DOE/EIA-0603(98)/1

Distribution Category UC-950

Renewable Energy Annual 1998

With Data For 1997

December 1998

Energy Information Administration

Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels

U.S. Department of Energy

Washington, DC 20585

This report was prepared by the Energy Information Administration, the independent statistical and

analytical agency within the U.S. Department of Energy. The information contained herein should be

attributed to the Energy Information Administration and should not be construed as advocating or reflecting

any policy of the Department of Energy or any other organization.
ii Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Contacts

This report was prepared by the staff of the Renewable

Information Team, Coal, Nuclear, and Alternate Fuels

Division, Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate

Fuels. General information regarding this publication

may be obtained from Fred Mayes, Team Leader

(202/426-1166, e-mail fred.mayes@eia.doe. gov).

Questions about the preparation and content of the

report should be directed to Louise Guey-Lee, project

coordinator (202/426-1143, e-mail louise.gueylee@eia.doe. gov).

Questions regarding specific information in the report should be directed as follows:

1. Renewable Data Overview ........... Fred Mayes 202/426-1166 fred.mayes@eia.doe.gov

Louise Guey-Lee 202/426-1143 louise.guey-lee@eia.doe.gov

2. Biomass Energy .................... Robert Lowe 202/426-1171 robert.lowe@eia.doe.gov

3. Municipal Solid Waste .............. John Carlin 202/426-1146 john.carlin@eia.doe.gov

4. Geothermal Energy ................. Fred Mayes 202/426-1166 fred.mayes@eia.doe.gov

5. Geothermal Heat Pumps ............. Peter Holihan 202/426-1147 james.holihan@eia.doe.gov

6. Wind Energy ...................... Louise Guey-Lee 202/426-1143 louise.guey-lee@eia.doe.gov

7. Solar Thermal and Photovoltaic ....... Peter Holihan 202/426-1147 james.holihan@eia.doe.gov

8. Technology ........................ Lawrence Prete 202/426-1161 lawrence.prete@eia.doe.gov

9. References ......................... Mark Gielecki 202/426-1141 mark.gieleck@eia.doe.gov
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 iii

Preface

This is the fourth annual report published by the Energy

Information Administration (EIA) which presents information on renewable energy consumption, capacity, and

electricity generation data; U.S. solar thermal and photovoltaic collector manufacturing activities; and U.S. geothermal heat pump manufacturing activities. It updates

and provides more detail on renewable energy information than what’s published in the Energy Information

Administration’s (EIA) Annual Energy Review 1997. 

The renewable energy resources included in the report

are: biomass (wood, wood waste, municipal solid waste,

ethanol, and biodiesel); geothermal; wind; solar (solar

thermal and photovoltaic); and hydropower. However,

hydropower is also regarded as a “conventional” energy

source because it has furnished a significant amount of

electricity for more than a century. Therefore, the

contribution of hydropower to total renewable energy

consumption is discussed, although hydropower as an

individual energy source is not addressed. Since EIA

collects data only on terrestrial (land-based) systems,

satellite and military applications are not included in

this report.

The first chapter provides an overview of renewable

energy use and capability from 1993 through 1997. It

discusses renewable energy consumption, and electric

capacity and generation data. Chapter 2 presents

current (through 1997) information on the United States

solar energy industry. EIA collected this information on

the Form EIA-63 A, “Annual Survey of Solar Collector

Manufacturers,” and the Form EIA-63 B, “Annual

Survey of Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers,”

covering the 1997 calendar year. Chapter 3 presents, for

the first time, information on the United States

geothermal heat pump industry. This information was

collected on the Form EIA-902, “Annual Geothermal

Heat Pump Manufacturers Survey,” and covers the

calendar years, 1994-1997.

Appendix A describes EIA surveys that include

information on renewable energy sources. Appendix B

discusses renewable energy data and its limitations.

Appendix C presents documentation for the geothermal

heat pump manufacturers survey. Appendix D provides a list of Internet addresses for web sites that

include renewable energy information. Appendix E lists

State agencies that provide energy information,

including information on renewable energy. A glossary

of renewable energy terms is also included.

The Energy Information Administration was established

formally by the Department of Energy Organization Act

of 1977 (Public Law 95-91). The legislation requires EIA

to carry out a comprehensive, timely, and accurate

program of energy data collection and analysis. It also

vests EIA with considerable independence in fulfilling

its mission. 
iv Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Contents

Page

Highlights ...................................................................................... 1

1. Renewable Data Overview ...................................................................... 5

1997 in Review .............................................................................. 5

Biomass Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Geothermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2. Solar Thermal and Photovoltaic Collector Manufacturing Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Solar Thermal Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Photovoltaic Module and Cell Manufacturing Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3. Survey of Geothermal Heat Pump Shipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

How Heat Pumps Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Appendices

A. EIA Renewable Energy Data Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

B. Renewable Data Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

C. Geothermal Heat Pump Survey Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

D. Selected List of Internet Addresses: Renewable Energy Information by Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

E. State Energy Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 v

Tables Page

H1. U.S. Renewable Energy Consumption by Energy Source, 1993-1997 ................................. 2

1. U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source, 1993-1997 ........................................... 5

2. Renewable Energy Consumption by Sector and Energy Source, 1993-1997 ........................... 7

3. Renewable Energy Consumption for Electricity Generation by Energy Source, 1993-1997 ............... 8

4. Electricity Generation From Renewable Energy by Energy Source, 1993-1997 ......................... 9

5. Renewable Electric Utility Net Generation, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

6. Nonutility Gross Generation From Renewables, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

7. U.S. Electric Generating Capacity, 1993-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

8. Biomass Energy Consumption by Sector and Census Region, 1993-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

9. Residential Wood Energy Consumption, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

10. U.S. Utility Net Electric Generation from Solar Energy, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

11. Annual Photovoltaic and Solar Thermal Shipments, 1978-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

12. Annual Shipments of Solar Thermal Collectors, 1987-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

13. Annual Shipments of Solar Thermal Collectors by Type, 1987-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

14. Shipments of Solar Collectors Ranked by Top Five Origins and Destinations, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

15. Shipments of Solar Thermal Collectors by Destination, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

16. Distribution of U.S. Solar Thermal Collector Exports by Country, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

17. Distribution of Solar Thermal Collector Shipments, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

18. Solar Thermal Collector Shipments by Type, Quantity, Value, and Average Price, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . 25

19. Shipments of Solar Collectors by Market Sector, End Use, and Type, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

20. Shipments of Complete Solar Thermal Collector Systems, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

21. Number of Companies Expecting To Introduce New Solar Thermal Collector Products in 1998 . . . . . . . . . . 27

22. Percent of Solar Collector Shipments by the 10 Largest Companies, 1987-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

23. Companies Involved in Solar Thermal Activities by Type, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

24. Solar-Related Sales as a Percentage of Total Sales, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

25. Annual Shipments of Photovoltaic Cells and Modules, 1995-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

26. Annual Shipments of Photovoltaic Cells and Modules, 1986-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

27. Distribution of Photovoltaic Cells and Modules, 1995-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

28. Photovoltaic Cell and Module Shipments by Type, 1995-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

29. Photovoltaic Cell and Module Shipment Values by Type, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

30. Shipments of Photovoltaic Cells and Modules by Market Sector, End Use, and Type, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . 32

31. Export Shipments of Photovoltaic Cells and Modules by Type, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

32. Destination of U.S. Photovoltaic Cell and Module Export Shipments by Country, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

33. Shipments of Complete Photovoltaic Module Systems, 1995-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

34. Employment in the Photovoltaic Manufacturing Industry, 1991-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

35. Companies Expecting to Introduce New Photovoltaic Products in 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

36. Number of Companies Involved in Photovoltaic-Related Activities, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

37. Geothermal Heat Pump Shipments by Model Type, 1994-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

38. Capacity of Geothermal Heat Pump Shipments by Model Type, 1994-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

39. Geothermal Heat Pump Shipments by Exports, Census Region, and Model Type, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . 39

40. Geothermal Heat Pump Shipments by Customer Type and Model Type, 1996 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

B1. Evaluation of EIA’s Undercoverage of Nonutility Electricity Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

B2. Preliminary and Final Nonutility Renewable Generation Data Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

B3. Geothermal Direct Use of Energy and Heat Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
vi Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Figures Page

H1. U.S. Energy Consumption by Source, 1997 ...................................................... 1

1. Renewable Energy Consumption by Source, 1993-1997 ........................................... 6

2. U.S. Biomass Energy Consumption by Major Sectors, 1993-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3. Pellet Fuel Sales by Region, 1993-1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4. Pellet Fuel Appliance Sales, 1993-1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5. Change in Winter Temperature Normals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

6. Wind Energy Consumption, 1993-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

7. Import and Export Shipments of Solar Thermal Collectors, 1987-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

8. Solar Thermal Collector Shipments by Collector Type, 1986-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

9. Average Price of Solar Thermal Collector Shipments by Collector Type, 1995, 1996, and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . 25

10. Import and Export Shipments of Photovoltaic Cells and Modules, 1988-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

11. Photovoltaic Cell and Module Shipments by Type, 1994-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

12. Ground Coupled Heat Pumps-Loop Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 1

Geothermal 5%

All Energy Sources

(94.2 Quadrillion Btu)

Renewable Energy Sources

(7.1 Quadrillion Btu)

Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding.

Hydroelectric 55%

Wind < 0.5%

Biomass 38%

Solar 1%

Petroleum

39%

Natural Gas

24%

Coal

23% Nuclear Electric

7%

Renewable

Energy

8%

Figure H1. U.S. Energy Consumption by Source,

1997

Sources: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Annual

Energy Review 1997, DOE/EIA-0384(97) (Washington, DC, July

1998), Table 1.3. 1997 Renewable Energy: Consumption values

based on the sum of electricity consumption from EIA, Electric

Power Annual 1997, Volume II, DOE/EIA-0348(97)/2

(Washington, DC, October 1998), and non-electricity consumption

based on analysis by the Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and

Alternate Fuels.

Highlights

Renewable Energy Consumption

Renewable energy consumption declined 3 percent

between 1996 and 1997 to 7.1 quadrillion Btu, accounting

for 8 percent of total U.S. energy consumption (Figure

H1 and Table H1). Hydropower and biomass continued

to dominate the renewable energy market, with 55

percent and 38 percent shares, respectively. With

hydropower consumption flat between 1996 and 1997,

most of the year-to-year drop was due to a decrease in

biomass energy consumption due to a warmer than

expected heating season. In addition, geothermal energy

consumption declined 9 percent. Wind and solar energy

together contributed a small but steady 0.1 quadrillion

Btu.

Renewable energy consumption in the transportation

sector (ethanol in motor gasoline) experienced an

increase of 23 trillion Btu, or 31 percent. Renewable

energy consumption decreased in all other sectors,

particularly residential and industrial. Total renewable

energy consumption (including net imports) for electricity generation declined 1 percent overall, despite a 4-

percent rise to 95 gigawatts in renewable electric generating capacity. Most of the capacity gain was accounted for by a 3,358-megawatt increase in conventional

hydroelectric generating capacity. Biomass generating

capacity rose 171 megawatts, while wind capacity declined 57 megawatts, as retirements exceeded additions.

Solar Manufacturing Activities

Shipments

Shipments of photovoltaic (PV) cells and modules

continued their record growth in 1997, increasing 31

percent. Correspondingly, the value of these shipments

increased 34 percent. The growth in shipments is due

largely to a strong export market, which represented 73

percent of shipments in 1997, compared with 63 percent

in 1996.

Photovoltaic cells and modules shipments totaled 46

peak megawatts in 1997, compared with 35 peak megawatts in 1996. This marks the twelfth consecutive

annual increase in shipments. The value of shipments

grew to $175 million in 1997 from $131 million in 1996.

The average annual rate of increase in shipments over

the past 12 years has been 21 percent. Overall unit peak

watt price showed a 2-percent increase from 1996 to

1997.

Shipments of solar thermal collectors increased 7 percent

in 1997 to 8.1 million square feet from 7.6 million square

feet in 1996. The average price of solar thermal collectors decr eased by 9 percent, resulting in a decrease in

the value of shipments to $29 million in 1997 from $29.8

million in 1996.

Other major findings about the photovoltaic and solar

thermal collector manufacturing activities include:

  Single crystal silicon PVs led the way in growth

from 22 peak megawatts in 1996 to 30 peak

megawatts in 1997, while cast and ribbon
2 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

(Quadrillion Btu)

Energy Source 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Conventional Hydroelectric Powera ............ R3.147 R2.969 R3.472 R3.914 3.932

Geothermal Energyb ....................... R0.393 R0.395 R0.339 R0.352 0.322

Biomassc ................................ 2.784 2.838 2.846 R2.938 2.723

Solar Energyd ............................ 0.071 0.072 0.073 0.075 0.074

Wind Energy ............................. 0.031 0.036 0.033 R0.035 0.035

 Total Renewable Energy .................. R6.426 R6.309 R6.763 R7.315 7.086

a

Hydroelectricity generated by pumped storage is not included in renewable energy.

b

Includes grid-connected electricity, geothermal heat pump and direct use energy.

c

Includes wood, wood waste, peat, wood sludge, municipal solid waste, agricultural waste, straw, tires, landfill gases, fish oils,

and/or other waste.

d

Includes solar thermal and photovoltaic.

 R = Revised data.

 Notes: See Appendix B, “Renewable Data Limitations,” for a detailed explanation of data issues. Totals may not equal sum of

components due to independent rounding.

Sources: 1993-1995: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Annual Energy Review 1997, DOE/EIA-0384(97) (Washington,

DC, July 1998), Table 1.3. 1996 and 1997: Consumption values based on the sum of electricity consumption from EIA, Electric

Power Annual 1997, Volume II, DOE/EIA-0348(97)/2 (Washington, DC, October 1998), and non-electricity consumption based on

analysis by the Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels.

Table H1. U.S. Renewable Energy Consumption by Energy Source, 1993-1997

crystalline silicon PVs increased from 12 peak

megawatts in 1996 to 14 peak megawatts in 1997.

Overall, crystalline silicon PVs accounted for 96

percent of shipments in 1997.

  PV shipments to the commercial sector experienced the greatest rate of growth from 1996 to

1997, rising 57 percent. The industrial and residential sectors showed growth rates of 42 percent

and 30 percent respectively. Utility sector shipments grew 19 percent.

  The use of PVs in grid-interactive electricity generation increased over 70 percent, while sales for

remote electricity applications decreased 21 percent. Shipments to Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) increased 118 percent. OEMs

integrate PVs into devices that are used in the areas

of telemetry, instrument controls and monitoring,

remote quality testing, and measurement of flows

and pressures. PVs represent a value added

electricity source for remote usage of diverse

manufactured goods. 

  Ninety-three percent of shipments of solar thermal

collectors were low temperature types in 1997 as

compared to 90 percent in 1996. Ninety-one

percent were used in the residential sector in 1997,

and 93 percent were installed as pool heaters.

Industry Developments

The Department of Energy launched the Million Solar

Roofs Program in mid-1997. The initiative contains four

core components that use existing funding and legislative authorities. These components include: “aggressive”

federal procurement in cost-effective applications; enhancement of access to and blending of several existing

federal loan programs with long-term amortization; use

of five existing technology grant programs for “buy

down”; and the establishment of an interagency team to

ensure results and coordinate maximum efficiency. By

2010, these systems are expected to be self- sustaining.

Siemens Solar Industries announced delivery of a

record-efficient, 1-kilowatt (peak) thin-film photovoltaic

array to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory

(NREL). The 28-module array has an average module

power of 39 watts peak (Wp) and an efficiency of 9

percent. The modules incorporate Siemens’ newest

improvement in copper-indium-diselenide-based thinfilm technology, which was developed with support

from NREL’s Thin -Film PV Partnership Program. The

best module of the array produced 40.6 Wp for a record

efficiency of 11.1 percent.

The Sacramento Municipal Utility District’s (SMUD)

board of directors approved a 10-megawatt (peak)

photovoltaic program for 1998-2002. The $22 million in
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 3

contracts approved were expected to create major PV

module and inverter factories in 1998. Projects included

building-integrated PVs in Grass Valley, a $19.3-million

supply contract with Energy Photovoltaics, and the purchase of 8 MWe of power inverters from Trace

Engineering.

AstroPower Inc. announced it bested its previous

sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiency record and

fabricated a 16.6 percent efficient thin-film silicon solar

cell under a collaboration with the NREL. The record

was set on a laboratory-scale device measuring 1 square

centimeter as part of the Department of Energy’s

Photovoltaic Manufacturing Technology Initiative. The

prior record, set a few years ago, was 14.6 percent.

The Department of Defense stated that it offers the

potential of nearly 20,000 photovoltaic applications in 33

categories, according to an analysis prepared by the

Photovoltaic Review Committee. Applications include

a building guard station, remote building operations,

cathodic protection, communications equipment, lights,

meteorological stations, navigational assistance, housing,

instrumentation, observation tower, radar equipment,

security, transportable power and water pumping. 

Geothermal Heat Pump

Manufacturing Activities

For the first time in this report the Energy Information

Administration (EIA) is presenting the results of its

“Annual Geothermal Heat Pump Manufacturers

Survey.” This survey was completed by approximately

18 known manufacturers of geothermal heat pumps.

Results indicated that for 1994 through 1997, a cumulative total of 209,000 units were shipped. 
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 5

1 Calculated statistics in this chapter are based on unrounded data. In contrast, data presented in tables may be rounded. 2 All renewable consumption and production information shown in this chapter was derived from the Integrated Renewable Energy

Database System (IREDS). The data values in IREDS are more precise than those shown in the tables of this report.

(Quadrillion Btu)

Energy Source 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Fossil Fuels

 Coal ................................... R19.837 R20.027 R20.090 R21.011 21.439

 Coking Coal (Net Imports) .................. 0.017 0.024 0.026 * 0.018

 Natural Gasa ............................ 20.827 21.288 22.163 R22.560 22.588

 Petroleumb ............................. 33.841 34.735 34.663 R35.864 36.314

 Total Fossil Fuels ...................... R74.522 R76.073 R76.943 R79.434 80.360

Nuclear Electric Power .................... 6.519 6.837 7.177 R7.168 6.686

Hydroelectric Pumped Storagec ............. R-0.042 -0.035 -0.028 R-0.032 -0.042

Renewable Energy

 Conventional Hydroelectric Powerd ........... R3.147 R2.969 R3.472 R3.914 3.932

 Geothermal Energye ...................... R0.393 R0.395 R0.339 R0.352 0.322

 Biomassf ............................... 2.784 2.838 2.846 R2.938 2.723

 Solar Energyg ........................... 0.071 0.072 0.073 0.075 0.074

 Wind Energy ............................ 0.031 0.036 0.033 R0.035 0.035

 Total Renewable Energy ................. R6.426 R6.309 R6.763 R7.315 7.086

Total Energy Consumption ................. R87.368 R89.250 R90.864 R93.871 94.151

a

Includes supplemental gaseous fuels.

b

Petroleum products supplied, including natural gas plant liquids and crude oil burned as fuel.

c

Represents total pumped-storage facility production minus energy used for pumping.

d

Hydroelectricity generated by pumped storage is not included in renewable energy.

e

Includes grid-connected electricity, geothermal heat pump and direct use energy.

f

Includes wood, wood waste, peat, wood sludge, municipal solid waste, agricultural waste, straw, tires, landfill gases, fish oils,

and/or other waste.

g

Includes solar thermal and photovoltaic.

 R = Revised data.

 * = value less than 0.0005 quadrillion Btu.

 Notes: See Appendix B, “Renewable Data Limitations,” for a detailed explanation. Totals may not equal sum of components due

to independent rounding.

Sources: 1993-1997: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Annual Energy Review 1997, DOE/EIA-0384(97) (Washington,

DC, July 1998), Table 1.3. 1996 and 1997 Renewable Energy: Consumption values based on the sum of electricity consumption

from EIA, Electric Power Annual 1997, Volume II, DOE/EIA-0348(97)/2 (Washington, DC, October 1998), and non-electricity

consumption based on analysis by the Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels.

Table 1. U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source, 1993-1997

1. Renewable Data Overview

1997 In Review1

Total Consumption

Renewable energy consumption declined 3 percent to

7.086 quadrillion British Thermal Units (Btu) between

1996 and 1997, as hydropower imports decreased and

exports increased from 1996 (Table 1). Excluding net

imports, renewable energy consumption declined about

1.5 percent. Hydropower contributed 55 percent of

renewable energy consumption in 1997 (Figure 1).2

 Since

1993, renewable energy consumption has grown at a 2.5-

percent annualized rate, compared with 1.9 percent for

total U.S. energy consumption.
6 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

3 “Domestic generation” equals total renewable electricity generation less net electricity imports. 4 Although the category “industrial “ is used, there are actually two subcategories, not easily distinguishable. A pure industrial facility

may loosely be described as one designed principally to provide energy for a manufacturing or other product-making use, while a

nonutility is a special category of facility which is usually designed to generate electric power and connect to the grid. Nonutilities are often

those designated by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission as “qualifying facilities,” so-called because they meet certain criteria set

forth by PURPA. However, a “pure industrial” facility may sell power to the grid, and a nonutility can generate energy for the entity’s own

use.

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

0

1

2

3

4

5

Quadrillion Btu

Conventional Hydroelectric Nonhydro Renewable

Figure 1. Renewable Energy Consumption by

Source, 1993-1997

 Sources: 1993-1995: Energy Information Administration (EIA),

Annual Energy Review 1997, DOE/EIA-0384(97) (Washington,

DC, July 1998), Table 1.3. 1996 and 1997: Consumption values

based on the sum of electricity consumption from EIA, Electric

Power Annual 1997, Volume II, DOE/EIA-00348(97)/2

(Washington, DC, October 1998), and non-electricity consumption

based on analysis by the Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and

Alternate Fuels.

Biomass energy consumption, which accounted for 38

percent of total renewable energy consumption, declined

7 percent from 1996. Geothermal, solar, and wind

energy, which combined provided 6 percent of total

renewable energy in 1997, declined 7 percent.

The renewable share of total energy consumption

declined slightly from 7.8 percent in 1996 to 7.5 percent

in 1997. Regarding total energy consumption, about

one-half of the increase in fossil fuel energy consumption

was offset by a decline in nuclear electricity generation.

Sectoral Consumption

Renewable energy consumption increased only in the

transportation sector between 1996 and 1997, rising from

0.074 quadrillion Btu to 0.097 quadrillion Btu (Table 2).

The energy represented here is ethanol blended into

gasoline as an oxygenate in low percentage blends

(under 10 percent). 

Residential sector consumption declined nearly 25

percent. This was largely due to a drop in biomass

energy consumption, attributed to higher-than-expected

winter temperatures lowering heating demand. Residential energy consumption now includes energy consumption from geothermal (ground water) heat pumps,

which amounted to 0.0075 quadrillion Btu in 1997.

Industrial sector renewable energy consumption

declined 3 percent in 1997 to 2.555 quadrillion Btu. Most

of the decrease was in industrial biomass consumption,

which decreased nearly .070 quadrillion Btu. Also, an

11-percent decline in industrial geothermal consumption

more than offset an increase in consumption for conventional hydropower.

Electric utility sector renewable energy consumption

remained virtually unchanged in 1997 at 3.881 quadrillion Btu. This sector consumed 55 percent of renewable

energy consumption in 1997 and includes net renewable

imports.

Of the 2.207 quadrillion Btu of renewable energy not

used to generate electricity, 70 percent was in the

industrial sector, where considerable biomass-based

process heat is used in areas such as the forest products

industry (especially for paper and pulp operations).

Industrial biomass process heat applications alone

consumed 1.554 quadrillion Btu, 70 percent of total

nonelectric renewable energy consumption. Another 25

percent is consumed in the residential sector for heating

and cooling.

Electricity Generation

Energy used to generate 457 billion kilowatthours (kWh)

of renewable-based, domestically-consumed electricity

amounted to 4.879 quadrillion Btu (Tables 3 and 4).

Domestically consumed and produced renewable generation3

 in 1997 was nearly 2 percent above 1996 levels.

Total hydropower generation rose 11.6 billion kWh in

1997, due principally to a 10.3-billion kWh increase in

utility generation. On a percentage basis, nonutility

(industrial4

) hydropower rose a substantial 8 percent.

These gains were due principally to greater water

availability in the Northwest.
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 7

5 Utility geothermal generation is principally from a single geothermal field in California known as “The Geysers.”

(Quadrillion Btu)

Sector and Source 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Residential/Commercial

 Biomass ............................... 0.592 0.582 0.641 R0.644 0.475

 Solar .................................. 0.062 0.064 0.065 R0.066 0.065

 Geothermala ............................ 0.010 0.010 0.011 R0.012 0.013

 Total ................................. R0.664 R0.656 R0.717 R0.722 0.553

Industrialb

 Biomass ............................... 2.084 2.138 R2.084 R2.200 2.132

 Geothermala ............................ R0.206 R0.214 R0.210 R0.217 0.194

 Conventional Hydroelectricc ................. R0.119 0.136 0.152 R0.171 0.185

 Solar .................................. 0.009 0.008 0.008 R0.009 0.009

 Wind .................................. 0.031 0.036 0.033 R0.035 0.035

 Total ................................. R2.449 R2.533 R2.487 R2.633 2.555

Transportation

 Biomassd ............................... 0.088 0.097 0.104 R0.074 0.097

Electric Utility

 Biomass ............................... 0.020 0.020 0.017 R0.020 0.019

 Geothermala ............................ 0.158 0.145 0.099 R0.110 0.115

 Conventional Hydroelectricc ................. R2.774 R2.547 R3.054 R3.422 3.528

 Solar and Wind .......................... * * * * *

 Net Renewable Energy Importse ............. R0.272 R0.310 0.284 R0.334 0.219

 Total ................................. R3.225 R3.023 R3.454 R3.886 3.881

Total Renewable Energy Consumption ....... R6.426 R6.309 R6.763 R7.315 7.086

 a

Includes geothermal heat pump and direct use energy. The Industrial and Electric Utility sectors also include grid connected

electricity.

 b

Includes generation of electricity by cogenerators, independent power producers, and small power producers.

 c

Hydroelectricity generated by pumped storage is not included in renewable energy.

 d

Ethanol blended into gasoline.

 e

Includes only net imports of electricity known to be from renewable resources (geothermal and hydroelectric).

 R= Revised data.

 *Less than 0.0005 quadrillion Btu.

 Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding.

 Sources: 1993-1995: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Annual Energy Review 1997, DOE/EIA-0384(97) (Washington,

DC, July 1998), Table 10.2. 1996 and 1997: Electricity Consumption&EIA, Electric Power Annual 1997, Volume II, DOE/EIA0348(97)/2 (Washington, DC, October 1998). Non-electricity Consumption (except imports)&Based on analysis by the Office of

Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels. Net Renewable Energy Imports, 1993-1997: Based on analysis by the Office of Coal,

Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels.

Table 2. Renewable Energy Consumption by Sector and Energy Source, 1993-1997

Electricity generation from all other renewable sources

fell; after rising in 1996, total geothermal generation

dropped to 14.6 billion in 1997, a decline of 6 percent.

Nonutility geothermal generation decreased 10 percent,

while utility generation5

 managed a small gain. Generation from biomass declined to 58 billion kWh, largely

due to a 4-percent drop in nonutility generation. Solar

generation declined about 1 percent in 1997, despite the

fact that utility solar generation increased 9.8 percent.

Wind-based electricity showed virtually no change.

Nonutilities produce virtually all of the solar and wind

electricity. (See Appendix B, "Data Description and

Limitations,” for an explanation of potential estimation

errors in nonutility data.) Because information which

EIA collects from non-utilities on the Form EIA-867,

“Annual Nonutility Power Producer Report,” is confidential, it is not possible to make any statements about

individual plant operations.
8 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

6 EIA estimates total electricity generation in 1997 to be 3,494 billion kilowatthours. See Energy Information Administration, Electric

Power Annual 1997, Volume II, DOE/EIA-0348(97)/2 (Washington, DC, October 1998).

(Quadrillion Btu)

Source 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Industrial Sectora

 Biomass ............................... R0.575 R0.592 R0.593 R0.599 0.578

 Geothermal ............................. 0.204 0.212 0.207 R0.214 0.191

 Hydroelectric ............................ R0.119 0.136 0.152 R0.171 0.185

 Solar .................................. 0.009 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009

 Wind .................................. 0.031 0.036 0.033 R0.035 0.035

 Total ................................. R0.938 R0.984 R0.993 R1.028 0.998

Electric Utility Sectorb

 Biomass ............................... 0.020 0.020 0.017 0.020 0.019

 Geothermal ............................. 0.158 0.145 0.099 0.110 0.115

 Conventional Hydroelectric ................. R2.774 R2.547 R3.054 R3.422 3.528

 Solar and Wind .......................... *****

 Total ................................. R2.953 R2.713 R3.170 R3.552 3.662

Imports and Exports

 Geothermal (Imports) ..................... 0.018 0.025 0.019 0.014 *

 Conventional Hydroelectric (Imports) .......... 0.294 R0.314 0.297 R0.345 0.289

 Conventional Hydroelectric (Exports) .......... R0.041 0.029 0.032 0.024 0.070

 Total Net Renewable Energy Imports ....... R0.272 R0.310 0.284 R0.334 0.219

Total ................................... R4.163 R4.007 R4.448 R4.915 4.879

 a

Includes generation of electricity by cogenerators, independent power producers, and small power producers.

 b

Excludes imports.

 R = Revised data.

 *Less than 0.5 trillion Btu.

 Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding.

 Sources: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-759, "Monthly Power Plant Report," and Form EIA-867, "Annual Nonutility

Power Producer Report," personal communication with Dave Walker of Natural Resources Canada (Ottawa, Canada, March 1998).

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Form FE-781R, "Annual Report of International Electricity Export/Import Data."

Table 3. Renewable Energy Consumption for Electricity Generation by Energy Source, 1993-1997

Electricity imports decreased 16 percent to 28 billion

kWh in 1997. With U.S. electricity exports nearly

tripling to 6.8 billion kWh, net electricity imports

dropped by one-third to 21 billion kWh in 1997. This

was the principal reason that total renewable electricity

generation dropped 0.4 percent, compared with the 2-

percent gain in electricity generated and consumed

domestically. Total renewable energy consumption in

1997 for electricity generation (including net imports)

was 4.879 quadrillion Btu. The 436 billion kWh of

renewable electricity generation domestically produced

and consumed was about 12 percent of the U.S. total.6

In the utility sector, there are 6 or fewer plants in each of

the categories. In the case of wind, the Solano plant

operated by Sacramento Municipal Utility District

(SMUD) generates about 99 percent of total utility wind

generation. For solar, there were 4 plants that generated

electricity in 1997. One plant, Solar 2, operated by

Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD),

increased output by two-thirds in 1997, providing about

56 percent of utility solar generation. As a result, utility

sector solar generation rose, despite the fact that output

from two of the three other solar/PV generating plants

decreased.

Resource accessibility largely determines where renewable electricity is generated. Access to water power

makes Washington the leading producer of renewable

energy, accounting for 24 percent of total renewable

electricity produced in 1997 (Tables 5 and 6). 

A second major factor influencing the use of renewables

is State policies promoting renewable energy. The combined effect of resource availability and energy policy

makes California the second-largest producer of renewable electricity generation. In 1997, 13 percent of utility

renewable generation nationwide occurred in California.
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 9

(Thousand Kilowatthours)

Source 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Industrial Sector (Gross Generation)a

 Biomass .......................... R55,745,781 57,391,594 R57,513,666 R57,937,058 55,886,586

 Geothermal ........................ 9,748,634 10,122,228 9,911,659 R10,197,514 9,110,297

 Hydroelectric ....................... 11,510,786 13,226,934 14,773,801 R16,555,389 17,904,653

 Solar ............................. 896,796 823,973 824,193 R902,830 892,892

 Wind ............................. 3,052,416 3,481,616 3,185,006 R3,399,642 3,384,576

 Total ............................ R80,954,413 85,046,345 R86,208,325 R88,992,433 87,179,004

Electric Utility Sector (Net Generation)b

 Biomass .......................... R1,986,535 R1,985,463 R1,647,247 R1,912,472 1,861,532

 Geothermal ........................ 7,570,999 6,940,637 4,744,804 5,233,927 5,469,110

 Conventional Hydroelectric ............ 269,098,329 247,070,938 296,377,840 R331,058,055 341,273,443

 Solar ............................. 3,802 3,472 3,909 3,169 3,481

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 309 11,097 10,123 5,977

 Total ............................ R278,659,908 R256,000,819 R302,784,897 R338,217,746 348,613,543

Imports and Exports

 Geothermal (Imports) ................ 877,058 1,172,117 884,950 649,514 10,313

 Conventional Hydroelectric (Imports) ..... 28,558,134 30,478,863 28,823,244 33,359,983 27,990,905

 Conventional Hydroelectric (Exports) ..... 3,938,973 2,806,712 3,059,261 2,336,340 6,790,778

 Total Net Imports .................. 25,496,219 28,844,268 26,648,933 31,673,157 21,210,440

Total Renewable Electricity Generation . . R385,110,540 R369,891,432 R415,642,155 R458,883,336 457,002,987

 a

Includes generation of electricity by cogenerators, independent power producers, and small power producers.

 b

Excludes imports.

 R = Revised data.

 Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding.

 Sources: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-759, "Monthly Power Plant Report"; Form EIA-867, "Annual Nonutility

Power Producer Report"; and Electric Power Annual 1997, Volume II, DOE/EIA-0348(97)/2 (Washington, DC, October 1998).

Personal communication with Dave Walker of Natural Resources Canada (Ottawa, Canada, March 1998). U.S. Department of

Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, Form FE-781R, "Annual Report of International Electricity Export/Import Data."

Table 4. Electricity Generation From Renewable Energy by Energy Source, 1993-1997

California’s share of nonutility renewable electricity was

even larger at 22 percent (Table 6). California promoted

renewable energy strongly in the 1980's with renewable

tax credits and other measures. In addition, California

has the vast majority of the Nation’s developed geothermal energy resources, as well as significant wind,

solar, biomass (wood and waste), and hydroelectric

resources.

Utilities in Oregon, which has sizable water power resources, produced the third-largest amount of electricity

from renewables. New York contributed 8 percent,

virtually all from water power. No other State contributed more than about 4 percent of total U.S. utility

renewable generation.

Nonutility renewable generation outside California is

more evenly spread. One reason is that nonutility plants

are usually smaller than utility plants, having been built

in many instances to service a single facility (e.g., pulp

and paper manufacturing plant). Thus, many more

resource locations are available, particularly for biomass

and hydropower. After California, the States with the

most nonutility electricity generation in 1997 were

Florida, Maine, Louisiana, New York, Alabama, and

North Carolina. The nonutility sector produces virtually

all of the biomass-, wind-, and solar-powered electricity

generation. Florida leads the Nation in nonutility

biomass-generated power. 

Renewable Generating Capacity

By the end of 1997, renewable generating capacity

increased 3.7 percent to 95.3 gigawatts (Table 7). Hydroelectric capacity had the largest increase (3.4 gigawatts)

between 1996 and 1997. Renewable capacity at the end

of 1997 was nearly 3 percent greater than it was at the

end of 1993, when it stood at 92.6 gigawatts.
10 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Table 5. Renewable Electric Utility Net Generation, 1997

(Thousand Kilowatthours)

Hydroelectric GeothermalSolar/

PV Wind

MSW

Landfill Gas

Wood and

Wood

Waste

Other

Wastea Total Percent

Alabama ....... 11,520,637 -- -- -- -- -- -- 11,520,637 3.3

Alaska ......... 1,098,953 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1,098,953 0.3

Arizona ........ 12,049,393 -- -- -- -- -- -- 12,049,393 3.5

Arkansas ...... 3,511,260 -- -- -- -- -- -- 3,511,260 1.0

California ...... 38,783,138 5,300,592 3,269 5,859 -- -- -- 44,092,858 12.6

Colorado ....... 1,897,813 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1,897,813 0.5

Connecticut .... 374,110 -- -- -- 450,749 -- -- 824,859 0.2

Delaware ...... -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Dist. of Col. ..... -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Florida ......... 241,280 -- -- -- -- -- -- 241,280 0.1

Georgia ........ 4,228,269 -- -- -- -- -- -- 4,228,269 1.2

Hawaii ......... 18,791 -- -- -- -- -- -- 18,791 --

Idaho .......... 13,511,728 -- -- -- -- -- -- 13,511,728 3.9

Illinois ......... 16,773 -- -- -- -- -- 23,595 40,368 --

Indiana ........ 561,593 -- -- -- -- -- -- 561,593 0.2

Iowa .......... 794,739 -- -- 118 22,360 -- -- 817,217 0.2

Kansas . . . . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Kentucky ...... 3,380,233 -- -- -- -- -- -- 3,380,233 1.0

Louisiana . . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Maine ......... 1,779,887 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1,779,887 0.5

Maryland ....... 1,588,375 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1,588,375 0.5

Massachusetts . . 788,540 -- -- -- -- -- -- 788,540 0.2

Michigan ....... 1,592,707 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1,592,707 0.5

Minnesota ...... 697,224 -- -- -- 425,416 3,917 -- 1,126,557 0.3

Mississippi . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Missouri ....... 1,593,309 -- -- -- 41,704 -- -- 1,635,013 0.5

Montana ....... 13,348,499 -- -- -- -- -- -- 13,348,499 3.8

Nebraska ...... 1,672,419 -- -- -- -- -- 624 1,673,043 0.5

Nevada ........ 2,567,451 -- -- -- -- -- -- 2,567,451 0.7

New Hampshire . 1,165,007 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1,165,007 0.3

New Jersey . . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

New Mexico .... 258,810 -- -- -- -- -- -- 258,810 0.1

New York ...... 29,004,673 -- -- -- -- 17,793 -- 29,022,466 8.3

North Carolina . . 3,894,248 -- -- -- -- -- -- 3,894,248 1.1

North Dakota . . . 3,319,577 -- -- -- -- -- -- 3,319,577 1.0

Ohio .......... 507,368 -- -- -- -- -- -- 507,368 0.1

Oklahoma ...... 2,921,206 -- -- -- -- -- -- 2,921,206 0.8

Oregon ........ 46,283,275 -- -- -- -- -- -- 46,283,275 13.3

Pennsylvania . . . 1,778,998 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1,778,998 0.5

Rhode Island . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

South Carolina . . 2,901,794 -- -- -- -- -- -- 2,901,794 0.8

South Dakota . . . 9,012,260 -- -- -- -- -- -- 9,012,260 2.6

Tennessee ..... 10,073,313 -- -- -- -- -- -- 10,073,313 2.9

Texas ......... 1,784,629 -- 212 -- -- -- -- 1,784,841 0.5

Utah .......... 1,330,578 168,518 -- -- -- -- -- 1,499,096 0.4

Vermont ....... 896,312 -- -- -- -- 150,345 -- 1,046,657 0.3

Virginia ........ 939,569 -- -- -- -- -- -- 939,569 0.3

Washington .... 103,644,592 -- -- -- -- 353,256 -- 103,997,848 29.8

West Virginia . . . 377,192 -- -- -- -- -- -- 377,192 0.1

Wisconsin ...... 2,182,208 -- -- -- 12,085 213,980 145,708 2,553,981 0.7

Wyoming ...... 1,380,713 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1,380,713 0.4

 Total ........ 341,273,443 5,469,110 3,481 5,977 952,314 739,291 169,927 348,613,543

 a

Agricultural waste, straw, tires, fish oils, paper pellets, tall oil, sludge waste, and waste alcohol.

 --=Not applicable.

 Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding.

 Sources: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-759, “Monthly Power Plant Report,” and Form EIA-860, “Annual Electric Generator

Report.”
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 11

Table 6. Nonutility Gross Generation From Renewables, 1997

(Thousand Kilowatthours)

Hydroelectric GeothermalSolar/

PV Wind

MSW

Landfill Gas

Wood and

Wood Waste

Other

Wastea Total Percent

Alabama ....... W -- -- -- -- 3,564,202 W 3,818,463 4.4

Alaska ......... -- -- -- -- -- W W WW

Arizona ........ -- -- -- -- -- W -- W W

Arkansas ...... W -- -- -- -- 1,457,855 W 1,468,800 1.7

California ...... W W 892,892 3,232,012 1,727,305 3,156,740 378,624 19,309,009 22.1

Colorado ....... W -- -- -- -- -- W 139,426 0.2

Connecticut .... W -- -- -- 1,500,512 -- W 1,795,765 2.1

Delaware ...... -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Dist. of Col. . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Florida . . . . . . . . . W -- -- -- W 2,610,377 536,163 6,471,579 7.4

Georgia . . . . . . . . W -- -- -- W 2,886,172 29,999 2,981,383 3.4

Hawaii ......... 97,515 W -- W W W 232,692 990,407 1.1

Idaho .......... 1,038,127 -- -- -- -- W W 1,520,715 1.7

Illinois ......... 87,607 -- -- -- 273,156 W W 1,121,083 1.3

Indiana . . . . . . . . -- -- -- -- 127,003 -- -- 127,003 0.1

Iowa . . . . . . . . . . W -- -- -- W W W 80,282 0.1

Kansas . . . . . . . . W -- -- -- -- -- -- W W

Kentucky . . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- W -- W W

Louisiana . . . . . . W -- -- -- -- W 108,238 4,492,512 5.2

Maine . . . . . . . . . W -- -- -- W 2,970,602 239,175 5,415,000 6.2

Maryland . . . . . . . -- -- -- -- 617,659 W W 776,747 0.9

Massachusetts . . 347,722 -- -- -- 2,066,741 W W 2,570,988 2.9

Michigan . . . . . . . W -- -- -- 919,499 1,649,094 W 2,739,027 3.1

Minnesota ...... 339,431 -- -- W 321,607 428,270 W 1,152,506 1.3

Mississippi . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- W W 1,788,550 2.1

Missouri . . . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- W W W

Montana . . . . . . . W -- -- -- -- W -- W W

Nebraska . . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Nevada . . . . . . . . W W -- -- -- -- -- 1,595,259 1.8

New Hampshire W -- -- -- 196,141 831,584 W 1,498,464 1.7

New Jersey . . . . W -- -- -- 1,217,197 -- W 1,262,662 1.4

New Mexico . . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

New York . . . . . . W -- -- -- 1,453,770 641,913 W 4,218,710 4.8

North Carolina . . 1,784,824 -- -- -- W 1,675,805 W 3,542,552 4.1

North Dakota . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- W W W

Ohio . . . . . . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- 622,140 -- 622,140 0.7

Oklahoma . . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- W -- W W

Oregon . . . . . . . . W -- -- -- W 517,790 -- 1,041,512 1.2

Pennsylvania . . . W -- -- -- 1,872,143 574,332 W 2,936,356 3.4

Rhode Island . . . W -- -- -- W -- -- W W

South Carolina . . 56,929 -- -- -- W 1,615,098 W 1,742,140 2.0

South Dakota . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Tennessee . . . . . W -- -- -- W 435,826 W 1,472,973 1.7

Texas . . . . . . . . . W -- -- W W 837,247 35,186 1,616,783 1.9

Utah . . . . . . . . . . W -- -- -- -- -- -- W W

Vermont . . . . . . . W -- -- -- -- W -- 383,983 0.4

Virginia . . . . . . . . W -- -- -- 1,074,411 1,563,708 W 2,771,992 3.2

Washington .... 549,491 -- -- -- W 429,138 W 1,187,590 1.4

West Virginia . . . W -- -- -- -- -- -- W W

Wisconsin . . . . . . W -- -- -- 156,854 628,200 W 1,109,544 1.3

Wyoming . . . . . . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

 Total ........ 17,904,653 9,110,297 892,892 3,384,576 17,444,030 35,217,908 3,224,648 87,179,004 

 a

Agricultural waste, straw, tires, fish oils, paper pellets, tall oil, sludge waste, and waste alcohol.

 --=Not applicable.

 W = Data withheld to avoid disclosure of proprietary company data.

 Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-867, “Annual Nonutility Power Producer Report.”
12 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

7 Energy Information Administration, Residential Energy Consumption Survey 1994. Data for non-survey years is estimated by

taking into consideration factors such as annual Heating Degree Days and other residential energy consumption characteristics. 8 By U.S. Forest Service convention, 1 cord = 128 cubic feet in volume (4 ft. x 4 ft. x 8ft.). By EIA convention, 1 cord contains the

approximate equivalent of 20 million Btu. 9 Wood pellets are manufactured from finely ground wood fiber. They are typically 1/4 inch to 5/16 inch in diameter by about 3/4

inch in length and weigh more than 40 pounds per cubic foot.

(Megawatts)

Source 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Hydroelectrica ....................... R77,405 R78,042 78,563 R76,437 79,795

Geothermal ......................... 2,978 3,006 2,968 R2,893 2,854

Biomass ........................... 10,045 10,465 R10,263 R10,531 10,702

Solar/Photovoltaic .................... 340 333 333 333 334

Wind .............................. 1,813 1,745 b

1,731 R1,677 1,620

 Total Renewables .................. R92,582 R93,591 R93,857 R91,868 95,303

Nonrenewablesc ..................... R662,373 R670,423 R675,660 R684,004 683,210

 Total ............................. R754,955 R764,014 R769,517 R775,872 R778,513

a

Excludes pumped storage, which is included in “Nonrenewables.” b

Excludes 6.6 megawatts of utility capacity and 35 megawatts of nonutility capacity that were not captured by EIA sources.

c

Includes hydrogen, sulfur, batteries, chemicals, spent sulfite liquor, and hydroelectric pumped storage.

R = Revised data.

Note: Capacity ratings for nonrenewables have been revised to reflect estimated net summer capability rather than nameplate

capacity. The methodology for estimating net summer capability from reported nameplate capacity is presented in Energy

Information Administration, Inventory of Power Plants in the United States as of January 1, 1997, DOE/EIA-0095(97), p. 286.

Sources: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-860, “Annual Electric Generator Report,” and Form EIA-867, “Annual

Nonutility Power Producer Report.”

Table 7. U.S. Electric Generating Capacity, 1993-1997

Biomass Energy

U.S. biomass energy consumption declined sharply

between 1996 and 1997, reflecting generally lower

energy demand due to milder temperatures during the

heating season. The industrial and residential sectors

continued to represent the primary sectors of consumption (Table 8). However, a significant decline

occurred in residential sector activity, based on new EIA

survey information.7

 A more moderate decrease in

energy usage was observed in the industrial sector

(Figure 2), where energy intensity is relatively fixed for

given industries according to their manufacturing

profiles.

Wood, Wood Waste, and Energy Crops

Table 9 lists residential woodburning activity by region

in cord8

 and Btu terms. Pellet fuel9 is consumed mainly

in the residential and commercial sectors. The energy

represented by pellet fuel consumption is embedded in

the residential sector statistics presented here. The comparison of pellet fuel statistics with overall residential

sector wood consumption indicates:

  Pellet fuel consumption has grown to the extent

that it now comprises about one-fourth of total

residential woodburning.

  The regional pattern of pellet fuel sales and

residential wood consumption are different (Figure

3 and Table 9).

  Pellet stove sales remained steady during the

1996/1997 and 1997/1998 heating seasons in spite

of the overall decline in residential consumption

(Figure 4).

Strong pellet sales in the Mountain and Pacific regions

reflect the influence of strict environmental regulation.

Industry literature indicates that growing sales in the

Northeast are to a large extent due to more intensive

recent marketing efforts. While the pellet industry is

currently established on residential sales, it has stated

expansion of sales to industrial customers to be an

important industry goal.

Biomass cultivation for all purposes&food, energy, and

feedstocks&is closely affected by weather. The 1990's, to

date, have seen a number of significant weather events
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 13

(Trillion Btu)

Energy Source 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Wood Energya ............... 2,228 2,266 R2,250 R2,335 2,103

 Sector

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 537 596 595 433

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 45 45 49 42

 Industrial .................. 1,625 1,673 R1,598 R1,679 1,617

 Electric Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 11 11 12 11

 Census Region

 Northeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 278 R343 R348 328

 Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 223 R269 R269 226

 South ..................... 1,405 1,437 R1,024 R1,074 957

 West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 328 R615 R644 592

Waste Energyb ............... 468 475 492 R529 523

 Source

 Municipal Solid Waste . . . . . . . . 390 394 408 R447 449

 Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 323 333 R359 359

 Landfill Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 71 75 88 90

 Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 81 81 82 74

 Census Region

 Northwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 171 173 R188 191

 Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 76 88 R80 88

 South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 134 134 R158 151

 West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 95 96 R103 93

Alcohol Fuels (Ethanol) ........ 88 97 104 74 97

 Census Region

 Northwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * 3 R7 9

 Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 68 74 R43 56

 South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 16 10 R8 11

 West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 12 17 R16 21

Biomass Energy Consumption . . 2,784 2,838 R2,846 R2,938 2,723

a

Assuming an average energy yield of 17 million Btu per ton.

b

Municipal solid waste, manufacturing waste, refuse-derived fuel, and methane recovered from landfills.

* = Less than 0.5 trillion Btu.

Note: The annual season runs from April 1 through March 31.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1997, DOE/EIA-0384(97) (Washington, DC, July 1998), Table

10.3.

Table 8. Biomass Energy Consumption by Sector and Census Region, 1993-1997

including droughts, floods, damaging winds, and

weather-connected phenomena such as forest fires

resulting from extended drought. Planting and harvesting have been affected in some regions by drought

or flood. Winter storms in the Northeast during the past

year resulted in large-scale damage to trees, creating

greater than expected supply of wood for energy. 

Longer term phenomena come under the heading of

climate events. Scientists are intensively studying

cyclical climate events such as El Nino and La Nina. The

effect of climate events on biomass and the resulting

availability of biomass for energy in the United States is

mixed. Scientific observation and modeling has only

recently begun to estimate the U.S. regional effects of the

El Nino/La Nina cycles.

While individual climate events have varying impacts on

biomass availability, of greater interest is their collective

influence over time. Information from the National

Climate Data Center is instructive in this regard. Figure

5 illustrates the change in U.S. winter temperature

normals observed during two 30-year periods of time. 

While this is not the only climate factor modeled, it is

one that is significant to an analysis of biomass consumption for energy. The changes in winter temperature

also help to explain the greater overall consumption of

residential biomass energy in the Northeast and South

regions (Table 9).

In the industrial sector, the largest biomass energy

producer&the Pulp & Paper Industry&marked the 200th

anniversary of the paper machine, but amid a trend of
14 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

10 Governmental Advisory Associates, Inc., The Municipal Waste Combustion Industry In The United States—1997-98 Resource Recovery

Yearbook and Directory (Westport, CT, 1997).

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

0

500

1000

1500

2000

Residential Industrial

Figure 2. U.S. Biomass Energy Consumption by

Major Sectors, 1993-1997

(Trillion Btu)

Wood Chip Photo goes here

Aspen wood chips are being prepared for conversion to ethanol

via the simultaneous saccharification and fermentation process.

Table 9. Residential Wood Energy Consumption, 1997

Unadjusted Estimate Total Adjusted Estimatea

Million Cords Trillion Btu Million Cords Trillion Btu

Northeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 136 7.1 142

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 80 4.2 84

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 104 5.5 109

West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 94 4.9 98

Total ................... 20.6 414 21.7 433

 a

Allows for wood burning in second homes.

 Sources: Unadjusted estimate: Based on the Energy Information Administration, Residential Energy Consumption Survey

1993 and Office of Energy Markets and End Use estimates. Total adjusted estimates: Based on the Energy Information

Administration, Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels estimates.

lower rates of return on investment than other major

industries. A pattern of consolidation and divestiture,

according to individual corporate strengths and

weaknesses, has developed in response, either along the

primary resource or end-product specialization lines.

Wholesale power marketing and management has also

emerged as a very important factor of influence. Major

changes in output and product mix have begun to take

place in response to strongly increased activity in foreign

primary fiber commodity exports to the United States.

All these factors in combination are reshaping paper and

forest products industries and promise to alter

significantly the profile of national industrial biomass

energy production. 

Municipal Solid Waste

Energy consumption from municipal solid waste (MSW)

grew from 390 trillion Btu in 1993 to 449 trillion Btu in

1997 (Table 8). Energy from MSW is obtained by both

direct combustion (i.e., waste-to-energy) and from the

recovery of landfill gas. Of the 449 trillion Btu of energy

consumed from MSW in 1997, 359 trillion Btu were

consumed by direct combustion and 90 trillion Btu were

provided by landfill gas. Approximately 16 percent of

all MSW tonnage generated in the United States is

disposed of through direct combustion.10

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy

Review 1997, DOE/EIA-0384(97) (Washington, DC, July

1998), Table 10.3
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 15

1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Northeast Southeast Great Lakes

Central Mountain Pacific

Figure 3. Pellet Fuel Sales by Region, 1993-1998

(Thousand tons)

1993-

1994

1994-

1995

1995-

1996

1996-

1997

1997-

1998

20

40

60

80

Thousand Units

0

Figure 4. Pellet Fuel Appliance Sales, 1993-1998

Figure 5. Change in Winter Temperature Normals

(1961-1990 minus 1931-1960)

During 1997, approximately 107 waste-to-energy (WTE)

facilities with a capacity to process over 100,000 tons per

day were operating in the United States. About 80

percent of the projects generate electricity as the sole

energy product or in conjunction with steam. The other

20 percent produce steam as the sole energy product

(EIA does not collect information on steam-only

facilities). The projects that generate electricity as the

sole energy product or in conjunction with steam

through direct combustion of MSW, have a generating

capacity of approximately 2,600 megawatts, produced 16

million megawatthours of electricity in 1997, and consumed 280 trillion Btu.

Of the 133 landfill sites that recovered landfill gas in

1997, about 120 produce energy for generating facilities.

These facilities have a combined generating capacity of

around 832 megawatts. They produced 5 million megawatthours of electricity and consumed 42 trillion Btu of

landfill gas. Facilities that burn MSW and landfill gas

may also burn fossil fuels for start-up, fuel stabilization,

or as a primary fuel. 

The production of energy from municipal waste supplies

grew very rapidly during the 1980s, largely as a result of

public policy at the Federal, State, and local level that

promoted the construction of WTE facilities. Virtually

all electricity generated by facilities that burn MSW or

landfill gas are designated as “qualifying facilities” (QF)

by the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978

(PURPA). Under PURPA, electric utilities are required

to purchase power generated by QFs at the “avoided

cost” of the purchasing utility. The average price per

kilowatthour received by MSW and landfill gas projects

is dropping as contracts are renegotiated, because the

avoided cost received for electricity from new facilities

is now based on competitive fuel prices. As power sales

contracts negotiated in the 1980s between QFs and

utilities expire, downward pressure on energy revenues

will continue. A number of electric deregulation proposals include the elimination of PURPA.

The growth in MSW projects has been dramatically

curtailed during the 1990s, with a number of smaller,

inefficient projects being retired. Today, environmental

policies are encouraging recycling to reduce the quality

and quantity of waste streams to WTE facilities, as well

as requiring costly pollution control at these facilities.

Federal tax policy no longer favors investments in

capital intensive products and limits the amount of

municipal bonds States can issue for the construction of

facilities that are privately owned. As is the case with

many industries in the United States, the waste-toenergy industry is also feeling the competitive pressures

of deregulation. Electricity prices are dropping, resulting

 Source: Pellet Fuels Institute, PFI Newsletter, “June

1998 Market Update” (May/June 1998).

 Source: Pellet Fuels Institute, PFI Newsletter, “June

1998 Market Update” (May/June 1998).

 Source: Personal communication with Richard Heim,

National Climate Data Center, National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration, September 1998.
16 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

11 See the website at http://www.oit.edu/admin/geoheat/. 12 Windpower Monthly (June 1998), pp. 31-33.

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

20

25

30

35

40

Trillion Btu

0

Figure 6. Wind Energy Consumption, 1993-1997

 Sources: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-759,

“Monthly Power Plant Report”; Form EIA-867, “Annual Nonutility

Power Producer Report.”

in waste streams going to the cheapest disposal option,

often out-of-State landfills.

Geothermal Energy

Total geothermal energy consumption dropped 9

percent in 1997 to 0.322 quads. Virtually all (97 percent)

of geothermal energy was used to generate electricity.

Of the remaining 0.016 quads, nearly two-thirds (0.010

quads) drove geothermal or “ground water” heat

pumps, with the balance used in low-temperature

industrial and agricultural applications such as crop

drying.

Over 60 percent of domestic geothermal energy consumption for electricity generation (0.306 quads) is

consumed in the industrial sector, principally by

“nonutilities.” This percentage may rise in the future, as

at least one California utility is planning to divest itself

of its geothermal electricity plants. Except for a single

plant in Nevada and a small amount of production in

Hawaii, all domestic geothermal energy is produced in

California.

Industrial consumption declined 11 percent in 1997, in

contrast to a 5-percent increase in utility geothermal

consumption. Industrial geothermal consumption has

remained stagnant since 1993, compared with a decline

of 27 percent in utility geothermal consumption. Several

older geothermal fields in California have been depleted

beyond their economically useful life and will likely not

resume operation. Imported geothermal electricity from

Mexico was virtually zero in 1997, compared with 0.014

quads in 1996. Geothermal electricity generation

followed the patterns of energy consumption during

1996 and 1997. 

Direct use of geothermal energy is either process heat for

industrial applications or energy used to heat and cool

water for air temperature moderation applications,

using heat pumps. EIA does not collect information on

direct geothermal energy but rather uses information

provided under contract to the Department of Energy’s

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy by

the Oregon Institute of Technology’s Geo-Heat Center.11

Wind Energy

Between 1993 and 1997, wind electric generating

capacity decreased about 193 megawatts to 1,620

megawatts, as retirements exceeded additions. Some

additions for 1997 included a few small projects that

partially offset the decline:

  Kotzebue, Alaska (0.15 megawatts)

  Pacheco Pass, California (16 megawatts)

  Sibley, Iowa (1.2 megawatts)

  Searsburg, Vermont (6 megawatts).

Although capacity has declined over the past 5 years,

improved efficiency has resulted in increased generation

from wind&up some 12 percent over the period. Total

wind energy consumption was 35 trillion Btu in 1997&an

increase of 4 trillion Btu since 1993 (Figure 6).

Indications are that 1998 will be a very active year for

construction. In July 1998, capacity expanded considerably, as the Phase II 107-megawatt Lake Benton,

Minnesota project came on line. Other future developments include the following within the next 1 to 2

years:12

  California (approximately 281 megawatts to be

repowered statewide)

  Buena Vista County, Iowa (112.5 megawatts )

  Clear Lake, Iowa (42 megawatts)

  Storm Lake, Iowa (75 megawatts)
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 17

The 500 kW, 34M diameter Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) Test Bed Located at Bushland, Texas.

  Pipestone County, Minnesota (Phase III, 103.5

megawatts)

  Vansycle, Oregon (24.9 megawatts)

  Big Spring, Texas (34.8 megawatts)

  McCamey, Texas (75 megawatts)

  Foot Creek Rim, Wyoming (41.4 megawatts).

Two key factors are driving this flurry of construction

activity: (1) State mandates, as in the case of Minnesota

and Iowa; and (2) the nationwide rush to beat the

expiration of the 1.5 cent-per-kilowatthour production

tax credit offered until June 1999, pending passage of

legislation for an extension. Among the companies

involved in this construction, Zond Systems, Inc. is the

most active with commitments of nearly 300 megawatts,

using the new Z-750 series of turbines. It is followed by

Seawest with about 80 megawatts committed, the FPL

Group, and York Corporation.

Solar Energy

Although higher in 1997 than in 1993, solar energy consumption declined 1 percent to 74 trillion Btu between

1996 and 1997. Most of this was in the residential and

commercial sector, where some older equipment

reached the end of its useful life of 20 years. Most gridconnected solar electricity generation occurs at nonutility facilities, where generation decreased slightly in

1997 to 893 million kilowatthours. Utility solar generation increased over the same period, but at 3.5 million

kilowatthours it remains a negligible share of total

renewable generation. Ninety-four percent was generated in California (Table 10).
18 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

(Thousand Kilowatthours)

Utility Plant (State) Net Generation

Sacramento Municipal Utility District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solar (California) 1,947

Sacramento Municipal Utility District ............... Hedge PV (California) 310

Austin Electric ............................... Decker Creek (Texas) 212

Pacific Gas & Electric ......................... PVUSA 1 (California) 1,012

Total ...................................... 3,481

 Note: Net generation is gross generation minus plant use.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Monthly May 1998, DOE/EIA-0226(98/05) (Washington, DC, May

1998), Table 58.

Table 10. U.S. Utility Net Electric Generation from Solar Energy, 1997
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 19

2. Solar Thermal and Photovoltaic Collector

Manufacturing Activities

Introduction

This chapter presents national and State-level data on

the United States solar thermal collector and photovoltaic module and cell manufacturing industry. The

data are reported to the EIA by U.S.-based manufacturers and importers of solar equipment on Forms

EIA-63A, “Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey,” and EIA-63B, “Annual Photovoltaic

Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.” Historical data for

comparison are presented for annual domestic shipments of solar thermal collectors during 1978 through

1997 and for photovoltaic cells and modules during 1982

through 1997 (Table 11).

Since 1978, domestic manufacturers have shipped

227,177 square feet of solar thermal collectors. The total

number of domestic shipments in peak kilowatts of

photovoltaic cells and modules since 1982 is 114,858

peak kilowatts. Solar collectors are estimated to have a

useful life of 20 years. Throughout the chapter, the unit

of measure is square feet of collector surface for solar

thermal collectors and peak kilowatts for photovoltaic

cells and modules.

Collector Type Descriptions

Solar thermal collectors are divided into the categories

of low-, medium-, and high-temperature collectors.

Low-temperature collectors provide heat up to 110o

Fahrenheit through either metallic or nonmetallic

absorbers and are used in applications such as

swimming pool heating, and water, space, and process

heating. Medium-temperature collectors provide heat

greater than 110o

 Fahrenheit (usually 140 to 180o Fahrenheit) through either glazed flat-plate collectors that use

air or liquid as the heat transfer medium or concentrator

collectors that concentrate the heat of incident insolation

to greater than “one sun”&essentially unobstructed,

normal sunlight. Evacuated-tube collectors are included

in this category. High-temperature collectors are

parabolic dish and trough collectors and are used

primarily by utilities and nonutility power producers in

the generation of electricity for the grid. A hightemperature solar thermal collector operates at temperatures above 180 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Year

Domestic Shipmentsa

Photovoltaic Cells

and Modules

(Peak Kilowatts)

Solar Thermal

Collectors

(Thousand

Square Feet)

1978 ...... & 10,020

1979 ...... & 13,396

1980 ...... & 18,283

1981 ...... & 19,362

1982 ...... 6,897 18,166

1983 ...... 10,717 16,669

1984 ...... 7,759 16,843

1985 ...... 4,099 b

19,166

1986 ...... 3,224 9,136

1987 ...... 3,029 7,087

1988 ...... 4,318 8,016

1989 ...... 5,462 11,021

1990 ...... 6,293 11,164

1991 ...... 6,035 6,242

1992 ...... 5,760 6,770

1993 ...... 6,137 6,557

1994 ...... 8,363 7,222

1995 ...... 11,188 7,136

1996 ...... 13,016 7,162

1997 ...... 12,561 7,759

Total ...... 114,858 227,177

a

Total shipments minus export shipments.

b

Estimated data.

& = Not available.

Sources: 1978-1984: Energy Information Administration,

Form EIA-63, “Annual Solar Thermal Collector and Photovoltaic Module Manufacturers Survey.” 1985-1997: Energy

Information Administration, Form EIA-63A, “Annual Solar

Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey,” and Form EIA-63B,

“Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 11. Annual Photovoltaic and Solar Thermal

Shipments, 1978-1997
20 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

Imports Exports

Figure 7. Import and Export Shipments of Solar

Thermal Collectors, 1987-1997

Notes: Total shipments as reported by respondents include

all domestic and export shipments and may include imports

that subsequently were shipped to domestic or foreign customers. 

Source: 1987-1997: Energy Information Administration,

Form EIA-63A, “Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers

Survey.”

Year Number of Companies

Collector Shipments (thousand square feet)a

Total Imports Exports

1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 7,269 691 182

1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 8,174 814 158

1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 11,482 1,233 461

1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 11,409 1,562 245

1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 6,574 1,543 332

1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 7,086 1,650 316

1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 6,968 2,039 411

1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 7,627 1,815 405

1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 7,666 2,037 530

1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 7,616 1,930 454

1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 8,138 2,102 379

 a

Includes imputation of shipment data to account for nonrespondents.

 Note: Total shipments as reported by respondents include all domestic and export shipments and may include imported

collectors that subsequently were shipped to domestic or foreign customers.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A, “Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 12. Annual Shipments of Solar Thermal Collectors, 1987-1997

Solar Thermal Activities

Shipments

Solar thermal collector shipments totaled 8.1 million

square feet in 1997, an increase of 7 percent from the

1996 level of 7.6 million square feet (Table 12). Import

shipments totaled 2.1 million square feet, while export

shipments were 0.4 million square feet in 1997 (Figure 7).

Shipments of low-temperature solar thermal collectors

increased to 7.5 million square feet in 1997, compared to

6.8 million square feet in 1996 (Table 13). Shipments of

medium-temperature collectors decreased 22 percent to

0.61 million square feet in 1997 from 0.79 million square

feet in 1996. This is a continuation of a long-term decline

in medium-temperature collector production. Shipments

of high-temperature collectors decreased to 7,000 square

feet in 1997 from 10,000 square feet in 1996.

Origins

U.S. manufacturers in five States&California, New York,

New Jersey, Florida, and Hawaii&produced 98 percent

of U.S.-manufactured collectors in 1997 (this represents

only shipments manufactured in the United States). In

1996, four States&California, Florida, New Jersey, and

New York&and Puerto Rico&produced 98 percent

(Table 14). California continued to lead the United States

with 38 percent of total domestic shipments in 1997, an

increase from 33 percent in 1996 (Table 14). New Jersey,

Florida, New York, and Hawaii shipped a combined 3.6

million square feet in 1997.

Destinations

Domestic

Nearly half of solar collector volume shipped went to

Florida in both 1996 and 1997. Solar thermal collectors
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 21

Year

Low-Temperature Medium-Temperature

High-Temperature

Total Shipmentsa,b Total Shipmentsa Average per

Manufacturer Total Shipmentsa Average perManufacturer

1987 ......... 3,157 263 957 19 3,155

1988 ......... 3,326 416 732 16 4,116

1989 ......... 4,283 428 1,989 55 5,209

1990 ......... 3,645 304 2,527 62 5,237

1991 ......... 5,585 349 989 24 1

1992 ......... 6,187 387 897 26 2

1993 ......... 6,025 464 931 28 12

1994 ......... 6,823 426 803 26 2

1995 ......... 6,813 487 840 32 13

1996 ......... 6,821 487 785 41 10

1997 ......... 7,524 579 606 29 7

 a

Includes imputation of shipment data to account for nonrespondents.

 b

For high-temperature collectors, average annual shipments per manufacturer are not disclosed.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A, “Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 13. Annual Shipments of Solar Thermal Collectors by Type, 1987-1997

(Thousand Square Feet)

Origin/Destination

1996 Shipments 1997 Shipments

Thousand

Square Feet

Percent of

U.S. Total

Thousand 

Square Feet

Percent of

U.S. Total

Origina

 California ................................ 1,819 33 2,308 38

 Floridab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 12 NA NA

 New Yorkc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NA NA 957 16

 New Jersey, Florida and Hawaiic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NA NA 2,656 44

 New Jersey, New York and Puerto Ricob ........ 2,905 53 NA NA

 Top Five Total .......................... 5,406 98 5,921 98

Destinationd

 Florida .................................. 3,519 49 3,975 49

 California ................................ 1,472 21 1,781 22

 Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 6 500 6

 Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 3 204 3

 Oregonc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NA NA 145 2

 New Yorkb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 3 NA NA

 Top Five Total .......................... 5,850 82 6,605 81

 a

Represents only shipments manufactured in the United States.

 b

Data for these states are for 1996 only.

 c

Data for these states are for 1997 only.

 d

Based on the total shipped each year to the United States and Territories.

 NA = Not available.

 Notes: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. U.S. total includes territories.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A, “Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 14. Shipments of Domestic Solar Collectors Ranked by Top Five Origins and Destinations,

1996 and 1997
22 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

13 Insolation refers to the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth unobstructed.

Destination 1997 Destination 1997

Alabama .......................... 2,424 Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Alaska ............................ 0 Nevada ........................... 120,215

Arizona ........................... 499,752 New Hampshire ..................... 1,350

Arkansas .......................... 2,803 New Jersey ........................ 73,829

California .......................... 1,781,407 New Mexico ........................ 7,020

Colorado .......................... 35,645 New York .......................... 121,389

Connecticut ........................ 54,099 North Carolina ...................... 8,194

Delaware .......................... 0 North Dakota ....................... 0

District of Columbia .................. 0 Ohio ............................. 58,136

Florida ............................ 3,974,505 Oklahoma ......................... 5,863

Georgia ........................... 79,601 Oregon ........................... 145,117

Hawaii ............................ 203,939 Pennsylvania ....................... 71,332

Idaho ............................. 0 Puerto Rico ........................ 70,409

Illinois ............................ 84,375 Rhode Island ....................... 0

Indiana ........................... 0 South Carolina ...................... 25,617

Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759 South Dakota ....................... 0

Kansas ........................... 3,785 Tennessee ......................... 10,799

Kentucky .......................... 2,953 Texas ............................ 64,564

Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928 Utah ............................. 0

Maine ............................ 25,356 Vermont .......................... 10,584

Maryland .......................... 8,780 Virgin Islands (U.S.) .................. 9,970

Massachusetts ..................... 28,550 Virginia ........................... 29,311

Michigan .......................... 34,976 Washington ........................ 44,788

Minnesota ......................... 35,526 West Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Mississippi ......................... 1,687 Wisconsin ......................... 13,951

Missouri ........................... 4,448 Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Montana .......................... 0

Shipments to United States/Territories .................................................. 7,758,949

Exports ............................................................................ 379,401

 Total Shipments ................................................................... 8,138,350

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A, “Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 15. Shipments of Solar Thermal Collectors by Destination, 1997

(Square Feet)

were shipped to 41 States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S.

Virgin Islands in 1997 (Table 15). The five States that

received the largest amounts of total solar thermal

collector shipments in 1997 were: Florida (49 percent),

California (22 percent), Arizona (6 percent), Hawaii (3

percent), and Oregon (2 percent) (Table 14). All of the

collectors manufactured in Puerto Rico remained on the

island. The U.S. market for solar thermal collectors

continued to be highly concentrated in a few States and

Puerto Rico. Factors favorable for solar energy use in

these States and Puerto Rico are: (1) good solar

insolation;13 (2) high electricity costs; (3) solar-promoting

incentives, such as tax credits or exemptions; and (4) a

demand for low technology solar pool heaters and solar

domestic hot water systems.

Export

Exports accounted for 5 percent of total shipments in

1997. A total of 11 companies exported solar thermal

collectors in 1997 compared with 19 companies in 1996.

Of total 1997 exports, 5 companies exported low-temperature collectors and 10 exported medium-temperature

collectors. Regionally, the largest percentage of shipments were to North and South America (40 percent),

followed by Europe and the Middle East (37 percent)

and Asia (23 percent) (Table 16). Trading countries that

received the most export shipments were Canada (22

percent), Taiwan (15 percent), Sweden (12 percent),

Germany (8 percent), Korea (7 percent), Austria (6 percent), Guatemala and Belgium (both 4 percent).
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 23

Country

Percent of

U.S. Exports

Asia

 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9

 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1

 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2

 Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3

 Taiwan ..................... 14.5

 Total ..................... 23.0

Europe and Middle East

 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0

 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1

 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5

 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4

 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3

 Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1

 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8

 Sweden .................... 11.9

 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4

 Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2

 Total ..................... 36.7

The Americas

 Antigua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5

 Aruba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2

 Bahamas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1

 Belize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1

 Bermuda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1

 Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1

 Bonaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2

 British Virgin Islands . . . . . . . . . . 0.4

 Canada .................... 21.8

 Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4

 Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5

 Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6

 Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6

 Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0

 Honduras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7

 Jamaica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5

 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7

 St. Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1

 St. Vincent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3

 Trinidad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2

 Total ..................... 40.1

Total ....................... 100.0

 Notes: Totals may not equal sum of components due to

independent rounding.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A,

“Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturer Survey.”

Table 16. Distribution of U.S. Solar Thermal

Collector Exports by Country, 1997

Recipient

Shipments

(thousand square feet)

1996 1997

Wholesale Distributors ..... 4,843 4,446

Retail Distributors ........ 1,655 2,491

Exporters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 417

Installers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 585

End Users and Othera . . . . . 217 199

 Total ................. 7,616 8,138

 a

Other includes minimal shipments not explained on Form

EIA-63A.

 Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to

independent rounding.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A,

“Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 17. Distribution of Solar Thermal Collector

Shipments, 1996 and 1997

Distribution

Of total shipments in 1997, 55 percent were sent directly

to wholesale distributors and 31 percent were sent to

retail distributors (Table 17). Direct shipments to

exporters, installers, end users, and others accounted for

15 percent of total shipments in 1997.

Collector Types

From 1988 through 1997, annual shipments of low-temperature collectors ranged between 3.3 and 7.5 million

square feet (Figure 8). In 1997, medium-temperature collector manufacturers shipped just under 0.6 million

square feet, a decrease of 23 percent from 1996.

Low-temperature collectors dominated the solar thermal

industry in 1997, accounting for 92.5 percent of total

shipments (Table 18). Medium-temperature collectors

accounted for 7.5 percent of total collector shipments in

1997. About 85 percent of these were flat plate collectors. Those that constituted subunits of thermosiphon

systems or integral collector storage systems (ICS)

represented 0.4 percent of total shipments. Hightemperature collectors, shipped primarily for research

and demonstration projects, represented about 0.1

percent of total shipments in 1997.
24 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

Thousand Square Feet

Low

Temperature

Medium

Temperature

High

Temperature

Total Shipments

Figure 8. Solar Thermal Collector Shipments by

Collector Type, 1986-1997

Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A,

“Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Sterling Engine Solar Dish Panels Demonstration Project Installed at the Pentagon.

Values and Prices

The total value of solar thermal collector shipments was

$29 million in 1997, a 3-percent decrease compared with

1996. The average price (in dollars per square foot) of

low-temperature collectors decreased to $2.60 in 1997

from $2.67 in 1996, while the average price of ICS and

thermosiphon collectors increased to $23.28 in 1997 from

$21.63 in 1996. This increase was due primarily to

increased material costs. The average price (in dollars

per square foot) for flat-plate collectors in 1997 increased

to $11.30 from the 1996 level of $8.57 (Figure 9). The

value of shipments includes charges for advertising and

warranties. Excluded are excise taxes and the cost of

freight or transportation for the shipments.

Markets

In 1997, the residential sector was the largest market for

solar thermal collectors. Solar thermal collectors shipped

to the residential sector totaled 7.4 million square feet, 91

percent of total shipments (Table 19). This market sector

primarily involves the use of low-temperature solar

collectors for heating swimming pools and mediumtemperature collectors for water heating in residential

buildings. The second-largest market for solar thermal

collectors in 1997 was the commercial sector, which

accounted for 9 percent of total shipments.
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 25

Type

1996 1997

Quantity

(thousand

square feet)

Value

(thousand

dollars)

Average Price

(dollars per

square foot)

Quantity

(thousand

square feet)

Value

(thousand

dollars)

Average Price

(dollars per

square foot)

Low-Temperature

 Liquid and Air .............. 6,821 18,227 2.67 7,524 19,584 2.60

Medium-Temperature

 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 139 15.83 54 2,484 45.75

 Liquid

 ICS/Thermosiphon . . . . . . . . . 343 7,424 21.63 33 773 23.28

 Flat Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 3,697 8.57 516 5,835 11.30

 Evacuated Tube . . . . . . . . . . 1 110 75.10 2 99 49.27

 Concentrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 -- 0 0 --

 All Medium-Temperature . . . . . 785 11,369 14.48 606 9,191 15.17

High-Temperature

 Parabolic Dish and Trough . . . . 10 180 18.75 7 180 25.00

Total ..................... 7,616 29,776 3.91 8,138 28,970a 3.56

 aTotal includes institutional research projects.

 ICS = Integral collector storage. 

 Notes: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A, “Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 18. Solar Thermal Collector Shipments by Type, Quantity, Value, and Average Price, 1996 and 1997

0

20

40

60

80

Dollars per Square Foot

1995 1996 1997

ICS/ 

Thermosiphon

Flat 

Plate

LowTemperatureMediumTemperatureHighTemperature

Figure 9. Average Price of Solar Thermal

Collector Shipments by Collector Type,

1995, 1996, and 1997

Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A,

“Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Uses

In 1997, the largest end use for solar thermal collectors

shipped was for heating swimming pools, representing

93 percent of the total square feet shipped. Swimming

pools generally use low-temperature collectors. A

common low-temperature pool-heating solar collector is

a black plastic or rubber-like sheet with tubing through

which water is circulated. The heat of the sun is

transferred directly from the black absorbing material to

the water circulating through the tubing to supply heat

to the pool. Shipments for pool heating increased 11

percent in 1997 from the level reported in 1996.

The second largest end use in 1997 was for domestic hot

water systems, which accounted for 7 percent of the

total square feet shipped. Typical solar water-heating

systems feature flat-plate collectors or collectors

installed in an ICS or thermosiphon system. Unlike poolheating systems, domestic solar water-heating systems

nearly always have a conventional backup (e.g., gas or

electric). Shipments in 1997 for hot water systems

decreased 22 percent from the 1996 level.

Medium-temperature collectors also were shipped for

space heating and for installation into systems that

provide both space and water heating, and process

heating. Almost all high-temperature parabolic dish and

trough collectors were shipped for hot water heating in

1997.

System Shipments

Twenty-nine companies reported 13,951 shipments of

complete solar thermal collector systems in 1997, a 55-

percent increase compared with 1996 (Table 20).
26 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Type

LowTemperature Medium-TemperatureHighTemperature

1997

Total

1996

Total

Liquid/Air

Air

Liquid

Parabolic

Dish/Trough

Metallic and

Nonmetallic

ICS/ThermosiphonFlat-Plate

(Pumped)

Evacuated

Tube

Concentrator

Market Sector

 Residential ......... 6,791 53 24 491 1 0 0 7,360 6,873

 Commercial . . . . . . . . 726 1 9 25 0 0 7 768 682

 Industrial .......... 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 54

 Utility ............. 0 0 * 0 * 0 0 1 *

 Othera ............ 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 7

 Total ............ 7,524 54 33 516 2 0 7 8,138 7,616

End Use

 Pool Heating ....... 7,517 0 7 4 0 0 0 7,528 6,787

 Hot Water . . . . . . . . . 0 52 26 509 1 0 7 595 765

 Space Heating ...... 7 2 0 0 0 0 0 10 57

 Space Cooling ...... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 Combined Space and

 Water Heating ..... 0 0 0 3 0 0 * 4 3

 Process Heating .... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4

 Electricity

 Generation ....... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 *

 Otherb ............ * 0 0 * 1 0 0 2 0

Total .............. 7,524 54 33 516 2 0 7 8,138 7,616

 *Less than 500 square feet.

 a

Other market sectors include shipments of solar thermal collectors to other sectors such as government, including the

military but excluding space applications.

 b

Other end use includes shipments of solar thermal collectors for other uses such as cooking, water pumping, water

purification, desalinization, distilling, etc.

 ICS = Integral Collector Storage.

 Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A, “Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 19. Shipments of Solar Collectors by Market Sector, End Use, and Type, 1996 and 1997

(Thousand Square Feet)

Shipment Information 1996 1997

Complete Collector Systems 

 Shipped ...................... 9,013 13,951

 Thousand Square Feet ........... 2,093 2,975

 Percent of Total Shipments . . . . . . . . 27 37

Number of Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 29

Value of Systems (thousand dollars) . . 10,754 14,317

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A,

“Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 20. Shipments of Complete Solar Thermal

Collector Systems, 1996 and 1997

A complete system is a unit with a collector and all the

necessary functional components, except for installation

materials. It includes thermosiphon systems, integral

collector storage systems, packaged systems, and system

kits. The 13,951 complete systems accounted for 3.0

million square feet of collectors, an increase of 42 percent

in square feet shipped above the 1996 level. The total

value for the systems shipped in 1997 was $14.3 million,

compared with $10.8 million in 1996.

Industry Status

In 1997, 29 companies were active in the solar thermal

collector manufacturing industry. This is virtually unchanged from 1996 and interrupts a decade-long decline.

However, it is a sizable decrease from prior years (Table

12). Since 1987, 30 manufacturing companies have left

the market. Firms leaving the market have been

principally those engaged partially in nonsolar-related

businesses. This decade long decrease is due in large

measure to two factors. First, the 40-percent residential

energy tax credit and the 15-percent business energy tax
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 27

14 In an effort to stimulate domestic energy sources, the Energy Policy Act of 1992, Section 1916, extended the 10-percent business tax

credits for solar equipment indefinitely, retroactive to June 30, 1992. Investors in or purchasers of qualified solar energy property can take

the credit on up to 10 percent of the investment or purchase price and installment amount. Section 1914 established a 1.5-cent per

kilowatthour electricity production incentive for “qualifying facilities.”

New Product Type

Number of

Companies

Low-Temperature Collectors ....... 3

Medium-Temperature Collectors .... 9

High-Temperature Collectors ....... 2

Noncollector Components ......... 3

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A,

“Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 21. Number of Companies Expecting To

Introduce New Solar Thermal Collector

Products In 1998

Year

Company

Rank

Shipments

(thousand

square feet)

Percent of

Total

Shipments

1987 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

6,371

499

88

7

1988 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

7,585

335

93

4

1989 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

9,748

1,321

85

12

1990 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

9,955

1,029

87

9

1991 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

5,429

829

83

13

1992 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

6,110

609

86

9

1993 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

6,135

551

88

8

1994 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

6,401

861

84

12

1995 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

6,525

806

85

11

1996 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

6,452

910

85

12

1997 . . . . . . 1-5

6-10

7,183

731

88

9

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to

independent rounding.

Source: Energy Information Administration: Form EIA-63A,

“Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 22. Percent of Solar Collector Shipments

by the 10 Largest Companies, 1987-1997

credit expired at the end of 1985. Second, the decline in

industry companies intensified with the drop in oil

prices in 1986. The reinstatement of the business energy

tax credit&at the 15-percent level for 1986, at the 12-

percent level for 1987 through 1991, and at the 10-percent

level in 1992&plus increasing oil prices after 1986, appear

to have had little effect on drawing companies into

manufacturing solar thermal collectors.14

Despite the decrease in firms producing solar collectors,

those firms still in business shipped 0.5 million more

square feet in 1997 than in 1996 (Table 12). Of the 29

active companies, 3 are planning to introduce new lowtemperature collectors, 9 are planning new mediumtemperature collectors, and 2 expect to introduce new

high-temperature collectors in 1998 (Table 21).

At the end of 1996, 30 States were providing financial

incentives for investment in the use of solar thermal

collectors and photovoltaic cells and modules. The

legislative actions were passed to encourage the use of

an environmentally clean source of energy, to promote

energy conservation through the use of renewable

energy technologies, and to promote energy efficiency.

Among the most common incentives were property tax

exemptions and income tax credits for both the

residential and business sectors.

Since 1987, the 10 largest U.S. companies that shipped

solar thermal collectors have supplied not less than 95

percent of all solar thermal collectors manufactured in or

imported into the United States (Table 22). In 1997, 97

percent of the approximately 7.9 million square feet of

total shipments were supplied by the 10 largest companies.

Employment in solar-thermal-related activities decreased

56 person-years in 1997 to 184 person-years, a 23-percent

drop from the 1996 employment level of 239. Industry

employment data for 1994 through 1997 are as follows:

Year

Person Years

Expended

1994 402

1995 386

1996 239

1997 184
28 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Type of Activity 1996 1997

Collector or System Design . . . . . . 20 22

Prototype Collector Development . . 15 12

Prototype System Development . . . 7 7

Wholesale Distribution . . . . . . . . . . 19 20

Retail Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 14

Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 11

Noncollector System Component

 Manufacture ................ 7 9

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A,

“Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 23. Companies Involved in Solar Thermal

Activities by Type, 1996 and 1997

Solar-Related Sales as a

Percent of Total Sales

Number of Companies

1996 1997

90-100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 19

50-89 ................... 4 5

10-49 ................... 0 1

Less than 10 ............. 3 4

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 29

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63A,

“Annual Solar Thermal Collector Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 24. Solar-Related Sales as a Percentage of

Total Sales, 1996 and 1997

Item 1995 1996 1997

Cells ............. 11,432 10,930 12,709

Modules ........... 19,627 24,534 33,645

 Total ........... 31,059 35,464 46,354

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B,

“Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 25. Annual Shipments of Photovoltaic

Cells and Modules, 1995-1997

(Peak Kilowatts)

Most of the 29 reporting companies in 1997 combined

manufacturing and related activities with importing of

solar thermal collectors including:

  A total of 22 companies were involved in the

design of collectors or systems, 12 were

developing prototype collectors, and 7 were

developing prototype systems (Table 23).

  There were 20 companies with wholesale distribution activities and 14 companies with retail

distribution activities. Of the 29 companies, 11

offered installation of their collectors.

Solar-related sales represented 90 to 100 percent of total

company sales for 19 companies in 1997 versus 21

companies in 1996 (Table 24). Solar-related sales made

up less than 10 percent of total sales for 4 companies in

1997, compared with 3 companies in 1996.

Photovoltaic Module and Cell

Manufacturing Activities

Photovoltaic Module and Cell Description

Photovoltaic (PV) components are divided into three

categories by product type: (1) crystalline silicon cells

and modules which include single-crystal, cast silicon,

and ribbon silicon; (2) thin-film cells and modules made

from a number of layers of photosensitive materials such

as amorphous silicon; and (3) concentrator cells and

modules in which a lens is used to gather and converge

sunlight onto the cell or module surface.

Shipments

PV module and cell shipments in 1997 surged to 46.4

peak megawatts (Table 25). Module shipments

accounted for 33.6 peak megawatts, while cell shipments

accounted for 12.7 peak megawatts. Module shipments

increased 37 percent in 1997 from 1996, while cell

shipments increased 16 percent. Total PV shipments in

1997 were 31 percent above the 1996 level. Total

shipments have increased 632 percent since 1986 (Table

26 and Figure 10). Data for PV cells and modules are for

terrestrial use only (i.e., excluding space applications)

and have been reported each year since 1982.

Imports

Four companies imported PV cells and modules in 1997

totaling 1.9 peak megawatts, or 4 percent of total shipments (Table 26). The predominant type of imported PV

cells and modules was crystalline silicon. These imports

originated in Australia, England, India, and Japan, with

Japan accounting for most of the imported PV cells and

modules.
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 29

Year Number of Companies

Photovoltaic Cell and Module Shipments (Peak Kilowatts)a

Total Imports Exports

1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 6,333 678 3,109

1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 6,850 921 3,821

1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 9,676 1,453 5,358

1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 12,825 826 7,363

1990 ............. b

19 b13,837 1,398 7,544

1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 14,939 2,059 8,905

1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 15,583 1,602 9,823

1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 20,951 1,767 14,814

1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 26,077 1,960 17,714

1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 31,059 1,337 19,871

1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 35,464 1,864 22,448

1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 46,354 1,853 33,793

 a

Does not include shipments of cells and modules for space/satellite applications.

 b

Includes imputed data for one nonrespondent which exited the industry during 1990.

 Note: Total shipments as reported by respondents include all domestic and export shipments and may include imported

collectors that subsequently were shipped to domestic or foreign customers.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B, “Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 26. Annual Shipments of Photovoltaic Cells and Modules, 1986-1997

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

0

10

20

30

40

50

Peak Kilowatts (Thousands)

Imports Exports Total

Total Shipments

Figure 10. Import and Export Shipments of

Photovoltaic Cells and Modules, 

1988-1997

Note: Total shipments as reported by respondents include

all domestic and export shipments and may include imports

that subsequently were shipped to domestic or foreign

customers.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B,

“Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Distribution

In 1997, PV module and cell shipments totaling 31.4 peak

megawatts (68 percent of total shipments) were sent

directly to wholesale distributors (Table 27). Installers

and end users combined received 2.8 peak megawatts (6

percent of total shipments).

PV cell manufacturers shipped 5.2 peak megawatts (11

percent of total shipments) to other companies that

manufacture (assemble) cells into PV modules.

Cell and Module Types

Crystalline silicon cells and modules continued to dominate the PV industry in 1997, accounting for 96 percent

of total shipments (Table 28). In particular, singlecrystal silicon shipments totaled 30 peak megawatts, an

increase of 38 percent compared with corresponding

1996 shipments (Figure 11). Together, cast and ribbon

silicon shipments totaled 14.3 peak megawatts in 1997,

a 17-percent increase over 1996. From 1996 to 1997, thinfilm shipments increased 31 percent (Table 28). However, thin-film shipments represented only 4.1 percent of

total shipments in 1997.

Values and Prices

The total value of photovoltaic module and cell

shipments was $175 million in 1997, a 34-percent

increase over the 1996 value of $131 million (Table 29).

The total value includes charges for advertising and

warranties, but does not include excise taxes and the

cost of freight or transportation for the shipments.

The total value of crystalline silicone (single-crystal, cast,

and ribbon) shipments was $164 million in 1997, a 35-

percent increase compared with the corresponding 1996
30 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Recipient

Shipments (Peak Kilowatts)

1995 1996 1997

Wholesale Distributors ............................... 16,413 21,424 31,385

Retail Distributors .................................. 1,181 1,457 424

Exporters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 367 4,081

Installers ......................................... 4,098 4,860 1,236

End Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 1,048 1,522

Module Manufacturers ............................... 5,794 5,528 5,247

Othera ........................................... 2,793 781 2,459

Total ............................................ 31,059 35,464 46,354

 a

Other includes categories not identified by reporting companies.

 Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B, “Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 27. Distribution of Photovoltaic Cells and Modules, 1995-1997

Type

Shipments (Peak Kilowatts) Percent of Total

1995 1996 1997 1995 1996 1997

Crystalline Silicon

 Single-Crystal ............... 19,857 21,742 29,997 64 61 65

 Cast and Ribbon ............. 9,883 12,255 14,317 32 35 31

 Subtotal ................... 29,740 33,996 44,677 96 96 96

Thin-Film Silicon .............. 1,266 1,445 1,886 4 4 4

Concentrator Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 23 154 * * *

Othera ...................... 000000

Total ....................... 31,059 35,464 46,354 100 100 100

 a

Includes categories not identified by reporting companies.

 * = Less than 0.5 percent.

 Notes: Data do not include shipments of cells and modules for space/satellite applications. Totals may not equal sum of

components due to independent rounding.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B, “Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 28. Photovoltaic Cell and Module Shipments by Type, 1995-1997

value. The average price of crystalline silicon modules in

1997 was $4.06 per peak watt, an increase of 3 percent

from the 1996 price of $3.95 (Table 29).

Uses

The largest end-use application of PV cells and modules

in 1997 was for electricity generation (combined gridinteractive and remote). This represented 36 percent of

total shipments (Table 30). Of the 16.9 peak megawatts

represented by this end use, 94 percent involved crystalline silicon cells and modules. Grid interactive and

remote (i.e., stand-alone) power generation include

applications for grid distribution and general remote

uses, such as residential power and power for mobile

homes. The second-largest PV end use in 1997 was in the

communication sector, which accounted for 7.4 peak

megawatts. An example of use in the commercial sector

is the utilization of PV units to power fixed-based

communications equipment, such as mountain-top

signal-repeater stations. This sector represented 16

percent of total shipments. In 1997, transportation was

the third-largest PV end-use application, representing 14

percent of total shipments.

In 1997, end uses related to water pumping and original

equipment manufacturers accounted for 3.8 peak

megawatts and 5.2 peak megawatts, respectively, and
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 31

0

10

20

30

40

Peak Kilowatts (Thousands)

1994 1995 1996 1997

Single Crystal

Silicon

Cast and 

Ribbon Silicon

Concentrator

Silicon

Thin-Film

Silicon

Figure 11. Photovoltaic Cell and Module

Shipments by Type, 1994-1997

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B,

“Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Type

1996 1997

Value

(Thousand

Dollars)

Average Price

(Dollars per Peak Watt) Value

(Thousand

Dollars)

Average Price

(Dollars per Peak Watt)

Modules Cells Modules Cells

Crystalline Silicon

 Single-Crystal ............... 75,043 3.97 2.81 108,226 4.08 2.81

 Cast and Ribbon ............. 46,646 3.92 2.73 55,701 4.03 2.59

 Subtotal ................... 121,689 3.95 2.80 163,927 4.06 2.78

Thin-Film Silicon .............. WWWWWW

Concentrator Silicon ............ WWWWWW

Othera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 -- -- 0 -- --

Total ....................... 131,066 4.09 2.80 175,089 4.16 2.78

 a

Includes categories not identified by reporting companies.

 W = Data withheld to avoid disclosure of proprietary company data.

 -- = Does not apply.

 Notes: Data do not include shipments of cells and modules for space/satellite applications. Totals may not equal sum of

components due to independent rounding.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B, “Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 29. Photovoltaic Cell and Module Shipment Values by Type, 1996 and 1997

involved primarily the use of crystalline silicon cells and

modules.

Sales for consumer goods accounted for 0.3 peak megawatts in 1997. PV cells and modules used for health and

medical purposes, such as to power refrigerators,

medical equipment, and water purifiers, totaled 1.3

peak megawatts in 1997, a 33-percent increase over the

1996 level. End uses reported as “Other” for 1997

totaled 4.7 peak megawatts.

Destinations

Market Sectors

The industrial sector was the largest market for PV cells

and modules in 1997, accounting for 25 percent of total

shipments (Table 30). This sector contains much of the

nonutility electric generation capacity. The secondlargest market sector was the residential sector, which

purchased 24 percent of shipments. The commercial

sector represented the third-largest market for PV shipments in 1997 with 18 percent. These cells and modules

were shipped to provide power for establishments such

as office buildings, retail establishments, private

hospitals, and schools (publicly owned hospitals and

schools are listed under the government sector).

PV cells and modules for the transportation sector,

which were used to produce power on boats, in cars, in

recreational vehicles, and to power transportation

support systems, amounted to 3.6 megawatts. The

transportation sector accounted for 8 percent of total

shipments in 1997 compared with 11 percent in 1996.

Shipments to the utility sector, where cells and modules

were used to produce power at utility-owned systems

including central stations, decentralized systems, and

experimental applications, amounted to 5.7 peak megawatts in 1997, a 19-percent increase from 1996. Combined with information from the analysis of PV’s by end

use, it is clear that there is considerable use of PV cells
32 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Sector and End Use

Crystalline

Silicona Thin-Film

Silicon

Concentrator

Silicon Other 1997 Total 1996 Total

Market Sector

 Industrial .................. 11,244 504 0 0 11,748 8,300

 Residential ................. 10,691 300 2 0 10,993 8,475

 Commercial ................ 7,621 340 150 0 8,111 5,176

 Transportation .............. 3,378 196 0 0 3,574 3,995

 Utility ..................... 5,331 320 0 0 5,651 4,753

 Governmentb ............... 3,772 135 2 0 3,909 3,126

 Otherc .................... 2,276 91 0 0 2,367 1,639

Total ...................... 44,314 1,886 154 0 46,354 35,464

End Use

 Electricity Generation

 Grid Interactive ............ 7,402 871 0 0 8,273 4,844

 Remote .................. 8,433 195 2 0 8,630 10,884

 Communications ............ 7,289 94 0 0 7,383 6,041

 Consumer Goods . . . . . . . . . . . 72 275 0 0 347 1,063

 Transportation .............. 6,645 60 0 0 6,705 5,196

 Water Pumping ............. 3,748 35 0 0 3,783 3,261

 Cells/Modules to OEMd ....... 4,984 261 0 0 5,245 2,410

 Health .................... 1,267 36 0 0 1,303 977

 Othere .................... 4,473 59 152 0 4,684 789

Total ...................... 44,314 1,886 154 0 46,354 35,464

 a

Includes single-crystal and cast and ribbon types.

 b

Includes Federal, State, and local governments, excluding military.

 c

Other includes shipments that are manufactured for private contractors for research and development projects.

 d

Original equipment manufacturers.

 e

Other uses include shipments of photovoltaic cells and modules for other uses, such as cooking food, desalinization, distilling,

etc.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B, “Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 30. Shipments of Photovoltaic Cells and Modules by Market Sector, End Use, and Type,

1996 and 1997

(Peak Kilowatts)

and modules for electricity generation&even grid

interactive uses&outside the utility sector.

Shipments of PV cells and modules used to produce

power at installations of Federal, State, or local governments (excluding military) totaled 3.9 peak megawatts

in 1997. This compares with 3.1 peak megawatts

shipped to the government sector in 1996. The “Other”

sector in 1997 consisted of 2.4 peak megawatts shipped

to foreign governments or used for speciality purposes.

Exports

Export shipments totaled 33.8 peak megawatts in 1997

(Table 31), an increase of 51 percent from 1996 levels.

Generally, export shipments since 1990 have increased

because of the continued search for new PV markets

outside the United States (Figure 10). A total of 17

companies reported exports of PV cells and modules in

1997, with exports accounting for 73 percent of total PV

shipments. Of all types of cells and modules exported in

1997, 98 percent were crystalline silicon (Table 31).

Destinations of PV exports by continent, region, and by

country are shown in Table 32. Two countries, Germany

and Japan, received the greatest share of exports,

totaling 57 percent in 1997.

Systems

Of the 21 companies that reported shipments of PV

systems in 1997, 12 reported shipments of 3,926 complete photovoltaic systems, an increase of 143 percent

from 1996 (Table 33). A complete photovoltaic system

is defined as a power supply unit that satisfies all the

power requirements of an application. Such a system is

generally made up of one or more modules, a power
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 33

Item

Type

Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Silicon Concentrator Silicon Total

1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997

Cells .............. 8,312 10,837 8 0 0 0 8,320 10,837

Modules ............ 13,690 22,247 437 707 2 2 14,128 22,956

 Total ............ 22,002 33,084 445 707 2 2 22,448 33,793

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B, “Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 31. Export Shipments of Photovoltaic Cells and Modules by Type, 1996 and 1997

(Peak Kilowatts)

conditioning unit to process the electricity into the form

needed by the application, wires and other electrical

connectors, and sometimes batteries for back-up power

supply. Some complex, large-scale PV systems use

concentrators to focus incident insolation onto small PV

cells and tracking systems to track the sun. In this

report, installation materials such as the support frame

and concrete foundations are not considered as part of

a system. The value of systems reported in Table 33

excludes excise taxes and charges for freight, transportation, and installation. The total value of complete

systems shipped in 1997 was $4.1 million. Completesystem shipments in 1997 accounted for 200 peak

kilowatts, or less than one percent of total module

shipments.

Industry Status

Shipments totaling 46.4 peak megawatts were reported

by 21 companies in 1997 (Table 34). Ten companies

expect to introduce new crystalline-silicon module

products, and 5 companies reported plans to introduce

new thin-film products to the industry during 1998

(Table 35). One company reported plans to produce new

PV concentrator products while another plans new nonmodule system components during 1998.

Employment in PV-related activities totaled 1,736

person-years in 1997 (Tables 26 and 34), an increase of 36

percent from the 1996 level of employment and slightly

greater than the increase in shipments. The average

employment per company was 82 person-years in 1997,

compared with 51 person-years in 1996.

Many companies engaged in the manufacture and/or

importation of PV cells and modules reported that they

also are involved in other PV-related activities. There

were 13 companies involved in cell manufacturing, 2

more than in 1996 (Table 36). There were 18 companies

involved in module or system design, 14 were active in

developing module prototypes, and 10 developed PV

system prototypes. There were 15 companies that sold

wholesale while 4 sold retail. Five companies installed

PV cells or modules in 1997, 4 less than in 1996.
34 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Destination Peak Kilowatts Percent of U.S. Exports

Africa

 Angola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 *

 Burkina Faso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 *

 Egypt ............................. 291.0 0.9

 Morocco .......................... 285.4 0.8

 Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 *

 South Africa ........................ 938.7 2.8

 Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 *

 Zimbabwe ......................... 134.5 0.4

 Total ............................ 1,653.0 4.9

Asia and the Middle East

 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 *

 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4 *

 Hong Kong ........................ 1,423.3 4.2

 India ............................. 285.0 0.8

 Japan ............................ 8,056.0 23.9

 Oman ............................ 240.0 0.7

 Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 *

 Saudi Arabia ....................... 28.8 0.1

 Singapore ......................... 1,106.4 3.3

 Thailand .......................... 182.0 0.5

 Total ............................ 11,330.6 33.5

Australia ........................... 61.2 0.2

Europe

 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 *

 England ........................... 103.0 0.3

 Finland ........................... 527.0 1.6

 France ............................ 136.1 0.4

 Germany .......................... 11,162.0 33.0

 Italy .............................. 62.0 0.2

 Ireland ............................ 667.4 2.0

 Norway ........................... 369.8 1.1

 Spain ............................. 651.0 1.9

 Sweden ........................... 347.1 1.0

 Switzerland ........................ 31.0 0.1

 Total ............................ 14,057.9 41.6

North America

 Canada ........................... 774.6 2.3

 Dominican Republic .................. 48.4 0.1

 Mexico ............................ 1,318.7 3.9

 Total ............................ 2,141.7 6.3

South America

 Argentina .......................... 476.3 1.4

 Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 *

 Brazil ............................. 1,259.0 3.7

 Chile ............................. 168.0 0.5

 Columbia .......................... 349.4 1.0

 Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 *

 Ecuador ........................... 60.7 0.2

 Nicaragua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 *

 Panama ........................... 30.0 0.1

 Peru ............................. 608.6 1.8

 Uruguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 *

 Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 *

 Other Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60.0 0.2 Total ........................... 3,016.4 8.9

Other ............................. 1,532.2 4.6

Total U.S. Exports ................... 33,793.0 100.0

 * = Less than 0.05 percent.

 Note: “Other” represents shipments to countries not disaggregated by companies on Form EIA-63B.

Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B, “Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell

Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 32. Destination of U.S. Photovoltaic Cell and Module Export Shipments by

Country, 1997
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 35

Shipment Information 1995 1996 1997

Complete Photovoltaic Module Systems Shipped .................. 1,077 1,615 3,926

 Peak Kilowatts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 647 202

 Percent of Total Modules Shipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R5 R3 1

Value of Systems (thousand dollars) ........................... 6,414 3,489 4,061

R = Revised.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B, “Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 33. Shipments of Complete Photovoltaic Module Systems, 1995-1997

Year

Number of

Companies

Number of

Person-Years

1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1,588

1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1,463

1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1,431

1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1,312

1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1,578

1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1,280

1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1,736

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA63B, “Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers

Survey.”

Table 34. Employment in the Photovoltaic

Manufacturing Industry, 1991-1997

Type of Activity

Number of

Companies

1996 1997

Cell Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 13

Module or System Design . . . . . . 19 18

Prototype Module Development . . 15 14

Prototype Systems Development . 14 10

Wholesale Distribution . . . . . . . . . 19 15

Retail Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 4

Installation .................. 9 5

Noncollector System

 Component Manufacturing ..... 6 4

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B,

“Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 36. Number of Companies Involved in 

Photovoltaic-Related Activities,

1996 and 1997

New Product Type

Number of

Companies

Crystalline Silicon

 Single-Crystal Silicon Modules ....... 4

 Cast Silicon Modules .............. 2

 Ribbon Silicon Modules ............ 4

Thin Film

 Amorphous Silicon Modules ........ 4

 Other (Thin-Film) ................ 1

Other (Flat Plate) .................. 0

Concentrators .................... 1

Nonmodule System Components ...... 1

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-63B,

“Annual Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 35. Companies Expecting To Introduce

New Photovoltaic Products in 1998
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 37

3. Survey of Geothermal Heat Pump Shipments 

Introduction

This chapter provides information on geothermal heat

pump shipments, based on the Energy Information

Administration’s (EIA) Form EIA-902, “Annual Geothermal Heat Pump Manufacturers Survey.” It begins

with a general discussion of heat pumps, followed by a

discussion of the survey results and some salient

characteristics of the data, and ends with a technical

discussion of heat pump operation.

Overview

“Heat pump” is a term applied to a machine that can

transfer heat both to and from a source. Therefore, a

heat pump can be used both for space heating in the

winter and for cooling (air conditioning) in the summer.

The most common type of heat pump for domestic use

is the air-to-air (air source) system in which heat is taken

from air (heat source) at one location and transferred to

air (heat sink) at another location. 

Another type of heat pump transfers heat from air to

water and has been designed for domestic hot-water

heating. Geothermal heat pumps are a special type of

air-to-water heat pump that use the earth as a heat

source or sink, depending on the season. Since the

earth’s temperature a few feet below the surface stays

relatively constant (about 55 degrees Fahrenheit) year

round, one can extract heat from the earth when the air

temperature is below the earth’s temperature (winter),

and transfer heat to the earth when the air temperature

is above the in-ground temperature (summer). Geothermal heat pumps are generally more expensive to

install but more efficient (costing less to operate and

maintain) than an air-to-air heat pump. The technical

section at the end of this chapter further explains the

operation and rating of heat pumps.

EIA Survey of Geothermal Heat Pumps

The Energy Information Administration’s (EIA) new

survey, Form EIA-902, “Annual Geothermal Heat Pump

Manufacturers Survey,” shows that manufacturers

shipped almost 58,000 geothermal heat pumps in 1997

and over 213,000 during the period 1994 through 1997.

The survey was completed by approximately 18 known

domestic manufacturers of geothermal heat pumps.

Data from the survey are collected under a confidentiality provision. As a result, only aggregated

statistics are released. The Form EIA-902 tracks shipments of the three main types of geothermal heat

pumps, as certified by the Air Conditioning and

Refrigeration Institute (ARI), and a small volume of nonARI rated heat pumps (Tables 37-40). The three ARIrated classifications for geothermal heat pumps are as

follows:

  ARI-320, Water-Source Heat Pumps (WSHP).

These systems are installed in commercial

buildings, where a central chiller or boiler supplies

chilled or heated water, respectively, to heat

pumps installed in series. The heat pumps reject

building heat to chilled water during the cooling

season and, during the heating season, take heat

from boiler water;

  ARI-325, Ground Water-Source Heat Pumps

(GWHP). The GWHP is an open-loop system in

which ground water is drawn from an aquifer or

other natural body of water into piping. At the heat

pump, heat is drawn from or dumped into the

water through a heat exchanger to the refrigerant

in the heat pump. The heated or cooled water

returns to its source; and

  ARI-330, Ground-Source Closed-Loop Heat Pumps

(GSHP). A water or water/glycol (antifreeze)

solution flows continuously through a closed loop

of pipe buried underground. Ground heat is

absorbed into or rejected from the solution flowing

in the closed loop. At the heat pump, heat is drawn

from or dumped to the closed loop solution via

heat transfer through a heat exchanger, which

passes heat to, or removes heat from, the

refrigerant in the heat pump.

Manufacturers shipped nearly 58,000 heat pumps of all

types in 1997 (Table 37) compared with about 52,000 in

1996&an increase of almost 13 percent. Of those shipped

in 1997, over 28,000 were ARI-320 rated, 9,700 were
38 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Table 38. Capacity of Geothermal Heat Pump Shipments by Model Type, 1994%1997 

(Total Rated Capacity in Tons)

Model Type 1994 1995 1996 1997

ARI-320 ................. 73,879 72,304 78,391 92,116

ARI-325 ................. 29,003 39,672 28,705 37,049

ARI-330 ................. 63,101 74,253 64,114 73,137

Non-ARI Rated ........... 2,879 3,935 5,091 6,662

Totals .................. 168,862 190,164 176,301 208,964

 Note: A capacity of one ton equals 12,000 Btu’s. Data for ARI-320 units are subject to substantial revision. See Appendix B.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-902 “Annual Geothermal Heat Pump Manufacturers Survey.”

Table 37. Geothermal Heat Pump Shipments by Model Type 1994%1997

(Number of Units)

Model Type 1994 1995 1996 1997

ARI-320 ................. 26,757 26,787 24,832 28,260

ARI-325 ................. 5,924 8,615 7,603 9,724

ARI-330 ................. 16,023 18,185 18,094 18,611

Non-ARI Rated . . . . . . . . . . . 757 838 991 1,327

Totals .................. 49,461 54,425 51,520 57,922

 Note: Data for ARI-320 units are subject to substantial revision. See Appendix B. 

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-902 “Annual Geothermal Heat Pump Manufacturers Survey.”

ARI-325 rated, 18,600 were ARI-330 rated, and approximately 1,300 were non-ARI-rated units. 

The total rated capacity of heat pumps shipped in 1997

was almost 209,000 tons (Table 38). The average rated

capacity of heat pumps shipped in 1997 was 3.6 tons

compared to 3.4 tons in 1996. Average capacity

increased for all ARI-rated geothermal heat pumps.

ARI-320 units tend on average to be smaller at 3.3 tons

per unit than ARI-325 or ARI-330 units at almost 4 tons

per unit and non-ARI-rated units at 5 tons per unit. By

comparison, a typical home central air conditioner has a

rating of 3.0 tons. These results may indicate a niche

market for larger geothermal heat pumps, where the

savings in operating costs are greater than the higher

initial investment for geothermal heat pumps.

The proportion of geothermal heat pumps shipped to

each Census region in 1997 was as follows: the South

(46 percent), the Midwest (23 percent), the Northeast (16

percent), the West 10 percent, and exports 4 percent

(Table 39). The Northeast accounted for the greatest

increase in units&up nearly 2,900 units in 1997

compared to 1996. In terms of the number of units and

percentage of units, export shipments showed the

greatest decline, falling 41 percent to just over 2,400

units in 1997. About 50 percent of total geothermal heat

pumps were shipped to wholesalers (Table 40) of which

nearly 40 percent were ARI-320 rated. Forty-four percent of geothermal heat pump shipments went to

installers of which 58 percent were ARI-320 rated. Retail

distributors represented less than 1 percent of heat

pump shipments.

Consumer Awareness

Collaborative alliances among government organizations, the Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium, the

International Ground Source Heat Pump Association,

and the geothermal heat pump industry have expanded

consumer awareness and acceptance of geothermal heat

pumps. Such efforts have resulted in increased installation of geothermal heat pumps where electric utilities

and electric service companies provide attractive

financing, rebates, guaranteed utility rates, shared

savings contracts, and/or equipment leasing arrangements.

How Heat Pumps Work

A heat pump is a device that operates on the concept of

heat transfer from areas of lower temperature to areas of

higher temperature&the reverse of normal heat flow. It
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 39

Table 39. Geothermal Heat Pump Shipments by Exports, Census Region, and Model Type, 1996 and 1997

(Number of Units)

1996

Exports and Census

Region

Model Type

ARI-320 ARI-325 ARI-330 Non-ARI Rated Total

Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,103 302 624 61 4,090

Midwest ................ 2,467 2,295 6,804 308 11,874

Northeast ............... 2,572 1,001 2,774 70 6,417

South .................. 14,138 3,834 6,880 450 25,302

West .................. 2,552 171 1,012 102 3,837

 Total ................ 24,832 7,603 18,094 991 51,520

1997

Exports and Census

Region

Model Type

ARI-320 ARI-325 ARI-330 Non-ARI Rated Total

Exports ................ 1,825 101 437 64 2,427

Midwest ................ 3,413 2,717 6,780 492 13,402

Northeast ............... 5,082 1,512 2,593 93 9,280

South .................. 15,332 4,015 6,828 613 26,788

West .................. 2,608 1,379 1,973 65 6,025

 Total ................ 28,260 9,724 18,611 1,327 57,922

 Note: The Midwest Census region consists of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North

Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. The Northeast Census region consists of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New

Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont. The South Census region consists of Alabama,

Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma,

South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. The West Census region consists of Alaska, Arizona, California,

Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. Data for ARI-320 units are

subject to substantial revision. See Appendix B. 

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-902 “Annual Geothermal Heat Pump Manufacturers Survey.”

employs a refrigeration cycle during which a refrigerant

(known as the “working fluid”) is compressed (as a

liquid) then expanded (as a vapor) to absorb and release

heat, respectively. Specifically, the heat pump absorbs

from an outside medium (air, ground, groundwater) and

then transfers (“pumps”) the heat to a space to be heated

during the winter season. By reversing the process, the

heat pump extracts (absorbs) heat from the same space

during the summer season, and then transfers it to the

outside air. It also acts as a dehumidifier, removing

moisture from the air and making it more comfortable.

Air Source Heat Pumps

An air-source heat pump&the most common type of

heat pump&absorbs heat from the outside air and

transfers the heat through the working fluid to the space

to be heated. In the heating mode, however, air-source

heat pumps lose efficiency and generally require a backup heating system when the outside air approaches 32o

F or less. In the cooling mode, the heat pump absorbs

heat through the working fluid from the space to be

cooled and rejects the heat to the outside air.

Geothermal (Groundwater) Heat Pumps

In a geothermal heat pump, the refrigerant exchanges

heat with a fluid circulating through piping in contact

with the earth. The fluid circulates in a variety of loop

(pipe) configurations, depending on the temperature of

the ground. Loops may be installed horizontally or

vertically in the ground or submersed in a body of water

(Figure 12). Although the fluid in most types of loop

configurations circulates in a closed system, open loops

(normally vertical systems) are sometimes used when a

sufficient supply of water is available from wells.

The efficiency of a heat pump&measured by the

electrical energy required for the working fluid to absorb

and reject a certain amount of heat&is directly related to
40 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Figure 12. Ground Coupled Heat Pumps-Loop Configurations

 Note: For more in-depth information on geothermal heat pumps, visit the Geo-Heat Center’s

consumer information website at http://www.oit.edu.

 Source: Geo-Heat Center.

Table 40. Geothermal Heat Pump Shipments by Customer Type and Model Type, 1996 and 1997

(Number of Units)

1996

Customer Type ARI-320 ARI-325 ARI-330 Non-ARI Rated Total

Exporter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W W W 57 2,276

Wholesale Distributor ...... 10,929 2,980 7,346 189 21,444

Retail Distributor ......... W W 7,267 273 8,336

Installer ................ 12,256 3,285 2,755 466 18,762

End-User . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 W W W 689

Others ................. W W W W 13

Total .................. 24,832 7,603 18,094 991 51,520

1997

Customer Type ARI-320 ARI-325 ARI-330 Non-ARI Rated Total

Exporter ............... W 0 W 0 W

Wholesale Distributor ...... 11,557 8,226 9,091 307 29,181

Retail Distributor ......... 0 W 0 W W

Installer ................ 14,620 1,071 8,820 791 25,302

End-User . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W 0 W W 657

Others ................. 1,555 W W W 1,727

Total .................. 28,260 9,724 18,611 1,327 57,922

 W = Data withheld to avoid disclosure of proprietary company data. Data for ARI-320 units are subject to substantial

revision. See Appendix B.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-902 “Annual Geothermal Heat Pump Manufacturers Survey.”

the temperature differential between the ground and the

fluid. In heat pump terminology, the difference between

the temperature where the heat is absorbed (source) and

the temperature where the heat is delivered (sink) is

called the “lift.” The larger the lift, the greater the power

input required by the heat pump. This is the basis for the

efficiency advantage of the geothermal heat pump over

air-source heat pumps. Geothermal heat pumps are

more efficient (a smaller “lift”) than conventional heat

pumps or air conditioners that use the outdoor air since

the ground or ground water a few feet below the earth’s

surface remains relatively constant throughout the year.

During the winter, heat is transferred from the relatively

warm ground (approximately 55( F) than from the

usually much colder atmosphere, while during the

summer, excess waste heat is transferred to the cooler

ground rather than to the normally much warmer

atmosphere. Geothermal heat pumps generally have a

higher capital cost, than air-to-air heat pumps, due to the

cost of installing underground piping. However,
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 41

15 The heat in the outdoor air is derived from the sun, so that an air-to-air heat pump makes use of solar energy. 16 To pump a specified amount of energy, in this example 24, two heat pumps with a SEER rating of 8 and 12 will require 3 and 2 units

of input energy respectively, resulting in the heat pump with the SEER rating of 12 saving one-third the energy used by the less efficient

unit.

depending on the location, geothermal heat pumps can

reduce energy consumption (operating cost) and correspondingly, air emissions, by more than 20 percent

compared to high-efficiency outside air heat pumps.

Geothermal heat pumps also use the waste heat from air

conditioning to provide free hot water heating in the

summer.

Ratings of Heat Pumps

Heat pumps are rated according to their heating or

cooling capacity and their operating efficiency. The

capacity of a heat pump for either heating or cooling is

commonly expressed in terms of British thermal units

(Btu) per hour of heat delivery or removal. The heating

or cooling capacity is sometimes stated in tons, where 1

ton is equivalent to a heat delivery or removal rate of

12,000 Btu per hour. Although an average home requires a unit of approximately 36,000 Btu (3 tons), the

size of a house and the quality of insulation determine

the necessary heat pump capacity. An under-sized unit

will not keep the house comfortable during peak heating

and cooling demand times and may run continuously,

resulting in high operating costs. On the other hand, an

over-sized unit is more costly to purchase and operate

and during cooling seasons may not run long enough,

causing conditions of high humidity.

The efficiency of a heat pump or performance rating

(distinct from its capacity) is useful for comparing units

of the same type. The ratings used for different types of

equipment are not generally comparable. Heating performance is rated by the coefficient of performance

(COP)&the rate of heat delivery relative to the total rate

of energy input required to operate the heat pump. The

average COP of a heat pump in heating mode may be in

the range 2 to 3, meaning that heat delivered to a

building is 2 to 3 times as great as the energy input

required to operate the heat pump. The excess energy

delivered (as heat) over the input (as electricity) is

derived from the heat source&outdoor air for a

conventional air source heat pump and ground or

ground water for a geothermal unit).15

The COP of a heat pump is not the same in the heating

and cooling modes but varies with conditions, in

particular with the temperatures of the heat source and

heat sink. This is important for heating, because the

efficiency decreases as the temperature of the heat

source decreases, i.e., the outdoor air in an air-to-air heat

pump. When the outdoor air temperature falls to below

about 32o

F, the efficiency of an air-to-air heat pump is so

low that auxiliary heating is required. The auxiliary

heating system is usually resistance heat that supplements the heat pump, though an independent gas- or oilfired furnace may be used. Electric resistance heat is

very expensive and is best used as auxiliary heat or in

climates where little heat is required. Hence, air-to-air

heat pumps are not recommended where low winter

temperatures are common and large amounts of

auxiliary resistance heat are required. By comparison,

geothermal heat pumps operate more efficiently by

taking advantage of the fairly constant and warm

temperature of the earth. Thus, they do not require

auxiliary heating equipment.

The energy efficiency rating (EER) is commonly used to

rate the efficiency of cooling performance. The EER in

Btu per watthour is 3.412 (the Btu equivalent of a watthour) times the COP. A COP of 3 (i.e., 3.412 Btu per

watthour x 3) equals an EER of 10.2 Btu per watthour.

The EER can also be defined as the cooling capacity (size

in Btu/hour) divided by the wattage of the unit (i.e.,

36,000 Btu/hour/3,600 watts equals 10.0 Btu per

watthour). 

The newest term used by the air conditioning and

heating industry to rate the efficiency of air conditioners

and heat pumps is “Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating”

(SEER). While both the COP and EER values are valid

only at specific test conditions used in the rating, the

SEER is based on average or typical operating conditions. 

Because of advances in technology and design, newer

units have a SEER rating as high as 15 or 16. The

Federal Government now requires new air conditioners

and heat pumps to have a SEER of at least 10. Units that

are 10 or more years old probably have a SEER of 10 or

less. A new unit with a SEER of 12 will be one-third

more efficient than an older unit with a SEER of 8.16 In

air-to-air heat pumps, when the outside air is below

average temperatures (heat source) during the heating

season or above average temperatures (heat sink) during

the cooling season, the unit will not operate at the design

SEER. Geothermal heat pumps that take advantage of

the relatively constant temperature of the earth will be

able to operate at the design SEER over wider temperature variations in the air.
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 43

Appendix A

EIA Renewable Energy Data Sources

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) develops

renewable energy information from a wide variety of

sources, cutting across different parts of the organization. This appendix provides a list of all sources which

the EIA uses to obtain renewable energy information.

While most data come from EIA data collection forms,

some are derived from secondary sources. For EIA data

collections, additional information is available in the EIA

publication Directory of Energy Data Collection Forms

1996, DOE/EIA-0249(96), December 1996, or through the

EIA home page.

EIA-63A/B, “Annual Solar Thermal Collector

Manufacturers Survey” and “Annual

Photovoltaic Module/Cell Manufacturers

Survey”

Energy Sources: Solar energy.

Energy Functions: Disposition.

Frequency of Collection: Annually.

Respondent Categories: Solar thermal collector manufacturers and/or importers; photovoltaic module/cell

manufacturers and/or importers;

Reporting Requirement: Mandatory.

Description: Forms EIA-63A/B are designed to gather

for publication data on shipments of solar thermal

collectors and photovoltaic modules. Data are collected

by end use and market sector. Collector types include

low-temperature, medium-temperature air, mediumtemperature liquid, thermosiphon, flat plate, concentrator, integral collector storage, and evacuated tube and

concentrators. Respondents are manufacturers, importers, and exporters of solar thermal collectors and

photovoltaic modules. These forms were formerly

known as CE-63A/B.

EIA-457A/H, “Residential Energy

Consumption Survey”

Energy Sources: Coal and coal products; electricity;

natural gas; petroleum and petroleum products; wood.

Energy Functions: Consumption costs and/or prices.

Frequency of Collection: Triennially.

Respondent Categories: Electric utilities; natural gas

distributors (including importers/exporters); petroleum

and petroleum product distributors; institutions (nonprofit); individuals/households.

Reporting Requirement: Voluntary and mandatory.

Description: Forms EIA-457A through G are used to

collect comprehensive national and regional data on

both the consumption of and expenditures for energy in

the residential sector of the economy. Data are used for

analyzing and forecasting residential energy consumption. Housing, appliance, and demographic

characteristics data are collected via personal interviews

with households, and consumption and expenditure

billing data are collected from the energy suppliers. Enduse intensities are produced for space heating, water

heating, air conditioning, refrigerators, and appliances.

Rental agents are contacted by telephone to check on

fuels used in rented apartments. Surveys were

conducted in 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1987,

1990, and 1993. Form EIA-457H is used to collect

detailed lighting usage information for a subsample.

EIA-819M, “Monthly Oxygenate Telephone

Report”

Energy Sources: Petroleum and petroleum products

Energy Functions: Production, Supply

Frequency of Collection: Monthly

Respondent Categories: Oxygenate producers, Petroleum and petroleum product distributors, Petroleum

and petroleum product processors, Petroleum and

petroleum product storers

Reporting Requirement: Mandatory

Legal Citation: Public Law 93-275 (FEAA), 13(b), 5(a),

5(b), 52

Description: Form EIA-819M is designed to obtain

information on oxygenate production, imports, and endof-month stocks. Data was previously collected using

the EIA-819, Monthly Oxygenate Telephone Survey Data

are reported by oxygenate type and PAD District.

Respondents are a sample of: operators of facilities that

produce oxygenates; operators of petroleum refineries;
44 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

operators of bulk terminals, bulk stations, blending

plants, and other non-refinery facilities that store or

blend oxygenates; and importers of oxygenates.

EIA-846 (A,B,C), “Manufacturing Energy

Consumption Survey”

Energy Sources: Coal and coal products; electricity;

natural gas; petroleum and petroleum products; wood.

Energy Functions: Consumption; disposition; financial;

and/or management; production; research and development; other energy functions.

Frequency of Collection: Triennially.

Respondent Categories: Manufacturing.

Reporting Requirement: Mandatory.

Description: Forms EIA-846A through D are used to

collect information on energy consumption, energy

usage patterns, and fuel-switching capabilities of the

manufacturing sector of the U.S. economy. The

information from this survey is used to publish

aggregate statistics on the consumption of energy for

fuel and nonfuel purposes; fuel-switching capabilities;

and certain energy-related issues such as energy prices,

on-site electricity generation, and purchases of electricity

from nonutilities. Since 1991, the survey has also collected information on end users of energy, participation

in energy management programs, and penetration of

new technology. Respondents are a sample of manufacturing establishments in Standard Industrial Classification categories 20 through 39.

EIA-860, “Annual Electric Generator Report”

Energy Sources: Electricity.

Energy Functions: Financial and/or management;

production.

Frequency of Collection: Annually.

Respondent Categories: Electric utilities.

Reporting Requirement: Mandatory.

Description: Form EIA-860 is used to collect data on the

status of electric generating plants and associated equipment in operation and those scheduled to be in

operation in the United States within 10 years of filing of

the report. These data are used to maintain and update

EIA's electric power plant frame data base. Data are

collected on power plant sites, and the design data of

electric generators. Respondents include each electric

utility that operates, or plans to operate, a power plant

in the United States within 10 years of the report.

EIA-861, “Annual Electric Utility Report”

Energy Sources: Electricity.

Energy Functions: Disposition; financial and/or

management; production.

Frequency of Collection: Annually.

Respondent Categories: Electric utilities.

Reporting Requirement: Mandatory.

Description: Form EIA-861 is a mandatory collection of

data, filed annually by each electric utility in the United

States, its territories, and Puerto Rico. The survey

collects data on generation, wholesale purchases, and

sales and revenue by class of consumer and State. These

data are used to maintain and update the EIA's electric

utility frame data base. This data base provides

information to answer questions from the Executive

Branch, Congress, other public agencies, and the general

public. Respondents include each electric utility that is

a corporation, person, agency, authority, or other legal

entity or instrumentality that owns or operates facilities

within the United States, its territories, or Puerto Rico

for the generation, transmission, distribution, or sale of

electric energy primarily for use by the public.

EIA-867, “Annual Nonutility Power Producer

Report”

Energy Sources: Electricity.

Energy Functions: Production.

Frequency of Collection: Annually.

Respondent Categories: Nonutility power producers.

Reporting Requirement: Mandatory.

Description: Form EIA-867 is used to collect data

annually from nonutility power producers who own or

plan on installing electric generation equipment with a

total capacity of one megawatt or more at an existing or

proposed site. Electricity generation, installed capacity,

and energy consumption data are collected. These data

will be used to augment existing electric utility data and

for electric power forecasts and analyses.

EIA-871A/F, “Commercial Buildings Energy

Consumption Survey”

Energy Sources: Electricity; natural gas; natural gas

products; petroleum and petroleum products; wood;

other energy sources.

Energy Functions: Consumption; costs and/or prices.

Frequency of Collection: Triennially.
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 45

Respondent Categories: Commercial buildings; electric

utilities; natural gas distributors (including importers/exporters); petroleum and petroleum product

distributors; other (industry); Federal government

institutions (nonprofit).

Reporting Requirement: Voluntary and mandatory.

Description: Forms EIA-871A through F are used to

collect information for the Commercial Buildings Energy

Consumption Survey (CBECS). The survey provides

comprehensive national and regional information on the

consumption of, and expenditures for, energy in the

commercial sector of the economy. Data are used in EIA

models and published in statistical and analytical

reports. Physical characteristics information for commercial buildings is collected by personal interviews

with building owners and managers using Form EIA871A. Billing and consumption data for the buildings are

collected by mail from individual energy suppliers

by using Forms EIA-871C through F (depending upon

the energy source). Supplemental information on

construction improvements, maintenance, and repairs is

collected for the Bureau of the Census by using Form

EIA-871G. This survey was renamed the CBECS in 1989.

Previously it was conducted under the name of

Nonresidential Buildings Energy Consumption Survey.

EIA-902, “Annual Geothermal Heat Pump

Manufacturers Survey”

Energy Sources: Geothermal.

Energy Functions: Disposition.

Frequency of Collection: Annually.

Respondent Categories: Geothermal heat pump

manufacturers and importers.

Reporting Requirement: Mandatory.

Description: The Form EIA-902 collects information on

shipments of geothermal heat pumps. The survey tracks

shipments of the following three main types of

geothermal heat pumps, as classified by the Air

Conditioning & Refrigeration Institute (ARI), and the

much smaller shipped volume of non-ARI rated

systems. A brief description of the ARI-classified system

is as follows:

ARI 320&Water-Source Heat Pumps (WSHP)&These

systems are installed in commercial buildings, where

a central chiller or boiler supplies chilled or heated

water, respectively, to heat pumps installed in series.

The heat pumps reject building heat to chilled water

during the cooling season and, during the heating

season, take heat from boiler water. 

ARI 325&Ground Water-Source Heat Pumps

(GWHP)&The GWHP is an open-loop system in

which ground water is drawn from an aquifer or

other natural body of water into piping. At the heat

pump, heat is drawn from or dumped to the water

through a heat exchanger to the refrigerant in the

heat pump. The heated or cooled water returns to its

source.

ARI 330&Ground Source Closed-Loop Heat Pumps

(GSHP)&A water or water/glycol (antifreeze) solution flows continuously through a closed loop of

pipe buried underground. Ground heat is absorbed

into or rejected from the solution flowing in the

closed loop. At the heat pump, heat is drawn from

or dumped to the closed loop solution via heat

transfer through a heat exchanger, which passes heat

to or removes heat from the refrigerant in the heat

pump. Depending on the type of ground and land

area, systems can either be installed horizontally or

vertically. 

Data are collected by model type, heat pump capacity,

region of destination, customer type, and economic

sector. Respondents are manufacturers and importers.
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 47

17 Even if stock data are only approximate, conventional energy stocks are normally a small percentage of production. 18 Information in this section is based on the report, “Renewable Energy Frame Review Updated Report: Survey Sampling Frame and

Electricity Discrepancy Estimates,” by Decision Analysis Corporation of Virginia (Vienna, Virginia, August 1993). 19 Because the MECS is based on the Bureau of the Census' Annual Survey of Manufacturers, EIA does not know the identity of MECS

respondents.

Appendix B

Renewable Data Limitations

This appendix provides information about the quality of

renewable energy data presented in this report. Information pertinent to renewable energy source data quality,

in general, is presented first, followed by discussion of

electric and non-electric data sources by fuel type.

Renewable energy projects pose special challenges when

attempting to collect complete information on them. One

challenge is the dispersed nature of many renewable

energy forms, such as a photovoltaic (PV) system for

generating electricity that may operate in a “standalone”

fashion in a remote location. If the facility is not connected to an electricity grid, there is no Federal

regulatory requirement to report its operating information. Tracking down hundreds or thousands of such

facilities, each with a small power output, can be

extremely challenging.

Another challenge involves tracking renewable energy

supplies. Conventional energy supplies, such as petroleum, are easily tracked because the distribution networks (usually pipelines) are limited and well-defined.

This permits one to make reasonable assumptions about

fuel consumption, assuming stocks can be reasonably

estimated.17 The same cannot be said for many renewable energy supplies. Often a large number of

energy consumers must be surveyed in order to make

reasonable inferences about renewable energy consumption. Wood, for example, is gathered by tens of

thousands of entities&millions if residential use is

considered&for fuel uses not reportable for regulatory

purposes. Thus, obtaining accurate data on wood energy

consumption would entail conducting large end use

consumption surveys.

Finally, some renewable energy sources are byproducts

(such as pulping liquor) of non-energy processes. To

track such uses, information must be solicited from

respondents not generally in the energy supply chain.

Electricity18

As noted in Chapter 1, 69 percent of renewable energy

consumption measured by EIA is used to produce electric power. It is, therefore, important to examine the

coverage quality of EIA renewable electricity data. EIA

renewable electricity generation is derived from two

principal sources: Form EIA-759, “Monthly Power Plant

Report,” and Form EIA-867, “Annual Nonutility Power

Producer Report.” Form EIA-759 is sent to all utilities,

while the EIA-867 is required of all nonutility generating

facilities exceeding 1 megawatt capacity. (This includes

facilities which meet Federal Energy Regulatory

Commission [FERC] standards as a “qualifying facility”

[QF], as well as independent power producers [IPPs]).

Therefore, off-grid electric applications are not captured

here (although they may be covered in EIA's

Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey19).

Because electric utilities are easily identified, seldom

change business status, and have mandatory regulatory

reporting requirements, complete coverage of utilitygenerated electricity is virtually assured. In contrast,

nonutilities (i.e., QFs and IPPs) are required only to file

regulatory reports at the time of their intention to

become a grid electricity-producing facility. Over time,

QF ownerships and locations change frequently. These

factors, combined with the large number of QF applications, make tracking these facilities difficult. Accordingly, EIA has developed a threshold below which

nonutility units are not surveyed. Form EIA-867 is a

mandatory survey of all existing and planned nonutility

electric generating facilities in the United States with a

total generator nameplate capacity of 1 megawatt or

more.

An analysis of the Form EIA-867 universe indicates that

the survey's capacity under coverage varies between 3
48 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Table B2. Preliminary and Final Nonutility

Renewable Generation Data

Comparison

(Billion Kilowatthours)

Source

1996

Preliminary

1996

Final

Biomass ........ 62,107 57,937

Geothermal ...... 11,015 10,198

Hydroelectric ..... 16,712 16,555

Wind ........... 3,507 3,400

Solar . . . . . . . . . . . 908 903

 Sources: 1996 Preliminary: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1996, DOE/EIA-0384(96)

(Washington, DC, July 1997); 1996 Final: Table 4 of this

report.

and 10 percent, depending on the fuel source (Table B1).

Capacity and unit coverage are the most difficult for

wind, where numerous small units exist. EIA has

analyzed the differences between capacities reported for

identical renewable units on Form EIA-867 and alternative sources. Capacity discrepancies were found to result

from these factors:

  Obsolete information

  Facility versus generator reporting: A non-EIA

source may cite capacity figures for an entire facility,

not taking into account individual generators that

use conventional fuels or a mixture of conventional

and renewable fuels

  Capacity definition differences: Form EIA-867

requests respondents to report nameplate electric

capacity. However, alternative capacity measures are

being reported on non-EIA data sources

  Numerical rounding practices: This has the greatest

effect on small units.

In a follow-up study of capacity discrepancies, the EIA867 was over four times more likely to have the correct

value than the alternative source, which covered units of

all sizes.

Industrial (Nonutility) Generation

Until this issue of this report, nonutility generation for

the current year was based on preliminary estimates of

nonutility generation, with final data appearing in the

following year’s issue. An examination of 1996 data

reveals that the preliminary estimate overstated the

year-to-year increase in generation by a substantial

amount (Table B2). In this report, final 1997 data comes

from the Form EIA-867, “Annual Nonutility Power

Producer Report,” eliminating the source of error

associated with preliminary data.

Non-Electric Renewable

Energy Consumption

Overview

The primary application for renewable energy other than

making electricity is creating heat for industrial

processes, buildings, or water. Most non-electric

Fuel Source Number of Facilitiesa Capacity

(megawatts)

Biomass ........ EIA-867b

 ( 1 MW) 471 14,090

“Electricity Discrepancy Estimates”

c 759 15,037

Geothermal ...... EIA-867 48 1,551

“Electricity Discrepancy Estimates” 57 1,590

Wind ........... EIA-867 82 1,803

“Electricity Discrepancy Estimates” 739 1,992

Solar ........... EIA-867 11 365

“Electricity Discrepancy Estimates” 152 374

 a

Excludes some EIA-867 facilities that could not be matched with facilities contained in non-EIA data sources.

 b

Based upon the 1991 survey year. Excludes some EIA-867 facilities that could not be matched with facilities contained in nonEIA data sources. The 1991 EIA-867 survey did not indicate what nonutility facilities under 5 megawatts are renewable.

 c

”Renewable Energy Frame Review Updated Report: Survey Sampling Frame and Electricity Discrepancy Estimates,” by

Decision Analysis Corporation of Virginia, August 2, 1993.

 Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-867, “Annual Nonutility Power Producer Report.”

Table B1. Evaluation of EIA's Undercoverage of Nonutility Electricity Data
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 49

Table B3. Geothermal Direct Use of Energy and

Heat Pumps

(Quadrillion Btu)

Direct Use

Heat

Pumps Total

1990 .... 0.0048 0.0054 0.0102

1991 .... 0.0050 0.0060 0.0110

1992 .... 0.0051 0.0067 0.0118

1993 .... 0.0053 0.0072 0.0125

1994 .... 0.0054 0.0078 0.0132

1995 .... 0.0056 0.0085 0.0141

1996 .... 0.0057 0.0095 0.0152

1997 .... 0.0059 0.0103 0.0162

 Source: John Lund, Oregon Institute of Technology, GeoHeat Center (Klamath Falls, Oregon, March 1998),

unpublished data.

consumption data are gathered on two EIA consumption

surveys: the Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey (MECS), and the Residential Energy Consumption

Survey (RECS). MECS is based on the U.S. Bureau of the

Census' Census of Manufacturing. As far as renewable

energy is concerned, MECS provides consumption estimates of total industrial energy and various categories

of biomass, including wood. RECS is based on an area

probability sample of households selected by EIA. For

renewable energy, it provides estimates of residential

wood energy consumption.

There are three other non-electric applications for

renewable energy: solar heating, alcohol transportation

fuels, and geothermal energy. Solar energy for nonelectric applications is derived from the EIA Solar

Collector Manufacturing Survey, Form EIA-63A/B

(formerly CE-63A/B). The survey does not collect

energy “consumption” data, but rather production

statistics on various types of solar and photovoltaic

energy units. EIA applies additional assumptions

regarding their application to estimate the amount of

heat energy derived from installed solar/PV panels.

Alcohol fuel consumption information is provided by

the Form EIA-819M, “Monthly Oxygenate Telephone

Report.” Geothermal non-electric energy information is

taken from data provided by the Oregon Institute of

Technology, Geo-Heat Center.

Biomass

Wood is the principal component of biomass energy.

Information on non-electric wood energy consumption

is derived from the MECS and RECS surveys.

Although some questions about MECS coverage have

been raised, no formal analysis of current data exists to

support this concern. According to 1983 U.S. Forest

Service statistics on wood harvested for fuelwood, the

Pulp and Paper Industry subgroup of the Forest Products Industry group consumed only 42 percent of total

sector wood energy, not including black liquor (a

byproduct fuel). MECS surveys the smaller-populated

Pulp and Paper Industry intensively but only randomly

samples the larger-populated remainder of the Forest

Products Industry. For a variety of reasons, it is difficult

to trace wood energy supply to wood consumed for

energy. RECS covers wood consumption only for the

primary residence of those surveyed; thus, wood

consumption by second homes is omitted. This causes

residential wood energy consumption to be understated

by about 5 percent, if not adjusted. Beginning this year,

EIA is adjusting RECS wood consumption estimates for

second home use.

Cross-checks of Form EIA-819M information on alcohol

fuels with data from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,

and Firearms and the U.S. Department of Transportation

have not revealed any major deficiencies in the Form

EIA-819M data.

Geothermal

EIA does not collect data on non-electric applications of

geothermal energy such as crop drying and groundwater heat pumps. A study prepared for the U.S.

Department of Energy by the Oregon Institute of

Technology, Geo-Heat Center, indicates that non-electric

uses of geothermal energy amounted to nearly 16.2

trillion Btu in 1997 (Table B3). Sixty-four percent of this

energy was provided by geothermal heat pumps.

Wind, Solar, and Photovoltaics

EIA does not collect information on direct energy uses of

wind (e.g., water-pumping). No comprehensive source

of such information is known.

The data collected on Forms EIA-63A and EIA-63B are

subject to various limitations: (1) coverage (the list of

respondents may not be complete or, on the other hand,

there may be double counting); (2) nonresponse (some

of those surveyed may not respond, or they may not

provide all the information requested); and (3)

adjustments (errors may be made in estimating values

for missing data).

EIA collects solar data only on terrestrial systems; it

does not collect data on satellite and military
50 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

applications. The total value of U.S. photovoltaic

shipments in 1997 according to the Forms EIA-63A and

EIA-63B was $175 million. Based on anecdotal information for 1998, shipments ranging from about $150

million to $160 million went for satellite applications.

Military applications cannot be estimated due to classified information and budgetary accounting. These

figures do not include possible inventories held by

distributors, retailers, and installers.

The universe of solar/PV survey respondents is a census

of those U.S.-based companies involved in manufacturing and/or importing solar collectors and photovoltaic cells and modules. Care has been taken to establish

the survey frames accurately. The frames of potential

respondents are compiled from previous surveys and

from information in the public domain. However,

because the solar collector and photovoltaic cell and

module industries are subject to sporadic entry and exit

of manufacturers and importers, the frame may exclude

some small companies that have recently entered or

reentered the industry. From 1993 through 1997, EIA

received reports from all known potential respondents.

Geothermal Heat Pump

Manufacturing Activity

In 1997, the EIA began collecting information on

geothermal heat pumps using its new survey the Form

EIA-902, “Annual Geothermal Heat Pump Manufacturers Survey.” The principal data collected are the

number and type of heat pumps and their capacity

ratings. 

The data collected on Form EIA-902 are subject to

various sources of error. These sources are: (1) coverage

(the list of respondents may not be complete or, on the

other hand, there may be double counting); (2) nonresponse (all that are surveyed may not respond or may

not provide all information requested); (3) respondents

(respondents may commit errors in reporting the data);

(4) processing (the data collection agency may omit or

incorrectly transcribe a submission); (5) concept (the

data collection elements may not measure the items they

were intended to measure); and (6) estimation (errors

may be made in estimating values for missing data).

Because the survey is a census survey, the estimates

shown in this report are not subject to sampling error.

Although it is not possible to present estimates of

nonsampling error, precautionary steps were taken at

each stage of the survey design to minimize the possible

occurrence of these errors.

Follow-up contacts with EIA-902 respondents suggest

that the most important data quality issue is whether

manufacturers are reporting ARI-320 units accurately,

because these units can be used in multiple applications.

ARI-320 units may be connected either to a "boiler /

cooling tower" configuration or ground / ground water.

Ground / ground water connections are geothermal

applications, while boiler / cooling tower configurations

are traditional water-to-water heat exchange uses. Some

respondents apparently interpreted any water-to-water

connection as geothermal and therefore reported all

ARI-320 shipments as being units used in geothermal

applications. The potential error is very large, possibly

exceeding 50 percent of the ARI-320 estimate. Also,

most manufacturers do not have records indicating the

application type for individual ARI-320 units shipped.

Therefore, manufacturer data reported on the EIA-902

for ARI-320 units are estimates and not counts. 

Another data quality issue involves the distinction

between ARI-325 and ARI-330 units. Many ARI-325

units are dual-rated to qualify as ARI-330 units, also.

Which rating is appropriate depends upon the installed

application, another factor not known when the

manufacturer ships the unit. Therefore, while the sum

of ARI-325 and ARI-330 units may be regarded as an

accurate total, manufacturers estimate the number in

each category based upon heuristic information. 

EIA will be addressing these data quality issues in two

steps. For the upcoming survey being sent out in 1999,

the EIA-902 instructions and form will be clarified to

emphasize the type of ARI-320 applications manufacturers should report as geothermal. Subsequently, EIA

will propose modifications to the year 2000 survey to

address the above issues.
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 51

Appendix C

Geothermal Heat Pump Survey Methodology

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) uses the

Form EIA-902, “Annual Geothermal Heat Pump

Manufacturers Survey,” to collect annual information

about the U.S. geothermal heat pump industry. Using

this survey, the EIA obtains data from all U.S.-based

geothermal heat pump manufacturers. Respondents to

the survey are required to report data, by average rated

capacity on: (1) shipments by calendar year; (2)

shipments by destination; (3) shipments by type of

customer; and (4) shipments by economic sector. The

survey form and instructions are contained herein.

Survey Universe and Frame

The universe of the EIA-902 respondents is a census of

U.S.-based companies involved in manufacturing

geothermal heat pumps. Sources of potential respondents are compiled from previous surveys, professional

and trade associations, and information in the public

domain. However, because the geothermal heat pump

industry is subject to sporadic entry and exit of manufacturers, the frame could exclude some small

companies that recently entered (or re-entered) the

industry. 

Survey Procedures

The survey forms were sent out via first class mail to

ensure their receipt only by the proper respondent

organization. If the U.S. Postal Service was unable to

deliver a survey form, the corrected address was

obtained where possible. All known companies manufacturing geothermal heat pumps were contacted during

this survey.

Approximately half of the respondents replied to the

form within the specified initial deadlines. Those that

did not were mailed another form specifying a new

deadline. Those that had not responded by the second

deadline were telephoned to encourage submission of

the forms, and those calls resulted in the submission of

the remaining forms.

Data Editing, Analyzing, and Processing

Responses to the surveys were first edited manually to

verify the accuracy of the reporting and to ensure

reliability of the data. Wherever manual editing procedures indicated discrepancies or omissions, telephone

calls were made to confirm or clarify the data. Data from

manually edited forms were then entered into the

database and edited a second time via an automated

procedure. After the second edit, a copy of each entry

was reviewed by an analyst familiar with the survey, the

geothermal heat pump industry, and its companies.

Response Rates

The response rate for the EIA-902 survey was 100

percent. The status of the companies that were mailed

the Form EIA-902 is:

  Active Companies: Eighteen (18) companies are

known to have shipped geothermal heat pumps

during 1997.

  Out of Business: Twenty (20) companies reported

being out of the geothermal heat pump industry

during 1997.

Nondisclosure of Data

To protect the confidentiality of individual respondents'

data, a policy was implemented to ensure that the

reporting of survey data in this publication would not

associate those data with a particular company. This is

in compliance with EIA Standard No. 88-05-06 “Nondisclosure of Company Identifiable Data in Aggregate

Cells.” In tables where the nonzero value of a cell is

composed of data from fewer than three companies, or

if a single company dominates a table-cell value so that

the publication of the value would lead to identification

of a company's data, the EIA classifies the cell value as

“sensitive” and the cell value is withheld (“W”) from

publication. Within a table having a sensitive cell value,
52 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

selected values in other cells of the table are also

withheld, as necessary, so that the sensitive cell value

cannot be computed using the values in published cells.

A sensitive table-cell value can be reported, if permission is first obtained from each company (whose data

contribute to the sensitivity) to publish the value. This is

the only exception to the application of EIA Standard

No. 88-05-06 in this report.

Survey Accuracy

A discussion of potential limitations on the accuracy of

the data collected on the Form EIA-902 is contained in

Appendix B.
U.S. Department of Energy

Energy Information AdministrationFORM EIA-902 (1997)

FORM EIA-902

ANNUAL GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP MANUFACTURERS SURVEY

1997

GENERAL INFORMATION AND INSTRUCTIONS

I. PUR

P

OSE

Form EIA-902 is used to collect data about the manufacture and distribution ofgeothermal heat pumps and the status of the industry. The information collectedwill be used by public and private analysts interested in geothermal heat pumpsand related energy issues.II. W

HO 

M

U

ST 

S

U

B

MIT

This report is mandatory and is being required pursuant to the authority grantedto the Department of Energy (DOE) by the Federal Energy InformationAdministration Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-275). Form EIA-902 is to be

submitted by all companies within the 50 States, District of Columbia, PuertoRico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and the other U.S. territories and possessionswhich manufactured and shipped any geothermal heat pumps during the period1994-1996. The form requests information on any geothermal heat pumpsshipped in calendar years 1994, 1995, and 1996, and detailed information aboutshipments made in 1996.

III. 

W

H

E

RE 

TO 

S

U

B

MIT 

C

O

M

P

L

E

T

ED 

F

O

R

M

S

Return the completed Form EIA-902 to: U.S. Department of Energy (EI-522) Energy Information Administration, BG-094 1000 Independence Ave., SW Washington, D.C. 20277-7091Completed forms may also be faxed to Peter Holihan, the Form EIA-902Manager, at (202) 426-1308. Requests for further information and/or additionalforms may be mailed to the above address, telephoned to Mr. Holihan at (202)426-1147, or sent by E-mail to JHolihan@eia.doe.gov

IV. 

W

H

EN 

TO 

S

U

B

MIT

Completed EIA-902 forms are due by OctobeV. SANC

TIO

N

S

The timely submission of Form EIA-902 by thosunder Section 13(b) of the Federal Energy Ad(Public Law 93-275), as amended. Failure tpenalty of not more than $2,500 for each vio$5,000 for each willful violation. The governprohibit reporting violations which may result in a preliminary or permanent injunction without bmay also issue mandatory injunctions commathese reporting requirements.VI. P

R

O

VISIO

NS 

R

E

G

ARDING 

C

O

N

FID

E

The Office of Legal Counsel of the Departmen20, 1991, that the Federal Energy AdminisInformation Administration to provide companyof Justice, or to any other Federal agency when may include enforcement of Federal law. The imay also be made available, upon requestDepartment of Energy (DOE), to any CommAccounting Office, or other Congressional agesuch information. A court of competent jurisdiin response to an order.The information contained on this form will be kto the public to the extent that it satisfies the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 5 U.S.C. 

C.F.R. §1004.11, implementing the FOIA, and 

§1905.
FORM EIA-902 (1997) GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Upon receipt of a request for this information under the FOIA, the DOE shallmake a final determination whether the information is exempt from disclosure inaccordance with the procedures and criteria provided in the regulations. To

assist in this determination, respondents should demonstrate to the DOE that,for example, their information contains trade secrets or commercial or financialinformation whose release would be likely to cause substantial harm to theircompany's competitive position. A letter accompanying the submission that

explains (on an element-by-element basis) twould likely cause the respondent substantial cpublic would aid in this determination. A new provided each time information is submitted opreviously submitted a justification for that infonot changed.

SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS

Item

1.01 Make corrections to the company name or address in the spaces(a-e) provided.2.0 Enter the number of geothermal heat pumps and the total rated capacity

in tons of those pumps for each heat pump type listed that wasmanufactured and shipped in each of the years 1994, 1995, and 1996.The totals should be the sums of the various heat pump types and theircapacities for each report year. 

3.0 Enter the number of geothermal heat pumps by type shipped in 1996 to

each destination listed. Destinations include exported as well as the 50States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U. S. VirginIslands. Include shipments within the State of manufacture. 

4.0 Enter the number of geothermal heat pumps shipped to each type of

customer in 1996. If a customer could be included in more than one ofthe customer categories listed, include the number of pumps shippedto that customer in the first appropriate category in the list. Forexample, if a customer is both an exporter and a wholesale distributor,shipments to that customer would be classified as shipments to an"exporter." Another example is a customer that is both a retaildistributor and an installer. Shipments to that customer would bereported under the "retail distributor" category because that categoryappears in the list before the "installer" category.

5.0 For each economic sector enter the 

tons) of geothermal heat pumps b

economic sectors are defined below. Definitions section of the instructions)Residential &Geothermal heat pump a

used for residential occupancy that haor both. This includes single-family hmobile. Institutional housing, such as smilitary barracks should be included in 

Commercial& Geothermal heat pump 

where services (rather than products) and retail trade or health and educationsuch as school dormitories, hospitals, ain the commercial sector. Federal, Stanot be included in commercial, b

"Government" category.

Industrial&Geothermal heat pump a

where products (rather than servicemanufacture and processing of gooincluded are mining, construction, agElectric utilities should not be included 

be reported in the "Electric Utility" cat
FORM EIA-902 (1997) SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS (Continued)

Item5.0 (continued)

Government &Geothermal heat pump applications for use with local,

State, or Federal government buildings.

Electric utility&Geothermal heat pump applications used at any electric

utility. Nonutility power producers should not be included in the electricutility sector. 

Other&Shipments of heat pumps to customers that can not be includedin one of the economic sectors listed above. Please include a brief

description of the customer type.

6.1 Enter any comments or remarks in th6.2 Check either " yes" or "no" to indicate 

address of your company to appAdministration (EIA) report publishing Persons who read the report may refwho are geothermal heat pump manu

6.3 Check either " yes" or "no" to indicate 

copy of the EIA report publishing the 

7.0 Enter the name, title, signature, da

company representative who may information regarding this submission
FORM EIA-902 (1997) DEFINITIONS

1. ARI certified: certification by the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration

Institute (ARI) that a pump has been tested using procedures stipulated inARI standards and that it meets the manufacturer’s certified publishedperformance rating.ARI Standards 320, 325, and 330 refer to a rating system for testingperformance of a water source heat pump when installed under threedifferent conditions. For this reason, a single pump could be certified underall three ratings, and could potentially be installed under differentcircumstances.Geothermal heat pumps refer to systems where the unit uses the earth ornatural body of water as a heat sink. There are typically three types ofgeothermal systems:

1) A water source heat pump rated under standard ARI-320 is typically

installed in a commercial application where several heat pumps areinstalled in series, with a central chiller or boiler supplying the heating orcooling of the fluid.

2) A ground water source system is a standard ARI-325 installation, and is an

open-loop system that uses a natural body of water for the exchange ofheat. An open-loop heat pump system is a heat pump system that directlyutilizes water from a well or water body, pumps it through a pipe for use asa heat exchanger and returns it back to the environment.

3A) A ground source system is a standard ARI-330 installation, and is a closedloop system that uses water or a water/glycol solution to exchange heat.

The system employs extensive tubing which is buried fairly deep theground. A closed-loop heat pump system is a geothermal heat pumpsystem that uses water/anti-freeze in a buried pipe loop as a heatexchanger. The water/anti-freeze in the loop never leaves the system.Loop piping can be installed vertically or horizontally in the earth, a lake, achannel or the ocean.

3B) A direct expansion system is a geothermal heat pump system that uses

refrigerant in a buried pipe loop as a heat exchanger. The refrigerant in the

loop never leaves the system. A direct esource system with a closed-loop which system rather than a water/glycol solutio

2. Commercial sector: The commercial 

consists of all business facilities and orother than those classified as industrforestry, fisheries, mining, and construutilities. Commercial establishments incwholesale businesses, retail stores, lareligious and nonprofit organizations; transtations, airports, and train stations; hinstitutions. Institutional housing, such aand military barracks are included in the co

and local governments are not included survey, but should be reported in the gov

3. Electric utility sector: The electric utilit

person, agency, authority, or other legal eand/or operates facilities for the generatsale of electric energy. Nonutility electric pin the electric utility sector and should be 

4. Geothermal heat pump: Also referred to a

or ground-water heat pumps. A pump whduring warm weather and as a heat sourcis rated to ARI standards but may not be 

5. Government sector: The government se

Federal government buildings. This inclu

6. Heat sink: A substance into which he

Substances can be gas, liquid or solid lik

7. Heat source: A substance from which 

Substances can be a gas, liquid or solid 
FORM EIA-902 (1997) DEFINITIONS (continued)

8. Industrial sector: The industrial sector comprises manufacturing

industries, which make up the largest part of the sector, along with mining,construction, agriculture, fisheries, and forestry. Establishments in thissector range from steel mills, to small farms, to companies assemblingelectronic components. Electric utilities should not be included in theindustrial sector but should be reported in the electric utility sector.

9. Residential sector: The residential 

residences, whether occupied or vacant, ofamily homes, multifamily housing units, homes, such as summer homes, are also such as school dormitories, hospitals, and the commercial sector.

10. Ton: A measure of the amount of Btu’s 

melt one ton of ice in a 24-hour period. Oavailable to heat and/or cool space.
58 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

EIA-902 Energy Information Administration Form Approved

(Revised 9/97) U.S. Department of Energy OMB No. 1901-0303

`` Expiration Date: 8/31/2000

ANNUAL GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP MANUFACTURERS SURVEY

FORM EIA-902

This report is authorized under Federal Energy Administration Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-275). Your response is mandatory and

confidential. For the provisions regarding the confidentiality of information submitted on this form, see Part VI of the instructions.

Respondents are not required to file or reply to any Federal collection of information unless it has a valid OMB control number. 

Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 4 hours per response including the time for reviewing

instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection

of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including

suggestions for reducing this burden to the Energy Information Administration, Statistics and Methods Group, EI-70, 1000

Independence Ave., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20585-0670, and the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs, Office of Management

and Budget, Washington, D.C. 20503.

The report period for Question 2 is calendar years 1994-1996. 

Questions 3 - 5 are for calendar year 1996 shipments only.

For instructions and definitions, please refer to the General Information and Instructions 

included with this form.

If you have any additional questions, please call Peter Holihan, the Survey Manager, at (202) 426-1147.

1.0 RESPONDENT INFORMATION Use (a) through (e) below only if the label is incorrect.

(a) Company Name:_____________________________________

ADDRESS LABEL HERE (b) Street Address: ______________________________________

(c) City : ______________________________________________

 

(d) State: _____________________________________________

(e) Zip: _______________________________________________

2.0 SHIPMENTS IN CALENDAR YEARS 1994-1996 - Please enter the total number of units and the total

rated capacity for each type of geothermal heat pump unit shipped for the years 1994, 1995, and 1996.

1994 1995 1996

Code

Type of Geothermal

Heat Pump (GHP)

Number

of GHPs

(1)

Total Rated

Capacity 

(in tons)

(2)

Number

of GHPs

(3)

Total Rated

Capacity 

(in tons)

(4)

Number

of GHPs

(5)

Total Rated

Capacity 

(in tons)

(6)

1 ARI-320 for GHP only

2 ARI-325

3 ARI-330

4 Other Non-ARI Rated

5 TOTALS
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 59

3.0 SHIPMENTS IN 1996 BY DESTINATION - Enter the number of geothermal heat pumps your company shipped

in 1996 to the destinations (i.e., exported, by State, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands)

listed below. Include in the shipments geothermal heat pumps shipped within the state of manufacture. If any

geothermal heat pumps were exported, please indicate the number exported under Code 00. 

NUMBER OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS SHIPPED IN 1996

Code Destination

ARI-320

(1)

ARI-325

(2)

ARI-330

(3)

Other Non-ARI Rated GHPs

(4)

00 Exported

01 Alabama

02 Alaska

03 Arizona

04 Arkansas

05 California

06 Colorado

07 Connecticut

08 Delaware

09 District of Columbia

10 Florida

11 Georgia

12 Hawaii

13 Idaho

14 Illinois

15 Indiana

16 Iowa

17 Kansas

18 Kentucky

19 Louisiana

20 Maine

21 Maryland

22 Massachusetts

23 Michigan

24 Minnesota

25 Mississippi

26 Missouri

27 Montana

28 Nebraska

29 Nevada

30 New Hampshire
60 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

3.0 SHIPMENTS IN 1996 BY DESTINATION (continued)

NUMBER OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS SHIPPED IN 1996

Code Destination

ARI-320

(1)

ARI-325

(2)

ARI-330

(3)

Other Non-ARI Rated GHPs

(4)

31 New Jersey

32 New Mexico

33 New York

34 North Carolina

35 North Dakota

36 Ohio 

37 Oklahoma

38 Oregon

39 Pennsylvania

40 Puerto Rico

41 Rhode Island

42 South Carolina

43 South Dakota

44 Tennessee

45 Texas

46 Utah

47 Vermont

48 Virgin Islands (U.S.)

49 Virginia

50 Washington

51 West Virginia

52 Wisconsin

53 Wyoming

99 TOTALS
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 61

4.0 1996 SHIPMENTS BY TYPE OF CUSTOMER - Enter the number of geothermal heat pumps shipped in 1996

by customer type. If a customer could be included in more than one category (e.g., a retail distributor who is also

an installer), report the units shipped to that customer in the first appropriate category listed (i.e., retail distributor

for the example listed). 

NUMBER OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS SHIPPED IN 1996

Code Customer Type

ARI-320

(1)

ARI-325

(2)

ARI-330

(3)

Other Non-ARI Rated GHPs

(4)

1 Exporter

2 Wholesale Distributor

3 Retail Distributor

4 Installer

5 End-User

6 Others (describe)

7 TOTALS

5.0 1996 SHIPMENTS BY ECONOMIC SECTOR - Enter the average rated capacity (i.e., size in tons) of each type

 of geothermal heat pump shipped in 1996 to each economic sector. 

AVERAGE RATED CAPACITY (size in tons)

Code Economic Sector

ARI-320

(1)

ARI-325

(2)

ARI-330

(3)

Other Non-ARI Rated GHPs

(4)

1 Residential

2 Commercial (excluding government)

3 Industrial (excluding electric utilities)

4 Government (local, State, and Federal)

5 Electric utility

6 Other (describe)

6.0ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

6.1 Enter any additional comments or remarks here: 

 

6.2 Do you want the name and address of your company to appear in the Energy Information Administration report

publishing data collected in this survey? Yes No 

6.3 Do you want to receive a copy of the report publishing the survey data? Yes No 

7.0CONTACT PERSON

7.1 Name: 7.2 Title: 

7.3 Signature: 7.4 Date: 7.5 Phone Number: 

Completed forms should be mailed to: U.S. Department of Energy (EI-522), Energy Information Administration,

BG-094, 1000 Independence Ave. SW, Washington, D.C. 20277-

7091 

Completed forms may also be faxed to: ATTN: Peter Holihan at 202-426-1308.
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 63

Appendix D

Selected List of Internet Addresses:

Renewable Energy Information by Resource

The list of addresses that follow are current as of Summer 1998. This list is abbreviated due to the great increase in

internet sites as well as the growing presence of links to associated web sites over the past few years. Therefore, this list

should provide at least a useful start in a search for renewable energy information. 

General: Renewables

Department of Energy (DOE), Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Homepage 

http://eren.doe.gov

For information on DOE Renewable Energy Regional Offices

http://www.eren.doe.gov/rso.html

Energy Information Administration Homepage

http://www.eia.doe.gov

North Carolina Solar Center, Renewable Energy State Incentives Database (co-sponsored by DOE)

http://www.ncsc.ncsu.edu

Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technology

http://www.crest.org./renewables/index.html

International Energy Agency

IEA CADDET International Information on Renewable Energy

http://www.caddet.co.uk/re/

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

NREL Publication Index

http://www.nrel.gov/cgi-bin/pubspage.cgi

National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC) Homepage

http://www.naruc.org/ 

California Energy Commission

http://www.energy.ca.gov/index.html

Biomass: Wood

Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia

http://www.rwedp.org/

WSU Energy Program Library Title List: Wood Fuels 

 http://www.energy.wsu.edu/ep/library/catalog/eng/slinks/s002476.htm
64 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Supply of Short Rotation Woody Crop Biomass to the Watts Bar Power Facility This is a brief description of studies that

exemplify the methods and approaches that have been developed:

http://www.esd.ornl.gov/iab/iab5-7.htm

and for standing woody biomass (TREEDYN3*):

http://www.gsf.de/UFIS/ufis/modell60/grs957.html

Chemical Nature of Biomass from Semi-Arid Forest Tree Species S5.01-02 Natural Variations in Wood Quality / P5.01-00

Properties and Utilization of Tropical Woods Theme: ...

http://www.metla.fi/conf/iufro95abs/d5pap22.htm

PCSD Agriculture: Biomass PCSD BRIEFING BOOK Sustainable Agriculture BIOMASS ENERGY INITIATIVES PROJECT

HISTORY

http://bertha.chattanooga.net/sustain/pcsd_briefing_book/agriculture_biomass.html

http://www.gsf.de/UFIS/ufis/schlag_groessen/schlagwort419.html

Biomass: Biofuels

Biofuels (Federal Government) Resources on the Internet

http://www.nal.usda.gov/ttic/biofuels/nonusda.htm

BioPower Information Network

http://www.eren.doe.gov/biopower/

American Bioenergy Association

http://www.biomass.org/

Bioenergy Information Network Database Annex Search the ORNL Bioenergy Feedstock Development Program

Bibliography

http://dsimd.dsrd.ornl.gov/htmldocs/biofuels/biofuels.htp

Energy Information on Internet: BIOFUELS INFORMATION NETWORK ECN_logo Energie Informatie via Internet

BIOFUELS INFORMATION NETWORK Title Organization: Biofuels System ...

http://blister.ecn.nl/eii/homepgnl/eii_013.html

Renewable Energy: Biomass and Biofuels Renewable Energy: Biomass and Biofuels

http://lacebark.ntu.edu.au/j_mitroy/sid101/energyfacts/re-bioms.html

Atmospheric Science Curriculum Bookmarks Alternative Fuels Biofuels Information

http://krusty.eecs.umich.edu/people/jreed/weather/ravenbkms.html

Alternative Fuels Data Center

http://www.afdc.doe.gov

Sustainable Energy Energy Agricultural Energy Agricultural Energy Assistance Program, California ALTERNATIVE

ENERGY California Energy Commission: Alternative/Renewable Technologies EPA.

http://www.netins.net/showcase/s_energy/energy.htm

National Renewable Energy Laboratories- Biofuels Information Center; The Biofuels Information Center, managed by

the National Renewable Energy Laboratory

http://www.biofuels.nrel.gov/

Short-Rotation Woody Crops (SRWC) Operations Working Group

http://www.esd.ornl.gov/bfdp/srwcwgrp/menu.html
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 65

Municipal Solid Waste

Characterizations of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States 1995 Update

http://rredc.nrel.gov/biomass/epa/msw95/msw95_index.html

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 17. TOXIC AND SOLID WASTE Most waste produced by preindustrial societies is

biodegradable. In industrial societies, much waste is nondegradable ...

http://www.fcn.org/fcn/ecosystem/wast_po.html

The Solid Waste Association of North America

http://www.swana.org/

Municipal Solid Waste Factbook.

http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/factbook.htm

Guide to the Preparation of Regional Solid Waste Management Plans by Regional Districts (Part I), British Columbia,

Canada

http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/epd/cpr/guidelns/gprswmp1.html

Waste-to-Energy

Waste-to-Energy in the United States: A Social and Economic Assessment

http://www.esd.ornl.gov/iab/iab8-6.htm

Integrated Waste Services Association

http://www.wte.org/index.html

European Energy-from-Waste Coalition 

http://www.eewc.org/19.htm

U.K. World Resource Foundation Homepage: sustainable waste management

http://www.wrfound.org.uk/

Geothermal

GeoLinks

 http://www.inter-pc.com/user/josh/es/project/geolinks.html 

Geothermal Heat Pumps

http://www.apogee.net/res/rehpgov.htm 

Geothermal Products Inc. - Energy Star Programs

http://www.geoproducts.com/estar.html 

Geothermal Heat Pump Links

http://www.ilec.org/heatlink.html 

Geothermal Technologies Program - Other Resources

http://www.eren.doe.gov/geothermal/resource.html

Geothermal Technologies Program - Publications

http://www.eren.doe.gov/geothermal/public.html
66 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

International Geothermal Association - US DOE Sites

http://www.demon.co.uk/geosci/wrusadoe.html

US DOE/Geothermal Energy Technical Site

http://geothermal.id.doe.gov

Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Geothermal Information and Technology Transfer

http://www.oit.osshe.edu/~geoheat/

International Geothermal Association

http://www.demon.co.uk/geosci/igahome.html

IEA: International Energy Agency

http://www.iea.org/stats/defs/sources/geo.htm

U.S. Geothermal Direct Use Projects and Resource Areas

http://www.oit.osshe.edu/~geoheat/dusys.htm

Geothermal Theory: Introduction

Summary: How Geothermal Systems Form. Geothermal Occurances Today.

http://www.crest.org/renewables/re-kiosk/geothermal/theory/index.shtml

Geothermal Energy in California

http://www.energy.ca.gov/development/geothermal/index.html

Geothermal Workshop

Summary: The New Zealand Geothermal Workshop is a three-day conference held annually in early November. The

Workshop provides an international forum where engineers and earth scientists discuss aspects of geothermal

development.

http://www.auckland.ac.nz/gei/workshop.htm

Geothermal Links

Summary: GEOTHERMAL LABORATORY GEOTHERMAL LINKS.

Internation Geothermal Association Nappa Valley/Geysers/Geothermal Area Sites/Geyser Resources/ Coso’s

Geothermal Field/Water Resources of California/Geothermal Resources/ Council World Geothermal Resources/ Maps.

http://www.geology.smu.edu/~bonner/geothermlinks.html

Geothermal Theory: Geothermal Use Today

Summary: Geothermal power plants now provide more than 2,500 megawatts of clean electricity to the United States,

equivalent to three large nuclear power plants. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, geothermal

has the potential to provide the United States with 12,000 megawatts of electricity by the year 2010.

http://www.crest.org/renewables/re-kiosk/geothermal/theory/usetoday.shtml

Geothermal Theory, Geothermal Reservoirs: Fractured Rock (2)

Summary: In most high-temperature reservoirs, much of the porosity and permeability exist in natural rock fractures,

although they may be artificially induced. In other reservoirs, the space between sand grains in the rock provides ample

porosity and permeability.

http://www.crest.org/renewables/re-kiosk/geothermal/theory/fracturedrock2.html

Wind

Danish Wind Turbine Manufacturers Association

http://www.windpower.dk/core.htm
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 67

Wind Info Resources on the Net

http://www.afm.dtu.dk/wind/bookmark.html

British Wind Energy Association

http://www.bwea.com/

Wind Energy Utilization in the Federal Republic of Germany -

http://www.dewi.de/statistics.html

RICO Wind Energy & Atmospheric Physics

http://www.risoe.dk/vea-wind/

03/27/95 Talking Points - 25th Annual Conference U. S. Wind Energy Industry Opening Session Monday, March 27,

1995 8:30 a.m. PRESS AVAILABILITY 25th ANNUAL CONFERENCE U.S. 

...http://apollo.osti.gov/html/secretry/tp950327.html

American Wind Energy Association. This comprehensive, up-to-date reference includes contact as well as product

information. .

http://www.igc.apc.org/awea/aweapage.html

Alternative Energy Institute Homepage:

http://www.wtamu.edu/academic/gradres/aei/

Windpower Monthly

 http://www.wpm.co.nz/

U.S. Dept. of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network (EREN), Wind Energy Program

http://www.eren.doe.gov/RE/wind.html

National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s National Wind Technology Center

 http://nwtc.nrel.gov/

Wind Power Development

http://www.telosnet.com/wind

Solar Energy

Solar Energy Industry

http://www.seia.org

International Solar Energy Society

http://wire.ises.org

Solar Thermal

DOE's Solar Thermal Electric Program

http://www.eren.doe.gov/ste/

ASME Solar Energy Division

 http://www.asme.org/divisions/solar/index.html

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS - SOLAR POWER

http://www.greenpeace.org.uk//solar//faq2.html
68 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Solar Energy

http://solstice.crest.org/renewables/re-kiosk/solar/index.shtml

Solar Thermal Case Studies A solar thermal water heating system provides St. Rose Hospital in San Antonio, TX.

http://solstice.crest.org/renewables/re-kiosk/solar/solar-thermal/case-studies/commercial.shtml

EREN - Solar Thermal Utilization Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network

http://apollo.osti.gov/html/eren/1409.html

EREN - Solar Thermal Power Systems

http://www.doe.gov/html/eren/1407.html

The National Solar Thermal Test Facility (NSTTF) is operated by Sandia National Laboratories for the U.S. Department

of Energy. It...

http://www.sandia.gov/Renewable_Energy/solarthermal/nsttf.html

National Solar Thermal Test Facility Questions Frequently Asked by NSTTF Visitors About Solar Energy How do Central

Receiver power plants produce electricity from the heat of...

http://www.sandia.gov/Renewable_Energy/solarthermal/question.html

Solar Radiation and Solar Thermal Systems

Date: Saturday, 20-Jul-96 00:46:40 GMT Last-Modified: Wednesday, 11-Oct-95 14:27:55 GMT Content-type: text/html

Content-length: 8514 MS 54 Selected Papers on Solar Radiation and ...

http://www.spie.org/web/abstracts/oepress/MS54.html

National Solar Thermal Test Facility Sandia National Laboratories Advantages of Using Molten Salt A variety of fluids

was tested to transport the sun's heat, including water, air, ...

http://www.sandia.gov/Renewable_Energy/solarthermal/salt.html

National Solar Thermal Test Facility Sandia National Laboratories Desirable Features of Power Towers for Utilities

Because of their practical energy storage, solar power ...

http://www.sandia.gov/Renewable_Energy/solarthermal/feature.html

National Solar Thermal Test Facility Sandia National Laboratories Engine Test Facility, Test Cell 1 and 2

http://www.sandia.gov/Renewable_Energy/solarthermal/engine1.html

The Sun's Joules: Solar Thermal, page 634/937, Solar1 and Solar2

http://www.crest.org/renewables/SJ/solar-thermal/634.html

Solar Photovoltaic

National Center For Photovoltaics

http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv

PV WEB SITES

http://www.pvpower.com/pvsites.html

Photovoltaic Energy -- Electricity from the Sunlight

http://www.doe.gov/phv/phvhome.html

Photovoltaic Module - PV Module Businesses in the World 

http://www.mtt.com/theSource/renewableEnergy/businesses/byP/pvM/pvM.html 

NREL Photovoltaics Program - What is PV?

http://www.nrel.gov/pv/whatispv.html 
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 69

Siemens Solar Online

http://www.siemenssolar.com

Power Technology Division PHOTOVOLTAIC GENERATION PHOTOVOLTAIC BRANCH

http://powerweb.lerc.nasa.gov/pv/home.html

Advancing Photovoltaic Technology at NREL's Outdoor Test Facility logo

http://www.nrel.gov/lab/pao/otf.html

Million Solar Roofs Program

http://www.millionsolarroofs.org

PV at Electric Utilities

http://www.ttcorp.com/upvg

PV Systems Assistance Center

http://www.sandia.gov/pv

National Center For Photovoltaics

http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv 
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 71

20 This information was excerpted from, Energy Information Administration, Energy Information Directory, 1998, DOE/EIA-0205(98)

(September 1998).

Appendix E

State Energy Agencies

The following lists the State Energy Office (or

equivalent) and the Public Utility Commission (or

equivalent) for each State.20

Alabama

State Energy Office

Martha McInnis, Division Chief

Department of Economic and Community

Affairs 

Science Technology and Energy Division

P.O. Box 5690

Montgomery, AL 36103-5690

(334) 242-5292

Fax: (334) 242-0552

Public Service Commission

Walter L. Thomas, Jr., Secretary

100 North Union Street

Room 850

P.O. Box 991

Montgomery, AL 36104

(334) 242-5218

Fax: (304) 242-0509

Alaska

 

State Energy Office

 Robert Brean

Alaska Housing Finance Corporation

520 East 34th Avenue

Anchorage, AK 99503

(907) 338-6100

Fax: (907) 338-1747

Alaska Public Utilities Commission

Robert A. Lohr, Executive Director

1016 West 6th Avenue, Suite 400

Anchorage, AK 99501

(907) 276-6222

Fax: (907) 276-0160

E-Mail: apuc@apuc.ak.net

American Samoa

State Energy Office

 Reupena Tagaloa, Director

ASPA/Territorial Energy Office

Samoa Energy House, Tafuna

P.O. Box PPB

Pago Pago, AS 96799

011 (684) 699-1101

Fax: 011 (684) 699-2835

Arizona

 

State Energy Office

Amanda Ormond, Director

Arizona Department of Commerce

3800 North Central Avenue, Suite 1200

Phoenix, AZ 85012

(602) 280-1402

Fax: (602) 280-1445

Corporation Commission

James Matthews, Executive Secretary

Arizona Corporation Commission

1200 W. Washington

Phoenix, AZ 85007-2996

(602) 542-3931

Fax: (602) 542-3977

Arkansas

 

State Energy Office

Morris Jenkins, Director

Arkansas Energy Office

One State Capitol Mall

Little Rock, AR 72201

(501) 682-7377

Fax: (501) 682-2703
72 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Public Service Commission

Jerrell Clark, Director

Arkansas Public Service Commission

1000 Center Street

P.O. Box 400

Little Rock, AR 72203-0400

(501) 682-1794

Fax: (501) 682-2572

California

 

State Energy Commission

William J. Keese, Chairman

California Energy Commission

1516 9th Street

Sacramento, CA 95814

(916) 654-5000

Fax: (916) 654-4420

California Public Utilities Commission

Wesley M. Franklin, Executive Director

505 Van Ness Avenue, Room 5222

San Francisco, CA 94102

(415) 703-3808

Fax: (415) 703-1758

Colorado

 

State Energy Office

Wade Buchanan, Director

Colorado Office of Energy Conservation

1675 Broadway, Suite 1300

Denver, CO 80202-4613

(303) 620-4292

Fax: (303) 620-4288

Public Utilities Commission

R. Brent Alderfer, Commissioner

Logan Tower OL2, Logan Street

Denver, CO 80203

(303) 894-2070

Fax: (303) 894-2065

Connecticut

State Energy Office

Allan Johanson

Policy Development and Planning Division

Energy Unit

P.O. Box 341441, MS-52ENR

Hartford, CT 06134-1441

(860) 418-1441

Fax: (860) 418-6297

Department of Public Utility Control

Steven D. Cadwallader, Chief of Research 

 and Policy Analysis

10 Franklin Square

New Britain, CT 06051

(860) 827-2629

Fax: (860) 827-2613

Delaware

State Energy Office

Charlie T. Smisson, Jr., Energy Program

Administrator

Division of Facilities Management

410 Federal Street, Suite #2

O'Neill Building

Dover, DE 19903

(302) 739-5644

Fax: (302) 739-6148

URL: CSMISSON@STATE.DE.US

Delaware Public Service Commission

Bruce H. Burcat, Executive Director

1560 South Dupont Highway

Dover, DE 19901

(302) 739-4247

Fax: (302) 739-4849

District of Columbia

City Energy Office 

Charles J. Clinton, Director

District of Columbia Energy Office

2000 14th Street, N.W., Suite 300E

Washington, DC 20009

(202) 673-6750

Fax: (202) 673-6725

 

Public Service Commission

Marlene L. Johnson, Esq., Chairperson

717 14th Street, N.W.

Washington, DC 20005

(202) 626-5100

Fax: (202) 393-1389

Florida

 

State Energy Office

William J. Tait, Director

Department of Community Affairs

2555 Shumard Oak Boulevard

Tallahassee, FL 32399-2100

(850) 488-2475

Fax: (850) 488-7688
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 73

Public Service Commission

William D. Talbott, Executive Director

2540 Shumard Oak Boulevard

Tallahassee, FL 32399-0850

(850) 413-6055

Fax: (850) 413-6052

Georgia

 

State Energy Office

 Paul Burks

 Georgia Environmental Facilities Authority

100 Peachtree Street, N.W.

2090 Equitable Building

Atlanta, GA 30303

 (404) 656-0938

 Fax: (404) 656-6416

Fax: (404) 656-7970 (Division of Energy)

 Public Service Commission

B. B. Knowles, Director of Utilities

47 Trinity Avenue

Atlanta, GA 30334

(404) 656-4501

 Fax: (404) 463-6532

 Guam

 

State Energy Office

Fred P. Camacho, Director

Guam Energy Office

1504 East Sunset Boulevard

Tiyan, GU 96913

(671) 477-0557

Fax: (671) 477-0589

Hawaii

 

State Energy Office

Maurice H. Kaya, Administrator

Energy, Resources, and Technology 

 Division

Department of Business, Economic

Development and Tourism

P.O. Box 2359

Honolulu, HI 96804

(808) 587-3812

Fax: (808) 586-2536

Public Utilities Commission

Chairman

465 S. King Street, #103

Honolulu, HI 96813

(808) 586-2020

Fax: (808) 586-2066

Idaho

State Energy Office

Karl Dreher, Director

Idaho Department of Water Resources

1301 North Orchard Street

Boise, ID 83706

(208) 327-7900

Fax: (208) 327-7866

Public Utilities Commission

Stephanie Miller, Administrator

Utilities Division

P.O. Box 83720

Boise, ID 83720-0074

(208) 334-0366

Fax: (208) 334-3762

Illinois

 

Department of Commerce and Community

Affairs

Mitch Beaver, Deputy Director

Bureau of Energy and Recycling

325 W. Adams Street, #300

Springfield, IL 62704-1892

(217) 785-2800

Fax: (217) 785-2618

Commerce Commission

Donna M. Caton, Chief Clerk

527 E. Capitol Avenue

Box 19280

Springfield, IL 62794-9280

(217) 782-7434

Fax: (217) 524-0673

Indiana

Indiana Department of Commerce

Cheryl L. DeVol-Glowinski, Director

Energy Policy Division

One North Capitol, Suite 700

Indianapolis, IN 46204-2288

(317) 232-8939

Fax: (317) 232-8995

Utility Regulatory Commission

302 West Washington Street

Suite E-306

Indianapolis, IN 46204

(317) 232-2701

Fax: (317) 232-6758
74 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Iowa

State Energy Office

Larry Bean, Administrator

Iowa Department of Natural Resources

Energy and Geological Resources Division

502 E. 9th Street

Des Moines, IA 50319

(515) 281-4308

Fax: (515) 281-6794

Sharon A. Tahtinen, Chief

Energy Bureau

Iowa Department of Natural Resources

502 E. 9th Street

Des Moines, IA 50319

(515) 281-7066

Fax: (515) 281-6794

Iowa Utilities Board

Raymond K. Vawter, Executive Secretary

Lucas State Office Building

Des Moines, IA 50319

(515) 281-5256

Fax: (515) 281-5329

Kansas

 

State Energy Office

Jim Ploger, Energy Program Manager

Energy Programs

Kansas Corporation Commission

1500 S.W. Arrowhead Road

Topeka, KS 66604-4027

(785) 271-3349

Fax: (785) 271-3268

Corporation Commission

John Wine, Chairman

Kansas Corporation Commission

1500 S.W. Arrowhead Road

Topeka, KS 66604

(785) 271-3100

Fax: (785) 271-3354

Kentucky

 

State Energy Office

John M. Stapleton, Director

Kentucky Division of Energy

663 Teton Trail

Frankfort, KY 40601

(502) 564-7192

Fax: (502) 564-7484

 Public Service Commission

Helen Helton, Executive Director

730 Schenkel Lane, Box 615

Frankfort, KY 40602

(502) 564-3940

Fax: (502) 564-3460

Louisiana

State Energy Office

Paula Ridgeway

Louisiana Department of Natural Resources

P.O. Box 44156

Baton Rouge, LA 70804-4156

(504) 342-1399

 Fax: (504) 342-1397

Public Service Commission

Lawrence C. St. Blanc, Secretary

Suite 1630, One American Place

Baton Rouge, LA 70825

(504) 342-4427

Fax: (504) 342-4087

Mail letters to: 

P.O. Box 91154

Baton Rouge, LA 70821-9154

 

Maine

 

State Energy Office

Brian K. Dancause, Supervisor

Energy Conservation Division

 Department of Economic and Community

Development

59 State House Station 

Augusta, ME 04333

(207) 287-2656

Fax: (207) 287-5701

Public Utilities Commission

Christoper P. Simpson, Administrative

Director

18 State House Station 

242 State Street

Augusta, ME 04333

(207) 287-3831

 Fax: (207) 287-1039

Maryland

 

State Energy Office

Frederick H. Hoover, Jr., Director

Maryland Energy Administration

45 Calvert Street, 4th Floor
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 75

Annapolis, MD 21401

(410) 260-7511

Fax: (410) 974-2250

Public Service Commission

Daniel P. Gahagan

6 St. Paul Centre

Baltimore, MD 21202-6806

(410) 767-8067

Fax: (410) 333-6495

Massachusetts

 

State Energy Office

David L. O'Connor, Commissioner

Massachusetts Division of Energy Resources

Leverett Saltonstall Building

100 Cambridge Street, Room 1500

Boston, MA 02202

(617) 727-4732

Fax: (617) 727-0030

E-Mail: energy@state.ma.us

URL: http://www.magnet.state.ma.us/doer

Department of Telecommunications and Energy

100 Cambridge Street, 12th Floor

Boston, MA 02202

(617) 305-3500

Fax: (617) 723-8812

URL: http://www.magnet.state.ma.us/dpu/

Michigan

 

Public Service Commission

John Strand, Chairman

Michigan Public Service Commission

P.O. Box 30221

6545 Mercantile Way

Lansing, MI 48909

(517) 334-6370

Fax: (517) 882-5002

Minnesota

 

State Energy Office

Krista L. Sanda, Commissioner

Department of Public Service

121 7th Place East, Suite 200

St. Paul, MN 55101-2145

(651) 296-7107

Fax: (651) 297-1959

 Public Utilities Commission

Rick Lancaster, Executive Secretary

121 Seventh Place East, Suite 350

 St. Paul, MN 55101-2147

(651) 296-7124

Fax: (651) 297-7073

Mississippi

State Energy Office

Chester B. Smith, Director

Mississippi Department of Economic and

Community Development

Energy Division

P.O. Box 850

Jackson, MS 39205-0850

(601) 359-6600

Fax: (601) 359-6642

Mississippi Public Utilities Staff

Robert G. Waites, Director

Room 1738, Walter Sillers State Office

Building

P.O. Box 1174

Jackson, MS 39215-1174

(601) 961-5493

Fax: (601) 961-5804

Missouri

 

 State Energy Office

Division of Energy

Missouri Department of Natural Resources

P.O. Box 176

Jefferson City, MO 65102

(573) 751-4000

Fax: (573) 751-6860

Public Service Commission

Gordon Persinger

Executive Secretary

P.O. Box 360

Jefferson City, MO 65102

(573) 751-3234

Fax: (573) 526-7341

Montana

 

State Energy Office

Van Jamison, Administrator

Department of Environmental Quality 

Planning, Prevention and Assistance Division

1520 East Sixth Avenue

Helena, MT 59620-0901

(406) 444-6812

Fax: (406) 444-1804
76 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Public Service Commission

Kathy Anderson, Commission Secretary

1701 Prospect Avenue

Helena, MT 59620

(406) 444-6170

Fax: (406) 444-7618

Nebraska

 

State Energy Office

Robert Harris, Director

Nebraska Energy Office

The Atrium, 1st Floor

1200 N Street, Suite 110

Lincoln, NE 68509

(402) 471-2867

Fax: (402) 471-3064

Public Service Commission

M. G. Hand, Chief Engineer

300 The Atrium

1200 N Street, P. O. Box 94927

Lincoln, NE 68509-4927

(402) 471-3101

Fax: (402) 471-0254

Nevada

 

State Energy Office

DeeAnn Parsons, Chief

Nevada State Energy Office

1050 East William, Suite 435

Carson City, NV 89710

(702) 687-4910

Fax: (702) 687-4914

Public Service Commission

William H. Vance, Secretary

727 Fairview Drive

Carson City, NV 89710

(702) 687-6007

Fax: (702) 687-6110

New Hampshire

 

State Energy Office

Deborah Schachter, Director

Office of Energy and Community Service

57 Regional Drive

Concord, NH 03301-8519

(603) 271-2711

Fax: (603) 271-2615

Public Utilities Commission

Thomas B. Getz, Executive Director

8 Old Suncook Road

Concord, NH 03301-7319

(603) 271-2431

Fax: (603) 271-3878

New Jersey

 

New Jersey Board of Public Utilities

Herbert Tate, President

2 Gateway Center, 8th Floor

Newark, NJ 07102

(973) 648-2503

Fax: (973) 648-4195

Robert Chilton, Director

Division of Gas, Electric and Energy

2 Gateway Center, 9th Floor

Newark, NJ 07102

(973) 648-3621

Fax: (973) 648-2467

New Mexico

 

State Energy Office

Dianne Caron, Director

Energy Conservation & Management Division

Energy, Minerals & Natural Resources

Department

2040 South Pacheco

Santa Fe, NM 87505

(505) 827-4323

Fax: (505) 827-5870

Public Utility Commission

Dave Warren, Executive Director

224 E. Palace

Santa Fe, NM 87501

(505) 827-6940

Fax: (505) 827-6973

New York

Department of Public Service

John C. Crary, Secretary

3 Empire State Plaza

Albany, NY 12223-1350

(518) 474-6530

Fax: (518) 486-6081

E-Mail: web@dps.state.ny.us
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 77

North Carolina

 

State Energy Office

T. C. Adams, III, Director

North Carolina Department of Commerce

Energy Division

430 North Salisbury Street

P.O. Box 25249

Raleigh, NC 27611

(919) 733-1889

Fax: (919) 733-2953

Public Utilities Commission

Robert P. Gruber, Executive Director

Public Staff, P.O. Box 29520

Raleigh, NC 27626-0520

(919) 733-2435

Fax: (919) 733-9565

North Dakota

 

State Energy Office

Kim Christianson

Energy Program Manager

Office of Intergovernmental Assistance

State Capitol Building

600 E. Boulevard Avenue, 14th Floor

Bismarck, ND 58505-0170

(701) 328-2094

Fax: (701) 328-2308

Public Service Commission

Jon H. Mielke, Executive Secretary

State Capitol

Bismarck, ND 58505

(701) 328-2400

Fax: (701) 328-2410

Ohio

 

State Energy Office

Donald Jakeway, Director

Ohio Department of Development

Community Development Division

Office of Energy Efficiency

77 S. High Street, 26th Floor

Columbus, OH 43266-0413

(614) 466-6797

Fax: (614) 466-1864

State Oil and Gas Agency

Thomas G. Tugend, Acting Chief

Department of Natural Resources

Division of Oil and Gas

Fountain Square B-3

Columbus, OH 43224

(614) 265-6922

Fax: (614) 268-4316

Public Utilities Commission

Gary Vigorito, Director

Administration and Commission Secretary

180 E. Broad Street

Columbus, OH 43266-0573

(614) 466-4294

Fax: (614) 644-9546

Oklahoma

 

Secretary of Energy

Mike Smith

125 N.W. Sixth Street

Oklahoma City, OK 73105

(405) 235-4204

Fax: (405) 522-3492

State Alternative Fuels Office

Jeanie Robards, Administrator

Alternative Fuels Program

Department of Central Services

3301 North Santa Fe

Oklahoma City, OK 73118

(405) 521-4687

Fax: (405) 525-2682

State Energy Office

Brenda Williams

Oklahoma Department of Commerce

Division of Community Affairs and

 Development

P.O. Box 26980

Oklahoma City, OK 73126-0980

(405) 815-5351

Fax: (405) 815-5344

Oklahoma Corporation Commission

Ernest G. Johnson, Director

Public Utility Division

500 Jim Thorpe Office Building

2101 North Lincoln Boulevard

Oklahoma City, OK 73105

(405) 521-3908

Fax: (405) 522-3371

 

Larry A. Schroeder, Deputy Director

(405) 521-2518
78 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Oregon

 

State Energy Office

John Savage, Director

Oregon Department of Energy

625 Marion Street NE

Salem, OR 97310-0831

(503) 378-4040

Fax: (503) 373-7806

 

Public Utility Commission

Ron Eachus, Commissioner

550 Capitol Street, N.E.

Salem, OR 97310-1380

(503) 378-6611

Fax: (503) 378-5505

 

Pennsylvania

 

State Oil and Gas Agency

James E. Erb, Director

Department of Environmental Protection

Bureau of Oil and Gas Management

Box 8765

Harrisburg, PA 17105-8765

(717) 772-2199

Fax: (717) 772-2291

Public Utility Commission

Z. Ahmed Kaloko, Director

Bureau of Conservation, Economics

and Energy Planning

Barto Building

Harrisburg, PA 17105-3265

(717) 787-2139

Fax: (717) 787-2545

Puerto Rico

 

State Energy Office

Rafael Llompart, Administrator

Energy Affairs Administration

Department of Natural and Environmental

 Resources

Puerto de Tierra

P.O. Box 5887

San Juan, PR 00906-5887

(787) 723-3636

Fax: (787) 721-3084

Rhode Island

 

State Energy Office

Janis McClanaghan, Chief

Rhode Island State Energy Office

1 Capitol Hill

Providence, RI 02908

(401) 222-3370

Fax: (401) 222-1260

Public Utilities Commission

James Malachowski, Chairman

100 Orange Street

Providence, RI 02903

(401) 222-3500

Fax: (401) 222-6805

South Carolina

 

State Energy Office

Mitchell M. Perkins, Director

1201 Main Street, Suite 820

Columbia, SC 29201

(803) 737-8030

Fax: (803) 737-9846

Public Service Commission

D. Wayne Burdett, Manager

Utilities Department

P.O. Box 11649

Columbia, SC 29211

(803) 737-5125

Fax: (803) 737-5199

South Dakota

 

State Energy Program 

Ronald W. Wheeler, Commissioner

Governor's Office of Economic Development

711 East Wells Avenue

Pierre, SD 57501-3369

(605) 773-5032

Fax: (605) 773-3256

Public Utilities Commission

William Bullard, Jr., Executive Director

500 East Capitol

Pierre, SD 57501

(605) 773-3201

Fax: (605) 773-3809

Tennessee

 

State Energy Office

Cynthia Oliphant, Director

Tennessee Department of Economic and

Community Development

Energy Division

320 6th Avenue North, 6th Floor

Nashville, TN 37243-0405
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 79

(615) 741-2994

Fax: (615) 741-5070

Tennessee Regulatory Authority

Melvin Malone, Chairman

460 James Robertson Parkway

Nashville, TN 37243-0505

(615) 741-2904

Fax: (615) 741-5015

Texas

 

State Oil and Gas Agency

David E. Schieck, Director

Oil and Gas Division

Railroad Commission of Texas

Box 12967

Austin, TX 78711-2967

(512) 463-6893

Fax: (512) 463-6780

Public Utility Commission of Texas

Public Information Office

P.O. Box 13326

Austin, TX 78711-3326

(512) 936-7140

Fax: (512) 936-7003

 

Utah

 

Office of Energy Services

Joe Waller, Manager

Division of Community Development

324 South State Street, Suite 500

Salt Lake City, UT 84111

(801) 538-8690

Fax: (801) 538-8660

Public Service Commission

Julie Orchard, Commission Secretary

160 East 300 South

Salt Lake City, UT 84111

(801) 530-6716

Fax: (801) 530-6796

E-mail: psccal@state.ut.us

Vermont

Public Service Board

Susan M. Hudson, Clerk

112 State Street

Chittenden Bank Building, 4th Floor

Drawer 20

Montpelier, VT 05620-2701

(802) 828-2358

Fax: (802) 828-3351

Department of Public Services

Scudder Parker, Director

Energy Efficiency Division

112 State Street, Drawer 20

Montpelier, VT 05620-2601

(802) 828-4009

Fax: (802) 828-2342

URL: http://www.state.vt.us/psd

Virginia

 

State Energy Office

Stephen A. Walz, Director

Division of Energy

Department of Mines, Minerals and Energy

202 N. Ninth Street, 8th Floor

Richmond, VA 23219

(804) 692-3211

Fax: (802) 692-3238

State Corporation Commission

William J. Bridge, Clerk of the Commission

Tyler Building, 1300 E. Main Street

P.O. Box 1197

Richmond, VA 23218-1197

(804) 371-9733

Fax: (804) 371-9133

Virgin Islands

 

Energy Office

Alicia Barnes James, Director

Virgin Islands Energy Office

Old Customs House

200 Strand Street

St. Croix, VI 00840

(340) 772-2616

Fax: (340) 772-0063

Washington

State Energy Policy

K. C. Golden, Assistant Director

Energy Policy Division

Department of Community, Trade, 

and Economic Development

925 Plum Street, SE, Bldg. #4

P.O. Box 43173

Olympa, WA 98504-3173

(360) 956-2006

Fax: (360) 956-2180
80 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Utilities and Transportation Commission

Mary Lu White, Librarian

WUTC Library Services

P.O. Box 47250

Olympia, WA 98504-7250

(360) 664-1199

Fax: (360) 586-1145

West Virginia

 

State Energy Office

 John F. (Jeff) Herholdt, Jr.

West Virginia Development Office

Energy Efficiency Program

Building 6, 645 Capital Complex

Charleston, WV 25305

(304) 558-0350

Fax: (304) 558-0362

Public Service Commission

Pamela J. Hicks

201 Brooks Street 

P.O. Box 812 

Charleston, WV 25323

(304) 340-0426

Fax: (304) 340-0325

Wisconsin

 

State Energy Office

Nathaniel E. Robinson, Administrator

Wisconsin Division of Energy and

Intergovernmental Relations

101 East Wilson Street, 6th Floor

P.O. Box 7868

Madison, WI 53707-7868

(608) 266-8234

Fax: (608) 267-6931

Public Service Commission

Jeffrey L. Butson

Public Affairs Director

610 North Whitney Way

Madison, WI 53705-2729

(608) 267-0912

Fax: (608) 266-1401

Wyoming

State Energy Office

John F. Nunley, III, Supervisor

Federal Grants

Wyoming Business Council

First Floor East, Herschler Building

Cheyenne, WY 82002

(307) 777-6420

Fax: (307) 777-5840

Public Service Commission

2515 Warren Avenue

Cheyenne, WY 82002

(307) 777-7427

Fax: (307) 777-5700
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 81

Glossary

Alternating Current: An electric current that reverses its

direction at regularly recurring intervals, usually 50 or

60 times per second.

Amorphous Silicon: An alloy of silica and hydrogen,

with a disordered, noncrystalline internal atomic

arrangement, that can be deposited in thin-layers (a few

micrometers in thickness) by a number of deposition

methods to produce thin-film photovoltaic cells on glass,

metal, or plastic substrates.

Annualized Growth Rates: Calculated as follows:

(xn / x1) 1/n ,

where x is the value under consideration and n is the

number of periods.

Aquifer: A subsurface rock unit from which water can

be produced.

ARI: Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute

Availability Factor: A percentage representing the

number of hours a generating unit is available to

produce power (regardless of the amount of power) in

a given period, compared to the number of hours in the

period.

Biodiesel: A renewable fuel synthesized from soy beans,

other oil crops, or animal tallow which can substitute for

petroleum diesel fuel.

Biomass: Organic nonfossil material of biological origin

constituting a renewable energy source.

Black Liquor: A byproduct of the paper production

process that can be used as a source of energy.

Capacity Factor: The ratio of the electrical energy

produced by a generating unit for the period of time

considered to the electrical energy that could have been

produced at continuous full-power operation during the

same period.

Capacity, Gross: The full-load continuous rating of a

generator, prime mover, or other electric equipment

under specified conditions as designated by the manufacturer. It is usually indicated on a nameplate attached

to the equipment.

Capital Cost: The cost of field development and plant

construction and the equipment required for the

generation of electricity.

Cast Silicon: Crystalline silicon obtained by pouring

pure molten silicon into a vertical mold and adjusting

the temperature gradient along the mold volume during

cooling to obtain slow, vertically-advancing crystallization of the silicon. The polycrystalline ingot thus

formed is composed of large, relatively parallel,

interlocking crystals. The cast ingots are sawed into

wafers for further fabrication into photovoltaic cells.

Cast-silicon wafers and ribbon-silicon sheets fabricated

into cells are usually referred to as polycrystalline

photovoltaic cells.

Climate Change (Greenhouse Effect): The increasing

mean global surface temperature of the Earth caused by

gases in the atmosphere (including carbon dioxide,

methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and chlorofluorocarbons). The greenhouse effect allows solar radiation to

penetrate the Earth's atmosphere but absorbs the

infrared radiation returning to space.

Cogeneration: The production of electrical energy and

another form of useful energy (such as heat or steam)

through the sequential use of energy.

Combined Cycle: An electric generating technology in

which electricity is produced from otherwise lost waste

heat exiting from one or more gas (combustion) turbines.

The exiting heat is routed to a conventional boiler or to

a heat recovery steam generator for utilization by a

steam turbine in the production of electricity. Such

designs increase the efficiency of the electric generating

unit.

Concentrator: A reflective or refractive device that

focuses incident insolation onto an area smaller than the

reflective or refractive surface, resulting in increased

insolation at the point of focus.
82 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

Cull Wood: Wood logs, chips, or wood products that

are burned.

Direct Current: An electric current that flows in a

constant direction. The magnitude of the current does

not vary or has a slight variation.

Electric Utility Restructuring: With some notable

exceptions, the electric power industry historically has

been composed primarily of investor-owned utilities.

These utilities have been predominantly vertically integrated monopolies (combining electricity generation,

transmission, and distribution), whose prices have been

regulated by State and Federal government agencies.

Restructuring the industry entails the introduction of

competition into at least the generation phase of

electricity production, with a corresponding decrease in

regulatory control. Restructuring may also modify or

eliminate other traditional aspects of investor-owned

utilities, including their exclusive franchise to serve a

given geographical area, assured rates of return, and

vertical integration of the production process.

Emission: The release or discharge of a substance into

the environment; generally refers to the release of gases

or particulates into the air.

Evacuated Tube: In a solar thermal collector, an absorber tube, which is contained in an evacuated glass

cylinder, through which collector fluids flows.

Exempt Wholesale Generator (EWG): A nonutility

electricity generator that is not a qualifying facility

under the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978.

Externalities: Benefits or costs, generated as a byproduct

of an economic activity, that do not accrue to the parties

involved in the activity. Environmental externalities are

benefits or costs that manifest themselves through

changes in the physical or biological environment.

Flat Plate Pumped: A medium-temperature solar

thermal collector that typically consists of a metal frame,

glazing, absorbers (usually metal), and insulation and

that uses a pump liquid as the heat-transfer medium:

predominant use is in water heating applications.

Flow Control: The laws, regulations, and economic

incentives or disincentives used by waste managers to

direct waste generated in a specific geographic area to a

designated landfill, recycling, or waste-to-energy facility.

Fuel Cells: One or more cells capable of generating an

electrical current by converting the chemical energy of a

fuel directly into electrical energy. Fuel cells differ from

conventional electrical cells in that the active materials

such as fuel and oxygen are not contained within the cell

but are supplied from outside.

Fuelwood: Wood and wood products, possibly including coppices, scrubs, branches, etc., bought or gathered,

and used by direct combustion.

Fumarole: A vent from which steam or gases issue; a

geyser or spring that emits gases.

Generation (Electricity): The process of producing

electric energy from other forms of energy; also, the

amount of electric energy produced, expressed in

watthours (Wh).

Geopressured: A type of geothermal resource occurring

in deep basins in which the fluid is under very high

pressure.

Geothermal Energy: As used at electric utilities, hot

water or steam extracted from geothermal reservoirs in

the Earth's crust that is supplied to steam turbines at

electric utilities that drive generators to produce

electricity.

Geothermal Plant: A plant in which a turbine is driven

either from hot water or by natural steam that derives its

energy from heat found in rocks or fluids at various

depths beneath the surface of the earth. The fluids are

extracted by drilling and/or pumping.

Geyser: A special type of thermal spring that periodically ejects water with great force.

Giga: One billion.

Green Pricing: In the case of renewable electricity, green

pricing represents a market solution to the various

problems associated with regulatory valuation of the

nonmarket benefits of renewables. Green pricing

programs allow electricity customers to express their

willingness to pay for renewable energy development

through direct payments on their monthly utility bills.

Grid: The layout of an electrical distribution system.

Groundwater: Water occurring in the subsurface zone

where all spaces are filled with water under pressure

greater than that of the atmosphere.

Heat Pump: A year-round heating and air-conditioning

system employing a refrigeration cycle. In a

refrigeration cycle, a refrigerant is compressed (as a
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 83

liquid) and expanded (as a vapor) to absorb and reject

heat. The heat pump transfers heat to a space to be

heated during the winter period and by reversing the

operation extracts (absorbs) heat from the same space to

be cooled during the summer period. The refrigerant

within the heat pump in the heating mode absorbs the

heat to be supplied to the space to be heated from an

outside medium (air, ground or ground water) and in

the cooling mode absorbs heat from the space to be

cooled to be rejected to the outside medium.

Heat Pump (Air Source): An air-source heat pump is the

most common type of heat pump. The heat pump

absorbs heat from the outside air and transfers the heat

to the space to be heated in the heating mode. In the

cooling mode the heat pump absorbs heat from the

space to be cooled and rejects the heat to the outside air.

In the heating mode when the outside air approaches 32o

F or less, air-source heat pumps loose efficiency and

generally require a back-up (resistance) heating system.

Heat Pump (Geothermal): A heat pump in which the

refrigerant exchanges heat (in a heat exchanger) with a

fluid circulating through an earth connection medium

(ground or ground water). The fluid is contained in a

variety of loop (pipe) configurations depending on the

temperature of the ground and the ground area

available. Loops may be installed horizontally or

vertically in the ground or submersed in a body of

water.

Heat Pump (efficiency): The efficiency of a heat pump,

that is, the electrical energy to operate it, is directly

related to temperatures between which it operates.

Geothermal heat pumps are more efficient than

conventional heat pumps or air conditioners that use the

outdoor air since the ground or ground water a few feet

below the earth's surface remains relatively constant

throughout the year. It is more efficient in the winter to

draw heat from the relatively warm ground than from

the atmosphere where the air temperature is much

colder, and in summer transfer waste heat to the

relatively cool ground than to hotter air. Geothermal

heat pumps are generally more expensive ($2,000-$5,000)

to install than outside air heat pumps. However,

depending on the location geothermal heat pumps can

reduce energy consumption (operating cost) and

correspondingly, emissions by more than 20 percent

compared to high-efficiency outside air heat pumps.

Geothermal heat pumps also use the waste heat from air

conditioning to provide free hot water heating in the

summer

High-Temperature Collector: A solar thermal collector

designed to operate at a temperature of 180 degrees

Fahrenheit or higher.

Hot Dry Rock: Heat energy residing in impermeable,

crystalline rock. Hydraulic fracturing may be used to

create permeability to enable circulation of water and

removal of the heat.

Hub Height: In a horizontal-axis wind turbine, the

distance from the turbine platform to the rotor shaft.

Hydraulic Fracturing: Fracturing of rock at depth with

fluid pressure. Hydraulic fracturing at depth may be

accomplished by pumping water into a well at very high

pressures. Under natural conditions, vapor pressure

may rise high enough to cause fracturing in a process

known as hydrothermal brecciation.

Independent Power Producer (IPP): A wholesale

electricity producer (other than a qualifying facility

under the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978),

that is unaffiliated with franchised utilities in the area in

which the IPP is selling power and that lacks significant

marketing power. Unlike traditional utilities, IPPs do not

possess transmission facilities that are essential to their

customers and do not sell power in any retail service

territory where they have a franchise.

Internal Collector Storage (ICS): A solar thermal

collector in which incident solar radiation is absorbed by

the storage medium.

Kilowatt (kW): One thousand watts of electricity (See

Watt).

Kilowatthour (kWh): One thousand watthours.

Levelized Cost: The present value of the total cost of

building and operating a generating plant over its

economic life, converted to equal annual payments.

Costs are levelized in real dollars (i.e., adjusted to

remove the impact of inflation).

Liquid Collector: A medium-temperature solar thermal

collector, employed predominantly in water heating,

which uses pumped liquid as the heat-transfer medium.

Low-Temperature Collectors: Metallic or nonmetallic

solar thermal collectors that generally operate at

temperatures below 110 degrees Fahrenheit and use

pumped liquid or air as the heat transfer medium. They
84 Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998

usually contain no glazing and no insulation,and they

are often made of plastic or rubber, although some are

made of metal.

Magma: Naturally occurring molten rock, generated

within the earth and capable of intrusion and extrusion,

from which igneous rocks are thought to have been

derived through solidification and related processes. It

may or may not contain suspended solids (such as

crystals and rock fragments) and/or gas phases.

Marginal Cost: The change in cost associated with a unit

change in quantity supplied or produced.

Medium-Temperature Collectors: Solar thermal

collectors designed to operate in the temperature range

of 140 degrees to 180 degrees Fahrenheit, but that can

also operate at a temperature as low as 110 degrees

Fahrenheit. The collector typically consists of a metal

frame, metal absorption panels with integral flow

channels (attached tubing for liquid collectors or integral

ducting for air collectors), and glazing and insulation on

the sides and back.

Megawatt (MW): One million watts of electricity (See

Watt).

Merchant Facilities: High-risk, high-profit facilities that

operate, at least partially, at the whims of the market, as

opposed to those facilities that are constructed with

close cooperation of municipalities and have significant

amounts of waste supply guaranteed.

Net Photovoltaic Cell Shipment: The difference

between photovoltaic cell shipments and photovoltaic

cell purchases.

Net Photovoltaic Module Shipment: The difference

between photovoltaic module shipments and photovoltaic module purchases.

Nonutility Generation: Electric generation by end-users,

independent power producers, or small power

producers under the Public Utility Regulatory Policies

Act, to supply electric power for industrial, commercial,

and military operations, or sales to electric utilities.

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Cost: Operating

expenses are associated with operating a facility (i.e.,

supervising and engineering expenses). Maintenance

expenses are that portion of expenses consisting of labor,

materials, and other direct and indirect expenses

incurred for preserving the operating efficiency or

physical condition of utility plants that are used for

power production, transmission, and distribution of

energy.

Parabolic Dish: A high-temperature (above 180 degrees

Fahrenheit) solar thermal concentrator, generally bowlshaped, with two-axis tracking.

Parabolic Trough: A high-temperature (above 180

degrees Fahrenheit) solar thermal concentrator with the

capacity for tracking the sun using one axis of rotation.

Passive Solar: A system in which solar energy alone is

used for the transfer of thermal energy. Pumps, blowers,

or other heat transfer devices that use energy other than

solar are not used.

Peak Watt: A manufacturer's unit indicating the amount

of power a photovoltaic cell or module will produce at

standard test conditions (normally 1,000 watts per

square meter and 25 degrees Celsius).

Photovoltaic Cell: An electronic device consisting of

layers of semiconductor materials fabricated to form a

junction (adjacent layers of materials with different

electronic characteristics) and electrical contacts and

being capable of converting incident light directly into

electricity (direct current).

Photovoltaic Module: An integrated assembly of

interconnected photovoltaic cells designed to deliver a

selected level of working voltage and current at its

output terminals, packaged for protection against

environment degradation, and suited for incorporation

in photovoltaic power systems.

Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978

(PURPA): One part of the National Energy Act, PURPA

contains measures designed to encourage the conservation of energy, more efficient use of resources, and

equitable rates. Principal among these were suggested

retail rate reforms and new incentives for production of

electricity by cogenerators and users of renewable

resources.

Pulpwood: Roundwood, whole-tree chips, or wood

residues.

Quadrillion Btu: Equivalent to 10 to the 15th power Btu.

Qualifying Facility (QF): A cogeneration or small power

production facility that meets certain ownership,

operating, and efficiency criteria established by the

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) pursuant to the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978
Energy Information Administration/ Renewable Energy Annual 1998 85

(PURPA). (See the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 18,

Part 292.)

Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF): Fuel processed from

municipal solid waste that can be in shredded, fluff, or

densified pellet forms.

Renewable Energy Source: An energy source that is

regenerative or virtually inexhaustible. Typical examples

are wind, geothermal, and water power.

Ribbon Silicon: Single-crystal silicon derived by means

of fabricating processes that produce sheets or ribbons

of single-crystal silicon. These processes include edgedefined film-fed growth, dendritic web growth, and

ribbon-to-ribbon growth.

Roundwood: Logs, bolts, and other round timber

generated from the harvesting of trees.

Silicon: A semiconductor material made from silica,

purified for photovoltaic applications.

Single Crystal Silicon (Czochralski): An extremely pure

form of crystalline silicon produced by the Czochralski

method of dipping a single crystal seed into a pool of

molten silicon under high vacuum conditions and slowly

withdrawing a solidifying single crystal boule rod of

silicon. The boule is sawed into thin wafers and

fabricated into single-crystal photovoltaic cells.

Solar Energy: The radiant energy of the sun, which can

be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat or

electricity.

Solar Thermal Collector: A device designed to receive

solar radiation and convert it into thermal energy.

Normally, a solar thermal collector includes a frame,

glazing, and an absorber, together with the appropriate

insulation. The heat collected by the solar thermal

collector may be used immediately or stored for later

use.

Solar Thermal Collector, Special: An evacuated tube

collector or a concentrating (focusing) collector. Special

collectors operate in the temperature (low concentration

for pool heating) to several hundred degrees Fahrenheit

(high concentration for air conditioning and specialized

industrial processes).

Thermosiphon System: A solar collector system for

water heating in which circulation of the collection fluid

through the storage loop is provided solely by the

temperature and density difference between the hot and

cold fluids.

Tipping Fee: Price charged to deliver municipal solid

waste to a landfill, waste-to-energy facility, or recycling

facility.

Transmission System (Electric): An interconnected

group of electric transmission lines and associated

equipment for moving or transferring electric energy in

bulk between points of supply and points at which it is

transformed for delivery over the distribution system

lines to consumers, or is delivered to other electric

systems.

Turbine: A machine for generating rotary mechanical

power from the energy of a stream of fluid (such as

water, steam, or hot gas). Turbines convert the kinetic

energy of fluids to mechanical energy through the

principles of impulse and reaction, or a mixture of the

two.

Vapor-Dominated Geothermal System: A conceptual

model of a hydrothermal system where steam pervades

the rock and is the pressure-controlling fluid phase.

Watt (Electric): The electrical unit of power. The rate of

energy transfer equivalent to 1 ampere of electric current

flowing under a pressure of 1 volt at unity power factor.

Watt (Thermal): A unit of power in the metric system,

expressed in terms of energy per second, equal to the

work done at a rate of 1 joule per second.

Watthour (Wh): The electrical energy unit of measure

equal to 1 watt of power supplied to, or taken from, an

electric circuit steadily for 1 hour.

Wheeling: The use of the transmission facilities of one

system to transmit power and energy by agreement of

and for, another system with a corresponding wheeling

charge, e.g., the transmission of electricity for compensation over a system that is received from one system

and delivered to another system).

Wood Pellets: Fuel manufactured from finely ground

wood fiber and used in pellet stoves.