Importation of Apples (Malus pumila) from China into the 

Continental United States

A Qualitative, Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessment 

February 3, 2014

Version 1

Agency Contact:

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

United States Department of Agriculture 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27606
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 i

Executive Summary

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) prepared this risk assessment document to examine plant pest risks 

associated with importing commercially produced fruit of apples, Malus pumila (Rosaceae), for 

consumption from China into the continental United States. Based on the market access request 

from China, there are no processes or conditions to consider during this pest risk assessment. 

General processes may include hand-picking of apples from the trees, culling, and refrigeration 

during storage and transport.

Based on the scientific literature, port-of-entry pest interception data, and information from the 

government of China, we developed a list of all potential pests with actionable regulatory status 

for the continental United States that are known to occur in China and that are known to be 

associated with the commodity plant species anywhere in the world. From this list, we identified 

and further analyzed 26 organisms that have a reasonable likelihood of being associated with the 

commodity following harvesting from the field and prior to any post-harvest processing. 

Of the pests selected for further analysis, we determined that the following are not candidates for 

risk management, because there is no endangered area within the continental United States, they

did not meet the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction, or they

received a Negligible overall risk rating for likelihood of introduction (i.e., entry plus 

establishment) into the endangered area via the import pathway:

Pest Reason the pest is not a candidate for risk management

Apple dimple fruit apscaviroid Negligible overall risk rating for likelihood of introduction

Ceroplastes japonicus Negligible overall risk rating for likelihood of introduction

Gymnosporangium yamadae Does not meet unacceptable Consequences of Introduction 

threshold

Pempelia heringii Does not meet unacceptable Consequences of Introduction 

threshold

Pseudococcus cryptus Negligible overall risk rating for likelihood of introduction

We determined that the following pests are candidates for risk management, because they met 

the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction, and they received 

an overall likelihood of introduction risk rating above Negligible:

Pest type Taxonomy Scientific name Likelihood of Introduction 

overall rating

Arthropod Acari: Tenuipalpidae Cenopalpus pulcher (Canestrini 

& Fanzago)

Medium

Coleoptera: Curculionidae Rhynchites auratus (Scopoli) Medium

Rhynchites bacchus (L.) Medium

Rhynchites giganteus Krynicky Medium

Rhynchites heros Roelofs Medium
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Pest type Taxonomy Scientific name Likelihood of Introduction 

overall rating

Diptera: Tephritidae Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) High

Lepidoptera: Carposinidae Carposina sasakii Matsumura Medium

Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae Leucoptera malifoliella (Costa) High

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Cryptoblabes gnidiella 

(Millière)

Medium

Euzophera bigella (Zeller) Medium

Euzophera pyriella Yang Medium

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae Adoxophyes orana (Fischer von 

Röslerstamm)

Medium

Archips micaceana (Walker) Medium

Argyrotaenia ljungiana

(Thunberg)

Medium

Cydia funebrana (Treitschke) Medium

Grapholita inopinata Heinrich Medium

Spilonota albicana

(Motschulsky)

Medium

Spilonota prognathana Snellen Medium

Ulodemis trigrapha Meyrick Medium

Fungi Ascomycetes: Helotiales Monilia polystroma van 

Leeuwen

High

Monilinia fructigena Honey High

Detailed examination and choice of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk are 

part of the pest risk management phase within APHIS and are not addressed in this document.
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 iii

Table of Contents

Executive Summary....................................................................................................................... i

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Background .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Initiating event...................................................................................................................... 1

1.3. Determination of the necessity of a weed risk assessment for the commodity.................... 1

1.4. Description of the pathway................................................................................................... 2

2. Pest List and Pest Categorization............................................................................................ 3

2.1. Pests considered but not included on the pest list ................................................................ 3

2.2. Pest list ............................................................................................................................... 12

2.3. Notes on pests identified in the pest list........................................................................... 121

2.4. Pests selected for further analysis .................................................................................... 122

3. Assessing Pest Risk Potential ............................................................................................... 123

3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 123

3.2. Assessment results............................................................................................................ 124

4. Summary and Conclusions of Risk Assessment................................................................. 202

5. Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... 204

6. Literature Cited .................................................................................................................... 204

7. Appendix A. Pests with non-actionable regulatory status ................................................ 264
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1. Introduction 

1.1. Background

This document was prepared by the Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory of the 

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology, USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), to evaluate the risks associated with 

the importation of commercially produced fresh fruit of apples (Malus pumila Mill.) for 

consumption from China into the continental United States.

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) provides guidance for conducting pest risk 

analyses. The methods used here are consistent with guidelines provided by the IPPC, 

specifically the International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) on “Pest Risk 

Analysis for Quarantine Pests, Including Analysis of Environmental Risks and Living Modified 

Organisms” (IPPC, 2011). The use of biological and phytosanitary terms is consistent with the 

“Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms” (IPPC, 2012). 

Three stages of pest risk analysis are described in international standards: Stage 1, Initiation; 

Stage 2, Risk Assessment; and Stage 3, Risk Management. This document satisfies the 

requirements of Stages 1 and 2. 

This is a qualitative risk assessment. We express the risk based on qualitative ratings for the 

likelihood and consequences of pest introduction via the imported apples from China. The details 

of the methodology and rating criteria are found in the Guidelines for Plant Pest Risk Assessment 

of Imported Fruit and Vegetable Commodities, Version 6.0 (PPQ, 2012). 

The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest depends on the risk posed by that 

pest. Identification of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk is undertaken in 

Stage 3 (Risk Management) and is not covered in this risk assessment. Risk management will be 

specified in a separate document. 

1.2. Initiating event 

The importation of fruits and vegetables for consumption into the United States is regulated 

under Title 7 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 319.56 (7 CFR §319.56) (2012). 

Currently, under this regulation, the entry of apples from China into the continental United States

is not authorized. This assessment was prepared in response to a request China to change the 

Federal Regulation to allow entry (1998). 

1.3. Determination of the necessity of a weed risk assessment for the commodity

In some cases, the imported commodity may have the potential of becoming invasive in the PRA 

area. The likelihood that this may happen is evaluated in a weed risk assessment, conducted 

separately from the commodity risk assessment. 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 2

Weed risk assessments do not need to be conducted for plant species that are widely established 

(native or naturalized) or cultivated in the PRA area, for commodities that are already enterable 

into the PRA area from other countries, or when the plant part cannot easily propagate on its own 

or be propagated. We determined that a weed risk assessment is not needed for apples because 

apples are widely established (Kartesz, 2012) and widely cultivated in the United States 

(USApple, 2011). 

1.4. Description of the pathway

The IPPC (2011) defines a pathway as “any means that allows the entry or spread of a pest.” In 

the context of commodity pest risk assessments, the pathway is the commodity to be imported, 

together with all the processes the commodity undergoes that may have an impact on pest risk. In 

this risk assessment, the specific pathway of concern is the importation of fresh fruit of apples 

(Malus pumila Mill.) [= Malus communis, M. domestica, Pyrus malus] for consumption from 

China into the continental United States; the movement of this commodity provides a potential 

pathway for the introduction and/or spread of plant pests. 

The following description of this pathway focuses on the conditions that may affect plant pest 

risk, including morphological and physiological characteristics of the commodity, as well as 

processes the commodity will undergo from production in China through importation and 

distribution in the continental United States. These conditions provided the basis for creating the 

pest list and assessing the likelihood of introduction of the pests selected for further analysis; 

therefore, all components of the pathway, as they are described below, should be considered 

mandatory conditions for importation of the commodity.

1.4.1. Description of the commodity

Apple is considered the most important deciduous fruit crop in China, and production has 

significantly increased in recent years (Meador et al., 2012; Papademetriou and Herath, 1999).

Apples are grown throughout temperate regions of the world (Duke, 1983). Grown on trees up to 

15 m in height, fruit is usually harvested by hand (Duke, 1983).

1.4.2. Production and harvest procedures in the exporting area 

Production and harvesting procedures in China have not been specified.

1.4.3. Post-harvest procedures in the exporting area

Post-harvest procedures in China have not been specified and will not be considered in this risk 

assessment. Li and Li (2008) conducted a case study regarding post-harvest storage of apples in 

China. It is noted that generally, apples produced in China undergo the following post-harvest 

procedure: pre-cooling and pre-storage, chemical treatment, culling and classification, washing 

and waxing, and wrapping (Li and Li, 2008). 

1.4.4. Shipping and storage conditions

Shipping and storage conditions have not been specified. While it is not clear whether or not 

universal cold storage is used for apples exported from China (Gao, 2008), apples are generally 

stored and transported in refrigerated conditions for preservation (Matzinger and Tong, 2008).
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1.4.5. Summary of the pathway

The figure below summarizes the pathway of concern: the importation of fresh fruit of apples 

(Malus pumila Mill.) [= Malus communis, M. domestica, Pyrus malus] for consumption from 

China into the continental United States.

2. Pest List and Pest Categorization 

In this section, we identify the plant pests with actionable regulatory status for the continental 

United States that could potentially become established in the continental United States as a 

result of the importation of apples from China, and we determine which of these pests meet the 

criteria for further analysis. Pests are considered to be of regulatory significance if they are 

actionable at U.S. ports-of-entry. Actionable pests include quarantine pests, pests considered for 

or under official control, and pests that require evaluation for regulatory action.

2.1. Pests considered but not included on the pest list

2.1.1. Pests with weak evidence for association with the commodity or for presence in the export 

area

Aculops xiningensis Kuang (Acari: Eriophyidae): This species was collected on apple as a 

"vagrant" (Kuang, 2000), thus exhibiting no clear association with the plant.

Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae): This species is primarily a pest of 

cucurbits (White and Elson-Harris, 1992). White and Elson-Harris (1992) also list apple (Malus 

domestica) as a host for B. cucurbitae, but clarify that “the...non-cucurbit host records require 

confirmation.” No additional information or literature indicating that M. pumila may be a natural 

or experimental host for B. cucurbitae could be found, and it is not included on the pest list. 

Bactrocera latifrons (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae): This species is apparently restricted mainly 

to hosts in Solanaceae and Cucurbitaceae (Liquido et al., 1994). Apple probably represents an 

aberrant host association (White and Elson-Harris, 1992) and it is not included on the pest list.
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Calepitrimerus neimongolensis Kuang & Geng (Acari: Eriophyidae): This species is described as 

a "vagrant" pest of apple in China by Hong and Zhang (1996). No other information regarding 

apples as hosts for this species could be found.

Coniothecium chomatosporum Gorda: Its pathogenicity is being reevaluated (PestID, 2013).

Repeated searches of literature have found no evidence of pathogenicity in field or lab reports.

Coniothyrium tirolense Bubák: Although it is listed by Farr and Rossman (2013), there is no 

evidence that C. tirolense is an actual pathogen. There of no records or laboratory experiments 

which demonstrate that it is a pathogen of apples.

Diaporthe pomigena (Schw.) Miura: Although it is listed by Farr and Rossman (2013), there is 

no evidence that D. pomigena is an actual pathogen. There are no records or laboratory

experiments which demonstrate that it is a pathogen of apples.

Dissoconium mali Sun et al., Dissoconium multiseptatae Sun & Zhang, Wallemia longxianensis

Sun & Zhang, Wallemia qiangyangesis Sun & Zhang, Zygophiala cylindrica Sun et al., 

Zygophiala liquanensis Sun & Zhang, Zygophiala taiyuensis, Zygophiala qianensis Sun & Ma: 

These fungi are not analyzed since they do not physiologically affect the fruit (Gleason et al., 

2011).

Eutetranychus orientalis (Klein) (Acari: Tetranychidae): Bolland et al. (1998) lists Malus 

domestica as a host plant for this species, with no indication of a reference for this association. 

Some additional sources also anecdotally refer to apple as a host for E. orientalis (e.g., Childers, 

n.d.; Walter, 2006). A thorough search of reputable sources, including the National Agricultural 

Library, Google Scholar, and PestID interception records did not reveal any indication of a 

natural association with apples. This species is a well-known, frequently researched known pest 

of citrus. Given the vast amount of literature available on this species, primary records of 

detections on Malus should be available. We consider the listing of apples as a natural host for E. 

orientalis to be dubious and it is not included on the pest list.

Leguminivora glycinivorella (Matsumura) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae): No available information 

besides AQIS (1998) suggests that this species feeds on apple. Hosts are primarily legumes 

(Fabaceae), particularly Glycine max (Robinson et al., 2001; Meijerman and Ulenberg, 2004; 

Hua, 2005).

Longidorus pisi Edward, Misra & Singh (Longidoridae): This species is reported in China (Guo 

et al., 2011) and on apple from an unreferenced book about nematodes in South Africa 

(Kleynhans et al., 1996); however, no other information is available indicating that L. pisi is a 

pest on apple and it was therefore not included on the pest list.

Macrophoma kawatsukai: Macrophoma kawatsukai has been described as the primary agent of 

ring-rot of apple. However, the weight of the literature describes Botrytosphaeria berengeiana as

the causal agent of ring-rot of apple (Kexiang et al. 2002). Based upon the lack of evidence that 

M. kawatsukai is not associated with any disease, it was not analyzed.
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Nephotettix cincticeps (Uhler) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae): High (2008) listed this species as a 

member of the “apple orchard pest community.” Hosts are predominantly species of Poaceae 

(CABI, 2007). There is no indication that Malus may serve as a host for this species.

Oxycarenus hyalinipennis (Costa) (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae): This species is primarily a seedfeeder and most likely restricted to hosts in Malvales, occasionally feeding on fruit of Rosaceae 

and other families, probably as a source of water (Sweet, 2000). Apple is not considered to be a 

true host.

Pestalotiopsis malicola (Hori) Sun & Ge: Repeated searches have found no evidence that there is 

a disease associated with P. malicola in apple, and there is evidence of it being a saprophyte (Bi 

et al., 2011). This suggests that the original identification is an association rather than etiology.

Phytophthora boehmeriae Sawada: The only reference for apple being a host is in Farr and 

Rossman (2013) based on a citation in a global reference text. There are no other references to 

this Phytophthora infecting apples in the literature, which suggests the original citation may be a 

misidentification.

2.1.2. Organisms with non-actionable regulatory status

We found evidence of the organisms listed in Appendix A being associated with apples and 

being present in China; however, because these organisms have non-actionable regulatory status 

for the continental United States, we did not include them in Table 2 of this risk assessment.

2.1.3. Organisms identified only to the genus level

In commodity import risk assessments, the taxonomic unit for pests selected for evaluation 

beyond the pest categorization stage is usually the species (IPPC, 2011), as assessments focus on 

organisms for which biological information is available. Therefore, generally, we do not assess 

risk for organisms identified only to the genus level, in particular if the genus in question is 

reported in the import area. Often there are many species within a genus, and we cannot know if 

the unidentified species occurs in the import area and, consequently, whether it has actionable 

regulatory status for the import area. On the other hand, if the genus in question is absent from 

the import area, any unidentified organisms in the genus can have actionable status; however, 

because such an organism has not been fully identified, we cannot properly analyze its likelihood 

and consequences of introduction. 

In light of these issues, we usually do not include organisms identified only to the genus level in 

the main pest list. Instead, we address them separately in this sub-section. The information here 

can be used by risk managers to determine if measures beyond those intended to mitigate fully 

identified pests are warranted. Often, however, the development of detailed assessments for 

known pests that inhabit a variety of ecological niches, such as internal fruit feeders or foliage 

pests, allows effective mitigation measures to eliminate the known organisms as well as similar 

but incompletely identified organisms that inhabit the same niche.
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Table 1. Organisms identified to the genus level that are reported on Malus pumila in China and 

that have actionable or undetermined regulatory status.

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

apples in China 

Genus 

present in 

United 

States?

Regulatory 

status1

Plant part(s) 

association2

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?3

Remarks

ARTHROPODS

Acari: Tetranychidae

Bryobia sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(CABI, 

2012)

U Inflorescence, 

leaf, stem

(Jeppson et al., 

1975; Hill, 

1987)

No

Eotetranychus sp. Chai et al., 1990 Yes 

(CABI, 

2012)

U Fruit, leaf

(Jeppson et al., 

1975)

Yes

Tetranychus sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(CABI,

2012)

U Leaf (Jeppson et 

al., 1975)

No

Coleoptera: Cerambycidae

Chlorophorus sp. CASI, 1994 No A Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Crioceris sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(CABI, 

2012)

U Leaf (Hill, 1983, 

1987)

No

Cryptocephalus 

sp.

CASI, 1994 Yes 

(Quinn, 

2011)

U Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (e.g., 

Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993)

No

 

1 A=Actionable, U=Undetermined. If the genus does not occur in the United States, the organism has actionable 

status. If the genus occurs in the United States, the organism has undetermined regulatory status, because we cannot 

know if the unidentified species is one that occurs in the United States.

2 The plant part(s) listed are those for the plant species under analysis. If the information is extrapolated, such as 

from plant part association on other plant species, this is noted.

3

“Yes” indicates the pest has a reasonable likelihood of being associated with the harvested plant part(s).
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Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

apples in China 

Genus 

present in 

United 

States?

Regulatory 

status1

Plant part(s) 

association2

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?3

Remarks

Doryida sp. CASI, 1994 No A Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (e.g., 

Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993)

No

Lilioceris sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(CABI, 

2012)

U Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (e.g., 

Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993).

No

Oomorphoides sp. CASI, 1994 No A Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (e.g., 

Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993).

No

Pachybrachis (= 

Pachybrachys) 

sp.

CASI, 1994 Yes 

(Barney 

and Hall, 

2009)

U Leaf (LeSage, 

1985)

No

Paropsides sp. CASI, 1994 No A Leaf (e.g., P. 

soriculata; Yan, 

1994)

No

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Adesmus sp. CASI, 1994 No A Stem (e.g., A. 

lorgmeien; 

Bondar, 1938)

No

Calomycterus sp. CASI, 1994 Yes (Culik 

and 

Weaver, 

1994)

U Leaf (e.g., C. 

setarius; 

Hartzell, 1953)

No
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Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

apples in China 

Genus 

present in 

United 

States?

Regulatory 

status1

Plant part(s) 

association2

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?3

Remarks

Coenorrhynus sp.

(Rhynchites sp.)

CASI, 1994 Yes 

(Arnett et 

al., 2002)

U Fruit, 

inflorescence, 

leaf, stem (Bous, 

1959; Lazarevic, 

1963; SzalayMarzsó, 1963)

Yes Probably a 

variant 

spelling of 

Coenorrhinus, 

species of 

which occur in 

China (Hua, 

2002) and are 

known to 

attack apple 

(e.g., C. 

aequatus L.; 

Lazarevic, 

1963).

Involvulus sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(Arnett et 

al., 2002)

U Fruit, 

inflorescence, 

leaf (Hua, 2000; 

Zhang et al., 

2003)

Yes

Phyllobius sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(Arnett et 

al., 2002)

U Leaf (Hill, 1983, 

1987)

No

Xylinophorus sp. CASI, 1994 No A Leaf, stem (e.g., 

X. mongolicus; 

CGRIS, 2002a)

No

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

Epicometis sp. CASI, 1994 No A Inflorescence

(Avidov and 

Harpaz, 1969; 

Nair, 1975)

No

Melolontha sp. CASI, 1994 No A Fruit, leaf (Hill, 

1987)

No Adults may 

feed externally 

on developing 

fruit (Hill, 

1987), but are 

considered to 

be unlikely to 

be present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Rhizotrogus sp.

(=Amphimallon

sp.)

CASI, 1994 Yes 

(CABI, 

2013)

U Leaf (Hill, 1983; 

Gantner and 

Kot, 2003)

No
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Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

apples in China 

Genus 

present in 

United 

States?

Regulatory 

status1

Plant part(s) 

association2

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?3

Remarks

Trichius sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(Melsheim

er et al., 

1853)

U Inflorescence

(Dubois, 1918; 

Molodtsov, 

1995; Martin 

and Pedersen, 

2002)

No

Diptera: Tephritidae

Bactrocera sp. PestID, 2012 Yes 

(CABI, 

2012)

U Fruit (PestID, 

2012)

Yes

Hemiptera: Cicadellidae

Petalocephala sp. CASI, 1994 No A Leaf, stem (e.g., 

P. nigrilinea; 

Chatterjee, 

1934)

No

Tettigoniella sp. CASI, 1994 Yes (Van 

Duzee, 

1917)

U Leaf (e.g., T. 

ferruginea; Hill, 

1983)

No

Hemiptera: Cicadidae

Meimuna sp. CASI, 1994 No A Root, stem

(Plant parts 

typically 

attacked by 

species of 

Cicadidae.)

(Triplehorn and 

Johnson, 2005)

No

Hemiptera: Dictyopharidae

Dictyophara sp. CASI, 1994 Yes (Song 

and Liang, 

2008)

U Leaf, stem (Hill, 

1983, Lessio and 

Alma, 2008)

No

Hemiptera: Membracidae

Leptobelus sp. CASI, 1994 No A Stem (Stegmann 

and Linsenmair, 

2002)

No

Machaerotypus 

sp.

CASI, 1994 No A Stem (e.g., other 

Membracidae; 

Stegmann and 

Linsenmair, 

2002)

No

Pantaleon sp. CASI, 1994 No A Stem (Metcalf 

and Metcalf, 

1993)

No
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Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

apples in China 

Genus 

present in 

United 

States?

Regulatory 

status1

Plant part(s) 

association2

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?3

Remarks

Heteroptera: Miridae

Eosthenarus (= 

Sejanus) sp.

CASI, 1994 No A Leaf (Miridae: 

Myers et al., 

2013)

No

Heteroptera: Tingidae

Stephanitis sp. CASI, 1994 Yes (Van 

Duzee, 

1917)

U Leaf (Avidov 

and Harpaz, 

1969; Hill, 

1983)

No

Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae

Priophorus sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(Markin 

and 

Nagata, 

1995) 

U Leaf (e.g., P. 

acericaulis, P. 

tener; Britton, 

1912; Valentine, 

1970)

No

Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

Evippe sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(Busck, 

1903)

U Leaf (Bullock 

and Kretschmer, 

1982; van 

Klinken et al., 

2003)

No

Lepidoptera: Geometridae

Apocheima sp. CASI, 1994 No A Leaf (e.g., A. 

pilosaria, A. 

cinerarius; 

Bergelson and 

Lawton, 1988, 

Hu et al., 2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae

Malacosoma sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(CABI, 

2013)

U Leaf (Furniss 

and Carolin, 

1977)

No

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Earias sp. CASI, 1994 No A Leaf (Robinson 

et al., 2009)

No

Plusiodonta sp. CASI, 1994 Yes 

(Zaspel 

and 

Branham, 

2008)

U Leaf (e.g., P. 

coelonota; 

Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae

Homona sp. CASI, 1994 No A Leaf (Robinson 

et al., 2001)

No
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Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

apples in China 

Genus 

present in 

United 

States?

Regulatory 

status1

Plant part(s) 

association2

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?3

Remarks

Phasmatodea: Pachymorphidae

Macellina (= 

Macella) sp.

CASI, 1994 No A Leaf (Feeding 

site typical of 

Phasmatodea)

(Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993; 

Triplehorn and 

Johnson, 2005)

No

FUNGI

Alternaria sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

Tang and Chen, 

1997

Yes (Farr 

and 

Rossman, 

2012)

U Fruit (Tang and 

Chen, 1997)

Yes

Cladosporium sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerella

-les)

PestID, 2012 Yes (Farr 

and 

Rossman, 

2012)

U Fruit (PestID, 

2012)

Yes

Cytospora sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Diaporthales)

Farr et al., 2006 Yes 

(Jacobi, 

2009)

U Leaf, stem

(Horst, 2001)

No

Fusarium sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

Farr et al., 2006; 

Liu et al., 1995

Yes (Farr 

and 

Rossman, 

2012)

U Fruit (Farr and 

Rossman, 2012)

Yes

Oidium sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

Farr et al., 2006 Yes 

(CABI, 

2013)

U Leaf, stem

(Horst, 2001)

No

Passalora sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Capnodiales)

DAFF, 2009 Yes 

(CABI, 

2013)

U Fruit, leaf 

(CABI, 2013)

Yes

Peltaster sp. 

(Ascomycetes)

DAFF, 2009 Yes 

(Venkatas

ubbaiah et 

al., 1995)

U Fruit

(Venkatasubbaia

h et al., 1995)

Yes

Pseudocercospora sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerella

les)

DAFF, 2009 Yes (Farr 

and 

Rossman, 

2012)

U Fruit (Farr and 

Rossman, 2012)

Yes

Stomiopeltis spp. 

(Ascomycetes)

DAFF, 2009 Yes (Arias 

et al., 

2010)

U Fruit (Arias et 

al., 2010)

Yes
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 12

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

apples in China 

Genus 

present in 

United 

States?

Regulatory 

status1

Plant part(s) 

association2

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?3

Remarks

Trichothecium sp. 

(Ascomycetes)

Tang and Chen, 

1997

Yes (Farr 

and 

Rossman, 

2012)

U Fruit (Farr and 

Rossman, 2012)

Yes

2.2. Pest list

In Table 2, we list the actionable pests associated with apples that occur in China. The list 

comprises those actionable pests that occur in China on any host and are reported to be 

associated with apples whether in China or elsewhere in the world. For each pest, we indicate 1) 

the part of the imported plant species with which the pest is generally associated, and 2) whether 

the pest has a reasonable likelihood of being associated, in viable form, with the commodity

following harvesting from the field and prior to any post-harvest processing. We developed this 

pest list based on the scientific literature, port-of-entry pest interception data, and information 

provided by the government of China. Pests in shaded rows are pests identified for further 

evaluation, as we consider them reasonably likely to be associated with the harvested 

commodity; we summarize these pests in a separate table (Table 3).

Table 2. Actionable pests reported on Malus pumila (in any country) and present in China (on 

any host).

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

ARTHROPODS

Acari: Tenuipalpidae

Cenopalpus 

pulcher

(Canestrini & 

Fanzago)

CASI, 1994; 

Hatzinikolis and 

Emmanouel, 

1987

CASI, 1994; 

Elmosa, 1971; 

Zahar et al., 1974

Fruit, leaf, stem 

(Zahar et al., 1974)

Yes Eggs may be laid 

in crevices of 

apple fruit 

(Zahar et al., 

1974). Present in 

Oregon (Bajwa 

et al., 2001).

Cenopalpus ruber

(Wainstein)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Rahmani et al., 

2008)

No

 

4 The plant part(s) listed are those for the plant species under analysis. If the information is extrapolated, such as 

from plant part association on other plant species, this is noted.

5

“Yes” indicates simply that the pest has a reasonable likelihood of being associated with the harvested commodity; 

the level of pest prevalence on the harvested commodity (low, medium, or high) is qualitatively assessed in Risk 

Element A1 as part of the likelihood of introduction assessment (section 3).
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 13

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Tenuipalpus 

taonicus Ma & 

Yuan

Ma and Yuan, 

1980

Ma and Yuan, 

1980

Fruit and leaf may 

be typical feeding 

sites of species of 

Tenuipalpus

(Jeppson et al., 

1975; Hill, 1983).

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Acari: Tetranychidae

Amphitetranychus 

viennensis

(Zacher) (= 

Tetranychus 

viennensis

Zacher)

Bolland et al., 

1998; CASI, 

1994; High, 2008

Bolland et al., 

1998; CASI, 1994; 

High, 2008

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Bryobia graminum

(Schrank)

Bolland et al., 

1998

Bolland et al., 

1998; Jeppson et 

al., 1975

Leaf (Jeppson et al., 

1975)

No

Oligonychus 

biharensis

(Hirst)

Bolland et al., 

1998

Bolland et al., 

1998

Feeds on leaves of 

mango and loquat 

(Jeppson et al., 

1975).

No Present in 

Hawaii (Bolland 

et al., 1998).

Tetranychus 

truncatus Ehara

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, leaf (Lee and 

Lee, 1997)

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Coleoptera: Buprestidae

Agrilus auriventris

Saunders

CASI, 1994; Hill, 

1983

CASI, 1994 Agrilus spp. pupate 

in stems of host 

plants and feed on 

foliage (Hill, 1983).

No

Agrilus mali

Matsumura

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Agrilus spp. pupate 

in stems of host 

plants and feed on 

foliage (Hill, 1983).

No

Chrysobothris 

affinis (F.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Chrysobothris larvae 

tunnel stems and 

adults feed on leaves 

of host plants (Hill, 

1987).

No

Chrysobothris 

succedanea

Saunders

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Chrysobothris larvae 

tunnel stems and 

adults feed on leaves 

of host plants (Hill, 

1987).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 14

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Ovalisia bellula

(Lewis) (= 

Poecilonota 

bellula Lewis)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Species of 

Poecilonota

typically attack 

stems (Baker, 1972).

No

Scintillatrix (= 

Lampra, 

Lamprodila) 

limbata (Gebler)

CASI, 1994; 

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; High, 

2008

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Coleoptera: Cerambycidae

Aeolesthes 

holosericea (F.)

Hua, 2002 Bhardwaj and 

Bhardwaj, 1983; 

Nair, 1975

Stem (Bhardwaj and

Bhardwaj, 1983; 

Nair, 1975)

No

Aeolesthes sarta

(Solsky)

Hua, 2002 CABI, 2012 Stem (CABI, 2012) No

Allotraeus 

rubriventris

Gressitt

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Anoplophora 

chinensis

(Forster)

CABI, 2012 CABI, 2012 Leaf, root, stem 

(CABI, 2012)

No

Anoplophora 

davidis

(Fairmaire)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Anoplophora

typically attack 

stems (Lingafelter 

and Hoebeke, 2002).

No

Anoplophora 

glabripennis

(Motschulsky)

CABI, 2012; 

Hua, 2002

CABI, 2012; Hua, 

2002

Stem (CABI, 2012) No Restricted 

distribution and 

under eradication 

in the United 

States (7 CFR 

301.44, 2013).

Anoplophora 

macularia

(Thomson) (= A. 

malasiaca

[Thomson])

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Stem (Chang, 1975) No

Anoplophora 

nobilis

(Ganglbauer)

CABI, 2012; 

Shang et al., 2000

Shang et al., 2000 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 15

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Apriona germarii

(Hope)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Aromia bungii

(Faldermann)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Asias halodendri

(Pallas)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Bacchisa atritarsis

(Pic)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Bacchisa dioica

(Fairmaire)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Bacchisa fortunei

(Thomson)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Bacchisa guerryi

(Pic)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Bandar pascoei

(Lansberge) (= 

Macrotoma 

fisheri

Waterhouse)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Batocera davidis

Deyrolle

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 16

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Batocera horsfieldi

(Hope)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Batocera rubus

(L.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem (CABI, 

2012)

No

Batocera 

rufomaculata

(De Geer)

CABI, 2012; Hill, 

1983

Hill, 1983 Root, stem (CABI, 

2012; Hill, 1983)

No

Cataphrodisium 

rubripenne

(Hope)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Ceresium sinicum

White

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Kojima, 1931) No

Chelidonium 

quadricolle

Bates

Hua, 2002 AQIS, 1998 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Chlorophorus 

annularis (F.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Chlorophorus 

diadema

(Motschulsky)

Hua, 2002 AQIS, 1998 Stem of various host 

plants (Shen and Li, 

1983).

No

Chlorophorus 

motschulskyi

(Ganglbauer)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Chlorophorus

separatus

Gressitt

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Chlorophorus 

varius (Müller)

Hua, 2002 Avidov and 

Harpaz, 1969

Stem (Avidov and 

Harpaz, 1969)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 17

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Dorysthenes 

huegelii 

Redtenbacher

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Dorysthenes 

hydropictus

(Pascoe)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Lamiomimus 

gottschei Kolbe

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Linda atricornis

Pic

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Linda femorata

(Chevrolat)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Linda fraterna

(Chevrolat)

Hua, 2002 High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf, stem (High, 

2008)

No

Linda gracilicornis

Pic

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Linda nigroscutata

(Fairmaire) (= 

Miocris 

nigroscutatus

Fairmaire)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Stem (Nair, 1975) No

Mantitheus 

pekinensis

Fairmaire

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 18

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Massicus raddei

(Blessig) (= 

Mallambyx 

raddei Blessig)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Megopis sinica

(White)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Bores into the wood 

of host plants 

(Kojima, 1931).

No

Menesia 

sulphurata

(Gebler)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Mesosa japonica

Bates

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Mesosa myops

(Dalman)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Mesosa stictica

Blanchard

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Monochamus 

alternatus Hope

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Hill, 1983) No

Monochamus 

guerryi Pic

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Hill, 1983) No

Nadezhdiella aurea

Gressitt

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Neocerambyx 

mandarinus

Gressitt

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 19

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Nupserha 

marginella

(Bates)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Oberea formosana

Pic

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Oberea

typically attack 

stems (Hill, 1983).

No

Oberea japonica

(Thunberg)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Oberea

typically attack 

stems (Hill, 1983).

No

Oberea nigriventris

Bates

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Oberea

typically attack 

stems (Hill, 1983).

No

Parechthistatus 

chinensis

Breuning

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Phymatodes 

hauseri (Pic)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Plagionotus 

christophi 

(Kraatz)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Prionus insularis

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Kojima, 1929) No

Psacothea hilaris

(Pascoe)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Stem (Watari et al., 

2002)

No

Pseudanaesthetis 

langana Pic

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Pterolophia 

annulata

(Chevrolat)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Stem (Dubey et al., 

1976)

No

Pterolophia zonata

(Bates)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Tanaka, 1930) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 20

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Purpuricenus 

lituratus

Ganglbauer (= P. 

petasifer 

Fairmaire)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Trichoferus 

campestris

(Faldermann) (= 

Hesperophanes

campestris

Faldermann)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Stem (Krivosheina 

and Tokgaev, 1985)

No

Turanium johannis

Baeckmann

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Turanium scabrum

(Kraatz)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cerambycidae 

typically attack 

stems (Gressitt, 

1951).

No

Xylotrechus 

chinensis

(Chevrolat)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Xylotrechus

typically attack 

stems (Baker, 1972; 

Hill, 1983).

No

Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Agelastica 

coerulea (Baly)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Park et al., 

2004)

No

Anadimonia 

potanini

Ogloblin

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Atrachya (= 

Luperodes) 

menetriesi

(Faldermann)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Kanno, 1996) No

Aulacophora 

indica (Gmelin) 

(= A. femoralis

[Motschulsky])

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (Abe and 

Matsuda, 2005)

No

Aulacophora lewisi

Baly

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Abe and 

Matsuda, 2005)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 21

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Basilepta fulvipes

(Motschulsky) 

(= Nodostoma

fulvipes

Motschulsky)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (Yuasa, 1934) No

Basiprionota 

bisignata

(Boheman)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Cassida nucula

Spaeth

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of Cassida

typically feed on 

leaves (Hill, 1987).

No

Chlamisus 

velutinomaculat

us Gressitt

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Cleoporus 

variabilis (Baly) 

(= Paria 

variabilis Baly)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Yuasa, 1934) No

Cleorina 

aeneomicans

(Baly)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Clytrasoma 

palliatum (F.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Colasposoma 

dauricum

Mannerheim

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 22

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Cryptocephalus 

approximatus

Baly

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Cryptocephalus 

fortunatus Baly

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Cryptocephalus 

sexpunctatus

(L.) (= C. 6-

punctatus [L.])

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Dactylispa 

angulosa

(Solsky)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Dactylispa typically 

feed on leaves (Hill, 

1983).

No

Dactylispa 

chatutanga

Maulik

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Dactylispa typically 

feed on leaves (Hill, 

1983).

No

Dactylispa excisa

(Kraatz)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Dactylispa typically 

feed on leaves (Hill, 

1983).

No

Dactylispa 

subquadrata

(Baly)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Kamata, 2002) No

Doryidomorpha 

nigripennis

Laboissiere

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Fleutiauxia armata

(Baly)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 23

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Lochmaea capreae

(L.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Geiser and 

Herr, 1996)

No

Luperus cavicollis

Chen

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Lypesthes ater

(Motschulsky)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Lypesthes basalis

Chen

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Malaxioides 

grandicornis

Fairmaire

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Meristata spilota

Hope (= Merista

trifasciata Hope)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Nair, 1975) No

Meristoides 

oberthuri

(Jacoby)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Metriona thais

(Boheman)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Yuasa, 1931) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 24

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Mimastra cyanura

(Hope)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002; Nair, 

1975

Fruit (Nair, 1975); 

species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No Adults, which 

are moderately 

large (HNNW, 

2006) insects, 

may damage 

fruits (Nair, 

1975), but are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with fruit at 

harvest.

Mimastra grahami

Gressitt & 

Kimoto

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Mimastra limbata

Baly

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Neocrepidodera (= 

Asiorestia) 

obscuritarsis

(Motschulsky)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Nonarthra 

postfasciata 

(Fairmaire)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Chrysomelidae 

typically feed on 

leaves (Baker, 1972; 

Metcalf and Metcalf, 

1993).

No

Oides 

decempunctata

(Billberg)

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Phyllobrotica 

ornata Baly

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Phyllobrotica

typically feed on 

leaves and roots 

(Farrell and Mitter, 

1990).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 25

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Plagiodera 

cupreata Chen

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Plagiodera typically 

feed on leaves 

(Baker, 1972; Hill, 

1983).

No

Platycorynus 

plebejus (Weise)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Platycorynus

typically feed on 

leaves (Mondal et 

al., 2004).

No

Pyrrhalta 

semifulva

(Jacoby) (= 

Tricholochmaea

semifulva

Jacoby)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Pyrrhalta

typically feed on 

leaves (Mattson et 

al., 1994).

No

Smaragdina 

semiaurantiaca

(Fairmaire)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Nakamura et 

al., 2003)

No

Taiwania discalis

(Gressitt) (= 

Cassida discalis

Gressitt)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Cassida

typically feed on 

leaves (Hill, 1987).

No

Taiwania (= 

Cassida) 

versicolor

(Boheman)

CASI, 1994; 

Chûjô and 

Kimoto, 1961

CASI, 1994; 

Chûjô and 

Kimoto, 1961

Leaf (Kawabe, 

2006a)

No

Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

Henosepilachna 

vigintioctomacul

-ata

(Motschulsky)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Hoshikawa, 

1983)

No

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Aclees cribratus

Gyllenhal

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Nair, 1975) No

Anthonomus 

pomorum (L.)

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007; Lind 

et al., 2003

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Lind et al., 

2003)

No Adults feed 

occasionally on 

young fruit (Lind 

et al., 2003), but 

are highly 

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 26

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Blosyrus herthus

(Herbst)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Blosyrus

typically attack 

leaves (Hill, 1983; 

Mâyné, 1914; 

Mâyné, 1917; Nair, 

1975).

No

Bothynoderes 

punctiventris

Germar

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Hill, 1983) No

Byctiscus betulae

(L.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Hill, 1987) No

Byctiscus coelulans

Voss

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Byctiscus

typically feed on 

leaves (Daanje, 

1975; Kono, 1929).

No

Byctiscus congener

(Jekel)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Kono, 1929) No

Byctiscus omissus

Voss

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Byctiscus

typically feed on 

leaves (Daanje, 

1975; Kono, 1929).

No

Byctiscus princeps

Solasky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Byctiscus

typically attack 

leaves (Daanje, 

1975; Kono, 1929).

No

Byctiscus rugosus

(Gebler)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Byctiscus

typically feed on 

leaves (Daanje, 

1975; Kono, 1929).

No

Byctiscus venustus

(Pascoe)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Kono, 1929) No

Calomycterus 

obconicus Chao

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Calomycterus

typically feed on 

leaves (Hartzell, 

1953).

No

Chlorophanus 

grandis Roelofs

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chlorophanus

typically feed on 

leaves (Maisner, 

1969).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 27

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Chlorophanus 

lineolus

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Chlorophanus

typically feed on 

leaves (Maisner, 

1969).

No

Cyllorhynchites 

auricapillus 

(Voss) (= 

Rhynchites

auricapillus 

Voss)

Hua, 2002; 

Legalov, 2007

Hua, 2002 Leaf (Legalov, 

2007) of host plants.

No

Enaptorrhinus 

sinensis

Waterhouse

Han, 2002; Hua, 

2002

Hua, 2002 Generally described 

as forest pests, and 

are therefore most 

likely to affect stem 

(Han, 2002).

No

Episomus 

kwanhsiensis

Heller

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, root (Zhou, 

1988)

No

Ergania doriae

Faust

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf, stem, and seed 

reported to be fed 

upon by species of 

Curculioninae, the 

subfamily to which 

species of Ergania

belong (Anderson, 

2002).

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Hyperstylus 

pallipes Roelofs 

(= Myllocerus 

pallipes

[Roelofs])

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Myllocerus typically 

feed on leaves and 

roots (Hill, 1983; 

Hill, 1987).

No

Hypomeces 

squamosus (F.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Hill, 1983; 

Hill, 1987)

No

Leptomias acutus

Aslam

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Leptomias reported 

to feed on leaves 

(Karpova, 1945).

No

Leptomias 

longicollis Chao

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Lu, 2005) No

Leptomias 

longisetosus

Chao

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Leptomias reported 

to feed on leaves 

(Karpova, 1945).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 28

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Lixus obliquivittis

Voss

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Lixus

reported to feed on 

leaves and stems 

(Hill, 1987).

No

Paracentrocorynus 

nigricollis

(Roelofs)

Hua, 2002 AQIS, 1998; 

GESRI, 2002; 

Hua, 2002

Leaf (AQIS, 1998) No

Paracycnotrachelus longiceps

(Motschulsky)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (NIAST, 2005) No

Paratrachelophorus longicornis

(Roelofs)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Kawabe, 

2006d)

No

Peribleptus 

foveatus (Voss) 

(= P. forcatus

Voss)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, leaf, seed, and 

stem reported to be 

fed upon by species 

of Molytinae, the 

subfamily to which 

species of 

Peribleptus belong 

(Anderson, 2002).

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Phyllobius 

longicornis

Roelofs

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Hill, 1987) No

Phyllobius pruni

Matsumura

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Hill, 1987) No

Phytoscaphus 

gossypii Chao

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (CGRIS, 

2002b)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 29

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Piazomias validus

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002; Lou 

and Li, 1990

Hua, 2002 Fruit (You, 2004) No You (2004) 

indicates only 

adults affect the 

fruit, and are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with harvested 

fruit. We found 

no additional 

information that 

this pest may 

normally be 

associated with 

apple fruit, so we 

concluded that it 

is unlikely to be 

a significant 

apple pest. 

Platymycteropsis 

ignarus Faust

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Platymycteropsis

reported to feed on 

leaves (CFN, 2006).

No

Rhamphus 

pulicarius

(Herbst) (= R. 

pullus Hustache)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Morimoto, 

1984)

No

Rhynchites auratus

(Scopoli)

Alonso-Zarazaga, 

2011; CASI, 

1994; Hukui and 

Yixiang, 1999

CASI, 1994; 

Khairushev, 1970

Fruit (Khairushev, 

1970)

Yes

Rhynchites bacchus

(L.)

Alonso-Zarazaga, 

2011; CASI, 

1994; Hua, 2002

de Stefani, 1918; 

Hua, 2002

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Lazarevic, 

1957)

Yes

Rhynchites 

giganteus

Krynicky

Alonso-Zarazaga, 

2011; CASI, 

1994; Hua, 2002

Hua, 2002 Fruit (Schreiner, 

1914) of pears

Yes

Rhynchites heros

Roelofs (= R. 

foveipennis

Fairmaire, R.

koreanus

(coreanus) 

Kono)

CASI, 1994; 

Hanson, 1963; 

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002; Lu and Liu, 

2002

Anonymous, 

1958; CASI, 1994; 

Clausen, 1931; 

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Fruit (Katsumata, 

1934; Kondo and 

Miyahara, 1930;

Muramatsu, 1925; 

Tseng and Ho, 1937)

Yes

Scepticus insularis

(Roelofs)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Kaneno, 1927) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 30

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Scepticus tigrinus

(Roelofs)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Katsumata, 

1936)

No

Scythropus 

yasumatsui

Kono & 

Morimoto

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Li and Zhang, 

1985)

No

Stelorrhynoides

freyi (Zumpt) (= 

Stelorrhinus 

chinensis

Zumpt)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaves are typically 

fed upon by species 

of Cyphicerini, the 

tribe to which S. feyi

belongs (Anderson, 

2002).

No

Sympiezomias 

lewisi (Roelofs)

Hua, 2002; Hung, 

1966; Shi, 2005

Hua, 2002 Fruit, leaf, stem 

(Hung, 1966; Shi, 

2005)

No Adults may feed 

on young fruit 

(Hung, 1966; 

Shi, 2005), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Sympiezomias 

velatus

(Chevrolat)

CASI, 1994; Guo 

et al., 1998; High, 

2008

CASI, 1994; High, 

2008

Leaf, root, stem 

(Schmutzenhofer et 

al., 1996)

No

Tanymecus 

circumdatus

(Wiedemann)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Nair, 1975) No

Tanymecus 

urbanus

Gyllenhal

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of 

Tanymecus typically 

feed on leaves (Nair, 

1975; Hill, 1983; 

Hill, 1987).

No

Xylinophorus 

mongolicus

(Faust)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem (CGRIS, 

2002d)

No

Coleoptera: Elateridae

Agriotes 

subvittatus

Motschulsky (= 

A. fuscicollis 

Miwa)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Root (Kuwayama, 

1937)

No

Lacon binodulus

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Lacon

typically feed on 

roots (Hill, 1983; 

Hill, 1987).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 31

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Melanotus caudex

Lewis

CASI, 1994; 

Uchida and 

Ogaki, 1967

CASI, 1994 Species of 

Melanotus reported 

to feed on 

inflorescence and 

roots (Hill, 1983).

No

Melanotus legatus

Candèze

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Melanotus reported 

to feed on 

inflorescence and 

roots (Hill, 1983).

No

Pleonomus 

canaliculatus

(Faldermann)

High, 2008; Hua,

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Root (High, 2008) No

Coleoptera: Lucanidae

Lucanus furcifer

Arrow

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Lucanus

typically feed on 

stems (Baker, 1972).

No

Lucanus 

maculifemoratus

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (NIAST, 

2006b)

No

Prosopocoilus (= 

Psalidoremus) 

inclinatus

(Motschulsky)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Stem (Kawabe, 

2006f)

No

Coleoptera: Meloidae

Mylabris calida

(Pallas) (= 

Meloe calida

Pallas)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Mylabris

typically feed on 

inflorescence and 

leaves (Hill, 1983; 

Hill, 1987).

No

Mylabris cichorii

(L.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Mylabris

typically feed on 

inflorescence and 

leaves (Hill, 1983; 

Hill, 1987).

No

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

Adoretus puberulus

Motschulsky

DAFF, 2009 DAFF, 2009 Leaf (DAFF, 2009) No

Adoretus sinicus

Burmeister

CASI, 1994; 

Gordon, 1988

CASI, 1994 Leaf (Gordon, 1988) No Present in HI 

(Nishida, 2002).

Adoretus 

tenuimaculatus

Waterhouse

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Hill, 1983) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 32

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Anomala 

albopilosa

(Hope)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Hiramatsu et 

al., 2001)

No

Anomala 

corpulenta

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Kuoh and 

Chang, 1959)

No

Anomala cuprea

Hope

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Katsumata, 

1929)

No

Anomala daimiana

Harold

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Anomala ebenina

Fairmaire

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Anomala exoleta

Faldermann

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Anomala 

geniculata

(Motschulsky)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 33

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Anomala heydeni

Frivaldszky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Anomala 

idiocnema

Burmeister (= A. 

sulcipennis

Faldermann)

CASI, 1994; 

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; High, 

2008; Hua, 2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Anomala 

mongolica

Faldermann

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Anomala 

octiescostata

Burmeister

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Anomala rufithorax

Ohaus

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Anomala 

rufiventris

Redtenbacher

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Nair, 1975) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 34

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Anomala 

rufocuprea

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Kuwana and 

Tanaka, 1927)

No

Anomala sauteri

Ohaus

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Anomala sieversi

Heyden

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Anomala sinica

Arrow

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Anomala 

variivestis

Arrow

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Nair, 1975) No

Apogonia 

cupreoviridis

Kolbe

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (NIAST, 

2006a)

No

Apogonia pilifera

Moser

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Apogonia

typically feed on 

leaves (Hill, 1983).

No

Brahmina 

faldermanni

Kraatz

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Brahmina 

intermedia

(Mannerheim)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Brahmina

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apple 

(Hill, 1983).

No Adults may 

damage 

developing apple 

fruit (Hill, 1983), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 35

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Callistethus 

plagicollis

Fairmaire (= 

Anomala 

plagiicollis

Fairmaire)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Anomala

typically feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves of apples 

(Hill, 1983; Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Catharsius 

molossus (L.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002; Nair, 

1975

Fruit (Nair, 1975) No Although adults 

may damage 

apple fruit (Nair, 

1975), these 

beetles are 

considered 

primarily 

coprophagous 

(Holloway et al., 

1992). They are 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Cetonia auratus

(L.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Inflorescence (Hill, 

1987)

No

Cetonia magnifica

Ballion

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Inflorescence (Luo 

et al., 1998)

No

Cetonia roelofsi

Harold

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Inflorescence 

(Kawabe, 2006b)

No

Cyriopertha 

arcuata (Gebler)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Hill, 1987; Ratcliffe 

et al., 2002)

No Feeding sites 

typical of species 

of Rutelinae 

(Hill, 1987; 

Ratcliffe et al., 

2002), the 

subfamily to 

which the 

species belongs.

Ectinohoplia 

rufipes

(Motschulsky)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Engel’hardt, 

1927)

No

Glycyphana 

fulvistemma

Motschulsky

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence 

(Engel’hardt, 1927)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 36

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Heptophylla picea

Motschulsky

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Nishigaki, 

1988)

No

Hilyotrogus 

longiclavis Bates

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Hilyotrogus

typically attack 

leaves (Chowdhuri 

and Verma, 1979).

No

Hilyotrogus 

unguicularis

Fairmaire

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Hilyotrogus

typically attack 

leaves (Chowdhuri 

and Verma, 1979).

No

Holotrichia 

aequabilis Bates

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Holotrichia reported 

to attack fruit and 

leaves of apple (Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Holotrichia 

cochinchina

(Nonfried)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Holotrichia reported 

to attack fruit and 

leaves of apple (Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Holotrichia 

convexopyga

Moser

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Holotrichia 

diomphalia

(Bates)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Engel’hardt, 

1927)

No

Holotrichia 

kiotoensis

Brenske

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Holotrichia reported 

to attack fruit and 

leaves of apple (Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 37

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Holotrichia 

kunmina Chang

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Holotrichia reported 

to attack fruit and 

leaves of apple (Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Holotrichia lata

Brenske

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Holotrichia reported 

to attack fruit and 

leaves of apple (Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Holotrichia 

maxima Chang

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Holotrichia reported 

to attack fruit and 

leaves of apple (Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Holotrichia oblita

(Faldermann)

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Holotrichia 

parallela

(Motschulsky)

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Holotrichia 

pilipyga Chang

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Holotrichia reported 

to attack fruit and 

leaves of apple (Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Holotrichia sauteri

Moser

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Inflorescence, leaf

(Huang and Lin, 

1987)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 38

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Holotrichia 

scrobiculata

Brenske

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Holotrichia reported 

to attack fruit and 

leaves of apple (Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Holotrichia titanis

(Reitter)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Holotrichia reported 

to attack fruit and 

leaves of apple (Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Holotrichia 

trichophora

(Fairmaire)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Holotrichia reported 

to attack fruit and 

leaves of apple (Hill, 

1987).

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Hoplosternus 

incanus

Motschulsky

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (CAS, 2006) No

Hoplosternus 

japonicus Harold

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf. Feeding sites 

typical of species of 

Melolonthinae (Hill, 

1987; Ratcliffe et al., 

2002), the subfamily 

to which the species 

belongs.

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 39

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Hoplosternus 

nepalensis

(Hope)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf. Feeding sites 

typical of species of 

Melolonthinae (Hill, 

1987; Ratcliffe et al., 

2002), the subfamily 

to which the species 

belongs.

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Maladera japonica

(Motschulsky) 

(= Aserica 

japonica

Motschulsky)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Tamura, 1939) No

Maladera 

orientalis

(Motschulsky) 

(= Serica 

orientalis

Motschulsky, S. 

salebrosa

Brenske)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Fruit, leaf, root (Hill, 

1987; Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993)

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Maladera ovatula

(Fairmaire)

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Maladera verticalis

(Fairmaire)

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Melolontha 

furcicauda

Ancey

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit (Nair, 1975) No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Melolontha 

hippocastani F.

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, leaf (Hill, 

1987)

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 40

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Melolontha 

japonica

Burmeister

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, leaf (Hill, 

1987)

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Melolontha 

melolontha (L.)

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf, root (CABI, 

2007)

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Metabolus 

flavescens

Brenske

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Metabolus 

tumidifrons

Fairmaire (= M. 

impressifrons

Fairmaire)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Shang, 1981) No

Mimela 

holosericea (F.) 

(= Rhombonyx 

holosericea F.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Zhao et al., 

1992)

No

Mimela ohausi

Arrow

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Mimela

reported to attack 

inflorescence, 

leaves, and roots 

(Hill, 1987; Nair, 

1975).

No

Mimela passerini

Hope

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Nair, 1975) No

Mimela pasva L. High, 2008 High, 2008 Leaf (High, 2008) No Probably a 

misspelling of 

Mimela parva, 

which occurs in 

China (Hua, 

2002).
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 41

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Mimela pekinensis

(Heyden)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Mimela

reported to attack 

inflorescence, 

leaves, and roots 

(Hill, 1987; Nair, 

1975).

No

Mimela specularis

Ohaus

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Mimela

reported to attack 

inflorescence, 

leaves, and roots 

(Hill, 1987; Nair, 

1975).

No

Mimela splendens

(Gyllenhal)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Kawabe, 

2006c)

No

Mimela testaceipes

Motschulsky

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Foruno and 

Uenaka, 1976)

No

Mimela 

testaceoviridis

Blanchard

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Oxycetonia bealiae

(Gory & 

Percheron)

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Inflorescence (High, 

2008)

No

Oxycetonia (= 

Gametis) 

jucunda

(Faldermann)

DAFF, 2009; 

Hua, 2002

DAFF, 2009; Hua, 

2002; Li et al., 

2005

Inflorescence, leaf 

(DAFF, 2009)

No

Phyllopertha 

diversa

Waterhouse

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (High, 2008)

No Adults may feed 

on developing 

fruit (High, 

2008), but are 

highly unlikely 

to be present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Phyllopertha 

horticola (L.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Hill, 1987)

No Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 42

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Phyllopertha 

pubicollis 

Waterhouse

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Hill, 1987; Ratcliffe 

et al., 2002)

No Feeding sites

typical of species 

of Rutelinae 

(Hill, 1987; 

Ratcliffe et al., 

2002), the 

subfamily to 

which the 

species belongs.

Poecilophilides 

rusticola

(Burmeister)

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Fruit, inflorescence 

(High, 2008)

No Adults are 

reported to feed 

on ripe apple 

fruit (High, 

2008), but are 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Polyphylla alba

Pallas

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Polyphylla reported 

to attack leaves (e.g., 

P. fullo; Hill, 1987).

No

Polyphylla 

laticollis Lewis

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Li, 1984b) No

Popillia cyanea

Hope

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Inflorescence (Nair, 

1975)

No

Popillia 

flavosellata

Fairmaire (= P. 

atrocoerulea 

Bates)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Inflorescence, leaf 

(CGRIS, 2002c)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 43

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Popillia japonica

Newman

Hill, 1987 Hill, 1987 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Hill, 1987)

No Pest is under 

official control 

in the United 

States (7 CFR 

301.48). Adults, 

moderately large 

beetles (8.5-15.9

mm; Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993), 

may feed on the 

surface of ripe 

fruit (Hill, 1987; 

Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993), 

but are highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Popillia mutans

Newman

CASI, 1994; Sun 

et al., 2006

CASI, 1994 Inflorescence, leaf

(Lee et al., 2002)

No

Popillia 

quadriguttata

(F.)

DAFF, 2009 DAFF, 2009 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (DAFF, 2009)

No Adults may feed 

superficially on 

apple fruit 

(DAFF, 2009), 

but are highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Potosia (= 

Protaetia) 

aerata

(Erichson)

CASI, 1994; 

High, 2008

CASI, 1994; High, 

2008

Fruit, inflorescence 

(High, 2008; Hill, 

1987). 

No Adults may feed 

on soft, over-ripe 

fruit (Hill, 1987), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on fruit 

of marketable 

quality.

Potosia (= Liocola, 

Netocia, 

Protaetia) 

brevitarsis

(Lewis) (= 

Cetonia

brevitarsis

Lewis)

DAFF, 2009; 

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

DAFF, 2009; 

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Fruit, inflorescence 

(High, 2008; Hong 

and Liu, 2004)

No Adults may feed 

on soft, over-ripe 

fruit (Hill, 1987), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on fruit 

of marketable 

quality.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 44

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Potosia famelica

(Janson)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, inflorescence. 

Fruit is typically 

attacked by species 

of Cetoniinae (Hill, 

1987), the subfamily 

to which the species 

belongs.

Adults may feed 

on soft, over-ripe 

fruit (Hill, 1987), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on fruit 

of marketable 

quality.

Potosia 

marginicollis

(Ballion)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit (Plotnikov, 

1914)

No Adults may feed 

on fruits 

damaged by 

other pests 

(Plotnikov, 

1914), but are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with fruit of 

marketable 

quality.

Potosia speculifera

Swartz

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, inflorescence. 

Fruit is typically 

attacked by species 

of Cetoniinae (Hill, 

1987), the subfamily 

to which the species 

belongs.

No Adults may feed 

on soft, over-ripe 

fruit (Hill, 1987), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on fruit 

of marketable 

quality.

Proagopertha 

lucidula

(Faldermann)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Lee et al., 1973)

No

Proagopertha 

pubicollis

Waterhouse

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Hill, 1987; Ratcliffe 

et al., 2002)

No Feeding sites 

typical of 

Rutelinae (Hill, 

1987; Ratcliffe 

et al., 2002), the 

subfamily to 

which the 

species belongs.

Protaetia orientalis

(Gory & 

Percheron)

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

Inflorescence (High, 

2008)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 45

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Rhomborrhina 

fulvopilosa

(Moser)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit is typically 

attacked by species 

of Cetoniinae (Hill, 

1987), the subfamily 

to which the species 

belongs.

No Adults may feed 

on soft, over-ripe 

fruit (Hill, 1987), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on fruit 

of marketable 

quality.

Rhomborrhina

opalina (Hope) 

(= Torynorrhina

opalina Hope)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002; 

Akademia_Rolnic

za, 2003

Fruit (Nair, 1975) No Pest feeds 

externally on 

fruit (Nair, 

1975), but is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest and postharvest 

processing.

Rhomborrhina 

unicolor

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Kawabe, 

2006g)

No Adults are 

reported to feed 

on sap (Kawabe, 

2006g).

Sericania 

fuscolineata

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Hill, 1987; 

Ratcliffe et al., 

2002)

No Feeding sites 

typical of species 

of Melolonthinae 

(Hill, 1987; 

Ratcliffe et al., 

2002), the 

subfamily to 

which the 

species belongs. 

Adults may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly 

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit.

Trematodes 

tenebrioides

(Pallas)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, stem (Xue et 

al., 1981)

No

Trigonophorus 

nepalensis Hope

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Inflorescence 

(Hooker, 1854)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 46

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Trigonophorus 

saundersi

Westwood

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, inflorescence 

(Hill, 1987)

No Plant parts 

typically 

attacked by 

species of 

Cetoniinae (Hill, 

1987), the 

subfamily to 

which the 

species belongs. 

Adults may feed 

on soft, over-ripe 

fruit (Hill, 1987), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on fruit 

of marketable 

quality.

Trigonophorus 

xizangensis 

Zhang & Ma

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, inflorescence 

(Hill, 1987)

No Plant parts 

typically 

attacked by 

species of 

Cetoniinae (Hill, 

1987), the 

subfamily to 

which the 

species belongs. 

Adults may feed 

on soft, over-ripe 

fruit (Hill, 1987), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on fruit 

of marketable 

quality.

Xylotrupes gideon

(L.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, leaf, stem 

(Joshi and Mitra, 

1983; Nair, 1975; 

Wongdao and Black, 

1987)

No Adults are large 

beetles (length: 

42-79 mm; 

Bedford, 1974), 

and are highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest 

and post-harvest 

processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 47

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Coleoptera: Scolytidae

Cryphalus malus

Niijima

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Cryphalus typically 

attack stems (Baker, 

1972).

No

Euwallacea aquilus

(Blandford) (= 

Xyleborus 

aquilus

Blandford)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Xyleborus

typically attack 

stems (Hill, 1987).

No

Hylastes ater

(Paykull)

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 All species of 

Hylastes breed in the 

phloem of stumps 

and roots of host 

plants (Anderson, 

2002).

No

Scolytoplatypus 

mikado

(Blandford)

Hua, 2002 AQIS, 1998; Hua, 

2002

Stem (AQIS, 1998; 

Kinuura and Hijii, 

1991)

No

Scolytoplatypus 

raja Blandford

Hua, 2002 Bhardwaj and

Bhardwaj, 1983; 

Hua, 2002

Stem (Bhardwaj and

Bhardwaj, 1983; 

Nair, 1975)

No

Scolytus aratus

Blandford

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (KISTI, 2006) No

Scolytus japonicus

Chapuis

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Lindemann, 

1978)

No

Trypodendron 

signatum (F.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Gaubicher et 

al., 2003; Osumi and 

Mizuno, 1992)

No

Xyleborus 

adumbratus

Blandford

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of Xyleborus

typically attack 

stems (Hill, 1987).

No

Xylosandrus 

semiopacus

(Eichhoff)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Braza, 1995) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 48

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae

Cerogria popularis

Borchmann

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Nair, 1975; Aalbu 

et al., 2002)

No Plant parts 

reported to be 

attacked by 

species of 

Cerogria and 

other Lagriinae 

(Nair, 1975; 

Aalbu et al., 

2002). Although 

there is a report 

of Cerogria 

nepalensis

damaging apple 

fruit (Nair, 

1975), injury 

probably is 

superficial, as 

Lagriinae 

typically are 

found externally 

on host plants 

(Aalbu et al., 

2002). There is 

no available 

evidence to 

suggest C. 

popularis is 

associated with 

fruit.

Gonocephalum 

recticolle

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Species of 

Gonocephalum

typically attack 

stems (Hill, 1983).

No

Gonocephalum 

reticulatum

Motschulsky (= 

G. mongolicum

Reitter)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Species of 

Gonocephalum

typically attack 

stems (Hill, 1983).

No

Opatrum 

subaratum

Faldermann

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf 

(Guangdong_Provin

ce, 2006)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 49

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Diptera: Tephritidae

Bactrocera 

dorsalis

(Hendel)

CASI, 1994; Ye 

and Liu, 2005

Ye and Liu, 2005 Fruit (Ye and Liu, 

2005)

Yes Present in 

Hawaii.

Bactrocera 

occipitalis 

(Bezzi)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit (Drew and 

Hancock, 1994)

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Bactrocera 

pedestris (Bezzi)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit (Drew and 

Hancock, 1994)

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Heteroptera: Acanthosomatidae

Acanthosoma 

denticaudum

Jakovlev

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit reported as 

feeding site for 

species of 

Acanthosoma

(Soerum, 1977).

No At a length of 

14-18 mm 

(Kawabe, 

2009a), this 

externally 

feeding insect is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest and postharvest 

processing.

Sastragala 

scutellata (Scott)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit (Kudo, 2001) No Adults are 

moderately large 

(12-14 mm in 

length; Kawabe, 

2009h), 

externally 

feeding insects 

(Kudo, 2001), 

and are highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest 

and post-harvest 

processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 50

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Heteroptera: Alydidae

Riptortus clavatus

(Thunberg)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit, stem (Choi et 

al., 2000; Panizzi et 

al., 2000b)

No Species of 

Riptortus

reportedly are 

not usually 

transported with 

plants or plant 

products (CABI, 

2007); Riptortus

clavatus, a 

moderately 

large, externally 

feeding insect 

(adult length: 14-

17 mm; CABI, 

2007), is highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Riptortus pedestris

(F.)

DAFF, 2009 DAFF, 2009 Fruit, leaf (DAFF, 

2009)

No Although adults 

and nymphs of 

R. pedestris may 

suck sap from 

apple fruit 

(DAFF, 2009), 

individuals are 

active insects 

(Tabuchi et al., 

2007), and 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Heteroptera: Berytidae

Gampsocoris 

pulchellus 

(Dallas)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf, stem (Yang, 

1982)

No

Yemma signatus

(Hsiao)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf, stem (Yang, 

1982)

No

Heteroptera: Coreidae

Anoplocnemis 

phasiana (F.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Hill, 1987) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 51

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Cletus punctiger

(Dallas)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Uncertain. Fruit, 

seed (Ding et al., 

2004; Numata, 

2004) of various 

host plants

No Pest is largely 

restricted to 

hosts within 

Poaceae 

(grasses) (Miller, 

1931; Ito, 1989), 

although it is 

recorded on 

Fabaceae, 

Polygonaceae, 

and Cyperaceae 

(Mitchell, 2000). 

Apple appears to 

be an incidental 

host.

Cletus trigonus 

(Thunberg)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

CASI, 1994 Uncertain. Leaf, 

seed (Mitchell, 

2000) of various 

host plants

No Pest appears to 

be restricted 

largely to 

herbaceous hosts 

(Mitchell, 2000), 

particularly 

Oryza sativa

(rice) (e.g., 

Ferreira et al., 

2001). Apple 

appears to be an 

incidental host.

Homoeocerus 

unipunctatus

(Thunberg)

AQIS, 1998; 

Hua, 2000

AQIS, 1998; Hua, 

2000

Leaf (AQIS, 1998; 

Gifu_University, 

2006)

No

Heteroptera: Cydnidae

Geotomus 

pygmaeus

(Dallas)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Root (Hua, 2000; 

Nishida, 2002)

No Present in HI 

(Nishida, 2002)

Heteroptera: Largidae

Physopelta 

cincticollis Stål

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Inflorescence 

(Kawabe, 2006e)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 52

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Heteroptera: Lygaeidae

Geocoris proteus 

Distant

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Species of Geocoris

are reported to feed 

on fruit, 

inflorescence, leaf, 

stem, and seed of 

various host plants 

(Crocker and 

Whitcomb, 1980; 

Sweet, 2000).

No Geocoris proteus

is primarily a 

predator (e.g., 

Saito et al., 

2005), and is 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

commonly with 

apple fruit.

Nysius plebejus

Distant

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Sweet, 2000)

No

Heteroptera: Miridae

Adelphocoris 

fasciaticollis

Reuter

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence (Wu et 

al., 2002)

No

Helopeltis antonii

Signoret

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit, leaf (Nair, 

1975). 

No Developing fruit 

may be attacked 

(Hill, 1983, 

1987). Pest is 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with mature fruit 

at harvest.

Lygus (= Orthops) 

kalmi (L.)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

Species of Lygus

reported to feed on 

fruit, inflorescence, 

and leaves (Hill, 

1987).

No Whereas 

developing apple 

fruit may be 

attacked by 

species of Lygus

(Hill, 1987), 

these insects are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with mature fruit 

at harvest.

Lygus pratensis

(L.)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Hill, 1987).

No Developing 

apple fruit may 

be attacked by 

species of Lygus

(Hill, 1987), 

these insects are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with mature fruit 

at harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 53

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Heteroptera: Pentatomidae

Aelia acuminata 

(L.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Seed (Kiseleva, 

1940)

No Species appears 

to be restricted to 

non-rosaceous 

hosts (Rider, 

2009). Host 

association may 

be inaccurate.

Aenaria lewisi

(Scott)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, stem (Aoki, 

2006)

No

Cahara jugatoria

(Lethierry) (= 

Dalpada 

jugatoria

Lethierry, D. 

taugiana Ghauri)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Species of Dalpada

reportedly attack 

fruit (Beccari and 

Fenili, 1960).

No Pest is a 

moderately large 

insect (length: 

13-15 mm) that 

lives externally 

on trees (Ghauri, 

1978). It is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Carpocoris pudicus 

(Poda) (= C. 

purpureipennis 

De Geer)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Seed (Anwar 

Cheema et al., 1973)

No Species appears 

to be restricted to 

non-rosaceous 

hosts (Rider, 

2009). Host 

association may 

be inaccurate.

Dalpada 

smaragdina 

(Walker)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Uncertain No Species appears 

to be restricted 

hosts in 

Moraceae 

(Rider, 2009). 

Host association 

may be 

inaccurate.

Additionally, 

pest is an active 

external feeder 

(Borror et al., 

1989) that would 

not remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 54

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Dolycoris 

baccarum (L.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, leaf (Soerum, 

1977; Zacher, 1922)

No Pest is an 

external feeder 

(Panizzi et al., 

2000a) that is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Dolycoris indicus

Stål

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf (Kumar and 

Ahmad, 2003)

No

Erthesina fullo

(Thunberg)

High, 2008; Hua, 

2000

Hameed, 1978; 

High, 2008; Hua, 

2000

Fruit, stem (High, 

2008)

No Pest is a large 

insect (adult 

length: 20-25

mm; Memon, 

2002) that may 

feed on 

developing fruit 

(Song and Wang, 

1993; High, 

2008). It is 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with mature fruit 

at harvest or to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Eurydema gebleri

Kolenati

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, stem (CGRIS, 

2002a)

No

Eusthenes cupreus

(Westwood) (= 

Tessaratoma 

cupreus

Westwood)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf, stem reported 

to be attacked by 

species of 

Tessaratoma (Nair, 

1975; Nguyen, 1935; 

CABI, 2007).

No Pest is an 

external feeder 

(Chen and Gu, 

2000), and is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Eysarcoris (= 

Stollia) ventralis

(Westwood)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

Stem (CABI, 2007; 

Imura, 2003)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 55

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Glaucias 

subpunctatus

(Walker)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit (Suzuki, 2005) No Species is a 

moderately large 

(adult length: 14-

17 mm; Kawabe, 

2009c), 

externallyfeeding insect, 

and is highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Halyomorpha picus

(F.)

High, 2008 High, 2008 Fruit, leaf (High, 

2008)

No Adults may 

attack young, 

developing fruit 

(Yu et al., 2002), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Homalogonia 

obtusa (Walker)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit, leaf 

(Funayama, 2002)

No Species is an 

active, 

moderately large 

(adult length: 12-

14 mm; Kawabe, 

2009d), 

externally 

feeding insect, 

and is highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Hoplistodera 

fergussoni

Distant

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaves, roots, and 

stems are sites 

typically frequented 

by phytophagous 

Pentatomidae 

(Miller, 1971).

No

Laprius varicornis

(Dallas)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaves, roots, and 

stems are sites 

typically frequented 

by phytophagous 

Pentatomidae 

(Miller, 1971).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 56

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Lelia 

decempunctata

(Motschulsky)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, stem 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2006a)

No

Menida formosa

(Westwood)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaves, roots, and 

stems are sites 

typically frequented 

by phytophagous 

Pentatomidae 

(Miller, 1971).

No

Menida violacea

Motschulsky

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2006b)

No

Nezara antennata

Scott

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, leaf (Li et al., 

2001)

No Adults may feed 

on young, 

developing fruit 

(Li et al., 2001), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Palomena 

angulosa

Motschulsky

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, leaf (Panizzi et 

al., 2000a)

No Pest is a 

moderately large 

(length: 12-16

mm; 

Doosan_Corpora

tion, 2009g), 

externally 

feeding insect 

(Panizzi et al., 

2000a) that is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Pentatoma 

japonica

(Distant)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Stem 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2006c)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 57

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Pentatoma rufipes

(L.)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit, leaf, stem 

(Schuhmacher, 

1918)

No Pest is an 

external feeder 

(Schuhmacher, 

1918) that is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Pentatoma 

semiannulata

(Motschulsky)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf, stem 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2006d)

No

Plautia stali Scott Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit (Panizzi et al., 

2000a)

No Present in 

Hawaii (Nishida, 

2002). Pest is a 

moderately large 

(length: 11 mm; 

Kawabe, 2009g), 

externally 

feeding insect 

that is highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Rhaphigaster 

brevispina

Horvath (= R. 

nebulosa [Poda])

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

Fruit (Viggiani and 

Mazzone, 1976)

No Pest is an 

external feeder 

(Baugnée, 2003), 

and is highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Rhynchocoris 

humeralis

(Thunberg)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit (Hill, 1983) No Pest is a large 

(length: 20-23 

mm; Hill, 1983), 

externally 

feeding insect 

that is highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 58

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Rhynchocoris 

nigridens Stål

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit feeding site 

typical of species of 

Rhynchocoris (Hill, 

1983).

No Species of 

Rhynchocoris are 

external feeders 

(Hill, 1983), and 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Rubiconia 

intermedia

(Wolff)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaves, roots, and 

stems are sites 

typically frequented 

by phytophagous 

Pentatomidae 

(Miller, 1971).

No

Stenozygum 

speciosum

(Dallas)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit and leaf 

reported to be 

attacked by species 

of Stenozygum

(Froggatt, 1919; 

Avidov and Harpaz, 

1969).

No As are all other 

species of 

Pentatominae 

(McPherson and 

McPherson, 

2000), this pest 

is an external 

feeder, and is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Tessaratoma 

quadrata Distant

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit (Nair, 1975) No Pest may attack 

young, 

developing fruit 

(Baidu, 2006), 

but is highly

unlikely to be 

associated with 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Urochela 

luteovaria

Distant

Hanson, 1963; 

Hua, 2000

Hua, 2000 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf, stem (Hanson, 

1963; Tseng and Ho, 

1937)

No Feeding causes 

premature fruit 

drop (Tseng and 

Ho, 1937). Pest 

is highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 59

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Heteroptera: Rhopalidae

Rhopalus 

maculatus 

(Fieber) (=

Aeschynteles 

maculatus 

Fieber)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Seed (Schaefer and

Kotulski, 2000)

No Species is a 

common pest of 

rice (Sweet, 

2000; Ferreira et 

al., 2001) and 

other grains and 

vegetables (Rizvi 

and Ahmad, 

2004). There is 

no evidence 

available to 

suggest that it 

may occur on 

apple.

Heteroptera: Scutelleridae

Eurygaster 

integriceps

Puton

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, stem (Javahery 

et al., 2000)

No

Heteroptera: Tingidae

Leptoypha capitata

(Jakovlev)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaves reported to 

be attacked by 

species of Leptoypha

(Neal and Schaefer, 

2000).

No

Stephanitis 

ambigua

Horvath

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf (Clausen, 1931) No

Stephanitis nashi

Esaki & Takeya

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf (Drake and 

Hsiung, 1936)

No

Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae

Aleurocanthus 

spiniferus

(Quaintance)

CABI/EPPO, 

1997c

DAFF, 2009 Leaf (CABI/EPPO, 

1997c)

No Present in 

Hawaii

(CABI/EPPO, 

1997c).

Hemiptera: Aphididae

Aphidounguis mali

Takahashi

Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994

Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994

Root (Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994)

No

Aphidounguis 

pomiradicola

Zhang et al.

Zhang et al., 

1999

Zhang et al., 1999 Root (Zhang et al., 

1999)

No

Dysaphis anthrisci

Börner

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf (Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 60

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Dysaphis devecta

(Walker)

Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994

Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994

Leaf (Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994)

No

Longistigma 

xizangensis 

Zhang

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem, feeding site 

typical of species of 

Longistigma

(Blackman and 

Eastop, 2000).

No

Nippolachnus pyri

Matsumura

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994)

No

Ovatus malisuctus

(Matsumura) (= 

Myzus 

malisuctus

Matsumura)

CASI, 1994; 

High, 2008; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; High, 

2008; Hua, 2002

Leaf (Takeda, 1980) No

Phorodon (= 

Paraphorodon, 

Diphorodon) 

canabis

Passerini

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994)

No

Prociphilus 

kuwanai Monzen 

(= P. 

crataegicola

Shinji)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994)

No

Prociphilus oriens

Mordvilko

Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994

Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994

Leaf (Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994)

No

Pyrolachnus pyri

(Buckton)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994)

No

Siciunguis decima

Zhang et al.

Zhang et al., 

1999

Zhang et al., 1999 Stem (Zhang et al., 

1999)

No

Toxoptera citricida

(Kirkaldy) (= T. 

citricidus

Kirkaldy)

Hua, 2002 Ghosh and 

Raychaudhuri, 

1981; Hua, 2002

Stem (Ghosh and 

Raychaudhuri, 1981)

No Present in 

Florida and 

Hawaii.

Toxoptera odinae

(van der Goot)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994)

No

Tuberocephalus 

momonis

(Matsumura) (= 

Myzus momonis

Matsumura)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Blackman and 

Eastop, 1994)

No

Hemiptera: Cercopidae

Aphrophora 

bifasciata (L.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Boheman, 

1849)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 61

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Aphrophora 

flavomaculata

Matsumura

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (NILGS, 

2009a)

No

Aphrophora 

intermedia Uhler 

(= Obiphora

intermedia

[Uhler])

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf, stem (NIFTS, 

2009f)

No

Aphrophora (= 

Petaphora) 

maritima

Matsumura

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (NILGS, 

2009a)

No

Aphrophora

obliqua Uhler (= 

Trigophora 

obliqua

Matsumura)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem feeding site 

typical of species of 

Aphrophora (Ball, 

1901).

No

Eoscarta assimilis

Uhler) (= 

Eoscartopsis 

assimilis 

Matsumura, 

Paracercopis 

assimilis Kwon 

& Lee)

Hua, 2002 AQIS, 1998; Hua, 

2002

Stem (AQIS, 1998) No

Hemiptera: Cerococcidae

Asterococcus 

muratae

(Kuwana) (= 

Cerococcus

muratae

Kuwana)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (USDA, 

2007a)

No Feeding site 

typical of species 

of Cerococcidae 

(USDA, 2007a).

Hemiptera: Cicadellidae

Alebra pallida

Dworakowska

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Ostapenko, 

2008)

No

Amrasca biguttula

(Ishida) (= 

Empoasca 

biguttula

[Shiraki])

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (Schreiner, 

2000)

No

Aphrodes 

bifasciata (L.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, feeding site 

typical of species of 

Aphrodes (Hill, 

1987).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 62

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Arboridia (= 

Erythroneura) 

apicalis (Nawa)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (Miyazaki, 

1991)

No

Asymmetrasca 

decedens (Paoli) 

(= Empoasca 

decedens Paoli)

Cai et al., 2001 Nestel and Klein, 

1995

Leaf (Nestel and 

Klein, 1995)

No

Bothrogonia 

ferruginea (F.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Hill, 1987) No

Bothrogonia sinica

Yang & Li

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (typical of 

species of 

Bothrogonia) (Hill, 

1983)

No

Cicadella (= 

Tettigella, 

Tettigoniella) 

viridis (L.)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002; 

Schmutzenhofer 

et al., 1996

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Stem (Van 

Frankenhuyzen, 

1968)

No

Cicadula 

ferruginea (F.) 

(= Cicadella

ferruginea

China)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (typical of 

Cicadellidae) (Hill, 

1987)

No

Empoasca butleri

Edwards

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Hill, 1987) No

Empoasca 

flavescens (F.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Hill, 1983) No

Empoasca soosi

Dworakowska

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (typical of 

species of 

Empoasca) (Hill, 

1987)

No

Empoasca vitis

(Göthe)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Decante and 

van Helden, 2006)

No

Erythroneura 

sudra (Distant)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Lin, 1979) No

Eutettix apricus

Melichar

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Lin et al., 

2007)

No

Hishimonus 

sellatus (Uhler)

Sun et al., 1988 Sun et al., 1988 Leaf, stem 

(Kusunoki et al., 

2002)

No

Iassus rubiginosus

Kuoh

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (typical of 

species of Iassus)

(Gotsmy and 

Schopf, 1992)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 63

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Ishidaella 

albomarginata

(Signoret)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (typical of 

Cicadellidae) (Hill, 

1987)

No

Ledra auditura

Walker

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Tsukiji, 2008f) No

Ledra bilobata

Schumacher

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (typical of 

Cicadellidae) (e.g., 

Hill, 1987)

No

Naratettix zonatus

(Matsumura)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Anonymous, 

2009b)

No

Neotituria 

kongosana

(Matsumura)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (typical of 

Cicadellidae) (Hill, 

1987)

No

Penthimia 

melanocephala

Motschulsky

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (typical of 

Penthimia) (Schabel, 

2006)

No

Penthimia nitida

Lethierry

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Tayutivutikul 

and Kusigemati, 

1992)

No

Populicerus populi

(L.) (= Idiocerus 

populi L.)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf, stem (Régnier, 

1921)

No

Zyginella mali

(Yang) (= 

Pyramidotettix

mali Yang)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (Li, 1988) No

Zyginella minuta

(Yang) (= 

Pyramidotettix 

minuta Yang)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf (typical of 

species of Zyginella)

(Li, 1988)

No

Hemiptera: Cicadidae

Cryptotympana

atrata (F.) (= C. 

dubia Haupt, C. 

pustulata F.)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Stem (She et al., 

2005)

No

Cryptotympana 

mandarina

Distant

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem reported to be 

attacked by species 

of Cryptotympana

(Moriyama and 

Numata, 2006).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 64

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Graptopsaltria 

nigrofuscata

(Motschulsky) 

(= G. colorata

Stål)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Fruit, stem (Aizu et 

al., 1984; Yago, 

1937)

No Adults, which 

are large insects 

(32-35 mm; 

Hirai, 2004), 

may feed 

externally on 

fruit (Aizu et al., 

1984), but are 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Meimuna opalifera

(Walker)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Root, stem typically 

attacked by species 

of Cicadidae 

(Triplehorn and 

Johnson, 2005).

No

Oncotympana 

maculaticollis

(Motschulsky)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Kawabe, 

2009f)

No

Platypleura hilpa

Walker

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem, feeding site 

typical of species of 

Platypleura

(Hayashi, 1974).

No

Platypleura 

kaempferi (F.)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Uematsu and 

Onogi, 1980)

No

Hemiptera: Cixiidae

Andes (= Brixia) 

marmoratus

(Uhler)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Leaf, stem (Tanaka, 

2004)

No

Andes melanobasis

Ishihara

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, stem typical 

feeding sites of 

species of Andes

(Tanaka, 2004).

No

Hemiptera: Coccidae

Acanthopulvinaria 

orientalis

(Nasonov)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Root (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2006)

No

Ceroplastes 

centroroseus

Chen

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, typical feeding 

site of species of 

Ceroplastes (Hill, 

1987).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 65

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Ceroplastes 

japonicus Green 

(= 

Paracerostegia 

japonica Tang)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006; Hua, 2002

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006; Hua, 2002; 

Konstantinova and 

Gura, 1986

Fruit, leaf, stem 

(Konstantinova and 

Gura, 1986; 

Miyanoshita and 

Kawai, 1992)

Yes

Ceroplastes 

pseudoceriferus

Green

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Leaf (Waite, 2002) No

Coccus discrepans

(Green)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, root, stem 

(Pantoja and Peña, 

2007)

No

Didesmococcus 

koreanus

Borchsenius

Zhang et al., 

2001

Zhao, 2002 Stem (Zhao, 2002) No

Didesmococcus 

unifasciatus

(Archangelskaya

)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Stem (Fowjhan and 

Kozar, 1994)

No

Eulecanium 

alnicola Chen

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, stem, feeding 

sites typical of 

species of 

Eulecanium (Hill, 

1987).

No Given as E. 

alconi Chen in 

CASI (1994).

Eulecanium 

rugulosum

(Archangelskaya

)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Yanık and 

Yücel, 2001)

No

Metaceronema 

japonica

(Maskell)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem (Joshi 

and Rai, 1987)

No

Parthenolecanium 

glandi (Kuwana)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Stem (Pfeiffer, 

1997)

No

Rhodococcus 

sariuoni

Borchsenius

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem (CNAK, 

2009)

No

Rhodococcus 

turanicus

(Archangelskaya

)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem, feeding 

sites reported for 

species of 

Rhodococcus

(CNAK, 2009).

No

Saissetia citricola

(Kuwana) (= 

Takahashia 

citricola

Kuwana)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2002

Stem (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 66

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Takahashia 

japonica

(Cockerell)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (NAAS, 2009) No

Hemiptera: Dictyopharidae

Dictyophara 

nakanonis

Matsumura

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Stem 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2009e)

No

Dictyophara 

patruelis (Stål)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem typical 

feeding sites of 

species of 

Dictyophara (Hill, 

1983, Lessio and 

Alma, 2008).

No

Dictyophara sinica

Walker

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem typical 

feeding sites of 

species of 

Dictyophara (Hill, 

1983; Lessio and 

Alma, 2008).

No

Hemiptera: Eriococcidae

Eriococcus 

lagerstroemiae

Kuwana

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Stem (NIAST, 2001) No

Eriococcus 

tokaedae

Kuwana

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Kuwana, 

1932)

No

Hemiptera: Flatidae

Geisha 

distinctissima

(Walker)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Hill, 1987) No

Salurnis 

marginella

(GuerinMeneville)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Stem (Baidu, 2009) No

Hemiptera: Fulgoridae

Lycorma delicatula

(White)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, stem (Ding et 

al., 2006)

No

Hemiptera: Issidae

Gergithus 

variabilis

(Butler)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem (Takashi, 

2009)

No

Sivaloka damnosus

Chou & Lu

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Yan et al., 

2005)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 67

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Hemiptera: Lecanodiaspididae

Cresococcus 

candidus Wang

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Stem typical feeding 

site of species of 

Lecanodiaspididae 

(USDA, 2007b).

No

Hemiptera: Margarodidae

Drosicha 

contrahens

Walker

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Stem (Chu, 1934) No

Drosicha 

corpulenta

(Kuwana)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006

Stem (Xu et al., 

1999)

No

Drosicha maskelli

(Cockerell)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem typical 

feeding sites of 

species of Drosicha

(Hill, 1987).

No

Icerya aegyptiaca

Douglas

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Leaf, stem (Hill, 

1983)

No

Hemiptera: Membracidae

Leptobelus gazella

(Fairmaire)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem typical feeding 

site of species of 

Leptobelus

(Stegmann and 

Linsenmair, 2002).

No

Machaerotypus 

mali Chou & 

Yuan

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem typical feeding 

site of species of 

Machaerotypus

(Tsukiji, 2009c).

No

Maurya 

rotundidenticula

Yuan

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem: Site of injury 

caused by 

Membracidae 

attacking apple 

(Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993).

No

Pantaleon dorsalis

(Matsumura)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem: Site of injury 

caused by 

Membracidae 

attacking apple 

(Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 68

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Tsunozemia 

mojiensis

(Matsumura)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Stem: Site of injury 

caused by 

Membracidae 

attacking apple 

(Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993).

No

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae

Coccura (= 

Rosanococcus) 

suwakoensis

(Kuwana & 

Toyoda)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2006)

No

Phenacoccus 

pergandei

Cockerell

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Cockerell, 

1896)

No

Pseudococcus 

cryptus Hempel 

(= P. citriculus 

Green)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, leaf, 

inflorescence, stem 

(Ben-Dov, 2013)

Yes

Spilococcus (= 

Atrococcus) 

pacificus

(Borchsenius)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem No

Hemiptera: Psyllidae

Anomoneura mori

Schwarz

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Kuwayama, 

1971)

No

Cacopsylla mali

(Schmidberger) 

(= Psylla mali

Schmidberger)

Li, 1992 Li, 1992; Metcalf 

and Metcalf, 1993

Inflorescence (Hill, 

1983)

No

Cacopsylla 

malicola Li

Li, 1992 Li, 1992 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Psyllidae (Hill,

1983).

No

Cacopsylla pyri

(L.)

CABI, 2012 Breniaux, 2001 Leaf, stem (CABI, 

2012)

No

Cacopsylla 

pyrisuga

(Förster) (= 

Psylla pyrisuga

Förster)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem (CABI, 

2012)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 69

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Cacopsylla 

chinensis (Yang 

& Li) (= Psylla 

chinensis Yang 

& Li)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Yang et al., 2004)

No

Hemiptera: Ricaniidae

Euricania ocellus

(Walker)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Stem (Anonymous, 

2008a)

No

Ricania japonica

Melichar

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf (Dzhashi et al., 

1982)

No

Ricania simulans

(Walker)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem typical 

feeding sites of 

species of Ricania

(Hill, 1983).

No

Ricania speculum

(Walker)

Hua, 2002 Hua, 2002 Leaf, stem (Hill, 

1983)

No

Hymenoptera: Argidae

Arge mali

(Takahashi) (= 

Hylotoma mali

Takahashi)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Anonymous, 

1919)

No

Hymenoptera: Cephidae

Janus piri

Okamoto & 

Muramatsu

Hua, 2006 Hua, 2006 Stem (NIAST, 2008) No

Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae

Hoplocampa 

pyricola Rohwer

DAFF, 2009 DAFF, 2009 Fruit, inflorescence 

(DAFF, 2009)

No Larvae may bore 

into young, 

developing fruit, 

causing 

premature fruit 

drop (Harukawa, 

1924). The pest 

is highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 70

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Hymenoptera: Vespidae

Polistes olivaceus

(De Geer)

High, 2008 High, 2008 ? No Present in 

Hawaii. As they 

tend to be large, 

active, flightcapable insects 

(Spradbery, 

1973), vespid 

adults are highly

unlikely to 

follow the 

import pathway 

on apple fruit 

imported from 

China.

Vespa mandarina

Smith

High, 2008 High, 2008 Fruit (High, 2008) No Adults may feed 

superficially on 

apple fruit (High, 

2008), but, as 

large, active, 

flight-capable 

insects 

(Spradbery, 

1973), vespids 

are highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae

Reticulitermes 

speratus (Kolbe) 

(= Leucotermes 

speratus Kolbe)

Hua, 2006 Hua, 2006 Root, stem (Nemoto 

et al., 1998; Tokuda 

et al., 2005)

No

Isoptera: Termitidae

Odontotermes 

formosanus 

(Shiraki)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Root (Doan, 1971) No

Lepidoptera: Arctiidae

Aloa lactinea

(Cramer) (= 

Amsacta lactinea

Cramer)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Wen et al., 

1991)

No

Alphaea phasma

(Leech)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf 

(Zhongshan_City, 

2009)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 71

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Amata fortunei

(Orza)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Tsukiji, 

2008d)

No

Asura strigipennis

(HerrichSchäffer)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Asura (Tanaka, 

1929; Gowda et al., 

1974).

No

Creatonotus 

transiens

(Walker)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Zhang et al., 

2008a)

No

Cyana (= 

Chionaema) 

phaedra (Leech)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Cyana (Kumar and 

Ahmad, 2001).

No

Eilema (= Lithosia) 

quadra (L.)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Buckler, 1874) No

Lemyra imparilis

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (NIFTS, 2009c) No

Lemyra inferens

(Butler) (= 

Spilarctia 

infernalis

[Butler], 

Spilosoma 

inferens Butler)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Pan et al., 

2007)

No

Spilarctia 

seriatopunctata

(Motschulsky) 

(= Spilosoma 

seriatopunctata

Motsh.)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Kawabe, 

2009i)

No

Spilosoma 

lubricipeda (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Sengalevich, 

1960)

No

Spilosoma niveus

(Menetries)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Spilosoma (Singh 

and Srivastava, 

2004; Yokoyama 

and Kurosawa, 

1933).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 72

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Lepidoptera: Argyresthiidae

Argyresthia 

assimilis Moriuti

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit, inflorescence 

feeding sites 

reported for species 

of Argyresthia (Hill, 

1987; Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993).

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Lepidoptera: Carposinidae

Carposina sasakii

Matsumura (= C. 

niponensis

Walsingham, C. 

persicana

Sasaki)

CABI, 1990; 

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Ishiguri and 

Toyoshima, 2006

Fruit (Ishiguri and 

Toyoshima, 2006; 

Narita and 

Takahashi, 1985)

Yes

Lepidoptera: Cossidae

Catopta 

mongolicus 

Erschoff

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Root typical feeding 

site of species of 

Catopta (Mazzei et 

al., 2009).

No

Cossus cossus L. CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Stem (Lind et al., 

2003)

No

Cossus jezoensis

(Matsumura)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Stem (Yoshimoto 

and Nishida, 2007)

No

Cossus mongolicus

Erschoff

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Stem (Fan et al., 

1986)

No

Holcocerus 

arenicolus

(Staudinger)

Hu et al., 1987 CABI, 2007 Root (CABI, 2007) No

Holcocerus 

insularis

Staudinger

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Stem (Bedding, 

[s.d.])

No

Holcocerus 

vicarius

(Walker)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Root, stem typically 

attacked by species 

of Holcocerus (Luo 

et al., 2007; Zong et 

al., 2006).

No

Xyleutes persona

(Le Guillou) (= 

Zeuzera 

leuconota

Walker)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Stem typically 

attacked by species 

of Xyleutes (Hill, 

1983).

No

Zeuzera coffeae

Nietner

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Stem (CABI, 2007) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 73

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Zeuzera 

multistrigata

(Moore)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Stem (Kumar and 

Singh, 1994)

No

Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

Dichomeris 

ustalella (F.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (FES, 2009b) No

Evippe syrictis

(Meyrick)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Gelechia 

rhombella

(Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (FES, 2009d) No

Odites ricinella

Stainton

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Psoricoptera 

gibbosella 

(Zeller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Arahou et al., 

1991)

No

Recurvaria syrictis

Meyrick

Cao and Guo, 

1987

Zhang, 1994 Leaf (Cao and Guo, 

1987)

No

Scythropiodes (=

Odites, 

Psecadia) issikii

(Takahashi)

Hua, 2005; Park 

and Wu, 1997

Hua, 2005 Leaf (Tsukiji, 

2008a)

No

Scythropiodes (= 

Odites) 

leucostola

(Meyrick)

CASI, 1994; Park 

and Wu, 1997

CASI, 1994 Leaf (Kawabe, 

2009e)

No

Scythropiodes (= 

Odites) malivora

(Meyrick)

Hua, 2005; Park 

and Wu, 1997

Hua, 2005 Leaf (Kondo and 

Miyahara, 1931)

No Apparently 

misnamed O. 

malivorella

Meyrick (Hua, 

2005).

Telphusa 

chloroderces

Meyrick

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf No

Lepidoptera: Geometridae

Abraxas 

grossulariata

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; 

Robinson et al., 

2001

Leaf (Carter, 1984) No

Alsophila tenuis

(Butler) (= A. 

punctigera

Prout)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005;

Sawamoto, 1938

Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Alsophila (Hill, 

1987).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 74

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Amraica (= 

Buzura) 

superans

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; 

Scoble, 1999

Leaf 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2009b)

No

Apocheima 

cinerarius

(Ershov)

Zhang, 1994 Zhang, 1994 Leaf (Hu et al., 

2001)

No

Apocheima (= 

Zamacra) 

excavata (Dyar)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Scoble, 1999) No

Apocheima 

sinuosaria

(Leech) (= 

Phigalia 

sinuosaria

Leech)

Zhang, 1994 Zhang, 1994 Leaf (Chang and 

Lin, 1939)

No

Ascotis (= 

Boarmia) 

selenaria (Denis 

& 

Schiffermüller)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Biston marginata

Shiraki

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Sonan, 1931) No

Biston robustum

Butler

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Yamamoto et 

al., 2000)

No Given as Biston 

robustus Butler 

by Hua (2005).

Biston (= Buzura) 

thibetaria

(Oberthür)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Biston (Ahmed et 

al., 1981; Hill, 

1983).

No

Boarmia 

consonaria

(Hübner)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Boarmia (DieterSteigra, 1978; 

Lobinger, 2007).

No

Chihuo sunzao

Yang

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Geometridae 

(Furniss and Carolin, 

1977).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 75

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Chihuo zao Yang Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Geometridae 

(Furniss and Carolin, 

1977).

No

Colotois pennaria

(L.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Glavendekić 

and Mihajlović, 

2006)

No

Culpinia diffusa

(Walker)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Geometridae 

(Furniss and Carolin, 

1977).

No

Cystidia 

couaggaria

(Guenée)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Tsukiji, 2008i) No

Cystidia stratonice

(Stoll)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Piao et al., 

2003)

No

Ectropis excellens

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Tsukiji, 

2008g)

No

Ectropis obliqua

(Prout)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Liu et al., 

1982)

No

Ennomos 

autumnaria

(Werneburg)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Gantner, 2003) No

Epirrita autumnata

(Borkhausen)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Jepsen et al., 

2008; Savela, 2009)

No

Erannis defoliaria

(Clerck)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Hill, 1983; 

Savela, 2009)

No

Erannis dira Butler CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Erannis (Furniss and 

Carolin, 1977).

No

Erannis golda

Djakonov

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (NIFTS, 2009a) No

Eupithecia 

insigniata

(Hübner)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Fitter and 

Peat, 1994)

No

Hypomecis (= 

Serraca) 

punctinalis

(Scopoli) (= 

Boarmia 

consortaria F.)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Kulfan et al., 

2006)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 76

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Hypomecis (= 

Boarmia) 

roboraria (Denis 

& 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Kulfan et al., 

2006; Savela, 2009)

No

Inurois fletcheri

Inoue

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (NIFTS, 2009i) No

Inurois tenuis

Butler (= 

Ahisopteryx 

membranaria

Christoph)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Scoble, 1999; 

Tsukiji, 2008e)

No

Jodis lactearia (L.) Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Fitter and 

Peat, 1994; Savela, 

2009)

No

Larerannis filipjevi

Weherli

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Larerannis (Tsukiji, 

2008c).

No

Lobophora 

halterata

(Hufnagel)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Fitter and 

Peat, 1994)

No

Lycia hirtaria

(Clerck)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Fedoryak, 

1983; Savela, 2009)

No

Maxates illiturata

(Walker) (= 

Hemithea sasakii

Matsumura, 

Thalassodes 

coelataria

Walker)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Thalassodes

(Varadarasan, 1986; 

Leksawasdi et al., 

2003).

No

Napocheima 

robiniae Chu

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Zhu, 2007) No

Nychiodes 

obscuraria

(Villers)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf, stem (Avidov 

and Harpaz, 1969)

No

Odezia atrata (L.) Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Inflorescence (Fitter 

and Peat, 1994)

No

Operophtera 

fagata

(Scharfenberg)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Inflorescence, leaf 

(Carter, 1984)

No

Operophtera 

relegata Prout

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (NIFTS, 

2009d)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 77

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Ophthalmitis (= 

Ophthalmodes) 

irrorataria

(Bremer & 

Grey) (= 

Boarmia 

irrorataria

Bremer & Grey)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (NIFTS, 2009b; 

Scoble, 1999)

No

Parapercnia (= 

Percnia) 

giraffata

(Guenée)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Hill, 1987; 

Scoble, 1999)

No

Phthonandria 

atrilineata

(Butler) (= 

Menophra 

atrilineata

[Butler], 

Hemerophila 

atrilineata

Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Chu, 1933; 

Scoble, 1999)

No

Phthonosema (= 

Biston) 

tendinosaria

(Bremer) (= 

Amphidasys 

tendinosaria

Bremer)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Scoble, 1999) No

Pylargosceles 

steganioides

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Tsukiji, 

2008b; Scoble, 

1999)

No

Sarcinodes 

carnearia

Guenée

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Geometridae 

(Furniss and Carolin, 

1977).

No

Scardamia 

aurantiacaria

Bremer

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Geometridae 

(Furniss and Carolin, 

1977).

No

Scopula 

nigropunctata

(Hufnagel)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 78

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Scopula 

subpunctaria

(HerrichSchäffer)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Hausmann, 

2004)

No

Selenia 

tetralunaria

(Hufnagel)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Savela, 2009) No

Sucra jujuba Chu CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Lu, 1988)

No

Triphosa dubitata

(L.)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Gassmann et 

al., 2008)

No

Wilemania nitobei

(Nitobe)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Yala pyricola Chu Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Geometridae 

(Furniss and Carolin, 

1977).

No

Zethenia 

albonotaria

Bremer

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae

Caloptilia theivora

(Walsingham) (= 

Gracillaria 

theivora

Walsingham)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Caloptilia zachrysa

Meyrick

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Phyllonorycter 

malivorella

Matsumura (= 

Lithocolletis 

malivorella

Matsumura)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Anonymous, 

1919)

No

Phyllonorycter 

ringoniella

(Matsumura) (= 

Lithocolletis 

ringoniella

Matsumura)

Zhang, 1994 Zhang, 1994 Leaf (Sun et al., 

2000)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 79

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Spulerina 

astaurota

(Meyrick) (= 

Acrocercops

astaurota

Meyrick)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf, stem 

(Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Hepialidae

Endoclita 

excrescens

(Butler) (= 

Phassus 

excrescens

Butler)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Stem (Utsumi and 

Ohgushi, 2008)

No

Phassus 

xizangensis Chu 

& Wang

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Stem injury caused 

by species of 

Phassus (Zhao et al., 

1988; Lin et al., 

1995).

No

Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae

Bhima idiota

Graeser

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (EPPO, 2005) No

Cosmotriche 

albomaculata

Bremer

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Matsumura, 

1932)

No

Cyclophragma (= 

Dendrolimus, 

Kunugia) undans

(Walker)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Seliškar, 2002; 

Shibata et al., 2001)

No

Epicnaptera 

ilicifolia L.

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Nishiguchi, 

1958)

No

Gastropacha 

populifolia

(Esper)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Gastropacha

(Masarrat et al., 

2006).

No

Gastropacha 

quercifolia (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Carter, 1984) No

Gastropacha 

tremulifolia

Hübner

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Gastropacha

(Masarrat et al., 

2006).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 80

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Malacosoma 

dentata Mell

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Malacosoma

(Furniss and Carolin, 

1977).

No

Malacosoma 

neustria (L.)

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Leaf (CABI, 2007) No

Odonestis laeta

Walker

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Lasiocampidae 

(Furniss and Carolin, 

1977).

No

Odonestis pruni

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (DMNC, 2009) No

Paralebeda 

plagifera

(Walker)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Anonymous, 

1935)

No

Philudoria 

albomaculata

Bremer

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Isagi et al., 

1997)

No

Phyllodesma 

tremulifolium

(Hübner)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Lasiocampidae 

(Furniss and Carolin, 

1977).

No

Poecilocampa 

populi (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Carter, 1984; 

Savela, 2009)

No

Suana divisa

(Moore)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (CAF, 2006) No

Trabala vishnou

Lefebvre

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001, 2009)

No

Lepidoptera: Limacodidae

Belippa horrida

Walker

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Belippa (Robinson 

et al., 2001).

No

Cheromettia 

apicata (Moore)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Iragoides fasciata

(Moore)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Iragoides (Zhang et 

al., 1981).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 81

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Iragoides 

thaumasta

Hering

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (High, 2008) No

Microleon 

longipalpis

Butler

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (NIFTS, 

2009g)

No

Miresa 

flavidorsalis

Staudinger

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Miresa (Robinson et 

al., 2001).

No

Miresa inornata

Walker

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Miresa (Robinson et 

al., 2001).

No

Narosa corusca

Wileman

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (High, 2008) No

Narosa edoensis

Kawada

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Kawada and 

Shibamichi, 1930)

No

Narosa nigrisigna

(Wileman)

DAFF, 2009 DAFF, 2009 Leaf (DAFF, 2009) No

Narosoideus 

flavidorsalis

(Staudinger)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (NIFTS, 2009e) No

Narosoideus 

fuscicostalis

(Frixsen)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Narosoideus

(NIFTS, 2009e).

No

Narosoideus 

vulpinus

(Wileman)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Narosoideus

(NIFTS, 2009e).

No

Parasa consocia

(Walker) (= 

Latoia consocia

Walker)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Wang et al., 

2008)

No

Parasa hilarata

(Staudinger) (= 

Latoia hilarata

Staudinger)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Parasa (Robinson et 

al., 2001).

No

Parasa lepida

(Cramer)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Hill, 1983) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 82

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Parasa ostia

(Swinhoe) (= 

Latoia ostia

Swinhoe)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Liu, 1984) No

Parasa pastoralis

(Butler) (= 

Latoia pastoralis

Butler)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Ahmed and 

Badrul Alam, 2006)

No

Parasa 

pseudorepanda

(Hering)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Parasa (Robinson et 

al., 2001).

No

Parasa sinica

(Moore) (= 

Latoia sinica

Moore)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Anonymous, 

1919)

No

Phlossa (= 

Iragoides) 

conjuncta

(Walker)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Phrixolepia sericea

Butler

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Yukawa, 

1983)

No

Setora postornata

(Hampson)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Baidu, 2009) No

Thosea baibarana

Matsumura

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Thosea (Robinson et 

al., 2001).

No

Thosea sinensis

(Walker)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae

Acytolepis puspa

(Horsfield)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 83

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Celastrina (= 

Cyaniris) 

argiolus (L.)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Fruit, inflorescence 

(Corver, 2005; 

Hukkinen, 1926; 

Volkov, 1989)

No Given as 

Celastrina 

argiola (L.) by 

Hua (2005). 

Larvae may feed 

superficially on 

developing fruit 

(e.g., Hukkinen, 

1926; Corver, 

2005), but are 

highly unlikely 

to be present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Favonius yuasai

Shirozu

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Anonymous, 

2004)

No

Fixsenia herzi

(Fixsen) (= 

Thecla herzi

Fixsen)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (EPPO, 2005) No

Neozephyrus taxila

(Bremer) (= 

Thecla taxila

Bremer)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2009f; Howarth, 

1957)

No

Rapala arata

(Bremer)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit, leaf (NIFTS, 

2009h)

No Larvae may feed 

superficially on 

developing fruit 

(NIFTS, 2009h), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Rapala (= Bidaspa) 

nissa (Kollar)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Fruit (Singh and 

Bhardwaj, 1983)

No Larvae may feed 

superficially on 

developing fruit 

(Singh and 

Bhardwaj, 1983), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 84

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Satyrium grandis

(Felder & 

Felder)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Inflorescence, leaf 

typical feeding sites 

of species of 

Satyrium (Opler et 

al., 2009).

No Given as 

Satyrium grande

(Felder and 

Felder) by Hua 

(2005).

Satyrium (= 

Strymonidia) 

percomis

(Leech)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Inflorescence, leaf 

typical feeding sites 

of species of 

Satyrium (Opler et 

al., 2009).

No

Satyrium v-album

(Oberthür) 

(Thecla v-album

Oberthür)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence, leaf 

typical feeding sites 

of species of 

Satyrium (Opler et 

al., 2009).

No

Satyrium (= 

Strymonidia) walbum (Knoch) 

(= Thecla walbum Knoch)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Inflorescence, leaf 

(Ellis and 

Wainwright, [s.d.]; 

UNEP-WCMC, 

2005)

No

Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae

Arctornis alba

(Bremer)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Arctornis (Robinson 

et al., 2009).

No

Arctornis l-nigrum

(Müller)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Arctornis 

xanthocampa

Dyar

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Arctornis (Robinson 

et al., 2009).

No

Arna (= Euproctis) 

bipunctapex

(Hampson)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001; Savela, 

2009)

No

Calliteara grotei

(Moore) (= 

Dasychira grotei

Moore)

Wu and Huang, 

1986

Robinson et al., 

2001

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Calliteara 

horsfieldii

(Saunders) (= 

Dasychira 

horsfieldii

Saunders)

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007; 

Gupta et al., 1989

Leaf (CABI, 2007) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 85

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Calliteara 

pseudabietis

Butler (= 

Dasychira 

pseudabietis

[Butler])

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Tsukiji, 

2008h)

No

Calliteara (= 

Dasychira, 

Orgyia) 

pudibunda (L.)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Vappula, 

1959)

No

Cifuna eurydice

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2009d)

No

Cifuna jankowskii

(Oberthür)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Cifuna (Robinson et 

al., 2009).

No

Cifuna locuples

Walker

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et

al., 2009)

No

Dasychira 

complicata

Walker

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Dasychira

(Robinson et al., 

2001).

No

Dasychira 

fascellina (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Dasychira

(Robinson et al., 

2001).

No

Dasychira 

mendosa

(Hübner)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Nair, 1975; 

Sasidharan et al., 

1995)

No

Euproctis atereta

Collenette (= 

Porthesia 

atereta

[Collenette])

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994; 

Heppner and 

Inoue, 1992

Inflorescence, leaf, 

stem typical feeding 

sites of species of 

Euproctis (Robinson 

et al., 2001).

No

Euproctis 

bimaculata

Walker

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Euproctis (= 

Arctornis) 

chrysorrhoea

(L.)

Hua, 2005 CABI, 2012; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (CABI, 2012) No Limited 

distribution in 

the northeastern 

United States

(CABI, 2012).
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 86

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Euproctis flava

(Bremer)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Euproctis flavinata

(Walker)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Inflorescence, leaf, 

stem typical feeding 

sites of species of 

Euproctis (Robinson 

et al., 2001).

No

Euproctis 

flavotriangulata

Gaede

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence, leaf, 

stem typical feeding 

sites of species of 

Euproctis (Robinson 

et al., 2001).

No

Euproctis fraterna

(Moore)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Thakur 

et al., 1974

Leaf (Thakur et al., 

1974), fruit (Pruthi 

and Batra, 1960)

No Primarily a leaffeeder 

(Venkatesha et 

al., 1992). May 

feed on young, 

green fruit 

(Pruthi and 

Batra, 1960), but 

is highly

unlikely to be 

associated with 

mature fruit at 

harvest time.

Euproctis 

karghalica

Moore

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (EPPO, 2002) No

Euproctis 

kurosawai

(Inoue) (= 

Porthesia 

kurosawai

Inoue)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Heppner and 

Inoue, 1992)

No

Euproctis piperita

Oberthür

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (EPPO, 2005) No

Euproctis (= 

Porthesia) 

scintillans

(Walker) (= 

Somena 

scintillans

Walker)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Nair, 1975; 

Robinson et al., 

2001)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 87

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Euproctis (= 

Porthesia) 

similis (Fuessly)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Savela, 

2009

Leaf (CAB, 1978) No

Euproctis subflava

Bremer

Hua, 2005 Ahn et al., 1989; 

Hua, 2005

Leaf (Ahn et al., 

1989)

No

Euproctis 

xanthocampa 

(Dyar) (= 

Porthesia 

xanthocampa

Dyar)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Heppner and 

Inoue, 1992)

No

Leucoma (= 

Stilpnotia) 

candida

(Staudinger)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Sirota et al., 

1976)

No

Lymantria 

bantaizana

Matsumura

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Gotoh et al., 

2004)

No

Lymantria 

concolor Walker

Hua, 2005; Pogue 

and Schaefer, 

2007; Zhang, 

1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Bhardwaj, 

1987)

No

Lymantria dispar

L.

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (CABI, 2007; 

High, 2008)

No Under official 

control in the US

(7 CFR 301.45). 

Larvae may 

graze 

superficially on 

fruit (High, 

2008), but are 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Lymantria 

marginata

Walker

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Lymantria mathura

Moore

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Inflorescence, leaf 

(CABI, 2007)

No

Lymantria 

monacha (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (König, 1921) No

Orgyia ericae

Germar

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Pupavkina, 

1985)

No

Orgyia gonostigma

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Sevryukova, 

1979)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 88

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Orgyia postica

(Walker)

Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Orgyia recens

(Hübner)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (CABI, 2007) No

Orgyia thyellina

Butler

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Sato, 1977) No

Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae

Leucoptera 

malifoliella

(Costa) (= L. 

scitella Zeller)

CABI, 2012; 

Hua, 2005; van 

Driel and van 

Nieukerken, 

1985)

CABI, 2012; Holb 

et al., 2001; Hua, 

2005; Mey, 1988

Leaf, branch, fruit 

(Mey, 1988)

Yes Three millimeter

pest may be 

hidden within 

the calyx of the 

fruit during 

pupation (CABI, 

2012; Maciesiak, 

1999).

Lyonetia clerkella

(L.)

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Leaf (CABI, 2007; 

Carter, 1984)

No

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Acronicta (= 

Hyboma) 

adaucta

(Warren)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Acronicta (Robinson 

et al., 2001).

No

Acronicta alni (L.) Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Savela, 

2009

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009; Savela, 

2009)

No

Acronicta hercules

(Felder & 

Rogenhofer)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Acronicta (Robinson 

et al., 2001).

No

Acronicta 

intermedia

Warren (= A. 

incretata

Hampson, 

Triaena 

intermedia 

[Warren])

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Ahn et al., 

1989)

No

Acronicta 

leucocuspis

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Acronicta (Robinson 

et al., 2001).

No

Acronicta major

(Bremer)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Acronicta psi (L.) Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Carter, 1984) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 89

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Acronicta (= 

Viminia) rumicis

(L.)

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Leaf (CABI, 2007) No

Acronicta strigosa

(Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Cao and 

Wang, 1986)

No

Acronicta tridens

(Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Savela, 

2009

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Actinotia 

intermediata

(Bremer) (= 

Delta intermedia

Hampson)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Inflorescence, leaf 

typical feeding sites 

of species of 

Actinotia (Tillyard, 

1927).

No

Agrotis segetum

(Denis &

Schiffermüller)

CABI, 2012; 

Hua, 2005

CABI, 2012; Hua, 

2005

Leaf, root, stem 

(Avidov and Harpaz, 

1969; CABI, 2012)

No

Agrotis tokionis

Butler

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, root (Choi et 

al., 2000)

No Only the adult 

attacks fruit 

(Choi et al., 

2000). These 

large, active 

moths feed at 

night (Jeppson, 

1989), and are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with fruit at 

harvest.

Amphipyra erebina

Butler

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2009a)

No

Amphipyra 

monolitha

Guenée

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Amphipyra 

pyramidea (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 90

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Anomis fulvida

(Guenée)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, leaf, stem

(Robinson et al., 

2001)

No Only the adult 

attacks fruit 

(Choi et al., 

2000). These 

large, active 

moths feed at 

night (Jeppson, 

1989), and are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with fruit at 

harvest.

Anomis mesogona

(Walker)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, leaf (Robinson 

et al., 2001)

No See Remarks for 

Anomis fulvida.

Artena (= 

Lagoptera, 

Thyas) dotata

(F.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994;

Zhang, 1994

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Autographa 

gamma (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Savela, 

2009

Leaf (Hill, 1987) No

Autographa 

nigrisigna

(Walker)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Hirata, 1967) No

Brevipecten 

consanguis

Leech

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Catocalinae, the 

subfamily to which 

the species belongs 

(Wagner, 2005).

No

Calyptra gruesa

(Draudt)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Fruit (Zhang, 1994) No Only the adult 

attacks fruit 

(Zhang, 1994). 

These large, 

active moths 

feed at night 

(Jeppson, 1989), 

and are highly

unlikely to be 

associated with 

fruit at harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 91

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Calyptra (= 

Oraesia) lata

(Butler)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005; Zhang, 1994

Fruit (Zhang, 1994) No Only the adult 

attacks fruit 

(Zhang, 1994). 

These large, 

active moths 

feed at night 

(Jeppson, 1989), 

and are highly

unlikely to be 

associated with 

fruit at harvest.

Calyptra 

minuticornis

(Guenée) (= 

Calpe

minuticornis

Guenée)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Calyptra thalictri

(Borkhausen) (= 

Calpe capucina

Esper, Calyptra 

capucina Esper)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005; Zhang, 

1994

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005; Zhang, 1994

Fruit, leaf (Lee et al., 

1970; Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No Only the adult 

attacks fruit (Lee 

et al., 1970). 

These large, 

active moths 

feed at night 

(Jeppson, 1989), 

and are highly

unlikely to be 

associated with 

fruit at harvest.

Catocala abamita

Bremer & Grey 

(= Mormonia 

abamita [Bremer 

& Grey])

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Catocala (Baker, 

1972).

No

Catocala agitatrix

Graeser

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Catocala (Baker, 

1972).

No

Catocala 

columbina Leech 

(= Ephesia 

columbina

[Leech])

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Catocala (Baker, 

1972).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 92

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Catocala dissimilis

Bremer (= 

Ephesia 

dissimilis 

[Bremer])

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Catocala dula

Bremer (= 

Mormonia dula

[Bremer])

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Catocala electa

(Vieweg)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Catocala (Baker, 

1972).

No

Catocala (= 

Ephesia) 

fulminea

(Scopoli)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Catocala nivea

Butler (= 

Ephesia nivea

[Butler])

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Catocala (Baker, 

1972).

No

Catocala patala

Feldrer & 

Rogenhofer

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Catocala remissa

Staudinger

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Catocala (Baker, 

1972).

No

Chrysorithrum 

amata (Bremer 

& Grey)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994; 

Zhang, 1994

Fruit (Zhang, 1994) No Only the adult 

attacks fruit 

(Zhang, 1994). 

These large, 

active moths 

feed at night 

(Jeppson, 1989), 

and are highly

unlikely to be 

associated with 

fruit at harvest.

Clavipalpula 

aurariae

(Oberthür)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Colocasia coryli

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 93

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Conistra grisescens

Draudt

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Conistra vaccinii

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (FES, 2009a) No

Cosmia exigua

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Cosmia (= 

Calymnia) 

pyralina (Denis 

& 

Schiffermüller)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Cosmia trapezina

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; 

Langenscheidt, 

1967

Leaf (CABI, 2007) No

Cucullia asteris

(Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Dysgonia 

arctotaenia

(Guenée) (= 

Parallelia 

arctotaenia

Hampson)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Dysgonia arcuata

(Moore) (= D. 

curvata [Leech], 

Parallelia 

curvata [Leech])

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994; 

Holloway and 

Miller, 2003

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Dysgonia maturata

(Walker) (= 

Parallelia 

maturata

Hampson)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Fruit (Yoon and Lee, 

1974)

No Only the adult 

attacks fruit 

(Yoon and Lee, 

1974). These 

large, active 

moths feed at 

night (Jeppson, 

1989), and are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with fruit at 

harvest.

Dysgonia stuposa

(F.) (= Parallelia 

stuposa 

Hampson)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Dysgonia (Robinson 

et al., 2009).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 94

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Ercheia umbrosa

Butler

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit (Tsukiji, 

2009b)

No Only the adult of 

species of 

Ercheia attacks 

fruit (e.g., Box, 

1941; 

Susainathan, 

1924). These 

large, active 

moths feed at 

night (Jeppson, 

1989), and are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with fruit at 

harvest.

Eudocima fullonia

(Clerck) (= 

Ophideres 

fullonica [L.])

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Fruit (Zhang, 1994) No Only the adult 

attacks fruit 

(Zhang, 1994). 

These large, 

active moths 

feed at night 

(Jeppson, 1989), 

and are highly

unlikely to be 

associated with 

fruit at harvest.

Eudocima 

salaminia

(Cramer)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit (Zhang, 1994) No See Remarks for 

Eudocima 

fullonia.

Eudocima (= 

Adris) tyrannus

(Guenée)

High, 2008; Hua, 

2005

High, 2008; Hua, 

2005

Fruit, leaf (Zhang, 

1994)

No See Remarks for 

Eudocima 

fullonia.

Eupsilia transversa

(Hufnagel)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Eutelia geyeri

(Felder & 

Rogenhofer)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Euxoa clerica

Butler

High, 2008; Hua, 

2005

High, 2008; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (High, 2008) No

Gabala argentata

Butler

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Kawabe, 

2009b)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 95

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Helicoverpa (= 

Heliothis) 

armigera

(Hübner)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005; Li et al., 

1998

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Barnes, 1978)

No Larvae may feed 

on developing 

fruit (Barnes, 

1978), but are 

highly unlikely 

to be present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Heliothis viriplaca

(Hufnagel) (= H. 

dipsacea [L.])

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Inflorescence (FES, 

2009e)

No

Hypena similalis

Leech (= 

Rhynchina 

similalis

[Leech])

CASI, 1994; 

Leech, 1900

CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Hypena (Robinson 

et al., 2001).

No

Hypocala 

subsatura 

Guenee

CASI, 1994; 

High, 2008; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; High, 

2008; Hua, 2005

Fruit (High, 2008) No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Hypopyra (= 

Enmonodia) 

vespertilio (F.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Hypopyra (Robinson 

et al., 2009).

No

Ischyja manlia

(Cramer)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, stem 

(Robinson et al., 

2009)

No

Lacanobia

oleracea (L.) (= 

Diataraxia

oleracea (L.),

Mamestra 

oleracea L.)

Hua, 2005 Carter, 1984; 

Devetak et al., 

2010

Fruit, leaf (Carter, 

1984; Devetak et al., 

2010), inflorescence, 

stem (Carter, 1984)

No Larvae may feed 

externally on 

fruit (Carter, 

1984), but are 

not expected to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Lacanobia (= 

Ceramica) pisi

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Lacanobia suasa

(Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Lacanobia 

thalassina

(Hufnagel) (= 

Polia thalassina

Hampson)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Sipura, 2000) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 96

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Lithophane socia

(Hufnagel)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Pigott, 1991) No

Mamestra 

brassicae (L.)

CABI, 2007; 

Hua, 2005

Castellari, 1970 Fruit, leaf (Carter, 

1984; Castellari, 

1970)

No Larvae may feed 

on developing 

fruit (Castellari, 

1970), but are 

not expected to 

be associated 

with mature fruit 

at harvest.

Melanchra 

persicariae (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Carter, 1984) No

Mimerastria 

mandschuriana

(Oberthür)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Baidu, 2009) No

Mocis ancilla

(Warren)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Mocis (Robinson et 

al., 2001).

No

Mocis annetta

(Butler)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Tsukiji, 2008j) No

Mocis undata (F.) CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Naenia 

contaminata

(Walker)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Naenia (Robinson et 

al., 2001).

No

Nolathripa (= 

Lamprothripa) 

lactaria

(Graeser) (= 

Nola lactaria

Graeser)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf reported as 

feeding site for 

species of Nola on 

Malus sp. (Robinson 

et al., 2009).

No

Ophiusa (= Anua) 

coronata (F.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994;

Zhang, 1994

Fruit, leaf (Robinson 

et al., 2001)

No Only the adult 

attacks fruit 

(Zhang, 1994). 

These large, 

active moths 

feed at night 

(Jeppson, 1989), 

and are highly

unlikely to be 

associated with 

fruit at harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 97

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Ophiusa (= Anua) 

tirhaca (Cramer)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994;

Zhang, 1994

Fruit, leaf (Robinson 

et al., 2001; Zhang, 

1994)

No See Remarks for 

Ophiusa

coronata

Oraesia 

emarginata (F.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit (Zhang, 1994) No See Remarks for 

Ophiusa

coronata

Oraesia excavata

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit (Zhang, 1994) No See Remarks for 

Ophiusa

coronata

Orthosia (= 

Monima) 

carnipennis

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Orthosia cruda

(Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (CABI, 2007; 

Robinson et al., 

2009)

No

Orthosia ella

(Butler)

Hanski, 2002 AQIS, 1998 Leaf (NIFTS, 2009j) No

Orthosia gothica

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009; Zhang, 

1994)

No

Orthosia gracilis

(Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009; Zhang, 

1994)

No

Orthosia (= 

Monima) incerta

(Hufnagel)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Fruit, leaf (Carter, 

1984)

No Larvae may 

attack 

developing fruit 

(Carter, 1984), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Orthosia limbata

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Orthosia munda

(Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Orthosia odiosa

(Butler)

BRIC, 2013 AQIS, 1998 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Pangrapta 

obscurata

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2009h)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 98

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Sarcopolia illoba

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Serrodes campana

Guenée

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Simplicia niphona

(Butler) (= 

Nodaria niphona 

Warren)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Sinna extrema

(Walker)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Jiang et al., 

2000)

No

Spirama helicina

(Hübner) (= 

Speiredonia 

japponica

Hampson)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf reported as 

feeding site for 

species of Spirama

(Robinson et al., 

2009).

No

Spirama retorta

(Clerck) (= 

Speiredonia 

retorta

Hampson)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Fruit (Kim and Lee, 

1986)

No Only the adult 

attacks fruit 

(Yoon and Lee, 

1974). These 

large, active 

moths feed at 

night (Jeppson, 

1989), and are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with fruit at 

harvest.

Spodoptera (= 

Prodenia) litura

(F.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994; 

Thakur et al., 1974

Leaf (Thakur et al., 

1974)

No

Sypnoides picta

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Sypnoides simplex

(Leech) (= 

Sypna simplex 

Leech)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Sypnoides (Robinson 

et al., 2009).

No

Telorta divergens

(Butler) (= 

Mesogona 

divergens

Butler)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Inflorescence 

(Umeya and Okada, 

2003)

No

Telorta edentata

(Leech)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 99

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Thyas juno

(Dalman) (= 

Dermaleipa juno

Hampson, 

Lagoptera juno

Chen)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Fruit (Zhang, 1994) No Only the adult 

attacks fruit 

(Zhang, 1994). 

These large, 

active moths 

feed at night 

(Jeppson, 1989), 

and are highly

unlikely to be 

associated with 

fruit at harvest.

Tiracola plagiata

(Walker)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Trachea atriplicis

(L.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, leaf (Robinson 

et al., 2009; Lee et 

al., 1970)

No Only the adult 

attacks fruit (Lee 

et al., 1970). 

These large, 

active moths 

feed at night 

(Jeppson, 1989), 

and are highly

unlikely to be 

associated with 

fruit at harvest.

Trachea auriplena 

(Walker)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Trachea (McCabe, 

2003).

No Species does not 

occur in the Far 

East 

(Kononenko, 

1998). The 

record in CASI 

(1994) 

apparently is 

erroneous.

Xylena exsoleta

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Carter, 1984) No

Xylena formosa

(Butler)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Xylena fumosa

(Butler)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Xylena vetusta

(Hübner)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Kansanen and 

Venetvaara, 1991)

No

Lepidoptera: Notodontidae

Cerura menciana

Moore

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Chen et al., 

1990)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 100

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Cerura vinula (L.) Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Clostera 

anastomosis (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Kang, 1970) No

Neopheosia 

fasciata (Moore)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Paranerice hoenei

Kiriakoff

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Baidu, 2009) No

Phalera bucephala

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit, leaf (Hill, 

1987)

No Larvae may feed 

on the surface of 

developing fruit 

(Hill, 1987), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Phalera flavescens

(Bremer & 

Grey)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Ptilodon capucina

(L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Stauropus fagi (L.) 

(= S. persimilis

Butler)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Savela, 2009) No

Wilemanus 

bidentatus

(Wileman)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Baidu, 2009) No

Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae

Depressaria 

isshikii

Matsumura

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Depressaria

(Robinson et al., 

2009).

No

Stathmopoda 

auriferella

(Walker) (= S. 

theoris Meyrick)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit, inflorescence 

(Park et al., 1994; 

Taher Sayed, 1946)

No Larvae 

apparently feed 

superficially on 

the surface of 

fruits 

(Anonymous, 

2008b), and are 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Lepidoptera: Papilionidae

Iphiclides 

podalirius (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Lepidoptera: Pieridae

Aporia crataegi

(L.)

Jiang, 2001 Jiang, 2001; 

Savkovskii, 1975

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Jiang, 2001; 

Savkovskii, 1975)

No Significant 

damage may be 

observed on fruit 

(Jiang, 2001). 

Larvae may feed 

externally on 

fruit, but are 

sensitive to 

disturbance 

(CABI, 2013)

and therefore are 

highly unlikely

to remain with 

the host plant 

after harvest.

Lepidoptera: Psychidae

Acanthoecia (= 

Kotochalia) 

larminati

(Heylaerts) (= 

Chalia larminati

Heylaerts)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf, stem (Chien, 

1959; Pitkin and 

Jenkins, 2009)

No

Acanthopsyche 

bipars Walker

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Acanthopsyche (= 

Eurukuttarus) 

nigriplaga

(Wileman)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Hori, 1927) No

Acanthopsyche 

subteralbata

Hampson

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Amatissa snelleni

Heylaerts

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Amatissa (Das, 

1956).

No

Canephora asiatica

(Staudinger)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Yang et al., 

2008)

No

Canephora 

unicolor Hübner

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Pest name Evidence of 

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Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Chalioides 

kondonis

Matsumura

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Dappula tertia

(Templeton)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Eumeta minuscula

(Butler) (= 

Clania

minuscula

Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Eumeta (= Clania, 

Cryptothelea) 

variegata

(Snellen)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Mahasena hakingi

Moore

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Mahasena

(Robinson et al., 

2001).

No Probably a 

misspelling of 

M. hockingi

(Hampson, 

1892).

Mahasena nitobei

Matsumura

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Mahasena

(Robinson et al., 

2001).

No

Mahasena yuna

Chao

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Mahasena

(Robinson et al., 

2001).

No

Plateumeta aurea

Butler

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, leaf, stem 

typical feeding sites 

of species of 

Psychidae 

(Anonymous, 2007).

No Larvae may feed 

externally on 

developing fruit 

(Anonymous, 

2007), but are 

highly unlikely 

to be associated 

with mature fruit 

at harvest.

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Acrobasis (= 

Eurodope, 

Nephopteryx) 

pyrivorella 

(Matsumura)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Uncertain (CABI, 

2013; Shutova, 

1977)

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Pest name Evidence of 

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Evidence for host 

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Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Acrobasis tokiella

(Ragonot)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Anonymous, 

2009)

No

Calguia defiguralis

Walker

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Robinson et al., 

2009)

No

Conogethes 

punctiferalis 

(Guenée)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Uncertain. Fruit of 

various hosts (CABI, 

2013)

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Cryptoblabes 

gnidiella 

(Millière)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Carter, 1984; 

Zhang, 1994

Fruit, leaf, stem 

(Carter, 1984)

Yes

Eurhodope 

hollandella

(Ragonot) (= 

Etiella 

hollandella

Ragonot)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf typical feeding 

sites of species of 

Eurhodope (Plaksina 

and Prokof’ev, 

1976).

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Euzophera 

batangensis

Caradja

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Euzophera bigella

(Zeller)

Hua, 2005 Davatchi and 

Esmaili, 1970

Fruit (Davatchi and 

Esmaili, 1970)

Yes

Euzophera pinguis

(Haworth)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Stem (Zhang, 1994) No

Euzophera pyriella

Yang

Song et al., 1994; 

Sun and Wang, 

2010

Song et al., 1994 Fruit, stem (Song et 

al., 1994)

Yes

Haritalodes (= 

Sylepta) 

derogata (F.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (CABI, 2007) No

Heterocrasa

expansalis

Warren

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf feeding site 

reported for species 

of Heterocrasa

(Yunus and Ho, 

1980).

No

Hypsopygia regina

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Hypsopygia

(Robinson et al., 

2009).

No

Loxostege 

sticticalis L. (= 

Margaritia 

sticticalis [L.])

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (CABI, 2007) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 104

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Maruca vitrata (F.) 

(= M. testulalis

[Geyer])

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence, leaf 

(CABI, 2007)

No

Ostrinia furnacalis 

(Guenee)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Uncertain. Recorded 

on all plant parts of 

other hosts (CABI, 

2013).

No See additional 

discussion in 

section 2.3.

Pempelia heringii

(Ragonot) (= 

Nephopteryx 

rubrizonella

Ragonot)

Arakawa, 1927; 

Hua, 2005

Arakawa, 1927; 

Hua, 2005

Fruit, leaf (Arakawa, 

1927)

Yes

Lepidoptera: Saturniidae

Actias artemis

(Bremer & 

Gory)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Actias dubernardi

(Oberthür)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Actias (Robinson et 

al., 2009).

No

Actias selene

(Hübner)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Hill, 1983) No

Antheraea pernyi

GuérinMéneville

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Antheraea 

yamamai

GuérinMéneville

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Leaf (CABI, 2007; 

Sahara et al., 2001)

No

Attacus atlas (L.) Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Caligula boisduvali

Erscherich (= C. 

jonasii

Staudinger)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Caligula japonica

(Moore) (= 

Dictyoploca 

japonica Moore)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Caligula (= 

Dictyoploca) 

simla Westwood

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Pest name Evidence of 

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China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Cricula 

trifenestrata

Helfer (= C. 

andrei Jordan)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Holloway, 

1998; Robinson et 

al., 2009)

No

Eriogyna 

pyretorum

(Westwood)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Zhang et al., 

2008b)

No

Neoris haraldi

Schawerda

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Anonymous, 

2009)

No

Solus drepanoides

(Moore) (= 

Cricula

drepanoides

Moore)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Cricula (Robinson et 

al., 2009).

No

Lepidoptera: Sesiidae

Paranthrene 

regalis (Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Stem (Zhou et al., 

1999)

No

Synanthedon (= 

Conopia) hector

(Butler)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Stem (Matsumoto et 

al., 2007)

No

Synanthedon 

unocingulata

Bartel (= S. 

haitangwora

Yang)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Stem (Robinson et 

al., 2001; Zhu, 1980)

No

Lepidoptera: Sphingidae

Ampelophaga 

rubiginosa

Bremer & Grey

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Pittaway and 

Kitching, 2009a)

No

Langia zenzeroides

Moore

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Nair, 1975) No

Marumba 

gaschkewitschii

(Bremer & 

Grey)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (KFS, 2004) No

Marumba 

jankowskii

(Oberthür)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Genka, 2009b) No

Rhyncholaba (= 

Pergesa) acteus

(Cramer)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Leong and 

D’Rozario, 2009)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Smerinthus planus

Walker

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Smerinthus (Murata, 

1927).

No

Sphinx ligustri L. Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Pittaway and 

Kitching, 2009b)

No

Theretra latreillii

(Macleay)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Hawkeswood, 

1993)

No

Lepidoptera: Thyatiridae

Habrosyne 

pyritoides

(Hufnagel)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Habrosyne (USDI, 

2006).

No

Thyatira batis (L.) CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Fitter and 

Peat, 1994)

No

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae

Acleris comariana

(Lienig & 

Zeller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Anonymous, 1973)

No

Acleris cristana

(Denis &

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004)

No Larvae 

occasionally may 

feed superficially 

on fruit 

(Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004), 

but are highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Acleris extensana

(Walker) (= 

Peronea 

agrioma

Meyrick)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Nair, 

1975

Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Acleris (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 

2004).

No

Acleris fimbriana

(Thunberg & 

Becklin) (= A. 

crocopepla

[Meyrick])

Hua, 2005; 

Hwang, 1974

Hua, 2005 Leaf (Hwang, 1974; 

Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Adoxophyes 

cyrtosema

Meyrick

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Liu, 1958)

No Larvae may feed 

on developing 

fruit, causing 

premature fruit 

drop (Liu, 1958), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Adoxophyes orana

(Fischer von 

Röslerstamm)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Ding et al., 2003; 

Whittle, 1985

Byun et al., 2003; 

Chapman, 1973; 

Whittle, 1985

Fruit (Chapman, 

1973), inflorescence, 

leaf (Hill, 1983)

Yes

Adoxophyes 

privatana

(Walker)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004)

No Larvae may feed 

on developing 

fruit, causing 

premature fruit 

drop (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 

2004), but are 

highly unlikely 

to be present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Ancylis selenana

(Guenée)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Archips asiaticus

Walsingham (= 

Cacoecia 

asiatica

[Walsingham], 

Tortrix asiatica

Walsingham)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005; 

Hwang, 1974

Hua, 2005; 

Hwang, 1974

Fruit (Byun et al., 

2003), leaf (Hwang, 

1974)

No Like other 

leafrollers in 

apple (Brunner, 

1993), larvae 

may damage 

fruit by binding 

leaves to it or 

feeding 

externally. 

Highly unlikely 

to be present on 

harvested fruit.

Archips betulana

(Hübner) (= A. 

decretana

[Treitschke])

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Georgiev and 

Velcheva, 1999)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Archips 

breviplicanus

(Walsingham)

Hua, 2005 Chapman, 1973; 

Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004

Fruit (Chapman, 

1973), inflorescence, 

leaf (Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004)

No Larvae 

occasionally may 

feed superficially 

on young fruit 

(Chapman, 1973; 

Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004), 

but are highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Archips crataegana

(Hübner)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Archips ingentana

(Christoph)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Syachina and 

Dubatolov, 2009)

No

Archips micaceana

(Walker)

Hua, 2005; Zhou 

and Deng, 2006

Bhardwaj and 

Bhardwaj, 1983; 

Hua, 2005

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Bhardwaj and 

Bhardwaj, 1983)

Yes

Archips 

nigricaudana

(Walsingham)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (NIFTS, 2008) No

Archips oporana

(L.) (= 

Archippus 

oporanus [L.], 

Cacoecia 

oporana [L.])

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Hua, 2005 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Anonymous, 

2009a; CABI, 2007; 

Hill, 1983; Sylvén, 

1958)

No Larvae may feed 

superficially on 

developing fruit 

(Dicker, 1962), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Archips philippa

(Meyrick) (= A. 

subsidiaria

[Meyrick])

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit, leaf (Parry and 

Pawar, 1988)

No Larvae feed 

superficially on 

fruit (Parry and 

Pawar, 1988), 

but are highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Archips subrufana

(Snellen)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Choi et al., 

2004)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 109

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Archips termias

(Meyrick) (= A. 

pomivora

(Meyrick), 

Cacoecia 

sarcostega

Meyrick)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Bhagat et al., 

1994; Nair, 1975)

No Larvae may feed 

on damaged 

fruitlets (Bhagat 

et al., 1994), but 

are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Archips xylosteana

(L.) (= Cacoecia

xylosteana (L.))

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Chapman, 1973; 

Hua, 2005

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Byun et al., 

2003; Chapman, 

1973; Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No Larvae feed on 

young, 

developing fruit 

(Byun et al., 

2003), but are 

highly unlikely 

to be present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Argyrotaenia 

ljungiana

(Thunberg) (= A. 

pulchellana

(Haworth))

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Alford, 2007; Hua, 

2005; Velcheva, 

2009

Fruit, leaf, 

inflorescence 

(Alford, 2007; 

Gambaro, 1962)

Yes

Choristoneura 

adumbratanus

(Walsingham) (= 

Hoshinoa 

adumbratana

(Walsingham))

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Leaf (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Choristoneura

diversana

(Hübner)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Hua, 2005 Leaf (Carter, 1984) No

Choristoneura 

lafauryana

(Ragonot)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Hua, 2005 Fruit, leaf 

(Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004)

No Larvae may 

graze 

superficially on 

fruit (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 

2004), but are 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Choristoneura 

longicellanus

(Walsingham) (= 

Hoshinoa 

longicellanus

[Walsingham])

High, 2008; Hua, 

2005

High, 2008; Hua, 

2005

Fruit, leaf (High, 

2008)

No Larvae may 

graze 

superficially on 

fruit (High, 

2008), but are 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Choristoneura 

luticostana

(Christoph)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Leaf (Kuznetsov, 

1989)

No

Clepsis imitator

(Walsingham)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Clepsis (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 

2004).

No

Clepsis mellissa

(Meyrick)

Hua, 2005; Wang 

et al., 2003

Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Clepsis (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 

2004).

No

Clepsis pallidana

(F.) (= C. 

strigana

[Hübner])

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Hua, 2005 Leaf (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004; 

Yasuda, 1972)

No

Cnephasia 

stephensiana

(Doubleday) (= 

C. 

cinereipalpana 

Razowski)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Cydia funebrana 

(Treitschke) 

(=Grapholita 

funebrana

(Treitschke), 

Laspeyresia 

funebrana Tr.)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005; Liu et al., 

2010

Olszak and 

Pluciennik, 2001

Fruit (Olszak and 

Pluciennik, 2001)

Yes
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 111

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Eudemis 

porphyrana

(Hübner)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (FES, 2009c)

No Larvae may feed 

in young fruit 

(FES, 2009c), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present in mature 

fruit at harvest.

Grapholita 

inopinata

Heinrich (= 

Cydia inopinata

Heinrich)

CASI, 1994; 

Chang et al., 

1964

CASI, 1994; 

Chapman, 1973; 

Gibanov and 

Sanin, 1971; 

Lopatina, 1978

Fruit, seed 

(Chapman, 1973, 

Lopatina, 1978)

Yes

Gypsonoma 

minutana

(Hübner)

CABI, 2007; 

Hua, 2005

CABI, 2007; Hua, 

2005

Leaf (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Hedya auricristana

(Walsingham)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Tsukiji, 

2009a)

No

Hedya ignara

Falkovitsh

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Kuznetsov,

1989)

No

Homona coffearia

(Nietner)

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Leaf (CABI, 2007) No

Homona 

magnanima

(Diakonoff)

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Leaf (CABI, 2007; 

Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Homonopsis 

foederatana

(Kennel)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Murakami and 

Nakano, 2002)

No

Homonopsis 

illotana (Kennel)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Kuznetsov, 

1989)

No

Pandemis cerasana

(Hübner) (= P. 

ribeana

[Hübner])

Hua, 2005; Tiso 

et al., 1992

Hua, 2005; Tiso et 

al., 1992

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004; 

Tiso et al., 1992)

No Larvae may feed 

on young, 

developing fruit 

(Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004), 

but are highly

unlikely to be 

present on 

mature fruit at 

harvest.

Pandemis 

chlorograpta

Meyrick

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Pandemis (Robinson 

et al., 2001).

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Pandemis 

chondrillana

(HerrichSchäffer)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004)

No See Remarks for 

Pandemis 

cerasana.

Pandemis 

cinnamomeana

(Treitschke)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Leaf (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Pandemis corylana

(F.)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Pandemis 

dumetana

(Treitschke)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Inflorescence, leaf 

(Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Pandemis 

heparana (Denis 

& 

Schiffermüller)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004

Byun et al., 2003; 

Chapman, 1973; 

Lind et al., 2003

Fruit, leaf, stem 

(Chapman, 1973; 

Lind et al., 2003)

No Larvae may 

graze 

superficially on 

fruit (Lind et al., 

2003), but are 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Pseudosciaphila 

branderiana (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Fitter and 

Peat, 1994)

No

Ptycholoma (= 

Archips) imitator

(Walsingham) (= 

Cacoecia 

imitator

Walsingham)

Byun et al., 2003; 

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Byun et al., 2003; 

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Leaf 

(Doosan_Corporatio

n, 2009c; Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Ptycholoma 

lecheana (L.)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Hua, 2005 Leaf (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Rhopobota 

ustomaculana

(Curtis)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Sugiura et al., 

2006)

No

Sparganothis 

pilleriana (Denis 

& 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Inflorescence, leaf, 

stem (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Spatalistis 

christophana

(Walsingham)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Genka, 2009a) No

Spilonota albicana

(Motschulsky)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2005

Fruit (Hua and 

Wang, 2006)

Yes
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Spilonota 

lechriaspis

Meyrick

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Spilonota 

prognathana

Snellen

Hua, 2005; 

Kondo and 

Miyahara, 1930

Chapman, 1973; 

Hua, 2005

Fruit (Chapman, 

1973; Kondo and 

Miyahara, 1930)

Yes

Statherotis 

threnodes

(Meyrick)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No Probably a 

synonym of 

Arcesis 

threnodes

(Meyrick). 

Statherotis 

threnodes

apparently is not 

a valid species 

(Brown, 2005).

Syndemis 

musculana

(Hübner)

Byun et al., 2003; 

Hua, 2005

Byun et al., 2003; 

Chapman, 1973; 

Hua, 2005

Fruit, leaf 

(Chapman, 1973; 

Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004)

No Larvae may feed 

superficially on 

young fruit, 

(Chapman, 

1973), but are 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Tortrix sinapina

(Butler)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 2004)

No

Ulodemis trigrapha

Meyrick

Hua, 2005; Liu 

and Bai, 1982

Fletcher, 1920; 

Robinson et al., 

2001

Fruit (Fletcher, 

1920)

Yes

Lepidoptera: Xyloryctidae

Acria ceramitis

Meyrick

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Athrypsiastis salva

Meyrick

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf, stem feeding 

locations for species 

of Athrypsiastis

(Borror et al., 1989).

No

Linoclostis 

gonatias

Meyrick

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Stem (Sonan, 1939) No

Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae

Swammerdamia 

pyrella (de 

Villers)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Carter, 1984) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 114

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Yponomeuta 

evonymellus (L.)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Hill, 1987) No

Yponomeuta 

polystictus

(Butler)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Anonymous, 

2009c)

No

Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae

Agalope hyalina

Kollar

Bhardwaj and 

Bhardwaj, 1983; 

Hua, 2005

Bhardwaj and 

Bhardwaj, 1983; 

Hua, 2005

Inflorescence, leaf, 

stem (Bhardwaj and 

Bhardwaj, 1983)

No

Elcysma 

westwoodii

(Vollenhoven)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Inflorescence, leaf 

(Nakai and Takeda, 

1995)

No

Illiberis nigra

(Leech)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Kim et al., 

2004)

No

Illiberis pruni Dyar Hanson, 1963; 

High, 2008; Hua, 

2005

High, 2008; Hua, 

2005

Fruit, leaf (High, 

2008)

No Larvae may 

graze 

superficially on 

fruit (High, 

2008), but are 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Illiberis sinensis

Walker

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (EPPO, 2005) No

Procris pruni

(Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005 Hua, 2005 Leaf (Apostolov, 

1961)

No

Soritia pulchella

(Kollar) (= S. 

leptalina Kollar)

Hua, 2005 Bhardwaj and 

Bhardwaj, 1983; 

Hua, 2005; Zhang, 

1994

Leaf (Nair, 1975) No

Orthoptera: Acrididae

Angaracris 

barabensis

(Pallas)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf (Chen and 

Kang, 2000)

No

Atractomorpha lata

(Motschulsky) 

(= Acrida lata

Wu)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

Leaf (Yanagida et 

al., 1996)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 115

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Atractomorpha 

sinensis

(Bolivar) (= A. 

ambigua

Bolivar)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

Leaf, stem (Martin 

Kessing and Mau, 

1992)

No Present in 

Hawaii (Nishida, 

2002).

Chorthippus 

brunneus

(Thunberg)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Chorthippus (e.g., 

Bernays and 

Chapman, 1970).

No

Locusta migratoria

(L.) (= L. danica

L.)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (CABI, 2007) No

Oxya japonica

(Thunberg) (= O. 

velox [F.])

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf (Aziz and Aziz, 

1985)

No Present in 

Hawaii (Nishida, 

2002).

Oxya 

shanghaiensis

Willemse

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf typical feeding 

site of species of 

Oxya (e.g., Adria et 

al., 1990; Hill, 

1983).

No

Parapleurus 

alliaceus

(Germar)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf (Pfisterer et al., 

2003)

No

Patanga japonica

(Bolivar)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit, leaf (Zhai, 

1985)

No Species is 

reported to feed 

superficially on 

fruit, but is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest (DAFF, 

2009).

Orthoptera: Gryllidae

Calyptotrypus 

hibinonis

(Matsumura)

Hanson, 1963; 

Hua, 2000

Hanson, 1963; 

Hua, 2000

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf, stem (Hanson, 

1963)

No Pest may feed 

superficially on 

fruit (Hanson, 

1963; Tseng and 

Ho, 1937), but is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest.

Gryllus chinensis

(Weber)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf, stem 

(McPartland, 1996)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 116

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Loxoblemmus 

doenitzi Stein

DAFF, 2009 DAFF, 2009 Fruit (DAFF, 2009) No Species is 

reported to feed 

superficially on 

fruit, but is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest (DAFF, 

2009).

Oecanthus 

longicauda

Matsumura

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit, leaf, stem 

typically attacked by 

species of 

Oecanthus (Metcalf 

and Metcalf, 1993).

No Adults may eat 

holes in ripe fruit 

(Metcalf and 

Metcalf, 1993), 

but are highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Teleogryllus 

mitratus

(Burmeister)

DAFF, 2009; 

Hua, 2000

DAFF, 2009; Hua, 

2000

Fruit, leaf, stem 

(DAFF, 2009)

No Species is 

reported to feed 

superficially on 

fruit, but is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest (DAFF, 

2009).

Teleogryllus 

testaceus

(Walker) (= 

Gryllus testaceus

Walker)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

CASI, 1994; Hua, 

2000

Root, stem (Calora 

and Ferino, 1964)

No

Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae

Gryllotalpa 

africana Palisot 

de Beauvois

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Chao, 1975) No Present in 

Hawaii (CABI, 

2007).

Gryllotalpa 

unispina

Saussure

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Chao, 1975) No

Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae

Conocephalus 

gladiatus

(Redtenbacher)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf, stem (NILGS, 

2009b)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 117

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Deracantha onos

(Pallas)

DAFF, 2009 DAFF, 2009 Fruit (DAFF, 2009) No Species is 

reported to feed 

superficially on 

fruit, but is 

highly unlikely 

to remain with 

fruit through 

harvest (DAFF, 

2009).

Gampsocleis 

buergeri (De 

Haan)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Leaf (Tayutivutikul 

and Kusigemati, 

1992)

No

Gampsocleis 

ussuriensis

Adelung

DAFF, 2009 DAFF, 2009 Fruit (DAFF, 2009) No See Remarks for 

Deracantha 

onos.

Holochlora 

japonica

Brunner von 

Wattenwyl

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf (Kim, 2000a) No Present in 

Hawaii (Nishida, 

2002).

Holochlora nawae

Matsumura & 

Shiraki

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf (CAAS, 2009)

No Species of 

Tettigoniidae 

may feed 

externally on 

fruit (e.g., 

Wason, 1946), 

but are highly

unlikely to 

remain with fruit 

through harvest.

Phasmatodea: Bacteriidae

Phraortes illepidus

(Brunner von 

Wattenwyl) (= 

Staelonchodes 

illepidus

Brunner von 

Wattenwyl)

Hua, 2000 Hua, 2000 Leaf (Kim, 2000b) No Species of 

Staelonchodes

have been placed 

in the genus 

Lonchodes

(Brock, 2000), 

which is a 

synonym of 

Phraortes (e.g., 

Hua, 2000).

Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae

Haplothrips 

chinensis

Priesner

Hua, 2000; 

Mirab-balou et 

al., 2011

Hua, 2000 Inflorescence 

(Wang, 1997)

No

Thysanoptera: Thripidae
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 118

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Parabaliothrips 

grandiceps

Priesner

Hua, 2000; 

Mirab-balou et 

al., 2011

Hua, 2000 Leaf (Gillespie et al., 

2002)

No

Thrips flavidulus

(Bagnall)

Hua, 2000; 

Mirab-balou et 

al., 2011

Hua, 2000 Inflorescence (Zhao 

et al., 2002)

No

Thrips flavus

Schrank

Hua, 2000; 

Mirab-balou et 

al., 2011

Hua, 2000 Inflorescence (Hill, 

1983)

No

FUNGI AND CHROMISTANS

Ascochyta piricola

Sacc. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2012

Farr and Rossman, 

2012

Leaf (Kuz'michevl et 

al., 2001)

No

Gymnosporangium 

yamadae Miyabe 

ex Yamada 

(Urediniomycetes: 

Uredinales)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994; 

Jones, 2000

Fruit, leaf, stem 

(EPPO, 2003)

Yes Isolated reports 

place the fungus 

in Pennsylvania 

and Deleware

(Yun et al., 

2009) butwe 

found no further 

detections. Fruit 

is an unlikely 

conveyance and 

is only 

referenced once 

(EPPO, 2003). 

Japanese (the 

source of the 

most literature) 

and Chinese 

literature did not 

describe infected 

fruit.

Helicobasidium 

mompa Tanaka 

(Ustilaginomyce

tes)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2012

Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Lutz et al., 

2004

Roots (Farr and 

Rossman, 2012)

No

Leptosphaeria 

mandshurica

Miura 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CASI, 1994; Farr 

and Rossman, 

2012

CASI, 1994; Farr 

and Rossman, 

2012

Leaf (CASI, 1994) No
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 119

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Monilia polystroma

van Leeuwen 

(Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2012; 

Petróczy and 

Palkovics, 2009; 

Zhu and Guo, 

2010

Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Petróczy 

and Palkovics, 

2009

Fruit, leaf, stem

(Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Petróczy and 

Palkovics, 2009)

Yes

Monilinia 

fructigena

Honey 

(Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales) (= 

Stromatinia 

fructigena

[Schröt.] Boud; 

anamorph: 

Sclerotinia 

fructigena

[Pers.] Schröt.)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2012

Duke, 1983; Farr 

and Rossman, 

2012

Fruit (Farr and 

Rossman, 2012), 

inflorescence, stem 

(Duke, 1983)

Yes

Monilinia mali

(Takahashi) 

Whetzel (= 

Sclerotinia mali

Takahashi) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales)

CASI, 1994; Farr 

and Rossman, 

2012

CASI, 1994; Farr 

and Rossman, 

2012; Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990

Fruit, inflorescence, 

leaf, stem (CASI, 

1994; Willetts and 

Harada, 1984).

No Does not infect 

mature fruit 

(Holb, 2008).

Infected fruit 

drop at the small 

fruit, immature 

stage (Holb, 

2008).

Mycosphaerella 

pomacearum

(Cord.) Sacc. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellal

es)

CASI, 1994; Farr 

and Rossman, 

2012

CASI, 1994; Farr 

and Rossman, 

2012

Leaf (CASI, 1994) No

Ochropsora ariae

(Fuckel) Ramsb.

(Urediniomycetes, 

Uredinales)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2013

Farr and Rossman, 

2013

Leaf (Farr and 

Rossman, 2013)

No

Paraconiothyrium 

variabile

Riccioni, Damm, 

Verkley & Crous 

(Dothideomycet

es, Pleosporales)

Gao et al., 2011 Gao et al., 2011 Trunk (Gao et al., 

2011)

No Wood rotting 

fungus (Gao et 

al, 2011); no 

evidence of 

pathogenicity.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 120

Pest name Evidence of 

presence in 

China 

Evidence for host 

association

Plant part(s) 

association4

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?5

Remarks

Pestalotiopsis 

disseminata

(Thüm.) Steyaert 

(=Pestalotia 

disseminata

Thüm. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales))

Farr and 

Rossman, 2012

Farr and Rossman, 

2012

Leaf (Farr and 

Rossman, 2013)

No

Phomopsis 

truncicola Miura 

(Ascomycetes: 

Diaporthales)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2012

Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Won et al., 

1972

Stem (Won et al., 

1972)

No

Valsa mali Miyabe 

& Yamada (= 

Cytospora mali

Grove) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Diaporthales)

CABI, 2012; Fu 

et al., 2003;

Wang et al., 2011

Fu et al., 2003; 

Wang et al., 2011

Twig infection 

(Wang et al., 2011)

No

NEMATODES

Aphelenchoides 

limberi Steiner 

(Aphelenchoidid

ae)

Li, 1984a Li, 1984a Leaf typically 

infested by species 

of Aphelenchoides

(Nickle and Hooper, 

1991).

No

Helicotylenchus 

agricola

Elmiligy 

(Hoplolaimidae)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Root (CASI, 1994) No

Helicotylenchus 

borinquensis

Román 

(Hoplolaimidae)

CASI, 1994 CASI, 1994 Root (CASI, 1994) No

Meloidogyne mali

Itoh et al. 

(Meloidogynidae

)

Zhang and Xu, 

1994

Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990

Root (Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990)

No

Pratylenchus loosi

Loof 

(Pratylenchidae)

CABI, 2007 CABI, 2007 Root (CABI, 2007) No

VIRUS/VIROID

Apple dimple fruit 

apscaviroid

CABI, 2012 Serio et al., 2002 Plant (Serio et al., 

2002)

Yes (Serio 

et al., 

2002)
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 121

2.3. Notes on pests identified in the pest list 

Acrobasis (= Eurhodope, Nephopteryx) pyrivorella (Matsumura) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): 

Available information on this species indicates that it is a pest restricted to cultivated and 

ornamental pear varieties (Shutova, 1977), and is not known to affect any other host species 

(CABI, 2013; Shutova, 1977). This pest is listed by CASI (1994) and Hua (2005) as occurring on 

Malus pumila in China; however, outside of the mention of the pest on apple on these pest lists, 

there is no indication that A. pyrivorella has ever infested or affected Malus species, even as a 

widespread pest throughout Asia (CABI, 2013).

Bactrocera occipitalis (Bezzi) (Diptera: Tephritidae): Due to many misidentifications of 

Bactrocera species in southern Asia, the full host and distribution for B. occipitalis is not known 

(Drew and Hancock, 1994). Mango and guava are the only plants that have been confirmed as 

natural hosts (Drew and Hancock, 1994). A thorough literature search did not reveal any 

additional sources that may indicate a reliable identification of B. occipitalis on apple, and the 

CASI (1994) record is considered dubious.

Bactrocera pedestris (Bezzi) (Diptera: Tephritidae): Identification of Bactrocera species is 

difficult, and there are many known instances of misidentifications in southern Asia (Drew and 

Hancock, 1994). Drew and Hancock (1994) were unable to confirm what species of plant serve 

as hosts for B. pedestris, and the species is only known to occur in the Philippines. A thorough 

literature search did not reveal any additional sources that may indicate a reliable identification 

of B. pedestris on apple or in China, and the CASI (1994) record is considered dubious.

Conogethes punctiferalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): Occasional records list apple in 

association with C. punctiferalis with no original sources indicated (CABI, 2013; CASI, 1994; 

Robinson et al., 2001); however, there is no evidence that this association occurs naturally. 

Kadoi and Kaneda (1990) performed laboratory research and found that the moth was unable to 

complete development with apples. Conogethes punctiferalis is a significant pest on other hosts, 

and extensive research has been published regarding the host range and impacts. A thorough 

search of reputable sources, including the National Agricultural Library, Google Scholar, and 

PestID interception records did not reveal any indication of a natural association with apples. We 

consider the listing of apples as a natural host for C. punctiferalis to be dubious.

Hypocala subsatura Guenee (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): High (2008) describes damage of apple 

fruit to include boring by larvae of H. subsatura. Most of the available information indicates that 

H. subsatura is a pest of leaves of persimmon (e.g., Hallman and Knight, 1993), with very little 

indication of this species occurring on apple fruit. Sources of primary literature records do not 

reflect a natural association with apple fruit. Various online sources also indicate that records of 

H. subsatura on Malus species in pest lists (e.g., CASI, 1994; Hua, 2005) may be due to 

recordings of adult feeding, or of misidentification with other Hypocala species (e.g., Holloway, 

1983). It does not appear that apple is a host for H. subsatura that can sustain development of 

larvae to maturity.

Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): CASI (1994) indicates pest status on 

apple and presence in China. There is no other indication in the literature or interception records 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 122

that O. furnacalis may affect apple, either incidentally or as a pest. Therefore, this pest was not 

analyzed further.

Tetranychus truncatus Ehara (Acari: Tetranychidae): CASI (1994) lists this species as a pest of 

apple in China. There is no other indication that this well researched species may infest apple 

trees. A thorough search of reputable sources, including the National Agricultural Library, 

Google Scholar, and PestID interception records did not reveal any indication of a natural 

association with apples. Moreover, Tetranychus mites are pests of leaves (CABI, 2013). Lee and 

Lee (1997) consider an anecdotal possibility, stating that “even though these mite species do not 

occur in apple orchards...the importers suspect these non-feeders of apple to attach on apple 

fruits accidentally and hibernate in the concave on fruits.” The authors do not give a reference 

for this information. An additional search of interception records gives no indication that 

Tetranychus species may be associated with commercially produced and shipped apple fruits, 

and it is considered not likely to be associated with apples. 

There is very little biological information available for many of the species listed on the pest list 

in Table 2. For many, associated plant parts must be assumed by examining the biological 

characteristics of other species within the genus, subfamily, or family. Finding that a similar 

species may be found affecting fruit, with no additional information available, is insufficient to 

conclude that the species of concern may also regularly be associated with the fruit, and therefore 

likely to follow the pathway. Therefore, the following arthropods will not be analyzed at this 

time: Argyresthia assimilis (Lepidoptera: Agryresthiidae), Ergania doriae (Coleoptera: 

Curculionidae), Eurhodope hollandella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), Peribleptus foveatus

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae), and Tenuipalpus taonicus (Acari: Tenuipalpidae). Additional 

changes and further review may be required as biological information becomes available.

2.4. Pests selected for further analysis 

We identified 26 pests for further analysis (Table 3). All of these organisms are actionable pests 

for the continental United States and have a reasonable likelihood of being associated with the 

commodity plant part(s) at the time of harvest and remaining with the commodity, in viable 

form, throughout the harvesting process. 

Table 3. Pests selected for further analysis. 

Pest type Taxonomy Scientific name

Arthropod Acari: Tenuipalpidae Cenopalpus pulcher

Coleoptera: Curculionidae Rhynchites auratus

Rhynchites bacchus

Rhynchites heros

Rhynchites giganteus

Diptera: Tephritidae Bactrocera dorsalis

Hemiptera: Coccidae Ceroplastes japonicus

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae Pseudococcus cryptus

Lepidoptera: Carposinidae Carposina sasakii

Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae Leucoptera malifoliella
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 123

Pest type Taxonomy Scientific name

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Cryptoblabes gnidiella

Euzophera bigella

Euzophera pyriella

Pempelia heringii

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae Adoxophyes orana

Archips micaceana

Argyrotaenia ljungiana

Cydia funebrana

Grapholita inopinata

Spilonota albicana

Spilonota prognathana

Ulodemis trigrapha

Fungi Gymnosporangium yamadae

Monilia polystroma

Monilinia fructigena

Viroid Apple dimple fruit apscaviroid

3. Assessing Pest Risk Potential

3.1. Introduction

For each pest selected for further analysis, we estimate its overall pest risk potential. Risk is 

described by the likelihood of an adverse event, the magnitude of the consequences, and 

uncertainty. In this risk assessment, we first determine for each pest if there is an endangered 

area within the import area. The endangered area is defined as the portion of the import area 

where ecological factors favor the establishment of the pest and where the presence of the pest 

will result in economically important losses. Once an endangered area has been determined, the 

overall risk of each pest is then determined by two separate components: 1) the likelihood of its 

introduction into the endangered area on the imported commodity (i.e., the likelihood of an 

adverse event), and 2) the consequences of its introduction (i.e., the magnitude of the 

consequences). In general, we assess both of these components for each pest. However, if we 

determine that the risk of either of these components is negligible, it is not necessary to assess 

the other, as the overall pest risk potential would be negligible regardless of the result of the 

second component. In other words, if we determine that the introduction of a pest is unlikely to 

have unacceptable consequences, we do not assess its likelihood of being introduced. Likewise, 

if we determine there is negligible likelihood of a pest being introduced, we do not assess its 

consequences of introduction.

The likelihood and consequences of introduction are assessed using different approaches. 

For the consequences of introduction, we determine if the pest meets the threshold (Yes/No) of 

likely causing unacceptable consequences of introduction. This determination is based on 

estimating the potential consequences of introduction in terms of physical losses (rather than 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 124

monetary losses). The threshold is based on a proportion of damage rather than an absolute value 

or amount. Pests that are likely to impact at least 10 percent of the production of one or more 

hosts are deemed “threshold pests.” 

For likelihood of introduction, which is based on the likelihoods of entry and establishment, we 

qualitatively assess risk using the ratings Negligible, Low, Medium, and High. The risk factors 

comprising the model for likelihood of introduction are interdependent and, therefore, the model 

is multiplicative rather than additive. Thus, if any one risk factor is rated as Negligible, then the 

overall likelihood will be Negligible. For the overall likelihood of introduction risk rating, we 

define the different categories as follows:

High: Pest introduction is highly likely to occur.

Medium: Pest introduction is possible, but for that to happen, the exact combination of 

required events needs to occur.

Low: Pest introduction is unlikely to occur because one or more of the required events 

are unlikely to happen, or the full combination of required events is unlikely to 

align properly in time and space.

Negligible: Pest introduction is highly unlikely to occur given the exact combination of 

events required for successful introduction. 

3.2. Assessment results

3.2.1. Adoxophyes orana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Adoxophyes orana in the continental United States is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Adoxophyes 

orana

Climatic suitability Based on the current distribution of A. orana in Europe and Asia

(CABI, 2013), establishment may occur in Plant Hardiness Zones 4 

through 9 (Magarey et al., 2008).

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

Adoxophyes orana is a broadly polyphagous pest, known particularly to 

feed on fruit trees throughout the world. Hosts in the continental United 

States may include alder, birch, Humulus spp., hazel, persimmon, 

currant, peanut, soybean, mulberry, lilac, loquat, apple, Prunus spp., 

pear, rose, Rubus spp., citrus, poplar, willow, and camellia (NRCS, 

2012; Robinson et al., 2001).

Economically

important hosts at riska

Some of the economically important host plants in the region estimated 

for potential establishment include apple, Prunus species, pear, and 

rose (CABI, 2013).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at riska

Adoxophyes orana is considered one of the most significant pests in 

UK apple orchards (Cuthbertson and Murchie, 2005). 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 125

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area of the continental United States includes regions 

within Plant Hardiness Zones 4 through 9. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Adoxophyes orana into the endangered area 

via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Low C Evidence indicates that this organism 

has a low association with fruit. Eggs 

are generally laid on leaves, but may be 

present on fruit (Hill, 1983). Larvae 

may feed externally on fruit skin (Hill, 

1983) but are not expected to be 

associated with harvested fruit.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Low MU No information was provided regarding 

post-harvest procedures that may

reduce pest prevalence on the fruit (see 

the description of the pathway in 

section 1.4).

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Low MU No information was provided regarding 

transport and storage procedures that 

may reduce pest prevalence on the fruit

(see the description of the pathway in 

section 1.4). Typical shipping 

conditions for apples seem unlikely to 

affect the pest population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

Low N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Medium MC Adoxophyes orana is a broadly

polyphagous pest, known particularly to 

feed on fruit trees throughout the world 

(Robinson et al., 2001). Suitable hosts 

are widely and regularly distributed 

throughout the endangered area and the 

pest is capable of dispersing on its own. 

However, Hill (1983) states that eggs 

may be present on fruit skin and are the 

most likely life stage to be imported 

with apples from China. In order for 

establishment to occur, these eggs must 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 126

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary)

successfully develop, find hosts, and 

mate. We rated this risk element 

Medium due to the likelihood of these 

required conditions being met for 

development. See below for additional 

explanation. 

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population lives within the endangered 

area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be eggs (Hill, 

1983). In order for establishment to occur, these eggs must successfully hatch into larvae, feed 

and mature through pupation and eclosion to adulthood. Both males and females must emerge 

and mate, then mated females must find hosts on which to oviposit their eggs. Lepidopteran leafrolling and fruit-boring pests typically exhibit intra-specific competition for food resources, 

resulting in only a single larva occurring per fruit when infestations occur. Similar species such 

as codling moth, light-brown apple moth, and false codling moth exhibit this behavior (Vail et 

al., 1993; Bedford et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; Whiting et al., 1997); furthermore, it is not 

unusual for Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit cannibalism such as that demonstrated by false 

codling moth (Bedford et al., 1998). This means that usually only a single larva may be present if 

fruit is infested (rather than multiple larvae as seen with fruit flies in the family Tephritidae). In 

addition, pest populations in the field may show variation in developmental times and 

overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; Knight and Croft, 1991), with larvae of different 

stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) noted that pest establishment is dependent on a 

“mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–that is, a male and female adult must emerge from 

a consignment in close proximity to each other, at the same time, and mate in order for 

introduction to occur. However, the results of courtship behavior studies in two leaf-rolling 

tortricids found that it is necessary for female pheromone permeated airflow to be present in 

order for males to initiate mating sequences (Curkovic et al., 2006). Solitary pests, such as 

Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual reproduction that makes use of complex mate 

finding systems will have a lower likelihood of introduction compared to gregarious pests (where 

multiple males and females may emerge from a single fruit at the same time and be able to mate) 

(Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 1999). This is because the likelihood of a mated 

pair (sexually mature males and a females simultaneously emerging in close proximity to each 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 127

other) is comparatively lower. We rated this risk element Medium due to the likelihood of these 

required conditions being met for development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Adoxophyes orana into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes C Adoxophyes orana is considered to be 

a pest of potential economic and 

environmental importance to the 

United States (CAPS, 2013). Recent 

studies in the Czech Republic have 

found increasingly damaging 

populations predicted to have been 

imported in fruit for consumption and

that are resistant to current leaf roller

control efforts (Kocourek and Stara, 

2005). Additional control efforts 

beyond what is currently in place may

be necessary in the United States, 

should this pest be imported in apples. 

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes MC Adoxophyes orana is an important pest 

whose recent spread and impact into 

apples orchards in new regions of 

Europe has been documented 

(Kocourek and Stara, 2005). 

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

Yes N/A
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 128

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

the PRA area?

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.2 Apple dimple fruit apscaviroid

We determined that the establishment of Apple dimple fruit apscaviroid in the continental United 

States is negligible because it is only transmissible by grafting. We present the results of this 

assessment in the table below.

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

N/A N/A

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

N/A N/A

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

N/A N/A

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

N/A N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Negligible C Apple dimple fruit apscaviroid is 

viroid which is only transmissible 

by grafting (Serio et al., 2002). 

Fruit cannot be grafted.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Negligible N/A
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 129

3.2.3. Archips micaceana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Archips micaceana in the continental United States is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Archips 

micaceana

Climatic suitability The current tropical distribution of Archips micaceana in Asia (e.g., Hill, 

1983; Zhou and Deng, 2006) indicates that establishment may occur in 

Plant Hardiness Zones 9+ (Magarey et al., 2008).

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Potential hosts include apple (Malus), soybeans (Glycine), Citrus spp., 

Annona squamosa, Mangifera indica, Morus spp., and Hibiscus 

esculentus (Bhardwaj and Bhardwaj, 1983; Waterhouse, 1993). These 

hosts may be found throughout Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (NRCS, 

2012).

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Apples, citrus, and soybeans are some of the economically important 

crops in the United States (CABI, 2013).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Archips micaceana is a serious pest of apples in India (Bhardwaj and 

Bhardwaj, 1983) and is considered a major arthropod pest of soybeans 

and other crops in southeast Asia (Waterhouse, 1993).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area includes apples, soybeans, citrus, and other crops in 

Plant Hardiness Zones 9+ within the continental United States. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Archips micaceana into the endangered area 

via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MC Archips micaceana has been described 

as the most abundant apple tortricid in 

India (Bhardwaj and Bhardwaj, 1983). 

Larvae infest fruits in late summer, 

scraping skin and boring into the calyx 

end of the fruit (Bhardwaj and Bhardwaj, 

1983). No standard industry field 

practices beyond minimal handling 

during harvest are known (see the 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 130

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary)

description of the pathway in section 

1.4).

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

High MU No processing procedures have been 

indicated that may mitigate the presence 

of A. micaceana on the fruit (see the 

description of the pathway in section 

1.4). Those larvae that have bored into 

the fruit near the calyx (Bhardwaj and 

Bhardwaj, 1983) are especially likely to 

escape detection.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

High MU No transport or storage conditions have 

been provided that may reduce the 

prevalence of A. micaceana on the fruit

(see the description of the pathway in 

section 1.4). Typical shipping conditions 

for apples seem unlikely to affect the 

pest population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

High N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Mediu

m

MC Archips micaceana is a polyphagous pest

(Bhardwaj and Bhardwaj, 1983; 

Waterhouse, 1993) for which it is 

estimated that suitable hosts are widely 

available throughout the endangered 

area. In order for establishment to occur, 

larvae must come out of the fruit, 

successfully develop, find hosts, and 

mate. We rated this risk element 

Medium due to the likelihood of the 

required conditions being met for 

development. See below for additional 

explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population lives within the endangered 

area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Mediu

m

N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Mediu

m

N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 131

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be larvae that had 

bored into the fruit near the calyx (Bhardwaj and Bhardwaj, 1983). In order for establishment to 

occur, these larvae must emerge, feed, and mature through pupation and eclosion to adulthood. 

Both males and females must emerge and mate, then mated females must find hosts on which to 

oviposit their eggs. Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and fruit-boring pests typically exhibit intraspecific competition for food resources, resulting in only a single larva occurring per fruit when 

infestations occur. Similar species such as codling moth, light-brown apple moth, and false 

codling moth exhibit this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; 

Whiting et al., 1997); furthermore, it is not unusual for Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit 

cannibalism such as that demonstrated by false codling moth (Bedford et al., 1998). This means 

that usually only a single larva may be present if fruit is infested (rather than multiple larvae as 

seen with fruit flies in the family Tephritidae). In addition, pest populations in the field may

show variation in developmental times and overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; 

Knight and Croft, 1991), with larvae of different stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) 

noted that pest establishment is dependent on a “mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–

that is, a male and female adult must emerge from a consignment in close proximity to each 

other, at the same time, and mate in order for introduction to occur. However, the results of 

courtship behavior studies in two-leaf rolling tortricids found that it is necessary for female 

pheromone permeated airflow to be present in order for males to initiate mating sequences 

(Curkovic et al., 2006). Solitary pests, such as Lepidopteran leaf-rollers, that require sexual 

reproduction that makes use of complex mate finding systems will have a lower likelihood of 

introduction compared to gregarious pests (where multiple males and females may emerge from 

a single fruit at the same time and be able to mate) (Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 

1999). This is because the likelihood of a mated pair (sexually mature males and a females 

simultaneously emerging in close proximity to each other) is comparatively lower. We rated this 

risk element Medium due to the likelihood of these required conditions being met for 

development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Archips micaceana into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes MC As with other polyphagous species of 

Archips, prevalence and damage levels 

may be the same in both managed and 

un-managed orchards (Cuthbertson 

and Murchie, 2005). Yield losses due 

to defoliation from A. micaceana in 

groundnut range from 5-34 percent, 

though chemical controls may be

effective (Sottikul, 1989). Archips 

micaceana may present a larger risk in 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 132

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

organic agriculture, as chemicals 

appear to be the most effective 

mitigating factor against leaf rollers

(CABI, 2013).

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential 

Yes MC Archips micaceana is a polyphagous 

species able to infest a wide range of 

cultivated and wild hosts (Bhardwaj 

and Bhardwaj, 1983; Waterhouse, 

1993). Even if control measures are 

used in agriculture, A. micaceana may

continue to spread through wild hosts, 

potentially infesting fields of organic 

production. It is capable of natural 

dispersal through flight.

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts 

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.4. Argyrotaenia ljungiana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Argyrotaenia ljungiana in the continental United States 

is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 133

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Argyrotaenia 

ljungiana

Climatic suitability Argyrotaenia ljungiana has been reported throughout most of the 

Palearctic, including Mongolia and China, with the exception of Japan 

(Ioriatti et al., 2012; Razowski, 2002). This corresponds to Plant 

Hardiness Zones 6-10 (Magarey et al., 2008). 

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Argyrotaenia ljungiana is polyphagous, with larvae feeding on Myrica 

gale, Calluna, Erica, Vaccinium, Betula, Malus, Prunus, Abies, Picea, 

and Larix (Razowski, 2002), and occasionally causing damage on Vitis

spp. (Ioriatti et al., 2012). All of these species are present in the area of 

potential establishment of the pest in the United States (NRCS, 2012).

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Many of the host genera of A. ljungiana contain important economic 

fresh fruit hosts, including apples, stone fruit, grapes, and blueberries

(CABI, 2013). Injury to tree species may be insignificant, because the 

pest only damages a small number of leaves (Ioriatti et al., 2012).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Significant damage noted in cultivated apple and grape fruit as well as 

wild trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants due to larval feeding (Alford, 

2007).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area includes stone fruit, grapes, and blueberries in Plant 

Hardiness Zones 6-10.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Argyrotaenia ljungiana into the endangered 

area via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary) 

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Medium MC Apple fruit is not the preferred feeding 

site for this pest. Argyrotaenia 

ljungiana generally feeds on leaves, but 

occasionally feeds on and bores into 

fruit (Alford, 2007; Gambaro, 1962).

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Low MU Damage to apple fruit due to larval 

feeding is obvious, and large areas of 

fruit skin and pulp may be consumed 

(Alford, 2007). Due to the significant 

damage, infested fruit is highly likely to 

be culled. Thus, we decreased the rating

from the previous risk element (A1) by 

one level from Medium to Low.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

Low MU No transport or storage conditions have 

been provided that may reduce the 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 134

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary) 

storage conditions of the 

consignment 

prevalence of A. ljungiana on the fruit

(see the description of the pathway in

section 1.4). Typical shipping 

conditions for apples seem unlikely to 

affect the pest population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

Low N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

Medium MC Because the pest is polyphagous 

(Razowski, 2002), cultivated and wild 

hosts are anticipated to be widely 

available, and the pest is capable of 

dispersing on its own. However,

internally feeding larvae are the most 

likely life stage to be associated with 

the apples (Alford, 2007; Gambaro, 

1962). In order for establishment to 

occur, larvae must come out of the fruit, 

successfully develop, find hosts, and 

mate. We rated this risk element 

Medium due to the likelihood of the 

required conditions being met for 

development. See below for additional 

explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population occurs within the region 

endangered by A. ljungiana (PERAL, 

2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be internally

feeding larvae (Alford, 2007; Gambaro, 1962). In order for establishment to occur, larvae must 

emerge, feed, and mature through pupation and eclosion to adulthood. Both males and females 

must emerge and mate, then mated females must find hosts on which to oviposit their eggs. 

Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and fruit-boring pests typically exhibit intra-specific competition for 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 135

food resources, resulting in only a single larva occurring per fruit when infestations occur. 

Similar species such as codling moth, light-brown apple moth, and false codling moth exhibit 

this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; Whiting et al., 1997); 

furthermore, it is not unusual for Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit cannibalism such as that 

demonstrated by false codling moth (Bedford et al., 1998). This means that usually only a single 

larva may be present if fruit is infested (rather than multiple larvae as seen with fruit flies in the 

family Tephritidae). In addition, pest populations in the field may show variation in 

developmental times and overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; Knight and Croft, 

1991), with larvae of different stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) noted that pest 

establishment is dependent on a “mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–that is, a male 

and female adult must emerge from a consignment in close proximity to each other, at the same 

time, and mate in order for introduction to occur. However, the results of courtship behavior 

studies in two leaf-rolling tortricids found that it is necessary for female pheromone permeated 

airflow to be present in order for males to initiate mating sequences (Curkovic et al., 2006). 

Solitary pests, such as Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual reproduction that makes use 

of complex mate finding systems will have a lower likelihood of introduction compared to 

gregarious pests (where multiple males and females may emerge from a single fruit at the same 

time and be able to mate) (Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 1999). This is because 

the likelihood of a mated pair (sexually mature males and a females simultaneously emerging in 

close proximity to each other) is comparatively lower. We rated this risk element Medium due to 

the likelihood of these required conditions being met for development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Argyrotaenia ljungiana into the 

continental United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

No MU The introduction of the pest would 

likely not result in significant increases 

in costs of production beyond normal 

annual fluctuations. Similar species of

polyphagous moths occurring in fruit 

orchards sporadically infest 

grapevines. The most important one in 

Europe is A. ljungiana, and A. 

velutinana in the United States

(Roehrich and Boller, 1991). Fruit 

producers already use integrated pest 

management programs against leaf 

rollers (Bentley, 2009) and would 

probably experience no additional 

problems because of the presence of 

another polyphagous leaf roller.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 136

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

N/A N/A

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

No N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

Yes C Argyrotaenia ljungiana feeds on 

apples and grapes (Zhang, 1994), both 

of which are exported by the United 

States (GTI, 2012).

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

Yes MC Argyrotaenia ljungiana is a pest of 

concern regulated by Canada (CFIA, 

2013; PExD, 2013), an important 

export destination for U.S. crops. 

Additional phytosanitary measures 

may be required by Canada should A.

ljungiana become established in the 

United States.

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

Yes N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.5. Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be High. We present the results of this 

assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Bactrocera dorsalis in the continental United States is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Bactrocera 

dorsalis

Climatic suitability Except for adventive populations in Guam and Hawaii, B. dorsalis is 

restricted to subtropical and tropical Asia (White and Elson-Harris, 

1992). We estimate that this species could establish in the continental 

United States in areas corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 137

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Due to taxonomic confusion regarding species within Bactrocera, the 

host list for B. dorsalis remains incomplete, though the species is clearly 

polyphagous (CABI, 2013). Some known host plants that occur in zones 

9-11 include apple (M. pumila), peach (Prunus persica), and pear (Pyrus 

communis) (CABI, 2013). 

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Many of the host plants impacted by B. dorsalis are considered 

economically important in the continental United States including pear, 

apple, orange, grape, capsicum, peach, plum, and watermelon (CABI, 

2013; Ye and Liu, 2005; Ye, 2001).

Pest potential on

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Bactrocera dorsalis is a major pest worldwide, causing significant losses 

to economically important fruit crops (Atwal, 1976). 

Defined 

Endangered Area

Within the continental United States, the area endangered for B. dorsalis

includes apple, peach, and pear crops in Zones 9-11. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Bactrocera dorsalis into the endangered area 

via the importation of apple from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MU Bactrocera dorsalis is an important 

pest in apple orchards in China (Ye 

and Liu, 2005). No standard 

industry field practices beyond 

minimal handling during harvest 

are known (see the description of 

the pathway in section 1.4).

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

High C Bactrocera dorsalis lay their eggs 

beneath the skin of fruit, and larvae 

feed on the pulp (White and ElsonHarris, 1992). Internal feeders are 

highly unlikely to be mitigated by 

any processing measures, so we did 

not change the previous rating.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

High MC No information on transport and 

storage conditions was provided, 

and it is not likely that the internal 

fruit flies would be affected (see 

the description of the pathway in 

section 1.4). Typical shipping 

conditions for apples seem unlikely
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 138

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

to affect the pest population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

High N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

High MC The wide host range of B. dorsalis 

(White and Elson-Harris, 1992; 

CABI 2013), in addition to the 

ability of these pests to fly long 

distances in search of host material 

(Christenson and Foote, 1960),

indicates that these pests would 

have a high likelihood of finding 

suitable host material in the 

endangered area. Even if the pest is 

introduced during winter months in 

Zones 9-11, temperatures would 

permit development and survival 

(Christenson and Foote, 1960) and 

it is likely that at least some host 

material would be available.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population is within the 

endangered area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

High N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

High N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Bactrocera dorsalis into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes C Bactrocera dorsalis can cause 

extensive damage to over 150 kinds of 

fruits and vegetables (Weems et al., 

2012). It can damage up to 100 percent 

of unprotected fruit (CABI, 2012). 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 139

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes C Bactrocera dorsalis can move up to 11 

kilometers (Froerer et al., 2010) and 

can quickly spread in areas where it is 

accidentally introduced without natural 

enemies (Vargas et al., 2007). The 

species has been shown to invade new

areas of China (Ye and Liu, 2005; Ye, 

2001). It is actively expanding its 

range throughout the world (Clarke et 

al., 2005).

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area? 

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.6. Carposina sasakii (Lepidoptera: Carposinidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Carposina sasakii in the continental United States is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Carposina 

sasakii

Climatic suitability The distribution of C. sasakii is restricted to northeast Asia, including 

northeastern China, Korea and Japan (CABI, 2013; Funayama 2012; Kim
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 140

et al., 2000). A comparison of global plant hardiness zones (Magarey et 

al., 2008) indicates that potential establishment in the continental United 

States would be limited to Plant Hardiness Zones 3-7.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Hosts include apple, Prunus spp. (apricot, plum, peach), jujube (Zizyphus

jujuba), and pear (Pyrus sorotina) (Kim et al., 2000; Lei et al., 2012)

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Economically important hosts at risk include apple, pear, and Prunus

species (CABI, 2013).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Economically significant damage has been noted on apple, pear, and 

jujube in China (Lei et al., 2012).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The area of the continental United States endangered by C. sasakii lies 

within Plant Hardiness Zones 3-7. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Carposina sasakii into the endangered area 

via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High C Carposina sasakii is an important 

pest of apples in China. Eggs are 

laid near the calyx, and larvae bore 

into the fruit (Kim et al., 2000). 

There are no known standard 

industry practices that may

mitigate the presence of this 

internal pest on harvested fruit (see

the description of the pathway in

section 1.4).

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

High MU No information was provided that 

may indicate any mitigating factors 

during post-harvest processing of 

apples from China (see the 

description of the pathway in

section 1.4).

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

High MU No information was provided that 

may indicate any mitigating factors 

during transport and storage of 

apples from China (see the 

description of the pathway in 

section 1.4). In addition, larvae 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 141

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

have been shown to survive long 

periods in stored fruits (CABI,

2013). Typical shipping conditions 

for apples seem unlikely to affect 

the pest population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

High N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

Medium MC Fruit of Rosaceous host plants is 

required for development of C. 

sasakii (CABI, 2013). In the 

endangered area of the United 

States, fruit is not expected to be 

available year-round. In addition, 

larvae would have to emerge from 

fruit, find suitable pupation sites, 

and then find suitable hosts and 

mates for a population to develop.

We rated this risk element Medium 

due to the likelihood of these 

required conditions being met for 

development. See below for 

additional explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population lives within the 

endangered area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be eggs near the 

calyx, or internal larvae (Kim et al., 2000). In order for establishment to occur, these eggs must 

successfully hatch into larvae, feed, and mature through pupation and eclosion to adulthood. 

Both males and females must emerge and mate, then mated females must find hosts on which to 

oviposit their eggs. Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and fruit-boring pests typically exhibit intraspecific competition for food resources, resulting in only a single larva occurring per fruit when 

infestations occur. Similar species such as codling moth, light-brown apple moth, and false 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 142

codling moth exhibit this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; 

Whiting et al., 1997); furthermore, it is not unusual for Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit 

cannibalism such as that demonstrated by false codling moth (Bedford et al., 1998). This means 

that usually only a single larva may be present if fruit is infested (rather than multiple larvae as 

seen with fruit flies in the family Tephritidae). In addition, pest populations in the field may

show variation in developmental times and overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; 

Knight and Croft, 1991), with larvae of different stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) 

noted that pest establishment is dependent on a “mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–

that is, a male and female adult must emerge from a consignment in close proximity to each 

other, at the same time, and mate in order for introduction to occur. However, the results of 

courtship behavior studies in two leaf-rolling tortricids found that it is necessary for female 

pheromone permeated airflow to be present in order for males to initiate mating sequences 

(Curkovic et al., 2006). Solitary pests, such as Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual 

reproduction that makes use of complex mate finding systems will have a lower likelihood of 

introduction compared to gregarious pests (where multiple males and females may emerge from 

a single fruit at the same time and be able to mate) (Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 

1999). This is because the likelihood of a mated pair (sexually mature males and a females 

simultaneously emerging in close proximity to each other) is comparatively lower. We rated this 

risk element Medium due to the likelihood of these required conditions being met for 

development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Carposina sasakii into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes C Chemical insecticides are effective at 

mitigating impact in apple fruit; 

however, damage incurred in orchards 

without insecticide usage has been 

documented at 26.3-62.5 percent

(Kim et al., 2000). Costs of 

insecticide applications exceeded 50

percent of the total pest control costs 

for apple growers (Kawashima, 

2008). While the “economic status” of 

C. sasakii in orchards is considered 

comparable to that of Cydia 

pomonella (present in the United 

States) (Kim et al., 2000), increased 

damage may be observed in noncommercial hosts, and additional 

control efforts may be required in 

organic orchards.
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 143

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

No MC Carposina sasakii is found only in 

northeast Asia, and is noted to not 

spread easily to non-native areas and 

countries, in part due to strict 

quarantine regulations (CABI, 2013). 

While local flight may occur, longdistance aerial dispersal has not been 

observed (CABI, 2013). Despite the 

abundance of research regarding this 

significant pest, there is no 

information regarding spread outside 

of its native range in northeast Asia.

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

No N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

Yes C Carposina sasakii feeds on apples, 

pears, and Prunus species, all of 

which are exported by the United 

States (GTI, 2013). 

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements 

Yes C Trading partners where C. sasakii is 

not known to occur consider this to be 

a quarantine pest, and currently 

require additional phytosanitary

measures on host plants. Carposina

sasakii is considered a harmful 

organism by many countries in 

Europe as well as North America and 

South America (EPPO, 2012; PExD, 

2013).

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

Yes N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 144

3.2.7. Cenopalpus pulcher (Acari: Tenuipalpidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Cenopalpus pulcher in the continental United States is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below. 

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Cenopalpus 

pulcher

Climatic suitability Cenopalpus pulcher is known to be established in Oregon and throughout 

Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa (Bajwa et al., 

2001). Comparisons with the USDA plant hardiness zones (Magarey et 

al., 2008) indicate that establishment in the continental United States may

occur in Plant Hardiness Zones 6-9.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Potential hosts include apple, pear, prune, walnut trees, and quince 

(Jeppson et al., 2001).

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Potential host plants that are considered economically important in the 

continental United States include apple, pear, and Prunus spp. (CABI, 

2013).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

The pest potential on economically important hosts is considered 

minimal for C. pulcher. Generally described as an occasional pest of 

neglected orchards (e.g., Jeppson et al., 1975), this also appears to be the 

case in Oregon (Bajwa et al., 2001; Bajwa and Kogan, 2001).

Defined 

Endangered Area

Cenopalpus pulcher may be able to establish on host plants within USDA 

Plant Hardiness Zones 6-9. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Cenopalpus pulcher into the endangered 

area via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Medium C Cenopalpus pulcher is generally 

found associated with the leaves 

and stems of host plants, but eggs 

may be laid in crevices of apple 

fruit (Zahar et al., 1974).

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Medium U No information was provided 

regarding post-harvest procedures 

that may reduce pest prevalence on 

the fruit (see the description of the 

pathway in section 1.4).
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 145

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Medium U No information was provided 

regarding transport and storage 

procedures that may reduce pest 

prevalence on the fruit (see the 

description of the pathway in

section 1.4). Typical refrigerated 

shipping conditions (DAFF, 2009) 

for apples are not likely to affect 

the pest population (Jeppson et al., 

1975).

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

Medium N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Low MC The pest has a limited ability to 

disperse naturally. Cenopalpus

pulcher is generally sedentary

(Jeppson et al., 1975), but has been 

shown to be capable of some

movement within and between host 

plants and orchards (Bajwa et al., 

2001). Only eggs are expected to 

be associated with apple fruit 

(Zahar et al., 1974), requiring 

additional conditions to be met for 

development to successfully occur.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population lives within the 

endangered area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 146

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Cenopalpus pulcher into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

No MC Control measures in apple and pear 

orchards in the United States 

mitigate the presence of this 

species (Bajwa and Kogan, 2001). 

Spider mites are regularly

controlled for in the United States

(Cranshaw and Sclar, 2006), and 

these control measures are also 

effective against C. pulcher (Bajwa 

and Kogan, 2001). Either chemical 

or biological control methods have 

shown to be effective against this 

species (Yanar and Ecevit, 2008).

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

N/A N/A

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

No N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

Yes C Cenopalpus pulcher feeds on apple

and pear, which are exported by

the United States (GTI, 2012).

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

Yes MC Cenopalpus pulcher is listed as a 

harmful organism and is regulated

by Australia, Japan, Korea, Nauru, 

and New Zealand (PExD, 2013). 

Apples are exported from the 

United States to Japan and New 

Zealand (GTI, 2013). Pears are 

exported to Korea and New 

Zealand (GTI, 2013).

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts 

Yes N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
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3.2.8. Ceroplastes japonicus (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be negligible in the continental United 

States. We present the results of this assessment in a table below. Because of the results, we did 

not assess the consequences of introduction.

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Ceroplastes japonicus into the endangered 

area via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MC Ceroplastes japonicus is a significant 

pest of apples, and may be found 

feeding on apple fruit (Konstantinova, 

1976; Konstantinova and Gura, 1986). 

No standard industry field practices are 

described that would reduce the 

presence of this pest in the field.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

High U No information was provided regarding 

post-harvest procedures that may

reduce pest prevalence on the fruit (see 

the description of the pathway in 

section 1.4).

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

High U No information was provided regarding 

transport and storage procedures that 

may reduce pest prevalence on the fruit

(see the description of the pathway in 

section 1.4).

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

High N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Negligibl

e

MC Fruit is highly likely to be consumed or 

safely discarded, so scales will 

probably only rarely be in proximity to 

hosts. Young instar scales that are 

affixed to fruit are highly unlikely to 

depart, and, even if they did, are very

susceptible to environmental conditions 

(CABI, 2012).

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Negligibl

e

N/A
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 148

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Negligibl

e

N/A

a C=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.9. Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Cryptoblabes gnidiella in the continental United States

is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Cryptoblabes 

gnidiella

Climatic suitability Cryptoblabes gnidiella does best in warm climates and cannot survive 

winters in cooler temperate areas (CABI, 2013). Cryptoblabes gnidiella

is found in Europe (Austria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, 

Portugal, and Spain), Asia (India, Israel, Lebanon, Pakistan, Thailand, 

and Turkey), Africa (Egypt, Liberia, Morocco, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and 

South Africa), the Caribbean (Bermuda), North America (Hawaii), South 

America (Argentina, Uruguay), and Oceania (New Zealand) (CABI, 

2013). We estimated the potential distribution of C. gnidiella using the 

degree-day model reported by Ringenberg et al. (2005). We simulated the 

degree-day model using the North Carolina State University APHIS Plant 

Pest Forecast System (NAPPFAST) (2007) predictive modeling system. 

We considered areas where C. gnidiella could complete five generations 

as conducive for permanent establishment (Yehuda et al., 1991). The 

results indicated that C. gnidiella could establish in U.S. Plant Hardiness 

Zones 6-11.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Cryptoblabes gnidiella is polyphagous and attacks multiple plant species 

in the following plant families: Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Fabaceae, 

Lauraceae, Liliaceae, Malvaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, Poaceae, 

Punicaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, and Vitaceae (CABI, 2013).

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Examples of economically important hosts C. gnidiella attacks include 

Citrus, Gossypium (cotton), Persea americana (avocado), Phaseolus

(beans), Zea mays (corn), and Vitis (grape) (CABI, 2013).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

In citrus, it is an internal feeder that punctures fruit and causes premature

ripening, blotches, and early fruit drop (Silva and Mexia, 1999; PestID, 

2012; CABI, 2013; Moore, 2003). This type of damage can cause 

substantial losses to citrus crops (Moore, 2003; Silva and Mexia, 1999). 

In grapes, C. gnidiella feeds on grape clusters, causing them to wilt and 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 149

consequently fall (Bisotto-de-Oliveira et al., 2007; Ringenberg et al., 

2005). On fruit close to harvest, feeding causes the disruption of the 

berries, resulting in leakage of juice, which reduces the quality of wines 

or depreciates the fruits (Ringenberg et al., 2005). In addition, feeding 

increases the incidence of fungal and bacteria diseases that cause fruit rot 

(Bisotto-de-Oliveira et al., 2007; Ringenberg et al., 2005).

Defined

Endangered Area

The area endangered by C. gnidiella comprises Plant Hardiness Zones 6-

11, as this area is both climatically suitable and the economically

important hosts mentioned above.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Cryptoblabes gnidiella into the endangered 

area via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Low MU Apple is only occasionally

mentioned as a host for C. 

gnidiella (Carter, 1984; Zhang, 

1994), a well-known pest in many

other crops. It is estimated that C. 

gnidiella rarely occurs on

commercially produced apple

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Low U No information was provided 

regarding post-harvest procedures 

that may reduce pest prevalence on 

the fruit (see the description of the 

pathway in section 1.4).

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Low U No information was provided 

regarding transport and storage 

procedures that may reduce pest 

prevalence on the fruit (see the 

description of the pathway in

section 1.4). Typical refrigerated 

shipping conditions for apples are 

not likely to affect the pest 

population (Jeppson et al., 1975).

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

Low N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

Medium MC As mentioned above, C. gnidiella

has a wide host range, and those 

hosts are widely and regularly 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 150

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

endangered area distributed throughout the entire 

endangered area (CABI, 2013; 

Kartesz, 2013). The most likely life 

stages to be imported are eggs or 

internally feeding larvae (Carter, 

1984). In order for establishment to 

occur, the pest must successfully

develop, find hosts, and mate. We 

rated this risk element Medium due 

to the likelihood of these required 

conditions being met for 

development. See below for 

additional explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S.

population lives within the 

endangered area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be eggs or 

internally feeding larvae (Carter, 1984). In order for establishment to occur, eggs must 

successfully hatch into larvae, feed, and mature through pupation and eclosion to adulthood. 

Both males and females must emerge and mate, then mated females must find hosts on which to 

oviposit their eggs. Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and fruit-boring pests typically exhibit intraspecific competition for food resources, resulting in only a single larva occurring per fruit when 

infestations occur. Similar species such as codling moth, light-brown apple moth, and false 

codling moth exhibit this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; 

Whiting et al., 1997); furthermore, it is not unusual for Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit 

cannibalism such as that demonstrated by false codling moth (Bedford et al., 1998). This means 

that usually only a single larva may be present if fruit is infested (rather than multiple larvae as 

seen with fruit flies in the family Tephritidae). In addition, pest populations in the field may

show variation in developmental times and overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; 

Knight and Croft, 1991), with larvae of different stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) 

noted that pest establishment is dependent on a “mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–

that is, a male and female adult must emerge from a consignment in close proximity to each 

other, at the same time, and mate in order for introduction to occur. However, the results of 

courtship behavior studies in two leaf-rolling tortricids found that it is necessary for female 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 151

pheromone permeated airflow to be present in order for males to initiate mating sequences 

(Curkovic et al., 2006). Solitary pests, such as Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual 

reproduction that makes use of complex mate finding systems will have a lower likelihood of 

introduction compared to gregarious pests (where multiple males and females may emerge from 

a single fruit at the same time and be able to mate) (Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 

1999). This is because the likelihood of a mated pair (sexually mature males and a females 

simultaneously emerging in close proximity to each other) is comparatively lower. We rated this 

risk element Medium due to the likelihood of these required conditions being met for 

development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Cryptoblabes gnidiella into the 

continental United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area 

Yes MU Cryptoblabes gnidiella is a secondary

pest of citrus and may cause 5-7 

percent reductions in yield and up to 

50 percent in fruit damage (Moore, 

2003; Silva and Mexia, 1999). In 

Israel, C. gnidiella is a major pest of 

grapevines (Harari et al., 2007), but its 

co-occurrence with other important 

pests means that determining the 

amount of yield loss attributed to it is 

difficult. In pomegranate in Turkey C.

gnidiella has been reported to cause 

between 6.4 and 41.2 percent fruit 

damage (Ozturk and Ulusoy, 2011b). 

Several countries actively control C.

gnidiella populations [e.g., Turkey

(Ozturk and Ulusoy, 2011a) and Israel 

(Harari et al., 2007)]. Control 

programs currently in place for other 

Lepidoptera pest are unlikely to be 

sufficient for managing this pest.

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes MU Cryptoblabes gnidiella adults can

naturally disperse by flying (Ozturk 

and Ulusoy, 2011a; CABI, 2013).

Recent population expansions in 

Africa have been documented (Moore, 

2003).

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A
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Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts 

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.10. Cydia funebrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Cydia funebrana in the continental United States is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Cydia 

funebrana

Climatic suitability Cydia funebrana is distributed throughout most of Europe and northern 

Asia (CABI, 2013; Van der Geest and Evenhuis, 1991). A comparison 

with USDA plant hardiness zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that 

establishment in the continental United States may occur in Plant 

Hardiness Zones 3-8 (Magarey et al., 2008).

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Cydia funebrana is a polyphagous pest that feeds on apple, apricot, sweet 

and sour cherry, plum, and Prunus spinosa (CABI, 2012; Van der Geest 

and Evenhuis, 1991).

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Prunus species and apples are the economically important hosts at risk 

and are found in the endangered area (CABI, 2013).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Cydia funebrana is regarded as the greatest economic threat to fruit 

production (plums) in central Europe (Van der Geest and Evenhuis, 

1991).
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 153

Defined 

Endangered Area

Prunus spp. and apples in Zones 3-8 comprise the endangered area for 

Cydia funebrana.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Cydia funebrana into the endangered area 

via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MC Cydia funebrana is a significant 

pest in apple orchards, feeding 

within fruit (Olszak and 

Pluciennik, 2001; Van der Geest 

and Evenhuis, 1991). Processing is 

expected to be minimal and is 

unlikely to affect survival.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

High MU No processing procedures have 

been indicated that may mitigate 

the presence of C. funebrana on 

the fruit (see the description of the 

pathway in section 1.4).

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

High MU No transport or storage conditions 

have been provided that may

reduce the prevalence of C. 

funebrana on the fruit (see the 

description of the pathway in

section 1.4). Typical shipping 

conditions for apples seem unlikely

to affect the pest population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

High N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Medium MC Because the pest is polyphagous 

(CABI, 2012; Van der Geest and 

Evenhuis, 1991), hosts are widely 

and regularly distributed 

throughout the endangered area,

and the pest is capable of 

dispersing on its own. However, 

the most likely life stage to be 

imported would be larvae feeding 

internally on fruit (Olszak and 

Pluciennik, 2001; Van der Geest 
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Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

and Evenhuis, 1991). In order for 

establishment to occur, these larvae 

must emerge, develop, find hosts, 

and mate. We rated this risk 

element Medium due to the 

likelihood of these required 

conditions being met for 

development. See below for 

additional explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S.

population is within the 

endangered area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be larvae feeding 

internally on fruit (Olszak and Pluciennik, 2001; Van der Geest and Evenhuis, 1991). In order for 

establishment to occur, larvae must emerge, feed, and mature through pupation and eclosion to 

adulthood. Both males and females must emerge and mate, then mated females must find hosts 

on which to oviposit their eggs. Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and fruit-boring pests typically exhibit 

intra-specific competition for food resources, resulting in only a single larva occurring per fruit 

when infestations occur. Similar species such as codling moth, light-brown apple moth, and false 

codling moth exhibit this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; 

Whiting et al., 1997); furthermore, it is not unusual for Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit 

cannibalism such as that demonstrated by false codling moth (Bedford et al., 1998). This means 

that usually only a single larva may be present if fruit is infested (rather than multiple larvae as 

seen with fruit flies in the family Tephritidae). In addition, pest populations in the field may

show variation in developmental times and overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; 

Knight and Croft, 1991), with larvae of different stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) 

noted that pest establishment is dependent on a “mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–

that is, a male and female adult must emerge from a consignment in close proximity to each 

other, at the same time, and mate in order for introduction to occur. However, the results of 

courtship behavior studies in two leaf-rolling tortricids found that it is necessary for female 

pheromone permeated airflow to be present in order for males to initiate mating sequences 

(Curkovic et al., 2006). Solitary pests, such as Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual 

reproduction that makes use of complex mate finding systems will have a lower likelihood of 

introduction compared to gregarious pests (where multiple males and females may emerge from 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 155

a single fruit at the same time and be able to mate) (Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 

1999). This is because the likelihood of a mated pair (sexually mature males and a females 

simultaneously emerging in close proximity to each other) is comparatively lower. We rated this 

risk element Medium due to the likelihood of these required conditions being met for 

development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Cydia funebrana into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes C Cydia funebrana directly affects the 

fruit and can cause significant damage 

to plums and other stone fruit (Van der 

Geest and Evenhuis, 1991). Early 

season fruit infestation tends to result 

in fruit drop, but the second generation 

can be highly injurious to fruit 

production, with damage to the later 

ripening varieties reaching 43-52 

percent (CABI, 2011).

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes MC Cydia funebrana appears to have 

recently spread from Europe to Asia 

(CABI, 2012).

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
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3.2.11. Euzophera bigella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Euzophera bigella in the continental United States is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Euzophera 

bigella

Climatic suitability Based on the distribution of E. bigella throughout Europe and Central 

Asia (Davatchi and Esmaili, 1970; Gerasimov, 1930; Simoglou et al., 

2012), it is estimated that E. bigella may be able to establish within 

USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 6-8 in the continental United States.

Potential hosts at risk in 

PRA Area

Host plants of E. bigella that may be present within this region include 

apple, pear, peach, apricot, quince, grape, walnut, and pomegranate 

(NRCS, 2012; Simoglou et al., 2012).

Economically

important hosts at riska

Apples and pears are the most economically significant potential host 

plant within this region (CABI, 2013).

Pest potential on 

economically important 

hosts at riska

Euzophera bigella is considered a significant pest of apples (Davatchi 

and Esmaili, 1970). Pest management techniques are especially 

important within olive, walnut, and pear (Simoglou et al., 2012).

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area includes potential host plants within Plant 

Hardiness Zones 6-8. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Euzophera bigella into the endangered area 

via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MU Euzophera bigella generally bores 

into fruit already infested by other 

pests, but may also be found 

infesting sound fruit (Pruthi, 1938). 

No information was provided 

indicating any additional field 

practices that may mitigate the 

presence of fruit-boring 

Lepidoptera in the apple orchards.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

High MU No information was provided 

regarding post-harvest procedures 

that may reduce pest prevalence on 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 157

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

the fruit (see the description of the 

pathway in section 1.4).

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

High MU No information was provided 

regarding transport and storage 

procedures that may reduce pest 

prevalence on the fruit (see the 

description of the pathway in

section 1.4). Typical shipping 

conditions for apples seem unlikely

to affect pest populations.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

High N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Medium MC As a polyphagous pest, potential 

host plants may be found 

throughout the region suitable for 

establishment (NRCS, 2012; 

Simoglou et al., 2012). In order for 

a population to develop, larvae 

must leave the fruit, find suitable 

pupation sites, hosts, and mate. We 

rated this risk element Medium due 

to the likelihood of these required 

conditions being met for 

development. See below for 

additional explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population lives within the 

endangered area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be internally

feeding larvae (Pruthi, 1938). In order for establishment to occur, these larvae must emerge, 

feed, and mature through pupation and eclosion to adulthood. Both males and females must 

emerge and mate, then mated females must find hosts on which to oviposit their eggs. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 158

Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and fruit-boring pests typically exhibit intra-specific competition for 

food resources, resulting in only a single larva occurring per fruit when infestations occur. 

Similar species such as codling moth, light-brown apple moth, and false codling moth exhibit 

this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; Whiting et al., 1997); 

furthermore, it is not unusual for Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit cannibalism such as that 

demonstrated by false codling moth (Bedford et al., 1998). This means that usually only a single 

larva may be present if fruit is infested (rather than multiple larvae as seen with fruit flies in the 

family Tephritidae). In addition, pest populations in the field may show variation in 

developmental times and overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; Knight and Croft, 

1991), with larvae of different stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) noted that pest 

establishment is dependent on a “mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–that is, a male 

and female adult must emerge from a consignment in close proximity to each other, at the same 

time, and mate in order for introduction to occur. However, the results of courtship behavior 

studies in two leaf-rolling tortricids found that it is necessary for female pheromone permeated 

airflow to be present in order for males to initiate mating sequences (Curkovic et al., 2006). 

Solitary pests, such as Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual reproduction that makes use 

of complex mate finding systems will have a lower likelihood of introduction compared to 

gregarious pests (where multiple males and females may emerge from a single fruit at the same 

time and be able to mate) (Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 1999). This is because 

the likelihood of a mated pair (sexually mature males and a females simultaneously emerging in 

close proximity to each other) is comparatively lower. We rated this risk element Medium due to 

the likelihood of these required conditions being met for development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Euzophera bigella into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes MC The recent high-level damage noted in 

olive production regions in Greece 

(Simoglou et al., 2012) indicates that 

this new pest may not be controlled by

measures already in place when 

invading a new region. New control 

measures were required (Simoglou et 

al., 2012), indicating a significant yield 

loss. Costs of production would likely

increase if new measures to control the 

pest had to be applied in the field. 

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes MC This pest has recently spread into new 

regions of Greece and has been 

causing significant impacts in Greece 

(Simoglou et al., 2012).

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

Yes N/A
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Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

unacceptable direct impacts

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.12. Euzophera pyriella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below. Pears are apparently the primary host for this species. 

We determined that the establishment of E. pyriella in the continental United States is likely to 

cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. 

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Euzophera 

pyriella

Climatic suitability Very little English literature is available regarding the distribution of E. 

pyriella in the world. Based on presence in China (Sun and Wang, 

2010), it may be conservatively estimated that establishment may occur 

throughout Plant Hardiness Zones 5-10 (Magarey et al., 2008).

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

Potential host plants include apples (Song et al., 1994), pears (Hou et 

al., 2011), and sweet almond (Prunus dulcis) (Mei et al., 2010).

Economically

important hosts at riska

Pears are the primary economically important host at risk (CABI, 2013; 

Hou et al., 2011).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at riska

Euzophera pyriella is a significant pest of pears in China, capable of 

causing the death of the tree (Hou et al., 2011).

Defined Endangered 

Area

The area endangered by E. pyriella includes regions where pears may

be found in Plant Hardiness Zones 5-10. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 160

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Euzophera pyriella into the endangered area 

via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Low U Pears are the preferred host plant, 

though there have been occasional 

reports of infestations in apple 

(Song et al., 1994). Based on 

available information, apples are 

not regularly impacted by E. 

pyriella in China (Houlin, 2009).

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Low MU No processing procedures have 

been indicated that may mitigate 

the presence of E. pyriella on the 

fruit (see the description of the 

pathway in section 1.4), so we did 

not change the previous rating.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Low MU No transport or storage conditions 

have been provided that may

reduce the prevalence of E. pyriella

on the fruit (see the description of 

the pathway in section 1.4). 

Typical shipping conditions for 

apples seem unlikely to affect the 

pest population, so we did not 

change the previous rating.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

Low N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Low MC The most likely life stage predicted 

to be associated with apple fruit are 

internally feeding larvae (Song et 

al., 1994). The restricted host range 

(Hou et al., 2011; Mei et al., 2010; 

Song et al., 1994) of this pest 

further reduces the likelihood of 

coming into contact with host 

material. In order for this pest to 

establish, larvae must emerge, 

develop, and find suitable mates. 

We rated this risk element Low due 

to the likelihood of these required 

conditions being met for 
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Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

development. See below for 

additional explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population is within the 

endangered area (PERAL, 2008)..

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be eggs. In order 

for establishment to occur, these eggs must successfully hatch into larvae, feed, and mature 

through pupation and eclosion to adulthood. Both males and females must emerge and mate, then 

mated females must find hosts on which to oviposit their eggs. Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and 

fruit boring pests typically exhibit intra-specific competition for food resources, resulting in only 

a single larva occurring per fruit when infestations occur. Similar species such as codling moth, 

light-brown apple moth, and false codling moth exhibit this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford 

et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; Whiting et al., 1997); furthermore, it is not unusual for 

Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit cannibalism such as that demonstrated by false codling moth 

(Bedford et al., 1998). This means that usually only a single larva may be present if fruit is 

infested (rather than multiple larvae as seen with fruit flies in the family Tephritidae). In 

addition, pest populations in the field may show variation in developmental times and 

overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; Knight and Croft, 1991), with larvae of different 

stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) noted that pest establishment is dependent on a 

“mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–that is, a male and female adult must emerge from 

a consignment in close proximity to each other, at the same time, and mate in order for 

introduction to occur. However, the results of courtship behavior studies in two leaf-rolling 

tortricids found that it is necessary for female pheromone permeated airflow to be present in 

order for males to initiate mating sequences (Curkovic et al., 2006). Solitary pests, such as 

Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual reproduction that makes use of complex mate 

finding systems will have a lower likelihood of introduction compared to gregarious pests (where 

multiple males and females may emerge from a single fruit at the same time and be able to mate) 

(Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 1999). This is because the likelihood of a mated 

pair (sexually mature males and a females simultaneously emerging in close proximity to each 

other) is comparatively lower. We lowered the risk rating for this pest from Medium to Low due 

to the lack of available hosts.
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 162

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Euzophera pyriella into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes MU This pest can kill host plants and is 

difficult to control (Hou et al., 2011).

While specific data are not available, 

additional control measures have been 

required in China in recent years in 

order to mitigate damage (Sun and 

Wang, 2010). With moderate 

uncertainty due to lack of data, we 

estimate that it is likely that potential 

damage in the endangered area would 

be significant and that commonly used 

control measures may not be effective.

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential 

Yes MU Euzophera pyriella has been spreading 

within the Xingjiang province and

causing additional damage to fruit tree 

host plants in China in recent years 

(Sun and Wang, 2010).

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area? 

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
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3.2.13. Grapholita inopinata (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be High. We present the results of this 

assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of G. inopinata in the continental United States is likely to 

cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Grapholita 

inopinata

Climatic suitability The geographic distribution of G. inopinata, extends through several 

temperature regimes: Russian Federation (Eastern Siberia, Russian Far 

East), China (Guangdong, Heilongjiang, Henan, Jilin, Liaoning, 

Shandong), Japan (Hokkaido, Honshu) (CABI, 2007). Most of these 

regions are contiguous and represent Plant Hardiness Zones 3-7, but G. 

inopinata is also present in the Guangdong region of China, 

representing Zones 9-11. Consequently, we estimate it could survive 

throughout the United States.

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

The host range of G. inopinata is restricted to Rosaceae (e.g., species of 

Malus, Pyrus, and Cydonia oblonga) (CABI, 2007), for which species 

are available throughout the continental United States (Kartesz, 2013).

Economically

important hosts at riska

Economically important hosts at risk include apple and pear (CABI, 

2013).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at riska

Grapholita inopinata is an important pest on both wild and cultivated 

apples (Lopatina, 1978). Impacts to host plants due to infestations by

G. inopinata are significant enough to warrant chemical treatments 

(e.g., Chang et al., 1964).

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area includes species of Malus and Pyrus throughout 

the continental United States. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Grapholita inopinata into the endangered 

area via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MU Apples are a preferred host and 

larvae tunnel into the fruit to feed 

and develop (CABI, 2013; Kondo 

and Miyahara, 1930; Lopatina, 

1978). There is no evidence that 

mitigating measures are taken in 

the field.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood High MU No processing procedures have 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 164

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

been indicated that may mitigate 

the presence of G. inopinata on the 

fruit (see the description of the 

pathway in section 1.4). Those 

larvae that have bored into the fruit

(CABI, 2013; Kondo and 

Miyahara, 1930; Lopatina, 1978)

are especially likely to escape 

detection.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

High MU No transport or storage conditions 

have been provided that may

reduce the prevalence of G. 

inopinata on the fruit (see the 

description of the pathway in

section 1.4). Typical shipping 

conditions for apples seem unlikely

to affect the pest population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

High N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Medium MC Grapholita inopinata is a 

significant pest on both wild and 

cultivated Malus species (Lopatina, 

1978). Various Malus species are 

considered to be native and not rare 

throughout the continental United 

States (Kartesz, 2013), and no 

alternate hosts are required for 

development. Suitable host 

material (apple fruits) is available 

for at least part of the year within 

the endangered area. In order for 

establishment to occur, larvae must 

come out of the fruit, successfully

develop, find hosts, and mate. We 

rated this risk element Medium due 

to the likelihood of the required 

conditions being met for 

development. See below for 

additional explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population lives within the 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 165

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

area endangered area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be internally

feeding larvae (CABI, 2013; Kondo and Miyahara, 1930; Lopatina, 1978). In order for 

establishment to occur, these larvae must emerge, feed, and mature through pupation and 

eclosion to adulthood. Both males and females must emerge and mate, then mated females must 

find hosts on which to oviposit their eggs. Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and fruit-boring pests 

typically exhibit intra-specific competition for food resources, resulting in only a single larva 

occurring per fruit when infestations occur. Similar species such as codling moth, light-brown 

apple moth, and false codling moth exhibit this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford et al., 1998; 

Solomon, 1991; Whiting et al., 1997); furthermore, it is not unusual for Lepidopteran larvae to 

exhibit cannibalism such as that demonstrated by false codling moth (Bedford et al., 1998). This 

means that usually only a single larva may be present if fruit is infested (rather than multiple 

larvae as seen with fruit flies in the family Tephritidae). In addition, pest populations in the field 

may show variation in developmental times and overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; 

Knight and Croft, 1991), with larvae of different stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) 

noted that pest establishment is dependent on a “mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–

that is, a male and female adult must emerge from a consignment in close proximity to each 

other, at the same time, and mate in order for introduction to occur. However, the results of 

courtship behavior studies in two leaf-rolling tortricids found that it is necessary for female 

pheromone permeated airflow to be present in order for males to initiate mating sequences 

(Curkovic et al., 2006). Solitary pests, such as Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual 

reproduction that makes use of complex mate finding systems will have a lower likelihood of 

introduction compared to gregarious pests (where multiple males and females may emerge from 

a single fruit at the same time and be able to mate) (Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 

1999). This is because the likelihood of a mated pair (sexually mature males and a females 

simultaneously emerging in close proximity to each other) is comparatively lower. We rated this 

risk element Medium due to the likelihood of these required conditions being met for 

development.
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 166

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Grapholita inopinata into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes MC Prior to the development of 

appropriate control measures, G. 

inopinata was found to reduce apple 

yield by 78 percent (Lopatina, 1978). 

In more recent years, infestation rates 

of G. inopinata in China apple 

production have increased, despite 

current control efforts (Liu et al., 

2010). For this reason, it is expected 

that additional control measures would 

also be required in the United States.

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes MC Grapholita inopinata may move with 

infested fruits. It has not been detected 

on other continents; however, it is also 

noted that trade from currently infested 

areas is minimal (CABI, 2013). Given 

the ability of this moth to develop 

within the fruit, we estimate that it is 

possible for spread to occur with fruit

from China to the United States. 

Additionally, the moth is capable of 

natural dispersal through flight (CABI, 

2013). 

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

Yes N/A
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Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

the PRA area?

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.14. Gymnosporangium yamadae (Urediniomycetes: Uredinales)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction from apple fruit to be Negligible. We 

present the results of this assessment in the table below. Gymnosporangium yamadae is a rust 

fungus that cannot reproduce without the presence of both apple (Malus sp.) and Chinese juniper 

(Juniperus chinensis) (EPPO, 2003). Juniperus chinensis is not native to the United States, 

although it is available as a landscape ornamental.

Determination of the portion of the United States endangered by Gymnosporangium 

yamadae

Climatic suitability Gymnosporangium yamadae occurs in China (Gansu, Guangxi, Hebei, 

Henan, Hunan, Jilin, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Shandong, Shaanxi, Shanxi, 

Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), Japan (Hokkaido, Honshu), the 

Democratic People's Republic of Korea, and the Republic of Korea

(EPPO, 2003). Based on that information, we estimate that this fungus 

could establish in areas of the United States corresponding to USDA 

Plant Hardiness Zones 5-9, and possibly Zones 4 and 10 (Magarey et al., 

2008; PERAL, 2008).

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA area

Gymnosporangium yamadae primarily infects Malus spp. (apple) and 

Chinese juniper (Juniperus chinensis). These hosts are widely 

distributed throughout USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5-9 in the 

continental United States (Kartesz, 2012; NASS, 2007; NRCS, 2012).

Economically

important hosts at riska

Apples are economically important fruit crops (NASS, 2007).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at riska

Gymnosporangium yamadae primarily infects leaves and stem tissue 

(EPPO, 2003). Fruit infections are rare and described only once in the 

literature (EPPO, 2003). No descriptions of fruit infection were found 

in Japanese or Chinese literature.

Defined Endangered 

Area

The area endangered by G. yamadae includes areas in the United States 

within USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5-9 where apples are grown.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 168

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Gymnosporangium yamadae into the 

endangered area via the importation of apple from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

N/A N/A

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment 

N/A N/A

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

N/A N/A

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

N/A N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Negligible MC Gymnosporangium yamadae is a 

heterecious leaf and stem rust 

pathogen that requires both apple 

and a juniper host (Juniperus 

chinensis) to complete its life cycle 

(EPPO, 2003). Establishment would 

require the fruit for consumption to 

be discarded in a location with both 

hosts near each other. Fruit 

infection by G. yamadae is 

considered rare (EPPO, 2003), and 

reproductive structures emerging 

from fruit is therefore highly

unlikely. The likelihood of the 

fungus coming into contact with 

hosts is considered Negligible.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
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3.2.15. Leucoptera malifoliella (Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of L. malifoliella in the continental United States is likely

to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Leucoptera 

malifoliella

Climatic suitability Present throughout Europe, the temperate zones of Eurasia, and central 

Asia (Baufeld and Freier, 1991; CABI, 2013), L. malifoliella occurs in 

countries corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 5-9 (Magarey et al., 

2008).

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Leucoptera malifoliella primarily feeds on the leaves of plants in the 

Rosaceae family, with hosts in multiple Rosaceae genera reported 

(Malus, Prunus, Pyrus, Cydonia, Crataegus, Chaenomeles, and Sorbus). 

Additional host families include Betulaceae (Betula spp.) and 

Anacardiaceae (Pistacia vera) (CABI, 2012).

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Pyrus, Malus, and Prunus species are economically important hosts at 

risk that are present in Zones 5-9 (CABI, 2013; NASS, 2007; NRCS, 

2012).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Leucoptera malifoliella damages host plants through the leaf-mining 

activity of the larvae (Alford, 2007). Heavy infestations cause leaf 

damage and defoliation, which result in fruit production loss and 

decreased fruit quality for the current year, and in decreased fruit bud set 

and differentiation for the following year (Baufeld and Freier, 1991).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area for L. malifoliella consists of Pyrus, Malus, and 

Prunus species in Zones 5-9.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Leucoptera malifoliella into the endangered 

area via the importation of apple from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Medium C Apple fruit is not a preferred 

feeding site for the pest.

Leucoptera malifoliella larvae feed 

on leaves, but some pupae may

hide within the calyx of apple fruit 

(CABI, 2013; Maciesiak, 1999). 

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

Medium C Small pupae (2-3 mm long) hidden 

within the calyx (Alford, 2007; 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 170

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

processing before shipment CABI, 2013) are unlikely to be 

affected by post-harvest processing

(see the description of the pathway

in section 1.4), so we did not 

change the previous rating.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Medium C Transportation and storage 

conditions of the apples are 

unlikely to affect mortality of L. 

malifoliella, as live pupae have 

been found on other commodities 

(CABI, 2013; PestID, 2012). 

Typical shipping conditions for 

apples seem unlikely to affect the 

pest population (see the description 

of the pathway in section 1.4).

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

Medium N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

High MC The most likely life stage to be 

associated with fruit of apples 

would be small (3 mm) pupae that 

may have hidden within the calyx

of the fruit (Alford, 2007; CABI, 

2013; Maciesiak, 1999).

Environmental requirements for 

the completion of the life cycle for 

L. malifoliella, including eclosion 

and mating, are less restrictive than 

those for other Lepidoptera 

analyzed in this document. Upon 

eclosion, L. malifoliella would 

more easily be able to disperse 

through flight in search of suitable 

hosts and mates (CABI, 2013).

Because the pest is polyphagous 

(CABI, 2012), suitable hosts are 

estimated to be widely and 

regularly distributed in the 

endangered area. Adults are 

capable of self-dispersal through 

flight (CABI, 2013).

Risk Element B2: Likelihood High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 171

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

of arriving in the endangered 

area

population is within the 

endangered area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

High N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

High N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Leucoptera malifoliella into the 

continental United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area 

Yes MC Leucoptera malifoliella is considered 

one of the most significant pests of 

apple in East Sarajevo (Tesanovic, 

2011). High populations of L. 

malifoliella, thought to be the result of 

misuse of insecticides, or insecticide 

use for other insects, cause significant 

loss in apple, pear, or quince orchards 

(CABI, 2013). Infestations of L. 

malifoliella are more significant in 

organic orchards, requiring additional 

control measures (Holb et al., 2001).

While control options for leafminers 

are frequently used in the United States 

(Weirs and Ophardt, 1980), timing of 

applications is important and effective 

control therefore may be difficult if 

control regimes already in place are 

not in sync.

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes MC Leucoptera malifoliella has been 

shown to spread and increase in 

population size elsewhere in its 

distribution (Kovalenkov et al., 2008; 

Maciesiak, 1999). Płóciennik et al. 

(2011) found L. malifoliella to be 

spreading into new provinces in 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 172

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Poland.

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

Yes MC The United States ships large volumes 

of apples to Canada and Taiwan (FAS, 

2012).

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

Yes MC Canada, Japan, Uruguay, Chile, Korea,

Ecuador, and Taiwan list L. 

malifoliella as a harmful organism 

(PExD, 2012). Canada currently 

regulates the apples from China for the 

presence of L. malifoliella (CFIA, 

2013). 

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

Yes N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.16. Monilia polystroma (Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be High. We present the results of this 

assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Monilia polystroma in the United States is likely to 

cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. Monilia 

polystroma may not cause any unacceptable direct economic impacts in the United States 

because this species is not as economically damaging as Monilinia fructicola, which is already 

widely distributed throughout the United States (Byrde and Willetts, 1977; Jones and

Aldwinckle, 1990), and M. polystroma can be controlled by the same fungicides that are already

used to control apple and pear scab (Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990). However, M. polystroma is 

regulated by Canada (CFIA, 2013), so U.S. exports could be subjected to additional 

phytosanitary regulations if M. polystroma were to become established in the United States.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Monilia 

polystroma

Climatic suitability Monilia polystroma occurs in Serbia, Hungary, Switzerland, Japan, and 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 173

several provinces/regions in China (Farr and Rossman, 2013). Based on 

that information, we estimate that this fungus could establish in areas of 

the United States corresponding to USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5-9, 

and possibly Zones 4 and 10 (Magarey et al., 2008; PERAL, 2008).

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Monilia polystroma primarily infects Prunus spp. (stone fruit), Malus 

spp. (apple), and Pyrus spp. (pear), but it is also associated with Cydonia 

oblonga (quince) (Farr and Rossman, 2013). These hosts are widely 

distributed throughout USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5-9 in the 

continental United States (Kartesz, 2012; NASS, 2007; NRCS, 2012).

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Apples, pears, stone fruit, grapes, quince, and filberts are economically

important fruit crops (NASS, 2007).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Monilia polystroma causes rotting of mature fruit, wilting, and collapse 

of floral parts (Hu et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2011).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The area endangered by M. polystroma includes areas in the United 

States within USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5-9 where apples, pears, stone 

fruit, and quince are grown.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Monilia polystroma into the endangered 

area via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MC Monilia polystroma is a known 

pathogen of apples and it can rot fruit 

when present (Petróczy and Palkovics, 

2009).

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Medium MC Monilia polystroma infection of fruit is 

apparent to the naked eye (Petróczy

and Palkovics, 2009), so infected fruit

should be culled. However, it is 

possible that developing infections 

could escape detection. The timing of 

this window is uncertain, but it is

likely that only a fraction of the 

harvested commodity that could be 

infested would escape detection.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

Medium MC Although specific conditions were not 

stated by China (see section 1.4 of this 

document), apples are usually stored in 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 174

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

consignment cold storage facilities under controlled 

temperature (usually 0-1° C) and high 

relative humidity (DAFF, 2009). 

Monilia polystroma is likely similar to 

Monilinia fruticola and able to produce 

spores and grow, albeit very slowly, at 

0°C (Byrde and Willetts, 1977). 

Because M. polystroma can survive 

these conditions but only grow at a 

reduced rate, we left the previous risk 

rating unchanged.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

Medium N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

High C The spores of Monilia species 

primarily move to new areas via wind 

and air currents, and wounds are not 

required for penetration into host tissue 

(Byrde and Willetts, 1977). The 

primary hosts for this fungus [apples, 

stone fruits, and pears (Farr and 

Rossman, 2013)] are grown throughout 

the endangered area (NASS, 2007), so 

we rated this risk element High.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S.

population lives within the endangered 

area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

High N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

High N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Monilia polystroma into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage No MU Monilia polystroma is closely related 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 175

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

potential in the endangered 

area

to two other widespread brown rot 

fungi, Monilinia fructicola and M. 

laxa (Petróczy and Palkovics, 2009). 

The only differences are molecular or 

in culture and it is not distinguishable 

from other brown rot fungi in the field 

(Petróczy and Palkovics, 2009). 

Monilinia fructicola is already widely 

distributed and managed throughout 

the United States (Byrde and Willetts, 

1977; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990; 

Ritchie, 2000). Pome and stone fruit 

growers in the United States employ

chemical and/or cultural control 

practices against a variety of foliar 

and fruit pathogens that would likely

provide prevention/control of Monilia

polystroma (Petróczy and Palkovics, 

2009). Due to the control measures 

already in place, M. polystroma is 

unlikely to increase damage more the 

10 percent of current levels and does 

not warrant a yes. However, M. 

polystroma is poorly studied so there 

is Medium uncertainty to this rating.

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

N/A N/A

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

No N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

Yes MC Twenty percent of exported U.S. 

apples and 34 percent of exported 

U.S. peaches go to Canada (FAS, 

2012), where M. polystroma does not 

occur (CABI, 2013). 

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

Yes C Canada requires apples from China, 

Japan, and Korea and stone fruits 

from Spain to be free of M. 

polystroma as a condition of entry

(CFIA, 2013), so apples and stone 

fruit exported from the United States 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 176

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

to Canada would likely also be 

subject to similar phytosanitary

requirements if M. polystroma was 

established in the United States.

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

Yes N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.17. Monilinia fructigena (Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be High. We present the results of this 

assessment in the table below. Monilinia fructigena is a known pathogen of apple (Malus sp.) 

and has been observed causing economically significant damage in China (Zhu et al., 2011).

We determined that the establishment of Monilinia fructigena in the United States is likely to 

cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. 

Monilinia fructigena may not cause any unacceptable direct economic impacts in the United 

States because this species is not as economically damaging as M. fructicola, which is already 

widely distributed throughout the United States (Byrde and Willetts, 1977; Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990), and M. fructigena can be controlled by the same fungicides that are already

used to control apple and pear scab (Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990). However, M. fructigena is 

regulated by Canada (CFIA, 2013), so U.S. exports could be subjected to additional 

phytosanitary regulations if M. fructigena were to become established in the United States.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Monilinia 

fructigena

Climatic suitability Monilinia fructigena occurs in Europe, Egypt, Morocco, parts of the 

Middle East, Russia, Taiwan, Korea, and several provinces/regions in 

China (Guangxi, Anhui, Gansu, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, 

Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Zhejiang) 

(CABI, 2013; Farr and Rossman, 2012). A minor outbreak of M. 

fructigena in Maryland was eradicated (Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990). 

Reports of this fungus from South America are likely misidentifications 

(CABI, 2013). Based on that information, we estimate that this fungus 

could establish in areas of the United States corresponding to USDA 

Plant Hardiness Zones 5-9, and possibly Zones 4 and 10 (Magarey et al., 

2008; PERAL, 2008).

Potential hosts at Monilinia fructigena primarily infects Prunus spp. (stone fruit), Malus
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 177

risk in PRA Area spp. (apple), and Pyrus spp. (pear), but it is also associated with Cydonia

oblonga (quince), Vitis vinifera (grape), Cotoneaster sp., and Corylus

avellana (common filbert) (Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990). These hosts are widely distributed throughout USDA 

Plant Hardiness Zones 5-9 in the continental United States (Kartesz, 

2012; NASS, 2007; NRCS, 2012).

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Apples, pears, stone fruit, grapes, quince, and filberts are economically

important fruit crops (NASS, 2011).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Monilinia fructigena causes rotting of mature fruit, wilting and collapse 

of floral parts, and cankers on shoots and branches (Byrde and Willetts, 

1977; CABI, 2013; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The area endangered by M. fructigena includes areas in the United States 

within USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5-9 where apples, pears, stone fruit, 

grapes, quince, and filberts are grown.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Monilinia fructigena into the endangered 

area via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MC Monilinia fructigena is a known brown 

rot fungus of apple fruit and can cause 

economically measurable damage in 

infected orchards (Zhu et al., 2011).

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Medium MC Monilinia fructigena causes a circular 

brown rot of fruit that gradually

extends outwards (Byrde and Willetts, 

1977). Eventually, the entire fruit 

surface can become covered with 

conidial tufts and fungal mycelium, 

and the fruit becomes shriveled and 

“mummified” (Byrde and Willetts, 

1977). Thus, late stage infections are 

highly likely to be observed (CABI, 

2013) and removed during general 

culling. Latent infections may not be 

detected, but based on this evidence, 

we decreased the previous rating by 

one level.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood Medium MC Although specific conditions were not 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 178

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

stated by China (see section 1.4 of this 

document), apples are usually stored in 

cold storage facilities under controlled 

temperature (usually 0-1° C) and high 

relative humidity condition 

(Biosecurity Australia, 2010). 

Monilinia fructigena is able to produce 

spores and grow, albeit very slowly, at 

0°C (Byrde and Willetts, 1977). 

Because M. fructigena can survive 

these conditions but only grow at a 

reduced rate, we left the previous risk 

rating unchanged.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

Medium N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

High C The spores of Monilinia species 

primarily move to new areas via wind 

and air currents, and wounds are not 

required for penetration into host tissue 

(Byrde and Willetts, 1977). The 

primary hosts for this fungus (apples, 

stone fruits, and pears (Farr and 

Rossman, 2013)) are grown throughout 

the endangered area (NASS, 2011), so 

we rated this risk element High.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S.

population lives within the endangered 

area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

High N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

High N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
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Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Monilinia fructigena into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

No MC Monilinia fructigena is closely related 

to two other widespread brown rot 

fungi, M. fructicola and M. laxa

(Chalkley, 2013). Monilinia fructigena

is not considered as economically

damaging as M. fructicola that is 

already widely distributed and 

managed throughout the United States 

(Byrde and Willetts, 1977; Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990; Ritchie, 2000). 

Losses from M. fructigena rarely 

warrant specific control measures 

(Chalkley, 2013). Pome and stone fruit 

growers in the United States employ

chemical and/or cultural control 

practices against a variety of foliar and 

fruit pathogens (including the closely

related M. fructicola) that would likely

provide prevention/control of M. 

fructigena (Chalkley, 2013; Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990). Pre-harvest losses 

from M. fructigena are difficult to 

estimate, as infected fruit are usually 

predisposed from bird and insect 

damage (van Leeuwen et al., 2000) and 

would likely be culled. In managed 

systems, yield loss is typically below 

10 percent (van Leeuwen et al., 2000). 

There is a risk of resistance to 

commonly used fungicides for the 

prevention of brown rot fungi 

(Miessner and Stammler, 2010; Ogawa 

et al., 1995; Chalkley, 2013); we

therefore increase our uncertainty 

about the damage potential.

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

N/A N/A

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

No N/A
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Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

Yes MC Twenty percent of exported U.S. 

apples and 34 percent of exported U.S. 

peaches go to Canada (FAS, 2012), 

where M. fructigena does not occur 

(CABI, 2013; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990). Canada lists M. fructigena as a 

harmful organism (APHIS, 2012).

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

Yes C Canada requires apples from China, 

Japan, and Korea and stone fruits from 

Spain to be free of M. fructigena as a 

condition of entry (CFIA, 2013), so 

apples and stone fruit exported from 

the United States to Canada would 

likely also be subject to similar 

phytosanitary requirements if M. 

fructigena was established in the 

United States.

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

Yes N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.18. Pempelia heringii (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below. Records of this species affecting apple are from the early 

1900s; it is unclear why P. heringii is not recorded with apple in more recent history.

We determined that the establishment of Pempelia heringii in the continental United States is 

unlikely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Pempelia 

heringii

Climatic suitability Records of P. heringii in China and Japan (Arakawa, 1927; Howard, 

1897; Kruilova and Mevzos, 1930) indicate that this species may survive 

within USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 3-8.

Potential hosts at Hosts of P. heringii include apple (Arakawa, 1927), pear (Howard, 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 181

risk in PRA Area 1897), and Chinese hawthorn (Crataegus pinnatifida) (Sun et al., 1992). 

Malus and Pyrus species are present throughout the continental United 

States (Kartesz, 2013). Chinese hawthorn is generally grown as an 

ornamental within USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5-8 (Dave’s Garden, 

2013).

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Apples, pears, and Chinese hawthorn are economically important plants 

in the continental United States (CABI, 2013).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

While P. heringii has been documented boring into pear and apple fruit 

in the early 1900s (e.g., Arakawa, 1927; Howard, 1897), there are no 

recent records, for unknown reasons. Pest potential on pears and apples is 

likely to be low (medium uncertainty). However, it is listed as an 

important pest in Chinese hawthorn (Sun et al., 1992).

Defined 

Endangered Area

Based on records presented by Kartesz (2013), C. pinnatifida is not a 

plant present in the environment in the continental United States. Records 

indicate that it may be purchased for ornamental use (Dave’s Garden, 

2013), and it is most likely available in gardens and yards. 

The endangered area therefore includes sporadic Chinese hawthorn plants 

and potentially apples and pears within Plant Hardiness Zones 5-8.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Pempelia heringii into the endangered area 

via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Low U After spinning the fruit stalks together 

with stems, larvae bore into and pupate 

within the fruit (Arakawa, 1927). This 

habit significantly increases the 

probability of infested fruits being noted 

prior to harvest in the field. In addition, 

most records of this species associated 

with apples are 100 years old; for 

unknown reasons, it appears that P. 

heringii is no longer a significant pest in 

apple orchards.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Low MU No processing procedures have been 

indicated that may mitigate the presence 

of P. heringii on the fruit (see the 

description of the pathway in section 

1.4).

Risk Element A3: Likelihood Low MU No transport or storage conditions have 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 182

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary)

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

been provided that may reduce the 

prevalence of P. heringii on the fruit (see 

the description of the pathway in section 

1.4). Typical shipping conditions for 

apples seem unlikely to affect the pest 

population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

Low N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Medium MU The full host range for this species is not 

clear. Apples and pears (Arakawa, 1927; 

Howard, 1897) are widely distributed 

throughout the endangered area, and 

Chinese hawthorn is additionally

distributed gardens and yards (Dave’s 

Garden, 2013). Larvae that may have 

bored into apple fruit must move off the 

fruit, find suitable locations for pupation 

and development, and find mates for 

populations to develop. We rated this 

risk element Medium due to the 

likelihood of these required conditions 

being met for development. See below 

for additional explanation. Uncertainty 

for this risk rating is fairly high due to 

the unclear host status.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S.

population lives within the endangered 

area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be internally

feeding larvae (Arakawa, 1927). In order for establishment to occur, larvae must feed and mature 

through pupation and eclosion to adulthood. Both males and females must emerge and mate, then 

mated females must find hosts on which to oviposit their eggs. Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 183

fruit-boring pests typically exhibit intra-specific competition for food resources, resulting in only 

a single larva occurring per fruit when infestations occur. Similar species such as codling moth, 

light-brown apple moth, and false codling moth exhibit this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford 

et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; Whiting et al., 1997); furthermore, it is not unusual for 

Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit cannibalism such as that demonstrated by false codling moth 

(Bedford et al., 1998). This means that usually only a single larva may be present if fruit is 

infested (rather than multiple larvae as seen with fruit flies in the family Tephritidae). In 

addition, pest populations in the field may show variation in developmental times and 

overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; Knight and Croft, 1991), with larvae of different 

stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) noted that pest establishment is dependent on a 

“mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–that is, a male and female adult must emerge from 

a consignment in close proximity to each other, at the same time, and mate in order for 

introduction to occur. However, the results of courtship behavior studies in two leaf rolling 

tortricids found that it is necessary for female pheromone permeated airflow to be present in 

order for males to initiate mating sequences (Curkovic et al., 2006). Solitary pests, such as 

Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual reproduction that makes use of complex mate 

finding systems will have a lower likelihood of introduction compared to gregarious pests (where 

multiple males and females may emerge from a single fruit at the same time and be able to mate) 

(Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 1999). This is because the likelihood of a mated 

pair (sexually mature males and a females simultaneously emerging in close proximity to each 

other) is comparatively lower. We rated this risk element Medium due to the likelihood of these 

required conditions being met for development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Pempelia heringii into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

No MC 100 years ago, 30-50 percent yield loss 

in pears was recorded (Howard, 1897). 

More recent research is not available, 

suggesting that the pest importance of 

P. heringii has decreased, likely due to 

the use of modern control measures. 

While P. heringii is listed as an 

“important” pest of Chinese hawthorn 

(Sun et al., 1992), this plant appears to 

be primarily ornamental in the United 

States. It is likely that normally used 

control measures in yards and gardens 

would be effective against any damage 

inflicted by this species. 

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

N/A N/A
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 184

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

No N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

No MC It does not appear that the United 

States produces significant amounts of 

Chinese hawthorn for export.

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

No N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

No N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.19. Pseudococcus cryptus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Negligible. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below. 

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Pseudococcus cryptus into the endangered 

area via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry) 

N/A N/A We analyzed the likelihood of 

establishment first. See below.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

N/A N/A

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment 

N/A N/A
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 185

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

N/A N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Negligible MC See explanation below.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Negligible N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Life stage biology. Female mealybugs typically go through four life stages after the egg stage 

and some species, such as Dysmicoccus brevipes, bear live young (Ito, 1938). The first two 

nymphal instars have large legs compared to adults, and are quite active. The third instar nymph 

has shortened legs and resembles the adult. Grasswitz and James (2008) studied movement of 

Pseudococcus maritimus nymphs and found little tendency for them to move away from the 

point where they were released. The farthest movement was 90 cm, but most distances were 

considerably shorter. Furthermore, no evidence indicated that mealybug movement was 

influenced by any cues other than surface features of the host (e.g., light or gravity). Cid et al. 

(2010) found that Planococcus citri nymphs hatched in bark crevices in the woody part of 

grapevines and rarely made it up into the green parts of the vine unless populations were very

large. Nymphs stopped moving upward when they encountered places in the bark to feed, and 

did not appear to move between plants by contact between green organs. In a study with three 

species of Rastrococcus mealybugs, R. mangiferae, R. iceryoides, and R. invadens, no active 

migration of the Rastrococcus spp. between trees, tree to soil or tree to debris occurred 

(Narasimham and Chacko, 1991). The crawlers (first and second instar nymphs) are also very

sensitive to desiccation (Browning, 1959). Furness (1976) also hypothesized that low humidity

was responsible for the high mortality seen in dispersing first instar nymphs of Pseudococcus 

longispinus. Browning (1959) also found high mortality in first and second instar nymphs in low 

humidity. 

The adult female emerges from the third instar nymph. They are wingless and cannot disperse by 

flying. Females are often large and distorted from the eggs or nymphs which they carry in their 

abdomens, although those of most species retain their legs and can move to some extent. Males, 

by contrast, develop wings and flight capabilities as adults (McKenzie, 1967).
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 186

Other dispersal mechanisms. Given their limited ability to disperse by walking, mealybugs 

may have some mechanism for longer range dispersal, and evidence indicates that wind may

carry nymphs away from hosts. First and second instar nymphs of Pseudococcus longispinus

were blown from pear trees onto sticky traps on warm, windy days (Barrass et al., 1994). Vitullo 

(2009) found the density of females on a plant influenced the number of nymphs caught. Also, 

dispersal by wind depends to a large extent on being exposed to wind well off the ground, in the 

branches of the host plant (Barrass et al., 1994; Grasswitz and James, 2008). Crawlers on 

imported infested fruit are highly unlikely to be in such conditions (see below), reducing the 

potential for effective aerial dispersal.

Dispersal by wind is dependent on prevailing wind direction; nymphs have no control over 

where they are blown. This dispersal strategy relies on a very high number of nymphs, so that a 

few will arrive serendipitously on a suitable new host. Commercial fruit arriving in the United 

States is highly unlikely to carry high populations of pregnant females. Crawlers would be 

unlikely to survive shipment, especially in chilled, low humidity conditions. Some people 

dispose of inedible fruit in outdoor compost bins, but since only a small number of fruit are 

likely to be infested, only very rarely would infested fruit be composted. For these reasons, 

mealybugs arriving on commercial fruit for consumption have a negligible likelihood of 

dispersing to hosts.

3.2.20. Rhynchites species (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Based on similarities among the biology, host range, and impacts of the Rhynchites species 

designated likely to follow the pathway in Table 2, we have combined the analyses here. This 

analysis includes the following species: R. auratus, R. bacchus, R. giganteus, and R. heros. Any 

discrepancies in the ratings determined from the literature are stated within the tables below. 

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Rhynchites species in the continental United States is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Rhynchites 

species

Climatic 

suitability

Determination of climatic suitability was conducted through a comparison of 

USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) with the worldwide 

distribution of the Rhynchites species of concern. Specific plant hardiness 

zones in which it is estimated that the species may establish are as follows:

R. auratus: 3-11, based on distribution in Europe and Asia (Alford, 2007; 

Ozbek and Hayat, 1996; Hukui and Yixiang, 1999)

R. bacchus: 5-11, based on distribution throughout much of Europe, Asia, 

and Russia (Legalov, 2007)

R. giganteus: 6-11, based on distribution in Europe and Asia (Alonso-
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 187

Zarazaga, 2011; Mazur, 2002)

R. heros: 5-10, based on distribution in China, Korea, and Japan (Hanson, 

1963; Lu and Liu, 2002; Muramatsu, 1925)

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Rhynchites species are important pests of plants within Rosaceae. Specific 

hosts for the species of concern that are known to occur within the respective 

plant hardiness zones listed above are as follows:

R. auratus: Apples (Khairushev, 1970), species of Prunus (cherry, apricot, 

plum), and walnut (Alford, 2007).

R. bacchus: Species of Malus, Pyrus, Prunus, and Crataegus (Alford, 2007; 

Legalov, 2007).

R. giganteus: pears (Zvierezomb-Zubovsky, 1918)

R. heros: Pears (Hanson, 1963), apples (Clausen, 1931), peach, plum, loquat 

(Katsumata, 1934)

Economically

important hosts 

at riska

Many Rhynchites species are considered to be important polyphagous pests 

on Rosaceous host plants (Mazur, 2002). Apples are considered 

economically important in the United States, and are hosts for each of these 

species. Specific hosts that also may be considered economically important 

in the continental United States include: 

R. auratus: cherry, plum, apricot, walnut (Alford, 2007; Ozbek and Hayat, 

1996)

R. bacchus: apricot, cherry, plum (Alford, 2007; Ozbek and Hayat, 1996)

R. giganteus: pears (Zvierezomb-Zubovsky, 1918)

R. heros: pears, peaches (Hanson, 1963; Katsumata, 1934)

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts 

at riska

Significant losses that have been documented in various Rosaceous hosts for 

the Rhynchites species of concern include:

R. auratus: significant losses in cherry (Ozbek and Hayat, 1996)

R. bacchus: significant losses in apricot (Ozbek and Hayat, 1996)

R. giganteus: significant damage in pears (Zvierezomb-Zubovsky, 1918)

R. heros: Considered a major pest of apples (Clausen, 1931) and serious 

damage has also been noted on pear (Katsumata, 1934)

Defined 

Endangered 

Area

Rosaceous host plants are available throughout the continental United States. 

The endangered area for each of the Rhynchites species of concern includes 

various Rosaceous hosts within the following plant hardiness zones in the 

continental United States:

R. auratus: 3-11

R. bacchus: 5-11

R. giganteus: 6-11

R. heros: 5-10

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 188

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Rhynchites species into the endangered area 

via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Medium MU Eggs or internally feeding larvae may 

be found associated with apple fruit 

(Alford, 2007). Following oviposition 

within host fruit, Rhynchites species 

are known to fully or partially cut the 

stem of the fruit so that it drops to the 

ground (e.g., Alford, 2007; de Stefani, 

1918; Katsumata, 1934; Muramatsu, 

1925). However, it should be noted 

that fruit may not be successfully

severed and may remain on the tree 

until harvest. We therefore rated this 

risk element Medium.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Low MU Damage to fruit due to infestation by

Rhynchites species is obvious (e.g., 

Alford, 2007; Gonget, 2003; 

Katsumata, 1934; Muramatsu, 1925) 

and such fruit are very likely to be 

culled during even minimal postharvest processing. Therefore we 

reduced the rating from A1 by one 

level.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Low MU No transport or storage conditions 

have been provided that may reduce 

the prevalence of Rhynchites spp. on 

the fruit (see Section 1.4 Description 

of pathway). Typical shipping 

conditions for apples seem unlikely to 

affect the pest population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

Low N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Medium MC Hosts are available over a wide area as 

commercially produced commodities 

and in a wider area for wild hosts (e.g., 

Alford, 2007; Hanson, 1963; 

Khairushev, 1970; Legalov, 2007; 

Zvierezomb-Zubovsky, 1918). The 

most likely life stages to be associated 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 189

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

with apples from China are eggs or 

larvae inside the fruit (Alford, 2007). 

In order for establishment to occur, the 

Rhynchites species must successfully 

develop, move from the fruit to soil 

suitable for pupation and near a host 

plant, and then emerge and find a 

suitable mate (Alford, 2007; Hanson, 

1963; Katsumata, 1934; Muramatsu, 

1925).

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25% of the population lives 

within the endangered area (PERAL, 

2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Rhynchites species into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes C Damage in apples associated with 

infestations of R. auratus may reach 

60% (Khairushev, 1970). R. auratus

and R. bacchus are economically

important pests in Turkey. Yield losses 

of 10-85% in cherry and up to 90% of 

apricot due to infestations by R. 

auratus and R. bacchus, respectively, 

have been noted (Ozbek and Hayat, 

1996). R. giganteus and R. heros have 

both caused significant damage in 

pears (Hanson, 1963; ZvierezombZubovsky, 1918). Management of 

Rhynchites species can be very

difficult and time-consuming, and is 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 190

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

likely to increase costs of production.

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes C Rhynchites species can fly or move 

with infested fruit and are distributed 

through much of Europe and Asia 

(e.g., Alford, 2007; Hanson, 1963).

Risk Element C: Pest

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.21. Spilonota albicana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Spilonota albicana in the continental United States is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Spilonota 

albicana

Climatic suitability Based on the current distribution of S. albicana in Korea, Japan, 

Northeast China and Russia (Ovsyannikova and Grichanov, 2013; 

Tikhonov, 1962), it is estimated that establishment may occur within 

plant hardiness zones 3-7.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

A polyphagous pest, primary host plants for S. albicana include 

Crataegus sp. (Liu and Liu, 1994), apples, peaches, cherries (Hua and 

Wang, 2006).
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 191

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Apples, peaches, and cherries are considered to be economically 

important hosts in the continental United States, and are available 

throughout the region estimated to be climatically suitable for S. albicana

(CABI, 2013).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Spilonota albicana is a significant pest, requiring the use of cultural and 

chemical control measures to reduce impacts on host plants 

(Ovsyannikova and Grichanov, 2013).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area includes apples, cherries, and peaches throughout 

plant hardiness zones 3-7 in the continental United States. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Spilonota albicana into the endangered area 

via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry) 

High MC Eggs are laid within the fruit, and 

larvae burrow into fruits to feed 

(Hua and Wang, 2006; Tikhonov, 

1962). No standard industry field 

practices beyond minimal handling 

during harvest are known and 

internally feeding larvae may go 

undetected.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

High MU No processing procedures have 

been indicated that may mitigate 

the presence of S. albicana on the 

fruit (see Section 1.4 Description 

of pathway).

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

High MU No transport or storage conditions 

have been provided that may

reduce the prevalence of S. 

albicana on the fruit (see Section 

1.4 Description of pathway). Given 

the ability for this species to 

overwinter in northeast Asia, 

typical shipping conditions for 

apples seem unlikely to affect the 

pest population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

High N/A
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 192

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

Medium MC Spilonota albicana may affect a 

wide range of Rosaceous and forest 

host plants (Ovsyannikova and 

Grichanov, 2013). It is estimated 

that these potential host plants 

would be widely available 

throughout the endangered area 

(Kartesz, 2013). However, larvae 

and eggs present in or on the fruit 

are the most likely life stages to be 

shipped. The pest must move off 

the fruit, find suitable locations for 

pupation and development, and 

find mates for populations to 

develop. We rated this risk element 

Medium due to the likelihood of 

these required conditions being met 

for development. See below for 

additional explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25% of the population 

lives within the endangered area

(PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area:

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be eggs or 

internally feeding larvae (Hua and Wang, 2006; Tikhonov, 1962). In order for establishment to 

occur, these eggs must successfully hatch into larvae, feed and mature through pupation and 

eclosion to adulthood. Both males and females must emerge and mate, then mated females must 

find hosts on which to oviposit their eggs. Lepidopteran leaf rolling and fruit boring pests 

typically exhibit intra-specific competition for food resources, resulting in only a single larva 

occurring per fruit when infestations occur. Similar species such as codling moth, light-brown 

apple moth and false codling moth exhibit this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford et al., 1998; 

Solomon, 1991; Whiting et al., 1997); furthermore it is not unusual for Lepidopteran larvae to 

exhibit cannibalism such as that demonstrated by false codling moth (Bedford et al., 1998). This 

means that usually only a single larva may be present if fruit is infested (rather than multiple 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 193

larvae as seen with fruit flies in the family Tephritidae). In addition, pest populations in the field 

may show variation in developmental times and overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; 

Knight and Croft, 1991), with larvae of different stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) 

noted that pest establishment is dependent on a “mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–

that is, a male and female adult must emerge from a consignment in close proximity to each 

other, at the same time, and mate in order for introduction to occur. However, the results of 

courtship behavior studies in two leaf-rolling tortricids found that it is necessary for female 

pheromone permeated airflow to be present in order for males to initiate mating sequences 

(Curkovic et al., 2006). Solitary pests, such as Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual 

reproduction that makes use of complex mate finding systems will have a lower likelihood of 

introduction compared to gregarious pests (where multiple males and females may emerge from 

a single fruit at the same time and be able to mate) (Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 

1999). This is because the likelihood of a mated pair (sexually mature males and a females 

simultaneously emerging in close proximity to each other) is comparatively lower. We rated this 

risk element Medium due to the likelihood of these required conditions being met for 

development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Spilonota albicana into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes MU The introduction of S. albicana may

result in increases in costs of 

production. Apple, peach, and pear 

producers in the United States must 

already employ control measures for 

the similar species S. ocellana (CABI, 

2013). However, in more recent years 

in China, yield losses in untreated 

orchards have risen significantly due to 

expanded use of hawthorn near 

orchards (Hua and Wang, 2006). Yield 

losses in untreated apple orchards near 

hawthorn plantings may reach 50

percent (Hua and Wang, 2006).

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes MU As a Tortricid moth, S. albicana has a 

natural dispersal potential through 

flight. Spilonota albicana is a 

polyphagous species able to infest a 

wide range of Rosaceous and forest 

host plants (Ovsyannikova and 

Grichanov, 2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 194

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.22. Spilonota prognathana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Spilonota prognathana in the continental United States

is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Spilonota 

prognathana

Climatic suitability Spilonota prognathana is present in northeastern Asia, Japan (Chapman, 

1973), and Guangdong (Kwangtong), China (Kondo and Miyahara, 

1930). A comparison with the USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey et 

al., 2008) indicates that establishment in the continental United States 

may occur in Zones 7-10.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Potential hosts for S. prognathana include apple, cherry, peach, pear 

(Kondo and Miyahara, 1930), and hawthorn (Crataegus) (Sytenko, 

1960). 

Economically

important hosts at 

riska

Apple, peach, and pear are economically important host plants that are 

present within Plant Hardiness Zones 7-10 (CABI, 2013).

Pest potential on Important damage in apples may be caused by internal feeding of S. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 195

economically 

important hosts at 

riska

prognathana (Chapman, 1973); up to 85 percent crop loss in apples has 

been documented (Kondo and Miyahara, 1930; Sytenko, 1960).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area encompasses apples, peaches, and pears within 

Plant Hardiness Zones 7-10.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Spilonota prognathana into the endangered 

area via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline

rating for entry)

High MU Eggs are laid within the fruit, and 

larvae burrow into fruits to feed 

(Chapman, 1973; Kondo and 

Miyahara 1930). No standard 

industry field practices beyond 

minimal handling during harvest 

are known and internally feeding 

larvae may go undetected.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

High U No processing procedures have 

been indicated that may mitigate 

the presence of S. prognathana on 

the fruit (see the description of the 

pathway in section 1.4).

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

High U No transport or storage conditions 

have been provided that may

reduce the prevalence of S. 

prognathana on the fruit (see the 

description of the pathway in 

section 1.4).

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

High N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Medium MC Known hosts include apple, cherry,

peach, pear, hawthorn, and wild 

apples (Kondo and Miyahara, 

1930; Sytenko, 1960). These hosts

are widely distributed throughout 

the endangered areas, and the pest 

is capable of self-dispersal. 

However, the most likely life stage 

to be associated with apples are 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 196

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

eggs or internally feeding larvae 

(Chapman, 1973; Kondo and 

Miyahara 1930). In order for 

establishment to occur, these eggs 

and larvae must successfully

develop, find hosts, and mate. We 

rated this risk element Medium due 

to the likelihood of these required 

conditions being met for 

development. See below for 

additional explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population lives within the 

endangered area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be eggs or 

internally feeding larvae (Chapman, 1973; Kondo and Miyahara 1930). In order for 

establishment to occur, these eggs must successfully hatch into larvae, feed, and mature through 

pupation and eclosion to adulthood. Both males and females must emerge and mate, then mated 

females must find hosts on which to oviposit their eggs. Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and fruitboring pests typically exhibit intra-specific competition for food resources, resulting in only a 

single larva occurring per fruit when infestations occur. Similar species such as codling moth, 

light-brown apple moth, and false codling moth exhibit this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford 

et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; Whiting et al., 1997); furthermore, it is not unusual for 

Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit cannibalism such as that demonstrated by false codling moth 

(Bedford et al., 1998). This means that usually only a single larva may be present if fruit is 

infested (rather than multiple larvae as seen with fruit flies in the family Tephritidae). In 

addition, pest populations in the field may show variation in developmental times and 

overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; Knight and Croft, 1991), with larvae of different 

stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) noted that pest establishment is dependent on a 

“mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–that is, a male and female adult must emerge from 

a consignment in close proximity to each other, at the same time, and mate in order for 

introduction to occur. However, the results of courtship behavior studies in two leaf-rolling 

tortricids found that it is necessary for female pheromone permeated airflow to be present in 

order for males to initiate mating sequences (Curkovic et al., 2006). Solitary pests, such as 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 197

Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual reproduction that makes use of complex mate 

finding systems will have a lower likelihood of introduction compared to gregarious pests (where 

multiple males and females may emerge from a single fruit at the same time and be able to mate) 

(Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 1999). This is because the likelihood of a mated 

pair (sexually mature males and a females simultaneously emerging in close proximity to each 

other) is comparatively lower. We rated this risk element Medium due to the likelihood of these 

required conditions being met for development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Spilonota prognathana into the 

continental United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes MU Spilonota albicana and S. 

prognathana have similar Asian 

distributions and host ranges (e.g., 

CASI, 1994; Hua, 2000; Hua, 

2005). Based on this, and the 

recent significant yield losses 

observed in China due to S. 

albicana in untreated orchards near 

hawthorn plantings, it is assumed 

that S. prognathana populations 

may react in similar ways, 

especially in new areas. Up to 85 

percent crop loss in apples has 

been documented (Kondo and 

Miyahara, 1930; Sytenko, 1960).

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes U As a Tortrocid moth, S. 

prognathana has a natural dispersal 

potential through flight. S. 

prognathana is a pest in cultivated 

apple, cherry, peach, and pear 

(Kondo and Miyahara, 1930). Very 

little is known regarding potential 

wild hosts. Records from 1930 and 

1973 indicate that S. prognathana

has caused damage in northeastern 

Asia, Japan, and Guangdong 

(Kwangtong), China (Chapman, 

1973; Kondo and Miyahara, 1930). 

However, given that we found no 

indication of presence outside of 

this region or of damage in more 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 198

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

recent years, we rated the 

uncertainty High.

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary 

requirements

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts 

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.23. Ulodemis trigrapha (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below.

We determined that the establishment of Ulodemis trigrapha in the continental United States is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States endangered by Ulodemis 

trigrapha

Climatic suitability Present in southern China (Liu and Bai, 1982), Vietnam, Bhutan, and 

India (Razowski, 2009), U. trigrapha may be able to establish in Plant 

Hardiness Zones 9-11 in the continental United States.

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

Host plants include Camellia, C. sinensis, Cinnamomum, C. camphora, 

Citrus, Colquhounia, Lantana camara, Linum, Malus, M. pumila, M. 

sylvestris, Nephelium, Pyrus, Rosa, Schima, and Viburnum, (Nair, 

1975; Robinson et al., 2001) and can be found throughout Plant 

Hardiness Zones 9-11.

Economically

important hosts at riska

Among others, apple and citrus are both economically important hosts 

in the continental United States (CABI, 2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 199

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at riska

The pest status of U. trigrapha appears to be significant as it is 

described as a problem pest in Citrus production in India (Singh and 

Srivastava, 2006). There is some uncertainty regarding this conclusion, 

as no additional information could be found. It is assumed that specific 

control measures are necessary to prevent a reduction in yield.

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area includes apple and citrus plants within Plant 

Hardiness Zones 9-11 in the continental United States. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Ulodemis trigrapha into the endangered area 

via the importation of apples from China

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MU Very little specific information is 

available regarding the biology of 

U. trigrapha. Fletcher (1920) noted 

that larvae bore into apples and 

feed on the fruit. The current pest 

status of this species in China is 

unknown. No standard industry

field practices beyond minimal 

handling during harvest are known.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

High MU No processing procedures have 

been indicated that may mitigate 

the presence of U. trigrapha on the 

fruit. Those larvae that have bored 

into the fruit near the calyx

(Fletcher, 1920) are especially

likely to escape detection.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

High MU No transport or storage conditions 

have been provided that may

reduce the prevalence of U. 

trigrapha on the fruit (see the 

description of the pathway in 

section 1.4). Typical shipping 

conditions for apples seem unlikely

to affect the pest population.

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry

High N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

Medium MC As a known pest of cultivated 

citrus and apple, suitable hosts are 
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Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 200

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

host material in the 

endangered area

widely available throughout the 

endangered area (Nair, 1975; 

Robinson et al., 2001). Given the 

wide host range (Robinson et al,, 

2001), additional hosts are likely

available in the environment. In

order for establishment to occur, 

larvae must come out of the fruit, 

successfully develop, find hosts, 

and mate. We rated this risk 

element Medium due to the 

likelihood of the required 

conditions being met for 

development. See below for 

additional explanation.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population lives within the 

endangered area (PERAL, 2008).

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area

The most likely life stage that may be imported with apples from China would be internally

feeding larvae (Fletcher, 1920). In order for establishment to occur, these larvae must emerge, 

feed, and mature through pupation and eclosion to adulthood. Both males and females must 

emerge and mate, then mated females must find hosts on which to oviposit their eggs. 

Lepidopteran leaf-rolling and fruit-boring pests typically exhibit intra-specific competition for 

food resources, resulting in only a single larva occurring per fruit when infestations occur. 

Similar species such as codling moth, light-brown apple moth, and false codling moth exhibit 

this behavior (Vail et al., 1993; Bedford et al., 1998; Solomon, 1991; Whiting et al., 1997); 

furthermore, it is not unusual for Lepidopteran larvae to exhibit cannibalism such as that 

demonstrated by false codling moth (Bedford et al., 1998). This means that usually only a single 

larva may be present if fruit is infested (rather than multiple larvae as seen with fruit flies in the 

family Tephritidae). In addition, pest populations in the field may show variation in 

developmental times and overlapping generations (Wearing et al., 2001; Knight and Croft, 

1991), with larvae of different stages of maturity present. Landolt et al. (1984) noted that pest 

establishment is dependent on a “mated pair” being simultaneously introduced–that is, a male 

and female adult must emerge from a consignment in close proximity to each other, at the same 
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 201

time, and mate in order for introduction to occur. However, the results of courtship behavior 

studies in two leaf-rolling tortricids found that it is necessary for female pheromone permeated 

airflow to be present in order for males to initiate mating sequences (Curkovic et al., 2006).

Solitary pests, such as Lepidopteran leaf rollers, that require sexual reproduction that makes use 

of complex mate finding systems will have a lower likelihood of introduction compared to 

gregarious pests (where multiple males and females may emerge from a single fruit at the same 

time and be able to mate) (Vail et al., 1993; Yamamura and Katsumata, 1999). This is because 

the likelihood of a mated pair (sexually mature males and a females simultaneously emerging in 

close proximity to each other) is comparatively lower. We rated this risk element Medium due to 

the likelihood of these required conditions being met for development.

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Ulodemis trigrapha into the continental 

United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes MU Considered a major pest in citrus 

production in northeast India (Singh 

and Srivastava, 2006), it is expected 

that additional control measures may

be required should U. trigrapha 

become established in the United 

States.

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential

Yes MU Ulodemis trigrapha is a polyphagous 

species able to infest a wide range of 

cultivated and wild hosts (Nair, 1975; 

Robinson et al., 2001). Like other 

tortricid moths, U. trigrapha is capable 

of spread through flight in search of 

suitable host plants (Borror et al., 

1989).

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary

requirements

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely

to cause significant trade 

impacts

N/A N/A
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Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

4. Summary and Conclusions of Risk Assessment

Of the organisms associated with apples worldwide and reported in China, we identified 26

organisms that are actionable pests for the continental United States and have a reasonable 

likelihood of being associated with the commodity following harvesting from the field and prior 

to any post-harvest processing. We further evaluated these organisms for their likelihood of 

introduction (i.e., entry plus establishment) and their potential consequences of introduction. 

Pests that meet the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction and 

receive an overall likelihood of introduction risk rating above Negligible are candidates for risk 

management. The results of this risk assessment represent a baseline estimate of the risks 

associated with the import commodity pathway as described in section 1.4.

Of the pests selected for further analysis, we determined that those identified in Table 4 are not

candidates for risk management, either because no portion of the continental United States is 

likely to be endangered by the pest, they do not meet the threshold to likely cause unacceptable 

consequences of introduction, and/or because they received a Negligible overall risk rating for 

likelihood of introduction into the endangered area via the import pathway. We summarize the 

results for each pest below (Table 4). 

All the other pests selected for further analysis are candidates for risk management, because they

meet the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction, and they received 

an overall likelihood of introduction risk rating above Negligible. We summarize the results for 

each pest below (Table 5). 

Detailed examination and choice of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk are 

part of the pest risk management phase within APHIS and are not addressed in this document.

Table 4. Summary for pests selected for further evaluation and determined not to be candidates 

for risk management .

Pest Reason the pest is not a candidate for risk 

management

Uncertainty statement 

(optional)a

Apple dimple fruit 

apscaviroid

Negligible overall risk rating for likelihood of 

introduction

Ceroplastes japonicus Negligible overall risk rating for likelihood of 

introduction
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Pest Reason the pest is not a candidate for risk 

management

Uncertainty statement 

(optional)a

Gymnosporangium 

yamadae

Does not meet unacceptable Consequences of 

Introduction threshold

Pempelia heringii Does not meet unacceptable Consequences of 

Introduction threshold

Pseudococcus cryptus Negligible overall risk rating for likelihood of 

introduction

aThe uncertainty statement, if included, identifies the most important source(s) of uncertainty.

Table 5. Summary for pests selected for further evaluation and determined to be candidates for 

risk management. All of these pests meet the threshold for unacceptable consequences of 

introduction.

Pest Likelihood of Introduction 

overall rating

Uncertainty statement (optional)a

Adoxophyes orana Medium

Archips micaceana Medium

Argyrotaenia ljungiana Medium

Bactrocera dorsalis High

Carposina sasakii Medium

Cenopalpus pulcher Medium

Cryptoblabes gnidiella Medium

Cydia funebrana Medium

Euzophera bigella Medium

Euzophera pyriella Medium

Grapholita inopinata Medium

Leucoptera malifoliella High Possible hidden presence of the pest 

within the calyx during pupation.

Monilia polystroma High

Monilinia fructigena High

Rhynchites auratus Medium

Rhynchites bacchus Medium

Rhynchites giganteus Medium

Rhynchites heros Medium

Spilonota albicana Medium

Spilonota prognathana Medium

Ulodemis trigrapha Medium

aThe uncertainty statement, if included, identifies the most important source(s) of uncertainty.
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 204

5. Acknowledgements 

Original pest list (2010) created by Tom Cullineya

Authors Cynthia Landrya

John Rogersa

Reviewers Tom Cullineya

Heather Hartzoga

a

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory, USDA-APHIS-PPQ

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7. Appendix A. Pests with non-actionable regulatory status

We found some evidence of the below listed organisms being associated with apples and being 

present in China; however, because these organisms have non-actionable regulatory status for the 

continental United States, we did not list them in Table 2 of this risk assessment. 

Below we list these organisms along with the references supporting their potential association 

with apples, their potential presence in China, their presence in the continental United States (if 

applicable), and their regulatory status for the continental United States. For organisms not

present in the continental United States, we also provide justification for their non-actionable 

status.

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Acari: Acaridae

Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) CABI, 2012; Chmielewski, 1998

Acari: Eriophyidae

Aculus schlechtendali (Nalepa) CABI, 2012; Easterbrook, 1996; Hong and Zhang, 

1996

Phytoptus pyri Pagenstecher (= Eriophyes 

pyri [Pagenstecher])

Hill, 1983; Hong and Zhang, 1996; Jeppson et al., 

1975

Acari: Tarsonemidae

Polyphagotarsonemus latus Banks CABI, 2012; Iacob, 1978

Tarsonemus confusus Ewing Delfinado, 1976; Hao et al., 2007

Tarsonemus nidicolus Delfinado Delfinado, 1976; Lin and Zhang, 1999

Acari: Tenuipalpidae

Brevipalpus obovatus Donnadieu CABI, 2012; Jeppson et al., 1975

Acari: Tetranychidae

Bryobia praetiosa Koch Bolland et al., 1998; Jeppson et al., 1975

Bryobia rubrioculus (Scheuten) CABI, 2012; Jeppson et al., 1975

Eotetranychus carpini (Oudemans) Bolland et al., 1998; Jeppson et al., 1975

Eotetranychus pruni (Oudemans) Bolland et al., 1998; Chen and Luo, 1998

Eotetranychus sexmaculatus (Riley) Bolland et al., 1998; Jeppson et al., 1975

Eotetranychus smithi Pritchard & Baker Bolland et al., 1998; Jeppson et al., 1975

Eotetranychus uncatus Garman Bolland et al., 1998; Jeppson et al., 1975

Oligonychus yothersi (McGregor) Bolland et al., 1998; Jeppson et al., 1975

Panonychus citri McGregor CABI, 2012

Panonychus ulmi (Koch) Bolland et al., 1998; Hill, 1983

Petrobia harti (Ewing) Bolland et al., 1998; Jeppson et al., 1975

Petrobia latens (Müller) CABI, 2012

Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval) CABI, 2012

Tetranychus desertorum Banks Aguiar-Menezes et al., 2002; Bolland et al., 1998

Tetranychus kanzawai Kishida Bolland et al., 1998; CABI, 2012

Tetranychus ludeni Zacher Bolland et al., 1998; Jeppson et al., 1975

Tetranychus neocaledonicus André Bolland et al., 1998; Jeppson et al., 1975
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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Tetranychus turkestani (Ugarov & 

Nikolskii)

Bolland et al., 1998; Jeppson et al., 1975

Tetranychus urticae Koch CABI, 2012

Coleoptera: Anthribidae

Araecerus fasciculatus (De Geer) Gorham, 1987; Hua, 2002

Coleoptera: Bostrichidae

Heterobostrychus hamatipennis Lesne Choo et al., 1983; Fassotte, 2005; Hua, 2002; Peck 

and Thomas, 1998. 

Note: Action required to PR, VI, HI (PestID, 

2012)

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Pseudocneorhinus bifasciatus Roelofs (= 

Callirhopalus bifasciatus [Roelofs])

Hua, 2002; Maier, 1983; O’Brien and Wibmer, 

1982; Shiraki, 1952

Sitophilus oryzae (L.) Anderson, 2002; Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Hua, 

2002

Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky CABI, 2012; Reis-Filho et al., 1989

Coleoptera: Nitidulidae

Carpophilus (= Cardiophilus) dimidiatus

(F.)

Arnett, 2000; Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Hua, 

2002

Carpophilus hemipterus (L.) Arnett, 2000; Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Hua, 

2002

Carpophilus humeralis (F.) CABI, 2012

Carpophilus mutilatus Erichson Arbogast and Throne, 1997; Bartelt et al., 1994; 

CABI, 2012; Ciampolini and Maiulini, 1991; 

Gaven, 1964; Hua, 2002; Nadel and Peña, 1994; 

Williams et al., 1995

Haptoncus luteolus (Erichson) CABI, 2012; Li, 1981; Simmons and Nelson, 1975

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

Maladera castanea (Arrow) (= 

Autoserica castanea Arrow)

Baker, 1972; CABI, 2012; Hua, 2002; Shiraki, 

1952

Serica similis Lewis Hallock, 1929; Hill, 1987; Hua, 2002

Coleoptera: Scolytidae

Scolytus mali (Bechstein) Baker, 1972; CASI, 1994

Scolytus rugulosus (Müller) CABI, 2012; Hill, 1987; Hua, 2002

Xyleborinus (= Xyleborus) saxeseni

(Ratzeburg)

Cognato, 2008; Hely et al., 1982; Hua, 2002; 

Nishida, 2002

Xyleborus (= Apate) dispar (F.) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2002

Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford) CABI, 2012; Oliver and Mannion, 2001; Weber 

and McPherson, 1983

Dermaptera: Forficulidae

Forficula auricularia L. CABI, 2012; Hill, 1987; Hua, 2002

Diptera: Anthomyiidae

Delia (= Hylemya) platura (Meigen) CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994

Diptera: Drosophilidae
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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Drosophila immigrans Sturtevant CABI, 2012; Hardy, 1965

Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura) CASI, 1994; Kanzawa, 1939; Nishida, 2002; 

Norton, 2009

Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; CABI, 2012; Hua, 2002

Dialeurodes citri (Ashmead) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2002; Shiraki, 1952

Hemiptera: Aphididae

Aphis craccivora Koch CABI, 2012; Düzgünes and Toros, 1978

Aphis fabae Scopoli Blackman and Eastop, 1994; CABI, 2012

Aphis gossypii Glover CABI, 2012

Aphis pomi DeGeer CABI, 2012

Aphis spiraecola Patch (= A. citricola van 

der Goot)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994

Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kaltenbach) CABI, 2012; Ghosh and Raychaudhuri, 1981; 

Hua, 2000

Dysaphis plantaginea (Passerini) (= D. 

mali [Ferrari])

CABI, 2012; Hill, 1983; Hua, 2000

Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) CABI, 2012; Hill, 1983; Nair, 1975

Hyalopterus pruni (Geoffroy) CABI, 2012; Wang et al., 2001

Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) CABI, 2012; Düzgünes and Toros, 1978; Hill, 

1987

Macrosiphum rosae (L.) Blackman and Eastop, 1994; Hua, 2000; 

Jaśkiewicz, 2006; Jensen et al., 1999

Myzus persicae (Sulzer) CABI, 2012

Ovatus crataegarius (Walker) Blackman and Eastop, 1994; Hua, 2000; Jensen et 

al., 1999

Phorodon humuli (Schrank) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2000; Jensen et al., 1999

Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) CABI, 2012; Knight, 1994

Schizaphis graminum (Rondani) CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994

Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de 

Fonscolombe)

Blackman and Eastop, 1994; CABI, 2012; Hua, 

2000

Hemiptera: Asterolecaniidae

Russellaspis (= Asterodiaspis, 

Asterolecanium) pustulans (Cockerell)

Cen, 1986; Dean and Schuster, 1970; Hamon, 

1977; Konstantinova, 1976; Nishida, 2002

Hemiptera: Cercopidae

Philaenus spumarius (L.) CABI, 2012; Jenser and Hegab, 1979

Hemiptera: Cicadellidae

Edwardsiana (= Typhlocyba) rosae (L.) CABI, 2012; Hill, 1987; Hua, 2000

Empoasca fabae (Harris) (= E. mali

LeBaron)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994; Hua, 2000

Hemiptera: Coccidae

Ceroplastes ceriferus (F.) CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994

Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock CABI, 2012; Hua, 2000

Ceroplastes rubens Maskell CABI, 2012; Hua, 2000
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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Coccus hesperidum (L.) CABI, 2012; Davoodi et al., 2004; Hua, 2000

Coccus viridis (Green) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2000

Eulecanium cerasorum (Cockerell) (= 

Lecanium cerasorum Cockerell)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000; Kosztarab, 1997

Eulecanium excrescens (Ferris) (= 

Lecanium excrescens Ferris)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Ferris, 1920; Hua, 2000

Eulecanium kunoense (Kuwana) (= 

Lecanium kunoensis Kuwana)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; High, 2008; Hua, 2000; 

Pfeiffer, 1997

Eulecanium tiliae (L.) (= E. coryli L.) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2000; Nair, 1975

Kilifia acuminata (Signoret) AQIS, 1998; Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Salama and 

Saleh, 1971

Parasaissetia nigra (Nietner) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Kosztarab, 1997; Pfeiffer, 

1997

Parthenolecanium corni (Bouché) (= P. 

orientalis Borchsenius)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994

Parthenolecanium persicae (F.) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hill, 1987

Pulvinaria psidii (= Chloropulvinaria 

psidii Borchsenius)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994

Saissetia oleae (Olivier) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000; Kosztarab, 1997

Sphaerolecanium prunastri (Boyer de 

Fonscolombe)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Pfeiffer, 1997

Hemiptera: Diaspididae

Andaspis hawaiiensis (Maskell) AQIS, 1998; Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000

Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2000

Aonidiella citrina (Coquillett) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000

Aonidiella taxus Leonardi Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000; Shiraki, 1952

Aspidiotus nerii Bouché (= A. hederae 

Vallot)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994; 

Konstantinova, 1976

Chrysomphalus aonidum (L.) CABI, 2012

Chrysomphalus dictyospermi (Morgan) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CABI, 2012

Diaspidiotus (= Quadraspidiotus) 

ostreaeformis (Curtis)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hill, 1983; Hua, 2000; 

McLaren, 1989

Diaspidiotus (= Quadraspidiotus) 

perniciosus (Comstock) (= 

Comstockaspis perniciosa

MacGillivray)

CABI, 2012; Hill, 1983; Hua, 2000

Diaspidiotus (= Quadraspidiotus) 

slavonicus (Green)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000

Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) (= 

Aspidiotus cydoniae Comstock)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CABI, 2012; Nair, 1975

Hemiberlesia rapax (Comstock) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000

Howardia biclavis (Comstock) Ben-Dov et al., 2006

Lepidosaphes (= Mytilaspis) conchiformis

(Gmelin) (= L. conchiformioides 

Borchsenius)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CASI, 1994; Hua, 2000; 

Kawaguchi, 1935
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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Lepidosaphes coreana (Borchsenius) (= 

Paralepidosaphes coreana

Borchsenius)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000

Lepidosaphes (= Cornuaspis) cupressi

Borchsenius

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000; Xu et al., 1995; 

Yukinari, 1989

Lepidosaphes kuwacola Kuwana (= L. 

ume Kuwana)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; High, 2008

Lepidosaphes pistaciae Archangelskaya Watson, 2005

Lepidosaphes tubulorum Ferris Anonymous, 2009; Hua, 2000; Shiraki, 1952

Lepidosaphes ulmi (L.) CABI, 2012

Lepidosaphes ussuriensis (Borchsenius) 

(= Paralepidosaphes ussuriensis

Borchsenius)

Anonymous, 2009; Hua, 2000; Konstantinova, 

1976

Lopholeucaspis (= Leucaspis) japonica

(Cockerell)

CABI/EPPO, 1997b; CASI, 1994; Kukhtina, 1970

Parlatoreopsis (= Paralepidosaphes) 

chinensis (Marlatt)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000

Parlatoreopsis pyri (Marlatt) Ben-Dov et al., 2006

Parlatoria camelliae Comstock Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CASI, 1994

Parlatoria cinerea Doane & Hadden Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Ben-Dov et al., 2006;

Rose, 1990

Parlatoria desolator McKenzie Ben-Dov et al., 2006

Parlatoria oleae (Colvée) CABI, 2012

Parlatoria pergandii Comstock CABI, 2012

Parlatoria proteus (Curtis) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Kosztarab, 1996

Parlatoria theae Cockerell Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Watson, 2005

Parlatoria yanyuanensis Tang Ben-Dov et al., 2006

Pseudaonidia duplex (Cockerell) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CASI, 1994; Watson, 2005

Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis (Green) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hua, 2000; Shiraki, 1952; 

Watson, 2005

Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Targioni 

Tozzetti)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CABI, 2012; Hill, 1983

Pseudaulacaspis prunicola (Maskell) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Davidson and Miller, 1990; 

Kozár, 1990

Hemiptera: Margarodidae

Icerya purchasi Maskell Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Hill, 1983; Hua, 2000 

Hemiptera: Membracidae

Ceresa alta Walker (= C. bubalus [F.]) CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae

Dysmicoccus (= Pseudococcus) brevipes

(Cockerell)

CABI, 2012; Lu and Lai, 1999

Dysmicoccus wistariae (Green) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Lattin, 1998

Ferrisia (= Ferrisiana) virgata

(Cockerell)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994
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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) CABI, 2012; PPQ interception

Phenacoccus aceris (Signoret) (= P. 

prunicola Borchsenius)

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CASI, 1994

Planococcus citri (Risso) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CABI, 2012

Pseudococcus calceolariae (Maskell) (= 

P. gahani Green)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994; Charles, 1993; Viggiani 

and Battaglia, 1983

Pseudococcus comstocki (Kuwana) CABI, 2012

Pseudococcus longispinus Targioni 

Tozzetti

Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CABI, 2012

Pseudococcus maritimus (Ehrhorn) Ben-Dov et al., 2006; CASI, 1994

Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret) Ben-Dov et al., 2006

Heteroptera: Miridae

Adelphocoris lineolatus (Goeze) Henry and Wheeler, 1998; Hua, 2000; Wheeler, 

2001

Campylomma verbasci (Meyer-Dür) CABI, 2012; Wheeler, 2000, 2001

Lygocoris (= Lygus) lucorum (MeyerDür)CASI, 1994; Henry and Wheeler, 1998; Hua, 

2000; Liu et al., 2004

Lygocoris pabulinus (L.) Hill, 1987; Hua, 2000; Wheeler, 2000, 2001

Heteroptera: Pentatomidae

Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (= H. mista

[Uhler])

CABI, 2012; Hamilton and Shearer, 2003; 

Hoebeke and Carter, 2003; Hua, 2000

Nezara viridula (L.) CABI, 2012; Hill, 1987; Hua, 2000

Heteroptera: Plataspidae

Megacopta cribraria (F.) (= Coptosoma 

cribraria F.)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 2000; Thippeswamy and 

Rajagopal, 2005

Heteroptera: Rhopalidae

Liorhyssus hyalinus (F.) Henry, 1998; Hua, 2000; Schaefer and Kotulski, 

2000

Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae

Caliroa cerasi L. CABI, 2012

Lepidoptera: Arctiidae

Arctia caja (L.) Drees and Schwitulla, 1957; Ferguson et al., 1999; 

Hua, 2005; Savela, 2009

Hyphantria cunea (Drury) CABI, 2012

Phragmatobia fuliginosa (L.) Hua, 2005; Opler et al., 2009; Sannino et al., 1988; 

Zhang, 1994

Lepidoptera: Argyresthiidae

Argyresthia andereggiella Duponchel Beutenmüller, 1890; Hua, 2005; Zhang, 1994

Argyresthia conjugella Zeller Carter, 1984; Hua, 2005; Klots, 1932; Zhang, 1994

Lepidoptera: Choreutidae

Choreutis (= Anthophila, Eutromula) 

pariana (Clerck)

Heppner, 1978; Hua, 2005; Lawson et al., 1994; 

Yin et al., 1987
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Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae

Coleophora malivorella Riley CASI, 1994; Lugger, 1899; Opler et al., 2009; 

Slingerland and Crosby, 1914

Coleophora nigricella Stephens Hill, 1987; Hua, 2005

Lepidoptera: Cossidae

Zeuzera pyrina (L.) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2005

Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

Anarsia lineatella Zeller CABI, 2012; Hua, 2005; Robinson et al., 2001

Lepidoptera: Geometridae

Biston betularia (L.) Carter, 1984; Hua, 2005; Savela, 2009; Zhang, 

1994

Chloroclystis rectangulata (L.) Carter, 1984; Ferguson and Mello, 1996; Hua, 

2005

Ectropis crepuscularia (Denis & 

Schiffermüller) (= Boarmia

crepuscularia Hübner)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994; Furniss and Carolin, 

1977; Shepherd, 1994

Hemithea aestivaria (Hübner) Hua, 2005; LaGasa et al., 2000; Opler et al., 2009; 

Zhang, 1994

Operophtera brumata (L.) CABI, 2012; Carter, 1984; Hua, 2005

Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae

Phyllonorycter crataegella (Clemens) CABI, 2012; DAFF, 2009

Lepidoptera: Limacodidae

Cnidocampa flavescens (Walker) (= 

Monema flavescens Walker)

AQIS, 1998; Collins, 1933; Hua, 2005; 

Schmutzenhofer et al., 1996

Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae

Leucoma (= Stilpnotia) salicis (L.) CASI, 1994; Jakubowska et al., 2005; Zhang, 1994

Orgyia antiqua (L.) CABI, 2012

Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae

Lyonetia prunifoliella (Hübner) (= L. 

ringoniella Matsumura)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994; Hua, 2005; Kuroko, 

1964

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) CABI, 2012; Lee et al., 1970

Amyna octo (Guenée) (= Ilattia octo

Warren)

CASI, 1994; Hua, 2005; Robinson et al., 2009

Anaplectoides prasina (Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

Hua, 2005; Lafontaine, 1998; Robinson et al., 

2009; Savela, 2009

Anomis commoda (Butler) Aoki, 2009; AQIS, 1998; Hua, 2005; Opler et al., 

2009

Anomis flava (F.) CASI, 1994; Opler et al., 2009; Robinson et al., 

2001

Balsa malana (Fitch) Comstock and Comstock, 1897; Hua, 2005; 

Zhang, 1994

Feltia subgothica Haworth Britton, 1927; Hua, 2005; Zhang, 1994
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Graphiphora (= Rhyacia) augur (F.) Hua, 2005; Lafontaine, 1998; Lucke et al., 1981; 

Napiórkowska, 1991; Zhang, 1994

Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2005; Robinson et al., 2001

Mythimna unipuncta (Haworth) CABI, 2012; Tremblay, 1969

Ochropleura (= Actebia) fennica

(Tauscher)

Hua, 2005; Shepherd, 1994; Zhang, 1994

Peridroma saucia (Hübner) CABI, 2012

Scoliopteryx libatrix (L.) AQIS, 1998; Hua, 2005; Robinson et al., 2009

Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; CABI, 2012; Hua, 2005

Xestia c-nigrum (L.) CABI, 2012

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Cadra cautella (Walker) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2005; Zhang, 1994

Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2005

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae

Acleris variegana (Denis &

Schiffermüller)

Carter, 1984; Hua, 2005; Mattson et al., 1994

Archips fuscocupreana (Walsingham) Brown, 2005; Hua, 2005; Maier, 2003

Archips rosana (L.) Brown, 2005; Byun et al., 2003; CABI, 2012; 

Hodges et al., 1983

Cydia (= Laspeyresia) pomonella (L.) CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994

Grapholita (= Cydia) molesta (Busck) CABI, 2012; Hua, 2005

Grapholita (= Enarmonia) prunivora

(Walsh)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994; Hua, 2005

Hedya ochroleucana (Frölich) (= H. 

consanguinana [Walsingham])

Brown, 2005; Hua, 2005; Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004; Zhang, 1994

Notocelia rosaecolana (Doubleday) AQIS, 1998; Hua, 2005; Meijerman and Ulenberg, 

2004

Rhopobota naevana (Hübner) (= R. 

unipunctana [Haworth])

Brown, 2005; Hua, 2005; McDonough et al., 1987; 

Meijerman and Ulenberg, 2004

Spilonota ocellana (Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994; Hua, 2005

Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae

Yponomeuta malinellus Zeller CABI, 2012; Fadamiro, 2003; Hua, 2005

Yponomeuta (= Hyponomeuta) padellus

(L.) (= Y. padella [L.])

CABI, 2012; High, 2008; Hua, 2005; MunsterSwendsen, 1982; Unruh et al., 2003

Orthoptera: Gryllidae

Acheta domesticus (L.) (= Gryllus 

domesticus L.)

Bolduirev, 1946; CASI, 1994; Hua, 2000; 

Triplehorn and Johnson, 2005

Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Caliothrips (= Hercothrips) fasciatus

(Pergande)

CASI, 1994; Hoddle et al., 2006; Hua, 2000; 

Mirab-balou et al., 2011; Nishida, 2002

Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) CABI, 2012; Liu et al., 2005; Mirab-balou et al., 

2011

Taeniothrips inconsequens (Uzel) CABI, 2012; Hill, 1987; Wang, 2000
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Thrips hawaiiensis (Morgan) CABI, 2012; Hill, 1983; Mirab-balou et al., 2011;

Srivastava and Bhullar, 1980

Thrips palmi Karny Mirab-balou et al., 2011; Walker, 1992a, 1992b

Thrips simplex (Morison) CABI, 2012; Jacobs, 1995; Mirab-balou et al., 

2011

Thrips tabaci Lindeman CABI, 2012; Cockfield et al., 2007; Gurney, 1915; 

Hua, 2000; Mirab-balou et al., 2011

VIROIDS

Apple scar skin apscaviroid

(Pospiviroidae)

Hadidi et al., 1991; Han et al., 2003; Jones, 2000

Peach latent mosaic pelamoviroid

(Avsunviroidae)

CABI, 2012; El-Dougdoug, 1998

VIRUSES

Apple chlorotic leaf spot trichovirus

(Betaflexiviridae)

Brunt et al., 1996; CABI, 2012

Apple mosaic ilarvirus (Bromoviridae) CABI, 2012

Apple russet ring Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990; Wang et al., 1997; 

Wood, 2001

Apple stem grooving capillovirus

(Betaflexiviridae)

CABI, 2012

Apple stem pitting foveavirus

(Betaflexiviridae)

Brunt et al., 1996; CABI, 2012

Cherry rasp leaf cheravirus (Secoviridae) Brunt et al., 1996; CABI, 2012

Flat limb CASI, 1994; Kristensen, 1956

Apple green crinkle disease CASI, 1994; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990

Prunus necrotic ringspot ilarvirus

(Bromoviridae)

CABI, 2012

Mosaic tobamovirus (Virgaviridae) Brunt et al., 1996; CABI, 2012; Lemoine and 

Morand, 1993

Tobacco necrosis necrovirus

(Tombusviridae)

Brunt et al., 1996; CABI, 2012

Tobacco ringspot nepovirus

(Comoviridae)

Brunt et al., 1996; CABI, 2012; Lana et al., 1983

Tomato ringspot nepovirus

(Comoviridae)

Brunt et al., 1996; CABI, 2012

BACTERIA

Acetobacter pasteurianus (Hansen) 

Beijerinck (Clostridiales)

Bradbury, 1986; Ma and Gu, 2000

Bacillus cereus Frankland & Frankland 

(Sphingobacteriales)

Davidson, 2003; Hou et al., 2004; Rajkowski and 

Baldwin, 2003

Bacillus subtilis (Ehrenberg) Cohn 

(Sphingobacteriales)

Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 2012; Peng et al., 2002
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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Burkholderia cepacia (ex Burkholder) 

Yabuuchi et al. (= Pseudomonas 

cepacia [ex Burkholder] Palleroni & 

Holmes) (Pseudomonadales)

Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 2012; Zhao and Guo, 2004

Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora

(Jones) Bergey et al. (=Pectobacterium 

carotovorum subsp. carotovorum

(Jones) Hauben et al.) 

(Enterobacteriales)

CABI, 2012; Hikichi et al., 1989

Gluconobacter oxydans (Henneberg) De 

Ley (Rhodospirillales)

Battey and Schaffner, 2001; Bradbury, 1986; Xu et 

al., 2004

Pantoea agglomerans (Beijerinck) Gavini 

et al. (= Erwinia herbicola [Löhnis] 

Dye) (Enterobacteriales)

Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 2012; Xie, 2001

Pseudomonas cichorii (Swingle) Stapp 

(Pseudomonadales)

CABI, 2012; Sun et al., 1993

Pseudomonas fluorescens (Trevisan) 

Migula (Pseudomonadales)

CABI, 2012

Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae van 

Hall (= Pseudomonas syringae van 

Hall) (Pseudomonadales)

CABI, 2012

Rhizobium radiobacter (Beijerinck & van 

Delden) Young et al. (= Bacterium

tumefaciens Smith & Townsend, 

Agrobacterium tumefaciens [Smith & 

Townsend] Conn) (Rhizobiales)

Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 2012; Yu, 1940

Rhizobium rhizogenes (Riker et al.) 

Young et al. (= Agrobacterium 

rhizogenes [Riker et al.] Conn) 

(Rhizobiales)

Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 2012

PHYTOPLASMA

Aster yellows phytoplasma group Bertaccini et al., 1998; CABI, 2012

FUNGI AND OOMYCETES

Abortiporus biennis (Bull.:Fr.) Singer (= 

Daedalea biennis [Bull.] Fr., 

Heteroporus biennis [Bull.:Fr.] Lázaro 

Ibiza, Polyporus biennis [Bull.:Fr.] Fr.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Aithaloderma citri (Briosi & Pass.) 

Woron.

Farr and Rossman, 2013

Alternaria alternata (Fries) Keissler (= A. 

tenuis Nees) (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CABI, 2012; Duke, 1983

Alternaria mali Roberts (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012
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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Alternaria mali Roberts (severe strain) 

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

CASI, 1994; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990

Alternaria nelumbii Enlows & Rand 

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Alternaria pomicola Horne 

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Alternaria tenuissima (Nees & T. Nees : 

Fr.) Wiltshire (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Horst, 2001

Antrodia serialis (Fr.:Fr.) Donk (= 

Trametes serialis [Fr.:Fr.] Fr.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Aplosporella (= Haplosporella) ailanthi

Ellis & Everh. (Ascomycetes)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Aplosporella (= Haplosporella) mali

(Westend.) Petr. & Syd. (= Sphaeropsis 

mali [Westend.] Sacc.) (Ascomycetes)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Aplosporella (= Haplosporella) malorum

Sacc. (Ascomycetes)

CASI, 1994; House, 1917; Kirk, 2008; Shandilya, 

1974

Aposphaeria fuscomaculans Sacc. (= 

Plenodomus fuscomaculans [Sacc.] 

Coons) (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Armillaria mellea (Vahl:Fr.) Kumm. (= 

Armillariella mellea [Vahl:Fr.] Karst.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Agaricales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Armillaria solidipes Peck (= Armillaria 

ostoyae (Romagn.) Herink 

(Basidiomycetes: Agaricales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Proffer et 

al., 1987

Armillaria tabescens (Scop.) Emel (= 

Armillariella tabescens [Scop.] Singer, 

Clitocybe tabescens [Scop.] Bres.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Agaricales)

CABI, 2012; Chang et al., 1983; Duke, 1983

Ascochyta mali Ellis & Everh. 

(Ascomycetes)

Ellis and Everhart, 1900; Farr and Rossman, 2012; 

Van Hook, 1916

Aspergillus alutaceus Berk. & M.A. 

Curtis (= A. ochraceus G. Wilh. 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

AQIS, 1998; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Aspergillus awamori Nakazawa (= A. 

luchuensis Inui) (Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Aspergillus clavatus Desm. 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

CABI, 2012; Cao et al., 1986; Farr and Rossman, 

2012

Aspergillus flavus Link : Fr. 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

CABI, 2012; Jiang et al., 2002
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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Aspergillus foetidus (Nakazawa) Thom &

Raper (Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Aspergillus fumigatus Fresen. 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Aspergillus glaucus Link:Fr. 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

AQIS, 1998; Dzhafarov, 2002; Farr and Rossman, 

2012

Aspergillus niger Tiegh. (Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Aspergillus tamarii Kita (Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

AQIS, 1998; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Aspergillus terreus Thom (Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Onions, 

1966

Aspergillus ustus (Bainier) Thom & 

Church (Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Aspergillus versicolor (Vuill.) Tiraboschi 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Zhao et al., 

1995

Asteromella mali (Briard) Boerema (= 

Phyllosticta mali Briard) 

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbr. (= 

Corticium rolfsii Curzi, Sclerotium 

rolfsii Sacc.) (Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales)

CABI, 2012; Corazza et al., 1999; Farr and 

Rossman, 2012

Aureobasidium pullulans (de Bary) 

Arnaud (Ascomycetes: Dothideales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Horst, 

2001; Song and Huang, 2001

Bionectria ochroleuca (Schwein.) 

Schroers & Samuels (= Nectria 

ochroleuca [Schwein.] Berk.; 

anamorph: Gliocladium roseum

Bainier) (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Biscogniauxia marginata (Fr.) Pouzar (= 

Nummularia discreta [Schwein.] Tul. 

& Tul.) (Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Bjerkandera adusta (Willd.:Fr.) Karst. 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Boeremia exigua var. exigua (Desm.) 

Aveskamp, Gruyter & Verkley (= 

Ascochyta pyrina Peglion, Phoma 

exigua Desmaz.) (Ascomycetes)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990; Watson, 1971
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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Botryosphaeria dothidea (Moug.) Ces. & 

de Not. (= Botryosphaeria 

berengeriana de Notaris f.sp. piricola

[Nose] Koganezawa & Sakuma, 

Guignardia pyricola [Nose] Yamam.,

Physalospora pyricola Nose) 

(Ascomycetes: Dothideales)

CABI/EPPO, 1997a; Farr and Rossman, 2012; 

Gao et al., 2006; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990; 

Slippers et al., 2004; Slippers et al., 2007; Zhao, 

1998

Botryosphaeria obtusa (Schwein.) 

Shoem. (= Diplodia griffoni Sacc. & 

Trav., Physalospora obtusa [Schwein.] 

Cooke, P. malorum Peck, P. cydoniae

Arnaud; anamorph: Sphaeropsis 

malorum Peck.) (Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990; Kirk, 2008

Botryosphaeria parva Pennycook & 

Samuels (anamorph: Neofusicoccum 

parvum (Pennycook & Samuels) Crous, 

Slippers & A.J.L. Phillips)

(Ascomycetes, Dothideales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Botryosphaeria ribis Grossenb. & Duggar 

(= B. berengeriana de Notaris, 

Dothiorella ribis [Fuckel] Sacc.) 

(Ascomycetes: Dothideales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008; 

Wellman, 1977

Botryosphaeria rhodina (Berk. & Curtis) 

Arx (= Diplodia natalensis Pole-Evans, 

Physalospora rhodina Cooke) 

(Anamorph: Lasiodiplodia theobromae 

(Pat.) Griffon & Maubl.) 

(Ascomycetes: Dothideales)

CASI, 1994; Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Kirk, 2008

Botryosphaeria stevensii Shoemaker (= 

Physalospora mutila Stevens; 

anamorph: Diplodia mutila [Fr.:Fr.] 

Mont.) (Ascomycetes: Dothideales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel 

(anamorph: Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr.) 

(Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Butlerelfia eustacei Weresub & Illman (= 

Corticium centrifugum [Lév.] Bres.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990

Calonectria kyotensis Terash. (anamorph: 

Cylindrocladium scoparium Morg.) 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Candida kefyr (Beij.) Uden & Buckley

(Saccharomycetes: Saccharomycetales)

Hospenthal et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2004
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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Candida krusei (Castell.) Berkhout 

(Saccharomycetes: Saccharomycetales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wang et al., 2004

Candida magnoliae (Lodder & Kreger) 

Mey. & Yarrow (Saccharomycetes: 

Saccharomycetales)

Lane et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2004

Candida tropicalis (Castell.) Berkhout 

(Saccharomycetes: Saccharomycetales)

Hospenthal et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2004

Ceratocystis adiposa (Butler) Moreau (= 

Endoconidiophora adiposa [Butler] 

Davidson) (Ascomycetes: 

Microascales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Ceratocystis paradoxa (Dade) Moreau 

(Ascomycetes: Microascales)

CABI, 2012; Sumbali and Badyal, 1990

Cerrena unicolor (Bull.:Fr.) Murrill (= 

Daedalea unicolor [Bull.:Fr.] Fr.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Chalastospora gossypii (Jacz.) U. Braun 

& Crous (= Alternaria malorum

(Ruehle) Braun et al., Cladosporium

malorum Ruehle) (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Gorini and Mori, 1976

Chondrostereum purpureum (Pers.) 

Pouzar (= Stereum purpureum

Pers.:Fr.) (Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wellman, 

1977

Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen.) 

De Vries (Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.) Link 

(Ascomycetes: Mycosphaerellales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Cladosporium sphaerospermum Penz. 

(Ascomycetes: Mycosphaerellales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Cochliobolus cynodontis Nelson (= 

Bipolaris cynodontis [Marignoni] 

Shoemaker) (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Liu and Pu, 

2004

Cochliobolus heterostrophus (Drechsler) 

Drechsler (anamorph: 

Helminthosporium maydis Nisik. & 

Miyake) (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

CABI, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Cochliobolus lunatus Nelson & Haasis 

(anamorph: Curvularia lunata

[Wakker] Boedjin) (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CABI, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 278

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Cochliobolus miyabeanus (Ito & Kurib.) 

Drechsler ex Dastur (anamorph: 

Bipolaris oryzae (Breda de Haan) 

Subram. & Jain = Helminthosporium

oryzae Breda de Haan) (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CABI, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Coleophoma empetri (Rostr.) Petr. (= 

Sporonema oxycocci Shear) 

(Ascomycetes)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Colletotrichum acutatum Simmonds ex 

Simmonds (Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

CABI, 2012

Colletotrichum dematium (Pers.) Grove 

(Ascomycetes: Phyllachorales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Colletotrichum truncatum (Schwein.) 

Andrus & W.D. Moore (= C. capsici

(Syd.) Butler & Bisby (Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

CABI, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Coniophora puteana (Schumach.:Fr.) 

Karst. (= C. cerebella [Pers.] Pers.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Boletales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Zhou et al., 

1991

Coniothyrium olivaceum Bonord. (= 

Microsphaeropsis olivacea [Bonord.] 

Höhn.) (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Coniothyrium tirolense Bubák 

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Cordana musae (Zimm.) Höhnel 

(Ascomycetes)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Miller, 

1998

Coriolopsis gallica (Bull.:Fr.) Ryvarden 

(= Trametes gallica Fr., T. hispida

Bagl.) (Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Cryphonectria parasitica (Murrill) Barr 

(Ascomycetes: Diaporthales)

CABI, 2012

Cylindrocarpon didymum (Harting) 

Wollenw. (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CABI, 2012; Dugan and Grove, 1994; Farr and 

Rossman, 2012

Dacryopinax spathularia (Schwein.:Fr.) 

Martin (= Guepinia spathularia

[Schwein.:Fr.] Fr.) (Basidiomycetes: 

Dacrymycetales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Daedaleopsis confragosa (Bolton:Fr.) 

Schröt. (= Daedalea confragosa

[Bolton:Fr.] Fr.) (Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Diaporthe perniciosa Marchal & Marchal 

(= D. eres Nitschke) (anamorph: 

Phomopsis mali Roberts) 

(Ascomycetes: Diaporthales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Diplocarpon mali Harada & Sawamura 

(anamorphs: Marssonina coronaria

[Ell. & Davis] Davis, M. mali [Henn.] 

Ito) (Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990; Kirk, 2008; Xie and Leng, 1990

Diplocarpon mespili (Sorauer) Sutton (= 

Fabraea maculata Atk.; anamorphs: 

Entomosporium mespili [DC.] Sacc., E. 

maculatum Lév.) (Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wellman, 

1977

Discohainesia oenotherae (Cooke & 

Ellis) Nannf. (= Pezizella oenotherae

[Cooke & Ellis] Sacc.; synanamorph: 

Hainesia lythri [Desm.] Höhn.) 

(Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Sun et al., 

1999

Discosia artocreas (Tode:Fr.) Fr. 

(Ascomycetes)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Discosia maculicola Gerard 

(Ascomycetes)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Dothiorella gregaria Sacc. 

(Ascomycetes: Dothideales)

Abu-Goukh and Labavitch, 1983; Farr and 

Rossman, 2012

Endomycopsis mali (Lewis) Dekker (= 

Endomyces mali Lewis) 

(Saccharomycetes: Saccharomycetales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Epicoccum nigrum Link (Ascomycetes) Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Erysiphe heraclei DC. (Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Erythricium salmonicolor (Berk. & 

Broome) Burds. (= Corticium 

salmonicolor Berk. & Broome) 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008; 

Verma, 1991

Eutypa lata var. lata (Pers. : Fr.) Tul. & 

Tul. (= E. lata (Pers. : Fr.) Tul. & Tul.) 

(Ascomycetes: Xylariales) 

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Eutypella stellulata (Fr.:Fr.) Sacc. 

(Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Flammulina velutipes (Curtis:Fr.) Singer 

(= Collybia velutipes [Curtis:Fr.] 

Kumm.) (Basidiomycetes: Agaricales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Fomes fomentarius (L.:Fr.) Kickx 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wellman, 1977
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 280

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.:Fr.) Karst. (= 

Fomes pinicola [Sw.:Fr.] Fr.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Fusarium arthrosporioides Sherbakov 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Hu et al., 1996

Fusarium camptoceras Wollenw. & 

Reinking (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Fusarium culmorum (Sm.) Sacc. 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Fusarium equiseti (Corda) Sacc. (= F. 

scirpi Lambotte & Fautrey) 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Fusarium oxysporum Schltdl.:Fr. 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum

(Atk.) Snyder & Hansen (= F. 

vasinfectum Atk.) (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Fusarium poae (Peck) Wollenw. 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Olszak, 

1994

Fusicladium carpophilum (Thüm.) 

Oudem. (= Cladosporium carpophilum

Thüm.) (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

AQIS, 1998; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Ganoderma applanatum (Pers.) Pat. (= 

Fomes applanatus [Pers.] Gill.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis : Fr.) P. 

Karst. (Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2013; CABI, 2012

Gibberella acuminata Wollenw. 

(anamorph: Fusarium acuminatum Ell. 

& Kellerman) (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Sumbali 

and Badyal, 1990; Zhao, 2001

Gibberella avenacea Cook (anamorph: 

Fusarium avenaceum [Fr.] Sacc.) 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CABI, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Gibberella baccata (Wallr.) Sacc. 

(anamorph: Fusarium lateritium Nees) 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Langrell, 

2002

Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada) Ito 

(anamorph: Fusarium moniliforme

Sheldon) (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wu et al., 

2003

Gibberella tricincta El-Gholl et al. 

(anamorph: Fusarium tricinctum

[Corda] Sacc.) (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CABI, 2012; Dullahide et al., 1994; El Gholl et al., 

1978; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Ren et al., 2003
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 281

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Globisporangium debaryanum (R. Hesse) 

Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. (= Pythium 

debaryanum auct. non Hesse 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Globisporangium intermedium (de Bary) 

Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. (= Pythium 

intermedium de Bary (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shivas, 

1989; Waterhouse and Waterstan, 1964

Globisporangium irregulare (Buisman) 

Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. (= Pythium 

irregulare Buisman (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Globisporangium mamillatum (Meurs) 

Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. (= Pythium 

mamillatum Meurs (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jiang et al., 1990

Globisporangium paroecandrum 

(Drechsler) Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. 

(= Pythium paroecandrum Drechsler 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Globisporangium spinosum (Sawada) 

Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. (= Pythium 

spinosum Sawada (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shivas, 1989

Globisporangium splendens (Hans 

Braun) Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. (= 

Pythium splendens Braun (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shivas, 1989

Globisporangium ultimum (Trow) 

Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. (= Pythium 

ultimum Trow (Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Horst, 2001

Gloeodes pomigena (Schwein.) Colby (= 

Phyllachora pomigena [Schwein.) 

Sacc.) (Ascomycetes)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 

2012

Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. 

& Schrenk (= Gloeosporium

fructigenum Berk., G. rufomaculans

[Berk.] Thüm.) (anamorph: 

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides [Penz.] 

Penz. & Sacc.) (Ascomycetes)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008; 

Shahi et al., 2003

Glomerella tucumanensis (Speg.) Arx & 

Müll. (anamorph: Colletotrichum

falcatum Went) (Ascomycetes)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 282

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Golovinomyces cichoracearum (DC.) 

V.P. Heluta (= Erysiphe cichoracearum

DC. (Ascomycetes: Erysiphales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wu and 

Guo, 1987

Grovesinia pyramidalis Cline et al. 

(Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones, 2000; Lei et al., 

2000

Guignardia bidwellii (Ellis) Viala & 

Ravaz (= Greeneria uvicola [Berk. & 

Curtis] Punith. (Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008; Sutton and 

Gibson, 1977

Gymnosporangium clavariiforme

(Wulfen) DC. (Urediniomycetes: 

Uredinales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wellman, 1977

Gymnosporangium confusum Plowr. 

(Urediniomycetes: Uredinales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Gymnosporangium cornutum Arthur ex 

Kern (= G. aurantiacum sensu auct., G. 

juniperinum [L.] Fr.) 

(Urediniomycetes: Uredinales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Gymnosporangium sabinae (Dicks.) G. 

Winter (= G. fuscum Hedw.) 

(Urediniomycetes: Uredinales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Gymnosporangium tremelloides Hartig 

(Urediniomycetes: Uredinales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Haematonectria haematococca (Berk. & 

Broome) Samuels & Rossman 

(anamorph: Fusarium solani [Martius] 

Sacc.) (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Hendersonia piricola Sacc. 

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Genus is non-actionable at U.S. ports of entry

(PestID, 2012).

Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.:Fr.) Bref. 

(= Fomes annosus [Fr.:Fr.] Cooke) 

(Basidiomycetes: Russulales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Houjia yanglingensis Sun & Crous 

(Ascomycetes: Capnodiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Yang et al., 2010

Hypholoma sublateritium (Fr.) Quél. (= 

Nematoloma sublateritium [Fr.] Karst.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Agaricales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Hypoxylon serpens (Pers.) Kickx 

(Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Hypsizygus ulmarius [Bull.:Fr.] Redhead 

(= Pleurotus ulmarius [Bull.:Fr.] 

Kumm.) (Basidiomycetes: Agaricales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 283

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Ilyonectria radicicola (Gerlach & L. 

Nilsson) P. Chaverri & C. Salgado (=

Neonectria radicicola (Gerlach & 

Nilsson) Mantiri & Samuels, Nectria 

radicicola Gerlach & Nilsson) 

(anamorph: Cylindrocarpon 

destructans [Zinssmeister] Scholten) 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Bai et al., 1999; CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 

2012

Inonotus hispidus (Bull.) Karst. (= 

Xanthochrous hispidus [Bull.] Pat., 

Polyporus hispidus [Bull.:Fr.] Fr.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Hymenochaetales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Irpex lacteus (Fr.:Fr.) Fr. (= I. tulipiferae

[Schwein.] Schwein.) (Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Lecanidion atratum (Hedw.) Rabenh. (= 

Patellaria atrata [Hedw.] Fr.) 

(Ascomycetes: Patellariales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Lenzites betulina (L.:Fr.) Fr. 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Lepteutypa cupressi (Nattrass, Booth & 

Sutton) Swart (= Monochaetia mali

[Ellis & Everh.] Sacc., M. unicornis

[Cooke & Ellis] Sacc.) (Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994; Duke, 1983; Farr and 

Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Leucostoma persoonii Höhn (= Valsa 

leucostoma [Pers.] Fr.) (anamorph: 

Cytospora leucostoma Sacc.) 

(Ascomycetes: Diaporthales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) 

Goidanich (= M. phaseoli [Maubl.] 

Ashby) (Ascomycetes)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Microdochium dimerum (Penz.) Arx (= 

Fusarium dimerum Penz.) 

(Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Microsphaeropsis fuckelii (Sacc.) 

Boerema (= Coniothyrium fuckelii

Sacc., Leptosphaeria coniothyrium

[Fuckel] Sacc.) (Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Monilinia fructicola (Winter) Honey

(Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 284

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Monilinia laxa (Aderh. & Ruhland) 

Honey (= Monilia cinerea Bonord., 

Sclerotinia laxa Aderh. & Ruhland) 

(Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

CABI, 2012; Duke, 1983

Mucor mucedo Mich. ex Saint-Amans 

(Zygomycetes: Mucorales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Mucor piriformis Fischer (Zygomycetes: 

Mucorales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990; Qiao and Zong, 2003

Mucor racemosus Fresen. (Zygomycetes: 

Mucorales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Mycosphaerella pomi (Pass.) Lindau (= 

Sphaerella pomi Pass.) (anamorph: 

Cylindrosporium pomi Brooks) 

(Ascomycetes: Mycosphaerellales)

CABI, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990; 

Wellman, 1977; Xu et al., 2000

Mycosphaerella pyri (Auersw.) Boerema 

(= M. sentina [Fr.:Fr.] Schröt.) 

(anamorphs: Septoria pyricola [Desm.] 

Desm., S. pyri Castagne) 

(Ascomycetes: Mycosphaerellales)

CABI, 2012; Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990

Mycosphaerella tulasnei (Jancz.) Lindau 

(Ascomycetes: Mycosphaerellales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Nectria cinnabarina (Tode) Fr. (= 

Creonectria purpurea [L.] Seaver) 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CABI, 2012; Duke, 1983; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Nematospora coryli Peglion 

(Ascomycetes)

CABI, 2012; Ershad and Barkhordary, 1974

Neofabraea malicorticis Jackson (= 

Pezicula malicorticis (Jackson) Nannf.) 

(anamorph: Cryptosporiopsis 

curvispora (Peck) Gremmen.) 

(Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990

Neofusicoccum vitifusiforme (Van 

Niekerk & Crous) Crous, Slippers & 

A.J.L. Phillips

(Dothideomycetes: Botryosphaeriales)

Kong et al., 2010; Cloete et al., 2011; UrbezTorres et al., 2011

Neonectria coccinea (Pers.:Fr.) Rossman 

& Samuels (= Nectria coccinea

[Pers.:Fr.] Fr.) (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Neonectria ditissima Tul. & Tul. (= 

Nectria galligena Bres., 

Cylindrosporium mali) (anamorph: 

Cylindrocarpon mali [Allesch.] 

Wollenw.) (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CABI, 2012; DAFF, 2009; Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Horst, 2001; Kirk, 2008
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 285

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. & Broome) 

Petch (Ascomycetes: 

Trichosphaeriales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones, 2000

Nigrospora sphaerica (Sacc.) Mason 

(Ascomycetes: Trichosphaeriales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Ovatisporangium vexans (de Bary) 

Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. (= Pythium 

vexans de Bary (Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Penicillium aurantiogriseum Dierckx (= 

P. cyclopium, Westling, P. solitum

Westling) (Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Amiri and Bompeix, 2005; Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Kirk, 2008

Penicillium brevicompactum Dierckx 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Chen et al., 1991; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones 

and Aldwinckle, 1990

Penicillium chrysogenum Thom 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Amiri and Bompeix, 2005; Farr and Rossman, 

2012

Penicillium crustosum Thom 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Penicillium digitatum (Pers.:Fr.) Sacc. 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Penicillium diversum Raper & Fennell 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Genus is nonactionable at U.S. ports of entry

(PestID, 2012).

Penicillium expansum Link 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Penicillium funiculosum Thom 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Penicillium glabrum (Wehmer) Westling 

(= P. frequentans Westling) 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Penicillium implicatum Biourge 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Penicillium islandicum Sopp 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Penicillium italicum Wehmer 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Penicillium puberulum Bainier (= P. 

commune Thom) (Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Penicillium spinulosum Thom 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Penicillium sp. (Ascomycetes: Eurotiales) Liu et al., 1995; PestID, 2012

Penicillium variabile Sopp 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 286

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Penicillium viridicatum Westling 

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

Bi and Zhang, 1993; Farr and Rossman, 2012; 

Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990

Pestalotia hartigii Tubeuf (Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Pestalotiopsis breviseta (Sacc.) Steyaert 

(= Pestalotia breviseta Sacc.) 

(Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Pestalotiopsis versicolor (Speg.) Steyaert 

(Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

Basak, 1992; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Majumdar 

and Pathak, 1997; Soni et al., 1991

Peyronellaea glomerata (Corda) Goid. ex 

Togliani (= Phoma glomerata (Corda) 

Wollenw. & Hochapfel (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990; Qiao and Zong, 2002

Peyronellaea pomorum (Thüm.) 

Aveskamp, Gruyter & Verkley (= 

Phoma pomorum var. pomorum Thüm., 

P. pomorum Thüm., Coniothyrium 

pyrinum [Sacc.] Sheld., Phyllosticta 

pyrina [= pirina] Sacc., P. prunicola

Sacc., P. persicae Sacc.) 

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

CASI, 1994; Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Kirk, 2008; Wellman, 1977

Phellinus igniarius (L.:Fr.) Quél. 

(Basidiomycetes: Hymenochaetales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phellinus pomaceus (Pers.) Maire (= 

Fomes pomaceus [Pers.] Lloyd) 

(Basidiomycetes: Hymenochaetales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phlyctema vagabunda Desm. 

(Anamorph: Pezicula alba Guthrie, 

Gloeosporium album Osterwalder, 

Trichoseptoria fructigena Maubl.) 

(Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

CABI, 2012; Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Kirk, 2008

Pholiota adiposa (Fr.:Fr.) Kumm. (= P. 

aurivella [Batsch] Fr.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Agaricales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Pholiota squarrosa (Fr.:Fr.) Kumm. 

(Basidiomycetes: Agaricales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phoma enteroleuca var. enteroleuca

Sacc. (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phoma herbarum var. herbarum 

Westend. (=P. herbarum Westend., 

Pyrenochaeta mali Sm.) (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Phoma macrostoma var. macrostoma

Mont. (= P. pomi Pass., Phyllosticta 

mali Prill. & Delacr.) (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wellman, 

1977

Phomopsis fukushii Tanaka & Endo.

(Sordariomycete: Diaorthales:

PestID, 2013

Phyllactinia guttata (Wallr.:Fr.) Lév. (= 

P. suffulta [Rebent.] Sacc., P. guttata

f.sp. alni Hammarlund) (Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008; 

Wu and Guo, 1987

Phyllactinia mali (Duby) Braun (= P. pyri

[Castagne] Homma) (Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

Heluta and Minter, 1998; Liu and Gao, 1997

Phyllosticta arbutifolia Ellis & Martin (= 

P. solitaria Ellis & Everh.) 

(Ascomycetes: Dothideales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phymatotrichopsis omnivora (Duggar) 

Hennebert (= Phymatotrichum 

omnivorum Duggar) (Basidiomycetes)

CABI, 2012; Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phytophthora cactorum (Lebert & Cohn) 

Schröter (Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phytophthora cambivora (Petri) Buisman 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phytophthora capsici Leonian 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phytophthora cinnamomi var. cinnamomi

Rands (= P. cinnamomi Rands) 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phytophthora citricola Sawada 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phytophthora citrophthora (Sm. & Sm.) 

Leonian (Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phytophthora cryptogea Pethybr. & Laff. 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phytophthora drechsleri Tucker 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990

Phytophthora insolita Ann & Ko 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Ho et al., 2002

Phytophthora megasperma Drechsler 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan 

(= P. parasitica Dastur) (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 288

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Phytophthora palmivora var. palmivora

(Butler) Butler (=P. palmivora (Butler) 

Butler) (Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Pithomyces chartarum (Berk. & Curtis) 

Ellis (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Malavolta et al., 1980

Pleospora herbarum (Fr.) Rabenh. 

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

CABI, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990

Pleospora mali Hesler (anamorph: 

Hendersonia mali Thüm.) 

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.:Fr.) Kumm. 

(Basidiomycetes: Agaricales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Podosphaera clandestina (Wallr.:Fr.) 

Lév. (= P. oxyacanthae [DC.] de Bary) 

(Ascomycetes: Erysiphales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Podosphaera leucotricha (Ell. & Ev.) 

Salmon (anamorph: Oidium farinosum

Cooke) (Ascomycetes: Erysiphales)

CABI, 2012; Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Wu and Guo, 1987

Podosphaera pannosa (Wallr. : Fr.) de 

Bary (= Sphaerotheca pannosa (Wallr.: 

Fr.) Lév. (Ascomycetes: Erysiphales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Polyporus badius (Pers.) Schwein. (= P. 

picipes Fr.) (Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Pseudocercospora mali (Ellis & Everh.) 

Deighton (= Cercospora mali Ellis & 

Everh., C. minima Tracy & Earle) 

(Ascomycetes: Mycosphaerellales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wellman, 1977

Puccinia heterospora Berk. & Curtis 

(Urediniomycetes: Uredinales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Punctularia strigosozonata (Schwein.) 

Talbot (= Phlebia strigosozonata

[Schwein.] Lloyd) (Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shivas, 1989

Pycnoporus cinnabarinus (Jacq.:Fr.) 

Karst. (Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Pyricularia higginsii Luttr. (= Dactylaria 

higginsii (Luttr.) Ellis, Daldinia

concentrica [Bolton:Fr.] Ces. & De 

Not.) (Ascomycetes)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Pythium acanthicum Drechsler 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Spencer, 2005

Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Pythium arrhenomanes Drechsler 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Yu et al., 1999

Pythium oligandrum Drechsler 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wellman, 1977

Rhytidhysteron rufulum (Spreng.:Fr.) 

Speg. (= Tryblidiella rufula

[Spreng.:Fr.] Sacc.) (Ascomycetes: 

Patellariales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Rhizopus arrhizus Fisch. (Zygomycetes: 

Mucorales)

Bagwan, 2003; Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 

2012

Rhizopus stolonifer (Ehrenb.) Lind (= R. 

nigricans Ehrenb.) (Zygomycetes: 

Mucorales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Shahi et al., 2003

Rosellinia necatrix Prill. (anamorph: 

Dematophora necatrix Hartig) 

(Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

CABI, 2012; Duke, 1983

Sarocladium strictum (W. Gams) 

Summerb. (=Acremonium strictum

Gams, Cephalosporium acremonium

auct. non Corda) (Ascomycetes)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Semenov, 

1976; Wu et al., 2003

Schizophyllum commune Fr.:Fr. 

(Basidiomycetes: Agaricales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Schizothyrium pomi (Mont.) Arx (= 

Leptothyrium pomi Selby, Zygophiala 

jamaicensis Mason) (Ascomycetes: 

Microthyriales)

CABI, 2012; CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 

2012; Kirk, 2008 

Scleroramularia henaniensis Sun, Li & 

Crous (Dothideomycetes)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Li et al., 2011

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary

(Ascomycetes: Helotiales)

CABI, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990

Septobasidium bogoriense Pat. 

(Urediniomycetes: Septobasidiales)

AQIS, 1998; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Genus is non-actionable at U.S. ports of entry

(PestID, 2012)

Septobasidium pedicellatum (Schwein.) 

Pat. (Urediniomycetes: 

Septobasidiales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Saccardo, 

1895; Zhang et al., 1996

Septobasidium tanakae (Miyabe) Boedijn 

& Steinm. (Urediniomycetes: 

Septobasidiales)

AQIS, 1998; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Saccardo, 

1925

Genus is non-actionable at U.S. ports of entry

(PestID, 2012)

Sphaceloma pyrinum (Peglion) Jenk. 

(Ascomycetes: Myriangiales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Sporocadus lichenicola Corda (= 

Seimatosporium lichenicola (Corda) 

Shoemaker & Müll., Coryneum 

foliicola Fuckel) (Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

CASI, 1994; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and 

Aldwinckle, 1990

Stagonospora prominula (Berk. & Curtis) 

Sacc. (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

CASI, 1994; Farlow and Seymour, 1888; Farr and 

Rossman, 2012

Stereum hirsutum (Willd.:Fr.) Gray (= S. 

complicatum [Fr.] Fr.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Russulales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk 

(anamorphs: Rhizoctonia solani Kühn, 

R. aderholdii Kolosch) 

(Basidiomycetes: Ceratobasidiales)

CABI, 2012; Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Thyrostroma carpophilum (Lév.) B. 

Sutton (= Stigmina carpophila (Lév.) 

Ellis, Clasterosporium carpophilum

[Lév.] Aderh.) (Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Trametes trogii Berk. (= T. gallica var. 

trogii [Berk.] Sacc.) (Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008

Trametes hirsuta (Wulfen:Fr.) Quél. (= 

Coriolus hirsutus [Wulfen:Fr.] Quél.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Trametes ochracea (Pers.) Gilb. & 

Ryvarden (= Coriolus zonatus [Nees] 

Quél.) (Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

Chi, 2002; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Helton et al., 

1988; Kirk, 2008

Trametes versicolor (L.:Fr.) Pilát (= 

Coriolus versicolor [L.] Quél., 

Polyporus versicolor [L.:Fr.] Fr.) 

(Basidiomycetes: Polyporales)

CASI, 1994; Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Trichoderma harzianum Rifai 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990

Trichoderma viride Pers.:Fr. 

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Trichothecium roseum (Pers.:Fr.) Link (= 

Cephalothecium roseum Corda) 

(Ascomycetes)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Truncatella angustata (Pers.) Hughes 

(Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Hu et al., 1996

Truncatella laurocerasi (Westend.) 

Steyaert (= Pestalotia laurocerasi

Westend, P. truncata var. rubi Karst.) 

(Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 

1990
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Valsa ambiens subsp. ambiens (Pers. : Fr. 

) Fr. (= V. ambiens (Pers.:Fr.) Fr. 

(anamorphs: Cytospora leucosperma

[Pers.:Fr.] Fr., C. ambiens Sacc., C. 

carphosperma Fr.) (Ascomycetes: 

Diaporthales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012

Valsa ceratosperma (Tode:Fr.) Maire (= 

V. americana Berk. & Curtis) 

(Ascomycetes: Diaporthales)

Duke, 1983; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Wang et al., 

1998

Valsa malicola Urban (Ascomycetes: 

Diaporthales)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Hayova and Minter, 

1998

Venturia inaequalis (Cooke) Winter 

(anamorphs: Fusicladium dendriticum

[Wallr.] Fuckel, F. pomi [Fr.] Lind, 

Spilocaea pomi Fr.) (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Kirk, 2008; 

Wellman, 1977

Venturia pyrina Aderhold (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales) (anamorph: Fusicladium 

pyrorum [Lib.] Fuckel)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Verticillium dahliae Kleb. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CABI, 2012; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Wallemia sebi (Fr.) Arx (Basidiomycetes: 

Wallemiales)

DAFF, 2009; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Zygophiala cryptogama Batzer & Crous 

(Ascomycetes: Capnodiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2009; Li et al., 2010

Zygophiala jamaicensis Mason 

(Ascomycetes: Capnodiales)

Farr and Rossman, 2009

ALGA

Cephaleuros virescens Künze 

(Trentepohliales: Trentepohliaceae)

Farr and Rossman, 2012; Gong et al., 2001; 

Wellman, 1977

NEMATODES

Aphelenchoides cibolensis Riffle 

(Aphelenchoididae)

Lan, 1993; Riffle, 1972

Aphelenchoides parietinus (Bastian) 

Steiner (Aphelenchoididae)

Handoo, 2007; Lan, 1993

Aphelenchus avenae Bastian 

(Aphelenchidae)

Handoo, 2007; Lan, 1993

Criconemoides mutabilis Eroshenko 

(Criconematidae)

Handoo, 2007; Lan, 1993

Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kühn) Filip'ev 

(Anguinidae)

CABI, 2012; Ferris, 2012 

Actionable on propagative materials (PestID, 

2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

Ver. 1 February 3, 2014 292

Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Filenchus thornei (Andrássy) Andrássy 

(= Tylenchus [Aglenchus] thornei

Andrássy, T. angusticephalus Thorne 

& Malek, Aglenchus thornei Andrássy) 

(Tylenchidae)

Handoo, 2007; Lan, 1993; UNL, 2009

Helicotylenchus anhelicus Sher 

(Hoplolaimidae)

CASI, 1994; Handoo, 2007

Helicotylenchus californicus Sher 

(Hoplolaimidae)

CASI, 1994; Handoo, 2007

Helicotylenchus digonicus Perry

(Hoplolaimidae)

Handoo, 2007; Yin, 1994

Helicotylenchus dihystera (Cobb) Sher 

(Hoplolaimidae)

CABI, 2012

Helicotylenchus erythrinae

(Zimmermann) Golden 

(Hoplolaimidae)

CASI, 1994; Handoo, 2007

Helicotylenchus exallus Sher 

(Hoplolaimidae)

CASI, 1994; Handoo, 2007

Helicotylenchus leiocephalus Sher 

(Hoplolaimidae)

Handoo, 2007; Lan, 1993

Helicotylenchus lobus Sher 

(Hoplolaimidae)

CASI, 1994; Handoo, 2007

Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus (Steiner) 

Golden (Hoplolaimidae)

CABI, 2012; Handoo, 2007

Helicotylenchus rotundicauda Sher 

(Hoplolaimidae)

Handoo, 2007; Lan, 1993

Lelenchus leptosoma (de Man) Andrássy

(Tylenchidae)

Handoo, 2007; Lan, 1993

Longidorus macromucronatus Siddiqi 

(Longidoridae)

Duke, 1983; Norton et al., 1982; Wang et al., 1996

Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood 

(Meloidogynidae)

CABI, 2012; Park et al., 1999

Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White) 

Chitwood (Meloidogynidae)

CABI, 2012; Sethi et al., 1988

Mesocriconema curvatum 

(Raski) Loof & DeGrisse (=Criconemella 

curvata (Raski) Luc & Raski 

(Criconematidae)

Chen and Fong, 1996; Handoo, 2007; Maqbool, 

1982

Paraphelenchus myceliophthorus Goodey

(Paraphelenchidae)

CASI, 1994; Handoo, 2007

Paratrichodorus minor (Colbran) Siddiqi 

(Trichodoridae)

CABI, 2012; Handoo, 2007

Paratrichodorus porosus (Allen) Siddiqi 

(Trichodoridae)

CABI, 2012
Pest Risk Assessment for Apples from China

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Organism Evidence and/or other notes

Paratylenchus dianthus Jenkins & Taylor 

(Tylenchulidae)

CASI, 1994; Handoo, 2007

Paratylenchus projectus Jenkins 

(Tylenchulidae)

Handoo, 2007; Zhang et al., 2002

Pratylenchus brachyurus (Godfrey) 

Filipjev & Schuurmans Stekhoven 

(Pratylenchidae)

CABI, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990; Yin, 

1991

Pratylenchus coffeae (Zimmermann) 

Filipjev & Schuurmans Steckhoven 

(Pratylenchidae)

Beaumont, 1975; CABI, 2012

Pratylenchus convallariae Seinhorst 

(Pratylenchidae)

CASI, 1994; Handoo et al., 2001

Pratylenchus penetrans (Cobb) Filipjev 

& Schuurmans Stekhoven 

(Pratylenchidae)

CABI, 2012

Pratylenchus pratensis (de Man) Filipjev 

(Pratylenchidae)

Duke, 1983; Esnard and Zuckerman, 1998; Liu 

and Zhang, 1999

Pratylenchus scribneri Steiner 

(Pratylenchidae)

CABI, 2012; Handoo, 2007

Pratylenchus vulnus Allen & Jensen 

(Pratylenchidae)

CABI, 2012; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1990

Pseudhalenchus anchilisposomus Tarjan 

(Tylenchidae)

CASI, 1994; Handoo, 2007

Tylenchorhynchus annulatus (Cassidy) 

Golden (Dolichodoridae)

CABI, 2012; Handoo, 2007

Xiphinema americanum Cobb 

(Xiphinematidae)

CABI, 2012