the event the location is revealed using the Internet or phone

message. The parties may attract thousands of attendees and generally do not

have the permits, facilities and security normally required for such an event.

Priority: Medium

Comments: The large and unregulated gatherings associated with rave parties present a

significant risk to both the attendees and the communities. The indoor events

frequently take place in facilities in poor repair and which do not meet life safety

requirements.

Need: Develop improved methods for mitigating the hazard from tire fires.

Background: A used tire storage facility fire which, if not controlled immediately, typically

lasts weeks or months, and is an environmental and economic disaster. Although

there have been numerous large tire fires, there is no effective way to control

these fires other than isolating the burning tires and letting the fire burn out.

Priority: Medium/Low

Comments: The use of water or other suppression agents often leads to runoff which must be

contained to reduce the environmental impact.
33

2.13 Mutual Aid

Need: Shorten the dispatch request time for mutual aid.

Background: In some cases the dispatch center may not know the status of adjacent jurisdiction

and cannot automatically dispatch units. Computer aided dispatch systems from

different jurisdictions may not communicate with each other. Further, there is

not a good way to request resources at a national level.

Priority: Low

Comments: In some cases there is no guarantee that the units responding have the expected

level of training. In many cases units from different jurisdictions are unable to

communicate with each other.

Need: Identify federal, state and local regulations on mutual assistance agreements.

Background: The number of laws and regulations or lack of laws and regulations may not

support effective partnering among mutual assistance.

Priority: Low

Comments: There are frequently no standards or certification of units participating in mutual

aid. The level of training in neighboring jurisdictions may vary greatly.

2.14 Communications

Need: Better communications technology.

Background: Good communications is critically important to the fire service. Although new

communications technologies are continually being introduced, there are a

number of areas in which problems still exist. These include communications

inside buildings and tunnels, communications with fire fighters wearing selfcontained breathing apparatus, background noise, too many units using the same

frequencies, and the use of mobile data terminals (MDT).

Priority: High

Comments: Good fire fighter to fire fighter and fire fighter to command communications are

critical. Areas that need to be explored include new microphone technologies,

repeaters within buildings and building code requirements that address

communications.
34

Need: Improve area- wide communications capability.

Background: In some jurisdictions there are a large number of repeaters on the same tower

which result in interference. In some regions there are areas such as canyons in

which communication to the central dispatch is not possible.

Priority: High

Comments: Satellite or Department of Defense technology may be able to help with these

problems however, it may be too expensive to afford. 

Need: Communications systems which can be configured to work in other jurisdictions.

Background: Departments responding to neighborhood communities sometimes have difficulty

communicating with other dispatch centers or other incident commanders and fire

fighters.

Priority: Medium

Comments: Radio frequencies allocations are governed by Federal Communications

Commission (FCC) standards. There is competition with the police, municipal

departments and other wireless technologies for frequencies.

2.15 Dispatch

Need: Improved standardized set of criteria for dispatchers.

Background: Call takers are faced with a variety of challenges. They are faced with calls in

many languages and calls from people with disabilities. Further they are

expected to quickly make critical decisions sometimes with incomplete

information and give pre-arrival instructions. Many dispatch centers are

understaffed particularly for large or multiple incidents. Critical information is

not always shared with responding companies.

Priority: High/medium

Comments: Certification for dispatchers appears to be available at national level. Pre- arrival

instructions are not always clear. Every department appears to want their own

unique system. Liability concerns result in over-responding to minor incidents.
35

2.16 Incident Command

Need: Reinforcement training for command officers.

Background: Recruits undergo training and senior staff undergo training, but middle level

command officers often do not receive formal training for dealing with larger

incidents. Middle level training is commonly received through on-the-job

training or experience. Unified incident command not always implemented.

Priority: High

Comments: Training on a large scale is needed including reinforcement training for officers

and incident commanders. Budget constraints sometimes eliminate officer

positions and training.

Need: Utilize more sophisticated ways of delivering training to fire fighters and officers, including

the use of simulators and virtual reality.

Background: Fire fighters need to understand capability and limitations of fire fighting tactics.

Fewer fires result in less experience for new recruits. The military has a great

deal of technology but much of it is very expensive. The opportunities for fire

ground training are limited and simulation could help in training the next

generation of officers. There is a need for training and simulation that can take

place in the station as well as in central locations.

Priority: High

Comments: Simulators have been successfully used to train pilots and law enforcement

officers. The use of simulators is very limited in the fire service and there is

substantial opportunity for enhancement.

Need: Unified command understood but not always implemented.

Background: Although the unified incident command system is well developed, it is not always

implemented in part due to conflicting state laws. In some cases there is

confusion as to who is in charge.

Priority: Low

Comments: All agencies do not necessarily want to cooperate in the incident command

system. This can be due, in part, to untrained and inexperienced command

officers in agencies that are in charge. 
36

2.17 Record Keeping

Need: Improve national incident reporting system.

Background: All jurisdictions are not a part of the national incident reporting system (NFIRS).

Therefore, there is no way to compile data that includes all departments.

Accurate information could assist in justifying the allocation of resources to fire

departments. A method of quick and efficient data entry by fire officers remains

an issue.

Priority: High

Comments: There appears to be more financial support for police departments than fire

departments. Complete data reporting could be used to justify increased support

for fire departments. Fire departments need to market themselves better. There

is an expectation that technology could assist with data entry problems. In many

cases it is impractical to enter all data by hand. There is no accurate data

nationwide on the makeup of fire departments. Some states do conduct a fire

department census.
37

3.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The workshop committee consisted of Bob McCarthy and Bill Troup (U.S. Fire Administration) and

Doug Walton and Nora Jason (NIST). Nelson Bryner, Randy Lawson, Dan Madrzykowski and Doug

Walton (NIST) carried out the difficult task of taking the notes in preparing the summary. Betty

Thames (NIST) handled the travel arrangements for the panelists.

Special thanks go to the panel chairs, Kevin O’Connell and Dennis Rubin and their recorders Larry

Horn and Charles Dickinson as well as Rodney Hitzselder who chaired the final session.

Finally, the panel members are to be thanked for their hard work and patience.
38

4.0 FIRE SERVICE NEEDS WORKSHOP ATTENDEES

Fred G. Allinson, Chairman

National Volunteer Fire Council

19230 4th Avenue South

Seattle, WA 98148

tel: 206-824-6248

fax: 206-824-2645

Mr. Samuel Aubrey, Jr.

International Association of Black

Professional Fire Fighters

4014 Rosewin Circle

Houston, TX 77047

tel: 713-923-9304

fax: 713-738-4639

e-mail: ScrSamHM22@aol.com

Asst. Chief Hank Blackwell

Santa Fe County Fire Department

15 Fire Place

Santa Fe, NM 87505

tel: 505-424-2076

fax: 505-424-2073

e-mail: hblkwell@co.santa-fe.nm.us

Captain Ferris Boardman

York Beach Fire Department

P O Box 70

York Beach, ME 03910

tel: 207-363-1014

fax: 207-363-1049

Ms. Carrye Brown, Administrator

U.S. Fire Administration

16825 South Seton Avenue

Emmitsburg, MD 21727

tel: 301-447-1018

fax: 301-447-1270

e-mail: carrye.brown@fema.gov

Mr. Nelson Bryner

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Building 224, Room A345

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

tel: 301-975-6868

fax: 301-975-4647

e-mail: nelson.bryner@nist.gov

Asst. Chief Ronald Carter

Oakland Fire Department

150 Frank Ogawa Plaza

Suite 3354

Oakland, CA 94612

tel: 510-238-4084

fax: 510-238-2284

Mr. Mike Davis

National Association of State Fire Marshals

P O Box 149104

Austin, TX 78714-9104

tel: 512-305-7906

fax: 512-305-7910

Chief Charles Dickinson

324 Woodstock Road

Fayetteville, PA 17222

tel: 717-352-8244

Division Chief Raymond Durband

Sioux Falls Fire Rescue

2820 South Minnesota Avenue

Sioux Falls, SD 57105

tel: 605-367-7174

fax: 605-367-7861

e-mail: rdu@ideasign.com
39

Dr. David D. Evans

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Building 224, Room B250

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

tel: 301-975-6897

fax: 301-975-4052

e-mail: dave.evans@nist.gov

Mr. Mike Eversole

Congressional Fire Service Institute

900 Second St, NE, Suite 303

Washington, DC 20002

tel: 202-371-1277

fax: 202-682-3473

e-mail: cfsi@cfsi.org

Ms. Terese Floren, Executive Director

Women in the Fire Service

4414 Regent St., 2nd Floor

Madison, WI 53705

tel: 608-233-4768

fax: 608-233-4879

e-mail: tfloren@wfsi.org

Mr. Stephen N. Foley

National Fire Protection Association

Public Fire Protection Division

1 Batterymarch Park

Quincy, MA 02269

tel: 617-984-7468

fax: 617-984-7468

e-mail: sfoley@nfpa.org

Chief Peter J. Ganci

Fire Department of New York

9 Metro Centre

Brooklyn, NY 11201

tel: 718-999-2068

fax: 718-999-0034

Mr. Boone Gardiner

International Society of Fire Service

Instructors

83 Mill Hill Lane

Southport, CT 06490-1224

tel: 203-259-2201

fax: 203-259-7260

e-mail: DBG@usa.net

Asst. Chief Rodney Hitzselder

San Antonio Fire Department

115 Auditorium Circle

San Antonio, TX 78205

tel: 210-912-1102

fax: 210-207-8542

Lt. Larry Horn

Portland Fire and Rescue

Station One

55 SW Ash St.

Portland, OR 97204

tel: 503-823-3830

fax: 503-823-3710

Deputy Chief Theodore Jarboe

Montgomery County Fire & Rescue Services

101 Monroe Street

Rockville, MD 20850

tel: 240-777-2400

fax: 240-777-2415

Ms. Nora H. Jason

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Building 224, Room A252

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

tel: 301-975-6862

fax: 301-975-4052

e-mail: nora.jason@nist.gov
40

Mr. William Killen

Naval Facilities Engineering Command

1322 Patterson Ave., SE, Suite 1000

Washington, DC 20374-5065

tel: 202-685-9259

Mr. J. Randall Lawson

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Building 224, Room A345

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

tel: 301-975-6877

fax: 301-975-4647

e-mail: james.lawson@nist.gov

Asst. Chief Gary Lockhart

Los Angeles County Fire Department

1320 N. Eastern Avenue

Los Angeles, CA 90063

tel: 323-881-2337

fax: 323-881-2418

e-mail: glockhar@msn.com

Bat. Chief Emil Mack

City of Los Angeles Fire Department

2000 N. Main St., Room 1010

Los Angeles, CA 90012

tel: 213-485-6092

fax: 213-485-9884

Mr. Daniel Madrzykowski

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Building 224, Room A345

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

tel: 301-975-6677

fax: 301-975-4647

e-mail: daniel.madrzykowski@nist.gov

Mr. Ernest “Buddy” Mass, VP

IAFF 11th District

8719 Welles Edge

San Antonio, TX 78240

tel: 210-735-0545

fax: 210-696-3040

Mr. Robert McCarthy

US Fire Administration

16825 South Seton Avenue

Emmitsburg, MD 21727

tel: 301-447-1130

fax: 301-447-1093

e-mail: bob.mccarthy@fema.gov

Mr. Ron Morales, President

National Association of Hispanic

Firefighters

7 White Oak Drive

Clinton, CT 06413

tel: 203-576-8286

fax: 860-669-4534

e-mail: president.nahf@snet.net

Major Kevin O’Connell

Louisville Fire/Rescue

1135 West Jefferson Street

Louisville, KY 40203

tel: 502-574-2905

fax: 502-574-4262

Mr. George Oster, Executive Officer

Fire Service Institute

Iowa State University

Ames, Iowa 50011-3100

tel: 515-294-6817

fax: 800-722-7350
41

Division Chief Kirk Owen

Plano Fire Department

P O Box 860358

Plano, TX 75086-0358

tel: 972-941-7354

fax: 972-941-7291

Lt. Don Pelton

Harrisburg Bureau of Fire

Fire Chief’s Office

123 Walnut Street

Harrisburg, PA 17101

tel: 717-567-7687

fax: 717-255-6448

Chief Edward P. Plauger

Arlington County Fire Department

2100 Clarendon Blvd., Suite 400

Arlington, VA 22201

tel: 703-228-3362

fax: 703-228-7097

Captain Andy Pompe

Philadelphia Fire Department

Safety Office

5200 Pennypack Street

Philadelphia, PA 19136

tel: 215-685-8973

fax: 215-331-4097

Chief Joe T. Pryor

Miami-Dade Fire and Rescue

6000 South West 87th Ave.

Miami, FL 33171

tel: 305-598-8511

fax: 305-596-8891

Chief Dennis Rubin

Dothan Fire Department

281 East Burdeshaw St.

Dothan, AL 36303

tel: 334-793-0372

fax: 334-712-2586

e-mail: firechief@dothan.org

Chief John Sharry

Fire Department

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

7000 East Avenue

P O Box 808, L-388

Livermore, CA 94550

tel: 925-423-1800

fax: 925-422-8710

e-mail: sharry1@llnl.gov

Bat. Chief Terry Shields

Phoenix Fire Department

150 South 12th St.

Phoenix, AZ 85034-2301

tel: 602-262-7840

fax: 602-534-4084

Chief Phillip Stittleburg

La Farge Fire Department

Box 9

La Farge, WI 54639

tel: 608-625-2185

fax: 608-625-2225

Ms. Betty Thames

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Building 224, Room A345

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

tel: 301-975-6899

fax: 301-975-4647

e-mail: betty.thames@nist.gov
42

Mr. William Troup

US Fire Administration

16825 South Seton Avenue

Emmitsburg, MD 21727

tel: 301-447-1231

fax: 301-447-1093

e-mail: bill.troup@fema.gov

Mr. William “Doug” Walton

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Building 224, Room A345, MS8641

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

tel: 301-975-6872

fax: 301-975-4647

e-mail: dwalton@nist.gov
NIST-114 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

(REV. 6-93) NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY 

ADMAN 4.09

MANUSCRIPT REVIEW AND APPROVAL

(ERB USE ONLY)

ERB CONTROL NUMBER DIVISION

864

PUBLICATION REPORT NUMBER CATEGORY CODE

NISTIR 6538

INSTRUCTIONS: ATTACH ORIGINAL OF THIS FORM TO ONE (1) COPY OF MANUSCRIPT AND SEND

TO THE SECRETARY, APPROPRIATE EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD

PUBLICATION DATE NUMBER PRINTED PAGES

July 2000

TITLE AND SUBTITLE (CITE IN FULL)

Fire Service Needs Workshop Proceedings

San Antonio, Texas, October 13-15, 1999

CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER TYPE OF REPORT AND/OR PERIOD COVERED

AUTHOR(S) (LAST NAME, FIRST INITIAL, SECOND INITIAL) PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (CHECK (X) ONE BOX)

Walton, W.D., Bryner, N., Madrzykowski, D., Lawson, J.R., Jason, N.H.,

Editors

X NIST/GAITHERSBURG

 NIST/BOULDER

 JILA/BOULDER

LABORATORY AND DIVISION NAMES (FIRST NIST AUTHOR ONLY)

Building and Fire Research Laboratory, Fire Safety Engineering Division

SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (STREET, CITY, STATE, ZIP)

U.S. Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency

Emmitsburg, MD 21727

PROPOSED FOR NIST PUBLICATION

 JOURNAL OF RESEARCH (NIST JRES) MONOGRAPH (NIST MN) LETTER CIRCULAR

 J. PHYS. & CHEM. REF. DATA (JPCRD) NATL. STD. REF. DATA SERIES (NIST NSRDS) BUILDING SCIENCE SERIES

 HANDBOOK (NIST HB) FEDERAL INF. PROCESS. STDS. (NIST FIPS) PRODUCT STANDARDS

 SPECIAL PUBLICATION (NIST SP) LIST OF PUBLICATIONS (NIST LP) OTHER

 TECHNICAL NOTE (NIST TN) X NIST INTERAGENCY/INTERNAL REPORT (NISTIR)

PROPOSED FOR NON-NIST PUBLICATION (CITE FULLY) U.S. FOREIGN PUBLISHING MEDIUM

X PAPER CD-ROM

 DISKETTE (SPECIFY)

 OTHER (SPECIFY)

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

ABSTRACT (A 2000-CHARACTER OR LESS FACTUAL SUMMARY OF MOST SIGNIFICANT INFORMATION. IF DOCUMENT INCLUDES A SIGNIFICANT BIBLIOGRAPHY

OR LITERATURE SURVEY, CITE IT HERE. SPELL OUT ACRONYMS ON FIRST REFERENCE.) (CONTINUE ON SEPARATE PAGE, IF NECESSARY.)

As part of an ongoing effort to update and sharpen the National Fire Research Agenda, the U.S. Fire Administration in cooperation

with the Building and Fire Research Laboratory, at the National Institute of Standards and Technology held two workshops to

obtain input from the fire community. The first focused on the needs of the fire service and was held October 13-15, 1999, in San

Antonio, Texas. At that workshop, 32 members of the fire service representing national fire service organizations and a wide range

of fire departments in both size and location were asked to identify the needs of the fire service. Areas of emphasis included fire

fighting operations, fire fighter health and safety, large fire incidents, fire mitigation, communications and information technology.

The attendees worked in two panels and identified more than 100 needs and their relative priorities which the editors of this report

have recorded as presented by the panels. The second workshop was held October 20, 1999, in Emmitsburg, Maryland and

focused on the needs of the fire protection community beyond the fire service. The proceedings of that workshop are contained

in NISTIR 6539. 

KEY WORDS (MAXIMUM OF 9; 28 CHARACTERS AND SPACES EACH; SEPARATE WITH SEMICOLONS; ALPHABETIC ORDER; CAPITALIZE ONLY PROPER

fire departments, fire fighters, fire fighting, fire research, fire safety, fire service, technology transfer

AVAILABILITY NOTE TO AUTHOR(S): IF YOU DO NOT WISH THIS

X UNLIMITED FOR OFFICIAL DISTRIBUTION - DO NOT RELEASE TO NTIS MANUSCRIPT ANNOUNCED BEFORE PUBLICATION,

 ORDER FROM SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, U.S. GPO, WASHINGTON, DC 20402 PLEASE CHECK HERE.

 ORDER FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA 22161