A11103 nSMMD

NBSIR 78-1526

Annual Conference on Fire

Research

Clayton Huggett, Editor

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

December 1978

Final Report

J.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

# 78-1526

JATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Q6-

100

056

1978

C.2

NBSIR 78-1526

ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE

RESEARCH

Clayton Huggett, Editor

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

December 1978

Final Report

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary

Dr. Sidney Harman, Under Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director
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FOREWORD

The size and scope of this compilation for the Center for Fire Research’s

Second Annual Conference is unusual; the spirit which produced it is

unique

.

We at NBS are privileged to stand at the crossroads of fire research in

the United States. We were originally put there by Congress when we

were assigned responsibility .for a major extramural research program.

That program has at one time or another put us in partnership with most

of the nation’s premier fire laboratories, and it is a partnership from

which we have invariably profited. The aims of this conference are to

share among the participants the sense of community and synergy we have

experienced.

It is crucial that this goal be achieved. Fire research is challenging

and important. There are only enough resources to support the very best

efforts of which all of us in the research community are capable. The

more we can help one another the

August 16, 1978 Frederic B, Clarke, Director

Center for Fire Research

111
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Foreword iil

Abstract

Final Program 1

ABSTRACTS OF PROGRAMS

Center for Fire Research

Program for Information and Hazard Analysis 5 Program for Chemistry 8

Program for Physics and Dynamics 13

Program for Toxicology of Combustion Products IT

Product Flammahillty Program 20

Furnishings Flammability Program 22

Construction Materials Program 25

Fire Detection and Control Systems Program 31

Program for Design Concepts 36

Ad Hoc Working Group on Mathematical Fire Modeling U3

Arson Control Project 44

Large Scale Fire Research Facilities 45

Contracts and Grants

Brown University

Flame Propagation and Extinction for Solid Fuels 47

Brimswick Corporation

Experimental Studies on Pyrolytic Aerosols and

Fire Detectors 50

California Institute of Technology

Experimental Study of Environment and Heat Transfer

in a Room Fire 56

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

The Home Fire Project. 59

Pressure Modeling 59

Atmospheric Pressure Modeling 60

Study of Radiation from Flames and Smoke Layers 60

Radiation from Pool Fires 61

Burning of Pool Fires in Vitiated Air

iy

62
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd) Page

Georgia Institute of Technology

Effect of Ignition Sources and Fire Retardants

on Material Ignition 65

Georgia Institute of Technology

Investigation of the Properties of the Combustion

Products Generated by Building Fires

Determination of the Effects of Substrate Polymer

Structure on Smoke Characteristics 70

Determination of the Effect of Additives on Smoke

Characteristics 71

Cataloging of the Smoke Physical Properties Data 72

Chemical Analysis of Smoke Particiflates 72

Development of a Theoretical Smoke Formation Model. ... 73

Harvard University

The Home Fire Project 75

The Effect of External Radiation on Ignition and

Fire Spread 77

The Theory of Laminar Boundary Layer Burning with

Radiation 77

Extinguishment by Water 78

IIT Research Institute

Reliability Modeling of Residential Smoke Detectors ... 80

The Johns Hopkins University

Evaluation of Toxicity of Combustion Products 83

Experiment I; Effects of Thirty Minute Exposure to

Carbon Monoxide 84

Experiment 2: Effects of Environmental Temperature and

Carbon Monoxide Temperature Combinations 85

V
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd) Page

The Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory

Fire Problems Program 87

Fire Casualties Study 87

Combustion Research 91

The Johns Hopkins University

(Project Smoke) Fire Problems Research and

Synthesis - 1977-78 96

Loyola University of Chicago

An Assessment of Planning and Training for Fire Safety

in Health Care Facilities 100

Loyola University of Chicago

Behavioral Analysis of the Life Safety Code 105

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Fire Growth Experiments - Toward a Standard Room

Fire Test 106

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Fire Modeling 107

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Polymer Combustion and Flame Chemistry Ill

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Thermal Radiation of Luminous Flames and Smoke 115

National Fire Protection Association

Investigation and Analysis of Major Fires 118

The Pennsylvania State University

An Investigation of Fire Impingement on a Horizontal

Ceiling 122

Portland Cement Association

Fire Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams 127

Princeton University

An Experimental Investigation of Flame Spread Over

Condensed Combustibles: Gas Phase Interactions 129

Princeton University

Smoldering Combustion Studies 132

VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont’d) Page

Stanford Research Institute

The Effect of Fire Retardants on the Heat Release Rate

of Building Materials 136

Stanford Research Institute

Continuation of Decision Analysis Studies in Fire

Hazard Analysis 138

Stanford Research Institute

Cost Effectiveness Study of Regional Fire Fighting

Units 140

Textile Research Institute

Flairanahility and Comhustion Behavior of Textiles 142

Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.

Measurement of Air Flow Around Doors Under Standardized

Fire Test Conditions 144

University of Arizona

Evaluation of the Combustion Toxicology of Several

Polymeric Materials 147

University of California, Berkeley

Fire Growth and Testing Section in "Fire Safety in

Urban Housing" . 150

University of California, San Diego

Studies of Flame Extinction in Relationship to Fire

Suppression 153

University of Maryland

The Determination of Behavior Response Patterns in Fire

Situations, Project People II 157

University of Maryland

A Theoretical Rationalization of the Goal Oriented

Systems Approach to Building Fire Safety 159

University of Massachusetts

Flame Suppression by Chemical Inhibitors 160

University of Massachusetts

Waking Effectiveness of Household Smoke Alarm

Detector Devices 164

University of Montana

Ignition and Fire Spread of Celluloslc Materials 166

vil
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd) Page

University of North Carolina

The Psychology of Arson: Theoretical Analyses with

Suggestions for Application 171

University of Notre Dame

Fire and Smoke Spread 17

3

University of Pittsburgh

Toxicity of Plastic Combustion Products 178

University of Utah

Toxicological Evaluation of Material Combustion Products:

A. Biological investigation supporting development of

methods for evaluating combustion toxicology I8I

University of Utah

Toxicological Evaluation of Material Combustion Products:

B. Development of blood-HCN analysis techniques and

measurement of degradation product profiles in the

degradation of polymeric materials 186

University of Washington

Human Behavior in Fire Situations : A Study of PostFire Interviews 194

University of Wisconsin

A Review of Behavioral and Physical Characteristics

of the Developmentally Disabled 196

LIST OF REGISTRANTS 200

viii
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

September 27-29, 1978

Clayton Huggett, Editor

Abstract

This report contains extended abstracts of

grants and contracts for fire research sponsored

by the Center for Fire Research, National Bureau

of Standards and descriptions of the internal

programs of the Center for Fire Research.

Key words: Combustion products; fire hazards;

fire modeling; fire research; human behavior in

fires.

IX
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Final Program

ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON EIRE RESEARCH

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau, of Standards

September 27, 28, 29, 1978

Wednesday, September 27

8:15 a.m. REGISTRATION, Green Auditorium Lobby

9:15 OPENING SESSION, Green Auditorium

Dr. Clayton Huggett (CFR/NBS)

9:^5 FOCUS ON THE FIRE PROBLEM

Chairman - Philip S, Schaenman (NFPCA)

The U.S. Fire Problems and NFIRS - Mr. Schaenman

10:30 COFFEE BREAK, Employee Lounge

11:00 EOCUS ON THE FIRE PROBLEM (continued)

Update on Maryland Fire Casualty Data - Byron Halpin (JHU/APL)

Plastics Hazards in Residences - James Slater ( CFR/NBS

)

Project People - Dr. John L. Bryan (U. of MD)

Arson Problem - Dr. Robert Vreeland (U. of NC)

Major Fire Investigations - A. Elwood Willey (NFPA)

12:30 p.m. LUNCH, NBS Cafeteria

1:30 FIRE TESTS

Chairman - William Parker (CER/NBS)

Development of Fire Tests - Mr. Parker

Fire Groudh Experiments - Dr. R. Brady Williamson (U. of Calif

Standard Room Fire Tests (w/dlscussion panel) - Dr. Williamson - Chairman

3:15 COFFEE BREAK, Employee Lounge

1
Wednesday, September 27

3:^5 p.m. FIRE TESTS (continued)

Air Movement Past Fire Doors - R. Brehenig (UL)

High Temperature Creep in Concrete Structures - Melvin Ahrams (PCA)

Insulation Fire Hazards - D. Gross (CFR/NBS)

5:00 ADJOURN

6:00 BARBECUE, Smokey Glen Farm

Thursday, September 28

SIMULTANEOUS TECHNICAL SESSIONS

FIRE TESTS - Green Auditorium (continued from Wednesday)

TOXICOLOGY - Lecture Room A

9:00 a.m. TOXICOLOGY - Lecture Room A

Chairman - Dr. Merritt Birky (CFR/NBS)

Combustion Product Toxicity Data and Its Use - Prof. Yves Alarie (U. of Pittsburgh)

Combustion Model - An Analytical Point of View - Dr. B. Mason Hughes (U. of Utah)

10:15 COFFEE BREAK, Employee Lounge

10:i+5 TOXICOLOGY (continued)

Effects of Heat Stress on Toxicity - Prof. Zoltan Annau (JHU)

Chronic Health Effects of Exposure to Fire (Firefighters

Dr. Marshal Levine (JHU)

Treatment of Fire Victims - Dr. Roy Meyers (JHU)

12:00 Discussion

12:30 LUNCH, NBS Cafeteria

9:00 a.m. FIRE TESTS - Green Auditorium

Effect of Retardants on Heat Release Rate - Stanley Martin (SRi)

Rate of Heat Release (w/ discussion panel) - Mr. Martin - Chairman

2
Thursday, September 28

10:15 COFFEE BREAK, Employee Lounge

10:^5 a.m. PRODUCT FLAMMABILITY FIRE RESEARCH - James Winger (CFR/NBS)

FURNISHING FLAMMABILITY FIRE RESEARCH

Introduction - Sanford Davis ( CFR/NBS

)

Mattress Flammability, Small Scale Tests - Dr. Vytenis Babrauskas ( CFR/NBS

)

11:^5 HUilAN BEHAVIOR IN FIRES

Chairman - Dr. Bernard Levin ( CFR/NBS

)

Effect and Value of Training Nursing Home Staffs - Dr. Leonard Bickman (Loyola U. of Chicago)

12:30 p.m. LUNCH, NBS Cafeteria

1:30 HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN FIRES (continued)

Capabilities of Disabled in Fire Drills - Dr. John Fechter (CCPT)

Characteristics of Alarms - Dr. Harold Wakeley (lITRl)

Arousal from Sleep by Emergency Alarms - V. J. Pezoldt (CCPT)

Commentary - Dr. John Keating (U. of WA)

3:00 COFFEE BREAK, Employee Lounge

3:30 FIRE DETECTION AND CONTROL

Chairman - Edvard Budnick ( CFR/NBS

)

Automatic Sprinklers in Health Care Facilities - John O'Neill ( CFR/NBS

)

Reliability Analysis of Smoke Detectors -

H. C. Rickers (RAC, IITRl)

Development of An In Situ Smoke Detector Test Apparatus - Richard Bukovski ( CFR/NBS

)

5:15 ADJOURN

3
Friday, September 29

9:00

12:00

12:30

1:30

ANALYTICAL APPROACHES TO FIRE PROTECTION

Co-Chairmen - Benjamin Buchhinder (CFR/NBS)

Dr. John Watts (U of MD)

Introduction - Mr. Buchhinder

Using Decision Analysis to Set Fire Policy - Dr. Fred Offensend (SRi)

Decision Analysis Application to Update Furniture

Fire Safety - Susan G. Helzer ( CFR/NBS

)

The Goal Oriented Systems Approach - Dr. Watts

Fire Safety Evaluation System - Harold Nelson ( CFR/NBS

)

Session Summary - Dr. Watts

CONFERENCE HIGHLIGHTS - Tom Waterman (lITRl)

CLOSING OF CONFERENCE

p.m. LUNCH, NBS Cafeteria

FREE TIME

Informal Discussions

Visits to Laboratories

Visit to Fire Research Information Service

Tour of Fire Research Facility (Building 205)

Tour of Nike Site (Field Test Station)

Tour of NBS

TRANSPORTATION TO AIRPORTS

(Please sign up at the registration desk for tours and

transportation to airports.)

4
PROGRAM FOR INFORMATION AND HAZARD ANALYSIS

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Benjamin Buchbinder, Program Chief

Alan Gomberg, Fire Prevention Engineer

Susan Helzer, Mathematician

Nora Jason, Technical Information Specialist

Stefan Leigh, Operations Research Analyst

James Slater, Mathematician

The work carried on in this program is based on two major objectives.

The first is to characterize fire hazards by analytical means, both to

help establish research priorities and to guide the development of test

methods for codes and standards. The second objective is to expand and

maintain a technical fire literature collection, to provide technical

information services for the Center for Fire Research (CFR) and for the

fire community at large, and to provide access to fire loss data for CFR.

Methodology and Data Base Development

In the past our hazard characterization has been basically qualitative,

involving the identification and definition of patterns of fire accidents.

More and better data were required before meaningful quantitative analysis

could be done. The establishment of the National Fire Data System (NFDS)

at the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration (NFPCA) , and

the development of specialized data bases on fabric related fires and

plastic fires in our own program, provided us with sufficient data to

enable us to use quantitative methods based on operations research technology. The successful pilot decision analysis on upholstered furniture

fires spawned a new project area (see Decision Analysis below). Current

efforts will provide us with interactive access to NFDS. The quantity and

quality of data are continually improving, and new types of data are becoming available. Our future plans under this project include continued

application of current operations research techniques, with emphasis on integrating the different types of data from such sources as fire incident

reporting, fire growth modeling, large scale testing and economic studies.

5
Decision Analysis

Decisions on the choice between strategic alternatives for reducing fire

losses should be based on a systematic consideration of all benefits, risks

and costs. However, because of the complexity of safety problems and the

uncertainties inherent in the evaluation of strategies for reducing accidental losses, the choice among strategies is difficult. We have developed

analytical techniques for assessing the risks and avoided damages associated

with different fire safety alternatives, and the economic costs of these

alternatives. Decision analysis provides the analytical framework for the

combination of these loss and cost assessments in choosing the most cost

effective strategy for addressing a particular fire problem. The initial

decision analysis study of alternatives for the reduction of upholstered

furniture fire losses served to establish the utility of this approach for

fire hazard applications. Decision analysis fire safety studies are now

underway on mobile homes, transformer fluids, and residential fires.

Future work is under consideration on nuclear power plants, health care facilities and on aspects of statistical methodology related to the interpretation of decision analysis results.

Plastics Hazard Analysis

Because of the proliferation of plastic products in the market place, the

absence of detailed fire incident data for evaluating the flammability

hazards of these products, and the relative inadequacy of existing test

methods, a study was initiated to attempt to identify and characterize the

role of plastics in real fire Incidents. We collected case history reports

based on a detailed questionnaire form and performed laboratory testing of

samples retrieved at the fire scene. The study is restricted to accidental

residential fires in which an identifiable plastic product was significantly

Involved, and for which the sequence of events is partially reconstructible.

To evaluate the role of the products in the context of the actual fire,

information was collected on building environment and the people involved

as well as general information regarding extinguishment, fire growth, property damage, etc. Laboratory characterization of the materials includes

generic composition. Ignition temperature, melting point, density, and

smoke production. More than 135 data elements are coded and entered on a computer file for each fire incident; 175 cases have been collected.

Analysis of the data will add to our knowledge regarding the types of fire

exposure commonly encountered by different plastic products, typical re- sponses of these products in a fire and susceptability of these products

to ignition. In addition, we will gain insight into the potential for

fire spread and ultimate fire damage based on such factors as material

properties, location within a room, and human activities.

Fire Research Information Services (FRIS)

CFR has one of the world's foremost collections of fire research documents,

collected to serve the broad information needs of the Center and the fire

community . In addition to continued augmentation and maintenance of the

collection, FRIS provides a full range of technical information services

6
to the Center staff. These services include bibliographic searches, cur- rent awareness, inter-library loan and book purchases, and maintenance of

a periodical reference collection of 120 United States and foreign journals

on fire research and related fields. We are currently studying the feasibility of developing an automated storage and retrieval system for bibliographic references to our own document collection. The long range plan

is to link this system with other major fire related information systems,

such as those at NFPCA and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

.

Associated Contracts

"Continuation of Decision Analysis Studies in Fire Hazard Analysis"

Fred L. Offensend, SRI International

"Cost-Effectiveness Study of Regional Fire Fighting Units"

Stan Martin, SRI International

(Jointly funded by Maritime Administration, NFPCA, and CFR)

"Major Fire Investigations"

Elwood Willey, NFPA

(Jointly funded by NFPCA, NFPA, and CFR)

7
PROGRAM FOR CHEMISTRY

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Richard G. Gann, Chief

John W. Rowen, Physical Scientist

Gerald D. Mitchell, Research Chemist

Hermit C. Smyth, Research Chemist

¥. Gary Mallard, Research Chemist

Michael J. Manka, Chemist

William Earl, Postdoctoral Research Associate

Affiliated

John Hastie, Center for Materials Science

The objectives of the Chemistry Program are;

(1) to provide understanding of the chemical processes which are important in the development and control of unwanted fires; kinetics and

thermodynamics of combustion, fuel structure and additive effects on flammability, ignition, flame spread and structure, generation of

combustion products, and fire retardance and extinction;

(2) to transmit that knowledge to other fire research groups and

to the technical community at large for use in developing fire resistant

materials, standard test methods and building design codes.

Current Projects

Spontaneous Ignition

In many instances fires begin or propagate when materials are heated, smolder for a while, and then burst into flame or ignite some other substance. The Bureau of Mines has a similar problem with the

ignition of low-grade coals long before they reach their eventual

destination. Hence, studies on the self-heating of materials have a

8
dual potential to reduce both fire loss and energy waste. It is our intent to develop a scientifically based susceptibility index for

materials prone to spontaneous ignition and to demonstrate the validity

of this index as a basis for ranking these materials for fire hazard.

We are using an updated version of an adiabatic furnace pioneered

at MBS some 25 years ago, and several samples of ground coal have been

studied. The use of coal samples reflects the partial sponsorship of

the Bureau of Mines and the relative "cleanliness" of coal samples as compared to, for instance, polyurethanes. To date, we have studied the

effects of sample size, particle size, and moist\ire (absorbed and gaseous) on the tendency to self-heat and- the resulting temperature-time behavior.

The results show thermal runaway occurring at temperatures as low as 40°C. We are testing applicability of thermal explosion theory and,

through it, the derivation of a set of f\irnace operating conditions

relevant to the actual coal mining or storage conditions . Other coal

properties, such as heat content, elemental composition and combustion

products, are being determined concurrently to establish possible

correlations with autoignition hazard.

Polymer Thermostability and Fire Resistance

Several rigid plastics were subjected to a variety of test methods

to investigate possible correlations between measurement^ intended to be

indicative of fire behavior and thermal stability. The commercial

polymers include PMMA, a polyimidamide, two PVC's (with and without a fire retardant), a polycarbonate, two polyethylenterephthalates (also

with and without a fire retardant), and a research phthalo cyanine (with

and without a fire retardant). The measurements, now completed, are of

oxygen index, rate of weight loss (TGA) in air and nitrogen, rate of

generation of combustible gases in air and nitrogen, rate of heat

release (with and without piloted ignition), and isothermal weight loss.

Within the next few months, a factorial analysis will be performed and

any performance correlations noted. These will also be related to the

chemical structures of the materials.

Flammability of Dielectric Fluids

In a recent action, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

banned the use of polychlorinated biphenyls, thus elminating the existing

"non-flammable" insulating fluids for transformers and capacitors. We

are conducting a study to comprehensively delineate the fluid's properties

which determine its fire potential in these uses. The work includes

gathering data on past device failures, conducting tests to verify

failure mode identification, locating or devising procedures for approximately measuring pertinent fluid properties , determining the effect

of thermal and electrical aging on the properties, and constructing a probabilistic model (with the Program for Information and Hazard Analysis)

for quantifying fluid property interactions. To date, we have gathered

enough information to isolate four transformer failure scenarios involving

9
significant fire hazard potential, prepared a siommary of existing test

methods and participated in the development of an advanced test scheme,

constructed the equipment for the aging studies, and let contracts for

assistance with the model construction and actual scale fire testing.

During the winter and autumn of 1978, a final report will he prepared,

and further work will he continued hy the involved industries.

Rate of Heat Release (RHR)

Fortunately, when a component of a room catches fire, it generally

does not hurn instantaneously to completion. Rather, a gradual involvement occurs, often with far less heat than AH^ being released over

an extended time interval. Coordinating with the Construction Materials

Program, we are involved with two aspects of this phenomena. The first,

recently completed, was an assesment of the utility of oxygen depletion

hy combustion as a quantitative measure of heat release. The study

indicates that the technique is applicable to a wide range of materials

and yields both instantaneous values for the rate of total (i.e, con- vective plus radiative) heat release and also an integrated heat release

in agreement with theoretical values (for totally consumed fuels). The

results are being prepared for publication.

A second project will combine RHR and chemical measurements to

elucidate the mechanisms of polymer degradation during flaming combustion.

The intent is to allow some degree of predictability for the contribution

of components to room fires. This is in the development state, with the

criteria for the calorimeter still being considered. Variables likely

to be studied, in addition to the structure of the fuel, are irradiance

level, air flow, and sample orientation. Analysis of both the gaseous

combustion products and polymer residue is planned.

NMR Studies of Combustion of Solids

Jointly with the Center for Materials Science, we are developing a capability in magic angle spinning, high resolution nuclear magnetic

resonance of solids. Our intent is to follow the degradation of polymers

and phosphorus-containing fire retardants using the 13c and 31p nuclides,

respectively. At present, a modular apparatus for the former is operational and the first spectra of trans and gauche polyethylene, a hydrocarbon sludge, and cellulose have been obtained. The electronics for

the 31p studies have been constructed also, with the spinner due soon. The initial research plans Involve burning a cellulosic fuel, with and

without retardant, and analyzing samples from at and about the combustion

zone for changes in fuel structure and retardant valence

.

Sulfirr Smoldering Retardance Mechanisms

According to current statistics, at lease one fourth of all fire

deaths result from scenarios which include a non-flaming step. As a result, test methods are being developed to evaluate the smoldering

performance of materials, and the need for smoldering inhibitors has

10
been accentuated. Experiments in the Program for Physics and Dynamics

have shown that elemental sulfur is an effective smoldering inhibitor,

and we are now studying the modes in which it works. Experiments to

date have shown that sulfur in cotton batting eases ignitability under

radiant flux and decreases the smoldering propagation rate and the

smoldering front temperature. In addition, we are looking for sulfiircontaining products, such as SO2, H2S , S2 in the vapor phase or bound

sulfur in the cotton residue. The concept of activity as a heat sink is

also being pursued by comparison with other additives of comparable heat

capacity. A report on likely retardance mechanims is in preparation and

should lead to ways to maximize the desirable effects and to select

similarly-acting alternative additives.

Polymer Volatilization

A powerful method for studying the degradation of polymer-inhibitor

systems and the resulting flames is by molecular beam sampling directly

into a quadrupole mass spectrometer. Studies have been carried out on retardant systems based on phosphorus, iron, molybdenum, antimony and

halogen-containing species. Numerous radicals have been identified,

many previously unobserved. Coordinated H-atom optical studies have

shown that in different temperature regimes, phosphorus additives can either promote or reduce H atom formation. OH absorption studies are being pursued with the intent of comparing fuel-rich systems where Hatom processes are expected to dominate with fuel-lean systems where OH

reactions are prevalent. Concurrently, the OH absorption, vibration and

rotational Raman spectra of N2 and O2J and Na D-line reversal techniques

are being compared as to their accuracy and applicability in measuring

flame temperatures. The latter two produced temperature profiles for

which are in good agreement. However, the Raman-derived

profiles are more valuable, as they extend along the whole flame,

including the reaction zone region, while the Na D-line method is limited

to the post-flame region.

In addition, a new, high pressure sampling mass spectrometer apparatus

is under construction. This will enable sampling of diffusion flames,

flames at pressures up to 10 atm, and flames containing pari:iculates

.

Opto-Galvanic Spectroscopy of Flames

A joint effort within NBS has devised this laser-excitation technique in which atomic and molecular absorptions are detected by changes

in flame conductivity rather than by changes in light intensity. The

current objective is to explore its application to flame and combustion

product analyses. To date, we have detected sodium atoms at the sub ppb

level, as well as a mrniber of other atomic species. 'We have also recently

observed absorptions from molecular species of LaO , YO, ScO, SrOH and

BaCl, in the process recording previously unreported transitions and

some of the best metal oxide spectra ever reported. We now understand

the opto-galvanic mechanism reasonably well and flame species temperatirre measurements are becoming feasible. A major application of this

11
technique, currently in the infant state, is to examine the contribution

of flame ionic processes to soot formation.

Associated Grants and Contracts

"Polymer Combustion and Flame Chemistry"

Robert F. Sawyer and Nancy J. Brown, University of California,

Berkeley

"Ignition and Fire Spread of Cellulosic Materials"

Fred Shafizadeh, University of Montana

"Flame Suppression by Chemical Inhibitors"

James Chien and Marcel Vanpee, University of Massachusetts

"Polymer Flammability and Flame Inhibition"

Robert Fristrom and Lawrence Hunter, Johns Hopkins University

Applied Physics Lab

"Kinetics Investigation of Flame Initiation and Propagation Reactions"

A. Ravishankara and Frank Tully, Georgia Institute of Technology

"Decision Analysis Studies; Transformer Fire Hazard Analysis"

Fred Offensend, SRI International

"NEMA Transformer PCB Replacement Study"

John Motherway, NEMA

12
PROGRAM FOR PHYSICS MB DYNAMICS

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

John A. Rockett , Chief

Howard R. Baum, Research Physicist

Margaret Harkleroad, Physicist

Takashi Kashiwagi , Material Engineer

Thomas G. K. Lee, Fire Protection Engineer

Bernard J. McCaffrey, Mechanical Engineer

Robert J. McCarter, Chemical Engineer

George W. Mulholland, Research Chemist

James G. Quintiere, Mechanical Engineer

The Program objectives are:

1. Growth and Spread of Room Fires: To predict the growth and spread

of fire in a room or a set of simply interconnected rooms.

2. Mathematical Models: Develop advanced mathematical models for

various flow phenomena in fires

.

3. Ignition: To identify and quantify the phenomenon related to

flaming ignition of solid and liquid fuels.

U. Smoke Characterization: To study smoke formation and to develop

techniques for producing well characterized and reproducible

aerosols

.

5. Smoldering: To identify and quantify the phenomenon related to

smoldering combustion of (porous) solid fuels and to devise means

of quantifying the smolder tendency of materials.

Growth and Spread of Fire

The objective of this program is to improve predictions of fire

behavior in a room. A steady state model which relates the potential

for flashover in a room to its combustible contents and thermal and

ventilation characteristics has been developed and compared to small

13
scale experimental data. Predictions are qualitatively good; quantitative predictions range from fair to quite good. Data obtained for wood

and high density polyurethane foam cribs will be compared with the model

after inclusions, now in progress, of the effect of radiation from the

crib to its surroundings, of flow entrainment by the crib, and of the

effect of the hot vitiated layer sinking below the top of the crib.

Transient terms will be added to the model using a simple but accurate

heat flow model.

Experimental work begun by McCaffrey and Cox at the Fire Research

Station, Borehamwood, England, on the near field entrainment of a diffusion flame will be continued. Results to date suggest significant

differences between the measiored plume quantities and predictions based

on current (far field) models.

Full scale experiments just getting underway will provide more

detail for model evaluation especially to check the overall flow prediction, secondary flows around the door (or window) and plume near

field effects.

Mathematical Models

The objective of this program is to improve the capability and

accuracy of fire models through the application of the. most efficient

mathematical techniques.

Three relatively separate activities have been pursued.

1. In most fire situations the Reynolds (or Grashof) number is

large. This suggests that, as is true in other areas of high

Reynolds number fluid flow analysis, an inviscid flow approximation should prove useful. Since, for strongly buoyant

flows, the equations are quite non-linear, numerical methods

are called for. A careful examination of several numerical

schemes has been pursued with numerous cross comparisons with

analytic solution of test problems to determine the accuracy

and stability of the techniques as applied to this set of

equations. When a satisfactory solution algorithm has been

developed, the ability of the inviscid analysis to represent

practical fire problems will be studied.

2. Containership operations allow below deck storage only of

containers carrying no hazardous cargo. However, scheduling

economics are strongly affected by the definition of hazardous. It has been proposed to the International Maritime

Consulting Organization (IMCO) that the present limitations on below deck storage could be relaxed if forced hold ventilation

were provided. To examine this, a procedure for calculating

the in-hold flows and combustible vapor concentrations for

various ventilation schemes and accident scenarios is being

developed.

ll+
3. Jointly with the smoke characterization program, aerosol

calculations have been developed.

Ignition

The purpose of this program is to identify and document the

important phenomenon related to ignition. Work to date has concentrated

on radiation assisted ignition - to flaming combustion - of solid and

liquid fuels. Additional data on energy absorption by evolved gases in

the convective pl\ame above the ignition target has been obtained. The

simplying concept of a material dependent characteristic surface

temperature for ignition has been found to be satisfactory for PMMA

(about ii00 °C) but quite poor for red oak (variable from about UOO to

600 °C). Future work will concentrate on other important parameters

such as surface orientation, size, pilot type and location.

Smoke Characterization

The objective of this program is to improve the accuracy and

capability of smoke characterizing instruments and apply this to

improving fire detection and fire analysis.

Techniques developed for generation of controlled, reproducible

aerosols of known size distribution have been applied to smoke detector

standardization and testing. A prototype portable tester suitable for

evaluation of installed smoke detectors has been built and is being

field tested. Aerosol generators have been designed for several other

special applications related to environmental control.

An analytical model of smoke aging in the buoyant plume above a fire that has been developed. This will form a part of a larger study

of detector siting and sensitivity now in progress.

Future work will focus more strongly on the mechanisms of smoke

formation and the role of aerosol and particulates in flame radiation.

Smoldering

The objective of this program is to identify and quantify the

phenomena related to smoldering combustion of (porous) solid fuels and

to devise means of quantifying the smolder tendency of materials. Much

of the recent effort has been directed at applied problems.

During the past year the emphasis of this program has shifted from

upholstery materials to blown celliilose insulation. It was demonstrated

that some flame retarded insulation woiold smolder readily and, in the

presence of a slight draft, could ignite the timbers of a residential

attic. A smoldering test for insulation was developed. It was found

that the amount of inhibitor needed to pass the proposed smoldering and

flaming tests was quite sensitive to the particular cellulose fiber and

niethod of blending the inhibitor with the fiber. This process vari15
ability suggests the need for an inexpensive quality control test.

Current work is directed at this.

Associated Grants & Contracts

1. "An Investigation of Fire Impingement on a Horizontal Ceiling,"

G. M. Faeth, Pennsylvania State University.

2. "Fire and Smoke Spread," K. T. Yang, Notre Dame University.

3. "Thermal Radiation of Luminous Flames and Smoke," C. Tien,

University of California/Berkeley.

h. "Investigation of Properties of the Combustion Products Generated

by Building Fires," B. T. Zinn, Georgia Institute of Technology.

5. "A Proposal to Conduct Experimental Studies on Pyrolysis Aerosols

and Fire Detectors," R. Chuan , Brunswick Corporation.

6. "An Experimental Investigation of Flame Spread Over Condensed

Combustibles: Gas Phase Interactions," F. Dryer, R. Santoro,

Princeton University.

7. "Fire Modeling," P. Pagni , University of California/Berkeley.

8. "Experimental Study of Environmental and Heat Transfer in a Room

Fire," E. E. Zukoski, California Institute of Technology.

9. "Studies of Flame Extinction in Relationship to Fire Suppression,"

F. J. Williams, University of California/San Diego.

10. "The Home Fire Project", H. ¥. Emmons, Harvard University, R.

Friedman, Factory Mutual Research Corporation.

11. "Smoldering Combustion Studies," I. Glassman, Princeton University.

12. "Flame Propagation and Extinction for Solid Fuels," M. Sibulkin,

Brown University.

l6
PROGRAM FOR TOXICOLOGY OF COMBUSTION PRODUCTS

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Staff

Merritt Birky, Chief

Maya Paabo, Research Chemist

Barbara Levin, Research Biologist

James Brown, Research Chemist

Susan Womble, Chemist

Dolores Malek, Guest Worker/JHU

Alan Stolte, Student Trainee

The goal of the Program for Toxicology of Combustion Products is to

reduce the human loss which results from the inhalation of toxic

combustion products of fires. In support of this goal, the program

is divided into 4 major activities:

1 . the development of a test method for the

identification of materials that produce

"unusually'' toxic combustion products,

2 . identification of specific toxic species

in a fire environment,

3. identification of materials that contribute

to human losses and

4. identification of toxic degradation products

of polyvinyl chloride.

Test Method Development

A test method for the identification of materials that produce

unusually toxic combustion products has been drafted. The proposed

test procedure Involves determining the LC 5 Q (concentration of products

that lead to 50% of animal population being killed) and the EC5Q. The

EC 5 Q concentration is based on 50% of the animals losing the avoidance

response as determined by the hind-leg flexure paradigm.

IT
The test procedure requires the determination of COHb at the time of

incapacitation on 2 of the 6 rats that are exposed during each test.

Atmospheric carbon monoxide, oxygen, carbon dioxide and temperature

measurements are also required.

After the test procedure was drafted, a group of experts representing

various disciplines from industry, academia and government agencies

was called together to review and critique the method. This

committee has met 5 times and made a number of changes in the

procedure. The committee is presently Involved in developing an interlaboratory evaluation of the test method.

The purpose of exposing the development of this test method for comment

prior to experimental verification was to provide the opportunity for

a broader involvement of those interested in toxicity test method

development. A second reason was to get the involvement of more

experts into this area of fire problems.

Selected Toxicant Analysis

In the NBS toxicity laboratory, certain other toxicants are also

measured in the test procedure. For example, environmental levels

of HCN and HCl are measured when those materials that produce these

toxicants are studied. A rapid gas chromatographic method that

utilizes a detector highly specific for N-compounds is used for

environmental measurement of HCN. The ion-selective electrode

technique is used for monitoring HCl.

When environmental levels of HCN are greater than about 50 ppm,

blood cyanide is also determined. The need for this measurement

was based on the human fatality study that indicated elevated

blood cyanide levels in a significant percentage of the human

fire victims. Research is still in progress on a new blood HCN

measurement technique to establish its accuracy, reliability and

utility.

Material Identification

Analysis of materials involved in fatal fires is being carried out

on a regular basis. The major thrust of this activity is the generic

classification of these materials by infrared spectroscopy. However,

when warranted, x-ray fluorescence can also be used to identify the

presence of elements commonly found in fire retardant chemicals in

these polymeric systems.

We have developed extensive experience in the identification of

polymeric materials and offer this service to a variety of interested

parties

.

18
Poly (vinylchloride) Study

Toxicity studies on PVC decomposition indicated that hydrogen chloride

did not explain the entire toxicity problem. In addition, various

reports implicated phosgene as a possible toxicant during the thermal

degradation of PVC. As a result of these factors, a study was undertaken to determine if phosgene is produced during the thermal

degradation of PVC.

Three types of experiments were planned:

1. thermally degrading PVC in a small furnace

in a chamber,

2. electrical over-loading of wire with PVC

insulation in a chamber and

3. electrical arcing between wires coated with

PVC.

The first 2 experiments have been performed. Phosgene has been

identified in both experiments. Analysis of this data is in progress

so as to assess its toxicological significance. The experiment

involving an electrical arc has not been completed.

Associated Grants

"Fire Casualty Studies"

Walter Berl, Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory

"Toxicity of Plastic Combustion Products"

Yves Alarle, University of Pittsburgh

"Evaluation of Toxicity of Combustion Products"

Zoltan Annau, Johns Hopkins University

"Toxicological Evaluation of Material Combustion Products"

G. Hartzell, W. Galster, M. Hughes, University of Utah

"Evaluation of the Combustion Toxicology of Several Polymeric Materials"

J. Wesley Clayton, University of Arizona

19
PRODUCT FLAMMABILITY PROGRAM

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Staff

James H. Winger, Chief

Emil Braun, Physicist

John Krasny, Textile Technologist

Joseph Loftus , Research Chemist

Richard Peacock, Chemical Engineer

Lee Smith, Physicist

Bill Hibbard, Research Associate

Rita Perkins, Research Associate

The objective of the Program is to develop and apply technology to reduce

fire losses associated with the use of products by working through regulatory agencies and vol^untary standards and codes

.

Mine Fire Safety

The objective is to develop effective test methods, standards, and operating procedures to reduce fire losses in underground coal mines. The

accident data have been reviewed and analyzed and fire scenarios developed for several products and systems. The existing fire tests for

hydraulic fluids and conveyor belts have been reviewed, and appropriate

tests are under development. Review of fire tests for electrical cables

has started. Future items to be reviewed include brattice cloth, explosion containment, hoses, intrinsic safety, etc. A recommended procedure

and supporting docimientation will be prepared for each product area and

submitted to the mine Safety and Health Administration.

Fuelwood Fire Safety

The objective is to develop methods and procedures to assume adequate

fire safety when wood is used as a fuel in residences and small industries. The literature, model codes, and tests for the fire safety of

wood biurning appliances have been reviewed, and a report is in preparation. An experimental program will be planned and conducted based on the review. Recommended code changes and test procedirres will be

provided to the Department of Energy and the model codes organizations.

20
Textiles

The objective is to reduce fire losses due to the ignition and burning

of textile products. A standard for cigarette ignition of upholstered

furniture has been recommended to the Consimier Product Safety Commission

(CPSC). Technical support is being provided to the CPSC staff as documentation is prepared to support a decision by the CPSC Commissioners.

A new standard for the flammability of general apparel has been recom- mended to the Consumer Product Safety Commission. Technical support is

being provided to the CPSC staff.

A standard for the flammability of flight crew uniforms has been recommended to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Technical support

is being provided to the FAA as they prepare a proposed rule.

The capabilities for apparel fabrics to provide some protection from an existing fire is Tinder investigation. Various test concepts and procedures are under evaluation as well as the performance of various

fabrics in these procedures.

The effect of small quantities of gasoline on the flammability of different apparel fabrics is under investigation. The amount of wetting,

evaporation, and ultimately, the ignition characteristics, are being

measured.

Associated Grant

"Flammability and Combustion Behavior of Textiles"

B. Miller, Textile Research Institute

21
FUENISHINGS FLAMMABILITY PROGRAM

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Sanford Davis, Chief

Vytenis Bahrauskas , Fire Protection Engineer

David D. Evans, Mechanical Engineer

The primary goals of the Furnishings Flammability Program are to assess

the hazards of furnishings and building contents involved in fires and

to provide the methodology for predicting these hazards based on smallscale laboratory tests and analytical models. A number of projects are

in progress relating to interior furnishing products and their impact on the environment during a fire. As a consequence of the floor covering

work over the past years, a similar approach has been evaluated for

attic floor insulation, primarily used for retrofit applications. The

people movers project relates to past transportation vehicle programs

and their kinship to the room fire problems

.

1. Institutional Mattress Fire Hazard Test Development

Last year a series of full-scale room burn results were reported

for institutional mattresses. These data have served as a basis for

developing bench-scale test procedures. The goal for this project is to

develop a performance standard based on laboratory test procedures that

will provide specifiers the assurance that mattresses exposed to flaming

ignition sources will not create intolerable conditions. Bench scale

tests being considered include rate of heat release, smoke development,

calorific value, flame spread, and ease of ignition.

2. Burn Room Sensitivity Study

Analysis of room burn test data and subsequent design use are often

hampered by the lack of closed- form, approximate expressions for the

effects of different variables. This problem is especially evident in

that time-to-flashover , which is a most important hazard Indicator,

currently cannot be estimated. A set of approximate functional relationships are needed that would enable time-to-flashover and other fire

variables to be predicted, knowing fuel, room, and geometric conditions.

22
To this end, a series of test hiirns and numerical simulations -will be

conducted using a simulated pool fire; a pool fire represents the

simplest quantifiable fuel arrangement. The experimental facility for

this project has been prepared and the experimental work is under way.

3. Parsons Table Fire Hazard Evaluation

The data from a series of eighteen room fires , each involving a single plastic Parsons table as the only combustible item of furniture,

were studied in an effort to assess the hazards of these products and to

find correlations between the results from small laboratory and large

room fire tests for the different table materials tested. Very good

predictions of the total amount of smoke produced by the burning tables were made using smoke chamber measurements of the mass optical density

(mod) for the table materials. A report on the analysis will be available soon.

U. Television Receivers

A study to characterize ignition sources within a television

receiver has been initiated. A detailed study of the circuitry of four

television receivers has been made to select specific failures that

could produce overheating of components and possible ignition of combustibles within the receivers. Auxiliary measurements to characterize the

ignition source burner specified in the Underwriters' Laboratory (UL)

li+lO standard for television receivers and video products have been

performed. The results of this study will help to assess the adequacy

of the voluntary standard and determine the need for a mandatory

standard.

5 . Automated Fixed Guideway Vehicles

The fire safety aspects of mass transportation vehicles used in

fixed guideway systems had not been vigorously studied. The purpose of

this project is to explore and formulate the fire safety guidelines to

be required for automated vehicles used for the movement of people in

congested urban areas. The results of this effort are needed to set

reasonable requirements on the systems to be deployed in several cities

under the Urban Mass Transportation Administration's "Downtown People

Mover" (DPM) program. By reviewing existing systems similar to those

that are expected to be used in the DPM program, scenarios have been

formulated in order to establish the minimum levels of fire safety of

the vehicles for several types, of DPM systems. In addition to the

materials and methods of construction, the interior finish materials,

the means of fire detection and suppression, size of vehicles, accessibility, and operational environment are being considered for preparing

these fire safety guidelines.

6. Cellulosic Loose Fill Insulation

An interlaboratory program has been conducted to evaluate the

23
reproducibility of the attic floor radiant panel test and the smoldering

combustion test which have been required in Federal Standard HH-I-515D

for cellulosic insulation. Six independent commercial laboratories and

five government laboratories have participated in the evaluation of

seven cellulosic thermal insulation materials. This project builds on the information developed in the Construction Materials Program and will

provide the necessary back-up information for a mandatory standard

recently enacted by Congress for this type of product.

2h
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS PROGRAM

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

G ENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

W. J. Parker, Chief

B. T. Lee, Fire Protection Engineer

L. A. Issen, General Engineer

J. B. Fang, Ghemical Engineer

W. D. Walton, Fire Protection Engineer

D. P. Klein, Fire Protection Engineer

J. R. Lawson, General Engineer

D. L. Chamberlain, Research Associate

J. P. Tordella, Research Associate

T. C. Creighton, Research Associate

T. Tixador, Guest Worker

The overall goal of this Program is to improve the probability of preventing the growth and spread of a fire and its combustion products by

developing fire test methods and acceptance criteria for construction

design and materials.

Fire Test Standards

The objective is to develop laboratory fire test methods for evaluating

the potential fire hazards of construction materials. The fire properties of concern are ignitability , heat release rate, flame spread, and

smoke. The approach is to participate actively in the American Society

for Testing and Materials, National Fire Protection Association,

International Standards Organization, Conseil International Du Batiment,

and government-wide committees, to develop appropriate fire test methods

and standards, to perform testing, analysis and round robin coordination

of such tests, to make recommendations for performance standards and test

criteria, and to relate building fire standards to actual building fire

performance

.

A new heat release rate calorimeter has been constructed for research

studies on heat release rate. This instrument is capable of measuring

the simultaneous heat and mass loss rates of vertical specimens 12 x 12

inches and horizontal specimens 6 x 12 inches at radiant fluxes up to

25
8 watts per square centimeter. A new flame spread test is being developed for studying lateral flame spread on a vertical surface as a function of the material's surface temperature and of the velocity, temperature and oxygen content of the air flowing across the material surface.

A report has been completed on an ease of ignition test by flame impingement. This will be submitted as a standard test for ignitability of

interior finish materials. A report has been published on an investigation of the fire environment in the ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test (NBS Technical

Note 945, August 1977).

Fire Spread and Growth

The objective is to evaluate the potential for fire spread and growth in

various occupancies in terms of the materials of construction, the com- bustible contents, the building design and the probable Ignition sources. The approach consists of (a) developing analytical models of fire growth

based on heat and mass balance considerations which take into account

the spread of flame over the combustible interior finish materials and

their heat release rates, (b) running full-scale fire tests for validation of these models, and (c) conducting reduced scale fire tests, which

permit verification of the model for many more combinations of parameters

at considerable savings in time and money.

The work includes a cooperative effort between CFR and the National

Research Council of Canada on the E-84 Tunnel Test. In order to establish the most realistic method of running and reporting on the tests of

cellular plastics, a set of materials with a large range of flame spread

was tested in three different configurations in the tunnel, in full-scale

and reduced-scale rooms and corners, and in various laboratory fire tests.

Data analysis is continuing and a report will be prepared.

Structural Fire Endurance

The objective is to predict the fire endurance of structural building

components under typical fire exposure conditions using thermal and

structural analysis. The predictions will be verified with full-scale

tests. The basic analytical approach is to combine thermal analysis and

structural analysis programs which Include elasto-plastic material properties, creep in concrete and steel, and local failures. Improved basic

data on concrete creep at elevated temperatures is being obtained, as well as experimental data on thermal restraint due to expansion of fireexposed concrete floors and roofs.

Fire Endurance of Floor Constructions

The objective is to develop a test procedure for evaluating the structural

fire resistance of floor assemblies in residences and to recommend rational

performance criteria for protected and unprotected load-bearing components.

The approach is to conduct full-scale fire tests in a simulated basement

recreation room using modern furniture with a typical fire load for that

type of room. A series of 16 tests with varying room size. Interior finish, and ventilation conditions has been completed. The fire was started

26
with a newspaper placed on a couch with polyurethane cushions. The temperatures, heat fluxes and pressures recorded during those tests will form

the basis of the new test procedure. A standard set of conditions has

been selected and a series of room fire tests has begun on seven different

floor constructions including cases with exposed floor joists. Finally,

the time-temperature curve and the pressures will be duplicated in a gasfired endurance furnace using the same types of floor constructions. An

analytical prediction capability for fire growth is being developed along

with the experimental testing.

Fire Safety in Mobile Homes

The objective is to document the effect of interior finish materials on fire growth and spread and on the attainment of untenable conditions in

mobile homes. A rational basis for regulating these materials will be

developed. The approach is to conduct full-scale fire tests on singlewide mobile homes using upholstered chairs and 14 lb. wood cribs as ignition sources in various areas of the mobile home. The chair is a realistic source of ignition which will not lead to full involvement of

the mobile home in the absence of combustible interior finish. The wood

crib provides a relatively reproducible ignition source of smaller size

for comparison of different interior finish materials. Temperatures,

heat fluxes, smoke densities, and gas concentrations are monitored

throughout the mobile home. The interior finish materials are characterized by their E-84 tunnel rating, heat release rate, time to ignition

in the ease of Ignition test, and the smoke density in the NBS Smoke

Density Chamber.

Reports on testing conducted in the corridor and kitchen areas have already been published. In addition, reports on testing conducted in the

living room and bedroom areas, a report on ignition source characterization, and a summary report containing recommendations based on all of the

testing conducted for the project, are in preparation. During the next

stage of the work an attempt will be made to duplicate the essential

features of the full-scale test results using reduced scale modeling.

This will then be followed by an attempt to deduce the results by ana- lytical prediction techniques.

Shipboard Fire Research

The objective of this project is to evaluate the potential fire hazard of

ship hull insulations and to improve the application of laboratory fire

tests for screening compartment lining materials. The approach is to

subject the variety of ship hull insulations, some of which are protected

with fire resistant materials, to laboratory fire tests on ignltablllty

,

flame spread, rate of heat release, and potential heat.

The performance of these insulations are then examined in quarter and

full-scale compartment fires. By comparing the time to flashover or maximum temperature in the full size compartment with the results of the

laboratory fire test methods, improved acceptance criteria for materials

27
can be derived. By comparing the performance of the material between the

full and reduced-scale fire tests, the usefulness of the quarter-scale

model as a screening tool can be evaluated. At the same time analytical

and experimental studies are used to improve the ability of the quarter

scale model to predict full-scale fire behavior.

Evaluation of Fire Loads, in Residences

The objective is to provide fire and live-load data for single-family

dwellings and mobile homes in order to provide a basis for establishing

standard fire exposures for structural fire endurance tests. The approach

involved a survey of fire loads in residences using inventorying techniques. A pilot survey of 359 dwellings (61 attached, 200 detached, 98

mobile homes) was made in the Washington metropolitan area. The assembled

data will provide the fire load input to analytical models for fire growth

and severity which will generate fire exposure curves for residences and

mobile homes. The work has been completed.

Fire Tests of Marine Construction

The objective is to furnish technical data on a flame spread test method

under consideration as an international standard on marine construction

and to make recommendations for improvements in the test method and its

application. Studies are being made of (a) the method of securing and

positioning specimens, (b) the incident heat flux distribution, (c) a suitable pilot burner for Igniting the sample, and (d) the effect of air

cross flow on test variability. Samples of several materials are being

tested and the results are being analyzed to evaluate the performance

under various modifications of the existing method. The specimen can be

run in either a floor, wall or ceiling orientation. Materials run in

the room fire tests will also be evaluated with this test method in order

to establish its validity.

Fire Criteria for Solar Heating Fluid

The objective is to provide a technical basis for specifying the flammability standards for the heat transfer fluids used in solar heating

systems. The approach was to perform fire tests of representative com- bustible heat transfer fluids in simulated accident scenarios involving

floor spills and flowing leaks in a room and to conduct fire tests of

spray leaks and of insulation soaked with these fluids. The fluid temperatures at which the fluids begin to flash when they are exposed to a pilot flame, the rates of surface flame spread, and the times to reach

complete room fire involvement were compared with the flash points of the

fluids, as measured with the Pensky-Martens closed cup test. By performing the above analysis, the suitability of using flash point temperature

as an indicator of fire risk was established.

28
Fire Hazards of Insulation in Resid^entlal Occupancies

The objectives of this project are: 1) to Identify and determine the

magnitude of the various fire risks associated with the use of particular

types of insulation, 2) to recommend, and develop where necessary, the

laboratory fire tests needed to characterize insulation materials with

respect to these risks and to control their use for insulation retrofit,

3) to provide the necessary data on the fire and thermal properties for

generic types of insulation considered for use in basements, wall cavities

in attics of buildings, and 4) to recommend acceptance criteria suitable

for adoption in the building codes,

A review of the available fire statistics indicated that a serious hazard

exists with recessed light fixtures covered with insulation. Though most

such fires Involved celluloslc insulation, mineral wool and fiber glass

insulations have also been involved. Reduced scale model tests, based on

the scaling rules developed at NBS, will be run with various insulation

materials to verify the important fire scenarios. The models tested will

Include 1) the simulated basement with exposed insulation, 2) an above

grade room with insulation in the wall cavities and in the space above

the celling, and 3) an attic space with exposed insulation. These tests

will determine the effect of the Insulation on 1) the maximum fire intensity (as measured by air temperature rise) , 2) the time ,to full involvement of the space, if it occurs, and 3) the rate of production of the

smoke and toxic gas. The role of the Insulation as a site for flaming

and smoldering ignition will be examined in these models. Important findings will be verified by full-scale tests. A radiant panel test for flame

spread and a cigarette test for smoldering Ignition have been developed

for updating the General Services Administration (GSA) standards for thermal insulation. Experiments are being run on the smoldering characteristics of loose fill celluloslc insulation as a function of retardant con- centration as a basis for improving the proposed standard test for

smoldering. The settling and moisture absorption of the insulation and

the leeching of the flame retardant chemicals will be investigated for

loose fill Insulation.

Associated Grants and Contract (s)

"Fire Growth Experiments - Toward a Standard Room Fire Test"

Robert Brady Williamson, University of California at Berkeley

"Effect of Retardants on the Heat Release Rate of Building Materials"

Stanley B. Martin, Stanford Research Institute

"Short Terrni Creep Tests at Elevated Temperatures"

Melvin S. Abrams, Portland Cement Association

"Simulation of Realistic Thermal Restraint During Fire Tests of Floor

and Roof Assemblies - Phase III-V"

Melvin S. Abrams, Portland Cement Association

29
"Measurement of Air Flow Around Doors Under Standardized Fire Test Conditions"

Abdur Abbasi, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.

30
FIRE DETECTION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS PROGRAM

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

GENTER FOR FIRE RESEARGH

Professional Staff

Edward K. Budnick, Acting Chief

Richard G. Bright, Senior Research Engineer

Richard W. Bukowski, Research Engineer

Warren D. Hayes, Fire Prevention Engineer

John G. O’Neill, Fire Prevention Engineer

John H. Klote, Mechanical Engineer

In the event of a fire, certain fire protection systems are relied upon

to: 1) alert the occupants prior to the attainment of conditions adverse

to human safety, and 2) to actively prohibit or reduce the growth and

spread of the fire and combustion products. The overall objective of

this Program is to provide research and engineering technology for such

systems. To this end the Program is divided into three areas of concentration; automatic fire detection, automatic fire suppression, and smoke

control.

Specific aspects such as engineering design, installation, performance

and reliability requirements are being studied for these fire protection

systems in pursuit of overall design technology and appropriate test

methods upon which to judge system capabilities. In addition, the

development of design criteria and Installation guidelines leading to

subsequent reductions in costs plays a key role in the development of

this technology.

Automatic Fire Detection

Considerable research is ongoing in this program to identify the key

parameters and conditions which must be considered when measuring the

performance of detection devices. Extensive full-scale and laboratory

testing is being utilized as the basis for the identification process

and will be extended to support Program efforts to develop standard

tests for measuring detector performance. Current activities also

include studies on the arousal potential of state-of-the-art detector

alarms and the reliability of detector components and systems. Much of

31
the technology developed in this program is inputed directly to U.S. and

international standards groups for automatic detection.

Fire Detection in Health Care Facilities

This project is designed to provide data and ultimately guidance on means of optimizing detection system performance in health care facilities. Full-scale tests have been conducted in a simulated health care environment to provide data on performance of detectors under actual

fire conditions. Field data is being collected and analyzed to assess

the performance of detection systems currently being used in typical

health care facilities. A significant output from this project has been

the development of a portable aerosol generator for use as a field

tester for installed detectors. A report, NBSIR 78-1480, "An Instrument

to Evaluate Installed Smoke Detectors", by T. G. Lee has been published.

A prototype is currently being field tested.

Smoke Detector Performance in Mobile Homes

An initial phase of this work, including full-scale detector siting

tests in an actual single-wide mobile home, has been completed. A

report, NBSIR 76-1016, "Mobile Home Smoke Detector Siting Study", by

W. M. Gawin and R. G. Bright has been published. The results of this

initial work provided the basis for further experimental work in this

area. Additional full-scale testing is now being conducted to examine

the effects of key environmental conditions including air movement from

both the heating and air conditioning systems and the outside ambient

conditions during winter and summer periods.

Test Method Development

The development of a uniform and comparative test method for all types

of automatic fire detectors is ongoing. The project is separated into

two areas of interest: 1) the development of environmental stress

tests, and 2) the development of a full-scale test protocol. The first area is planned for future investigation while the bulk of the emphasis

to date and in the near future will be the development of a full-scale

fire test protocol. Current test methods have been evaluated and a determination has been made of the most suitable approach to be used in

developing the test. A full-scale test facility, based on this approach

which is similar to the proposed International Standards Organization

(ISO) full-scale test protocol, has been constructed and experiments

are being conducted.

Automatic Fire Suppression

A great demand exists for technology advancement for automatic fire

suppression systems. Efforts in this area have been directed toward

full-scale performance testing under varying conditions and exposure

fires. Initial work in this area included an experimental study to

32
develop design criteria for the use of automatic sprinklers for the protection of corridors from fires beginning in adjacent rooms with open

doorways for multi-family and care- type facilities. Work has also been

done to develop water distribution mapping techniques, factors affecting

the geometric distribution of water from sprinklers, statistical parameters of water droplet populations from sprinklers as a function of

pressure and deflector design, and the use of sprinklers in health care facilities

.

In addition to this long range work, continuous efforts are made to

assist in the development of U.S. and international standards for automatic sprinkler systems and components. This work has included analysis

of water distribution patterns, K-f actor (coefficient related to orifice

pressure and flow rate) measurement techniques, and mechanical safety

factors applied to sprinkler devices.

Fire Tests of Patient Rooms with Automatic Sprinklers

The objective of this study is to provide engineering design information

on health care facilities Incorporating automatic sprinklers. The

effectiveness of sprinklers is being measured in terms of overall fire

control, time available for evacuation, and the maintenance of tenable

conditions for patients who cannot be evacuated. Current nationally

used fire safety design criteria for health care facilities are being

specifically examined from the viewpoints of life safety of the occupants

and cost efficiency of system designs.

Phase I tests were conducted between August and November 1977 and a draft report of these tests is currently in NBS review. This phase of

the test series developed important information on the movement and

concentration of selected combustion gases throughout the test space.

Phase II tests, scheduled for completion in 1978, will examine variations

in water flow rates and nozzle pressures of sprinklers. Improved techniques will be utilized to measure smoke movement and concentration in a corridor adjacent to the room of fire origin.

Sprinkler Protection of Open Stairways

The objective of this study is to develop engineering design information

for alternative methods of protecting open stairways using sprinkler and

spray nozzle systems. This work is designed to refine and update test

results dating back to the 1940' s which serve as the basis for methods

currently used in the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

sprinkler and life safety codes. A propane burner serves as the energy

source and currently is operated at two heat release rates, 5.5 and

13. 6M Btu/hr (- 1500 and 4000 KW) . Performance curves will be developed

for these systems to indicate their capacity to inhibit passage of

combustion gases into the stairway resulting from the convective heat

flow from the burner. In addition, design information for these systems

33
will be developed. Experimental full-scale testing to be conducted in a specially constructed four story facility is scheduled for completion in

1978.

In support of this work a report has been drafted on the State-of-theArt of Sprinkler and Spray Nozzle Systems for Protection of Openings in

Fire Resistive Assemblies, and is in NBS review.

Smoke Control Systems

The smoke control project has been in operation for a number of years.

During that time the work has developed along two parallel and now con- verging directions. Initially work was done with simple computer modeling of smoke movement in buildings. This effort builds upon the work of

the National Research Council of Canada and others. At the same time

field tests were conducted in actual office, apartment and hospital

buildings using sulfur-hexafluoride tracer gas to study the movement of

simulated smoke under a variety of mechanical systems and climatic

conditions. Included in the field work were several studies of buildings

equipped with smoke control systems. In each case the building was evaluated both with and without the smoke control system in operation.

This allowed for comparison of the relative effectiveness of the systems

compared to a building without any smoke control. More recently, the

output from the field survey program has been combined with a sophisticated computer program designed to predict the movement of air in a building as influenced by an air handling system. The result has been

the generation of a computer-based design methodology for smoke control.

Work has also been done to compare the results of sulfur-hexafluoride

smoke movement studies to actual movement of smoke in dwellings. This

work showed substantial correlation between the simulated smoke and real

smoke. Future work will involve the development of smoke control

methodologies for residential application.

The primary output mechanisms for the results of this research is through

additions or changes to various voluntary standards Including NFPA and

the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning

Engineers (ASHRAE) standards.

Field Investigations

Field tests have been conducted using the sulfur-hexafluoride (SF^)

tracer gas technique to determine smoke flow patterns in various types

of occupancies. Including office, apartment and health care facilities.

The most recent investigation was conducted in the NIH Clinical Center

in Bethesda, MD, in which both winter and summer conditions were tested.

The objective of these tests was to gain understanding of smoke flow in

buildings under normal operations, and under operation of the smoke

control systems. A draft report is in NBS review.
Smoke Movement in Merchant Ships

This project will extend the use of the SF^ technique to study the smoke

flow patterns aboard a merchant marine ship in order to provide recommended

guidelines for smoke control in such vessels. The project is currently

in the planning stage.

Computer Modeling of Smoke

Two computer programs designed to model smoke movement in buildings have

been developed under contract to Integrated Systems Incorporated (ISI)

.

One of the programs, designed to evaluate steady-state conditions, has

been verified by field test results. Verification of the unsteady-state

model is currently being pursued. These programs will serve as a basis

upon which to develop a methodology for analysis of building designs in

order to optimize the design of the smoke control systems.

Associated Contracts

"Reliability Modeling of Smoke Detectors"

H. D. Rickers, IIT Research Institute, Reliability Analysis

Center, Chicago, IL

"Development of an Air Movement Simulation Program"

John Fothergill, Integrated Systems, Inc., Brunswick, MD

"Continued Development, Testing, Evaluation, and Application of Computer

Simulation Technology for Smoke Movement Control"

John Fothergill, Integrated Systems, Inc., Brunswick, MD

35
PROGRAM FOR DESIGN CONCEPTS

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Staff

Harold Nelson, Program Chief

Bernard M. Levin, Research Psychologist

A. Jeffrey Shibe, Operations Research Analyst

Leonard Y. Cooper, Research Fire Protection Engineer

Program Objectives

The objectives of the Program are to synthesize and integrate research

and technology to develop technically based rational approaches towards

providing safety from fire in buildings of various types of usage; and

to provide operating mechanisms for using these approaches in setting

fire safety requirements in these facilities.

Research Approach

The world of technology and its uses can be divided into three basic

elements areas: data, models and use. The work of this Program is

formed around these divisions.

Data

Scientific and empirical data are being compiled in the research

community. The data ranges from physical properties such as calorific

value, density, rate of heat release, and critical radiant flux to

empirical values such as detection time, flame spread ratings, and

sprinkler discharge capabilities. All of these involve one or more

types of basic reproducible tests directed at producing data either

for handbook reference or other descriptive literature. Major efforts

in this program are directed at producing missing data elements

particularly in areas related to detection, automatic extinguishment,

and human behavior and capabilities under fire stress.

36
Models

Models and systems are used by scientists or engineers to explain

the inter-relationship of two or more data elements. These can range from simple formulas to complex inter-relationships. The Program

has undertaken modeling efforts. Significant success and spillover

has been achieved in advancing the interest and activities of the

entire scientific fire research community in this area.

Use

"Use systems” are those systems which are now used or can be used to

govern and measure the real world. Were the technology and description of the real world perfected to an advanced level of understanding

and predictability, the models developed by the scientists and research

engineers could fulfill this function. The real world, however, is

not that well described or completely understood and the practitioners

must produce answers at a rate that demands relatively simple but

sufficiently accurate approaches. Various types of use systems,

therefore, govern the real world.

Use systems are frequently in the form of codes, standards, and

evaluation systems. There is currently no method for a direct

crosswalk from scientific data and models to the use system. In

each case judgment of how the technological data fits into the

real world is involved. In current practice the difficulty in

crossing this gap has resulted in the development of existing use systems that ignore technical bases and presume that a parliamentary

concensus equates to technical accuracy.

The data and model development activities are directed at producing

technologically sound outputs that will be more responsive to the

needs of the use systems. Simultaneously the project aims at

further reducing this gap by developing use systems that are more

accountable to the technological base and receptive to improved data.

Professional judgment and concensus will remain a major portion of

the developments of use systems for the foreseeable future. Major

improvements can, however, be made in the quality and accountability

of these judgment and concensus activities. The end result will

be both improved approaches that are more readily evaluated and

accepted as rational; and a compendium of design measurements and

parameters that will permit wider flexibility in the individual

designs, with traceable consistency of the technological basis,

the performance requirements, and the approaches from jurisdiction

to jurisdiction.

37
MAJOR PROJECT AREAS

Life/Fire Safety Program for Health Care Facilities

The objectives of the Fire/Life Safety Program are to develop

technically based rational approaches towards providing safety

from fire in health care facilities; and to provide an operating

mechanism for using these approachs . The mechanisms are to be

usable by those expected to apply them, acceptable to both the

federal and nonfederal authorities, and credible in terms of a link

to applied engineering and science techniques.

The program is targeted towards the needs of federal agencies,

voluntary standards organizations, state and local regulatory

authorities, practicing architects and engineers, facility operators

and health care providers. The program outputs will include

management tools for setting approved fire safety requirements and

technical data and design guides for architects, fire protection

engineers and others involved in the process of design. Costeffectiveness will be considered in the development of these

management tools. Other project outputs will be recommendations

for changes in existing fire safety codes and other regulatory

standards as well as advances in the state-of-the-art of applied

fire protection engineering and fire technology.

The program is of 5 years duration. Over 3 years of this period

have been completed. Some significant accomplishments undertaken

under the auspices of this program include:

A. The development of a fire safety evaluation system for grading

the equivalency of alternative approaches to fire safety and

health care facilities.

B. The funding of the Initial development of RFIRES, a fire

development model prepared by R. Pape, IIT Research Institute.

C. The funding of several separate studies aimed at the advancement

of understanding and use of probabilistic approaches to fire

safety systems.

D. The development of a cost comparison model for determining

cost effective alternative approaches to fire safety in health

care facilities.

E. Development of a simulation model of emergency movement by

occupant of buildings during fire exposure.

F . The collection and publication of data and concepts on emergency decisions made by hospital staff personnel and others

exposed to fire threat.

38
G. Participation in and the support of significant test and

research activities in detection, extinguishment, and the

development of smoke control models and design tools.

A number of intermediate research programs are still underway

in this program. The data, however, is now being assembled towards

the organization and preparation of a final report. In addition

to summarizing the data produced, an attempt will be made to

assemble the material in a comprehensive, logical guide for those

involved in making fire safety, regulatory, or related design

decisions. Future work is visualized as extending the present

ongoing research with particular emphasis on the resolution of

design problems related to the individual subsystems and elements

of health care facilities.

Life/Fire Safety Program (Group Homes for the Developmentally

Disabled )

A recent development in the care of the mentally retarded (and

other developmentally disabled persons) is to provide their

custodial care in small home-like facilities in the community

rather than in large remote Institutions. Fire/life safety

requirements have not been specifically developed for these types

of facilities so the responsible authorities are using regulations

designed for other purposes, including the National Fire Protection

Association's (NFPA) Life Safety Code standards for: 1, private

homes; 2, boarding houses, and 3, hospitals. Whenever the hospital

standards are applied, the cost becomes prohibitive. It is also

very difficult to obtain the desired home-like atmosphere and the

facility does not blend into the community. The objective of this

project is to develop fire/life safety performance criteria for

these group homes.

This is a 39 month project starting in July 1977. The approach is

to develop a variation and modification of the Fire Safety Evaluation

System. This system will permit flexibility in the selection of fire

safety features. The fire protection requirements will depend, in

part, on the level of capabilities of the residents. The criteria

will be developed with the advice of experts throughout the country.

A preliminary version of the system will be developed in the summer

and early fall of 1978. Review and testing of the system will

start in the fall of 1978 and the system will be modified as needed based on the field tests and the comments of the reviewers.

Means of Egress Study

The objectives are to establish a data base after surveying the

existing state-of-the-art, to provide a technical basis for hazard

assessment approaches and to determine specific engineering solutions

Important to yielding emergency escape criteria for means of egress

39
arrangements. The effort includes an assessment of the literature

state-of-the-art on the human factors relating to emergency egress

in buildings and a review and analysis of the current state of

technology theories and test data involved in the growth of fire,

controlling factors, and the speed and distribution of effects

that interfere with or terminate the ability to escape from fire.

Physical experiments will be conducted to evaluate the effectiveness

of water spray and/or draft arrangements to protect open stairwells

and similar open floor penetrations, along with the development of

procedures to determine the smoke restricting capability of various

qualities of stairwell doors.

The program is a 2 year study now in its second year. The initial

literature analysis of emergency egress has been completed and a report entitled "A Critical Assessment of the Technical Literature

on Emergency Egress From Buildings” has been written. Tests

are in process on a full size open stairwell test facility at

NBS and tests have been initiated in cooperation with Underwriters'

Laboratories to evaluate a shroud method (International Standards

Organization approach) for using the standard door furnace in a positive mode to determine leakage rate through fire doors during

the course of fire exposure.

Significant gathering of the necessary data and classification and

sorting of the literature related to fire development and spread

has been completed. A preliminary computer sort using state

transitions/state condition sorting matrix has been completed. The

major remaining effort of the project consists of completing

the experimental work and the analysis and organization of the data

into a coherent form suitable to assist in the evaluation of the

impact of structural and occupancy condition on the risk to occupants.

Multi-Family Housing Life/Fire Safety Evaluation System

The objective of this project is the development of a fire safety

evaluation system applicable to existing multi-family housing. The

system will be designed to evaluate the equivalency of alternative

fires safety approaches as compared to the normal requirements of

the Department of Housing and Urban Development minimum property

standards

.

The project is of 18 months duration and has just been initiated.

The evaluation system will be based on the relevance of the various

elements of building design to the performance objectives of fire

safety (e.g.; prevention of ignition, litigation of fire development

capability, confinement of fire, detection and extinguishment, and

escape and rescue) . The objective is a working tool as an alternative

to the existing explicit requirements.

ho
Life/Fire Safety Evaluation Manual Inmate Housing and Confinement

Facilities In Penal Occupancies

The purpose of this project is to develop a fire safety evaluation

system and supporting manuals to determine the relative level of

safety in inmate housing facilities in prisons and similar penal

institutions. The approach will be modeled after the other types

of fire safety evaluation systems prepared or underway by the program.

The project is scheduled for 1 and 1/2 years’ duration and has just

been initiated.

Extra-Program Activities

A major portion of the activities of the Program for Design Concepts

is conducted by other elements within the Center for Fire

Research (CFR) , other groups within the National Bureau of

Standards, and contractors and grantees external to NBS. These

include

A. Fire Detection and Control Systems Program, CFR

1. "Performance Approaches to Protection of Vertical Openings

in Buildings .

2. "The Role of Detectors in Health Care Facilities."

3. "Analysis of Field Performance of Detectors in Health

Care Facilities."

4. "Report of Performance of Detectors in Full Scale Tests

in Simulated Health Care Facilities."

5. "Analysis of Spray Patterns of Sprinkler Heads."

6. "Analysis of the Impact of Sprinklers in Health Care

Facility Bedroom Fires."

7. "Smoke Control Model."

8. "Smoke Control Selection Guide."

9. "Application of Smoke Control Model to Elements of the

NIH Clinical Center."

B. Construction Materials and Assemblies Program, CFR .

1. "Performance of Fire Doors as Smoke Barriers."

hi
C

.

Center for Building Technology, NBS .

1. "Simulation of Human Behavior in Fires, a Computer Model,"

Fred I. Stahl.

2. "Communication for Fire Safety in Buildings," Adrthor Rubin

and Robert Glass.

3. "System for Cost Comparison of Fire Safety Alternatives,"

Robert Chapman.

4. "The Evacuation of Nonambulatory Patients From Hospitals

and Nursing Home Fires," John Archea.

D . Center for Consumer Product Technology .

1. "Arousal From Sleep By Emergency Signals," V. Pezoldt and

H. Van Cott.

2. "Safe Environments for the Developmentally Disabled,"

John Fechter.

E . Extramural .

1. "An Evaluation of Planning and Training for Fire Safety

and Health Care Facilities," Leonard Bickman, Loyola

University of Chicago.

2. "A Review of Behavioral and Physical Characteristics of

the Developmentally Disabled," F. Rick Heber, University

of Wisconsin.

3. "The Determination of Behavior Response Patterns in Fire

Situations-Project People II," John Bryan, University of

Maryland

.

4. "Life Cycle Cost Benefit Workbook," W. J. Griffith, Dallas

Texas

.

5. "A Theoretical Rationalization of The Goal Oriented

Systems Approach to Building Fire Safety," John Watts,

University of Maryland.

6. "Fire Alarms and Response to Alarms in Health Care

Facilities," Harold Wakeley, IIT Research Institute.

7 . "Development and Evaluation of Local Alarm Systems for

Hospitals and Convalescent Homes," John Keating and

Elizabeth Loftus, University of Washington.

42
Ad Hoc Working Group on Mathematical Fire Modeling

Center for Fire Research

Steering Committee - Dr. Robert S. Levine, Chairman

Sub-Committees

Definition, Coding and Computers - Dr. John Rockett, Chairman

Synthesis, Models and Scenarios - Dr. Howard Emmons, Chairman

Sub-Programs - Dr. John DeRis , Chairman

A major goal in the technically oriented fire community is the development of validated mathematical techniques to predict the growth and

spread of a fire from laboratory-measurable properties of the fuels and

the physical parameters of the fire system. Some of the simpler models

are in usable state now, and active research is proceeding on the more

intricate, flexible models. When developed, and validated by measurements in full-scale tests, these models should result in design criteria

for fire safety where we do not yet have adequate experience (for instance, with broad use of plastic materials), criteria for improved

material fire tests, and quantitative methods for achieving a given

degree of fire safety in new or refurbished occupancies.

A substantial amount of research knowledge on fire-related subjects is

needed for the development of the mathematical models. A significant

portion of this research is supported by CFR grants or conducted inhouse and is described in other parts of this report. Other important

studies are being conducted in a number of academic. Industrial, independent, and government laboratories. These studies will contribute

to better mathematical models, and the models, in turn, are a mechanism

by which this research knowledge can contribute to fire safety.

To achieve a better coordination of the diverse programs which can contribute to the modeling effort, an ad hoc working group has been

formed under sponsorship of the Center for Fire Research. Representatives of academic, independent, and industrial laboratories and other

government agencies participate in the activities of the working group.

Anyone active in the development of mathematical models for fire-related

processes is invited to join the working group.
Arson Control Project

Center for Fire Research

Professional Staff

Robert S. Levine - Acting Project Manager for Arson

Associated Staff

Bernard Levin - Research Psychologist

Richard Bright - Senior Research Engineer

Nora Jason - Technical Information Specialist

The objective of this project is to support efforts to attack the arson problem through the development of Improved technical information and

improved availability of the technical information needed by arson

investigators, forensic laboratories, psychiatric therapists, etc.

Major Projects

Psychology of Arson - The purpose of this project is to develop a summary of the technical literature regarding the psychology of arsonists

and to relate this literature to the more general psychology literature

and to selected behavioral models. The literature on psychology of arson

has been surveyed, organized and summarized. A report on this will be

available by early 1979. Work has started on relating this literature to

the general psychology literature.

Arson Investigator’s Handbook - Information that would be useful to an arson investigator is scattered through a number of books and other

documents. Some investigators carry a collection of reference documents

in the trunk of their car. The purpose of this handbook is to collate

this information conveniently. An outline of the desired information,

with emphasis on physical and chemical processes, is being prepared.

Associated Grants and Contracts

"Psychology of Arson - Theoretical Analyses

Application," Marcus Waller, University of North

with Suggestions for

Carolina

44
Large Scale Fire Research Facilities

Center for Fire Research

Professional Staff

D. Gross

W. Bailey

S. Steel

Supervisor

Supervisory Engineering Technician

Physicist (Instrumentation)

The following large-scale testing facilities are available at the

Gaithersburg site for use by CFR -Programs as needed:

Building 205

This is a 60 ft. by 120 ft. test building with controlled environmental conditions; a large smoke collection hood serves the individual

experimental facilities and is connected to a large stack with afterburner. The following facilities are contained within the building:

A room burn and smoke test facility. This is a two-story structure, 20 by 20 ft. in plan view, which may be used for fire

growth studies and for examining fire and smoke spread through

ducts, dampers, doors, etc.

A corridor test facility. This is a 12 ft. wide, 30 ft. long

corridor with several burn rooms attached which can be used for

a variety of studies, including the contribution of furnishings

and interior finish as well as sprinkler performance.

A research fire resistance furnace. This furnace is designed to

meet the essential requirements of ASTM E-119 as well as to provid

for more rapid heating of walls (10 ft. by 8 ft.), floor-ceilings

(10 ft. by 8 ft.) and columns (8 ft. high). Structural loads up

to 30 tons may be applied and furnace pressure may be adjusted

from -0.05 in. to +0.15 in. water gage. The furnace may be used

to test components, innovative constructions, and the effects of

joints in wall-floor assemblies.

Mobile homes specially instrumented and outfitted to permit repeti

tive tests of fire growth and smoke movement and detection.

This building also contains rooms for specialized calorimeters,

small furnaces, and model enclosures. Laboratories are included

for holding and testing rats for toxicology studies in conjunction

with large-scale fire experiments. Shops, instrument rooms, and

service areas are also located in the building.
NBS Annex

This is a former DOD facility adjacent to the NBS site which is available

for special tests. It has a 3 story stair tower which can be used for

smoke spread and sprinkler studies; a dormitory building containing a 60 ft. long loaded corridor with lobbies at each end, and a large laboratory designed for smoke detector testing.

Instrumentation and Staff

Each of the facilities is equipped with automatic data recording systems

to collect a wide variety of information from the large-scale tests. A

staff of 6 technicians and an instrumentation specialist is available

to support CFR Research Programs. An instrumented van is available for

field testing at distant sites.

46
Institution : Brown University

Grant No : NBS Grant G7-9009

Grant Title : Flame Propagation and Extinction for Solid Fuels

Principal Investigator : Merwin Sibulkin, Division of Engineering,

Brown University, Providence, RI 02912

(401) 863-2867

Other Professional Personnel ; Anil Kulkarni, graduate student

K. Annamalai, research associate

NBS Scientific Officer : C. Huggett

Project Summary :

The objectives of this program are to advance our understanding of

flame propagation and extinction for fuels involved in urban fires. An

understanding of the theoretical basis of flame propagation and the

ability to make quantitative predictions of flame spread rates should

lead to more rational ways of testing the relative flammability of

different materials. A more fundamental understanding of extinction

mechanisms is desired to enable improved methods of fire suppression to

be developed. The program includes both experimental and analytical

tasks. Measurements are made with solid fuels of simple geometry in

controlled atmospheres of oxygen, nitrogen and extinguishing agents.

Burning rate, flame spread velocity and surface temperature are measured

for the fuel phase. Flame temperature, location and CO/CO2 concentration are measured in the gas phase. A parallel theoretical effort is

made to determine the causes of extinction for different modes of

burning using mathematical models. Different hypotheses as to the

controlling physical mechanisms are tested by comparing the predicted

conditions for extinction with the measured ones.

Progress Report :

Previous annual reports have described our work on downward

burning cylinders. This has been followed by studies of "fully burning" cylinders of PMMA in 02/N2/CF3Br atmospheres. The mass burning

rate m was measured by hanging the burning cylinders from a beam

connected to a balance and recording the system weight as a function of

time. As the oxygen concentration in an O 2 /N2 mixture is reduced,

there is a slow decrease in burning rate A. Extinction occurs at an oxygen mass fraction Yq = 0.181 which is well below the value of

Yq = 0.206 found for downward burning. Two series of 02/N 2 /CF 3 Br

mixtures were tested. In series (1) the O 2 /N 2 ratio was maintained

constant at its atmospheric value (Yq/Y^ = 0.233/0.767); in series

(2) the oxygen concentration was maintained at its atmospheric value

(Yq = 0.233). In series (1), A decreased slowly as Y^p^Br was Increased and extinction occurred at Yqp^bip = 0.10; in series (2),

47
m increased slowly as YcF3Br increased and extinction did not

occur. A comparison of the results of adding N2 and CF3Br to "air"

gives the following values of additive concentration at extinction:

downward burning " 0.11

YcF3Br =0.05

fully burning Y^2 ~ 0.22

^CFsBr = Changes in the measured burning rates were compared with predictions using Spalding's approximate mass transfer equation

m/A = (hQ/cp)Jln(l + B)

where for a given fuel B depends upon Yq and Cp. Values of the

ratio m/m(air) were calculated for the 02/N2/CF3Br mixtures tested.

The calculated and experimental values for the fully burning cylinders

are in good agreement. However, this simple form of mass transfer

theory cannot be used to predict extinction.

In order to Investigate the causes of extinction for the fully

burning cylinder configuration, a theoretical study of burning on a vertical wall was undertaken. A particular aim of this study was to

investigate the influence of radiation from the burning surface on extinction. Boundary layer, similarity solutions were obtained for

fuel and gas phase properties corresponding to PMMA burning in O2/N2

mixtures. The analysis is based upon the thin flame model (infinite

chemical reaction rate). The resulting ordinary differential equations

are solved numerically by a finite-difference procedure. In the

absence of surface radiation, the burning rate approaches zero as the

ambient oxygen mass fraction Yg approaches zero. When a radiative

loss corresponding to the surface conditions of burning PMMA

(Tvr = 390°C, e = 0.9) is Included, the analysis predicts extinction

at Yq = 0.12. Since the measured Oxygen concentration at extinction

is Yq = 0.18, it is concluded that surface radiation is an important

contributor to extinction for free burning, solid fuel fires but that

other factors must also be involved.

Other factors which could significantly affect extinction are incomplete combustion and finite chemical reaction rate. When the heat

of combustion he used in the calculations was changed from h^ for

CO2 to h|3 for CO, the predicted oxygen concentration at extinction

Increased from Yq = 0.12 to Yq = 0.16 which is close to the

measured value of Yq = 0.18. Boundary layer temperature measurements

designed to determine the degree of completeness of combustion have

been undertaken but conclusive results have not been attained as yet.

Accomplishments :

The effects of an inert additive N2 and a chemically active

additive CFgBr on the burning rates and extinction limits of free

burning, solid fuel fires have been measured. It has been shown that

48
the effects on burning rate but not on extinction can be correlated by

a simple mass transfer theory. Similarity solutions of the boundary

layer equations for a burning, vertical wall have been obtained which

show that surface radiation significantly affects extinction.

Potential Applications :

This work increases our knowledge of the factors affecting extinction which could lead to the design of improved test methods and to

more effective fire suppression techniques.

Future Milestones ;

Measurement of extinction limit of fully burning cylinders for a variety of materials. Correlation of extinction limit with surface

radiation. Measurement of gas phase temperature and CO/CO2 profiles

to determine the degree of completeness of combustion. Development of

a non-similar, boundary layer analysis which includes effects of finite

chemical reaction rate and gas phase radiation.

Reports and Papers :

"The dependence of flame propagation on surface heat transfer. II. Upward burning," by M. Sibulkin and J. Kim, Combustion Science and Technology 39 (1977).

"Propagation and extinction of downward burning fires," by M. Sibulkin

and M. W. Little, Combustion and Flame 197 (1978).

"An interpretation of the oxygen index test," M. Sibulkin and M. W.

Little, Eastern Section Meeting Combustion Institute, Nov. 1977.

49
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Brunswick Corporation

3333 Harbor Blvd.

Costa Mesa, California 92626

Contract No . : NBS Contract EO-AOl-78-00-3577

Contract Title : Experimental Studies on Pyrolytic

Aerosols and Fire Detectors

Principal Investigator : Dr. Raymond Chuan

Brunswick Corporation

3333 Harbor Blvd.

Costa Mesa, CA 92626

714-546-8030

Other Professional Personnel : Houston D. Chen

Emory Thomas

NBS Scientific Officer : Thomas Lee

Project Summary : Experimental studies of the characteristics of pyrolytlcally released aerosols under steady-state conditions are being

pursued. Sample mass loss, aerosol mass concentration, size distribution and optical opacity will be measured in real-time in a flowing

system in which the aerosols generated by a stationary source are con- vected by a metered air stream past the observation station. The

experiments will be performed in Brunswick’s Incipient Fire Smoke

Chamber under well-controlled and reproducible conditions. These data

have contributed toward a better understanding of the aerosol characteristics in the course of proceeding from an Incipient state to a run- away fire condition.

The incipient fire aerosol research has been directed toward gaining an improved understanding of the physical mechanism of aerosol generation

during the incipient stages of a fire. The knowledge gained herein can

be utilized in designing a sensitive, reliable, and false-alarm-free

early warning fire detector.

Progress Report : The existing incipient fire smoke chamber (Figure 1) was designed to determine the physical characteristics of pyrolytic

aerosols produced under carefully controlled and reproducible laboratory conditions. This chamber simulates a scaled-down room with a closed -loop f ree-convection arrangement for smoke dispersion. However,

to study the basic physics of aerosol generation under a steady-state

50
Figure 1. Incipient Fire Test Chamber Schematic

51
flow-through condition, slight modifications to the existing test facility would be necessary, which will include rearrangement of the test

equipment and instrumentation as well as a few minor additions. The

schematic flow diagram of the test set-up is presented in Figure 2. The

redesign and modification of the test set-up have been completed. The

system has been checked out and instrumentation calibrated.

An air diffuser is positioned around the sample holder to provide the

primary mixing air for the pyrolytic process. Filtered shop air con- trolled by a regulator and a flowmeter would provide an airflow from

0 to 24 f/min. from which an initial mixing velocity of up to 20 cm/sec.

would result. The plexlglas chamber has been raised and a 3-inch

diameter flow tube is added. The smoke would rise, entraining and mixing with the secondary dilution air which is injected into the flow

tube by a fan through an ejector tube. The amount of secondary dilution airflow is controlled by a valve and the velocity of the total

flow in the flow tube can be varied from 25 to 500 cm/sec., as measured

downstream with a hot wire anemometer. A thermocouple is used to monitor the temperature at the same location.

The diluted smoke travels within the tube at a fixed velocity, and will

be sampled at fixed intervals by the 10-Stage Cascade Impactor from

which the concentration and size distribution data will be derived.

In order to correlate data of this system with the existing NBS data,

a transmissometer is installed on the top of the chamber for opacity

density measurements. The output is monitored continuously by a recorder.

Accomplishments : The system designed for this program is now in operation. Tests can be performed and data generated. During the closedloop system testing performed by Brunswick Corporation, an "abundance

ratio" has been discovered which exhibits a behavior which can clearly

be used as a means of detecting a prelude to a runaway pyrolytic

reaction. Brunswick investigators have found that in the early stages

of pyrolysis the distribution of generated aerosols is dominated (in

mass) by particles less than .3 jam. A distinct shift in distribution

towards a larger size takes place as the material approaches a selfsustaining combustion state. If one defines C

g as the mass concentration of particulates near .8 jam and C_j for those near .1 jam, the ratio

C.g/C^l which is defined as an "abundance ratio", exhibits a behavior

typified in Figure 3. It is seen that the ratio C g/C ^ goes from less

than 1 to greater than 1 just as the rate of mass loss begins its precipitous change.

Potential Application : This behavior of the abundance ratio can clearly be used as a means of detecting a prelude to a runaway

pyrolytic reaction. Further, by utilizing the abundance ratio, which

is dimensionless, as a discriminator, considerations of quantity of

combustible material, proximity to the source, ventilation, and dilution are obviated.

52
Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of Test Set Up

53
o

^ fn csi o

/ s'o oiiva

Figure 3. Sample Behavior of Abundance Ratio

54

TIME

(MINUTES)
Future Milestones:

(1) A matrix of tests shall be performed with irradiance and primary

dilution air as variables, and using alpha-cellulose as the reference sample. Concentration, size distribution, optical density,

and mass loss rate, responses of fire detectors will be determined.

(2) Selected tests will be performed to show the effect of secondary

dilution air on the characteristics of the pyrolytic aerosols.

(3) Selected tests will be performed to show the effect of light source of transmissometer on its performance (i.e. @ X= 900 nm

versus 550 nm)

.

55
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : California Institute of Technology

Grant No

.

: NBS Grant G8-9014

Grant Title : Experimental Study of Environment and Heat

Transfer in a Room Fire

Principal Investigators: E. E. Zukoski

Toshi Kubota

Jet Propulsion Genter

Galifornia Institute of Technology

Pasadena, Galifornia 91125

(213) 795-6811 xl785

Other Professional Personnel: E. N. Tangren, Engineers Degree (June

1978)

W. S. Sargent, Ph. D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. John Rockett

Project Summary : The flow field produced by a pre-f lashover fire within

one room and multi-room structures is being investigated in experimental

and analytic studies. The experimental studies include the determination of convective heat transfer rates, and the entrainment rates of

fire plumes and of jets formed at openings connecting a fire room to

other spaces. The analytic work is primarily concerned with the development of sim.ple computer programs which can be used to calculate the

spread of products of combustion through a structure.

Our program can be divided into four parts. The largest section

concerns the measurement of convective heat transfer to the walls of a half scale room from a fire plume produced by the combustion of natural

gas — air fires. Room height is 1.22 meters and fires of 10-20 kw

strengths are being studied. The influence of a number of parameters on heat transfer and the flow fields in the room are being considered.

These include fire geometry and heat release rate, and the location of

the fire with respect to openings of various geometries.

The second program, which started with this Grant, concerns the

experimental determination of entrainment rates of a non-Boussenesq fire

plume. The entrainment rate is a key element in the modeling scheme and

its dependence on fire geometry and heat input rate, and the way it

changes with height above the fire will be determined experimentally for

56
a number of typical fires. These two programs constitute three-fourths

of the efforts for the current year.

We also are continuing our program of using salt water/water

modeling to study certain features of the fire plume and door-flow

entrainment regions.

Finally, we are continuing to develop parts of a computer program

into which the experimental results of our and other investigators’

programs can be incorporated. The aim of this work is to generate a comprehensive computer model of fire spread in a multi-room structure.

We are concerned with the development of the portion of this model which

deals with the motion of gas within the structure, and the convective

heat transfer resulting from this motion.

Progress Report : Convective heat transfer measurements have been made

for a number of fire locations, fire heat input rates and opening geometries. The temperature and concentration fields were also measured

for these conditions. This data is being analyzed now and a correlation

will be developed to represent it.

Preliminary salt water /water modeling for the fire-plume entrainment work has been carried out and the results indicate that the proposed measurement scheme is satisfactory. Construction of the full

scale apparatus will be completed early in September, 1978.

The two-room fire model has been extended to include a more general geometry for the opening between the two rooms, the possibility of

a counter flow of hot gas between the two rooms as well as a single cold

flow, and arbitrarily specified ambient pressures at each opening con- necting either room with the outside. Development of a multl-room/-

multi-story extension of the program and a subroutine for calculation

of convective heat transfer is in progress. Document, of the existing

program is available as a Report, see Zukoski and Kubota, below.

Finally, the salt water modeling studies of the fire plume in a room with a single opening to the outside (see Tangren et al. , below)

and modeling concerned with the measurement of fire-plume entrainment

rates in a full scale configuration have been completed. A small effort

is being continued to determine entrainment rates of door jets.

Accomplishments : 1) We have clarified the conditions for which the

salt water/water modeling technique (Tangren et al., below) can be used.

With this technique, the Influence on the development of a fire in a room of the location, heat input rate and geometry of the fire, and the

geometry of the openings between the room and adjacent spaces have been

determined for the limiting case of a small heat input rate. 2) Measurements of convective heat transfer and the flow field produced in a room by a fire have been completed for a number of the configurations

in a half scale room. 3) A computer program for a two room configura57
tion has been developed and documented.

Potential Applications : Information derived from this work will be used

to develop a better understanding of the pre-f lashover stage of a room

fire and will be used in the development of a comprehensive computer

program which will predict the spreading of combustion products and fire

in a multi-room structure.

Future Milestones : Completion of convective heat transfer experimented

studies and correlation of results. Measurement of fire-plume and doorjet entrainment rates for a range of parameters.

Reports and Papers :

Zukoski, E. E. , "Development of a Stratified Ceiling Layer in the Early

Stages of a Closed-Room Fire," accepted for publication in Journal of

Fire and Materials.

Zukoski, E. E. and Kubota, T. , "A Computer Model for Fluid Dynamic

Aspects of a Transient Fire in a Two Room Structure," California

Institute of Technology Report, First Edition January 1978, Second

Edition June 1978.

Tangren, E. N. , Sargent, W. S. , Zukoski, E. E. , "Hydraulic and Numerical

Modeling of Room Fires," California Institute of Technology Report,

June 1978.

58
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Factory Mutual Research Gorporation

Grant No

.

; NBS Grant G7-0911 (subcontract through Harvard University)

Grant Title : The Home Fire Project

Principal Investigator : R. Friedman

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Norwood, Massachusetts 02062

617-762-4300 X570

NBS Scientific Officer ; J. Rockett

Project Summary : The overall objective of the Home Fire Project, being

conducted jointly with Harvard University, is to develop a method for

physical or mathematical modeling of the growth of a fire in a residence, and the corresponding movement of the combustion products. Under this grant, the FMRC role has been to carry out certain research

tasks to develop needed scientific knowledge for this objective.

(Under another contract with the Products Research Committee, FMRC has

conducted a series of highly instrumented room-scale bums, with participation of Harvard personnel in experiment planning and in data

analysis .)

Two of the tasks under the present grant, concerned with physical

modeling, were terminated on May 31, 1978. A third task, a study of

radiation from flames and smoke layers, is being continued. A fourth

task, radiation from pool fires, is being initiated, as is a fifth task,

burning of pool fires in vitiated air.

Progress reports on each of these tasks are presented:

Progress Reports :

Pressure Modeling - R. L. Alpert, task leader

During this program, terminated May 31, 1978, radiance measurements of PMMA wall fires at 1.1 MPa (11 atmospheres) have been used to

determine effective flame radiation temperature, flame optical depth

and surface temperature by using three separate radiation path lengths.

Such measurements are needed whenever elevated pressure, model experiments are performed to verify theoretical models of fire growth. Results show that the effective flame radiation temperature and fuel

59
surface temperature are virtually identical to the normal atmosphere

(0.1 MPa) values, while flame absorption coefficient increases as about

the 4/3 power of pressure, as suggested by modeling theory. If these

trends were to continue at higher pressures, the net radiative flux

from the flame to the fuel surface would be pressure-modeled most accu- rately at about 3 MPa (30 atmospheres) . Currently, the results are being applied to the study of the relative magnitudes of upward fire

spread rates for a variety of interior finish materials, sponsored by

the Federal Aviation Administration.

Atmospheric Pressure Modeling - P. A. Croce, task leader

The recent activity in this task, terminated May 31, 1978, was to

test the ability to do quarter-scale modeling of fires spreading over

the surface of a centrally ignited horizontal polyurethane slab in an enclosure with: (a) normal doorway; (b) narrow doorway; (c) window

only. (The full-scale tests were performed in the series sponsored by

the Products Research Committee.) The quarter-scale compartment tests

were preceded by free-bum tests, which gave satisfactory correlations,

assuming power-law behavior, for both flame spread (2nd power of time)

and weight loss (6th power of time) with slabs ranging in size by a factor of four (but with constant thickness) . These free-bum results were utilized (as is Inherent with this scheme) to select the wall material and thickness for the model enclosure, which was quarter-scaled

to the full-scale test enclosure.

Comparison of results of the quarter-scale and full-scale enclosure fires shows qualitatively similar behavior during the transient

period being modeled, and reasonable agreement between scaled eventtimes (sprinkler activation and secondary ignition) . Reports are being

prepared.

Study of Radiation from Flames and Smoke Layers -

G. H. Markstein, task leader

In many fires, energy transfer from the flame to the fuel and the

surroundings occurs predominantly by thermal radiation. A portion of

this study therefore concentrated on the measurement of radiative properties of fires, with emphasis on characterizing plastics fuels by the

radiation of their flames. As an extension of this work that is cur- rently underway, a scanning radiometer has been developed and is being

used for determining the spatial distribution of radiative intensity in

fires

.

Studies of fires within enclosures have established that radiation

from the hot smoke layer that accumulates under the celling participates significantly in the energy balance within the enclosure. Another portion of this study has therefore dealt with measurements of

radiative properties of smoke layers produced by plastics fires. Instruments developed in the course of this work have also been used suc- cessfully in full-scale enclosure fire tests.

60
Measurements on smoke layers produced by PMMA pool fires and polyurethane foam spreading fires showed that for these two fuels about 2.5

percent of the burned fuel is converted into soot. The absorption co- efficients for blackbody radiation at 0,94 ym were in good agreement

with soot concentrations obtained by sampling and flow rates.

Radiative temperatures and emissivities of plastics fires have

yielded soot volume fractions ranging from 0.47 x 10”^ for PMMA to

3 X 10“^ for polystyrene, at a height of 50 mm above the 305 x 305 mm

pools,

A scanning narrow-view-angle radiometer has been designed and

built. The instrument uses a fast-response pyroelectric sensor, and two

mirror-galvanometer scanners to permit two-dimensional scans of fire

radiance. In the mode of operation currently used with pool fires, horizontal scans at fixed height above the fuel surface are repeated a sufficient number of times to yield a good average of the radiance distribution. Storage of the fast linear-sweep scan (^4 ms) with a digital

storage oscilloscope and subsequent transfer to a programmable calculator are used for data acquisition.

Initial runs have been performed with a 0.38 m diameter PMMA pool

fire. The use of the Abel integral transformation to convert the radiance data into a radial distribution of radiative power is currently

being investigated, by comparing results obtained with several alternative distribution functions fitted to the measured radiance data.

Among the functions tried thus far, a modified beta distribution seems especially useful, since this distribution can be readily extended to

the case of a constant absorption coefficient. Evaluation of scanning

data showed that the influence of absorption on the results is appreciable. The volumetric radiative power at the center of the flame, near

the flame base, evaluated with an absorption coefficient of 1.3 m”l, is

about 50 percent larger than the result computed with vanishing absorption coefficient.

An instrument for measuring local flame absorption coefficients is

under development. It consists of a water-cooled and nitrogen-purged

fiber-optic probe, and comer-cube reflector, using an infraredemitting diode or laser diode source and a silicon photodiode sensor.

The probe and reflector assembly is inserted into the flame for measuring the absorption coefficient with an effective path length of about

0.15 m.

Radiation from Pool Fires - A. T. Modak, task leader

This research program, initiated in June 1978, addresses the problem of "pool" fires on horizontal fuel surfaces.

The degree of flammability of various materials and the spread

rates of large turbulent fires are controlled by the radiative heat

transfer from the flames. In view of this, the present research

61
program seeks to provide a simple quantitative model for predicting the

radiative energy transfer from pool fires. The local radiative properties (i.e., the effective radiation temperatures and absorptionemission coefficients) of the flames of pool fires are measured by means

of a Schmidt type of measurement (see paper by Markstein) and are used

as input parameters for radiation heat transfer calculations involving

detailed geometric integrations over distributed radiating volumes.

For most large fires, flame radiation is dominated by soot radiation. Since the absorption-emission coefficient of soot varies only

weakly with wavelength, it may be regarded as being nearly gray. This

approximation simplifies flux calculations and experimental measurements of absorption-emission coefficients since they then become independent of pathlength. However, radiation from cooler fire smokes and

combustion gases (e.g., CO2 and H2 O) tends to be considerably less gray.

The degree to which nongrayness affects radiation fluxes in fires will

be investigated in detail by this research program.

The usefulness of models for predicting flame radiation depends

critically on a knowledge of 1) geometric structure and shapes of buoyancy controlled diffusion flames of pool fires, and 2) spatial distributions of temperature and concentrations of molecular species and soot.

This research program will provide empirical correlation of flame shapes

of pool fires and will develop a nonhomogeneous and nonisothermal radiation model for pool fires to account for the spatial variations of temperature and soot concentrations on the burning rates of fires.

Burning of Pool Fires in Vitiated Air - F. Tamanini, task leader

This research was initiated in June 1978. In enclosure fires,

where the supply of fresh air is insufficient to satisfy all the com- bustion requirements, recirculation occurs and the oxidizing medium is,

therefore, preheated and depleted in oxygen content. It is important

to determine the effect of these two changes on the flame characteristics, particularly with reference to the radiative properties of the

flame and the rate of fuel depletion in the reaction region (incompleteness of combustion) . Neither of these two processes is currently

understood in the case of buoyancy-controlled turbulent diffusion

flames. We are planning to begin by looking at the effect of oxygen depletion on the radiative properties (Schmidt flame temperature and absorption coefficient) of flames from pool fires. Initial tests will be

carried out using a 30-cm-diameter level-controlled PMMA pool fire; at

a later stage a 38-cm-diameter sintered-metal gas burner, which is cur- rently being designed, will be used with both aliphatic and aromatic

hydrocarbons. Concurrently the enclosure used for the tests will be

modified to allow for preheating of the air as well as reduction of

oxygen concentration. Finally, the question of the burning rate distribution in the fire plume will be addressed by constructing a device to

aspirate and quench the fire plume. The analysis of the composition of

the products collected by the device when positioned at different distances above the pool will yield a measurement of the unbumt fuel

62
present in the flame at different heights as a function of vitiation of

the ambient air. The information sou^t by this program is expected to

be essential to the modeling of enclosure fires.

Accomplishments ; The magnitude of the error caused by surface reradiation in pressure-modeling of polymethyl methacrylate has been determined

and found to be reasonably small. The atmospheric modeling procedure

has been shown to give good results for enclosure burning as long as the

free-burning behavior is accurately known and is properly adjusted, and

as long as the enclosure walls are properly modeled for thermal response. New instruments to measure fire radiance (two-dimensional scan)

and local flame absorption coefficient are being developed. Radiative

properties of a number of plastics fires have been measured.

Potential Applications : The two modeling techniques are available for use in appropriate applications. (FMRC is currently using the pressure

modeling technique to study upward flame spread on aircraft interior

finish materials, and the atmospheric modeling technique to model a comer test for plastic foam wall insulation.) The radiation measurements are being used in the mathematical modeling of room fires. They

may be crucial in evaluating relative flammability of various plastics.

Future Milestones : Current radiation studies will be completed and re- ported, and Schmidt radiation measurements on charring fuels will be

undertaken in the current contract year. The pool fire studies of

flames on sintered metal burners are being initiated and should be com- pleted by June 1979. The vitiated air facility should be constructed,

calibrated, and instrumented by February 1979.

Reports and Papers :

1) Croce, P. A., "Modeling of Vented Enclosure Fires, Part I. QuasiSteady Wood-Crib Source Fire," FMRC Technical Report, FMRC

J.I. 7AOR5.GU, RC 78-T-25, June 1978.

2) Croce, P. A. and Hill, J. P., "Modeling of Vented Enclosure Fires,

Part II. Transient, Non- Spreading, Polymethyl Methacrylate Slab

Source Fire," in preparation.

3) Croce, P. A., "Modeling of Vented Enclosure Fires, Part III.

Transient, Spreading, Polyurethane Slab Source Fire," in preparation.

4) Alpert, R. L. , A report on the effect of surface reradiation on pressure modeling is in preparation.

5) Markstein, G. H. , "Radiative Properties of Plastics Fires," ac- cepted for presentation at Seventeenth (International) Symposium

on Combustion, August 20-25, 1978, University of Leeds, England.

63
6) Orloff , L. , Modak, A. T. and Markstein, G. H. , "Radiation from

Smoke Layers," accepted for presentation at Seventeenth (International) Symposium on Combustion, August 20-25, 1978, University

of Leeds, England.

7) Modak, A. T. and Alpert, R.. L. , "Influence of Enclosures on Fire

Growth: Vol. I. Guide to Test Data." FMRC Report R.C77-BT-14,

November 1977 (sponsored by Products Research Committee)

.

8) Modak, A. T. (editor), "Influence of Enclosures on Fire Growth:

Vol. II. Analysis." FMRC Report RC78-BT-24, July 1978

(sponsored by Products Research Committee)

.

64
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution ; Georgia Institute of Technology

Grant No . : NBS Grant G7-9003

Grant Title : Effect of Ignition Sources and Fire Retardants

on Material Ignition

Principal Investigator : Professor P. Durbetaki

Fire Hazard and Combustion Research Laboratory

School of Mechanical Engineering

Georgia Institute of Technology

Atlanta, GA 30332

404-894-3282

Other Professional Personnel ; Professor W. G. Tincher , Faculty

Associate

H. Chang, M.S. Candidate

C. C. Ndubizu, Ph.D. Candidate

M. L. Teague, M. S. Candidate

V. L. Wolfe, Jr., M. S. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. James Winger

Project Summary ; The objectives of the recent program have been (i)

to expand previous experiments on ignition time and ignition frequency

measurements to thermally thin and thermally thick materials , under

broad exposure conditions, varied geometry and various materials, (ii)

to determine the effect of flame retardant treatments on the Ignition

characteristics of materials, and (ill) to modify and extend the modeling analysis for the prediction of ignition time. Measurements have

been carried out to provide required data on thermophysical properties,

constitutive description of processes, and ignition times. Description

of the preignition processes and the prediction of ignition time was formulated and the results compared with measurements.

Progress Report : Thermal radiative properties have been measured both

on original and charred samples of cellulosic, thermoplastic and blend

materials. The charring was carried out under transient conditions.

Thermal conductance measurements were carried out on fabrics and wood

samples

.

Using heating rates ranging between 20°G/mln and 6000°G/mln, fire

retarded and untreated materials were pyrolyzed in a furnace. The

pyrolyzate gases were mixed with air and their minimum self-ignition

65
temperature was determined as a function of concentration at each

pyrolysis heating rate. The measurements have indicated that minimum

self-ignition temperatures of pyrolyzate-air mixtures are dependent on

the heating rate during pyrolysis of the sample material. The ignition

temperatures decrease with increasing heating rates . Minimum selfignition temperatures of pyrolyzate-air mixtures generated at the high

heating rates indicate that the ignition temperatures are lower for the

flame-retarded material compared to the untreated cotton. The results

are shown in Figure 1. Apparent molecular weights of pyrolyzate gases

decrease with increasing heating rates during pyrolysis. Molecular

weight of pyrolyzate gases generated at the high heating rate from a condensed phase active flame-retarded material is substantially lower

than the gases generated from the untreated fabric, for cotton material

tested

.

Ignition time and ignition frequency measurements under convective

heating have been carried out with a microburner ignition source on fire retarded and untreated fabrics. The ignition times were found to

be dependent on the heating intensity, the surface structure of the

material and the fire retardant treatment. Some representative results

are presented in Figures 2 and 3. Fabrics exposed to a non-radical

convective heat flux source were found to ignite.

Ignition time measurements on vertical fabric samples under radiative heating were conducted using large samples of fire retarded and

untreated fabrics. Figures 4 and 5 show infrared detector responses of

two 100% cotton fabrics, one untreated and one flame retarded respectively, exposed to radiant heating. Figure 4 exhibits the onset of

self-ignition at the top of the fabric and the arrival of the flame

front at the lower point on the fabric. This figure is representative

of all untreated fabrics which ignited. The fabrics with the flameretardment treatment, during the initial stages of the radiative heating period behave in similar manner to the untreated fabrics, pyrolyzing slowly and generating a visible gas at a low rate. However, at some

instant, the top exposed portion of the fabric burst into a very vigorous gas generation process which was accompanied simultaneously with the

consumption of major portions of the condensed phase at the top of the

fabric. This then produced an intense pyrolysis front which propagated

downward and as it consumed the major portion of the condensed phase it

left behind only a very thin fiber structure of charred material. The

pyrolysis front was found to propagate and cover the entire length of

the material as long as the radiative exposure was continued. For this

group of materials, in spite of the Intense level of pyrolysis and large

volume of gas generation, no visible flame was observed. Figure 5 shows the initiation of the pyrolysis front and the arrival of this

front at the 5 cm point.

A comparison of the behavior of five fabrics under radiative heating is made in Table 1. All the fabrics are 50/50% polyester-cotton

blends. Fabrics No. 16 and 25 are untreated and the remainder have

received different levels of flame-retardant treatment. As shown in

this table the onset of the pyrolysis front occurs at an elapsed time

66
after initial exposure which is considerably shorter than the ignition

time of the untreated fabrics.

The modeling analysis developed and used to predict pyrolyzate

ignition for forced convective heating of a pyrolyzing solid has shown

that ignition times are strongly dependent upon reaction kinetics

governing solid decomposition and pyrolyzate generation rates. The

predicted ignition times compare favorably with the experimental results. The analytical model which was developed to predict the ignition times of thermally thin fabrics under radiative heating, using the

boundary layer ignition criterion, has been improved. Predicted ignition times were within 15% of measured values for high heat flux levels

.

The principal parameters used in the calculations were ranked in terms

of their sensitivity in predicting the ignition time and activation

energy was found to be the most critical one. Accomplishments : Experimental techniques and apparatus have been

developed to measure ignition times and ignition frequencies on small

and large samples of thermally thin and thermally thick media under

time invariant radiative heating. Experimental techniques and apparatus

have been developed to measure Ignition times and ignition frequencies

on thermally thin and thermally thick media at various orientations and

under time invariant convective heating. Experimental techniques and

apparatus have been developed to pyrolyze materials at heating rates

ranging from 20°C/min to an excess of 6000°C/min and to measure the

minimum self-ignition temperatures on pyrolyzate-alr mixtures as a function of pyrolyzate concentration. Modeling analysis has been developed to describe the ignition process along with the associated preignition stages for thermally thin materials under convective and radiative heating.

Potential Applications : The ignition time and ignition frequency

measurements serve to establish critical parameters which effect the

ignition process, and procedure and techniques which should be used to assess the relative ease of ignition for thermally thin and thermally

thick materials.

The Investigations with flame retardant material serve to assess

the effect of the treatment and level of treatment on the ignition

process

.

The investigations on the self-ignition temperatures of pyrolyzateair mixtures serve to describe the ignition of materials as well as assess conditions which will establish a flashover in a room fire.

Reports and Papers :

P. Durbetakl and C. Thorn-Andersen , "Effect of Heat Flux Level and

Exposure Time to a Radiant Heat Source on the Thermal Radiative Propertives of Cellulosic and Thermophastic Materials", Proceedings of the

Seventh Symposium on Thermophysical Properties , Ared Cezalrliyan,

Editor, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1977,

pp. 324-330.

67
P. Durbetaki and M. L. Teague, "Fabric Ignition Studies with a Microburner", Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting , Information Council on Fabric Flammability, Galveston, TX, 1978.

W. J. Tingle, P. Durbetaki and W. C. Tlncher, "Self-Ignition of

Pyrolyzate-Air Mixtures", Paper No. 78-29, Spring Meeting, Western

States Section, The Combustion Institute, University of Colorado,

Boulder, CO, 17-18 April 1978.

P. Durbetaki, W. C. Tincher, H. Chang, C. C. Ndubizu, M. L. Teague,

V. L. Wolfe, Jr., "Effects of Ignition Sources and Fire Retardants on Material Ignition", Sixth Research Report, NBS Grant No. G7-9003, Fire

Hazard and Gombustion Research Laboratory, School of Mechanical

Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 31 March

1978.

P. Durbetaki, W. J. Tingle, W. P. Ryszytlwskyj and W. C. Tincher, "SelfIgnition of Pyrolyzate-Air Mixtures", Fire Research (in press), 1978.

10 ,

4 A--

A ^ X

A V \ \

\

Ov

50

Most Froction

Figure 1. Comparison of Self-Ignition Temperatures of Pyrolyzate

Gases Generated from Two 100% Cotton Fabrics, Flame- Retarded Fabric No. 19 and Untreated Fabric No. 4 at a Heating Rate of 16 W/cm2.

Figure 2. Comparison of Normalized Ignition Times for Three

100% Cotton Fabrics.

Figure 3. Ignition Probability as a Function of Exposure Time to the Microburner, GIRCFF Fabric No. 4; Vertical Orientation,

Horizontal Orientation.

68
INTENSITY

Figure 4. Infrascope Output History Plots Representing Figure 5. Infrascope Output History Plots Representing a Pyrolysis

Ignition; ETIP Fabric No. 21 (100% Cotton, Front; ETIP Fabric No. 23 (100% Cotton, Flame Retarded) Untreated) Exposed to an Incident Heat Flux Exposed to an Incident Heat Flux of 6.8 W/cm^. of 9 H/cm^

Table 1. Comparison of Ignition Time and Pyrolysis Front Time Measurements Linder Radiative

Exposure, 50/50% Polyester - Cotton Fabric Samples, Untreated and Flame Retarded

Incident Heat

Flux

Ignition Time (s) Pyrolysis Front Time (s)

GIRCFF #16 ETIP #25 ETIP #26 ETIP #27 ETIP #28

W/cm^ 5 cm* 14 cm* 5 cm 14 cm 5 cm 14 cm 5 cm 14 cm 5 cm 14 cm

'I ^I ^I ^I ^PF ^PF ^PF ^PF ^PF ''PF

6.8 98.2 98.0 150.0 149.2 33.0 15.2 27.6 16.1 24.0 15.3

8.6 24.8 .... 48.6 12.3 10.0 12.0 10.2 11.7 9.6

8.6

8.6

9.0 — — — — 12.9

12 . 9

10.0

10.1

12.5 10.3 — —

— — 43.5 36.6 — — —

9.0 —

— 37.2 35.1 —

— — .... — ....

10.8 14.4 12.3 22.5 21.0 8.4 7.1 8.3 7.4 8.4 7.3

13.0 10.0 9.1 — .... 6.4 5.9 6.8 6.1 6.6 6.0

13.0 — — 14.7 13.7 6.5 5.9 .... — — ....

15.8 8.8 7.6 11.2 9.8 5.3 4.6 5.3 4.8 5.4 5.0

15.8 — — — — 5.3 4.9 — — —

it Infrascope focused from bottom edge of sample.

69
INSTITUTION NBS GRANT NO . School of Aerospace Engineering G8-9003

Georgia Institute of Technology

GRANT TITLE

"Investigation of the Properties of the Combustion Products Generated by Building Fires"

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

Dr, Ben T, Zinn, Regents' Professor, School of Aerospace Engineering

Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, 404-894-3033.

OTHER PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL

Dr, C, Po Bankston, Research Engineer, Dr, R, F, Browner, Assistant

Professor, Dr, E, A, Powell, Assistant Professor, Dr, J, U, Rhee,

Post Doctoral Fellow, Dr, C, Liao, Post Doctoral Fellow, Dr, T, K.

Joseph, Post Doctoral Fellow, Mr, K, Kailasanath, Ph.D, Candidate,

Mr, R, 0, Gardner, Ph.D, Candidate

NBS SCIENTIFIC OFFICER

Dr, George Mulholland

PROJECT SUMMARY

An experimental facility is being used for the determination of the

properties of the combustion products generated by burning various

building materials. Measurements of particle size distributions and particulata mass concentrations, chemical properties of both particulate

and gaseous products, optical densities and mean particle diameters have

been obtained under conditions simulating various fire situations. The

fire-exposure variables considered are the temperature and composition

of the chamber atmosphere, the type of burning (i.e,, flaming or nonflaming), the radiant heat flux to the sample, the orientation of the

sample, and the amount of ventilation. During the past year this project has been aimed at identifying the physical and chemical processes

leading to smoke production, as well as utilizing small-scale test data

with related theoretical data to predict the smoking properties of various materials.

The efforts of this research project can be divided into five major

categories or tasks. Task A is concerned with determining the effect of

substrate polymer structure upon smoke characteristics, while Task B

deals with the effect of various additives upon smoke properties. Task C is a cataloging of smoke physical properties data from results obtained

on this project through September 30, 1977, The chemical analysis of the

smoke particulates is performed under Task D, and the development of a theoretical smoke formation model is Task E,

PROGRESS REPORT

Task A, - Determination of the Effects of Substrate Polymer Structure

on Smoke Characteristics.

In this study the following pure materials were tested in the Combustion Products Test Chamber (CPTC) under a radiant flux of a 5 W/cm^ in

70
the horizontal sample mount: polystyrene, PVC, polypropylene, polyethylene, and polymethyl methacrylate (RyiMA), Low temperature tests (25°C)

have been completed for both nonflaming and flaming combustion, and high

temperature tests (200°C) have been completed for flaming combustion.

Data obtained for all tests include the maximum optical density per meter at 458nm (blue) and the volume-surface mean particle diameter at

maximum optical density, while the fraction of sample weight loss con- verted to smoke particulates (F) and the mass median diameter were also

obtained for low temperature tests.

For low temperature tests, less total smoke by mass is generated

under flaming conditions, but peak optical densities tend to be greatest

in flaming tests. Also, the smoke particulates are predominantly liquid

droplets in nonflaming tests, while the particles generated under flaming conditions are sooty agglomerates. Furthermore, the relative ranking of the smoking tendency of polystyrene, PVC, and polypropylene (according to F) were opposite for flaming and nonflaming conditions.

Under flaming conditions, increasing the environmental temperature

to 200°C gave a moderate to strong reduction in the peak optical density and a small increase in the mean particle diameter. The data also

shows that elevated temperature does not change the relative smoke ranking of these materials according to optical density. Additional optical

data taken with the 90°-scattering system for the high temperature flaming tests are consistent with the light scattering properties of sooty

or carbonaceous smoke particles, but further analysis of the data will

be necessary to determine the complex refractive index of the smoke

particles.

Analysis of the above data is underway to correlate the polymer

structure with the volatile and particulate pyrolysis products which

are known to affect smoke production.

Task B, Determination of the Effect of Additives on Smoke Characteristics

In this study a series of seven additional PVC formulations and six

additional polypropylene formulations containing various additives were

tested under flaming conditions in both low temperature (25°C) and high

temperature (200°C) environments,

PVC Samples , Low temperature tests of PVC samples showed that the

presence of fillers (Al203*3H20 and CaC03) reduced smoke production in

the flaming case, which agrees with earlier results from nonflaming

tests. This is probably due to the reduced concentrations of soot-producing aromatics which have been identified in the pyrolysis products

of PVC, Furthermore, both high and low temperature results showed that

CaC03 is much less effective in reducing smoke production than AI2O3®

3H2O, Also, the addition of plasticizer greatly increased the m.aximum

optical density as compared to the pure PVC pol3mier.

Polypropylene Samples , Polypropylene samples containing fire-retar71
dant additives tended to generate considerably more smoke than the pure

polypropylene under flaming conditions in both low and high temperature

atmospheres. The only char-former among the polypropylene samples tested

yielded a relatively low peak optical density because it generated less

total smoke over a longer period of time than the other samples which do

not char.

As in the case of the pure polymers discussed under Task A, all of

the PVC and polypropylene samples yielded moderate to large reductions

in peak optical density and small increases in mean particle diameter

when the environmental temperature was raised to 200°C, The relative

ranking of the smoking tendency, however, was the same at both low and

high temperatures,

A new experimental apparatus has been developed to study the effects

of additives upon smoke formation in a polymeric diffusion flame by the

controlled, direct injection of additive species into the pol3rmer thermal degradation products. Additive species planned for study include:

(i) metallic compounds that are expected to reduce smoke formation and

(ii) organic compounds commonly found in pol3mer pyrolysis products

that are expected to enhance smoke formation. Initial tests have demonstrated the feasibility of this apparatus.

Task C, Cataloging of the Smoke Physical Properties Data ,

The cataloging of the smoke physical properties data from results

obtained through September 30, 1977 has been carried out, and the formal report containing the data has been completed and forwarded to the

National Bureau of Standards,

Task D, Chemical Analysis of Smoke Particulates ,

Determination of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbon Content of Polymer

Smoke , A simple, accurate separation scheme has been developed for PAH

analysis in smoke particulates which has been applied successfully to

PAH determination in smoke particulates generated from a number of PVC

samples containing various additives. Results indicate that: (1) pure

PVC polymer gave nearly identical yields for both flaming and nonflaming mode, (2) a steady increase in total PAH yield was found as heat

flux was raised for nonflaming mode, (3) CaCO^ and Al203 » 3H20 both re- duced PAH yield to nearly zero in flaming mode, but made very little

difference in the nonflaming mode. Other polymers tested (i,e,, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and IMMA) yielded negligible

quantities of PAH,

Measurement of Volatile Components Adsorbed onto Smoke Particulates , A new, small thermal degradation chamber has been developed with collection facilities for both vapor and particulate smoke components.

This apparatus was designed to determine (with the aid of GC and GC/MS

techniques) the presence of vapors adsorbed onto smoke particles and

acutely toxic subs'tances such as HCl, HCN and acrolein, A significant

number of volatile components have been observed, and detailed identi72
fication and quantitation of these compounds is currently underway.

Task E, Development of a Theoretical Smoke Formation Model ,

The one -dimensional model developed previously has been used to obtain solutions for the smoldering decomposition with charring of a slab

of polymeric material of finite thickness subjected to a known incident

heat flux. The material sample is characterized by regions which range

from the primary solid decomposition reaction zone to a very porous char

structure closest to the sample surface. Calculations of the time-resolved porosity, temperature, pressure, and velocity profiles have been

made under the assumption that condensation of the gaseous pyrolysis

products did not occur.

The governing equations have now been modified and expanded to investigate the role of heterogeneous and homogeneous condensation in the

production of smoke particulates from a burning pol3mieric material under nonflaming conditions. The system of equations consists of the following: (1) gas phase continuity, (2) condensed phase (particulate) continuity, (3) condensible vapor species continuity, (4) momentum, (5)

global energy, (6) solid decomposition, and (7) particle growth. These

equations will allow the calculation of the gas phase pressure, gas velocity, gas and solid phase temperature, solid porosity, condensible

vapor species mass fraction, condensed phase mass concentration, and

mean particle size as functions of space and time. The changes are presently being incorporated in the computer program and calculations will

begin during the next quarter,

ACCOMPLISHMENTS

(1) Experimental facilities have been enhanced by the addition of (i) a 90°-scattering optical system for determination of the complex refractive index of smoke particles, and (ii) a new Hewlett Packard 5982 EI/CI

Mass Spectrometer for identification of compounds extracted from the

smoke particulates,

(2) Low temperature nonflaming tests and high and low temperature flaming tests have been completed for pure polystyrene, PVC, polypropylene,

polyethylene, and IMMA samples,

(3) Flaming tests (both low and high temperature) have been completed

for PVC and polypropylene samples containing various additives,

(4) Cataloging of all physical property measurements obtained in CPTC

tests before September 30, 1977 was completed,

(5) An analytical scheme was developed for the quantitation of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) extracted from PVC samples, and a detailed analysis of PAH from PVC samples of different compositions was

provided,

(6) The analytical model of smoke production was extended and expanded

to include heterogeneous and homogeneous condensation processes.

73
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

Data obtained in this research program will aid in the evaluation

of hazards resulting from smoke produced during building fires , Furthermore, these data can be of use in determining what environmental conditions and material additives most affect smoke production, and thus aid

in the development of safer commercial materials. Finally, correlation

of measured smoke properties with theoretical predictions will provide

detailed information on the mechanisms of smoke production which has

not previously been available,

FUTURE MILESTONES

The following milestones have been established for the coming year:

(1) High temperature nonflaming tests of the PVC samples will be com- pleted by September 1978, (2) Identification of major components adsorbed onto particulates by October 1978, (3) Computer solutions will

be obtained using the smoke formation model with homogeneous and heterogeneous condensation by October 1978, (4) New experimental apparatus

for studying the effects of additives upon smoke formation by a polymeric diffusion flame will be operational by December 1978, (5) Polypropylene tests with organic additives to be completed by April 1979,

(6) Polypropylene tests with inorganic additives to be completed by

August 1979, (7) Chemical analysis of smoke particulates and adsorbed

volatiles generated by combustion of polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene and HyiMA to be completed by October 1979,

REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS

1 , Zinn, B, T., Cassanova, R, A,, Bankston, C. P,, Powell, E, A.,

Browner, R, F., and Rhee, J, U,, "Investigation of the Properties

of the Combustion Products Generated by Building Fires," Final Report of National Bureau of Standards Project No, G7-9001 , November 1977,

2, Bankston, C.P., Cassanova, R,A,, Powell, E,A,, and Zinn, B.T.,

"Review of Smoke Particulate Properties Data for Burning Natural and

Synthetic Materials," Supplemental Report for National Bureau of

Standards Project No, G8-9003, May 1978,

3, Powell, E,A, , Bankston, C.P,, Cassanova, R,A, , and Zinn, B. T.

,

"Effect of Environmental Temperature Upon the Physical Characteristics of the Smoke Produced by Burning Wood and PVC Samples," presented at the Combustion Institute Meeting (Eastern Section) on

Chemical and Physical Processes in Combustion, East Hartford, Connecticut, November 10-11 j 1977 (Submitted for publication),

4, Liao, J.C,, and Browner, R, F,, "Determination of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Poly- (Vinyl Chloride) Smoke Particulates by

HPLC and GC/MS, Analytical Chemistry , submitted for publication.

74
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Harvard University

Grant No. : NBS Grant G7-9011

Grant Title : The Home Fire Project

Principal Investigator : Professor Howard W. Emmons

Division of Applied Sciences

Harvard University

Gambrldge, Massachusetts 02138

617-495-2847

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Henri Mltler, Dr. Tlen-Mo Shlh,

Mr. Richard Land, Ms. Jana Backovsky, Mr. Lloyd Trefethen

NBS Scientific Officer : John Rockett

Project Summary : The principal thrust of the Harvard portion of the

Home Fire Project which Is carried out jointly with the Factory Mutual

Research Corp. Is the development of a Mathematical Model of Fire

Development. During the past year, advances have been pursued on three

fronts

(1) The numerical analysis technique has been generalized and made more

flexible and more stable.

(2) The subroutines which describe the various component phenomena have

been Improved and new subroutines have been devised to cover more

of the relevant phenomena.

(3) Several component problems - fire spread, growth and extinguishment

have been studied to provide basic data for the Math Model.

Progress Reports : The Mathematical Model - H. Mltler, H. Emmons &

L. Trefethen

A number of attempts have been made over the last fifty years or so

to make a mathematical ''model'' of the burning of a room. A good historical review of the efforts - theoretical and experimental - up to 1975 can be found In Babrauskas and Williamson, for a fully- Involved com- partment fire with a single vent.

In 1973, a joint effort at understanding the progress of compartment

fires In the pre-f lashover phase was started at Harvard University and

Factory Mutual Research Corp. as the Home Fire Project. One of our principal tasks was the mathematical modeling of such a fire. (Similar

efforts were started at about the same time by R. Pape at IITRI and by

75
C. MacArthur at the University of Davton, as well as bv T. Tanaka in

Japan)

.

Full-scale test fires were carried out at FMRC in 1973, 1974, 1975 . There was considerable success in understanding these, but it was still at a rather rudimentary level, neither very general nor flexible.

Out of this experience a more general calculation was set up. This

consists of a main program with many subroutines, each subroutine describing one physical process (or one set of processes) . This modular

approach allows for a great deal of flexibility: not all physical

processes may need to be described for certain low accuracy purposes,

for example. Any process can be described in as much detail as desired.

The model being developed at Harvard had taken shape by June 1, 1977

though still in fairly simple form: it was almost, but not quite, ready

to predict the progress of some new test fires that were run in June and

July 1977 at the FMRC facility (sponsored by the PRC)

.

In the year since then, a substantial amount of progress has been

made; the extent subroutines were standarized and their "bugs” removed,

and several new physical subroutines were developed. There were numerical instabilities and other difficulties inherent in the (Jacobi)

technique of successive substitution theretofore used in the solution of

the equations. These were overcome by making it possible for the com- puter to move from one numerical method to another. Two new algorithms,

which we refer to as Newton and Newton-fast have been added. Still

others can be added as desired in the future.

A start was made at extending the calculations to handle an arbitrary number of rooms, vents, fires, etc. (This is done by an elaborate

indexing procedure)

.

Predictions (and some post-dictions) were made for the 1977 test

fires. A description of the program and a partial analysis of the

results of the comparison between calculation and experiment was published. Agreement between theory and experiment was improved, and

extended over more variables. Since then some half-dozen physical subroutines have been modified to remove some unsuspected bugs, have

parameters changed to conform with better data, and be made internally

more consistent. Another half-dozen or so new subroutines (mostly

radiation) have been written and incorporated into the program. As of

June 1, 1978, not all were yet incorporated, but there was evident

improvement of overall results with the promise of further improvement

in the near future. (All of this is still for the single room with a single vent, single fire, and single target object). Several sensitivity

studies were carried out. These indicated that one of the principal

parameters affecting the result of the calculation is the entrainment

coefficient, a. This study also showed that the fire ought to be most

strongly affected by the level of the base of the fire: the higher it

is, the smaller can the maximum fire be.

Finally, one of our aims is to have our program universally usable,

and (conversely) able to accept subroutines written by others. To these

ends, we have sent our program to the NBS to run, and (after some re- writing by them) it runs on their 1108 computer and 732 mini-computer.

76
Also, a radiation subroutine written by A. Modak at FMRC was easily

incorporated into our program.

Thus the current status of the program is satisfactory, and we continue to make progress at roughly the expected rate.

The Effect of External Radiation on Ignition and Fire Spread - T.M.Shih & R. Land

The objective of this task is to investigate the characteristics of a horizontal fire under the influence of external radiation. Emphasis

has been placed on measurements of the flame spread rate, r(t); the mass pyrolysis rate, m (t), and the mass burning rate m^(t).

The apparatus includes: (a) f-our radiant heaters providing total

wattage o^ ll,000w and a nearly uniform incident radiant flux of

0.29 w/cm + .01 w/cm'^ on the fuel surface (b) an electronic weighing

device for mp measurements with linearity 0 to 4Kg and sensitivity of

better than Ig, and (c) an exhausting system capable of withdrawing

flows of 250 gm/sec and with a test section for velocity, temperature

and species measurements.

The thermal dif f usivlties and the thermal conductivities of the

foams used as fuel were obtained by measuring the temperature histories

in the foams exposed to a constant radiant flux. The heat of reaction

was measured with the oxygen bomb calorimeter.

It was relatively easy to measure r(t) and m (t) using photography

and the weighing transducer. More than ten burns^of 50 cm square

polyurethane foam buns were conducted inside a 3m cubical test enclosure with and without external radiation, q”. These two parameters

increase significantly as q" is Increased. For a 40% retarded PU foa^,

r(t) and m increase by lOot and 400% respectively with q” = 0.29w/cm

at t = lOO^sec. It was also unexpectedly found that, at a given flame

spread radius, m under external radiation is smaller than that without

external radiatiBn. The reason lies in the fact that the external

radiation heats the bun surface and causes the radius to enlarge much

more rapidly than the corresponding percentage increase in pyrolysis

rate. For steady-state acetone pool fires, m remains unchanged under , q” <_ 0.29 w/cm . This suggests that an exterRal radiation of 0.29 w/cm*^

is small in comparison with the flame radiative feedback.

Much effort has been directed to the measurement of m^ defined

herein as the rate of complete fuel combustion. Thus m, is equal to the

ratio of the total chemical energy evolved, q^, to the heat of reaction

AH measured with a calorimeter. Both the energy balance method and the

oxygen depletion method are being developed.

The Theory of Laminar Boundary Layer Burning with Radiation-J. Backovsky

A numerical parametric study has been done for radiation effects in

forced and free convection, laminar boundary layer burning of (vertical)

fuel surfaces - with the further restrictions that the flow-field be

steady-state and two-dimensional. The backbone of this approach is the

similarity analyses by H.W. Emmons and J. deRls on forced and free

convection burning, resp. Flame, surface, and external radiation are

77
included through redefinition of variables, some parameters, and boundary conditions. The values of local burning rate at the flame is key

to this approach, and has been computed.

The parameters which were varied presently include:

(a) those arising from the solution with n^ radiation: B, the mass

transfer number, in forced convection; B,t (the ratio of thermal

enthalpy above ambient-fluid enthalpy to the latent heat of fuel),

and stoichiometric coefficient r (mass of fuel material burnt per

unit mass of air), in free convection.

(b) those arising from the necessity of taking into account the actual

fuel consumption at the flame in order to calculate the flame radiation: T and r for forced convection. These are needed to obtain

fuel consumption whether radiation is included or not.

(c) those directly indicating the amount of radiation or the radiative

properties: Xj the ratio of the heat radiated per unit area of the

flame to the combustion energy liberated in the same area a, surface

absorptivity; A, the dimensionless group indicating the net of

wall radiative losses and externally applied radiation.

The effects of the above parameters ' on the following aspects of

burning have been obtained: fuel pyrolysis rate, fuel consumption rate,

flame temperature, max. fluid velocity (free conv.), air entrainment

rate, etc. The mass transfer no. B was again the major parameter indicating the vigor of pyrolysis, which is linked strongly with all other

aspects of the flow-field. It was found, however, that there is a critical B (for given T,r,x,a,A) below which the theory with no flame

radiation overestimates the pyrolysis rate, l.e., below which the

cooling of the flame by flame radiation is not sufficiently offset by a lesser conductive heat requirement at the fuel surface. Above the

critical B the flame radiation significantly increases the pyrolysis rate.

Extinguishment by Wa.ter -(R. Land) It was shown in previous work that

moisture in air does not change the burning rate of charcoal. Fine

water drops in small amounts (2%) in air increases the burning rate up

to 30%. Larger drops (2mm) studied this year extinguish an area of

about 50 sq. m.m. which re-lgnites in from 5 to 30 seconds. A reliable

dropper has not yet been devised. This experiment has been temporarily

discontinued because of lack of research funding.

Accomplishments

The 8 experimental fires have been predicted with fair

accuracy and new sub-programs have been devised to more accurately

describe the physics. The design, construction and calibration of the

test equipment to study the effect of external radiation on fire spread

is complete except for exhaust gas composition measurement. The effect

of radiation on boundary layer burning can be extensively understood

using available similarity solutions.

Potential Applications : The Math. Model already provides priorities on needed fire research and will have wide applicability to small scale

fire tests, fire codes, arson investigation, etc, if it can be completed

to the degree that now appears hopeful. Since radiation is a major heat

transfer process in fires, the radiation studies are essential to the
Math Model.

Future Milestones : The theoretical study of boundary layer combustion

will be completed in the year ahead. The Math Model will be further

developed through additional subroutines and will be made more flexible

by a new subscripting plan. The apparatus for the measurement of the

effect of external radiation on fire spread will be completed by the end

of the summer and needed fire data should be measured thereafter.

Reports and Papers :

1) Emmons, H. W. "A Scientist Looks at the Future of Fire Research",

Fire Chief Magazine, Jan. 1978. Vol. No. 1

2) Emmons, H.W. , Mitler, H. & Trefethen, L.N. "Computer Fire Code 111"

Harvard, Home Fire Technical Report No. 25, Jan. 1978

3) Emmons, H.W. "Using Technology to Resolve Issues Associated with the

Built Environment", 3rd Annual Conf. NFPCA, Oct. 1977

4) Emmons, H.W. "The Home Fire Viewed as a Scientific System" Soc.

Fire Protection Engrs. Oct. 1977

5) Emmons, H. W. "Fire" (in press) 8th Nat. Congress Applied Mechanics

UCLA, June, 1978.

6) Emmons, H.W. "The Prediction of Building Fires", 17th Int. Symposium

on Combustion, Leeds, England, 1978 (in press)

7) Land, R. "Aspects of Pol3mieric Materials, Proc. Nat. Symp. Fire

Safety, Amer. Chem. Soc. 1977 (Home Fire Project)

8) Land, R. "Home Fires" Man and Molecules, syndicated 15 min. Radio

Program, Amer. Chem. Soc. 1977 (#863)

9) Land, R. "Test Burns of Mattress and Bedclothes" Harvard Univ.

HFP Tr-24-1977

10) Land, R. "1975 Bedroom Fire Test" 10 min. Color, Sound, Film,

produced in assoc, with Harvard Univ. Video Serv. OIT, 1978

11) Land, R. "Flame Shape Observations" in Factory Mutual Research Corp.

Report on 1977 Full Scale Test series, PRC (in preparation).

12) Min, K. "Catalytic Sensor for the Measurement of Heat of Combustion

of Smoke", Harvard, Home Fire Project Tech. Report #23, Aug. 1977

13) Bhagat, P. M. "Effects of Water on Wood Charcoal Combustion"

Harvard, Home Fire Project, Tech. Report #22, Aug. 1977

79
Institution

IIT Research Institute

10 W. 35th Street

Chicago, Illinois 60616

Contract No.

NBS 711510-1

Contract Title: Reliability Modeling of Residential Smoke Detectors.

Principal Investigator: Hank Rickers

Reliability Analysis Center

IIT Research Institute

RADC/RBRAC

Griffiss AFB, NY 13441

315-330-4151

Other Professional Personnel : Steven J. Flint

David B. Nicholls

NBS Scientific Officer: Richard W. Bukowski

Project Summary: The critical nature of the applications of residential

smoke detectors, in safeguarding human life and property, emphasizes

the importance of the reliability of these devices. The residential

smoke detectors, which are relatively inexpensive, must be essentially

maintenance free over long periods of time and are required to reliably

provide an early warning upon incidence of smoke and/or fire even when

exposed to a multitude of environmental conditions. Therefore, it is

essential that a reliability prediction methodology must accurately

assess the consequences of the design, application and environmental

influences upon the ability of the components and circuits employed in

smoke detectors to perform their intended functions, even after many

years in service.

The methodology which can be employed in the reliability assessment of residential smoke detector designs is being developed. The

reliability model development utilizes reliability experiences of

smoke detectors and other electronic systems in residential environments and Incorporates the most current innovative reliability evaluation techniques. The methodology developed will provide the various

techniques required for the identification of critical components,

comparative evaluation of design alternatives, screening/test program

development and will offer flexibility to accommodate future smoke

detector design trends.

Progress Report: Traditional reliability assessment methodology determines system reliability figures from failure rate estimates for each

of the individual components employed therein. A number of formal

prediction procedures based on theoretical and statistical concepts

may be employed in the calculation of component failure rates. These

methods differ primarily in the level of detail and in the data from

which the prediction models were derived. To determine which technique

is most appropriate for residential smoke detectors or how existing

80
techniques could be modified, the attributes of the currently available

smoke detectors and future design trends were investigated. A data

collection program was initiated to acquire smoke detector design information, component procurement practices, component quality and inspection techniques and field experiences from each of the major smoke

detector manufacturers. In addition, the manufacturers of components

employed in smoke detectors and manufacturers of other equipments

employed in residential applications were contacted for similar information .

The information obtained in the data collection activities are being utilized as the basis for testing currently available reliability

assessment techniques and the deveJLopment of new methodology. The

development of prediction models for the various components employed

in residential smoke detectors is presently underway. These models are assuming forms similar to existing reliability models with parameter

modifications to adequately reflect the impact of various smoke detector

application characteristics on the component reliability.

Smoke detector reliability assessment also Involves the determination of component criticality. Information pertaining to computerized

Fault Tree and FMECA programs has been documented and reviewed to

evaluate their applicability to smoke detector circuits. A comparative

analysis has been performed indicating the advantages, disadvantages

and requirements associated with each of the techniques. A manual

Fault Tree/FMECA technique is presently being developed which will

provide a standard procedure and all necessary supporting Information

to perform a comprehensive system reliability evaluation.

Accomplishments

;

A survey of the residential smoke detector manufacturers has been completed. This activity has been instrumental in the

identification of current smoke detector designs, future trends and

design philosophies, as well as the reliability experiences with the

components employed* in smoke detectors.

An analysis of computerized Fault Tree and FMECA evaluation

techniques has been completed. The investigation provided a review

of the computer code abstracts, code efficiencies and applicability

to residential smoke detector systems for each of the analysis techniques .

Significant progress has been made in the development of reliability prediction models for the various smoke detector components.

Discussions with the manufacturers have provided insight to the impact

of various factors upon component and system reliability. These factors

are being reflected in a quantitative fashion in the prediction models.

Potential Applications: A comprehensive reliability assessment

technique dedicated specifically to residential smoke detectors would

serve as an indispensable design tool for the smoke detector manufacturer and would provide the basis for performing a comparative analysis

81
of various smoke detectors. This information, employed during the

design stages, would facilitate the identification of components or design techniques which contribute to detector non-reliability and would

indicate how these conditions could be minimized. In addition this

information can be utilized to establish an industry-standard reliability program.

Future Milestones: The culmination of this program will be a reliability prediction handbook for residential smoke detectors. This handbook

will contain all Information which is required to completely assess the

reliability of residential smoke detectors. Some of the major items

contained in this document will include: reliability prediction models

for all components, failure mode/lndicator distributions for all

components, procedure for manual Fault Tree/FMECA system evaluation

technique, and a discussion of screening/test techniques which may be

employed in the identification and removal of various types of component

failures

.

Reports and Papers:

Rickers, H.C., Flint, S.J. and Nicholls, D.B. "Reliability Modeling of

Smoke Detectors."

82
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : The Johns Hopkins University, School of Hygiene and

Public Health

Grant No .

;

G8-9001

Grant Title: Evaluation of Toxicity of Gombustion Products

Principal Investigator : Zoltan Annau, Ph.D.

The Johns Hopkins University

School of Hygiene and Public Health

Department of Environmental Health Sciences

615 North Wolfe Street

Baltimore, Maryland 21205

(301) 955-3029

Other Professional Personnel : William Sette, Research Associate

John Campbell, Research Technician

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. Merritt Birky

Project Summary : The great majority of fire victims die of the inhalation of toxic gases rather than actual burns. The purpose of this

project was to develop a sensitive animal behavioral model of the effects of the primary gases of combustion as well as the effects of

combustion products. Using rats as subjects we have shown that a dose

dependent alteration in the ongoing rate of behavior can be produced

by 30 minute exposures to carbon monoxide. The behavior consists of

a continuous avoidance schedule where animals have to press a lever

every 20 seconds to avoid getting an electric shock. Increasing the

CO levels decreases the rate of responding and Increases the number of

shocks received by the animals. The added stress of increased ambient

temperatures greatly enhances the behavioral disruption, suggesting

that the interaction between the toxicity of CO and temperature may be

complex

.

Progress Report : During the initial phase of the evaluation of toxic

combustion products we have adopted a simple animal behavioral model

in order to determine the effects of brief exposure to CO and elevated

temperatures. Since the purpose of the experiments was to evaluate

toxic effects on ongoing unrestrained behavior, whole body exposures

were used in these experiments.

Twelve adult male Long-Evans rats, weighing 500-550 grams, served

83
as subjects. They were individually housed in a controlled temperature

and humidity room with a 12 hour light/dark cycle.

Each of four plexiglass avoidance chambers (20.5 x 12.5 x 21 cm) was equipped with a stainless steel grid floor and a lever connected to

a microswitch mounted on the end wall. A digital computer connected to

these chambers controlled the avoidance schedule and recorded the number of shocks and responses. Gas exposures were carried out under dynamic conditions with a continuous air flow of 5 liters per minute

blown through a port in the top of each 5.4 liter chamber. A gas mixer

with an electronically controlled microvalve (Brooks Instruments) provided precise mixtures of carbon monoxide. Chamber CO concentrations

were monitored with an infrared gas analyzer (Beckman Instruments) at

five minute intervals in each chamber. Concentration gradients had a rise and evacuation time to steady state of 5 minutes and were maintained within 10% of the desired level. Each chamber was placed inside

a fibreboard enclosure (60 x 60 x 60 cm) equipped with a simple heater,

fan, and thermostat to Increase chamber temperatures. Chamber temperature was monitored continuously and maintained within 1° of the desired

level

.

The avoidance schedule delivered brief electric shocks (0.5 sec,

2 ma) to the grid floor every 5 seconds unless the subject pressed the

lever. Each response postponed the next shock by 30 seconds. Each

session lasted 105 minutes with a 15 minute warm-up period from which

the data were discarded followed by three 30 minute segments. The

number of responses/minute, shocks/minute, and interresponse times between 2-40 seconds were printed out every 30 minutes for each chamber.

Subjects were run 6 days /week with few exceptions.

Experiment I; Effects of Thirty Minute Exposure to Carbon Monoxide

Eight rats (SA 10, 11, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20 and 22) served as subjects. After their performance had become stable and reliable across daily sessions, they were exposed during the first 30 minute segment

of a session to a range of concentrations of CO between 1000 and 2000

ppm in an ascending and descending order. Subjects were exposed to

each concentration twice with at least 48 hours between exposures.

Results :

Carbon monoxide produced significant decreases in response rate

and increases in shock frequency during the last half of the 30 minute

exposures with good recovery by 30 minutes after the exposure. The

effect of the CO could be seen most readily as an increase in the number of shocks delivered in the late minutes of the exposure and the

minutes immediately following. While subjects differed in their sen- sitivity to CO, there was a significant increase in overall shock rate

at 1300 ppm.

Paired statistical comparisons were made using the Wllcoxin

84
Matched-Pairs Signed Ranks Test (one-tailed) . Control means were

calculated from 10 sessions and exposure means from the mean of 2 determinations for each subject. Overall rates were based upon the 30

minute exposures and the 30 minutes immediately following. There was a concentration dependent decrease in response rate and increase in shock

rate that peaked between 25-30 minutes, i.e. the last 5 minutes of the

exposure although significant changes were evident as early as 10-15

minutes at 2000 ppm. In general, effects on response rate were seen at

lower concentrations while effects on shock rate, when present, oc- curred earlier and were more pronounced. Shocks rates rose to 30

shocks/5 minutes at the peak effect of the highest concentration with

the theoretical maximum for this time period being 60 shocks, indicating that the baseline could reveal much greater Impairment.

Carboxyhemoglobin levels, taken at the end of the 30 minute exposure from cannulated non-performing rats were between 45-60%. These

values are in general agreement with the literature for these exposure

levels

.

Experiment 2: Effects of Environmental Temperature and Carbon Monoxide

Temperature Combinations

A simple heater, fan, and thermostat circuit allowed us to produce

steady state (±1°C) chamber temperatures up to 40°C. On temperature

control days, subjects were exposed to a constant temperature for the

first 75 minutes of the session. For CO and temperature combination

sessions, exposure to temperature preceeded onset of CO by 15 minutes

and continued at least 30 minutes beyond the 30 minute gas exposure.

Results :

Subject 23 died following the second exposure to 1666 ppm at 36°C

and Subject 25 died immediately following a 30 minute exposure to 40°C.

All subjects showed a significant increase in shock rate at 1666 ppm at

24°C. Only one subject, SA 26, showed an effect at 32°C without CO,

and this subject also showed an enhanced response to CO at 32°C. The

other 3 subjects showed no significant response to 32°C. Both subjects

exposed to 36°C showed a significant increase in shock rate throughout

the session. All 3 subjects exposed to CO at 36°C showed an enhanced

effect, with two subjects (23 and 25) showing a dramatic Increase in

the number of shocks taken.

Exposure to 36°C alone produced decreases in response rate and

increases in shock rate that remained steady throughout the course of

the exposure. This is in contrast to the effects of CO, where the effect increased sharply with duration of exposure. For SA 24, the 1666

ppm exposure at 36° produced a larger peak effect on shock rate with a much earlier onset of action with significant increases in shock rate

between 5-10 minutes and decreases in response rate between 5-10 min.

For the same exposure, SA 25 showed significant shock rate increases

almost immediately with response rate changes lagging behind by about

85
15 minutes. Carboxyhemoglobin levels (x = 59.8±2.9) taken after 30

minutes at 1666 ppm and 36° were not different from levels found at 32°

and 24° at 1666 ppm (x = 56.4±2.6, 58 . 4±3 . 1 , respectively) . Further

carboxyhemoglobin determinations at 15 minutes into the session along

with body temperature measurements as an indication of metabolic state

of the subject will further help characterize the physiological cor- relates of these effects.

Accomplishments : Our results to date indicate that the behavioral

paradigm we have chosen is a sensitive indicator of the effects of CO

and CO temperature interactions. The CO temperature interaction ex- periments also show that the animals become far more sensitive to the

effects of CO at higher temperatures than at room temperature and that

the effects of CO can be observed almost immediately after the CO is

administered. The possibility of a synergistic effect arises from the

data of animals 23 and 25 which showed an extreme deterioration in performance at 36°C and 1666 ppm CO. These combinations of CO and temperature are not extremes, in fact, the CO concentrations are low when

compared to CO concentrations observed in the pyrolysis of synthetic

polymers where the CO concentration can exceed 5000 ppm.

Potential Applications : In order to determine the hazards encountered

by human fire victims a sensitive behavioral model has to be developed.

Current assessment of the toxicity of combustion products relies

largely on either incapacitation, (loss of consciousness) or lethality

of animals. These behavioral endpoints are not sensitive enough to

predict real potential hazards to future fire victims and therefore,

will have to be supplanted by animals models that help us determine

the relative toxicity of materials as they affect purposeful ongoing

behavior

.

Future Milestones : Since during real fire situations people are exposed to a mixture of combustion products, our plan is to continue this

work by exposing animals in a behavioral situation to mixtures of pure

gases, at different ambient temperatures as well as mixtures of com- bustion products obtained by pyrolising more than one polymer at a time. With this more complex approach, using more than one behavioral

technique, we hope to define the hazards of accidental fires more

closely

.

Reports and Papers :

The Joint Meeting of ASPET/SOT, University of Houston, Texas, August,

1978.

86
Institution: The Johns Hopkins University/Applied Physics

Laboratory

Grant Title : Fire Problems Program

NBS Grant No.: G7-9016

Principal Investigators : Walter G. Berl; Robert M. Fristrom

Applied Physics Laboratory

The Johns Hopkins University

Johns Hopkins Road

Laurel, Md. 20810

(301) 953-7100

Other Professional Personnel:

Y. M. Caplan (Toxicology)* C. H. Hoshall (Physics)

0. J. Deters (Mathematics) L. W. Hunter (Chemical Physics)

R. S. Fisher (Pathology)* R. A. M. Myers (Medicine)*

C. Grunfelder (Physics)

B. M. Halpin (Mathematics)

P. J. van Tiggelen (Chemistry)*

Overall Project Summary : The two principal objectives o£ the APLdirected Fire Problems Program, supported since 1970 by the National

Science Foundation (IRPOS and RANN) or more recently by the Center for

Fire Research of the National Bureau of Standards (1974) and by the

National Fire Prevention and Control Administration (1975) are:

1. To quantify the medical and biochemical effects of fires on humans

,

2. To investigate the physical and chemical principles of the

ignition and extinction of polymers.

These topics are reported on separately as subtasks.

I. FIRE CASUALTIES STUDY

Project Summary : The objective of the program is to obtain reliable indepth information about people exposed to fire atmospheres. The two

project areas are:

A. The Fire Fatalities Project is an on-going program initiated in

1971 under the RANN Program and transferred to NBS in 1974. Case

studies are made of exposures to fire atmospheres resulting in respiratory system insult. The study is limited to fatalities occurring less

than 6 hours after the fire event. This eliminates most cases in which

burns are the predominant cause of death.

B. Prototype "Smoke Inhalation Treatment" extension of the

casualties studies was organized. A working arrangement involving the

Maryland Institute of Emergency Medical Services was brought to

fruition.

*Part-time

.

87
Progress Report :

A. Fire Fatalities Project : This project consists of four major

sub-efforts that involve cooperation among APL, the State Medical

Examiner, the State Fire Marshal and local fire department jurisdictions.

The four tasks are: (Ij Case Histories, (2) Cyanide Study, (3) Heart

Study in Fire Victims, and (4) Expert Assistance in Special Fire

Cases

.

(1) Case Histories : During the one-year period July 1,

1977 -June 30, 1978 there were 78 fatalities. This brings the total

case load for the program to 580. The victims died within 6 hours after

the fire and autopsies were performed with a detailed evaluation of the

coronary system. A review of the circumstances at the fire scene is

also included.

The fatalities during the year occurred in 69 fires with

64 of them in a residence. For the time period there were 1.1 deaths

per fire.

"Smoking” was considered to be the cause of the fire in

53% of the residential cases. The human involvement was quite apparent

in the overall fire problem, from ignition to casualty. Alcohol played

a significant role in the majority of the "smoking"-caused fires. Other

drugs played a very minor role.

Carbon monoxide poisoning was considered to be the primary

cause of death in approximately one-half of the fatalities. Preexisting heart disease in combination with carbon monoxide has been

implicated in another 30% of the cases (see heart study) . In approximately 10% of the cases, the cause of death cannot be ascertained.

A larger fraction of the residences in which the fatal

fires occurred contained more man-made polymeric materials in

furnishings than in the first years of the study. The polymers are found in all classes of furnishings for the homes as well as in clothing

and building materials.

(2) Cyanide Study : A study has been underway to investigate

factors in the analysis and interpretation of cyanide intake so that

its role could be evaluated. A gas chromatograph with electron capture

detector is used to determine blood cyanide levels.

From January 1, 1975 through March 1978, blood cyanide

measurements were made on 257 cases. The distribution of the measured

blood cyanide levels for the 257 cases shows that 34% of the victims

had a normal level (considered to be 0.25 Mg/ml of blood or less).

Thirty-one percent of the cases had levels considered to be in the

possibly or probably toxic ranges. The range of measured values are

0.0 to 4.3 Mg/ml

.

In those fires where primarily cellulosic materials were

involved, normal levels of blood cyanide were found. When synthetic

materials were involved that could have produced cyanide during the

fire, raised levels of blood cyanide were measured in the victims.

88
There is no direct evidence as yet that cyanide was either the incapacitating or lethal agent in the fatalities studied.

In general, a high level of blood cyanide is accompanied by a high level

of blood carboxyhemoglobin. However, in a number of instances fatalities were observed in which the combined CO/HCN intake was large - even though the separate intakes were insufficient to cause death.

(3) Heart Study : This study was initiated to explore the

relationship between pre-existing heart disease and blood carbon

monoxide levels inasfar as lethality is concerned. Persons with preexisting heart disease would be expected to survive for a shorter period

of time in a CO contaminated atmosphere than healthy individuals. This

premise is based on the assumption that heart disease jeopardizes the

myocardial oxygen supply in a normal atmosphere and that relatively low

levels of carboxyhemoglobin are sufficient to produce fatal heart

attacks

.

A measurable and quantifiable parameter of pre-existing

heart disease is the degree of coronary stenosis. In addition, it is

the most important and prevalent form of heart disease.

The study includes those individuals who die in a "typical" house fire while eliminating flash fires, automobile collision

fires, immolations, etc.

Using a scoring system based on the amount of stenosis

and the distance from the heart that the stenosis occurs, the relationship between blood carbon monoxide level and coronary artery stenosis

can be examined. It is believed that high stenosis scores lead to a low

carbon monoxide tolerance. However, in the presence of high alcohol

intake prior to exposure to the fire atmosphere, a higher tolerance to

carbon monoxide is manifested.

(4) Expert Assistance : In the past year the Fire Casualty

team has aided in providing the investigations of the multicasualty

Tennessee and Connecticut prison fires as well as the Cinema Follies

fire in Washington, D.C.

B. "Smoke Inhalation Treatment" Extension ; For some time the Johns

Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) Fire Casualty

Program has been attempting to secure a close working relationship

with hospital emergency rooms treating "smoke inhalation" victims. Such

a working relationship has now been provided and made functional with

the availability of the Hyperbaric Medical Treatment team headed by

Dr. R. A. M. Myers at the Maryland Institute of Emergency Medical

Services (MIEMS) and the Director of MIEMS, Dr. R. A. Cowley. The team

is part of the Shock Trauma Center at the University of Maryland

Hospital within the MIEMS framework. The hyperbaric medicine facilities

of the Shock Trauma Center of MIEMS will function as a "smoke inhalation

center" treating serious cases of exposure to the toxic environment of

fires. It will also make available data on 'serious’ fire smoke

injuries

.

This program will permit correlation of the survivor data with

the fatal fire data since fires will be covered in which both survivors

89
and fatalities result. Fire Departments that have already committed

themselves to the program are Baltimore City, Baltimore, Anne Arundel

and Prince George's Counties. Howard County has also expressed an interest and will probably be participating by mid-summer of 1978.

Treatment protocols and data formats have been established.

The criteria to be used for selection of patients are specifically

stated in letters to the fire departments. These criteria are being

used as guidelines by the participating fire departments. The basic

symptomatic criteria are:

a. All unconscious patients will be transported to the Smoke

Inhalation Center unless other criteria such as age, burns,

etc., suggest that the patients should go to other special

treatment centers.

b. Patients who are combative and incoherent or do not easily

follow verbal commands will also be taken to the Smoke Inhalation Center, with the above exceptions noted.

Accomplishments : The framework of cooperation of the Fire Fatalities

Studies is functioning smoothly. The special study areas such as heart

and cyanide analyses are providing interesting results and procedures.

The foundations for expanded effort in the treatment and studying the

relationship of "smoke inhalation" survivors and fatalities have been

established.

Potential Applications : Knowledge of the physical and medical causes

and complications resulting in fire casualties can be used to suggest

the direction for care of patients who are "overcome", designs of

"fire safe" materials for use in residences, building design, and the

need for more intense public education and effective detection and

warning devices.

Future Milestones : Fires which have significant interest to the fire

community will be included in the study. These will include special

materials fires and fires in which a number of people are treated as "Smoke Inhalation" casualties as well as fires in which fire detection

or suppression systems have been involved.

Reports and Papers :

1. Halpin, B.M., et al.. Proceedings of the 8th Annual Conference on Toxicology , Dec. 1977, "Toxicological Aspects of a Fire Fatality

Study"

.

2. Berl, W.G., Halpin, B.M., "An Analysis of Fatalities Caused by

Fires", paper given at GIB W14 13th meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark,

29 May - 2nd June 1978.

90
II. COMBUSTION RESEARCH

II-A. Polymer Flammability

Project Summary : Our objective is an improved understanding of polymer

combustion in terms of basic physical and chemical processes. We

carried out an in situ study of the chemistry of a polymer flame by a low pressure moving wire technique (MWT) . This study demonstrates the

kind of information obtainable and the reproducibility of the results.

The MWT functions well with charring polymers, complementing the opposed

flow diffusion flame method.

Progress Report : Precision analysis of polymer combustion chemistry is

favored by a steady state experiment. This requires moving the polymer

in laboratory coordinates so that the flame remains stationary. In the

opposed flow diffusion flame technique, the motion of the polymer is

opposed to the flow of O

2

. However, the steady regression of a charring

polymer is controlled by the char that is formed since the char must be

completely consumed before the polymer can be advanced. The regression

rate must be zero if inert additives are present.

These limitations are avoided by a transverse motion. In the

MWT, the polymer is coated on a supporting metal or glass core. The

wire is drawn in the direction of its axis across the wake of an 02-rich flame. The polymer flame is quenched where the wire leaves the

wake. Burned polymer is continuously replaced.

Reduced pressure expands the polymer flame and makes it easier

to probe the pyrolysate gases. Over the past year, we extended the MWT

to reduced pressures. As a demonstration of the technique, we measured

the structure of a polyvinyl chloride flame at reduced pressure

(0.1 atm = 10 kNm~2) . The polymer was commercially coated on a fiber

glass yarn, 0.2 mm in diameter. Samples were taken by a quartz microprobe and the higher molecular weight species were analyzed on a quadrupole mass spectrometer. The material evolving from the burning

polymer was estimated to be 0.4% benzene and —14% pentene isomers.

Butene isomers and lower molecular weight species accounted for the

remainder. The total mass flux from the burning surface was

0.17 kg m“2s-l and the surface temperature at ignition was 660K.

Composition and temperature profiles were steady and reproducible. The polymer flame front was the surface of a cylinder, coaxial

with the yarn, and opening slightly in the downstream direction at a distance of 4 to 5 mm (40 yarn radii) from the yarn. Composition and

temperature profiles were also rotationally symmetric. Radial gradients

dominated longitudinal and angular gradients. The hydrocarbons were

confined to within 2 mm of the surface. The O

2 concentration (22% in

the burner wake) dropped to 0 inside the polymer flame front where the

CO

2 and H

2 O levels showed increases.

91
Accomplishments: We developed a low pressure MWT for studying polymer

combustion. We demonstrated by a detailed study of polyvinyl chloride

that the MWT provides a means to identify the flammable gases which

evolve under flaming conditions and to study the structure of the

polymer flame.

Potential Applications: The MWT functions well with charring polymers,

complementing the opposed flow diffusion flame method. The MWT is

capable of clarifying the mode of action of inhibiting additives in

polymers

.

Future Milestones: Ignition in the MWT is highly reproducible due to

the use of an 02-rich burner flame. Ignition of a range of polymers

will be studied in such a flame. The MWT has also led us to begin a theoretical study of flame propagation over polymer coated wires, with a goal of clarifying the role of longitudinal heat conduction in a metal

core

.

Reports

1. H. Schacke, L. W. Hunter, C. Grunfelder and R. M. Fristrom,

"Combustion of Poly (vinyl chloride) Studied by the Moving Wire

Technique", Sixteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion

(The Combustion Institute, 1977).

2. L. W. Hunter and S. Favin, "Steady State Temperature Distribution

in a Solid Cylinder Moving in the Direction of its Axis through a Cross-Flow of Hot Cas", J. Heat Transfer 99 , 668 (1977).

3. L. W. Hunter and C. Crunfelder, "Heat Transfer Measurements in the

Moving Wire Technique for Studying Polymer Flammability", submitted

to Comb. Flame .

4. L. W. Hunter, H. Hoshall, C. Crunfelder and R. M. Fristrom, "Moving

Thermocouple Measurements of Heat Transfer in Hot Cases", submitted

to 10th Materials Research Symposium at NBS.

5. Li W. Hunter, C. Crunfelder, C. H. Hoshall and R. M. Fristrom,

"Combustion of Polyvinyl Chloride Studied by a Low Pressure Moving

Wire Technique", submitted to Comb. Flame .

II-B. Inhibition Chemistry

Project Summary : The objective of the inhibition chemistry studies has

been to develop an understanding of the chemical inhibition of flames so that predictions could be made of the effect of an inhibitor based on

its flame chemistry. This would have the two-fold value of suggesting

promising candidates for inhibition and extinction and provide an upper

limit for the effectiveness of such processes. In this work we have

collaborated with the University of California, Berkeley; the University

of Louvain la Neuve and the University of Cbttingen.

92
The initial work (Ref. 1) proposed an inhibition index <J>, a dimensionless parameter which normalizes the fractional cl\ange in

burning velocity with the ratio of inlet oxygen to inhibitor concentration.

<P = V - Vj O

2

V 1

= inhibition index (dimensionless)

V = velocity (cm/sec)

I = inhibitor concentration

By identifying the dominant inhibition reactions with

scavenging and cyclic recombination induced by halogen atoms, it was possible to show that this addition of new paths for radical destruction

has the effect of increasing the temperature of the radical production

zone

.

To handle flame problems with complex chemistry, we have

developed a simple zonal flame model which yields algebraic solutions.

This allows realistic chemistry to be introduced while still allowing

economical computations. It has been successfully applied to the

hydrogen-oxygen flame (Ref. 2) and an HCl inhibited hydrogen-oxygen

flame (Ref. 3)

.

Further study indicated that inhibition effectiveness appeared

to be an additive function of the atomic constitution of inhibitors

(Ref. 4). Using the zonal model, we were able to develop an algebraic

relation between the inhibition index and the rates of several three

body recombinations (H + Cl + M; H + Br + M and H + I + M) and to

demonstrate the reasons for apparent additivity of inhibitor effect and

to explain the observed deviations with changes of pressure and flame

temperature in terms of changing reaction zone temperature and kinetic

mechanisms. The theory allowed quantitative correlation of most of the

inhibition measurements found in the literature (for CHX compounds) with

these three rates and this simple model.

To supplement these studies and provide parameters, we have

developed a new technique for measuring reactions at flame temperatures

and applied it to several scavenger reactions (Ref. 5) and demonstrated

the agreement with accepted methods (Ref. 6) . The kinetics of several

inhibition reactions have been studied by the discharge flow - ESR

technique and by the atomic fluorescence method (Ref. 6) . The struction

of a low pressure inhibited flame was studied (Ref. 7)

.

A study of the structure of some low pressure hydrogen- oxygen

flames was made in collaboration with the University of California,

Berkeley and the University of GUttingen, Germany (Ref. 8)

.

93
Seven survey papers have been prepared (Refs. 9-15).

Progress Report : During 1978 six papers were prepared and/or published

(Refs. 3, 4, 8, 10, 15, and 16).

Future Milestones : A summary paper on progress in the field of inhibition and extinction is planned.

We hope to explore a new theory connecting halogen extinction

phenomena and basic kinetics.

Experimentally, we plan to explore the potential of the point

source technique, and the gradient tube methods as measures of extinction.

Reports

1. Fristrom, R.M., and Sawyer, R., "Flame Inhibition Chemistry",

AGARD (1971) .

2. Brown, N.J., Fristrom, R.M. and Sawyer, R., "A Simple Premixed

Flame Model with Application to H

2 + Air Flames", Comb, and Flame

269 (1974) .

3. Brown, N.J., and Fristrom, R.M., "A Two Zone Model of Flame Propagation Applied to + Air Flames and HCl Inhibited Flames",

accepted by Fire and Materials (1978)

.

4. Fristrom, R.M., "An Interpretation of the Inhibition of HCO Flames

by HCX Compounds", to be presented at the 17th Symposium on Combustion, Leeds (1978) .

5. Hart, L., Grunfelder, C. and Fristrom, R.M., "The Point Source

Technique Using Upstream Sampling for Rate Constant Determination

in Flame Gases", Comb, and Flame 23 , 109 (1974).

6. Westenberg, A. A. and DeHaas, N., "Rate of H + CH_X Reactions",

J. Chem. Phys. 62, 3321 (1975).

7. Hunter, L.W., Grunfelder, C. and Fristrom, R.M., "The Effect of

CF^Br on a C0-H2~02-Ar Diffusion Flame", Halogenated Fire

Suppressants , Ed. R. Gans, ACS Symposium, Spring (1975) p. 234.

8. Brown, N.J., Eberius, K.H., Fristrom, R.M., Hoyermann, K.H. and

Wagner, H. Gg., "Low Pressure Hydrogen/Oxygen Flame Studies",

accepted Combustion and Flame (1978)

.

9. Fristrom, R.M. , "Flames as Catalytic System" (in German)

Katalyse, Ed. Hauffe, pp. 1-32, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin,

(1976)

.

94
10. Fristrom, R.M., "Flames as Chemical Reactors" in Flames as Reactions in Flow , I. Sorgato, ed., Consiglio Nazionale delle

Richerche, Roma, p. 89 (1975).

11. Fristrom, R.M., "Probe Measurements in Laminar Combustion Systems",

Project Squid Workshop on Combustion Measurements, Academic Press,

p. 289 (1975), also Fire Res. Abs. and Rev. 16 1 (1974).

12. Fristrom, R.M., "Flame Sampling for Mass Spectrometry", Int. J. of

Mass Spec, and Ion Phys . 16 , 15 (1975)

.

13. Fristrom, R.M., "Sampling and Analysis of Fire Atmospheres", ASTM

614 Fire Standards and Safety , 'A. F. Robertson, ed., ASTM-NBS

Philadelphia, Pa. (1976).

14. Westenberg, A. A. and DeHaas, N., "A Flash Photolysis-Resonance

Fluorescence Study of the 0+C^H_ and 0+C„H_Cl Reactions",

J. Chem. Phys . ^ 4900 (1977)7

^ ^

15. Fristrom, R.M., "The Problems, Language, and Scientific Basis of

Flammability Testing", to be published in the Fire Safety Panel

Conference, IEEE Transactions, September 26-29, 1977.

16. Fristrom, R.M., "Polymer Combustion" to be published in the

Proceedings of the 1977 Conference on Electrical Insulation and

Dielectric Phenomena, sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences/

National Research Council, Albany, N.Y., 20 October 1977.

95
Institution:

The Johns Hopkins University, School of Hygiene and Public Health,

Baltimore, Maryland.

Grant Number :

NBS Grant G7-9025

Grant Title :

(Project Smoke) Fire Problems Research and Synthesis - 1977-78.

Principal Investigator :

Marshal S. Levine, M.D., MPH, Department of Environmental Health

Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, School of Hygiene and Public

Health, Baltimore, Maryland (301) 955-3295.

NBS Scientific Officer:

Dr. Merritt Birky

Project Summary :

A series of investigations entitled "Project Smoke" have been

carried out in conjunction with the Johns Hopkins University

Applied Physics Laboratory Fire Problems Research and Synthesis

program. The objective of Project Smoke has been to determine

the health effects of exposure to the fire atmosphere in both

civilians and professional firefighters. We have investigated

the health outcome of inadvertent exposures of civilian casualties trapped in fires, as well as the acute and chronic effects

experienced by professional firefighters who are repeatedly

exposed to the fire atmosphere during their routine activities.

a) Levels of Acute Exposure - We have demonstrated the presence

of elevated blood carboxyhemoglobin levels in firefighters

who considered themselves healthy and capable of continuing

their activities. Elevations of carboxyhemoglobin levels

above controls were seen in sixty percent of non-smoking firefighters and were present in all smoking categories. Less

frequent elevations of hydrogen cyanide were also found in all

smoking categories. The levels of exposure as measured by

blood carboxyhemoglobins did not relate to the firefighters’

subjective evaluation of the type of exposure he was receiving.

There was no relationship to the quality of smoke nor to the

time of exposure. Therefore, we feel that the firefighter

cannot determine his own exposure status by using common

96
subjective measures of the quality of the fire he is fighting.

b) Civilian Casualties - We have investigated civilian casualties

from building fires in the city of Baltimore and have found

that the majority of fatalities were due to carbon monoxide

intoxication rather than burns themselves, although burns ac- count for more hospital days of treatment. Approximately one

in seven of the fire victims in our sample had a fatal outcome.

c) Protective Effect of Breathing Apparatus - We have found that

while continuous use of compressed air breathing apparatus

protects firefighters from exposure to toxic gases and lack of use does not offer protection, intermittent use of the mask

seems to offer little advantage over non use. This may be due

to the inability of the firefighter to subjectively determine

the level of exposure he is receiving at any particular time,

thus encouraging him to remove his mask at inappropriate times

.

Progress Report :

An investigation of the chronic effects of repeated short term

exposures to the fire atmosphere has been undertaken by obtaining

pulmonary function studies and electrocardiograms from firefighters. Pulmonary function tests have been analyzed to determine both obstructive and restrictive defects in pulmonary

function. Results were then compared with published standards

for normals as well as with a group of neighborhood controls

identified through another study. Attempts have been made to

relate changes in pulmonary function to subjective measures such

as the number of times a firefighter has been hospitalized for

smoke inhalation, the number of times he has taken oxygen on the

fire ground, the number of times he brought up black sputum for

prolonged periods of time, and the number of times he felt overcome on the fire ground. Objective measures of exposure included

the number of fires fought, the type of company (engine, truck,

or administrative and years on the service).

Computer programs have been developed which allow multiple re- gression comparisons of these various factors and the different

measures of lung function.

Accomplishments :

Project smoke has been able to add to the understanding of the

health effects of both occupational and accidental exposures to

the fire atmosphere. We are developing a broad understanding of

the immediate subtle effects of exposure as well as the cumulative

effects of repeated short term exposures over the working life

time of firefighters. And finally, we have investigated causes

97
of death in both firefighters and civilian casualties.

Progress is being made toward understanding the nature of com- promised pulmonary function occurring in firefighters and the

relationship of these defects to various measures of exposure

to the fire atmosphere. It appears that firefighters develop

restrictive defects in their total lung capacity as compared

to controls. Relating these observed defects to exact measures

of toxic exposures in the fire atmosphere has been difficult

due to the unanticipated nature of building fires as well as the difficulty of measuring the exact quality and quantity of

exposures received.

Presentations have been made to members of the Baltimore Fire

Department which have included the results of acute exposures

and particularly the variable protection afforded by intermittent use of the face mask. This resulted in strengthening

of already existing regulations and increased understanding

and compliance on the part of the men.

Potential Applications :

The ultimate goal of investigation of the health effects of

exposures to the fire atmosphere is the control of those exposures and the prevention of the disease and disability which

results. A more thorough knowledge of the exact mechanisms

and nature of diseases developed will allow us to improve control procedures as well as to identify those tests which best

identify early pulmonary compromise.

Future Milestones :

Previously collected data pertaining to cardiovascular risk

factors (EKG, BP, medical histories) requires analysis.

Findings of both pulmonary and cardiac defects will be published in the scientific literature and then disseminated to

the user community.

Reports and Papers :

Levine, M.S., Radford, E.P. Occupational Exposures to Cyanide

in Baltimore Firefighters. J. Occ. Med . 20(1): 53-56. January,

1978.

Levine, M.S., Radford, E.P. Fire Victims. Medical Outcomes and

Demographic Characteristics. Am. J. Pub. Health . 67(11):

1077-1080, Noyember, 1977.

Hohman, B., Levine, M.S. Medical Monitoring of Toxic Exposures

98
in the Fire Atmosphere. Submitted to Amer. J. Nursing .

Levine, M.S. Medical Monitoring and Habits of Mask Use. To be

submitted to Amer. Ind. Hyg. J .

Levine, M.S., Hohman, B. The Use of the Face Mask and Protection from the Fire Atmosphere. Accepted for publication

in Fire Journal.

99
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Loyola University of Chicago

Grant No.

NBS Grant-6-9015

Grant Title: An Assessment of Planning and Training for Fire Safety

in Health Care Facilities

Principal Investigator : Dr. Leonard B. Bickman

Department of Applied Social Psychology

Loyola University of Chicago

6525 North Sheridan Road

Chicago, Illinois 60626

(312) 274-3000 X576

Other Professional Personnel : Perry Edelman, Ph.D. Candidate

Department of Applied Social Psychology

Loyola University of Chicago

6525 North Sheridan Road

Chicago, Illinois 60626

(312) 274-3000 X524

Elicia Herz, Ph.D. Candidate

Department of Applied Social Psychology

Loyola University of Chicago

6525 North Sheridan Road

Chicago, Illinois 60626

(312) 274-3000 X524

NBS Scientific Officer: B. Levin

Project Summary : A quasi-experimental design was used to study the

effect of fire emergency training on nursing home staff's knowledge and

behavior. Six nursing homes in a Chicago suburb were divided into two

groups — first and second phase homes. First phase homes received

training during the study. Second phase homes also received training,

but only after the study was completed. These homes served as a com- parison group. After reviewing a number of emergency plans and guidelines, the researchers developed a general, one hour training lecture

in consultation with the fire department. The full training session

consisted of this lecture, delivered by the city's head of the fire

prevention and control, and a short (approximately 10 minutes long)

slide and cassette presentation developed by the National Bureau of

100
Standards.

The nursing home staff's knowledge of appropriate fire emergency

procedures was assessed using a questionnaire which was developed and

pilot- tested by the researchers. The questions were based primarily

on the training lecture. The questionnaire was administered to staff

on all shifts in all six homes, both pre- and post-training in the first

phase homes. Trained graduate and undergraduate students observed the

behavior of residents and staff on the fire floor and near the main

administrative area of the nursing home. Observers used mini-cassette

recorders to record their observations. In addition a video camera directed towards the nurses' station, was positioned some distance from

the station and recorded activity over a significant portion of the fire

floor.

This project represents the first attempt (known to the researchers) to assess both knowledge and behavior of nursing home staff as it

relates to fire emergencies. Secondly, it provides an evaluation

of the effectiveness of a fire emergency training session developed by

the researchers.

Progress Report : The data collection stage has been completed. The

total number of respondents who completed pre-training questionnaires

was 252. One to two weeks after questionnaires were completed in each

home, fire drills were observed. First phase homes then received the

training session about six weeks after the drill observation. The

post-training questionnaire was administered in each nursing home

approximately one week after training. One hundred ninety-nine staff

members completed post-training questionnaires (112 of these staff members complqtqd pre- training questionnaires) . A second drill was observed approximately one week after all post-training questionnaires

were administered. Second phase homes received training four weeks

after this drill observation. To summarize:

Training in second phase homes x

Post-training drill observation

in all homes x

Post-training questionnaire in

all homes xxx

Training in first phase hones xxx

Pre- training drill observation in

all homes xxx

Pre-training questionnaire in all

homes x

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

101
No. of respondents

Completed both pre- and post- training

questionnaires

112

140 Completed only pre-training questionnaire

87 Completed only post- training questionnaire

339 Total number of completed questionnaires

Accomplishments : A number of specific accomplishments have been

achieved. A multiple choice and true and false format survey was developed which can be used to determine the nursing home staff's

knowledge of appropriate behavior in fires. In addition, an observational procedure has been developed which can be utilized to measure

staff performance during a fire drill. This development is seen as

a significant move towards nursing home accountability in terms of

fire emergency preparedness. Whereas, H.E.W. requires 12 fire drills

during a year's time, no mention is made of the evaluation of these

drills. The researchers have developed a technique which can be used

to provide the needed evaluation. In addition, a simple checklist

evaluation form is being developed which would allow administrator's to assess their own drills (see "Future Milestones").

The emergency plans of the six participating nursing homes have

been reviewed with administrators. Revisions have been couple ted

which have made these plans more clear and comprehensive. In most

cases this has meant complete rewriting of the fire emergency proce dures

.

A fire emergency training lecture was developed which, with only

minor changes to accommodate differences among nursing homes, can be

used in any nursing facility as an introductory lecture. An analysis

of respondents' recall of the lecture will provide direction as to

what aspects of the lecture need to be emphasized or otherwise altered

(see "Futiire Milestones").

A final accomplishment to date has been the establishment of the

computer data file. Analysis of the data has been initiated.

Potential Applications : Currently there are few regulations concerning

the preparedness of nursing home staff members for fire emergencies.

According to H.E.W. emergency plans must exist and fire drills must

be conducted. However, there are no standards against which to

judge either plans on drills. In addition, there is no provision for

assessing the staff's knowledge of plans or drills.

The researchers' training lecture and model emergency plan based

on the lecture -- provides a first attempt at providing the needed

standards. The effectiveness of the training is being assessed, and

modifications will la ascertained. In addition, the knowledge and

102
behavior of staff members can be determined using the researchers'

survey and fire drill evaluation procedure. In this manner, administrators can be assured that they are maintaining the highest level

of fire emergency preparedness and they can be confident that should a fire occur, it will be dealt with efficiently and with minimal loss of

lives and property.

Future Milestones ; The major analysis of the data has only recently

begun. There are two types of data to be analyzed. One is the re- sponses to the survey. This material has been computerized and initial

analyses have begun. The second type of information to be analyzed

is the fire drill observational da.ta. The assessment of this behavioral data is a complicated procedure and the researchers' efforts re- present a unique attempt. Therefore, the researchers' are currently

developing a number of possible evaluation procedures which might prove

useful with this data. Future work in this area will help determine the

most appropriate technique of assessment.

Both types of data — survey and observational — will be used to

study the effect of the training session. Changes in knowledge or behavior after training in first phase nursing homes should provide an indication of the success of the training. In addition, responses to

particular survey questions will demonstrate which portions of the

training were easily learned and which were not. This in turn will

provide information needed to improve the training material.

The data collected from the nursing homes will serve another purpose as well- It will provide baseline information of the general preparedness of nursing homes. The information should be of interest to

administrators of other health care facilities.

In conjunction with the assessment of the drill observation, a simple form which can be used by administrators of nursing homes to

evaluate their own fire drills is being developed. In this manner,

employees can receive feedback on their performance, and further instructions when necessary.

There are two further analyses to be completed. One will serve

as a reliability check on data collected previously using the Primary

Source Interview (Edelman, Herz, & Bickman, 1978).* The check is on

the ability of staff members to recall their behavior during a fire a number of weeks after the drill occurred. This check will provide an indication of the accuracy of responses of individuals who have been

involved in simulated and real fire situations. The other analysis

concerns the slide and cassette presentation which was developed by

NBS and used in training. Staff responses to a short set of questions

*Edelman, P. , Herz, E., & Bickman, L. Manuscript to

be published in a book concerning fire and human behavior edited by

Dr. David Canter in England, in June, 1978.

103
concerning the usefulness of the presentation will be analyzed.

Reports and Papers :

Bickman , L. , Edelman, P., and McDaniel, M. "A Model of Human Behavior

in a Fire Emergency" (Manuscript to be published in a book concerning

fire and human behavior edited by Dr. David Canter in England, June,

1978)

.

Edelman, P. , Herz, E., and Bickman, L. "Applications of 'A Model of

Human Behavior in a Fire Emergency' to the Analysis of a Nursing Home

Fire" (Manuscript to be published in a book concerning fire and hiiman

behavior edited by Dr. David Canter in England, June, 1978).

Herz, E. , Edelman, P., and Bickman, L. "Fire Emergency Training:

Its Impact on the Knowledge and Behavior of Nursing Home Staff"

(Manuscript to be published in a book concerning fire and human behavior

edited by Dr. David Canter in England, June, 1978.

McDaniel, M.A., Bickman, L. , Edelman, P., and Herz, E. "Attitudes

Concerning Fire Preparedness: A Survey and Reverse Records Check"

(Manuscript to be published in a book concerning fire and human behavior edited by Dr. David Canter in England, June, 1978).

104
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Loyola University of Chicago

Grant No

.

:

Grant Title : Behavioral Analysis of the Life Safety Code

Principal Investigator : Dr. Leonard Bickman, Director

Applied Social Psychology Program

Loyola University of Chicago

6525 N. Sheridan Road

Chicago, IL 60626

Other Professional Personnel : Mr. David Rivers

NBS Scientific Officer : B. Levin

Project Summary : The Life Safety Code, NFPA Standard No. 101, is one

of many model codes that is used by various government agencies to

establish minimum requirements for building fire safety. The Code is

based on engineering and technical knowledge in the field of fire

safety. However, behavioral and psychological perspectives were

generally lacking in the development of the Code.

Within each provision of the Code there may be assumptions made

concerning human behavior. The proposed research project will analyze

the Code, citing relevant research findings that either support or contradict the provisions. The final product will be a behavioral

and psychological analysis of the Life Safety Code by provision. This

analysis will Include an overview of the Code summarizing Inherent

themes reflecting assumptions of human behavior in a fire situation.

105
Institution : Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California

Berkeley

Grant No.: 812464

Grant Title : Fire Growth Experiments - Toward a Standard Room Fire Test

Principal Investigator : Professor Robert Brady Williamson

507 Davis Hall

University of California

Berkeley, California 94720 415-642-5308

Other Professional Personnel : David Van Volkinburg, graduate student

Wai-Ching Teresa Ling, graduate student

Fred Fisher (Development Engineer - UCB)

NBS Scientific Officer: William Parker

Project Summary : A series of six room fire experiments are to be con- ducted in an 8x12 foot test compartment with the following lining

materials on all walls and ceilings:

Test No.

1

23

4

5

6

WALL

Gypsum Wallboard

Glass Fiber Insulation

Plywood

Plywood

Glass Fiber Insulation

Plywood

CEILING

Gypsum Wallboard

Glass Fiber Insulation

Glass Fiber Insulation

Gypsum Wallboard

Plywood

Plywood

The ignition source for these experiments will be a gas burner in the corner with 4.9 CFM of CH4

. There will be measurements of (i) the

oxygen depletion in the exhaust gases leaving the room, (ii) the average

upper air temperature in the room, (iii) the pressure and temperature

profile from floor to ceiling in the center of the room, (iv) the surface temperature at the center of the ceiling and on a wall above the

ignition source, (v) heat fluxes at several locations and (vi) the

vertical temperature profile at the door.

Progress Report : This project only started at the end of June, so as this summary is being written, the experiments are in the initial stage.

Potential Applications : The data gathered in these experiments will be

useful to verify the deterministic models of fire growth, as well as support the development of a standard room fire test.

Reports and Papers :

"Toward a Standard Ignition Source," by David Van Volkinburg , R.B. Williamson, Fred L. Fisher and Harry Hasegawa. Paper to be presented to

Western States Section of the Combustion Institute at the 1978 Fall

Meeting, Laguna Beach, California.

106
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Insti tution : Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California

Berkel ey

Grant No

.

: 809252

Grant Ti tl e : Fire Modeling

Principal Investigator : Professor Patrick J. Pagni

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of California

Berkeley, California 94720

Telephone: (41 5) 642-0729

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Tein-Mo Shih (now Assistant

Professor, University of Maryland)

Dr. Reza Toossi (now Postdoctoral

Research Engineer, Lawrence Berkeley

Laboratory)

Charles M. Kinoshita, Ph.D. Candidate

Steven Bard, Ph.D. Candidate

Richard A. Beier, Ph.D. Candidate

Arthur Ortega, M.S. Candidate

David Wang (now at California State

Air Resources Board)

Kevork Kayayan (now at Barry Controls

Corp.

)

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. Howard Baum

Project Summary : The overall goal of this project is to develop physical and mathematical models of the detailed combustion phenomena which

control a fire's growth within a compartment of origin and its subsequent propagation through a structure. These experimental studies and

theoretical analyses attempt to provide bases for eventual development

of test methods and predictive capabilities for meaningful evaluation of

the real fire hazard of specific materials and configurations. This

work is divided into three broad categories: (1) extensions and applications of excess pyrolyzate concepts, (2) soot volume fractions in

diffusion flames, (3) flat flame burner designs and experiments.

107
Progress Report :

1. Excess Pyrolyzate : Several papers have been published describing the effects of fuel which is not consumed locally in the flame that

produced it [1,2, 3, 4, 5]. In preparation for applying this concept to

compartment fires, the wel 1 -defined, steady, two-dimensional, laminar,

opposed flow, diffusion flame was considered [6]. Predictions of flame

heights and excess pyrolyzate have been obtained for axisymmetric and

two dimensional geometries. Agreement within ten percent with preliminary flame height experiments using PMMA in an OFDF apparatus previously

described by Sawyer and co-workers has been obtained. The problem of a fuel jet impinging on a noncombustible plate with an oxidizing ambience

has also been considered. Order of magnitude extention of laminar flame

heights due to this impingement is predicted. In addition, experimental

flame heights for PMMA were measured over a wide range of ambient oxygen

concentrations in a forced flow apparatus. Agreement with predictions

within twenty percent is obtained.

2. Soot Volume Fractions : Experimental values of the volume fraction of small turbulent diffusion flames occupied by combustion generated carbon particulate are listed in Table I for some of the common

fuels tested.

Table I. Sampl e Soot Vol ume Fractions

Fuel Polys tyrene Polyurethane PMMA Acetone

(Foam) (Solid) (Foam) (Solid) (Liquid)

f xlO^ 4.7 4.6 0.80 0.31 0.18

Since scattering appears to be important for flames with volume fractions greater than 3 x 10“^, a multiwave length technique was required

to determine accurate soot volume fractions. Measurement of the attenuation at several wavelengths of monochromatic laser beams passing

through a flame determines, i n addition to fy, approximate detailed size

distributions of the carbon particles within the flame [7]. Calculations of flame radiation back to polyurethane fuel in a pool fire geometry yields good agreement with experimental mass burning rates [8].

3.

Flat Flame Burner : The detailed temperature and velocity field

around a cooling coil embedded in a porous plug burner have been predicted assuming a low Reynolds number media. The results indicate that

the maximum extension of the coil wake beyond the front stagnation point

is 5 coil diameters and that as the distance between coils decreases,

the length of the coil wake also decreases to a limit of approximately

two diameters. The governing nondimensional groups have been identified

and the character of the solution over their full range has been examined. Flat flame burners have been designed and built based on these

results [9].

Other studies of flame spread in opposed flow, excess pyrolyzate

108
in compartments and heat and mass transfer in wet concrete are in preparation [10].

Accompl ishments : Successful comparison between excess pyrolyzate and

flame height predictions and laboratory data have been obtained in a wide variety of systems. The effects of physical and chemical parameters on flame height have been clearly delineated. A technique for

measuring the volume fraction of soot in flames in situ has been developed and data on fy and detailed size distributions of combustion generated carbon particles have been obtained for several common solid, foam

and liquid fuels. Temperature and velocity fields within water cooled

flat flame burners have been predicted and apparata are available

designed according to these analyses.

Potential Applications : Flame radiation is now well accepted as the

dominant heat transfer mode in full scale fires. This radiation is in

turn controlled by the amount of soot in the flame which now can be

measured in both laboratory and full scale flames by the techniques developed here. Criteria to be included in ranking material hazard may

develop from our studies of excess pyrolyzate. In addition, similar

analyses may have utility as sub-program components in compartment fire

prediction models under development elsewhere. The flat flame burner

described here is now in use in several laboratories and will permit

useful comparisons of detailed flame structure experiments.

Future Mil estones : Further appl ications of excess pyrolyzate calculations in systems with both external and flame generated radiation, vitiated ambience and feedback from compartment configurations are under

development. Experiments are continuing to obtain data on flame lengths

for comparison with predictions. The multiwavelength laser technique

for in situ measurments carbon particulates in flames will be refined to

give more accurate particle size distributions for a wide variety of

fuels. The effects of flame scale and the variation of the size distribution in space and time will be explored.

Reports and Papers :

1. T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Excess Pyrolyzate", Sixteenth Symposium

(Int'l) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, 1 329-1 343, 1 976.

2. T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Laminar Mixed-Mode, Forced and Free,

Diffusion Flames", Journal of Heat Transfer , 1 00 , 253-259, 1978.

3. T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Analytic Incorporation of Probability

Density Functions in Turbulent Flames", International Journal of

Heat and Mass Transfer , 21 , 821-824, 1978.

4. T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Excess Pyrolyzate in Turbulent Wake

Flames", submitted to Combustion and Flame .

109
5. T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Parametric Expansion Method for TwoPoint Boundary Value Problems", in preparation.

6. C.M. Kinoshita and P.J. Pagni, "Excess Pyrolyzate in Opposed Flow

Diffusion Flames", in preparation.

7. P.J. Pagni and S. Bard, "Particulate Volume Fractions in Diffusion

Flames" accepted for publication in the Proceedings of the Seventeenth Symposium (Int'l ) on Combustion.

8. S. Bard, K.H. Clow and P.J. Pagni, "Combustion of Cellular Urethane"

Combustion Science and Technology , in press.

9. R. Toossi, "Physical and Chemical Properties of Combustion Generated

Soot", Report LBL-7820, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of

California, Berkeley, May 1 978.

10. M.S. Sahota and P.J. Pagni, "Heat and Mass Transfer in Porous Media

Subject to Fires", submitted to the International Journal of Heat

and Mass Transfer.

no
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley

Grant No . : NBS Contract 805180

Grant Title : Polymer Combustion and Flame Chemistry

Principal Investigators : Professor Robert F. Sawyer

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dr . Nancy J , Brown

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

University of California

Berkeley, CA 9^720

U15-6U2-5573

Other Professional Personnel : William J. Pitz, Ph.D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. R.G. Gann

Pro,iect Summary : Polymer combustion, flame inhibition, and flame

chemistry are being investigated experimentally and theoretically.

Fundamental characteristics of polymer combustion (extinction limits,

burning rates, mass transfer numbers and flame structure) are being

measured with the objective of relating basic chemical and physical

polymer properties to flammability. The flame inhibition studies have

been directed toward gaining an improved understanding of inhibition

mechanisms which prevail in different combustion environments.

Progress Report : Establishing the conditions under which halogens are effective or ineffective inhibitors will give insight into the

mechanism of their behavior. Thus, extinction data have been obtained

under the conditions of oxidizer inhibitor addition and fuel inhibitor

addition in the opposed flow diffusion flame. Extinction measurements

reveal the effect of inhibitors on chemical reaction rate and provide

a gage for inhibitor effectiveness. Data have been acquired for

polyethylene (PE) and poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) in N2/O2 mixtures

(Figure l). These data were compared to extinction measurements of

polyethylene with N2/02/HC£ mixtures (Figure 2). PVC differs chemically from PE only by a substitution of a chlorine atom for a hydrogen

atom in the monomer. With the inclusion of this halogen atom, PVC may

be thought of as an inhibited PE and therefore well suited for a comparative study.

A numerical boundary layer model was developed to elucidate the

111
OXYGEN

MOLE

FRACTION

OXYGEN

MOLE

FRACTION

VELOCITY AT NOZZLE EXIT (m/s)

Figure 1. Extinction curves and adiabatic flame temperatures for PVC and PE with N 2/O

2 mixtures.

VELOCITY AT NOZZLE EXIT (m/s)

Figure 2. Effect on extinction curves and adiabatic flame temperature of further HCl addition.

112

ADIABATIC

FLAME

TEMPERATURE

(K)

ADIABATIC

FLAME

TEMPERATURE

(K)
analysis of extinction measurements in the opposed flow configuration.

This model relates kinetic parameters to various extinction data and

may indicate the influence of inhibitors on overall kinetics.

Additionally, the model provides profiles of temperature, velocity,

and composition across the flame.

Perfectly stirred reactor calculations of H2/02/Ar mixtures with

the following variables: l) inhibitor type, 2) inhibitor concentration, 3) equivalence ratio, 4) hydrogen oxidation mechanism,

5) pressure, and 6) reaction rate variation, were analyzed. The

perfectly stirred reactor equations were solved for a series of

residence times and the corresponding compositions and temperatures

between the blowout condition and. thermodynamic equilibrium were

obtained. An inhibition parameter to characterize inhibition in a perfectly stirred reactor was defined.

Accomplishments : Hydrogen cnioride (HCJl) was found to be a relatively

ineffective inhibitor when added to the oxidizer side of the diffusion

flame in comparison to chlorine being added to the fuel side as PVC.

Impurities in the commercial PVC and PE may have an effect on uhe

extinction data. A numerical boundary layer model was devised which

is useful for determining the effects of inhibition kinetics on extinction

.

The blowout parameters: residence times, temperature, composition, reaction rates and heat release rates were especially sensitive

to inhibitor type and concentration in the perfectly stirred reactor

calculations. Radical concentrations were also found to be sensitive

to the variables considered. Two physical inhibitors, Ar and N2 and

two chemical inhibitors, HC£ and HBr , were investigated. In comparing

the two physical inhibitors with HBr the following trends were noted.

Argon and nitrogen acted as physical inhibitors producing lower

temperatures at blowout and increased residence times. Hydrogen

bromide behaved like nitrogen for the artificial case of no hydrogen

bromide kinetics. Hydrogen bromide addition resulted in increased

oxygen consumption, increased blowout temperatures, increased residence times and reduced radical pool fractions. The inhibition

parameter employed to provide some indication of inhibition effectiveness was a more reasonable choice to characterize argon and nitrogen

inhibition but exhibited large variations with composition for

hydrogen bromide inhibition. Using the inhibition parameter as an indicator of inhibitor effectiveness revealed that hydrogen bromide

was found to be more effective at high pressures than low, for a H 2 /O 2 mechanism which includes HO 2 reactions than one that does not,

and for rich over stoichiometric and lean flames. The effectiveness

of hydrogen bromide resulted in a complex trade-off between reaction

exothermic ity and radical scavenging ability. A comparison between

the mechanisms of HBr and HC£ inhibition is presently underway

.

113
Potential Applications : Extinction data and their interpretation

should provide a clearer understanding of the mechanism of flame

inhibition from which a judicial use thereof would result in a reduction in polymer flammability. An improved understanding of flame

inhibition will have useful applications in the development of flame

retarded materials and in fire suppression methods. The work also

applies to the development and understanding of imambiguous test

procedures

.

Future Milestones : Species composition data will be obtained to

provide a more fundamental basis for determining the mechanism of

halogen inhibition in polymers. Inhibition of moist CO mixtures will

be modelled using the perfectly stirred reactor formalism. Computational studies of inhibited mixtures in plug flow will be undertaken.

Beports and Papers :

Brown, N.J. and Schefer, R.W. , "A Computational Study of Physical and

Chemical Flame Inhibitors," Western States Section/The Combustion

Institute, Paper No. T8-U3, 1978; also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Report LBL-6899.

Pitz, W.J. and Sawyer, R.F., "Inhibition Effects on Extinction of

Polymer Burning," Western States Section/The Combustion Institute,

Paper No. 78-32; also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-6898.
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California

Berkeley

Grant No. : 809253

Grant Title ; Thermal Radiation of Luminous Flames and Smoke

Principal Investigator : Professor Chang-Lln Tien

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of California

Berkeley, California 94720

Telephone: (415) 642-1338

Other Professional Personnel: W.W. Yuen (now Assistant Professor

UC-Santa Barbara)

L.C. Chow (now Engineer at General

Electric)

G.L. Hubbard

G.S. Shlralkar

T.W. Tong

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. Takashi Kashiwagi

Project Summary : The overall goal of this Thermal Radiation of

Liaminous Flames and Smoke project is to establish a simple physical

framework for complex fire radiation calculations. The basic research

approach is based on developing approximate formulations by systematically analysing and experimenting the fundamental aspects of the

problem. Considerable progress has been made in developing simple

realistic calculation schemes for fire radiation. The following three

studies are presently under consideration: (1) Measurements of flame

and smoke radiation for burning polymeric materials (2) Further ana- lytical development for flame and smoke radiation and (3) Computation

of fire radiation and plume convection in an enclosure. These studies

are being carried out with special emphasis on developing simple,

realistic calculation schemes for application to actual complex

situations

.

Progress Report ; Infrared transmittance of flames produced by burning

cellular plastics has been measured by the monochromatic apparatus

used by Buckius and Tien in earlier studies. It has been found that

the spectral radiative properties of polystyrene foam flames and

115
liquified polystyrene foam flames are the same. The spectral extinction coefficient for foam polystyrene, however, does not follow the

inverse variation with wavelength as opposed to that of solid polystyrene reported previously by Buckius and Tien. This means that for

polystyrene foam flames, the soot particle size parameter is comparable

to or larger than one, hence the full Mie theory must be used and scattering cannot be neglected in making radiative heat transfer calculations. More studies on this important finding are being persued.

For facilitating analytical calculation of flame and smoke

radiation utilizing the gray assumption, a scheme has been established

for calculating the infrared mean (i.e., gray) absorption coefficient

for luminous flames and smoke (Hubbard and Tien, 1978) . The Planck and

Rosseland mean coefficients are functions of temperature, the volume

fraction of soot and the partial pressures of CO

2 and H

2O, and are presented in the convenient graphical form. This represents a significant extension of the earlier work on the use of the Milne-Eddington

absorption coefficient for pure soot systems (Felske and Tien, 1977)

.

Progress has been also made in achieving simple approximate solution

for radiation in one-dimensional, non-planar geometries (Yuen and Tien,

1978) .

Investigation on computation schemes for convection in an enclosure is being carried out. Four differencing schemes for elliptic- type

convection equations have been carefully examined and their respective

strengths and limitations are Indicated (Chow and Tien, 1978)

.

Accomplishments ; Effective methods of calculation have been developed

for the total emisslvlty and the mean (or gray) absorption coefficient

of luminous flames and smoke. Results have been conveniently tabulated

or graphically presented. Infrared radiation measurements show that

soot particles in polystyrene foam flames are much larger than those in

solid polystyrene flames, and scattering contributions must be

considered in polystyrene foam flames.

Potential Applications : Radiation of flames and smoke is an important

concern in all practical fire problems such as fire detection, ignition,

spread, plume convection, and modeling. Radiation assumes an even more

prominent role in fires in an enclosure such as in urban housing fires

because of the restrictions. Emissivity and mean absorption coefficient calculations developed in this study have already been used by

other groups in their related studies and calculations. The finding

on the difference in radiation characteristics of solid and foam

polystyrene flames has considerable practical Implications.

Future Milestones ; Further measurements and data Interpretation for

flame radiation from burning cellular polymeric materials. Development

of analytical techniques in calculating radiation from flames of

complex geometries and with scattering contributions. Development of

a computational analysis for flame and smoke plume spread in a confined

system, including convection, combustion and radiation.

116
Reports and Papers :

Felske, J.D. , and Tien, C.L. , "The Use of the Milne-Eddington

Absorption Coefficient for Radiative Heat Transfer in Combustion

Systems," Journal of Heat Transfer , 99 , 458-465 (1977); also Fire

Research Group, University of California, Berkeley, Report UCB FRG

77-13.

Hubbard, G.L., and Tien, C.L., "Infrared Mean Absorption Coefficients

of Luminous Flames and Smoke," Journal of Heat Transfer, 100, 235-239

(1978) .

Chow, L.C., and Tien, C.L.

,

"An Examination of Four Differencing

Schemes for some Elliptic-Type Convection Equations," Numerical Heat

Transfer , 1 , 87-100 (1978).

Yuen, W.W.

,

and Tien, C.L., "Approximate Solutions of Radiative

Transfer in One-Dimensional Non-Planar Systems," Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer , 19 , 533-549 (1978).

117
Institution: National Fire Protection Association, Boston, MA

Contract No. : DOC AO-AOl-78-001004

Contract Title : Investigation and Analysis of major fires

Principal Investigators : James K. Lathrop, Fire Analysis Specialist

and Project Manager

David P. Demers, Fire Analysis Specialist

Richard L. Best, Fire Analysis Specialist

Fire Investigations Department

Fire Information and Systems Division

National Fire Protection Association

470 Atlantic Avenue

Boston, MA 02210

617-482-8755

Other Professional Personnel : A. Elwood Willey, Director, Fire Information and Systems Division

John A. Sharry, Life Safety Specialist

Wilbur Walls, Flammable Gases Specialist

Robert Benedetti, Chemical Specialist

Joseph Redden, Director, Public Protection Division

NBS Scientific Officer : R. L. P. Custer

Project Summary : Under a cost-sharing contract between the National

Fire Protection Association, National Bureau of Standards and National

Fire Prevention and Control Administration, in-depth field investigations are conducted of selected fire incidents. For each investigation an analysis is made of fire causal factors, spread factors,

materials contributing to fire and smoke propagation, recreation

of people movement and actions taken, fire propagation as a function

of time, factors affecting fire propagation, performance of fire protection equipment, key life safety and property protection problems

and of contributing factors resulting in loss of life and property

damage. In addition to field work by Investigators, with fire protection engineering backgrounds, other specialists are consulted

including NBS researchers. In some cases samples from fire scenes

are tested for fire hazard characteristics at NBS and results included in reports.

This in-depth investigation and analysis activity gives an improved understanding of fire growth and development, smoke development

and spread, and the actions of people in actual fire situations.

Progress Report : Since the signing of this present contract in March

1978, two incidents have been investigated and reports submitted to

NFPCA and NBS. The first incident was a train derailment in Sidney,

Nebraska where a tank car of white phosphorous exploded. In the second

118
incident 4 fire fighters were killed during a fire in an apartment

house in Syracuse, NY.

The NFPA investigation of the train derailment pointed out several

safety and command problems in the handling of hazardous materials

accidents by the fire service. The cause of the tank car explosion,

a rare incident with this material, is being probed by National Transportation Safety Board specialists. This probe is being monitored by

NFPA as it is important to fully understand the hazard and to disseminate information to the fire service.

The Syracuse, NY fire started out as a routine fire in a converted

wood-frame apartment house. Tragedy struck when four fire fighters

equipped with state of the art protective equipment and breathing

apparatus became trapped and died of CO poisoning. An in-depth investigation was made into the spread of fire in the structure, the

role of a partial sprinkler system, the role of the fire fighters'

protective equipment, and fire ground operations and communications.

Accomplishments : This contract is the fourth in a series of NFPA/NBS

fire investigation contracts since 1972. The two most recent contracts

have also involved the NFPCA - with funding shared between the two

agencies and NFPA in a cooperative effort. Since the original contract,

56 incidents have been investigated and reports prepared.

Following submittal of contract reports to NFPCA/NBS, reports are published and distributed by NFPA to ensure that the facts and lessons

learned are made available to the fire community in a timely manner.

In addition to the literature, background data from the investigations

is available at NFPA for research purposes.

In 1977, the most important investigation concerned the Beverly

Hills Supper Club fire May 28, 1977 which killed 165 persons. Under

the Fire Investigation Contract, the NFPA launched an intensive study

of the fire involving five specialists over a five-month period. The

report covers the factors related to the fire origin and spread and

factors responsible for the large loss of life. An in-depth analysis

of the means of egress system is included, and the report provides

important human behavior base-line data. A fire development and

spread analysis conducted by NBS staff is included in the report.

This is the most extensive study of a multiple-death fire conducted

in recent times and the report should be a valuable addition to the

literature.

Among the more notable incident investigations are:

o Rault Center, High-Rise, New Orleans, LA, November 29, 1972,

6 killed

o Baptist Towers Housing for the Elderly, Atlanta, GA, November 30, 1972, 10 killed

119
o Upstairs Lounge, New Orleans, LA, June 24, 1973, 32 killed

o LP Gas Tank Car BLEVE, Kingman, AZ, July 5, 1973, 13 killed

o Conflagration, Chelsea, MA, October 14, 1973

o Joelma High-Rise, Sao Paulo, Brazil, February 1, 1974, 179

killed

o Gulliver's Discotheque, Port Chester, NY, June 30, 1974, 24

killed

o Sac-Osage Hospital, Osceola, MO, December 3, 1974, 8 killed

o Telephone Exchange, New York, NY, February 27, 1975

o Refinery, Philadelphia, PA, August 17, 1975, 8 fire fighters

killed

o Night Club Fire, New York, NY, December 18, 1975, 7 killed

o Wincrest Nursing Home, Chicago, IL, January 30, 1976, 24 killed

o Cermak Nursing Home, Cicero, IL, February 4, 1976, 8 killed

o Social Club, New York, NY, October 24, 1976, 25 killed

o Beverly Hills Supper Club, Southgate, KY, May 28, 1977, 165

killed

Potential Applications ; The information gained from in-depth investigation and analysis of fire incidents has many uses both in the field

and in the research environment

.

Reports contain commentary on the performance of fire detection

and extinguishing equipment, building assemblies and system and various

measures of fire control. The studies provide an opportunity to

measure the performance of requirements in national consensus fire

safety codes and standards. Lessons learned from these investigations

are of use to fire safety practitioners and researchers. Indicators

for additional research are often Included in reports.

In addition to the use of information by NFPA technical committees

and in technical programs, information from investigations is utilized

in training films and slide packages for use by the fire service and

fire safety practitioners.

Future Milestones ; Fires are investigated on an ad hoc basis.

Reports and Papers :

Best, Richard L. , Investigation Report, "Union Pacific Railroad Train

Derailment, White Phosphorous Tank Car Explosion, Brownson (near

Sidney), Nebraska, April 2, 1978".

Demers, David P., Investigation Report, "Four Fire Fighter Fatalities,

701 University Avenue, Syracuse, New York, April 9, 1978".

The above reports are scheduled for publication by NFPA this Fall.

The following are samples of publications from previous fire investigation contracts.

120
Best, Richard L. , "Tragedy In Kentucky," Fire Journal, Jan., 1978,

NFPA.

Best, Richard L. , "Disaster at Beverly Hills," Fire Command, Jan., 1978,

NFPA.

Best, Richard L. , "Three Die in Single Family Dwelling Fire," Fire

Journal , Sept., 1977, NFPA.

Best, Richard L. , "Motor Lodge Fire," Fire Journal , July, 1977, NFPA.

Best, Richard L. , "Social Club Fire," Fire Journal , May, 1977, NFPA.

Best, Richard L. , "Propane Gas Explosion," Fire Journal , March, 1977,

NFPA.

Lathrop, James K. , "Two Die in Fire in Retirement Home," Fire Journal , Nov., 1977, NFPA.

Lathrop, James K. , "Buildings Design, 300 Fire Fighters Save Los

Angeles High-Rise Office Building," Fire Journal , Sept., 1977, NFPA.

Lathrop, James K. , "Five Dead in Mobile Home Fire," Fire Journal , July,

1977, NFPA.

Lathrop, James K. , "Five Die in Fraternity House Fire," Fire Journal , May, 1977, NFPA.

Lathrop, James K. , "Nine Dead in Apartment House Fire," Fire Journal , March, 1977, NFPA.

"Train BLEVE Causes Five-Alarm Structural Fire," Fire Command , Sept.,

1977, NFPA.

121
annual conference on fire research

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution: The Pennsylvania State University

Grant No : NBS Grant 7-9020

Grant Title : An Investigation of Fire Impingement on a Horizontal

Celling

Principal Investigator : Professor G.M. Faeth

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The Pennsylvania State University

214 M.E. Bldg.

University Park, PA 16802

Other Professional Personnel : T. Ahmad, Ph.D. Candidate

H-Z. You, Ph.D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer : H . Baum

Project Summary : The Interaction between turbulent flames and surfaces

Is being Investigated In order to provide more complete understanding

of unwanted fires within structures. The results of the study have

application to the modeling of fires In structures, the design of fire

detectors, and a better understanding of the fire resistance and fire

spread properties of materials.

Two configurations have been considered, a fire spreading up

a wall and a fire Impinging on a horizontal celling. The study emphasizes experimental results, although Integral models are constructed

for the processes In order to provide a rational method for correlating

the data. Measurements are made of flame position and length; convective and radiative heat fluxes to the wall; radiative heat fluxes to

the ambiance; and profiles of mean quantities In the flow (velocity,

temperature and species concentrations) . The energy transport

measurements are useful as direct Input to comprehensive fire models.

The flow structure measurements provide valuable Information on the

thermal environment of fire detectors and fire control agents (sprinklers, etc.) In the presence of fires, as well as Information on flame

structure which Is required to determine the radiation characteristics

of fires and to understand the production of toxic materials by fires.

Progress Report : Measurements were completed for turbulent fires on

a vertical surface, and the results have been correlated using Integral

models. These results have been reported. A simple correlation was

found which provides a unified method of estimating the burning rate

122
of the surface for both laminar and turbulent flow. The data base

Includes both present measurements and earlier results in the literatura

The correlation includes various fuel types and ambient conditions, and

a wide range of radiative heat fluxes from the flame to the surface.

Correlations were also found for the convective heat flux at the wall,

as a function of position in the plume region above the zone of active

pyrolysis; for the length of the flame; and for temperature and velocity

profiles within the plume.

One wall fire condition was thoroughly documented . Profiles of

mean velocity, temperature and species concentration were obtained at

the end of the pyrolysis zone, within the combusting portion of the

plume, at the flame tip and in the noncombusting portion of the plume.

Radiative heat fluxes to the wall 'and the ambience, and convective

heat fluxes to the wall were also measured. Qualitatively, the structure of the flame is similar to a turbulent diffusion flame although

Influences of wall mass transfer in the pyrolysis zone, and the cooled

unburned wall in the plume region were observed. A striking feature

of the flow Involves the presence of relatively large concentrations

of carbon monoxide in the noncombusting portion of the plume. The

production of this toxic material appears to be related to the quenching effect of the wall, although a quantitative description of the

process has not been constructed as yet. Since the experimental

conditions are well defined, and the measurements are comprehensive,

these results will be useful for developing more complete models of

the chemistry, hydrodynamics and radiative properties of unwanted

fires.

Current experimental work is considering fire impingement on a horizontal ceiling. Both unconfined and confined ceilings are being

examined. Soot-free fuels have been tested, therefore, convective

processes are emphasized.

In order to define the combusting region, measurements were

completed of flame length along the ceiling for various flame

strengths, fuel types and degrees of confinement. A simple correlation

of the flame length along the ceiling has been found in terms of the

flame height under unconfined conditions. In general, the radial

spread is about 70% of the distance that the flame would rise above

the ceiling position, if the ceiling were not present. Some effects

of source size and degree of confinement (including a ceiling layer

extending completely to the floor) were noted, but these are clearly

higher order phenomena. Unconfined flame heights were found to be

in good agreement with Steward’ si correlation, which completes the

information required for flame spread predictions.

The stagnation point on the ceiling, which is the position directly

over the center of the fire, receives the maximum heat flux when the

flame height is less than or equal to the ceiling height. A simple

^Steward, F.R. , Comb. Sci. and Tech. 2, 203 (1970).

123
expression has been found to estimate this quantity for unconfined

ceilings by combining results for the plume and the stagnation point

boundary layer. Moving in the radial direction, the heat flux remains

relatively constant for distances up to 20% of the ceiling height, and

then declines in a manner which approximates Alpert’s^ model of ceiling

heat transfer rates.

Current work is considering the more complex problems of ceiling

heat transfer rates in the presence of a hot ceiling layer, and under

conditions where the flame spreads along the ceiling. Not surprisingly,

the measurements indicate that the unconfined ceiling correlations,

developed for the case where the fire does not spread along the celling, are no longer adequate. In the absence of flame, the heat flux to the

celling is increased by the presence of a ceiling layer. However, when

the flame spreads large distances along the ceiling, the stagnation

point heat transfer rate decreases. This behavior results when the

cooler gases in the core of the plume Impinge at the stagnation point.

Modeling the effects of confinement and flame spread along the

ceiling will require extension of the theory. Measurements of temperature profiles within the flow are currently in progress to support

the new modeling effort.

Accomplishments : Measurements of burning rates, heat fluxes and

profiles of mean velocity, temperature and species concentrations

were completed for turbulent fires on upright surfaces. Integral

models have been successfully employed to provide simple algebraic

expressions for estimating a number of fire properties (burning rate,

wall heat fluxes, temperatures and velocities).

Measurements of ceiling heat fluxes and flame spread distance

along a ceiling have been completed for fires impinging on both

unconfined and confined ceilings. A simple correlation has been found

for estimating the extent of the flaming region along the ceiling for

both unconfined and confined ceilings. Formulas have also been

developed for determining celling heat fluxes for unconfined ceilings,

when the flame height is less than or equal to the ceiling height.

These measurements have provided a more complete picture of the

structure of flames Impinging on surfaces. The results have highlighted a potential problem, namely the production of toxic gases by

impingement as a result of flame quenching due to the presence of a cool surface. A complete understanding of these processes will require

more sophisticated models than those developed during the current

investigation. The experimental results should provide valuable

2 Alpert, R.L., Technical Report No. 22357-2, Factory Mutual Research

Corp. , Norwood, MA, 1974.

124
information required to validate more advanced models.

Potential Applications : Comprehensive models of fires within structures are currently being developed in order to provide a means of

reducing the need for full scale fire tests, or at least providing a better understanding of the results of such tests. The present

correlations of flame shapes, heat fluxes, etc., have been formulated

so that they can be adapted for use in comprehensive fire models with

little difficulty. The present results are also directly applicable

for estimating the environment of fire detectors, sprinklers, etc.,

since these devices are normally located on or near surfaces.

Information on the structure of fires near surfaces also improves the

understanding of a number of standard fire tests.

In the longer term, enhanced computational abilities and continued

development of turbulent combustion models will eventually allow the

development of detailed models of the chemical and physical processes

within turbulent unwanted fires. The present work has substantially

expanded the data base available to validate such models.

Future Milestones : Additional measurements of ceiling heat fluxes

will be completed, concentrating on cases where the flame extends

along the ceiling and a hot celling layer is present due to confinement.

Algebraic expressions for correlating this data will also be developed.

A more complete picture of the flow structure when a flame impinges

on a celling will be developed. This will Involve measurements of

profiles of mean velocity, temperature and species concentrations

within the plume, the ceiling jet and the ceiling layer. In particular, the concentration measurements should provide needed information

on the radiative properties of the flow and the generation of toxic

materials

.

Reports and Papers :

Liburdy, J.A. and Faeth, G.M. , "Fire Induced Plumes Along a Vertical

Wall: Part I. The Turbulent Weakly Buoyant Region," The Pennsylvania

State University, 1977.

Ahmad, T. , Groff, E.G. and Faeth, G.M. , "Fire Induced Plumes Along a Vertical Wall: Part II. The Laminar Combustion Region," The

Pennsylvania State University, 1977.

Ahmad, T. and Faeth, G.M. , "Fire Induced Plumes Along a Vertical Wall:

Part III. The Turbulent Combustion Region," The Pennsylvania State

University, 1978.

Ahmad, T. and Faeth, G.M. , "An Investigation of the Laminar Overfire

Region along Upright Surfaces," Trans. ASME, Series C., J . Heat

Transfer Vol. 100, 112-119, 1978.

125
Liburdy, J.A. and Faeth, G.M. , "Heat Transfer and Mean Structure of a Turbulent Thermal Plume Along a Vertical Isothermal Wall," Trans.

ASME, Series C, J. Heat Transfer , Vol. 100, 177-183, 1978.

Ahmad, T. and Faeth, G.M. , "Combustion in Turbulent Fire Plumes on a Vertical Wall," 1977 Technical Meeting, Eastern Section of the Combustion Institute, 1977.

Groff, E.G. and Faeth, G.M. , "Laminar Combustion of Vertical FreeStanding Fuel Surfaces," Combustion and Flame , Vol. 32, 139-150, 1978.

Liburdy, J.A. , Groff, E.G. and Faeth, G.M. , "Structure of a Turbulent

Thermal Plume Rising Along an Isothermal Wall," ASME Paper No. 78-HT24, 1978.

Ahmad, T. and Faeth, G.M. , "Turbulent Wall Fires," Seventeenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, Leeds, England, 1978.

126
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Portland Cement Association

Grant No

.

:

Grant Title : Fire Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams

Principal Investigator ; Melvin S. Abrams, Manager

Fire Research Station

Portland Cement Association

Skokie, Illinois 60077

312-966-6200

Other Professional Pers_onnel : Dr. William Gene Corley

Dr. Tung Dju Lin

NBS Scientific Officer : Lionel Issen

Project Summary ; The provision of fire resistance and reserve loadcarrying capacity for reinforced concrete structural members exposed to severe fires Is a particularly Important engineering problem, as losses

due to fire In the U.S. exceed those resulting from other extreme en- vironmental factors which are normally considered In design. In the

U.S., fire ratings for structural components have traditionally been

measured by endurance or temperature rise In structural components subjected to a standard ASTM E119 fire test. When used to develop design

criteria, these tests can be a very costly tool to employ on a large

scale and, moreover, do not provide a basis for extrapolating to situations not covered by the limited test data. Furthermore, the ASTM E119

time temperature curve represents only one type of fire exposure.

In recognition of these factors, analytical procedures are being

developed and refined at the National Bureau of Standards, the University

of California at Berkeley, and elsewhere which show promise In predicting

structural behavior under severe fires. These procedures enable the

effects of various material parameters on thermal and structural response

to be studied without resorting to expensive laboratory testing. They

also make It feasible to consider alternate fire curves (time temperature

histories) for design besides ASTM E119, and make It possible for the

designer to consider fire explicitly as another limit state. Ultimately,

this should lead to cost savings In certain structures and result In more uniform reliability for all structures.

127
With the increasing reliance placed on computer modeling, it is

essential that the computer programs being developed be validated using

experimental data; only in this way can they be used with confidence.

Laboratory data can then be used to check and in some cases improve the

analysis rather than to develop design aids, per se. It is generally

agreed that while computer analyses offer hope in resolving the difficult problems associated with analyzing structural behavior under fire,

the analyses have of yet been insufficiently validated to warrent their

use in design. The work proposed herein will materially assist in this

important validation phase; it will not only provide credibility to the

analyses but also might suggest areas where they should be modified.

Validation of the computer models of the behavior of reinforced

concrete structures under fire will be accomplished by conducting a series of six fire endurance tests of reinforced concrete beams in which

1. Temperature distributions on the beam cross sections as well

as beam distortions and deflections will be measured as functions of reinforcement cover, fire environment, and

beam size.

2. Test results will be compared with calculations performed

at NBS/CBT for the same beams.

These tests are to be conducted on full-scale beams representative

of service conditions, and will provide valuable support to NBS in its

efforts to develop computer thermal and structural analyses.

128
Institution : Princeton University

Grant No: NBS Grant 7-9004

Grant Title : An Experimental Investigation of Flame Spread Over Condensed Combustibles: Gas Phase Interactions

Principal Investigators : Professor I. Classman, Dr. F.L. Dryer,

and Dr. P.J. Santoro

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace

Engineering

Princeton University

Princeton, N.J. 08540

(609) 452-5199

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. A.C. Fernandez-Pello

,

S.R. Ray, Graduate Student

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. T. Kashiwaghi

Project Summary: An experimental program has been undertaken to study

the heat transfer mechanisms controlling the process of flame spreading over solid materials under different flame spread configurations.

Efforts are particularly concentrated in the resolution of the importance of naturally induced or forced gas flows on the flame spread

process. A laser doppler velocimeter facility is used to measure gas

flow velocities and thermocouple probing and laser interferometry

to measure the temperature fields. The measured gas velocity and

temperature fields are used to construct energy balances to determine

the relative Importance of the different modes of heat transfer affecting the flame spread process.

Progress Report : A study of the downward propagation of flames over

a combustible solid for flames propagating under naturally Induced

and forced air flows has been completed. A similar study for the

horizontal mode of flame propagation is currently underway.

For downward flame spread in natural convection, the objective

was to determine the dominant mode of heat transfer from the flame

to the unignited fuel ahead of the flame. The heat transfer parameters ahead of the flame (gas phase velocity and temperature and

solid phase temperature) were measured for flames spreading over PMMA cylinders of two extreme thicknesses (2" and 1/6” in diameter).

The measured velocity and temperature fields were used to construct

energy balances along control volumes in the gas and solid phases

ahead of the flame. The results showed that the dominant mode of

heat transfer is heat conduction through the solid for thick fuels

and that as the fuel thickness decreases heat conduction through the

gas is of Increased importance. Particularly interesting was the

observation that convective effects due to the entrainment of air by

the flame plume play an important role in the ability of the heat to

be conducted through the gas from the flame. The induced air flow

129
moves in the direction opposing flame propagation and a substantial

amount of the energy conducted through the gas from the flame goes

into heating the incoming air flow.

In the forced convection case, the objective was to determine the

influence of an opposed gas flow on the flame spread rate. Rates of

flame spread for the downward propagation flames over vertical cylinders of PMMA of 2.54, 0.64, and 0.16 cms in diameter were measured in an opposed forced air flow with free stream velocities ranging from

2 to 70 cm/sec. It was found that for all fuel thicknesses, the flame

spread rate is independent of the opposed flow if the velocity of the

flow is smaller than that induced by natural convection by the flame.

For larger flow velocities, the spread rate decreases as the velocity

of the opposed flow Increases. It was also found that profiles of

surface temperature ahead of the flame present similar characteristics with the profiles remaining unchanged for low opposed flow velocities and becoming steeper with the temperature gradients near the

flame front increasing as the opposed flow velocity increases. A

simplified theoretical model was developed to account for the effect

of an external opposed flow on the flame spread process. It is shown

in the model that the principal effect of the opposed gas flow is to

decrease the thickness of the thermal boundary layer which in its

turn decreases the residence time, resulting in an inverse power

functional dependence between the spread rate and the magnitude of

the external flow velocity.

The study of the horizontal propagation of flames in a natural

convective environment is currently being pursued. This case is

complicated by the fact that buoyancy forces are normal to the fuel

surface. The flame induced gas flow follows a pattern similar to

that of a flow past an oblique corner and a recirculation or stagnation region could be generated ahead of the flame. In addition the

flame shape favors the transfer of heat by radiation from the flame

to the unignited fuel. Measurements of the gas flow pattern, radiant

flex at the fuel surface, gas and solid phase temperatures ahead of

the flame are in progress. The results will be used in energy balance

in the gas and solid phases to determine the relative importance of

the different pathways of heat transfer.

Accomplishments : The results of the completed work, coupled with

previous research in different geometries, thickness and fuels, re- solve the present discrepancies on the dominant mode of heat transfer for downward flame spread. It can be concluded that for this

mode of flame propagation the dominant mode of heat transfer is a function of the thickness of the fuel, with heat conduction through the

solid being dominant for thick fuels and heat conduction through the

gas becoming of increased importance as the thickness of the fuel decreases. It can also be concluded that when a forced flow of air

opposes flame propagation, the flame spread rate decreases as the opposed air velocity increases, once the effect of the opposed flow is

dominant on the spread process.

130
Potential Applications : Determination of the controlling mechanisms

in the spread of fire along the surface of a solid fuel will provide

a better understanding of the process of fire propagation and will help

to develop models capable of predicting rates of spread. The information would be helpful in developing flammability ratings for materials

and in calculating the time to flashover of rooms. An improved understanding of the effect of an opposed forced flow on the fire spread

process is of importance in the study of the propagation of fire in

corridors and forests where strong opposed air currents are generated

by either heat released by the core of the fire or by prevailing winds.

Future Milestones ; Measurements of the heat transfer parameters in

horizontal flame spread will be completed and analyzed. Qualitative

information will be obtained on the influence of an opposed flow in

horizontal flame spread. The qualitative results will be compared

with the results of downward flame spread to determine whether the

flame spread configuration affects the results already obtained. Measurements will be initiated on the gas phase flow field parameters

induced by an axlsymmetrlc fire propagating horizontally over a solid

surface

.

Reports and Papers :

Santoro, R.J., Fernandez-Pello , A.C. and Classman, I. (1978), "TwoDimensional LDV Measurements of Flows Induced by Flames Propagating

Over Condensed Fuels", Presented at the CLEOS 78-IEEE/OSA Conference,

February 6-9, San Diego, California.

Santoro, R.J., Fernandez-Pello, A.C., Dryer, F.L. and Classman, I. (1978) , "An Application of a Two-Component Laser Doppler Velocimeter

to the Measurement of Flows Induced by Flames Propagating Over Condensed Fuels", Accepted for publication in Applied Optics.

Santoro, R.J. (1978), "A Laser Doppler Velocimeter for Measurement of

Flows Induced by Flames Propagating Over Condensed Fuels", Aerospace

and Mechanical Science Report #1361, Princeton University.

Fernandez-Pello, A.C.

,

Ray, S.R.

,

and Classman, I. (1978) ,

' Downward

Flame Spread in an Opposed Forced Flow", Accepted for publication in

Combustion Science and Technology. Also presented at the 1978 Spring

Meeting of the Western States Section of the Combustion Institute,

April 17-18, University of Colorado, Boulder.

Santoro, R.J., Fernandez-Pello, A.C., Dryer, F.L., and Classman, I. (1978), "Laser Doppler Velocimetry as Applied to the Study of Flame

Spread Over Condensed Phase Materials", presented at the Third International Workshop on Laser Velocimetry, July 11-13, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.

Fernandez-Pello, A.C. and Santoro, R,J. (1978), "On the Dominant Mode

of Heat Transfer in Downward Flame Spread'', accepted for presentation

at the Seventeenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, August 20-25, University of Leeds, England.

131
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Princeton University,

Grant No. : NBS Grant 4-9026

Grant Title : Smoldering Combustion

Principal Investigators :

Prof. I. Glassman

Aerospace & Mechanical Engrg.Dept.

Engineering Quadrangle

Princeton University

Princeton, NJ 08540

609-452-5199

Other Professional Personnel: Dr. F.

Dr . M.

Mr. D.

Princeton, NJ

Studies

Dr. T. J. Ohlemiller

Aerospace & Mech. Engrg. Dept.

,

Forrestal Campus

Princeton University

Princeton, NJ 08540

609-452-5227

E. Rogers, Research Staff Member

Padmanabhan , Research Staff Member

A. Lucca, Graduate Student

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. J. Rockett

Project Summary : The initiation and propagation of smoldering combustion in solid organic fuels, as well as its transition to flaming, are being investigated. The fuel of primary interest at present is loosefill cellulosic insulation, both with and without known retardants.

Smolder initiation is being studied by means of a simple hot plate

apparatus that closely simulates one-dimensional behavior; this permits

correlation and extrapolation of the data by means of established thermal ignition theory. The data so obtained are being studied as a possible basis for a smolder tendency rating.

Smolder propagation is being examined first in the limiting cases

of simple geometry (1-D forward smolder and 1-D reverse smolder) to assess the impact of configuration on smolder propagation rate and major

gaseous products (vs air flow rate and retardant loading) . The investigation will then focus on the role of gas phase reactions in smolder

and the transition to flaming (vs retardant loading in 1-D and 2-D

configurations)

.

The kinetics and thermochemistry of the thermal and oxidative degradation of retarded and unretarded loose-fill cellulosic insulation

are also being investigated. These studies will give an insight into

the mechanism and overall chemistry involved in the smolder process.

132
Progress Report : The problem of smolder initiation in a cellulosic insulation material resembles the ignition of a pre-mixed reactive medium

which has been extensively treated by thermal ignition theory. The case

of a finite layer of a material in contact with a hot wall on one sur- face and convective cooling on the other has been studied in the literature; the results provide a potentially useful basis for analyzing the

smolder potential in such applications as attic insulation in contact

with electric light fixtures. This situation is approximately simulated

by means of a layer of insulation placed on a temperature-controlled hot

plate. The material can either have an essentially non-reactive steadystate (if the layer is thin enough or the plate temperature low enough

or the convective losses large enough) or it can ignite to smolder and

be consumed. Experimentally, one finds the maximum plate temperature,

as a function of layer thickness (fixed convective losses) , which just

permits the non-reactive steady state. This temperature function is

characteristic of the insulation material (for a fixed configuration)

and can be used to predict behavior in other thicknesses and also to

deduce effective ignition kinetic parameters. It also provides a potential basis for rating the relative smolder tendencies of different insulation formulations though the most proper means for utilizing this

information is still under study. This procedure has been applied to

two commercial cellulosic insulation materials and it reveals substantial differences in behavior. Studies of the alteration in this minimum

smolder initiation behavior as a function of retardant loading (e.g.,

borates) are now under way. These studies are intended to quantify the

impact of retardants and, together with the work described below, to

help clarify how they achieve this impact.

Smolder propagation subsequent to initiation is dependent on the

relative direction of movement of the air flow with respect to the wave. Two limiting cases are under examination first: (1) smolder wave moving

in same direction as air flow, i.e., forward smolder; (2) smolder wave moving against the air flow, i.e., reverse smolder. The latter case has

been most extensively investigated by us, both experimentally and theoretically. Reverse smolder propagates as a relatively thin reaction

wave (few cm) which is far from stoichiometric, yields total O2 consumption, and moves at a rate heavily dependent on heat transfer processes.

Forward smolder propagates as a thick reaction wave (few tens of centimeters at same air flow rate) , which again yields total O2 consumption

but moves at a rate dictated by the stoichiometry of charred fuel oxidation. More quantitative comparisons of smolder velocity behavior, temperature, and major gas concentration profiles (vs air flow rate) are currently being made experimentally. These should substantially enhance

our understanding of the mechanisms of smolder propagation in porous

fuels

.

Thermal analysis (TG & DSC) studies performed in conjunction with

small-scale smolder tests are providing insights into the relationships

of thermochemical and kinetic parameters to the smolder process of loosefill cellulosic insulation. Thermal analysis gives the heats, kinetics,

and possible mechanistic rate law involved in the oxidative and pyrolytic processes. Combining TG and DSC data furnishes a quantity we call

133
the specific heat release rate (dq/dw) which measures the progress of

heat evolution as a function of conversion. The small-scale smolder

test on the same materials was carried out in a 6 x 6 x 6" screen box

filled with insulation into which is placed a temperature programmable

75 watt heater rod. This test can provide comparative data on smolder

tendency more quickly than the hot plate test above.

These studies indicate that the overall heats of oxidation are similar whether the retardant added is aluminum sulfate, borax, or boric

acid. The heats of oxidation of retarded insulations tend to be lower

initially than untreated insulation, but not sufficiently low to preclude smolder. These retardants, however, do have a significant effect

on the mechanism and kinetics of this heat release process. Boric acid

tends to retard the oxidation step while borax changes the mechanism

resulting in a catalysis of oxidation. The retarding effect of boric

acid can be overcome by conducting the smolder tests at higher temperatures .

Compounding this smolder problem of loose-fill insulation is the

tendency of this combustion mode to make the transition to flaming.

Current thought on this incompletely characterized transition seems to

favor ignition of fuel-rich pyrolysis vapors from the front of the

smolder wave by "hot spots" on the advanced part of char oxidation. Of

the important hydrocarbons expected from the pyrolysis of cellulose

(i.e., methane, ethylene, ethane, and propylene), we have found propylene to be particularly oxidizable in the 500 - 700°C range. Carbon

monoxide is also an important product in the oxidation and pyrolysis of

cellulose but its rate of oxidation in the 600°C region is not significant. Cellulose also produces a host of oxygenated species (aldehydes,

ketones , ethers) whose competitive role in the transition to flaming is

unknown and serves only to make the whole process more complex.

Accomplishments : The work on smolder initiation should lead in the near future to a potentially useful basis for assessing smolder tencency in

cellulosic insulations.

Our understanding of the underlying processes of smoldering combustion has increased greatly over the state of knowledge only a few years

ago. Models for initiation and propagation of smolder are now available

and able to shed substantial light on how smoldering might be controlled.

Potential Applications : A knowledge of smolder initiation and propagation mechanisms coupled with a knowledge of how retardants affect these

mechanisms are clearly of benefit in the attempt to produce materials

with minimal smolder tendency and attendant life hazard.

Future Milestones ; Specific configurations of multi-dimensional smolder

propagation (simulating insulation in an attic) will be examined experimentally to assess whether new elements of behavior are implicit in non- parallel air/smolder wave travel.

134
The role of gas phase reactions in smolder and the transition of

smolder to flaming will be examined together with the influence of

retardants on these processes. The effective oxidation kinetics of

pyrolysis products will be measured in separate experiments to provide

a simplified kinetic description for modeling purposes.

Reports and Papers :

F. E. Rogers, T. J. Ohlemiller, A. Kurtz, and M. Summerfield, "Studies

of the Smoldering Combustion of Flexible Polyurethane Cushioning

Materials," Fire & Flammability , Vol. 9, January 1978, pp. 5-13.

F. E. Rogers and T. J. Ohlemiller ^ "Minimizing Smolder Tendency in Flexible Polyurethanes," to be published in Journal of Consumer Product

Flammability .

T. J. Ohlemiller and F. E. Rogers, "A Survey of Several Factors Influencing Smoldering Combustion in Flexible and Rigid Polymer Foams,"

submitted to Journal of Fire and Flammability .

T. J. Ohlemiller, J. Bellan, and F. E. Rogers, "A Model of Smoldering

Combustion Applied to Flexible Polyurethane Foams," submitted to

Combustion and Flame.

135
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Stanford Research Institute

Gontract No

.

: 8-3559

Contract Title : The Effect of Fire Retardants on the Heat Release Rate

of Building Materials

Principal Investigator : Stanley B. Martin, Manager

Fire Research Group

Stanford Research Institute

Menlo Park, California 94025

415-326-6200 Ext. 3578

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Sharon K. Brauman

Mr. Robert G. McKee

Mr. Walter H. Johnson

NBS Scientific Officer : William J. Parker

Project Summary : The goal of this project is to establish a relationship between the heat release rate of cellulose and the increase in char

production due to the addition of flame retardants. Water released in

the char forming process dilutes the volatile pyrolysis products and

thus lowers their effective heat of combustion. The char layer then

acts as an insulating barrier reducing the heat flow to the reaction

zone thus lowering the pyrolysis rate. The relative importance of these

two effects will be investigated on this project.

We will restrict our attention to cellulose for the purpose of

demonstrating the validity of the approach when it is applied to a well

characterized, much studied, and hence, relatively well understood,

char-producing, natural polymer. Both untreated and fire-retardanttreated specimens will be employed, the selection of fire retardants

being made, in consultation with the CFR Technical Monitor, to reveal

differences between practically important classes of retardants. Examples include borax-boric acid, ammonium phosphate, potassium oxalate,

and zinc chloride.

Instrumented specimens approximating semi-infinite thickness will

be exposed to three or more flux levels in the SRI rate of heat release

(HRR) calorimeter. Continuous records of heat release with time will

be acquired from which peak rates and selected time-averaged rates will

be determined. Detailed temperature profiles during exposure will be

measured to sufficient depths to provide gradients in virgin as well as charred material throughout the entire period of exposure.

136
We will attempt to measure also the specimen weight loss with time

during exposure in the calorimeter. If we find, however, that the cost

of the modifications needed to achieve this are prohibitive, we will

then resort to a separate set of measurements of weight loss with time.

Several measurements of the resulting char will be made to provide

information about (1) yields (and the dependence of yield on retardant

choice), (2) chemical composition (specifically the relative amounts of

C, H, and 0), (3) physical properties (mainly the density from which

heat conduction properties may be inferred) , and (4) thermochemical

measurements of residual heats of combustion. The measurement techniques will include, but are not necessarily limited to; visual gauging

of char depth, microtome sampling of the char layer with depth to provide samples for chemical analysis (CHO only) and, when coupled with

weight loss information, to provide an estimate of char density, optical

densitometry of radioautographs of thin sections to provide an independent measure of char density with depth, and bomb calorimetry of char

residues. Effects of varying retardant concentrations will not be

measured. We have previously shown (see: A. E. Lipska and S. B. Martin,

The Effect of Flame Retardants on Thermal Degradation of a-Cellulose in

Nitrogen , SRI Project PYU-8150 (OCD Work Unit 2531C) August 1971) that

the linear increase in char yield with retardant concentration predicted

by theory applies approximately up to concentrations of about 2 x 10”^

mols of retardant per gram of cellulose, at which concentration the char

yield has reached approximately 2/3 of its asymptotic value. Therefore, we will arbitrarily choose some fixed level of retardant concentration in

the range of 1 x 10“^ to 3 x 10”^ mol/g as a consistent basis for intercomparing retardants. For a retardant having a molecular weight in the

range of 100 to 200, a retardant concentration of 2 x

10”'^ mol/g amounts

to an add-on weight of 2 to 4 percent.

The data will be evaluated to ascertain the relative Importance in

the char forming process of (1) reduction in available heat through

retention of unburned carbon in the char, on the one hand, and (2) the

insulating character of char layers as an Impediment to heat conduction

into the undecomposed cellulosic substrate and a consequent slowing down

of the burning process, on the other.

Since the work has just begun, there is no progress to be reported

at this time.

Publications :

Martin, S .B .

,

"Characterization of the Stanford Research Institute

Large-Scale Heat-Release-Rate Calorimeter," NBS-G CR 76-54, October 1975.

137
Institution: SRI International

Contract No. : EO-AOl-78-00-3569

Contract Title : Continuation of Decision Analysis Studies in Fire

Hazard Analysis

Principal Investigator : Dr. Fred L. Offensend

Decision Analysis Group

SRI International

Menlo Park, CA 94025

415-326-6200

Other Professional Personnel : Mrs. Ellen B. Leaf

Mr. Scott M. Olmsted

NBS Scientific Officer : Mr. Benjamin Buchbinder

Project Summary : The purpose of this project is to test the utility of

decision analysis in carrying out fire hazard analysis. The project is

being conducted jointly with the Program for Information and Hazard

Analysis of the Center for Fire Research. The project is focusing

on the problem of upholstered furniture fire safety. Three basic

strategies for addressing this problem are being evaluated: 1) do

nothing, 2) proposed upholstered furniture ignition standard currently

under study by the Consumer Product Safety Commission, and 3) federally

required smoke detectors in all residences.

The alternatives are being evaluated on the basis total expected

cost plus loss. A probabilistic model has been developed to assess the

losses occurring under each alternative. The model addresses such

factors as source and type of ignition, time of discovery, and flame

extent. Economic analyses have also been performed to determine the

total annual cost of each alternative. The analysis is carried out over

time to give a time varying description of the costs and losses under

each alternative.

Progress Report : The analysis of the upholstered furniture problem is

nearly complete. Several presentations of preliminary results have

been made to various governmental and interest groups. The results have

been revised reflecting new information brought to light during these

reviews, and a final documentation of results is now in preparation.

We expect the report to be ready in late 1978.

Work is also underway in structuring a decision analytic approach

to other problems of fire safety, including mobile home fire safety and

electric transformer fluids fire safety. Our experience on the upholstered furniture fire safety problem and initial discussions in these

other areas indicated that decision analysis is a powerful tool for

systematically analyzing policy decisions in fire safety. The methodology provides for an explicit identification of the alternatives.

138
uncertainties, outcome measures, and value assignments. It provides a logical structure for reviewing the consequences of the different

strategies and a common vehicle for experts to test the importance of

their differences. Through sensitivity analysis and value of information calculations the methodology also provides a rationale and

direction for further basic fire research studies.

Accomplishments : Loss and cost models have been developed and computerized. Full-scale evaluations have been made of threee basic intervention strategies.

Potential Applications : Whereas the specific cost and loss models can- not be applied without modification to other problems of fire safety

we expect that the decision analytic approach will become a major tool

in the analysis of fire protection strategies.

Future Milestones : A final report summarizing the upholstered furniture analysis should be issued in late 1978.

Reports and Papers :

Buchbinder, B. , Helzer, S. G., and Offensend, F. L., "Preliminary

Report on Evaluating Alternatives for Reducing Upholstered Furniture

Fire Losses," November, 1977. Available from Center for Fire Research

(NBSIR 77-1381).

139
Institution: SRI International

Contract No. : 3103-6329-38008

Contract Title : Cost Effectiveness Study of Regional Fire Fighting Units

Principal Investigator : Dr. Fred L. Offensend

Decision Analysis Group

SRI International

Menlo Park, CA 94025

415-326-6200

Other Professional Personnel : Mr. Raymond S. Alger

Mr. Stanley B. Martin

Dr. Peter C. McNamee

Dr. Kenneth R. Oppenheimer

Department of Commerce Technical Representatives : Mr. William Bovis

Mr. Frank Steiner

Project Summary : The purpose of this project is to carry out an evaluation of alternative intervention strategies for reducing marine fire

losses. The project is being sponsored jointly by National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, Maritime Administration, and National

Bureau of Standards. Over a dozen different alternatives are being

evaluated ranging from various training programs to programs requiring

fixed hardware such as carbon dioxide systems in the engine room. The

alternatives are being evaluated on the basis of cost plus loss. The

project has drawn heavily on the decision analysis and fire science

capabilities of SRI. Considerable expertise has also been utilized

from the marine community.

Progress Report : Probabilistic models have been developed to assess

the costs and losses occurring under each intervention strategy. Data

for the model were obtained from historical statistics as well as expert

judgment. The models have been computerized and an evaluation of alternatives has been carried out. Documentation of final project results

should be available in autumn, 1978.

Accomplishments : Probabilistic models have been developed to assess the

costs and losses occurring under each alternative. Previously unavailable expert judgments have been obtained characterizing the technical

performance of each alternative. Whereas initially there was much

disagreement on the performance of the different alternatives, the

structure of our analytical models has allowed the experts to identify

their differences. In most cases we found that the differences were

the result of different assumptions on the type of fire under consideration, and once we precisely defined the fire conditions, the experts were able to resolve their differences.

140
Potential Applications ; The project has provided a structured approach

for evaluating a previously controversial fire protection decision. The

probabilistic models do not eliminate uncertainty, but they do show the

implications of existing levels of uncertainty. Even under conditions

of uncertainty, we often find that many alternatives are clearly superior

to others, and that many alternatives can be eliminated from the decision

problem without resolving the uncertainty. The underlying approach of

using decision analytic methods in conjunction with fire technology

expertise provides a rational means for evaluating fire protection

strategy under conditions of uncertainty.

Future Milestones: A final report will be issued in autumn, 1978.

141
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Textile Research Institute, Princeton, N.J.

Project Title : Flammability and Combustion Behavior of Textiles

Principal Investigator : Dr. Bernard Miller

Textile Research Institute

Princeton, N.J.

609-924-3150

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. J. R. Martin

Charles H. Meiser, Jr.

Rudolph Turner

William W. Leoniy

NBS Scientific Officer : John Krasny

Progress Report : During the past year this project has been mainly con- cerned with the use of convection calorimetry to investigate the influence

of various chemical and physical parameters on the burning behavior of

textile materials. The Convection Calorimeter, developed at TRI, is a device which is capable of producing a continuous record of the rate at

which heat is emitted from a substance burning under natural convection

without the need to specify the location and nature of any target for

the heat.

Three major aspects of this work have been: 1) the burning of oiltreated fabrics, 2) the effect of disperse dyes on the flammability

behavior of polyester fabric, and 3) the influence of porous and nonporous substrates placed in close contact with burning fabrics.

Accomplishments : It has been shown that the presence of adsorbed oils

on fabrics can increase the amount of heat emitted by burning fabrics,

in some cases approaching the maximum possible heat output. The study

of dyed polyester fabrics has revealed that nearly all dyes used for

this purpose make the fabric more easily ignitable and certain classes

of dyes cause Increased heat output. The study of porous and nonporous

substrates has led to a method for separating the extinguishing effects

of inert heat sinks and vapor transport barriers.

142
Reports and Papers ;

Miller, B. , Martin, J.R. and Meiser, C.H., Jr., "Design, Calibration, and

Use of a Convective Air Flow Dynamic Calorimeter," Thermochimica Acta,

Vol. 20, 253-61 (September 1977).

Martin, J.R. and Miller, B., "Effect of Calcium Salts on the Flammability

Behavior of Fabrics," Textile Chemist & Colorist, Vol. 9, 20-24 (December

1977).

Miller, B. and Meiser, C.H., Jr., "Heat Emission from Burning Fabrics;

Potential Harm Ranking," Textile Res. J. , Vol. 48, 238-43 (1978).

143
Institution: Underwriters Laboratories Inc.

Grant No » ; G8-9010

Grant Title ; Measurement Of Air Flow Around Doors Under

Standardized Fire Test Conditions

Principal Investigator : Robert M. Berhinig

Underwriters Laboratories Inc.

333 Pfingsten Rd

.

Northbrook, IL 60062

312-272-8800

Other Professional Personnel : G. T. Castino

Managing Engineer

Fire Protection Department

NBS Scientific Officer : Lionel Issen

Project Summary : Using standardized fire test methods,

data will be developed for the evaluation of the leakage

of smoke around the peripheries of four types of fire doors

under conditions of high temperature.

The test method to be used is entitled "Smoke Control

Door and Shutter As s embl les-High Temperature Tests," proposed by the International Organization for Standardization

(ISO-DP5925) .

To develop data, five fire tests will be conducted

on four separate door assemblies mounted in brick walls.

The door size will be 3 ft by 7 ft. The door types will

include

A) Hollow Metal Type , Stiffener Design

,

No Glass

B) Hollow

Vision

Metal

Light

Type , Stiffener Design, 100 s q in .

C) Hollow

Vision

Metal

Light

Type , andStiffener Design, 1200 s q in

D) Wood Covered Composite Type, No Glass • The fifth door assembly will include the same door

type as described in A. This assembly will be used for

calibration purposes.

144
The fire tests will be conducted using the method

of ASTM E152 and ULIO(B), with three exceptions. The

pressure in the furnace chamber will follow the criteria

specified in ISO-DP5925 and the doors will be mounted so

that the normal direction of swing is away from the furnace.

The hose stream portion of the ASTM E152, ULIO(B), method

will not be utilized.

Accomplishments ; A calibration test was conducted on

June 13, 1978, and observed by Mr. L. Issen and Mr. L.

Cooper of NBS

.

The performance of the furnace, door assembly,

collection hood and data recording instrumentation performed satisfactorily during the initial 40 minutes of the

test. At approximately the 40 minute mark, the positive

furnace pressure was increased to approximately 25 Pa at

the request of the NBS representatives. As the furnace

pressure was increased, air leakage developed along the

seams of the collection hood and the test was therefore

terminated

.

Upon conclusion of the test, the following items were

reviewed with an intent to improve the data development

possible during future tests:

A) An improved synchronization method for the

opening and closing cycles of the purge doors

on the collection hood should be designed.

B) An electronic means should be provided to

record the opening and closing of the purge

doors

.

C) Additional light should be provided inside

the collection hood to enable better visible

observations of the door assembly during

the test.

D) The data developed during the test should be

transmitted directly to magnetic tape.

Since the June 13, 1978 test, a new collection hood

has been fabricated. This hood includes 16 MSG steel skin

in lieu of 0,060 in. thick aluminum and all joints between

the skin and the hood frame have been continuously welded.

The opening and closing cycles of the purge doors have

been synchronized with the addition of an electric solenoid valve and timer to control air flow into a pneumatic

operator. The opening and closing cycles of the purge

doors have been connected electronically to the data

145
logger by means of a micro switch.

For the subsequent tests, all data inputed to the

data logger will be immediately recorded on magnetic tape.

The installation of the magnetic tape recording instrumentation is expected to be completed by September 29.

In addition to the above items, the representatives

from NBS suggested the test method be revised as follows:

A) The furnace pressure be increased to approximately 125 Pa from the 10+5 Pa specified in

ISO-DP5925

.

B) The purge door cycle of the collection hood be

revised to 3 min of opening and 2 min of

closing from 4 min of opening and 1 min of

closing as specified in ISO-DP5925.

To resolve these two items, a meeting has been

scheduled for August 16 at NBS. The next fire test should

be conducted by October 6. Based upon the anticipated

mutual agreements to be commenced during the August 16

meeting and the satisfactory operation of the magnetic

tape recording Instrumentation.

Potential Applications : The test results may be used for

the development of a Standardized Test Method to Determine

Air Leakage Through Fire Doors and Frames. The data may

also be used to calculate the volume of air and combustion

gases during standardized fire conditions that may flow

through openings between fire doors and door frames from

the fire to non-fire side.

Future Milestones : It is anticipated that the five fire

tests will be completed by October 27, 1978. The data

developed during each test will immediately be forwarded

to the NBS. The data will be on magnetic tape. The Report

of the investigation will be delivered to NBS by December

15, 1978.

Reports and Papers : None.

146
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution ; University of Arizona

Grant. No. : G8-9016

Grant Title : Evaluation of the Combustion Toxicology of Several

Polymeric Materials '

Principal Investigator : Dr. J. Wesley Clayton

Professor of Toxicology

Toxicology Program

University of Arizona

Tucson, Arizona 85721

602-626-4558

NBS Scientific Officer : Merritt Birky

Project Summary : The purpose of this research will be to evaluate the

combustion toxicity of nine types of polymeric materials (including

Douglas fir)

.

The field of combustion toxicology, or more precisely stated, the

inhalation toxicology of combustion products, is in developmental stages.

Thus, the parameters for evaluating toxicity have not yet been firmly

established in a systematic way. It may even be extremely difficult, if

not impossible, to arrive at a "standard” test procedure because of the

complexities which inhere in this special area of inhalation toxicology.

Accordingly, round-robin investigations need to be conducted in

order to assess toxicity and identify pol5nners which yield products of

unusual toxicity. In this project we propose to determine the acute

inhalation toxicities of the designated samples and to assess the relative toxicities from the data which emerge from the experiments.

Samples will be subjected to flaming and smoldering conditions.

The latter is defined as the maximum temperature at which auto-ignltlon

is not initiated (i.e., ca. 15°C below auto-ignition point). The former

is defined as that temperature at which auto-ignition does occur (>:800°C)

These conditions may be modified to conform to other combustion questions

For example, fixed temperatures, such as has been used to determine an

"ALT".

Combustion of Douglas fir and rats exposed to its combustion products will provide the basis for evaluation of the toxicity of the other

samples

.

147
Exposure Chamber Characteristics/Operation

• Chamber type: Head-only exposure, "static" conditions,

i.e., combustion products generated as close as possible

to animal compartment

• Operation: Rapid rise in the concentration of combustion

products. Prior check of O

2 drop, temperature rise,

products concentration.

• Temperature: j<35°C inside chamber during exposure.

Recorded during exposure. Initial chamber temperature

22 + 1°C.

• Construction: Lucite, stainless steel, Potts-type heater.

Ref. J. Combustion Toxicol., 4:114 (1977).

• Duration of exposure: Maximum 30 minutes, unless otherwise

required.

• Chamber oxygen concentration ^18% (vol.)

• Chamber volume: 60 liters

Analysis of Chamber Contents

• Oxygen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide analyzed at

3-5 minutes frequency.

• Chamber temperature and humidity

• Other potential combustion products, e.g,, HCl , HCN

analyzed as required by polymer type

Biological Parameters

• Animals: male rats, initial weight - 250 to 350 grams.

Observed for health indices for one week prior to exposure.

Necropsy pre-exposure of enough rats to assure freedom from

significant respiratory disease and suitability for exposure.

• Six rats per exposure. Record body weight before and immediately after exposure and for two weeks thereafter prior

to necropsy. Mortality data. Dose response, Mlller-Tainter

method.

• Gross observations within chamber for toxic responses

• Leg flexion system for evaluation of time to incapacitation,

conducted during exposure

148
• Behavioral: pupillary reflex, righting reflex, pain

response, respiration characteristics (rapid, deep,

abdominal, etc.), open field test, posture lachrymation

,

chromorhinorhea. Conducted post-exposure and compared

with control observations and leg flexion data.

149
Institution : University of California, Berkeley

Grant No.: G7-9006

Grant Title : Fire Growth and Testing Section in "Fire Safety in Urban

Housing"

Principal Investigator : Professor Robert Brady Williamson

Department of Civil Engineering

University of California

Berkeley, California, 94720 415-642-5308

Other Professional Personnel : David Van Volkinburg, graduate student;

Wai-Ching Teresa Ling, graduate student;

Harry Hasegawa (now at Lawrence Livermore

Laboratory) ; Bob Draemel (now at General

Electric, San Jose); Fred Fisher, Asst.

Development Engineer.

NBS Scientific Officer: Daniel Gross

Project Summary : This grant covers two areas of fire research: 1) fire

growth experiments and 2) post-flashover fire tests. The objective of

the first area has been to establish methods for evaluating the contribution of room furnishings and finishing materials to fire development.

The objective of the second area has been to more clearly define the

relationship between requirements for post-f lashover fire endurance and

the fire resistance of building components.

An event logic analysis has been applied in both areas and a state

transition model has been developed which extends from pre-fire conditions through full involvement in the room of origin. Fault tree analysis has been coupled to the state transition model for those events

Ignition

source

STATE burning

(rO

Fire process starts

In room of origin

Process starts from J In adjacent space

FLASHOVER

fire goes through walls and/or celling

fire goes through

-0

-0

-0

0

door

fire goes through window

fire contained in -0

original compartment0

STATE

T N switch from ventilation to fuel control Figure 1. State Transition Model for Room of Origin,

150
which arc Intrinsically stochastic or cannot be reliably predicted by

deterministic means. A modular experimental compartment has been constructed to facilitate full-scale room fire growth experiments. A number of ignition

sources have been evaluated and a series of trash bag sources that are uniform, realistic, reproducible and fast—acting have been developed.

Progress Report : The state transition model for fire growth is shown in

Figure 1. The events shown there are not necessarily the only events

which could be chosen, but, as previously reported (1), they represent

observable phenomena that are useful in quantifying full-scale fire

tests. The histograms and cumulative distribution functions (CDF’s) for

the observed state durations can T)e directly utilized as probabilities

of the end event for tested materials (1)

.

One of the special features of the state transition model in Figure

1 is that it spans the entire duration of fire in the room of origin,

and subsequently, in adjacent spaces, the fire growth process starts

from a new state J where the flames emerging from the room of origin can

be consldered^the ignition source. This is schematically represented by

the symbol in Figure 1.

The events which mark the beginning and end of the states shown in

Figure 1 can be considered as the top event in a fault tree. The goal

of fault tree construction is to model the system conditions that can cause the undesired event at the top of the tree. When fault trees are constructed for the fire protection system of a whole building, they are quite large and complex; but when they are applied to the limited number

of state transition events, they can be relatively simple and the very

Important time factor is automatically taken into account. An example

of one fault tree is shown in Figure 2 where the ignition event is the

top event and the three principal sources of real fire ignitions are limited to ignition through an "or" gate.

t t t

eg . planned

ignition

human error

comes in eg . failure of

heat limit

devices

Figure 2. A Simple Form of the Fault Tree for Original Ignition Process

151
The arson event is shown as undeveloped while the "loss of control” and

"equipment malfunction" are further developed through the logic of the

NFPA "decision" tree (2) . Each of the events in the fire growth model

can be treated in a similar manner, as shown in the final report of this

project (3). If a deterministic prediction can be substituted for the

fault tree, then the top event can be subjected to calculation like the

failure of a column. An example of this is developed for the switch

from ventilation to fuel control in a fully developed fire. (Those

aspects of the research dealing with room fire experiment will be discussed in the following summary)

.

Accomplishments : The event logic approach has been proven a valuable

way to analyze full-scale fire tests and to quantify their results.

This has been extended to develop a correlation between laboratory scale

fire tests and actual fire conditions as represented by full-scale

experiments (3)

.

Potential Applications : The use of old fire tests to evaluate new

materials, products or systems must be confirmed by full-scale fire

tests. The event logic, state transition and fault tree approaches can facilitate this comparison. We would be most willing to help anyone in

this endeavor.

Reference List

(1) Williamson, R.B., "Fire Performance Under Full-Scale Test Conditions

-A State Transition Model," 16th. Symposium (International) on Combustion , pp. 1357-1371, The Combustion Institute, 1976.

(2) Roux, H.J., NFPA Technical Committee Reports , IB, 1370, 1974.

(3) Williamson, R.B., "Fire Growth and Testing", UCB FRG Report 78-2.

Reports and Papers : 1. "Post-Flashover Compartment Fires: Basis of a Theoretical Model,"

by V. Babrauskas and R.B. Williamson, Fire and Materials , Vol. 2, 1978,

pp. 39-53; UCB FRG 77-14.

2. "The Historical Basis of Fire Resistance Testing, Part I," by V. Babrauskas and R.B. Williamson, Fire Technology , Vol. 14, 1978, p 184-194,

UGB FRG 77-16.

3. "The Historical Basis of Fire Resistance Testing, Part II," by V.

Babrauskas and R.B. Williamson. To be published in Fire Technology , November, 1978.

4. "Temperature Measurement in Fire Test Furnaces," by V. Babrauskas and

R.B. Williamson, Fire Technology , August 1978, p. 226-238. UCB FRG 78-1.

5. "Fire Growth and Testing," by R.B. Williamson. UCB FRG 78-2.

6. "Application of Fault Tree Analysis to Ignition of Fire," by Teresa

Ling and R.B. Williamson. Paper to be presented to Western States Section of the Combustion Institute at the 1978 Fall Meeting, Laguna Beach,

California.

152
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : University of California, San Diego

NBS Grant No. : G8-9005

Grant Title : Studies of Flame Ex-tinction in Relationship to Fire

Suppresion

Principal Investigator : Professor Forman A. Williams

Department of Applied Mechanics

and Engineering Sciences

University of California, San Diego

La Jolla, California 92093

(714)452-3172

Other Professional Personnel : T. Mitani (Graduate Student)

K, Seshadri (Graduate Student)

Paul Clavin (Visiting Professor)

Alvin S. Gordon (Adjunct Professor)

NBS Scientific Officer : T. Kashiwagl

Project Summary : The objective of this work is to develop an Improved

understanding of mechanisms of fire suppresion by studying flame extinction in the presence of suppressive agents. Main suppressants considered are nitrogen, halons and powders. Principal configurations studied

are the counterflow diffusion flame produced by directing an oxidizing

gas stream, containing suppressant, downward onto the burning surface of

liquid or solid fuel, and the downward propagation of premixed flames

through quiescent mixtures contained in tubes. Data include concentrations (obtained by sampling and gas chromatographic analysis) , temperature profiles (measured with thermocouples), flame shapes, flame speeds

and extinction conditions. Results are Interpreted on the basis of

theory which specifies a critical Damkohler number for extinction.

Plan is to apply the theory to extract overall chemical kinetic information under conditions near extinction, to attempt to relate such information to chemical kinetic mechanisms underlying suppresion, to ascertain differences in the thermal, flow and kinetic aspects of extinction

by the different agents and to consider theoretical prediction of suppression under nonideal conditions. For the premixed flames, cellular

structure occurs, and considerable theoretical development is needed

for describing properly the cellular structures and their influence on extinction conditions.

153
Progress Report : Although approval to begin work on the present grant

was first received in May, 1978, the work in many respects represents

a continuation of research performed under an NSF grant that terminated

in February, 1978. Therefore previously unreported progress made under

the NSF grant is included as part of this report, and up-dated information on reports and papers produced under the previous grant is included

In continuing investigations of diffusion-flame extinction, fuels

studied were methanol, heptane and wood, and suppressants considered

were water and nitrogen. The configuration studied was the counterflow

diffusion flame produced by directing an oxidizing gas stream, containing the suppressant, downward onto the burning surface of a condensed

fuel. Data included concentration profiles (obtained by sampling and

gas chromatographic analysis), temperature profiles (measured with

thermocouples) and extinction conditions (in terms of suppressant

content and flow rate of oxidizer) . Overall rate parameters for the

gas-phase combustion of these fuels were obtained through evaluation of

a critical Damkohler number for extinction. The influence of water on flame extinction was observed to be thermal, and it was found that the

extinction mechanisms for gas-phase diffusion flames above cellulosic

fuels are similar to those observed for liquid fuels.

Some progress has been made in developing improved instrumentation

for Investigation of the diffusion-flame combustion. Through a separate equipment grant, a dye laser was acquired for the purpose of

measuring OH concentration profiles in the diffusion flame by the method

of resonance florescence. Such a concentration profile for a radical

species may usefully supplement previously measured profiles of concen- trations of major stable species, to enable the chemical kinetics of

the diffusion flame to be understood more thoroughly. The dye laser is

being tested and aligned in the laboratory to make the desired measurements. Also acquired with aid of separate funds was an optical multichannel analyzer, to be used to study spectra in the diffusion flame.

This equipment is beginning to be set up, first for the purpose of

establishing whether the yellow-orange emissions observed when CF

2 Br is

added arise from carbon continuum or bromine lines.

Studies of downward propagation of premixed flames of hydrogenoxygen-nitrogen mixtures in open tubes have progressed appreciably.

Improved data were taken on flame speeds and on effects of CF^Br addition on flame propagation. Also more thorough photographs of cellular

structures, of their dependence on mixture ratio and of their timedependent behavior were taken. Theoretical studies of kinetic mechanisms established a drastic cutoff in reaction rate at temperatures

below 1000°K, casting doubt on the utility of a simple, one-step reaction model with a constant overall activation energy. Nevertheless,

the theoretical implications of such a model on cellular structures were pursued further. Special attention was given to study of tworeactant systems with different Lewis numbers for each reactant.

Results obtained previously for propagation speeds of planar flames

in such systems were clarified, and the stability of planar flames in

such systems was studied, resulting in formulas, which remain to be

154
checked, for influences of differing Lewis numbers on stability boundaries. In addition, some theoretical work on nonlinear stability

analysis, on steady curved flames and on estimations of flame- temperature changes associated with curvature, was performed. These studies,

still in progress, are directed toward obtaining improved understanding

of limit phenomena in premixed systems.

Accomplishments : Accomplishments of the previous grant, not previously

listed, are demonstrations that extinction measurements for methanol,

heptane and wood are consistent with the hypothesis that water influences flame extinction by a thermal mechanism, and Indications that

extinction mechanisms for gas-phase diffusion-flames above cellulosic

fuels are similar to those for liq.uid fuels. In the present grant,

further clarification has been achieved of the methods whereby cellularflame structures influence the near-limit and extinction behavior of

downwardly propagating premixed flames in tubes.

Potential Applications ; Long-term applications of these results consist

mainly in possible improvemenst in techniques for fire suppression,

derived from Increased understanding of mechanisms of flame extinction,

taking into account interactions between chemical kinetics, fluid flow

and heat transfer. The work affords the possibility of extracting basic

information on both the fluid mechanics and the chemical kinetics of

combustion near extinction, which may be useful in analyzing extinctions

under widely different conditions of burning and of suppressive action.

Future Milestones : Many tasks remain to be done in this project.

Concerning premixed flames, measurements of percent of fuel unburnt as

a function of increasing dilution will be made, measurements of effects

of chemical suppressants on flame speeds and extinction will be made,

and theories of cellular flames in relationship to extinction phenomena

will be pursued further. Concerning diffusion flames, extinction conditions and temperature and concentration profiles will be measured for

polymers other than polymethylmethacrylate, extinction tests will be

made with chemical suppressants other than CF^Br, influences of CF 3 Br on solid fuels will be investigated, profiles of OH in the diffusion

flame will be measured by use of a dye laser, theories of diffusionflame extinction accounting for differences in molecular weights will

be investigated, and theoretical analyses of chemical kinetic influ- ences of chemical suppressants will be pursued.

Reports and Papers :

Seshadrl, K. and Williams, F. A., "Laminar Flow between Parallel Plates

with Injection of a Reactant at High Reynolds Number," International

Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 251-253 (1978).

Bregeon, B. , Gordon, A. S. and Williams, F. A., "Near-Limit Downward

Propagation of Hydrogen and Methane Flames in Oxygen Nitrogen Mixtures,"

Combustion and Flame, to appear, 1978.

155
Seshadri, K. and Williams, F. A., "Structure and Extinction of Counterflow Diffusion-Flames above Condensed Fuels: Comparison between Polymethylmethacrylate and its Liquid Monomer, both Burning in NitrogenAir Mixtures," Journal of Polymer Science, to appear, 1978.

Seshadri, K. "Structure and Extinction of Laminar Diffusion Flames above

Condensed Fuels with Water and Nitrogen," Combustion and Flame, to

appear, 1978.

Seshadri, K. , "Studies of Flame Extinction," Ph.D. Thesis, University

of California, San Deigo, 1977.

156
Institution : University of Maryland, College Park

Grant No . NBS Grant 7-9014

Grant Title : The Determination of Behavior Response Patterns in

Fire Situations, Project People II.

Principal Investigator : Dr. John L. Bryan, Professor and Chairman

Department of Fire Protection Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

(301) 454-2424

Other Professional Personnel : Mr. Philip J. DiNenno, Research Assistant

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. Bernard Levin

Project Summary : The study involves the Identification and analysis of

the behavior patterns of building occupants in fire situations. Intensive in-depth open-ended Interviews are conducted with participants,

supplemented with a structured questionnaire. The interviews have been

conducted by the research study personnel at the scene of the fire incident between one to four weeks following the fire incident.

The study population is currently limited to health care and educational occupancies, with other significant occupancy fires within the

following criteria for the selection of fire incidents: 1. Any known

nursing home or hospital fire in the State of Maryland that involved

staff procedural action, the evacuation of one or more rooms, the operation of a fire extinguisher, or the occurrence of any personnel Injuries.

2. Any known school fire that involved the evacuation of the students,

and procedural extinguishment action by the public fire department.

3. Any known fire in a business, residential, mercantile or public as- sembly occupancy that involved the evacuation of more than 200 occupants.-

Progress Report : The detailed information from the interviews and the

questionnaires is studied to determine the behavior response patterns

of the participants, and the psychological, sociological, educational,

and physical variables influencing the predisposition to the adopted

response. Thus, the total interactional context of the individual, the

functional population, the time variables, the parameters of the fire

incident, and the physical environment of the structure in relation to

detection, alarm, protection and evacuation variables is being studied.

The study has obtained data on minor or successful fires, in which the

fire incident was successfully controlled by personnel without the as- sistance of the public fire department. The behavior response patterns

157
from the fire incidents of the non- threatening type are being compared

with the fire incidents which were perceived to be threatening to the

extent the assistance of the public fire department was requested by the

occupants

.

A total of fourteen fire incidents were under study and analysis as

of July 1, 1978, with a reporting rate of six fire incidents per month

having been obtained in June of 1978. The mapping procedures with the

graphical illustration developed by Lerup have been applied to these

studies

.

Potential Applications : The mapping and graphical Illustrations with

the temporal sequence analysis developed from the previous study by

Lerup, would appear to be applicable to fire study reports from both

governmental and private organizations. The determined behavioral re- sponse patterns should be of interest to personnel Involved in the es- tablishment of specifications and procedures relative to egress facilities, signing requirements, lighting standards, alarm requirements, and

exit aids in buildings.

Future Milestones : The analysis of the critical features of the behavioral response patterns between the successful or minor fire Incidents,

and the unsuccessful fire incidents, requiring public fire department

assistance will be conducted. The indicated sociological, psychological, and personal relationship influence between patients and staff in

the health care occupancy fire incidents will be studied.

Reports and Papers :

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at St. Joseph *s

Hospital, Philadelphia, Pa. on August 10, 1977. College Park:

University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, May 31, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Kensington Gardens Nursing Home on January 1, 1978. College Park: University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, June 30, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Manor

Care, Hyattsville Nursing Home on January 10, 1978. College Park:

University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, June 30, 1978.

158
Institution ; University of Maryland

Grant No . : NBS Grant-G7-9007

Grant Title ; A Theoretical Rationalization of the

Goal Oriented Systems Approach to

Building Fire Safety

Principal Investigator ; Jack Watts

Department of Fire Protection Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

(301) 454-2424

NBS Scientific Officer ; Harold E. Nelson

Project Summary ; The Goal Oriented Systems Approach to Building Fire

Safety developed by the U.S. General Services Administration is presently the only probabilistic methodology for fire protection evaluation in use in the United States. This project describes and analyzes the GSA

approach and formulates a more scientific procedure by synthesizing GSA

concepts with additional probability theory. Discussion of systems

analysis and modeling concepts emphasizes the need for probabilistic

considerations of fire safety. The revised model simplifies data

requirements through parameter estimation techniques. The new approach

is consistant with the GSA model for several example cases. Facility

for sensitivity analysis of alternative fire protection strategies is

a demonstrated advantage of the new methodology.

Status ; This project is completed. The final report has been submitted

and is undergoing an outside technical review.

Reports ;

Watts, Jack, The Goal Oriented Systems Approach, NBS-GCR-77-103 , National

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.(July 12, 1977).

Watts, Jack, A Theoretical Rationalization of a Goal-Oriented Systems

Approach to Building Fire Safety , Final Report on NBS Grant No. 7-^007

,

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

College Park (February 28, 1978).

159
Institution

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Grant flo: NBS Grant G7-9010

Grant Title: Flame Suppression by Chemical Inhibitors

Principal Investigators :

James C.W. Chien

Department of Polymer Science

Marcel Vanpee

Department of Chemical

and Engineering

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, MA 01003

Tel. (413) 545-2727

Engi neering

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, MA 01003

Tel. (413) 545-0593

Other Professional Personnel:

Joseph K.Y. Kiang

Ph.D. Candidate

B. McNamara

B.S. Candidate

P.P. Shirodkar

Ph.D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer: W. Gary Mallard

Project Summary : Experimental studies of polymer combustion and flame

inhibition were pursued in two distinct aspects. Polymer combustion

is preceded by thermal and oxidative analysis of polymer to liberate

volatile combustible fragments which is followed by highly exothermic

combustion processes of the flame. Flame retardant can be affected by

(a) inhibition of the crackup processes or by (b) poisoning of flame.

State of art flame retardants are compounds containing Cl, Br, Sb and

P. These elements are of relatively low efficiency thus requiring

from 20 to 40 weight percent of additive to achieve adequate level of

flame retardancy.

The research at the University of Massachusetts has been directed

toward a thorough understanding of the mechanism and kinetics of

thermal and oxidative pyrolysis of major polymers and determination of

the intrinsic efficiencies of elements other than those mentioned

above to inhibit the breakdown of polymers and suppression of flame

propagation.

Progress Report : A. Poly (propylene) was chosen as the first large

volume polymer to study the solid phase processes. The experiments

were conducted with the UMass "Interfaced Pyrolysis Gas Chromotographic

Peak Identification System." Milligram samples of the polymer were

introduced into the MP-3 Multipurpose thermal analyzer and heated to

the desired temperature for a predetermined length of time in a rapid

stream (25 ml sec) of either He, air or 0^. The volatile products

were trapped, GC separated and peaks on line identified with a MC-2

mass chromatograph (for molecular weight) a Norcon 201 rapid scan 160
vapor phase IR spectrophotometer, a CDS1200 functional group analyzer

and a Perkin-Elmer-Hi tachi mass spectrometer.

Pyrolysis in He produces predominately olefins and dienes all

of which can be accounted for by a simple mechanism of random chain

scission followed by hydrogen migrations. Rate constants and activation energies were determined from 388 to 438°C to give

k = 1.13 X 10 exp(56,000/RT)^g^ ^ for atactic poly (propylene)

and _p, , k = 5.52 X 10 exp(51 ,000/RT)^g^” for isotactic poly (propylen^

Oxidative pyrolysis in air produces predominately ketones and aldehydes

though some saturated and unsaturated products were also obtained

especially at slow air flows indicating oxygen starvation. The

carbonyl products can be accounted for by a reaction mechanism involving random chain scission followed by peroxidation, hydrogen

abstraction to form hydroperoxide, decomposition of the hydroperoxide

and C-C bond scission accompanied by H or CHg transfer. Rate

constants and activation energies were determined from 240° to 289°C

to give

k = 1.0 X 10"^^ exp(l 7,000/RT)^^^"^ for atactic poly (propylene)

_Q

k = 1.0 X 10 exp(l 5 ,000/RT)^g^ for isotactic poly (propylene)

Chromium was the first element of choice to evaluate its inhibition activity. Cr is chemically reacted and incorporated on poly

(propylene) to a content of 0.4 wt. percent. This material was found

to have a self-ignition temperature about 150°C higher than that of

uninhibited polymer and a limiting oxygen index of 28 as compared to

17.8 for uninhibited polymer. It was pyrolyzed in He and air as above.

For the former, the presence of Cr was found not to affect significantly either the rate or product distribution of thermal pyrolysis. Very

marked effect of Cr was seen for oxidatic pyrolysis. The activation

energy was increased to 35 k cal mole"^, and the formation of all

products were suppressed. In addition, there was formed a char

amounting to about 5% of the polymer.

B. The relative effectiveness of a variety of metallic compounds

as flame inhibitors were investigated.

The metallic compound was first dissolved in ethanol. The

solution was then atomized into a fine fog by means of a Son i core atomizing nozzle. The mixture of the fog and an oxidizer gas, con- sisting of oxygen and nitrogen, was directed downwards on a liquid

fuel pool. On ignition, a flat laminar flame was obtained in the

space between the gas duct and the liquid pool.

The oxygen mass (or mole) fraction in the oxidizer gas at flame

161
extinction was measured as a function of oxidizer velocity. The

effectiveness of an additive salt was measured in terms of the change

in oxygen mass (or mole) fraction per unit of additive mass (or

mole) fraction in the oxidizer stream.

The metal compounds studies were; Acetyl acetonates of Li, Na, Pb,

Fe, Cr, Co, and Mn; chlorides of fig, Ni , Li and C, Fe(C0)5,

Pb(C2 H 302 ) 4 , LiC2H202 and NaOH. All these compounds were soluble in

commercial grade ethanol, which was selected as the fuel.

On a mole basis, lead tetracetate and acetyl acetonate of Mn, Co,

Fe, and Cr were found to be effective flame inhibitors. While on the mass basis, the alkali (Na, Li) acetyl acetonates were found to be very

effective flame inhibitors.

The metal -ligand bond was significant effects on the flame

inhibition capacity of metallic compounds. The weaker the bond, the

better the chance of releasing the active species in the flame,

consequently, the more effective the metallic compound is as flame

inhibitor.

Accompl ishments

;

A. A detailed thermoanalytical technique has been

developed to study reactions of polymer solids which must occur prior

to and during its combustion. Mechanisms were elucidated for these

reactions for polypropyl ene and rate constants and activation energies

determined. Chromium was found to be extremely effective in inhibiting oxidative pyrolysis of poly (propylene).

B. The opposed jet liquid fuel burner provides a sensitive measure of flame inhibition effectiveness in the form of oxygen mass

fraction (or mole fraction) and the extinction velocity of the

oxidizer gas stream. The method is quite versatile, and has no limitations with regard to the physical state of the additive. Above

all, it gives an easy means to test the inhibition capacity of metal

compounds by dissolving them in suitable solvents.

Potential Applications : The ultimate solution to inhibit polymer

combustion is to discover new and synergistic systems which are effective when present at very low amounts. This will have the benefit

of not affecting the material properties of the polymer and reduce

the level of toxic products which may evolve on combustion. On the

most basic aspect, this investigation will determine the intrinsic

efficiency of various elements in frame retardation of polymer.

Future Milestones ; Poly (isoprene) will be the next polymer for this

investigation. With this polymer we will be able to chemically bound

many elements to it whereas the Etard reaction used in the poly

(propylene) work is applicable only to the incorporation of chromium.

162
Reports and Papers:

Vanpee, M. and Shirodkar, P.P., "A Study of Flame Inhibition by Metal

Compounds," 17th Symposium (International) on Combustion, Leeds,

England (1978).

Chien, J.C.W. and Kiang, J.K.Y., "Pyrolysis of Polypropylene,"

Advance in Chem. (in press).

163
Institution: University of Massachusetts

Grant (or Contract) No :

Grant (or Contract) Title : Waking Effectiveness of Household Smoke

Alarm Detector Devices

Principle Investigator : E. Harris Nober

122 Arnold House

Department of Communication Disorders

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massachusetts 01003

(413) 545-0551, 545-0131

Other Professional Personnel :

Henry Peirce, Research Associate; Arnold Well, Research Associate;

Charles Clifton, Research Associate, Additional Research Associate,

Technician Research Assistant to be selected.

NBS Scientific Officer:

Project Summary :

There are three major goals, each with specific objectives. Goal ^ is to assess the intensity-frequency spectral composition of the smoke

and fire alert acoustic signals relative to distance from the source

(Experiment A). One objective is to determine the overall dBA output

level of the acoustic signals for the 10 top selling units in the U.S.

Measures would be taken 10 feet from the source in an area of minimal

attenuation, at head location in the bedroom with bedroom door open and

then with door closed to determine wall and door attenuation. A second

objective is to determine the decibel output levels for these units at

nine octave bands with central frequencies 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000,

2000, 4000, 8000, 16000 Hz, respectively.

Goal II is to determine and quantify sleep-waking dynamics as a function of the smoke and fire alert signal and extraneous environmental noise background in a young college age population (Experiment B)

and different family constellations and households (Experiment C)

.

An objective for Experiment B is to determine the waking-time latencies

that occur from the electronically programmed signal-on presentation to

the subject initiated signal-off activity. Variables include three

intensity levels (55, 70, 85 dBA), extraneous noise, hours during the

night and day of the week. Other objectives for Experiment B include

determining the best subject response protocol, pilot test a questionnaire that will provide pertinent complementary data and assess the efficiency of the current alarm signals to be employed in Experiment C. The objective for Experiment C is to field test current household alarm

detector units in a variety of household settings and conditions. A

profile of behavior for individuals and the household constellation

should be developed based on objective latency measures and questionnaire obtained data.

164
Goal III will explore, determine and test the most efficacious

acoustic warning signal-auditory response combinations in a survey of

different household sleeping conditions. Hence, one objective will be

to determine and test for the most effective temporal acoustic patterns

to elicit maximum acoustic arousal, i.e., continuous vs intermittant

(Experiment D). Also, the most effective alarm spectral characteristics will be ascertained relative to different populations.

Progress Report :

Since the study has not yet commenced, there is no progress to

report. The only data available relative to this study are some of the

original pilot data that measured the intensities of several household

smoke alert units in nine octave frequency bands. The data showed the

major energy was concentrated between 500-4000 Hz Inclusive. In still

another pilot study, several alarm units were measured in several sample households using three locations, the hallway where the unit was Installed, the bedroom with the door open and the bedroom with the door

closed. The mean Intensity values in dBA were 87, 71, and 56 dBA re- spectively for the three positions; ranges rarely exceeded plus or minus five decibels. Hence, if a room air conditioner, radio or TV

were playing at 65-70 dB, there could be a formidable masking effect on the auditory perception of the alarm signal, particularly if the subject is sleeping.

Accomplishments : None to report.

Potential Applications :

The data from the latency component and from the questionnaire

should collectively provide an index and a profile of expected behavior

to the current alarm signals used in household detector units. Data

should reveal stress reactions of individuals and families when suddenly awakened during the night from sleep. Different types of living

conditions will be simulated in programmed experimental groups. Toward

the end of the program different alarm signals and modes of presentation

will be explored. A separate project will assess the effects of structured fire drills at home on a regulated basis. Application is pertinent for determining the best type of acoustic signal to be used in

home alarm units and best placement in the home. There is also relevant applicability to the current programs being implemented by local

fire departments throughout the country.

Future Milestones :

Organize and implement the program.

Reports and Papers : None to report.

165
Institution: University of Montana, Missoula, MT

Grant No . : NBS Grant G8-9011

Grant Title : Ignition and Fire Spread of Cellulosic Materials

Principal Investigator : Professor Fred Shafizadeh

Wood Chemistry Laboratory

University of Montana

Missoula, MT 59812

406-243-6212

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Allan G. W. Bradbury

Thomas T. Stevenson

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. Richard Gann

Project Summary : The current objective of this project is to investigate the factors which could affect the process of smoldering combustion of cellulosic materials, including lower temperature pyrolysis and

the effect of inorganic materials and flame retardants, in order to

provide a chemical description of the process and define the mechanism

of its suppression.

Progress Report : In contrast to flaming combustion of the cellulosic

materials which is propagated by the gas phase combustion of the pyrolysis products, the smoldering combustion of these materials propagate

by oxidation of the solid substrates possibly before or after charring.

The kinetics and mechanism of the pyrolysis of cellulose, at temperatures up to 340°C, in air, nitrogen or vacuum was investigated in

order to determine the possibility of oxidation before charring and

the rate of the thermal degradation. The results indicated that at

temperatures below 300°C, thermal degradation of cellulose in air involves several oxidation reactions including production of hydroperoxide, carbonyl and carboxyl groups. These reactions which involve an initiation period are very slow and at temperatures above 300°C are overtaken by pyrolytic reactions which have a much higher activation

energy. Consequently, the thermal decomposition becomes non-oxidative

in character. Furthermore, it was found that the smoke generated by

smoldering combustion of cotton fabric has almost the same composition

as the pyrolysis products under nitrogen. These data point out the

significance of the char oxidation as the driving force for propagation

of the smoldering combustion. They also indicate that pure cellulose

should have a much higher tendency for flaming than smoldering combustion because of the rapid production of combustible volatiles at temperatures above 300°C, unless the char production is catalyzed by inorganic impurities or additives (see Figure 1).

It has also been shown already that the activation energy of pyrolysis could be lowered, the evolution of combustible volatiles could be

suppressed, the heat of combustion of the volatiles could be reduced.

166
and production of char could be increased with the addition of flame

retardants and inorganic additives, all which are expected to promote

the smoldering process. However, investigation of a series of cellulosic substrates treated with various flame retardants and inorganic

additives confirmed the fact that some flame retardants reduce while

others enhance the tendency for smoldering combustion. Attempted cor- relations between the tendency for smoldering and other combustionrelated characteristics , including heat release, charring, thermal analysis and development of free radicals (ESR) indicated that the process

is controlled by complex interrelated factors including composition of

the substrates, inorganic additives, rates of oxidation and heat flux

and last but perhaps most significant, the reactivity and combustibility of char.

Carbon oxidation has been extensively investigated, but the mechanism of the reactions involved are barely understood. According to

the current concepts (see Figure 2) oxidation takes place at the active

sites on the surface of the carbonaceous materials. Originally oxygen

is adsorbed on the active sites (C*). The adsorbed oxygen (C(02)*)

then dissociates to provide a mixture of mobile surface oxides (C(O)m)

and stable oxide species (C=0). The mobile surface oxides then react

to provide carbon monoxide and/or carbon dioxide and regenerate new active sites which propagate the oxidation process. The stable oxide

species apparently play a minor role by decomposing slowly to provide

carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

This theory explains the role of some metal catalysts in promoting

the smoldering process by helping dissociation of the adsorbed molecular oxygen. It also explains prevention of glowing and smoldering com- bustion by ammonium phosphates, boric acid and sulfur which could interact with the active sites.

In support of this theory it was found that the char produced by

low temperature pyrolysis of cellulosic materials is much more reactive

than graphite and other forms of pure carbon, generally investigated.

Furthermore, this reactivity is inversely related to the temperature of

pyrolysis and charring.

Accompl ishments : The kinetics and mechanism of the pyrolysis of cellulose at temperatures up to 340° in air, nitrogen and vacuum have been

determined. The results indicate that at temperatures below 300°C

thermal degradation in air involves formation of hydroperoxide, carbonyl and carboxyl groups, dehydration, scission of the polymeric chain

and ultimately, production of char, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

These reactions proceed slowly and are accompanied by an induction

period

.

At temperatures above 300°C transglycosylation reactions take over

and the induction period and the difference between pyrolysis in air

and nitrogen gradually disappear. Kinetics of the pyrolysis under re- duced pressure could be expressed by the following three reaction

model

.

167
where

Cellulose wcell>"Active Cellulose

IV,

dt

d(W^) = k.[w

Vol ati 1 es

iV,V

Char + Gases

VI JV,

, J - (k,, + k ;[fv 1 1

- cell-^ ^ c' A-^ dt

d(w^) = 0 . 35;c^[p7^]

dt

For pyrolysis of pure cellulose under vacuum it has been found that

the rate constants kj, ky, and k^ in the above model could be expressed

^ ( 58,000 ) ^ ^

/ 47,300 x by k.- = 1.7 X lO^^e ^ min"^, jc,, = 1.9 x lO'^e

^

min"^ and

kc = 7-9 X

11

(

36,600

) 10''e '

^ min“' respectively

.

Investigation of smoldering combustion has lead to a chemical description of this process emphasizing the reactivity and combustibility

of the char as a critical factor and indicating the mechanism of its

control by inorganic additives.

Potential Applications : Reducing the risks and hazards of smoldering

combustion by development of safer cellulosic insulation and batting

and better applications and standards.

Future Milestones : 1. Further correlation of the smoldering process

with the reactivity and combustibility of the char.

2. Investigation of the adsorption properties and reactivity of

the char as a possible approach for inhibition of the smoldering com- bustion .

3. The effect of inorganic additives and pyrolysis products of

cellulose on combustion of the char and inhibition of smoldering.

Reports and Papers :

Shafizadeh, F. and Bradbury, A. G. W., "Thermal Degradation of Cellulose in Air and Nitrogen at Low Temperatures," j. Appi. Poiym. sd.,

in press.

Bradbury, A. G. W., Sakai, Y. and Shafizadeh, F., "A Kinetic Model for

Pyrolysis of Cellulose," submitted to j. Appi. Poiym. sd.

168
kh '

1.' ' .

"

Shafizadeh, F. and Bradbury, A. G. W. ,-J' Smoldering Combustion of Cellu-

?^-losic Materials;" submitted to j. Fire/Fiamm

^ f

' f-f j

' 'ifei

•0..< . f*-"®*
OXIDATION

OF

CHAR

r->

t_) 4-» U

CNJ

O)

S-CD

MOTT aiv Oldvy

xmj iV3H XiISN3J.NI HOIH

STVIH3iVW OINVOaONI

170

FLAMING
Institution ; University of North Carolina

Grant No . : NBS Grant-G7-9021

Grant Title : The Psychology of Arson: Theoretical

Analyses with Suggestions for Application

Principal Investigator ; Dr. Marcus B. Waller

Department of Psychology

University of North Carolina

Chapel Hill, N.C. 27514

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Robert G. Vreeland, Research Associate and Project

Director

Dr. E. Earl Baughman, Associate in Personality Theory

NBS Scientific Officer ; Dr. Bernard Levin

Project Summary : Our major purpose is to gain some systematic knowledge about the psychology of arson: the type of

person likely to set a fire and the circumstances surrounding the firesetting act. The first year of the current

project has been concerned with systematically organizing

and reviewing what is known about firesetting. Our information has come from the literature, from meetings and

conferences, and from personal contact with researchers,

clinicians, and investigators.

The second year of the project will be concerned with

interpreting what is known about firesetting in a context

of psychological theory. The most important objectives are

an improvement of existing classification schemes, an evaluation of the potential contributions of various personality and behavior theories to our understanding of firesetting, and specific suggestions for the application of

our findings in the clinical treatment and management of

firesetting. Where gaps in our knowledge exist (as they

certainly will) , we plan to make testable hypotheses and to

suggest the types of data likely to be relevant to those

hypotheses

,

Progress Report : Thus far, our analysis has concentrated

on common factors which appear to be characteristic of a

wide range of types of firesetters. The traditional

psychoanalytic view has emphasized the sexual roots of

firesetting, and a great deal of attention has been paid to

the relationship between firesetting and sexual problems.

However, in our review we have found firesetters' problems

to be considerably more extensive. Among adult firesetters

of all types (arson-for-profit excluded), marital, occupational, and drinking problems, as well as other criminal

activity, have been prevalent. Children and adolescents

who set fires have also shown other types of problem

171
behavior such as running away from home, truancy, stealing,

general hyperkinesis, and aggression. The "typical" firesetter in many ways appears to be similar to other criminals and delinquents. One major difference, however, has

been the general finding that arsonists commit more

offenses against property (firesetting excluded) and fewer

offenses against the person than do other types of criminals. The extent to which these findings apply to arsonfor-profit firesetters is open to question, since we know

very little about this type of firesetter.

Accomplishments : Taken together, the findings we have

reviewed thus far have led us to emphasize a model of firesetting behavior in which firesetters are viewed as

deficient in the skills, particularly social skills, necessary to obtain rewards from the environment in an appropriate manner. Having failed to gain sufficient control

over his environment through appropriate interpersonal

skills, the individual may turn to interpersonally less

direct means for gaining a great deal of control over his

environment, firesetting being one such way. A recent

paper (Vreeland & Levin, 1978) explains this view in

greater detail.

Potential Applications : An understanding of the psychological factors involved in firesetting should aid in the

clinical treatment and management of firesetting behavior

as well as in the identification of potentially serious

firesetters. Current findings suggest that for many firesetters, programs to develop self-confidence and interpersonal and vocational skills would be important

components of treatment.

Future Milestones : While we have thus far concentrated

mainly on factors common to most groups of firesetters, • there are also important differences. Our review of the

literature (first year's report) will detail these differences. The development of a functional classification

system and the interpretation of different types of firesetting within the framework of current psychological

theory may aid in suggesting optimal treatment and case

management strategies for different types of firesetters.

Reports and Papers ; Vreeland, R, G., & Levin, B. Psychological aspects of

firesetting. In D. Canter (Ed.), Behavior in fires . New York: John Wiley, in press.

172
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution ; University of Notre Dame

Grant No . : NBS Grant G7-9002

Grant Title ; Fire and Smoke Spread

Principal Coordinator ; Professor K. T. Yang

Department of Aerospace

and Mechanical Engineering

University of Notre Dame

Notre Dame, IN 46556

219-283-7466

Principal Investigator ; Professor John R. Lloyd

219-283-7198

Dr. A. M. Kanury, Associate Professor

Dr. S. T. McComas, Professor

Dr. V. W. Nee, Professor

Dr. A. A. Szewczyk, Professor

L. C. Chang, Graduate Assistant

H. C. Chiou, Graduate Assistant

C. J. Huang, Graduate Assistant

V. K. Liu, Graduate Assistant

C. J. Tsu, Graduate Assistant

D. W. Meyers, Undergraduate Assistant

Project Summary ; The purpose of this research is to develop a three

dimensional computer code for describing the physical movement of fire

and smoke in enclosures such as rooms, compartments and corridors. The

long-term goal is the development of the numerical code, UNDSAFE, which

is capable of predicting the real fire and smoke spread behavior in an enclosure as a function of geometry and materials content. It can be

used to study a wide variety of real life problems associated with

enclosure fires such as the motion of hot gases, temperature build-up

and distribution of products of combustion, ventilation of fire

through windows and doorways, radiation from walls, soot and hot gases,

and interactions among multiple fire plumes as well as between plumes

and ceilings, walls and corners.

This numerical code is based on a finite difference representation

of a set of two or three dimensional first-principle differential field

equations for unsteady turbulent recirculating flows. Including effects

173

Co-Investigators ;

Research Assistants;
of strong buoyancy, compressibility, combustion, multiple species, and

wall, soot and gaseous radiation. The mathematical modeling of turbulence, radiation and combustion is based on phenomenological and

physical principles, and the validity is established by comparison of

the numerical calculations with experimental studies carried out at the

University of Notre Dame and at the Center for Fire Research of the

National Bureau of Standards. The complexity of the real fire and smoke

spread phenomena dictates a step-by-step approach of developing the

three dimensional numerical model to insure that at each step the model

is self-consistent physically and correct in terms of known results.

This project was originally initiated under NSF RANN Grant GI-37191,

and has since been continued under Grants ATA73-07749A01, AEN-73-07749-

A02 and NBS G7-9002.

Progress Report :

1. Computer Code Development - Progress has been made on both the

two and three dimensional versions of UNDSAFE. During this past year a technical memorandum was issued outlining the efforts which have gone on

in previous years to establish the accuracy convergence, and stability

of the UNDSAFE code. Both the parabolic and elliptic two dimensional

codes are discussed in the memorandum. Development of the three

dimensional UNDSAFE code based on the mass, momentum and energy conservation equations together with a k, e, g turbulence model has been

progressing. The computation algorithm includes three dimensional calculations using primitive physical variables, variable mesh, fully

explicit to fully implicit calculations allowed and a pressure correction scheme based on Newton-Raphson’ s rule which was developed at Los

Alamos Laboratory for the SOLA-ICE program.

2. Turbulence Modeling - A technical report describing the development of the algebraic model for recirculating turbulent flow with strong

buoyancy has been issued. Basic concepts behind this model are introduced and discussed. Comparisons are made for the constant eddy - viscosity model and the mixing length model. As mentioned in the

previous section a differential field model employing three transport

equations for the turbulent kinetic energy, the dissipation function and

the mean-square temperature fluctuation is being developed to be used

with the 3-D code. This formulation includes appropriate algebraic

formulae for the Reynolds stresses and the components of turbulent heat

flux.

3. Radiation Modeling - A technical report on the one-dimensional

model Including soot, gas and surface radiation has been written and

distributed. The report presents a detailed description of the model

which is currently employed in the UNDSAFE code. Interactions between

gas and soot radiation are accounted for as well as the effect of overlapping bands in the gaseous radiation. Samples of the results of

calculations for three limiting cases, including no radiation in the

calculation, surface and heavy soot only in the calculation and surface

and gas radiation only in the calculation are presented to demonstrate

174
the model. Work has continued on the two dimensional model. A single

square enclosure is being considered with the top two walls adiabatic

and the two side walls at different temperatures. Surface radiation is

being considered first before including the effects of gas radiation.

4. UNDSAFE II - The draft copy of the UNDSAFE II report has been

completed for some time. It treats the same basic room configuration

as that of UNDSAFE I, except that the full algebraic turbulence model

and one-dimensional radiation model for wall, soot and gaseous radiation

have now been incorporated. Furthermore, the numerical computations can now be extended into the region outside the doorway so that the flow and

temperature behaviors outside the doorway can be clearly discerned. The

formal issuance of UNDSAFE II in the form of a technical report has been

delayed pending the public distribution of two technical reports, one

for the radiation modeling and the other for the algebraic turbulence

model, since many of the details in UNDSAFE II depend directly on formulations given in these two modeling reports. These two modeling

reports have now been formally issued (TR - 79002-78-1 and TR-79002-78-

2) , and the technical report on UNDSAFE II will shortly follow.

5. Cinematics - In the area of cinematics two developments have

taken place. First, streamline or temperature contour plots are available in addition to velocity vector plots on any black and white movie.

Second, a short (2200 frames) color movie has been completed with color

coding of temperature distribution in the enclosure as well as velocity

vector superposition to indicate the flow field. Further, color movies

will be produced in the near future using updated versions of UNDSAFE

which include multiple sources, radiation, etc.

6. Experimental Studies - Two experimental facilities are currently

being employed. The fire wind tunnel is being used to study Richardson

number effects on turbulence. In this study a velocity profile and a temperature profile are specified at the entrance to the main test

section and the development of the velocity and temperature fields

downstream are monitored. Hot wire anemometers and thermocouples are being employed. In the enclosure-corridor facility an exhaustive flow

visualization study was made on the four layer behavior observed at NBS

and in the UNDSAFE calculations. A technical memorandum has been

written outlining these visualization studies. Also in the enclosurecorridor facility measurement of flow velocity field are being made

using LDA techniques. The preliminary studies use the back scattering

mode of operation with the smoke from the visualization being used as the seed particles. This technique appears to be the only reliable

velocity measuring technique to measure the low velocity natural con- vection driven profiles of the hostile fire environments.

7. ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test Analysis - We have just completed a careful study of the impressive analysis of the tunnel problem performed by

Carrier, Fendell and Feldman. Our parabolic code is currently being

applied to the tunnel problem. This treatment employs a volumetric heat

source to simulate the gas flame and includes the effects of radiation.

175
We expect to obtain solutions this summer suitable for comparison with

both Parker's experimental measurements and Carrier's analytical

solutions

.

8. Interacting Plume Studies - Initial results of this study which

have been discussed at earlier meetings have formed the basis for a more complete study of the behavior of two-dimensional line plumes in

the presence of upper and lower confining surfaces. The transient and

steady state behavior are being examined for various plume separation

widths, elevations off the lower floor and ceiling heights. Development of the relevant dimensionless coordinates to rationally correlate

these results are in progress.

Accomplishments : During the past year considerable progress has been

made toward the development of UNDSAFE, a computer code designed to

predict the spread of fire and smoke in single and multiple enclosures.

The two-dimensional code has been developed to the point where it can handle unsteady recirculating flows with turbulence, full compressibility, strong buoyancy, combustion and radiation from surfaces, smoke

and products of combustion as well as a wide variety of enclosure con- figurations. A three-dimensional code has been written and is currently

being debugged. This will enable the study of most any room configuration including windows and doors. The three-dimensional code has been

written to include the differential field equation turbulence models.

Considerable data was obtained with the experimental facilities.

Studies of the four layer flow behavior have led to better understanding of this phenom.enon. Techniques for obtaining data on the effects of

buoyancy on turbulence have been established and the LDA system has

begun to provide some accurate flow velocity measurements in the enclosure facility.

Potential Applications : Once the three dimensional UNDSAFE code,

including such physical models as turbulence, radiation, combustion etc,

is complete, many applications are apparent. In the case of the fire

hazard testing of materials, applications can be found in the design

and data Interpretation of such tests as the tunnel tests, radiant panel

tests, corner tests, etc. The code can also be used in support of large

scale fire tests in rooms, corridors, buildings, aircraft and mines.

Applications can also be found in architectural design for structural

Integrity in fires, for establishing escape routes in buildings, for

evaluating compartmentalization for fire containment in buildings and

aircraft, etc. It should also be clearly pointed out that the code,

along with the cinematics capability, would be a vital simulation tool

for evaluating fire detection programs and for training fire fighting

personnel show the importance of various physical effects on the spread

of fire and smoke in rooms and corridors.

176
Future Milestones:

1. Evaluation of three-dimensional UNDSAFE.

2. Development of two-dimensional radiation model.

3. Comparison of lINDSAFE predictions to LDA velocity data.

4. Complete analysis of E-84 tunnel using parabolic UNDSAFE.

5. Development of combustion model.

6. Development of ignition and spread model.

7. Utilization and implementation.

Reports, Papers, and Memoranda :

1. V. K. Liu and J. R. Lloyd, "One-Dimensional Radiation Model for

surfaces and Non-Homogeneous Gases and Soot," Technical Report

TR-79002-78-1, Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, March 6,

1978, 98 pp.

2. V. W. Nee and V. K. Liu, "An Algebraic Turbulence Model for

Buoyant Recirculating Flow," Technical Report TR-79002-78-2

,

Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University

of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, May 12, 1978, 107 pp.

3. V. W. Nee, "Turbulence Modeling," Technical Memorandum, Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of

Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, March 8, 1978, 5 pp.

4. J. R. Lloyd and K. T. Yang, "Accuracy, Convergence and Stability

of UNDSAFE," Technical Memorandum, Department of Aerospace and

Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame,

Indiana, May 2, 1978, 18 pp.

5. D. Meyers and J. R. Lloyd, "Flow Visualizations of the Four

Layer Corridor Flow Phenomenon," Technical Memorandum, Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of

Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, June 30, 1978, 54 pp

.

6. K. T. Yang and V. K. Liu, "UNDSAFE II - A Computer Code for

Buoyant Turbulent Flow in an Enclosure with Thermal Radiation,"

Technical Report TR-79002-78-3 , Department of Aerospace and

Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame,

Indiana, July 15, 1978.

177
Institution

University of Pittsburgh

Grant No . : NBS Grant 5-9005

Grant Title: Toxicity of Plastic Combustion Products

Principal Investigator: Yves Alarie, Ph.D.,

Department of Industrial Environmental Health Sciences

University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health

Pittsburgh, PA 15261

412-624-3047

Co-Principal Investigator : Rosalind C. Anderson, Ph.D.,

Department of Industrial Environmental Health Sciences

University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health

Pittsburgh, PA 15261

412-624-4904

Other Professional Personnel : C.S. Barrow, Ph.D.

L. Kane, Ph.D.

J. Dlerdorf, M.S.

A. Burton, M.S.

H. Lucia, M.D.

C. Volz, M.S. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer : M. M. Blrky

Project Summary : Objectives- (1) To develop broadly applicable indices

for the evaluation of toxicity resulting from Inhalation of thermal decomposition products. (2) To develop a single test system which will

facilitate economical, efficient study of these indices of toxicity.

(3) To develop guidelines which will allow incorporation of toxicity

data into a hazard index which could then be used for meaningful discriminations between materials.

Progress Report : A test system has been devised to provide logical,

reliable, and realistic procedures for decomposition of samples and ex- posure of animals to thermal decomposition products.

In the development of endpoints, it is not possible to measure

every toxic effect, however, it is possible to evaluate the spectrum of common physiological pathways which can be predicted to demonstrate

toxic symptoms resulting from inhaltion of noxious or toxic materials.

The common physiological pathways which have been chosen are:

1) Sensory irritation, 2) Physiological stress, 3) Cellular oxygen

defflciency, 4) Narcosis, 5) Motor excitation, 6) Acute lung damage,

7) Death.

Great progress has been made in the quantitation of these endpoints.

A wide range of materials has been obtained for the purpose of testing

both the physical system and the toxicological endpoints.

178
Accomplishments : 1. The single test system has been devised.

2. The sensory irritation endpoint is completed and published.

3. The physiological stress index has been developed and published.

4. The methods for LC 50 determinations and comparative ranking of

materials have been worked out and published.

5. The first attempt at Hazard Index has been published.

Potential Applications : Toxicity measurements will be appropriately

used by manufacturers during the research phase of material development

in order to evaluate basic formulations and permutations thereof.

Hazard evaluations will ultimately supply guidance in the final choice

of materials to be used for any given function.

Future Milestones : The unfinished toxic endpoints are:

1. Cellular oxygen defficiency

2. Narcosis

3. Motor excitation

4. Acute lung damage.

These will be quantitated and evaluated using known toxic chemicals as well as thermal decomposition products of materials in our sample bank.

The concept of the hazard analysis will be further developed.

Reports and Papers : Anderson, R.C., Alarie, Y. Screening Procedure to Recognize Supertoxic

Decomposition Products from Polymeric Materials Under Thermal Stress.

Journal of Combustion Toxicology, 1978, 5, 54-63.

Anderson, R.C., Stock, M. , Alarie, Y. Toxicologic Evaluation of Thermal

Decomposition Products of Synthetic Cellular Materials, Part I. Journal

of Combustion Toxicology, 1978, 5.

Anderson, R.C., Alarie, Y. Approaches to the Evaluation of the Toxicity

of Decomposition Products of Polymeric Materials Under Thermal Stress,

Journal of Combustion Toxicology, 1978, 5.

Lucia, H. , Burton, A., Anderson, R.C., Alarie, Y. Renal Damage in Mice

Following Exposure to the Pyrolysis Products of Polytetraf luoroethylene

.

Journal of Combustion Toxicology, 1978, 5.

Anderson, R.C., Dierdorf, J., Stock, M. , Matijak, M. , Sawin, R, , and

Alarie, Y. Use of Experimental Materials to Assess the Ability of Toxicological Testing Schemes in Rating the Hazards of Polymeric Materials

Under Thermal Stress. Fire and Materials, 1978.

Anderson, R.C, Alarie, Y. An Attempt to Translate Toxicity of Polymer

Thermal Decomposition Products into a Toxicological Hazard Index and

Discussion on the Approaches Selected. Submitted, 1978.

179
Barrow, C.S., Lucia, H. , Marie, Y. A Comparison of the Acute Inhalation Toxicity of Hydrogen Chloride Versus the Thermal Decomposition Pro

ducts of Polyvinylchloride. Submitted, 1978.

Barrow, C.S., Alarie, Y. and Stock, M.F. Sensory Irritation Evoked by

the Thermal Decomposition Products of Plasticized Poly (vinyl chloride)

.

Fire and Materials, 1978, 1, 147-153.

Barrow, C.S., Alarie, Y. , Stock, M.F. Sensory Irritation and Incapacitation Evoked by Thermal Decomposition Products of Polymers and Comparisons with Known Sensory Irritants. Archives of Environmental Health,

March/April 1978, 79-88.

Barrow, C.S., Lucia, H. , Stock, M.F., Alarie, Y. Development of Method

ologies to Assess the Relative Hazards from Thermal Decomposition Products of Polymeric Materials. In press.

Lucia, H. , Barrow, C.S., Stock, M.F., Alarie, Y. A Semi-Quantitative

Method for Assessing Anatomic Damage Sustained by the Upper Respiratory

Tract of the Laboratory Mouse, Mus Musculis. Journal of Combustion Tox

icology, 4, 1977, 472-486.

180
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Flammability Research Center, University of Utah,

Salt Lake City, Utah

Grant No . : NBS Grant-G8-9012

Grant Title : Toxicological Evaluation of Material Combustion

Products: A. Biological investigation supporting

development of methods for evaluating combustion

toxicology.

Principal Investigator : Abraham Sosin, Director

Flammability Research Center

College of Engineering

University of Utah

Salt Lake City, Utah 84108

801-581-8431

Associate Principal Investigator : William A. Galster

Biomedical Director

Flammability Research Center

University of Utah

Salt Lake City, Utah 84108

801-581-3502

Other Professional Personnel : Gordon E. Hartzell, Director

Flammability Programs

David G. Farrar, Industrial Research

Associate, ICI Ltd., U.K.

Thomas L. Blank, Chief Technician

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. Merritt Birky

Project Summary : Physiological investigations leading to the

establishment of an animal model system capable of predicting

human toxicological involvement with combustion products are being conducted. Life-threatening components in the fire scenario are being considered separately and in combination to determine

the appropriateness and sensitivity of the rat model system.

Toxicity found in combustion products are also being quantitated

and causality is being sought in comparisons with identifiable

components in combustion atmospheres. It is postulated that a failure to establish causality considering involvement with the

ubiquitous combustion products will implicate the presence of a

181
unique toxic insult. This assessment of toxicity provides a firm

basis for further considering the risk involved, providing the

potency is sufficiently high and animal response is comparable to

the anticipated involvement in man.

Progress Report : A. Physiological considerations of lifethreatening components of fire . Homogenous mixtures of four gases

for considering the toxicity of different atmospheres and physiological complications of heat stress were generated in a Rochesterstyle dynamic exposure system. Atmospheric composition could be

adequately regulated with flow meter proportioning of compressed

gases mixed in opposing flows at the top of the chamber for these

experiments. A wide range of heat stress (40-60°C) could also be

considered by heating the humidified compressed air flow. Exposures

to the rats’ head region were conducted and the indicators of

toxicity used in our material combustion product evaluation were

observed. The amounts of heat, increased carbon dioxide, low

oxygen and cyanide producing a loss of conditioned avoidance

(incapacitation) distortions in arterial blood gas status and

lethality were established. Incapacitation and lethal amounts of

heat, carbon dioxide, and oxygen were found sufficiently different

from those encountered in our 60-liter chamber to be considered

minimally involved in any observed toxicity. Arterial blood gas

status, however, indicated probable additive effects in apparent

Increased ventilation and suspected increases in Inhalation of

toxic gases occurred with small amounts of heat, carbon dioxide

and oxygen depletion.

Sensitivity of the rat to hydrogen cyanide gas was also

established with this dynamic system. Atmospheric levels sufficient

to produce incapacitation and death were determined and correlated

with arterial blood concentrations of cyanide and respiratory gas

status. In thirty minutes or less, 80 and 150 ppm of cyanide

were found to be incapacitating and lethal, respectively. Added

to our earlier considerations of sensitivities to carbon monoxide,

causalities associated with both cyanide and carbon monoxide can now be recognized.

B. Materials Testing . The combustion product toxicity of

three materials were evaluated following our suggested approach.

These observations included determining the amount of material

combusted in flaming and nonflaming conditions producing 50%

incapacitation and death, and implicating the probable cause of

the toxicity in observations of the levels of arterial blood gases

and concentrations of toxic gases in the exposure atmosphere.

Attempts were also made to compare this more elaborate toxic

evaluation with the method proposed at the National Bureau of

Standards.

Phenolic foam, urea formaldehyde foam, and polyvinyl chloride

materials were evaluated following our approach to the assessment

182
of combustion toxicity. The nominal dose-related incapacitating

lethal effects of these polymers are compared to those of other

materials in Table 1. As is frequently the case, each of these

Table 1 COMPARISON OF COMBUSTION PRODUCT TOXICITY OF UREA FORMALDEHYDE

AND PHENOLIC FOAM WITH RESULTS FROM OTHER MATERIALS

Urea Formaldehyde Foam

Phenolic Foam

Polyvinyl Chloride - plasticized

Douglas Fir*

Rigid Polyurethane*

Flexible Polyurethane*

Polystyrene Foam*

Urea Formaldehyde Foam

Phenolic Foam

Polyvinyl Chloride - plasticized

Douglas Fir*

Rigid Polyurethane*

Flexible Polyurethane*

Polystyrene Foam*

Incapacitating

Effects

Flaming

(EC 50 ) Nonflaming

Temperature

(°C)

7.410.9 1—

1

0 +I 850 / 830

2.0 1.5 750 / 730

7.1 3.4 540 / 500

13.313.3 5.011.1 490 / 465

5.311.0 9.613.0 570 / 540

8.111.4 4.210.9 430 / 400

15.313.3 27.013.1 540 / 480

Lethal Effects

Temperature

Flaming Nonflaming C)

11.210.8 1.21 0.1 850 / 830

8.411.1 5.91 1.1 750 / 730

40.0 21.0 540 / 500

24.514.5 19.01 3.4 490 / 465

16.913.3 55.0114.2 570 / 540

43.213.4 14.31 2.4 430 / 400

29.014.9 66.0113.0 540 / 480

* data from PRC Interim Report of September 1977.

materials is unique in the expressed combustion toxicity which

should be considered along with the relative potencies seen in this

table. Arterial blood gases and calculated atmospheric concentrations

at the point of incapacitation and death implicate cyanide as the

causitive agent from urea formaldehyde, carbon monoxide from phenolic

foam, and involvement of neither gas in the toxicity from polyvinyl

chloride. Considering the potency of the two foams are similar, it

183
becomes Important to establish the causitive agent involved to make

a more meaningful evaluation of the toxicity. Polyvinyl chloride

presents yet another type of toxicity which appears in "dose"-related

loss of body weight and lethality occurring after the exposure.

However, the relative potency of combustion products from this

polymer are low in comparison with other tested material in Table 1.

Thus, it seems inappropriate to consider only the relative potency

of a material without some consideration of the expressed toxicity

and the causative agent involved. Knowing this, conditions favoring

production of the poison during combustion might be avoided in new

formulations or applications of the polymer. Treatment of fire

victims could also be improved with a better appreciation of the

complexity of the combustion toxicity.

Accomplishments : A dynamic system suitable for considering individual

toxic components in the combustion mixture has been constructed. The

incapacitating and lethal effects of heat stress, increased carbon

monoxide, decreased oxygen and cyanide gas have been observed and

quantitated. Comparison of these data with conditions during the

testing of material combustion product toxicity established the

appropriateness and possible limitations of our 60-liter chamber.

Additional comparison of sensitivity to carbon monoxide and cyanide

with conditions at the time of incapacitation and death identified the

primary involvement of these poisons in combustion products of two

materials.

Potential Applications : These experimental observations provide some basic information useful in the development of a meaningful test of

combustion toxicity. Considerations of tolerance to heat, oxygen

depletion, and carbon dioxide build-up should be used in constructing

a combustion chamber. Sensitivities and signs of involvement with

toxic gases provide a means of identifying their role in small-scale

tests and could possibly be applied in fire victims leading to

improved treatment.

Future Milestones : Experience with materials testing suggests

pulmonary complications are Involved in both immediate and late

expressions of combustion toxicity. Exposures to hydrochloric acid

and acrolein fumes will be made and appropriate pulmonary function

tests evaluated as indicators of this involvement.

Combinations of toxic gases and heat will be examined to

establish additive, synergistic, or Independent interrelationships.

In particular toxicity of carbon monoxide and cyanide will be

explored. Additional observations will also be made on the

effects of heat on carbon monoxide intoxication.

Several additional materials will also be evaluated to

further establish our approach to testing combustion toxicity

and support development of the protocol at the National Bureau

of Standards.

184
Reports and Papers:

G. E. Hartzell and W. A. Galster, "The Role of Asphyxia in the Investigation of Animal Responses to Fire Combustion Products,” Eighth

Confevenoe on Envinonmentat Toxicology

Dayton, Ohio, October 4, 1977

(in press)

.

D. G. Farrar, T. L. Blank and W. A. Galster, "Toxicity of the Combustion Products of a Phenolic and a Urea Formaldehyde Foam,” 7th

International Congress of Pharmacology, July 1978, Paris, France.

185
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

September 27-29, 1978

Institution : Flammability Research Genter, University of Utah,

Salt Lake City, Utah

Grant No . : NBS Grant-G8-9012

Grant Title : Toxicological Evaluation of Material Combustion

Products: B. Development of blood-HCN analysis

techniques and measurement of degradation product

profiles in the degradation of polymeric materials.

Principal Investigator : Abraham Sosin, Director

Flammability Research Center

College of Engineering

University of Utah

Salt Lake City, Utah 84108

801-581-8431

Associate Principal Investigator : B. Mason Hughes

Chemical/Analytical Director

Flammability Research Center

College of Engineering

University of Utah

Salt Lake City, Utah 84108

801-581-5843

Other Professional Personnel : F. D. Hileman, Assistant Research

Professor

D. A. Chatfield, Assistant Research

Professor

Mr. D. L. Pope

Mr. J. B. McCandless

Mr. R. W. Darr

Mr. W. H. McClennen

Mr. T. L. Capson

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. Merritt Birky

Project Summary : Analytical techniques are being developed and

continuously applied in support of combustion toxicology studies

being conducted at the Flammability Research Center (FRC) . These

techniques range from the development of new methods for the microanalysis of blood-cyanide levels to the analysis of both time and

temperature profiles in the generation of thermal degradation

186
products. The blood-HCN analysis technique is currently being used

to study the incorporation of HCN in the blood of the Long-Evans rats

exposed to cyanide-containing atmospheres. The real-time analyses

of degradation products are carried out in order to assess the levels

of toxicants present during animal exposures and to understand the

rates of production of these toxicants during the exposure. Temperature profile studies allow estimates to be made of the degradation

conditions which produce a maximum hazard.

Progress Report :

Analytical Methodology for the Determination of HCN in Tissues . In order to use the hind leg flexion response and lethality data to

characterize the toxicity of degradation products from the combustion

of materials, experiments have been conducted to understand these end

points where only single toxicants are present. In support of these

experiments, which will be discussed in more detail in a separate

section, levels of HCN must not only be monitored in the atmospheres

which the animals are breathing, but also in their tissues. The

first tissue of prime importance in this study is blood.

The technique involves a modification of the method of Valentour^

which converts cyanide present in blood to cyanogen chloride followed

by gas chromatographic separation and electron capture detection.

This method is particularly useful in that cyanide levels in very

small amounts of blood (200 yl) can be detected making the technique

applicable to small animal exposure studies. Table 1 shows the

Table 1

A COMPARISON OF THE EXTRACTABLE CYANIDE IN BLOOD WITH THE EXTRACTABLE CYANIDE IN SALINE SOLUTION

Extracted Sal ine Extracted Blood Cyanide Solution Cyanide

Concentration

of Cyanide Raw

Response Ratios

Blank Corrected Ratios

Raw Response Ratios Percent

Extracted

. Blank 26.77 ± 2.42 - 0.00

0.1 wg/ml 29.90 ± 1 .24 3.13 ± 2.72 5.28 ± 0.10 59.3 ± 51.5

1.0 ug/ml 56.80 + 2.94 30.03 ± 3.81 38.95 ± 0.36 77.1 ± 9.8

10.0 wg/ml 353.79 ± 12.00 327.30 ± 12.24 435.76 ± 11.50 75.0 ± 3.4

CONWAY DIFFUSION METHOD

Concentration

of Cyanide Raw

Response

Extracted

Rations

Blood Cyanide

Blank Corrected Ratios

Extracted Saline Solution Cyanide

Raw Response Ratios Percent Extracted

Blank 8.50 ± 0.43 - 0.00 -

0.1 pg/ml 18.61 ± 0.44 10.11 ± 0.62 21.7 ± 0.31 46.6 ± 2.9

1.0 ug/ml 134.57 ± 10.16 126.07 ± 10.17 257.0 ± 6.28 49.1 ± 4.1

10.0 ug/ml 1456.30 ± 81.90 1447.80 ± 81.90 2303.0 ± 59.73 62.8 ± 3.9

187
results obtained using this technique for the analysis of cyanide

from whole blood. Lower detection limits of 0.1 yg/ml are possible.

Problems encountered in this technique are in the relatively

large blank response for unspiked whole blood and the tedious work-up

procedure required in the cyanogen chloride derivatization. Thus a second method is being evaluated which converts cyanide to hydrogen

cyanide in the head space over blood followed by gas chromatographic

separation and alkali flame ionization detection of the HCN. Initial

investigations using this technique show this to be a most promising

way of analyzing for blood cyanide.

Determination of Time and Temperature Profiles for Toxic Gas

Evolution . In order to understand the production profiles of

compounds as a function of degradation time and temperature, the

FRC has developed several techniques to monitor various compounds

in the combustion of materials. This present progress report

will outline recent studies which have been conducted in which

methods have been developed for the analysis of low levels of HCN

and HCl in complex degradation product matrices, along with

direct interfacing of the animal exposure chamber to the FRC mass spectrometer/ computer Instrumentation.

Chromatographic Analysis of Combustion Atmosphere^ . The

atmosphereic hydrogen cyanide produced during the combustion of

polymeric materials has been analyzed by gas chromatography with

alkali flame ionization detection. Daily calibration of the

system is achieved using compressed gas standards which are in

turn cali-brated against an HCN permeation device. This secondary

calibration is necessary since the compressed gas standards can decay rapidly with time.

In addition to the analysis of atmospheric HCN, a new technique was used to monitor atmospheric HCl levels resulting from the combustion of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The technique Involves the

aspiration of a small amount of the chamber atmosphere into a sampling

valve which in turn is connected to an electrolytic conductivity

detector. Analysis times range from thirty seconds to one minute

depending on the amount of HCl present in the chamber. Calibration

is again achieved using the permeation device. Compressed gas

standards are totally unusable since the highly reactive HCl mixtures

decay very rapidly with time.

A summary of the analytical methodologies used for the analysis

of various toxicants resulting from the thermal degradation of

polymeric materials is given in Table 2. Included in this table are

the experimental conditions, detection limits and standardization

procedures used in the analysis of the various toxicants.

188
ANALYTICAL

METHODS

AND

CONDITIONS

FOR

THE

MONITORING

OF

EXPOSURE

CHAMBERS

189
Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Combustion Atmospheres . The

variation in toxic products produced by a material during thermal

decomposition was evaluated by analyzing their combustion atmospheres

at various degradation temperatures. Approximately 2.5 g of either

Douglas fir or polystyrene were combusted in a 60-liter chamber at

temperatures of 420°, 460°, 550°C and approximately 3 liters of the

combustion atmosphere was drawn through a Porapak Q filled trap

cooled to 0°C. The adsorbed species were thermally desorbed into a GC/MS/computer system for the qualitative and quantitative analysis

of the combustion products. Figure 1 is an example of the computer

display from the analysis of the combustion products of Douglas fir.

The combustion of polystyrene produces styrene as the major organic

product (greater than 90%) with smaller amounts of toluene and

benzene

.

Once the degradation products have been determined for the

combustion of a material, these compounds can in turn then be studied

as a function of time by using the same mass spectrometric data

acquisition system while sampling the combustion atmosphere directly.

The 60-liter animal exposure chamber was interfaced to the mass spectrometer system using the glass jet separator. Figure 2 shows

190
191
the production profile of CO2 and O2 and N2 levels as a function of

combustion time for Douglas fir. The sample was inserted into the

combustion chamber at 1.0 minutes. The initial O2 and N2 fluxuation

below 1.0 minutes is probably due to the initial equilibration of

the exposure chamber atmosphere.

In the second part of Figure 2, the effect of removing the

sampling tube from the chamber can be seen at 31.0 minutes. At

that time, the CO2 and O2 levels return to the normal atmospheric

levels discontinuously , showing the effective time constant for the

measurement of these species. When the major organic ions were

studied in a similar manner for nonflaming degradation of both

polystyrene and Douglas fir, profiles similar to that shown for CO2

were measured. The difference in production rate of the major

organic products in the flaming combustion of polystyrene can be seen in Figure 3. The onset for the production of styrene, toluene

« SPECTRUT DISPLAY/EDIT X* FRH 31051

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and benzene is approximately two minutes earlier for flaming combustion than for nonflaming combustion.

Accomplishments : Gas chromatographic methods have been developed

for the analysis of HCN in blood samples and for the analysis of

HCN and HCl in combustion atmospheres. In addition, MS/computer

192
studies have been carried out showing the temperature and time

profiles for the production of major and minor degradation products

formed in the flaming and nonflaming combustion of materials.

Potential Applications : Analysis techniques developed during the

current funding period can be used to understand the toxicities of

combustion atmospheres that are formed when polymeric materials

burn. Data obtained using these techniques can be used to evaluate

any unusual hazards that may exist in the use of these materials

in our environment.

Future Milestones : Analytical techniques are being developed to

allow easy rapid microscale determination of toxin levels in

biological tissues. In addition, new analytical techniques are being devised to better characterize the levels of atmospheric

toxins produced during combustion. As an example, using the directly

interfaced mass spectrometer andanAr /02 atmosphere may allow the

determination of the levels of CO2 , CO and HCN with time at various

combustion temperatures to better understand what particular degradation temperature poses a maximum risk as defined by the production

of these major toxicants.

Reports and Papers ;

1. "Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of Smoke Produced During

the Combustion of Polymeric Materials," Final Report to the

National Bureau of Standards, Contract No. 7-9005, March 20, 1978.

2. I. N. Einhorn, D. A. Chatfield, K. J. Voorhees, F. D. Hileman,

R. W. Mickelson, S. C. Israel, J. H. Futrell, and P. W. Ryan,

"A Strategy of Analytsis of Thermal Decomposition of Polymeric

Materials," F'ive Researohj Z, 41-56 (1977).

193
Institution: University of Washington, Seattle

Grant No.

Grant Title : Human Behavior in Fire Situations: A Study of Post-Fire

Interviews

Principal Investigators : Professor John P. Keating

Department of Psychology, NI-25

University of Washington

Seattle, Washington 98195

Professor Elizabeth Loftus

Department of Psychology, NI-25

University of Washington

Seattle, Washington 98195

Other Professional Personnal : Norman Groner

Ph.D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer :

Project Summary : Little is known about how people behave during fire

incidents. Ultimately, veridical models of human behavior during fires

should be developed, but first it is essential to obtain a data base

drawn from interviews with victims and witnesses. Progress has been made

in this area by Wood and Bryan, but it is clear that substantial work is

still needed.

Research on obtaining testimonies on crimes indicates that an interviewer's leading questions can lessen the accuracy of responses. Our

preliminary interviews with fire officials indicate that obtaining accurate information from witnesses of fire may be particularly difficult.

Particularly where arson is suspected. Insurance is an issue or the

consequences are dire, people tend to distort the truth in order to a- void personal responsibility. Further, earlier work on post-fire interviews has been lacking in important information on how people assess

fire situations, their decision processes and intentions underlying

their behavior.

Therefore, our major focus will be on how to obtain accurate information from witnesses about what was seen and how and why they and others

responded to fire incidents. We will begin by reviewing literature on previous research on obtaining post-fire information from witnesses.

Next, we plan to obtain the cooperation of the fire department to observe

the conduct of actual post-fire interviews. Finally, based on the literature, psychological theory, and information obtained from our observations of actual interviews, we will develop our own interview format.

If we can obtain the cooperation of the fire department, we will undertake a pilot study to assess the adequacy of our method.

194
Progress Report : As of this report, formal work on the project has only

just begun. Initial contacts have been made with the investigating sec- tion of the Seattle Fire Department and their continued cooperation is

likely.

Accomplishments ; See above

Potential Applications ; The project should provide a standardized procedure and format for obtaining post-fire information from victims and

witnesses. The data base resulting from its application could provide

valuable information pertaining to models of human behavior in fire situations and the reduction of counter-productive behaviors.

Future Milestones ; After developing an interview format and procedures,

we hope to pilot our interview techniques with the cooperation of the

fire department.

Reports and Papers : None

195
Institution: University of Wisconsin, Madison

Grant No.

NBS Gran t-G7~90 1

9

Grant Title: A Review of Behavioral and Physical Characteristics of

the Developmental ly Disabled

Principal Investigator: Professor Rick Heber

Director, Waisman Center on Mental

Retardation and Human Development

1500 Highland Avenue

University of Wisconsin

Madison, Wl 53706

(608) 263-59^0

Other Professional Personnel: Carol Overboe, Research Specialist

Yvonne Wang, Research Assistant

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. Bernald M. Levin

Project Summary: The objective of this project is to provide a com- prehensive review of the research literature regarding the behavioral

and physical characteristics of developmental ly disabled individuals

who are potent i al residents of "non- i nsti tutional " group housing in the

community. The purpose is to familiarize policy makers on fire (life)

safety standards of the expected capabilities and characteristics of

these individuals in order to evaluate fire safety impact in such

St ructu res

.

The literature review includes a definition and discussion of the

concept of developmental disabilities and presents an overview of the

individual characteristics of mental retardation, cerebral palsy,

epilepsy and autism. The research reviewed is organized into three

sections. The first presents a description of the present occupants

of community housing for the developmental ly disabled. The second

section examines the characteristics of individuals who now reside in

institutions for the mentally retarded or other deve 1 opmenta 1

1 y disabled but are the major source of future residents of group homes.

Since the group most likely to reside in, or to be a potential resident of community based housing is mentally retarded, the concluding

section of the paper reviews the literature on the functioning levels

of severely retarded individuals (below IQ 50). The factors included

in the review are those with the highest relevancy to self preservation in an emergency or fire situation.

Progress Report: The term "developmental disabilities" refers to persons with substantially handicapping conditions due to mental retardation, cerebral palsy, epilepsy and/or autism. The concept represents

an attempt to bring together individuals with similar service needs

under one federal /s tate program. Deve lopmen ta 1

1 y disabled individuals

often have multiple handicaps and there is considerable clinical overlap between individual conditions.

196
It is extremely difficult to determine the prevalence of developmental disabilities in the United States. Part of this difficulty is

because not all persons who are mentally retarded, cerebral palsied,

epileptic or autistic are also considered to be devel opmenta 1

1 y disabled. The term includes only persons with chronic, severe (often

multiple) handicaps which exist from birth or early childhood. It is

difficult to determine the extent and degree of these substantially

handicapping conditions. Based upon state estimates, approximately 10

million persons or 4.^3 percent of the general population will have

one or more of the developmental disabilities in FY 1978.

The past decade has witnessed a dramatic change in philosophy

regarding provision of residen_tial care for developmental ly disabled

individuals. The guiding principle of "normalization" has influenced

the nation to redesign its housing of disabled individuals to homes

which are small in size and community based. Since 1967, the number

of residents in large public institutions has steadily declined. Concurrently, a significant increase in the development of community

based residential facilities has taken place. Considerable information is available about the models and types of these community structures .

Few studies, however, are available which describe the functioning

of the community based homes and the characteristics of individuals

which they serve. But one study which is of particular value in this

regard is O'Connor's (1976) recent study on community residential

facilities (CRF's). The survey covered over 9000 residents living in

611 community residential facilities for the developmental ly disabled

in 20 states during the period 1972 to 197^. The age distribution of

these residents is found to follow an approximated normal distribution

curve with the age group of 21-25 as the mode. Close to one half of

the residents (48.76%) were 16 to 30 years old. Approximately nine of

ten residents (89.5%) were mentally retarded, with or without other

handicapping conditions. Only one third (34.4%) of the mentally re- tarded residents were free of an additional handicap. One tenth

(10.9%) had impairments in speech. Of particular interest is the fact

that one fourth (24.4%) of the sample were multiply handicapped.

"Multiply handicapped" in this sense was defined by O'Connor to refer

to more than two handicapping conditions.

Another valuable study regarding the residential population of

group homes has been provided by Landesman-Dwyer, Stein and Sackett,

Landesman-Dwyer , S., Stein, J. G. , and Sackett, G. P. Group homes for

the mentally retarded: An ecological and behavioral study . Olympia,

Washington: Department of Social and Health Services, Planning an Research Division, 1976.

O'Connor, G. Home is a good place: A national perspective of community

residential facilities for developmental ly disabled persons . (AAMD

Monograph No. TV. Wash 1 ngton , D.'C. : Anne

r

i can Association on Mental

Deficiency, 1976.

197
(1976). The subjects for the study were 6^0 residents of 20 of Washington's 43 group homes. The age distribution of residents in the

Washington study was similar to the distribution found in the O'Connor

study. It approximated a normal distribution with the 22-26 age group

as the mode. Again, approximately half of the residents (55 percent)

fell into the age range of 17 to 31. This study included an interesting category called the "assistance dimension". For over three

quarters of the residents, assistance in activities was not necessary.

Nearly two percent of the residents' major activities involved some

form of assistance from others. The amount of assistance received and

needed was significantly related to both age and level of retardation.

Children spent less time in activities requiring no assistance (78%)

than did the adults (83%). Severely and profoundly retarded residents

received three times as much assistance from others as did mildly re- tarded residents.

The characteristics of group home residents that these two studies

found may be summarized as follows. The majority of residents in com- munity facilities live in homes for 20 or more persons and over half

have been previously institutionalized. Most in the group homes are between the ages of I 6 and 30. Around ] 3% are severely or profoundly

retarded, approximately 30% are mildly retarded, and 10 to 20 percent

have an IQ of above 70. Additional handicaps are present in nearly

two thirds of the residents. At least three fourths of the residents

in both studies demonstrated cooperative behavior. Positive interaction patterns were evident in between 6l and 69 percent of the subjects in the studies. At least half of the group could speak well

enough to be understood by a stranger.

However, in dealing with an individual resident who is developmentally disabled, it has to be kept in mind that individual variability is greater in this group than in the general population.

According to national trends, a large percentage of current residents of public residential facilities for the developmental ly disabled

will be admitted to community residential facilities. Therefore, the

considerable amount of research literature which exists regarding

residents of public residential facilities becomes relevant.

Scheerenberger (1978) presents the most recent information with

regard to institutionalized devel opmental 1 y disabled individuals. The

study reports demographic features of the population of residents from

239 public residential facilities. The study found that the age of

persons in institutions was becoming older with over 50 percent of the

population between the ages of 22 and 61. Approximately 44 percent

Scheerenberger, R. Current trends and states of public residential

services for the mentally retarded . National Association of Superintendents of Public Residential Facilities for the Mentally Retarded,

1978 (in press )

.

198
were profoundly retarded and 73 percent severely or profoundly retarded. Most of the residents were multiply handicapped with 65 percent

having at least one additional handicapping condition and around one

third with two or more handicaps in addition to mental retardation.

The survey also indicated that over half, or at least 80,000 of

the 151,000 developmental ly disabled individuals presently residing in

public residential facilities have the skills necessary to be placed

in alternative community settings if they were available. The data

indicate that 76 percent of the present residents can walk without

assistance, 84 percent can communicate verbally and 93 percent have

ability to understand the spoken word.

Potential Applications: This literature review provides a foundation

for determination of relevant factors for occupancy fire risk parameters in a Fire Safety Evaluation System.

Future Milestones: The literature review is presently in preliminary

draft form. The expected date of completion is September 1, 1978.

Reports and Papers:

Overboe, C. J. and Wang, Y. Y. Behavioral and physical characteristics

of developmenta 1

1 y disabled indTviduals . J une , 1978, p re 1 i mi na ry

d raf t. Wang, Y. Y. Physical characteristics of mentally retarded individuals . May, 1978 , unpublished paper.

199
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

September 27, 28, 29, 1978

LIST OF REGISTRANTS

ABRAMS, Melvin S., Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Road,

Skokie, IL 60077

ALARIE, Professor Yves, University of Pittsburgh, 4200 Fifth Avenue,

Pittsburgh, PA 15261

ALPERT, R. L. , Factory Mutual Research, 1151 Boston-Providence Turnnike,

Norwood, MA 02062

ANDERSEN, Donald E. , E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Wilmington, DE 19898

ANNAU, Dr. Zoltan, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe St.^ Baltimore,

MD 21205

BABRAUSKAS, Vyto, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BACKOVSKY, Jana, Harvard University, ESL-40 Oxford St.^ Cambridge, MA 02138

BACKUS, John K. , Mobay Chemical Corp., Pittsburgh, PA 15205

BAKER, Gordon R, , Gillette Research Institute, 1413 Research Blvd. , Rockville

MD 20850

BANKSTON, G. Perry, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 4800 Oak Grove Dr.,

M/S 67-201, Pasadena, CA 91103

BAUM, Howard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BEITEL, Jesse, Southwest Research Institute 6220 Culebra Rd .

,

San Antonio,

TX 78284

BELL, James R. , National Fire Protection Association, 1800 M St., NW,

Suite 570 South, Washington, D.C. 20036

BELLAN, Josette, Boeing - J.P.L., Energy and Materials Research Section^

Bldg 67, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, GA 91103

BENJAMIN, Irwin, Genter for Fire Research, NBS

BERL, Walter G. , APL, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins Road.,

Laurel, MD 20810

200
BERLIN, Geoffrey N. , National Fire Protection Association, 470 Atlantic

Ave. , Boston, MA 02210

BIRKY, Merritt, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BRACKETT, D. E., Gypsum Association, 1120 Connecticut Ave., N.W.

,

Washington, D.C. 20036

BREHENIG, R. , Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., 333 Pfingsten Rd.,

Northbrook, IL 60062

BRENDEN, John J. , U.S. Forest Products Lab, North Walnut St., Madison, WI 53705

BRIGHT, Richard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BRYAN, John L. , Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, College

Park, MD 20742

BUCHBINDER, Ben, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BUDNICK, Edward, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BUKOWSKI, Richard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

CARROLL, Jerry, Society of the Plastics Industry, 355 Lexington Ave. , NY, NY 10017

CHEN, Houston, Brunswick Corporation, 3333 Harbor Blvd. , Costa Mesa, CA 92626

CHIPPETT, Simon, Union Carbide Corporation, P.O. Box 8361, Bldg. 778,

So. Charleston, WV 25303

CHRISTIAN, William J. , Underwriters Laboratories, Inc,^ Northbrook, IL 60062

CLARK, Burton, National Fire Prevention and Control Administration,

P.O. Box 19518, Washington, D.C. 20036

CLARKE, Fred, Center for Fire Research, NBS

CLAYTON, J. Wesley, The University of Arizona, 303 Biological Sciences West,

Tucson, AZ 85721

COPELAND, James M. , Foreign Service Institute, Department of State,

1400 Key Blvd., Arlington, VA 22209

CROCE, Paul A., Factory Mutual Research, 1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike,

Norwood, MA 02062

CUSTER, Richard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

201
DARK, William C. , Mobay Chemical Corp., Parkway West, Pittsburgh, PA 15205

DAVIS, Sanford, Center for Fire Research, NBS

DENSLOW, Victor A., Amoco Chemicals Corp., 200 E. Randolph, M/C 4403

Chicago, IL 60601

DETERS, O.J., APL, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins Rd., Laurel, ?1D 20810

DINAN, John, APL, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins Rd. , Laurel, MD 20810

DONALDSON, W. Lyle, Southwest Research Institute, 8500 Culebra Rd .

,

San Antonio, TX 78284

DREWS, Dr. Michael J. , Department of Textiles, Clemson University,

Clemson, SC 29631

ESCH, Dr. Albert F. , Consumer Product Safety Commission, 5401 Westbard Ave.

,

Bethesda, MD 20207

ESCH, Victor H. , M.D., Chief Surgeon, District of Columbia Fire Department,

10717 Stanmore Drive, Potomac, MD 20854

FAETH, G. M. , The Pennsylvania State University, 214 M.E. Bldg., University

Park, PA 16802

FARRAR, David G. , Flammability Research Center, 391 Chlpeta Wav, Suite E

Research Park, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108

FECHTER, Dr. John, Center for Consumer Product Technology, NBS

FERNANDEZ-PELLO, Dr. A.C., Princeton University, A.M.S. Dept., Engin.

Quad., Princeton, NJ 08540

FITCH, Wm. E. , Owens Corning Eiberglas, Toledo, OH 43659

FITZGERALD, Dr. Warren E. , Monsanto Company, 800 N. Lindbergh, St. Louis, MO 63166

ERIEDMAN, R. , Eactory Mutual Research Corporation, Norwood, MA 02062

FU, Tim T. , U.S. Navy, Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, CA 93043

EULFS, Dr. Jon C. , Springborn Laboratories, Inc., Enfield, CT 06082

GALLOWAY, John R. , Elastomer Chemicals, E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co.,

Wilmington, DE 19898

202
GANN, Richard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

GLOWINSKI, R.W. , National Forest Products Association, 1619 Massachusetts

Ave., NW, Washington, D.C. 20036

GLUCK, David G. , Jim Walter Research Corp., 10301 9th St. North,

St. Petersburg, FL 33702

GRAND, Dr. Arthur F. , Velsicol Chemical Corp., 1975 Green Rd . , Ann Arbor, Ml 48105

GRIFFIE, Emmitt E. , Amoco Chemicals Corp, 200 E. Randolph, M/C 4403,

Chicago, IL 60601

GROSS, Daniel, Center for Fire Research, NBS

HAHN, Peter W. , Architect, Department of State, Washington, D.C. 20520

HALPIN, Byron, Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Lab, Johns Hopkins

Rd. , Laurel, MD 20810

HANNSA, Dr. Lotar, Mobay Chemical Corp, Penn Lincoln Parkway, West Pittsburgh,

PA 15205

HARTZELL, Dr. Gordon E. , University of Utah, Flammability Research Center,

P.O. Box 8089, Salt Lake City, UT 84108

HERTZBERG, Martin, U.S. Dept of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 4800 Forbes Ave.

Pittsburgh, PA 15213

HESKESTAD, Gunnar , Factory Mutual Research Corp., 1151 Boston-Providence Tpk,

Norwood, MA 02062

HIBBARD, Dr. B.B. (Bill), MMFPA Research Associate, Center for Fire Research, NBS

HILADO, Dr. Carlos J., University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94117

HOLMES, Carl, U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, P.O. Box 5130, Madison. WI 53705

HUGGETT , Dr. Clayton, Center for Fire Research, NBS

HUGHES, Dr. B. Mason, Flammability Research Center, University of Utah,

391 South Chipeta Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108

HUNTER, Dr. L.W.

,

APL, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins Road,

Laurel, MD 20810

ISSEN, Lionel, Center for Eire Research, NBS

KASHIWAGI, Takashi, Center for Fire Research, NBS

203
KEATING, John P., University of Washington, Psychology NI-25, Seattle, WA 981°5

KENT, D. L., BFGoodrich Ghemical Division, 6100 Oak Tree Blvd., Gleveland , OH 4'^131

KRAGKLAUER, Jack, Arapahoe Chemicals, Inc., 2075 N. 55th St., Boulder, CO 80301

KRASNY, John, Center for Fire Research, NBS

KUVSHINOFF, B.W., APL, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins Road

Laurel, MD 20810

LEE, Calvin K. , U.S. Dept of Interior, Bureau of Mines, 4800 Forbes Ave. , Pittsburgh, PA 15213

LEE, Tom, Center for Fire Research, NBS

LEVIN, Bernard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

LEVINE, Dr. Marshal S., Johns Hopkins University, School of Hygiene and

Public Health, 615 No. Wolfe St., Baltimore MD 21205

LEVINE, Robert, Center for Fire Research, NBS

LITANT, Irving, DOT/Transportation Systems Center, Kendall Square. Cambridge

MA 02142

LLOYD, John R. , University of Notre Dame, Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering

Notre Dame, IN 46556

LONG, Bill, DuPont Co., Centre Road Building, Wilmington, DE 19898

MC CARTER, Robert, Center for Fire Research, NBS

MC GUIRE, John H. , National Research Council of Canada, (M59) , Ottawa. Canada

KIA 0R6

MC GUIRE, Dr. Patricia S., Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe St.,

Baltimore, MD 21205

MC LAIN, Dr. William H. , Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Rd.,

San Antonio, TX 78284

MC NEIL, Ramon R. , Lab B, Weyerhaeuser Co., Longview, WA 98632

MALLARD, Gary, Center for Fire Research, NBS

MARGEDANT, Jim, E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Wilmington, DE 19898

204
MARTIN, Stan, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025

MEYERS, Dr. Roy, Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory,

Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20810

MILKEj Jim, Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of

Maryland, College Park, MD 20742

MITLER, Henri, Harvard University, DAS, 40 Oxford St., Cambridge, MA 02138

MOORE, Don, HUD, 451 7th St., SW, Washington, D.C. 20410

MORRISON, Jerome W. , Department of State, A/FBO SA//6, Washington, D.C 20520

MULLHOLLAND, George, Center for Fire Research, NBS

NELSON, Harold (Bud), Center for Fire Research, NBS

NICHOLLS , David, IIT Research Institute, Reliability Analysis Center

RADC/RBRAC, Griffiss AFB, NY 13440

NOBER, Dr. E. Harris, Dept of Communication Disorders, University of

Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01002

OFFENSEND, Dr. Fred L. , Stanford Research Institute, 333 Ravenswood Ave.

,

Menlo Park, CA 94025

OHLEMILLER, T.J., Princeton University, Guggenheim Lab, Forrestal Campus,

Princeton, NJ 08540

PACKHAM, Dr. Steven, Weyerhaeuser Physio-Behavioral Consultants,

996 South 1500 East, Salt Lake City, UT

PAGNI, Professor Patrick J. , Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of

Galifornia, Berkeley, GA 94720

PAPE, Ronald, IIT Research Institute, 10 W. 35th St., Ghicago, IL 60616

PARKER, William, Center for Fire Research, NBS

PEIRCE, Dr. Henry B., Jr., Dept, of Communication Disorders, University

of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01002

PERKINS, Dr. Lowell R. , DuPont Experimental Station, Bldg. 353, Rm 117,

DuPont de Nemours, Wilmington, DE 19898

PEZOLDT, V. J., Center for Consumer Product Technology, NBS

205
PRUSACZYK, Dr. Joseph, Owens Corning Technical Center P.O. Box 415,

Grandville, OH 43023

QUINTIERE, James, Center for Fire Research, NBS

RICHARDS, Rob, U.S. Coast Guard R&D Center, Avery Point, Groton, CT 06340

RICKERS, Hank, IIT Research Institute, Reliability Analysis Center,

RADC/RBRAC Griff iss AFB , NY 13440

ROBERTSON, Alex, Center for Fire Research, NBS

ROBINS, Robert, Hardwood Plywood Manufacturers Assoc., 2310 S, Walter

Reed Drive, Arlington, VA 22206

ROCKETT, John, Center for Fire Research, NBS

ROGERS, F.E., Princeton University, Guggenheim Lab, Princeton, NJ 08540

ROLT, Dr. Don A., Attache (Science) British Embassy, 3100 Massachusetts Ave.

,

N.W. , Washington, D.C. 20008

SANTO, Giulio, Factory Mutual Research Corp , 1151 Boston-Providence Tpk.

,

Norwood, MA 02062

SARKOS, Gus, FAA/NAFEG, ANA-420, Bldg 10, NAFEC , Atlantic Citv, NJ 08405

SCHAENMAN, Philip, National Fire Data Genter, National Fire Prevention and

Gontrol Administration, P.O. Box 19518, Washington, D.G. 20036

SENSENIG, Darryl L. , Armstrong Cork Co., 2500 Columbia Ave., Lancaster, PA 17604

SHAFIZADEH, Fred, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812

SHARRY, John, National Fire Protection Association, 470 Atlantic Avenue,

Boston, MA 02210

SHIBE, Jeffrey, Center for Fire Research, NBS

SIBULKIN, Merwin, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912

SINGER, Joseph M. , U.S. Dept of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 4800 Forbes

Ave. , Pittsburgh, PA 15213

STEIN, Joseph, P.E., Consulting Engineer, 530 Sunset Lane, Glencoe, IL 60022

206
STEWART, Bob, National Fire Prevention and Control Administration,

P.O. Box 19518, Washington, D.C. 20036

STOCKS, Ronald C. , CIA, Washington, D.C.

VREELAND, Dr. Robert, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27514

WALLER, Marcus, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, NC 27514

WATERMAN, T.E., IIT Research Institute, 10 W. 35th St., Chicago, IL 60616

WATTS, Dr. John Jr., University of Maryland, Engineering Labs Bldg., Rm 1129

College Park, MD 20742

WEHRLI , Bob, HUD, Office of Independent Living for the Disabled 7th & D Sts.,

SW, Washington, D.C. 20410

WEINTRAUB, Arnold A., US Dept of Energy, OES , E201, Washington, D.C. 20545

WHITE, Thomas, Naval Ship Engineering Center, Dept of Navy, Washington D.C. 20362

WIDENOR, William M. , Navy Dept - DTNSRDC, Code 2843, Annapolis, MD 21402

WILLEY, A. Elwood, National Fire Protection Association, 470 Atlantic Ave.,

Boston, MA 02210

WILLIAMSON, Dr. R. Brady, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720

WINGER, Jim, Center for Fire Research, NBS

YAO, Cheng, Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 1151 Boston-Providence

Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062

ZINN, Ben T. , Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Aerospace Engineering,

Atlanta, GA 30332

ZUKOSKI, Edward E. , Galifornia Institute of Technology, Pasadena, GA 91125

(mail code 301-46)

207
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' “ SsSl^pS^K'
NBS-1 14A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBSIR 78- 1526

2. Gov’t Accession

No.

3 . Recipient’s Acces.sion No.

4. t;tle and subtitle

Annual Conference on Fire Research

5. Publication Date December 1978

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

Clayton Huggett , Editor

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No. 750-0900

11 . Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name an<J Complete Addres's (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Same as No. 9

13. Type of Report & Period Covered Final Report

14 . Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

To be handed out and later to be a published proceedings paper of "Annual

Conference on Fire Research,'' NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. Sept. 27-29, 1978

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less (actual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)

This report contains extended abstracts of grants and contracts

for fire research sponsored by the Center for Fire Research, Rational

Bureau of Standards and descriptions of the internal programs of the

Center for Fire Research.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons

)

Combustion products; fire hazards; fire modeling;

fire research; human behavior in fires.

18. AVAILABILITY QP Unlimited 19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

21. NO. OF PAGES

1 For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS UNCL ASSIFIED 216

1

* Order From Sup. of Doc., U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402. SD Cat. No. C13

20. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS PAGE)

22. Price

1 y| Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS)

Springfield, Virginia 22151 UNCLASSIFIED $9.25

USCOMM-DC 29042-P74

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1978-281-067/364
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