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Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

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Washington, D.C. 20234

December 1980

Final Report

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Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

U.S. Department of Commerce

Washington, D.C. 20234

December 1980

Final Report

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Philip M. Klutznick, Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Productivity, Technology, and Innovation

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director
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FOREWORD

When we began these Annual Conferences three years ago, it was with the intent that they provide fire researchers with a focus for

discussion and a forum for new ideas. We think it is working well

on both counts.

Conference attendance has expanded dramatically. What began as

a domestic affair now involves fire researchers the world over. For the first time this year, those attending include a delegation of

distinguished visitors from Japan, members of the 5th meeting of the

United States - Japan Panel on Fire Research.

The technical challenges of the fire problem are the same in every

country; the approaches taken to meet those challenges can be quite

different. We look forward to enriching our own approaches with the

views and ideas of our colleagues from abroad

Director

Center for Fire Research
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD ill

ABSTRACT 1

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH PROGRAMS

Exploratory Fire Research 3

Construction and Materials Research 7

Fire Test Methods Research 12

Product Flammability Research 16

Design Concepts Research 18

Fire Hazard Analysis 23

Fire Modeling 25

Fire Protection Systems Research 27

Fire Toxicology Research 33

Ad Hoc Working Group on Mathematical Fire Modeling 37

Arson Program 38

CONTRACTS AND GRANTS

Auburn University

Investigations of the Safety Problems Associated with

Fireplace Inserts 39

Brown University

Flame Propagation and Extinction for Solid Fuels 40

California Institute of Technology

Experimental Study of the Environment and Heat Transfer

in a Room Fire 43

Case Western Reserve University

Flame Spread and Spread Limits 47

Clemson University

Antimony Oxide-Organohalogen-Polymer Substrate Interactions in the Solid Phase 49

V
Page

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Determination of Fuel Parameters for Fire Modeling. ..... 53

Harvard University - Factory Mutual Research Corporation

The Home Fire Project 57

IIT Research Institute

Preflashover Room Fire Model: Parametric Sensitivity

Analysis and Development of a Submodel for Burning

Furniture Items 68

Integrated Systems, Inc.

Development of a Mechanical Designer’s Manual for

Smoke Control Systems 71

The Johns Hopkins University

Combustion Research and Synthesis, Task I-Inhibition,

Extinction and Retardance 73

The Johns Hopkins University ^ Evaluation of Toxicity of Combustion Products 78

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Fire Growth Experiments - Toward a Standard Room Fire Test. . 82

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Fire Modeling 88

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Thermal Radiation of Luminous Flames and Smoke 91

North Carolina State University

Occupant Egress from Simulated Fires 93

Northwestern University

Fire Propagation in Concurrent Flows 96

The Pennsylvania State University

An Investigation of Fire Impingement on a Horizontal

Celling 98

Physio-Behavioral Consultants

Toxic Gas Tenabillty Limits in Fire Environments 101

Princeton University

An Experimental Investigation of Flame Spread Over

Condensible Combustibles: Gas Phase Interactions 103
Page

Portland Cement Association

Extension of Short-Term Creep Tests at Elevated

Temperatures 107

Portland Cement Association

Fire Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams 109

SRI International

Continuation of Decision Analysis Studies in Fire Hazard

Analysis. Ill

SRI International

The Effect of Fire Retardants on the Heat-Release Rate

of Building Materials 113

SRI International

Polymer Degradation During Combustion 116

Underwriters Laboratories Inc.

Investigation of Fire Hazards of Fireplace Inserts in

Factory-Built and Masonry Fireplaces. ... 118

University of California, San Diego

Studies of Flame Extinction in Relationship to

Fire Suppression. 120

University of Florida

Network Models of Building Evacuation 123

University of Maryland

The Determination of Behavior Response Patterns in Fire

Situations, Project People II 125

University of Maryland

An Investigation of the Water Quality and Condition of Pipe

in Existing Automatic Sprinkler Systems for the Analysis of

Design Options with Residential Sprinkler Systems 130

University of Maryland

Psychometric Testing and Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 132

University of Massachusetts

Waking Effectiveness of Household Smoke Alarm Detector

Devices 135

University of Montana

Ignition and Fire Spread of Cellulosic Materials 138

vii
Page

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

Plans for Action in Fire Emergencies in Group Homes for

the Developmentally Disabled. ... 142

University of Notre Dame

Fire and Smoke Spread 143

University of Pittsburgh

Toxicity of Plastic Combustion Products 146

University of Washington

Post-Fire Interviews: Development and Field Validation . . . 148

APPENDIX A A-1

APPENDIX B B-1

viii
FOURTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

Ileana M. Martinez and Sonya M. Cherry

Editors

ABSTRACT

This report contains descriptions of the internal

programs of the Center for Fire Research as well as extended abstracts of grants and contracts sponsored

by the Center for Fire Research, National Bureau of

Standards

Key words: Chemistry of fire; combustion products;

detection; fire hazards; fire modeling; fire protection; fire suppression; fire research; human behavior

in fires; physics of fire; toxicity of combustion

products.

NOTE: The Annual Conference on Fire Research held

October 22-24 , 198O, marks the fourth time the Center for

Fire Research has sponsored such an event. In 198O

the Conference stresses the more applied aspects of

fire research. Topics discussed include toxicology,

fire tests, detection and suppression, hazard analysis,

and human behavior in fires. The Conference is devoted

in alternate years to the basic and applied aspects of

fire research.

1
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
Exploratory Fire Research

Center for Fire Research

Professional Personnel

Richard G. Gann, Head

Michael J. Drews, Guest Worker

William L. Earl, Research Chemist

Takao Kashiwagi, Guest Worker

Takashi Kashiwagi, Materials Research Engineer

Thomas G. K. Lee, Guest Worker

W. Gary Mallard, Research Chemist

Michael J. Manka, Chemist

Bernard J. McCaffrey, Mechanical Engineer

Robert J. McCarter, Research Chemist

George W. Mulholland, Research Chemist

Thomas J. Ohlemiller, General Engineer

Russell Schmidt, Physicist

Kermit C. Smyth, Research Chemist

Program Objectives

^1) Understand the physical and chemical processes which underlie

macroscopic fire phenomena, including chemical processes in burning

solids and flames, and the formation and properties of smoke

particulates and toxic gases, mass and energy transport in flames,

the mechanism of action of fire retardants, and ignition, flame

spread and flame extinguishment processes.

(2) Devise new techniques for studying these phenomena.

(3) Furnish fundamental scientific information to support the

activities of the Fire Safety Engineering Division and the Fire

Performance Evaluation Division.

Project Areas

1. Radiative Ignition

Before a liquid or solid fuel can ignite, it must absorb a significant quantity of energy. In many circumstances, radiation is

the dominant transfer mechanism supplying this energy. Work to date

has involved exposing samples of _n-decane, PMMA and red oak to a CO2 laser, with and without a pilot heat source present. It has

been shown that significant absorption takes place in the gas phase

above the fuel, presumably by the vapors from the fuel. The effect

of sample orientation on this type of ignition has been determined.

High speed motion pictures of the liquid fuel surface have shown

complex surface motions between the beginning of irradiation and

3
ignition. We are now replacing the laser with a high intensity

black body source, determining the absorptivity and nature of the

pyrolyzate, and characterizing the pyrolyzate temperature and

concentration field using a two-line holographic technique.

2. NMR Studies of Combustion of Solids

Jointly with the NBS Center for Materials Science, we are developing

a capability in magic angle spinning, high resolution nuclear

magnetic resonance (NMR) of solids. Our intent is to follow the

degradation of natural and synthetic polymers using the ^^C nuclide.

Studies of both polyethylene and cellulose have shown that con- formational differences can be observed between chemically similar

samples. Preliminary spectra of wood and the different crystalline

forms of pure cellulose have been obtained as a prelude to detailed

studies on wood decomposition and smoldering combustion. In

addition, detailed studies have begun on the magnitudes of linebroadening in the NMR spectra. These will determine the limits of

information available in the planned decomposition experiments.

3. Smoldering Combustion of Cellulosics

According to current statistics, at least one-fourth of all fire

deaths result from scenarios that involve a non-flaming step. The

increasing use of shredded paper as home insulation threatens to

increase that fraction. As a result, a major effort is underway

to understand the ignition, propagation and inhibition of

smoldering.

Experiments on the thermal ignition of celluloslc Insulation have

been completed. For several heat source configurations, minimum

ignition temperatures have been determined. Using fundamental

physics and global chemical kinetics, a model has been constructed

that quite accurately reproduces these values. This has led to a suggested configuration for an ignition test method.

Earlier experiments in CFR have shown that sulfur is an effective

smoldering inhibitor in some systems. We have now demonstrated that

it operates primarily by poisoning the active sites in the pyrolyzed

cellulose where oxidation and the accompanying energy release take

place.

Concurrently, nearly two hundred inorganic salts have been subjected

to a screening test for effectiveness as flaming and smoldering

inhibitors. About one-half stopped the smoldering front, and about

forty were effective on flaming as well. Using the results of the;

physical study mentioned above, we are now designing a larger-scale

experiment to more closely simulate loose-fill insulation usage.

4
4. Fire Plume Characterization

Traditionally, a fire has been treated as a thermodynamic energy

source with a spatially uniform heat release. Measurements show

significant differences, however, between measurements of plume

parameters near the base of a buoyant diffusion flame and predictions based on current, far field models. We are now preparing to

measure the time-averaged flow, temperature and concentration fields

in order to determine the validity of the classical representation

and to refine these models.

It is realized that the plume is not well-mixed, and that it is

highly likely that the flame-determining physics and chemistry are dominated by the local fuel-air ratio. Thus we are in the process

of determining the fluctuation magnitudes and frequency distribution of the temperature and reactant concentrations in turbulent

plumes. This is being done jointly with co-workers in the NBS

Center for Thermodynamics and Molecular Science and the NBS

Continuous Processes Technology Program.

5. Soot Formation and Evolution

Smoke from fires dominates the flame radiation process, is a major

factor in hindered egress from the fire vicinity, and is the prime

basis for early detection. We have two studies of the fundamentals

of smoke and its evolution.

We are in the early stages of a long-term study of the basic

chemistry carried out jointly with the NBS Continuous Processes

Technology Program. Using the opto-galvanic effect in flames, we

have observed an enhanced ionization signal with long time delays.

This corresponds to either small particles or macromolecules. This

phenomenon only occurs in a narrow stoichiometric range near the

sooting limit. Further work is in progress. Concurrently we will

be characterizing the radical pool in various flames to determine

the relevance of premixed flame data to diffusion flames.

If a realistic test method for a material’s sooting tendency is to

be developed, it must be based on the smoke properties that determine

the eventual hazard and on the dynamic processes controlling the

growth and movement of the smoke as it moves from the source. We

have recently compared the various instruments for measuring these

properties, cooperated in a study of coagulation of particles in a buoyant plume, and studied the smoke-filling process in a room. Further work will lead to the documentation of the conditions that can lead to the desirable, or undesirable, values of smoke

parameters. This in turn will define the early smoke properties

to be measured in the test method.

5
6.

Wood Combustion Chemistry

The degradation of wood during a fire occurs by a complex mechanism,

yielding a vastly distorted solid and a large number of gaseous and

condensed species. These evolve to fill the upper portion of the

fire room, impede the escape of occupants and perhaps cause their

disability or death. Similar processes occur in stoves when wood

or wood products are the fuel. There, they lead to creosote formation chimney fires and environmentally unacceptable emissions. We

are beginning a study on the degradation of the wood solids, the generic classification of products under fire pyrolytic conditions,

and the chemical transformation of these products under various

conditions of temperature, oxygen availability, etc. We will be

using high resolution NMR, liquid chromatography, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and a variety of other analytical techniques.

The end product will be a general predictability of the products of

wood combustion as a function of ambient conditions. This effort is

closely coordinated with several other laboratories such as Argonne,

TEA, Ba telle and Ga. Tech.

Associated Grants and Contracts

1. Clemson University, Michael J. Drews - "Antimony Oxide-OrganohalogenPolymer Substrate Interactions in the Solid Phase."

2. SRI International, Sharon K. Brauman - "Polymer Degradation During

Combustion.

3. University of Montana, Fred Shafizadeh - "Ignition and Fire Spread

of Cellulosic Materials."

4. Princeton University, Irvin Glassman - "An Experimental Investigation of Flame Spread Over Condensed Combustibles: Gas Phase

Interactions .

5. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Patrick Pagni - "Fire Modeling."

6. Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Lab, Robert Fristrom - "Polymer Flammability and Flame Inhibition."

7. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, C. L. Tien - "Thermal Radiation of

Luminous Flames and Smoke."

8. AeroChem Research Laboratories, Hartwell F. Calcote, "Soot

Nucleation Mechanisms in Flames."

6
CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS RESEARCH

FIRE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Sanford Davis, Head

Jin B. Fang, Chemical Engineer

Lionel A. Issen, General Engineer

David P. Klein, Fire Protection Engineer

Billy T. Lee, Fire Protection Engineer

James S. Steel, Physicist

William H. Bailey, Supervisory Engineering Technician

David C. Jeanes, Research Associate

Program Objectives

The objectives of the Construction and Materials Research Program are to

conduct research and development studies to evaluate the fire and high

temperature performance of materials and products used in construction

assemblies and transportation systems and to develop test procedures

and performance criteria for improving fire safety. In addition, the

Program manages the Center’s large-scale experimental fire test facility.

Project Areas

1. Fire Endurance of Floor Constructions

The objectives of this project are to develop a test procedure for

evaluating the fire endurance of floor assemblies in residences and to

recommend rational performance criteria for protected and unprotected

load-bearing constructions. The approach has been to conduct full-scale

fire tests in a simulated basement recreation room using modern furniture

with a typical fire load for that type of room. Based on the temperatures, heat fluxes, and pressures recorded during these tests, a new

time-temperature curve was developed for evaluation in the gas-fired

pilot furnace. Because of temperature, pressure, and oxygen constraints

with the existing furnace, some modifications in furnace design and

operation are being implemented. Once this has been accomplished,

several types of floor constructions will be tested and the failure

times will be compared to those obtained by the present ASTM E119 test.

An analytical prediction capability for fire growth is being developed

along with the experimental testing.

2. Fire Safety in Mobile Homes

The objective of this project is to determine the effect of interior

finish materials on fire growth and spread on the attainment of untenable conditions in mobile homes in order to provide a rational basis

for regulating these materials. Full-scale fire tests have been con- ducted in a single-wide mobile home using upholstered chairs and wood

7
cribs as ignition sources. Work has been carried out to duplicate the

essential features of the full-scale test results using reduced—scale

modeling in order to provide a viable testing procedure for predicting

fire performance.

3. Structural Fire Endurance

The objective of this project is to predict the fire endurance of structural building components under typical fire exposure conditions. In

cooperation with the American Iron and Steel Institute, a restrained

steel structure (having a reinforced concrete deck) typical of that

found on the 10th floor of a 20-story building has been constructed and

instriimented. One-quarter of the structure will be exposed to fires of

increasing intensity to provide the data needed to validate an analytical

model which has been developed for predicting such behavior.

4. Prison Cell Room Fire Study

The objective of this project is to determine the rate of heat production

of a prison cell with a representative fire loading under different ven- tilation conditions. The approach has been to determine the total rate

of heat released by the fire from the measurement of the oxygen content

and volume flow rate of the exhaust gases. A series of four room fire

tests have been carried out to determine the burning behavior of the

combustible contents as a function of different sized doorway openings.

The individual fuel items also were burned on a weight loss platform

positioned directly under the exhaust collector hood in order to provide

the input data on the rate of heat release for an analytical model which

will be used to predict the total rate of heat production in the cell.

5. Shipboard Fire Research

The objectives of this project are to evaluate the potential fire hazard

of shipboard and submarine hull insulations and to improve the application of laboratory fire tests for screening compartment lining materials.

The approach is to subject the variety of shipboard and submarine hull

insulations, some of which are protected with fire resistant materials,

to laboratory fire tests on ignitability, flame spread, rate of heat

release, and potential heat. The performance of these insulations are then examined in quarter and full-scale compartment fires. By comparing

the time to flashover or the maximum temperature reached in the full sized

compartment with the results of the laboratory fire test methods, improved

acceptance criteria for materials can be derived. By comparing the performance of the material between the full and reduced scale fire test,

the usefulness of the quarter-scale model as a screening tool can be

evaluated. At the same time analytical and experimental studies are being carried out to improve the ability of the quarter-scale model to

predict full-scale fire behavior. A standard test procedure based on the quarter-scale model will be developed.

8
6. Flame Retardant Permanency of Cellulose Insulation

The objective of this project is to study the effect of temperature and

humidity cycling on the flammability characteristics of cellulosic loosefill insulation. Based on the analysis of climatological data for

regions of the country having widely differing weather conditions,

various test cycles (time, temperature, humidity, number) will be imposed

on cellulose insulation having different flame retardant compositions.

Performance will be based on measurement of the critical radiant flux

and the resistance to ignition by a smoldering cigarette. A proposed

test method for inclusion in the Residential Conservation Service standard for cellulosic insulation will be written with recommended acceptance criteria.

7. Fire Safety of Amtrak Furnishings

The objective of this project is to develop and test cost beneficial

concepts for reducing fire hazards in passenger rail vehicles. Specimens

of passenger rail vehicle interior components will be obtained and

assembled into sectional mock-ups for full-scale testing. Taking into

account fire scenarios, usage geometry, and specific applications in

railroad cars, mock-ups will be tested. An attempt will be made to predict the mock-up performance on the basis of small-scale laboratory

tests. NBS will assist the Federal Railroad Administration in the con- duct of full-sized burn experiments in actual rail vehicles by recommending "improved" materials and appropriate instrumentation of the test

facility and recommending appropriate ways of analyzing and interpreting

the resultant data.

8. VA Hospital Evaluation

The objectives of this project are to examine the smoke penetration

problem of lay-in ceiling tile in hospital patient rooms, under various

fire exposure conditions, and to determine if smoke from the fire in a patient's room will penetrate to adjacent room spaces. A fire test

building having an 8-ft. clear ceiling with a 5-ft. high interstitial

space above it will be built in a larger building. The plan will be

typical of that found in a hospital with patient rooms opening on a corridor; the ceiling will be lay-in tile. Both smoldering and flaming

fire experiments under different ventilation conditions will be conducted

in one of the rooms and observations will be made in the interstitial

space, the corridor, and the other rooms to identify the smoke leakage

paths. Temperature, gas, and smoke measurements will be made in the

various locations.

9. Large Scale Fire Research Facilities

The following large-scale testing facilities are available at the

Gaithersburg site for use by CFR programs as needed:

9
Building 205

This is a 60-ft. by 120-ft. test building with controlled environmental

conditions; a large smoke collection hood serves the individual experimental facilities and is connected to a large stack with afterburner.

The following facilities are contained within the building:

A room burn and smoke test facility . This is a two-story

structure, 20 ft. by 20 ft. in plain view, which may be

used for fire growth studies and for examining fire and

smoke spread through ducts, dampers, doors, etc.

A corridor test facility . This is a 12-ft. wide, 30-ft.

long corridor with several burn rooms attached which can be used for a variety of studies, including the contribution of furnishings and interior finish as well as sprinkler performance.

A research fire resistance furnace . This furnace is

designed to meet the essential requirements of ASTM

E 119 as well as to provide for more rapid heating

of walls (10 ft. by 8 ft.), floor-ceilings (10 ft. by

8 ft.) and columns (8 ft. high). Structural loads up

to 30 tons may be applied and furnace pressure may be

adjusted from -0.05 in. to +0.15 in. water gage. The

furnace may be used to test components, innovative

constructions, and the effects of joints in wall-floor

assemblies.

Building 205 also houses rooms for specialized calorimeters, small

furnaces, and model enclosures. Laboratories are available for keeping

and testing rats for toxicology studies in conjunction with large-scale

fire experiments. Shops, instrument rooms, and service areas are also

located in the building.

Mobile homes specially instrumented and outfitted to permit repetitive

tests of fire growth and smoke movement and detection are adjacent to

Building 205.

NBS Annex

This is a former DOD facility adjacent to the NBS site which is available

for special tests. It has a 3-story stair tower which can be used for

smoke spread and sprinkler studies; a dormitory building containing a 60-ft. long loaded corridor with lobbies at each end; a large laboratory

designed for smoke detector testing; and an electrical testing laboratory.

Instrumentation and Staff

Each of the facilities is equipped with automatic data recording systems

to collect a wide variety of information from the large-scale tests. A

10
staff of 6 technicians and an instrumentation specialist are available

to support CFR research programs. An instrumented van is available for

field testing at distant sites.

Associated Grants

University of Michigan, George S. Springer - "Degradation of Mechanical

Properties of Wood During Fire"

Portland Cement Association, Michael Gillen - "Extension of Short-Term

Creep Tests at Elevated Temperatures"

11
FIRE TEST JyETHODS RESEARCH

FIRE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

William J. Parker, Head

Vytenis Babrauskas, Fire Protection Engineer

William D. Walton, Fire Protection Engineer

Gerald D. Mitchell, Research Chemist

James R. Lawson, General Physical Scientist

David L. Chamberlain, , Research Associate

Monica Cavell, Co-op student

Program Objectives

The objective of the Fire Test Methods Research Group is to reduce the

probability of the growth and spread of fire and its ccmbustion products

in a building by developing fire test methods and acceptance criteria

for furnishings and construction materials and their assentolies.

Project Areas

1. Fire Test Standards

The objective of this project is to develop laboratory test methods for

the ignitability, flame spread rate, and rates of heat release and smoke

production of construction and furnishing materials. These tests are

intended to supply the input data on the fire properties of a material

needed by the analytical models being developed for fire growth and

spread in buildings. The tests must meet the criteria for ASTM Fire

Test Standards and their precision and accuracy must be demonstrated.

The current fire test methods used in CFR will be maintained and innproved

in conjunction with the ASTM task group activities.

Wbrk will continue on the development of the ease of ignition test vdiich

measures the time to ignition for vertically oriented interior finishing

and furnishing materials by flame iirpingement. Seme inportant improvements have been suggested as a result of preliminary round robin tests

carried out on this test method.

Test methods for measuring the lateral and downward flame spread rates

along a vertical surface as a function of the surface taperature ahead

of the flame will be developed. In addition, a test method is needed to

characterize the flame spread rate in the direction of air flow up a wall or across a ceiling. Seme experiments are planned in this area

which involve measuring the flame heights above vertical specimens as a

function of their heat release rate.

12
Vfork will continue on the development of the heat release rate calorimeters. An internal round robin will be run on a range of materials

on all of the calorimeters at NBS in each of their modes of operation. A

test procedure is also being developed for measuring the heat release

rate of assemblies in the ASTM E119 furnace using the oxygen consumption

technique. In addition, a furniture calorimeter has been built which

can measure the heat release rate of full size couches by this technique.

The project leader is J. R. Lawson. The other professional investigator

is D. L. Chamberlain.

2. Fire Test Criteria

The objective of this project is to develop acceptance criteria for

materials and assemblies which will provide an acceptable level of fire

safety in specific applications. This involves the selection of a

suitable set of test methods and setting limits on the fire performance

of the materials or assemblies in these tests. The acceptance criteria

will be derived frcm a correlation between the results of the fire tests

on the materials and assemiblies and their full scale burning behavior.

The output of this project will be used by building code officials and

the government regulatory agencies to reduce the incidence and severity

of unwanted fires within their jurisdiction.

The analytical models being developed for roan fire growth will be

modified to take into account the spread of flame over the combustible

interior finish materials and their heat release rates. Well instrumented reduced-scale and full scale rocm fire tests will be run with

interior finish materials whose fire properties have been measured in

order to validate or upgrade the computer models for predicting the

contribution of interior finish materials to fire gro^ddi. The acceptance criteria for these materials can then be based on their predicted

performance in a standard room fire test or other enclosure fire of

concern. The analytical model serves as a guide for correlating the

results of the laboratory tests with the full scale burning behavior.

This project is also responsive to other applications which may arise

due to the incidence of or recognized potential for serious fires in the

field. Through investigation and/or analysis of these real or potential

fires, scenarios are developed which can form the basis for (1) an

analytical model which can predict the hazard based on small scale

laboratory tests or (2) a mockup test which captures the essential

features of the real life hazaord. The project leader is W. D. Walton3. Plastics Flaimiability Research

The objective of this project is to provide a means of predicting the

full scale burning behavior of upholstered furniture based on the

ignitability, flame spread rates, and heat release rates of the

13
materials of construction along with a geanetrical description of

the furniture including the area, thickness, and orientation of the

various materials. The results of this project could be used as a basis for selecting test methods and accept^ce criteria for the

regulation of upholstered furniture for fire safety.

A systematic study of the geanetrical and material effects on the burning

behavior of upholstered furniture will be undertaken using mockups. The

mockups will be an idealization of the actual piece of furniture maintaining the same area and average thickness in so far as possible but with

simpler and more easily describable geonetry. These are intended to be

amenable to rapid construction. The similarity between the mockups and

the actual furniture must be close enough to provide essentially the

same heat release rate history. When this has been established, the

thickness, area and type of padding material along with the covering

fabric will be systematically varied in the mockups to establish their

effects on the total rate of heat release. The project leader is Vyto

Babrauskas.

4. Oxygen Consurrption Calorimetry

The objective of this project is to improve the instrumentation used to

determine the heat release rates by oxygen consumption for the various

applications encountered in CFR, to establish the accuracy of the method

and its sensitivity to the test variables, and to make recorinendations as to the optirriLim instrumentation for a particular application in order

to achieve an acceptable balance of sirtplicity, accuracy, time response,

etc. The output of this work will be to refine the oxygen consumption

calorimeter and the measurement of heat release rate in the full and

reduced scale room fire tests, the fuel contribution in the ASTM E84

tunnel, and the heat release rate of assemblies in the ASTM Ell9 furnace.

A systematic study will be made on the accuracy, sensitivity and time

response of the oxygen consunption calorimetry technique by burning

solids, liquids and gases of known chemical corposition and heat of

cortoustion at various heat release rates in the oxygen consumption

calorimeter. The effect of gas pressure, teirperature, chemical carposition, and flow rate through the analyzer on the measured concentration

of ©

2

/ ^2' will be determined for the different types of analyzers

availablef Leakage through the sampling lines and chemical reactions

with the interior surface of the lines will be considered. The effect

of different types of trapping systems on the time response will be

investigated. A cotparison of different types of volume floji rate

measuronents in the exhaust duct such as orifice plates, bidirectional

probes, and pitot tubes will be made. The project leader is G. D.

Mitchell.

14
Associated Grants

University of California (Berkeley) , R. Brady Williamson ” Intralaboratory Evaluation of a Standard Roan Fire Test"

SRI International, Stanley B. Martin "Effect of Retardants on the Heat

Release Rate of Building Materials"

Northwestern University, A. C. Fernandez Pello "Fire Propagation in

Concurrent Flows"

Illinois Institute of Technology, Research Institute, R. Pape/

T. Waterman "Preflashover Rocm Fire Model"

Factory Mutual Research Corporation, A. Tewarson "Determination of Fuel

Parameters for Fire Modeling"

15
PRODUCT FLAMMABILITY RESEARCH

FIRE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

James H. Winger, Head

Emil Braun, Physicist

John F. Krasny, Textile Technologist

Joseph J. Loftus, Research Chemist

David J. Mitchell, Mechanical Engineer

Richard D. Peacock, Chemical Engineer

Catherine J. Morin, Research Associate

Program Objectives

The program objective is to develop and apply technology to reduce fire

losses associated with the use of products by working through regulatory

agencies and voluntary standards and codes.

Project Areas

1. Mine Fire Safety

The objective is to develop effective test methods, standards, and

operating procedures to reduce fire losses in underground coal mines.

The accident data have been reviewed and analyzed and fire scenarios

developed for several products and systems. The existing fire tests

for hydraulic fluids and conveyor belts have been reviewed, and appropriate tests are under development. Review of fire tests for explosion containment and brattice cloth has started. Recommended procedures and supporting documentation will be prepared for each product

area and submitted to the Bureau of Mines and the Mine Safety and

Health Administration.

2 . Fuelwood Fire Safety

The objective is to develop methods and procedures to assure adequate

fire safety when wood is used as a fuel in residences and small industries. The literature, model codes, and tests for the fire safety of

wood-burning appliances have been reviewed, and a report has been published. An experimental program based on the review has been started.

Recommended code changes and test procedures will be provided to the

Department of Energy and the model code organizations.

16
3. Textiles

The Upholstered Furniture Action Council voluntary program to reduce

the incidence of cigarette ignition of upholstered furniture is under

evaluation and concepts for improvement are under development.

A standard for the flammability of flight crew uniforms has been

recommended to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) . Technical

support is being provided to the FAA as they prepare a proposed rule.

The capabilities for apparel fabrics to provide some protection from

an existing fire are under investigation. Various test concepts and

procedures are under evaluation as well as the performance of various

fabrics in these procedures.

Grants

1. Auburn University

"Investigation of Safety Problems Associated With Fireplace Inserts"

2 . Underwriters Laboratories, Incorporated

"Investigation of Fire Hazards of Fireplace Inserts in Factory-Built

and Masonry Fireplaces"

17
DESIGN CONCEPTS RESEARCH

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Harold E. Nelson, Head

Bernard M. Levin, Research Psychologist

A. Jeffrey Shi be. Operations Research Analyst

Leonard Y. Cooper, Research Fire Protection Engineer

Norman E. Groner, Research Psychologist

Daniel M. Alvord, Math/Programmer

Roseanne L. Paulsen, Social Scientist

Program Objectives

The objectives of the Program are to synthesize and integrate research

and technology to develop technically based rational approaches toward

providing safety from fire in buildings of various types of usage; and

to provide operating mechanisms for using these approaches in setting

fire safety requirements in these facilities.

Project Areas

1. Rational Approach to Fire Safety in Health Care Facilities

A multi-faceted program to extend the ongoing program on health care facilities. Major areas include the extension of the decision analysis

and evaluation system approaches to those facilities that involve the

developmental ly disabled and boarding care for the elderly; to investigate and provide technical improvement allowing better or expanded

values in specific subsystem parameters of the existing Fire Safety

Evaluation System; to continue work on a fundamental modeling basis of

fire development and smoke and heat propagation in health care facilities; to improve emergency preparedness criteria; and to initiate major

investigations in fire safety through control of building contents.

The approach includes operations research application particularly as relates to decision analysis and emergency preparedness. These approaches are being directed at combining technical information, statistics and

other historical information with the consensus of professional experts.

The improvement of subsystem parameters and the development of predictive

calculations on fire threat development will extensively use established

engineering technology and the most current math modeling techniques and

research developed data with emphasis on the development of engineering

and design tools. Developments in the furnishing area will concentrate

on use of oxygen calorimetry and bench tests to establish rates of heat

release, total energy, and companion measurements on smoke and toxic

species

18
2. Fire Safety for the Developmentally Disabled

A recent development in the care of the mentally retarded (and other

developmentally disabled persons) is to provide for their custodial care

in small home-like facilities in the community rather than in large remote

institutions. Life/fire safety requirements have not been specifically

developed for these types of facilities so the responsible authorities are using regulations designed for other purposes including the NFPA Life

Safety Code standards for private homes, boarding houses and hospitals.

The objective of this project is to develop life/fire safety performance

criteria specifically geared for these group homes.

This 39-month project started in July 1977. During the familiarization

phase of the project, over 50 group homes were visited; detailed information about the facilities and the residents was obtained for 9 of them.

A report has been published on the "Behavioral and Physical Characteristics of Developmentally Disabled Individuals." (NBS-GCR-79-167)

The approach is to develop a variation and modification of the Fire Safety

Evaluation System. This system will permit flexibility in the selection

of fire safety features, and the fire protection requirements will depend,

in part, on the level of capabilities of the residents. The criteria will

be developed with the advice of experts throughout the country.

A preliminary version of the evaluation system is now developed. Review

and testing of subsystems started in 1979 and the system is being modified

as needed based on these field tests and on the comments of the reviewers.

3. Means of Egress Study

The objective of this project is to investigate the state-of-the-art; to

conduct experiments to establish an improved data base, providing a basis

for hazard assessment approaches; and to determine specific engineering

solutions relevant to yielding emergency escape criteria for means of

egress arrangements. The effort includes: 1) an assessment of the stateof-the-art literature on the human factors relating to emergency egress in

buildings; 2) a review and analysis of the current state of technology

theories and test data involved in the growth of fire, controlling factors,

and the speed and distribution of effects that interfere with or terminate

the ability to escape from fire; and 3) investigations toward the development of procedures to determine the smoke restricting capability of

various qualities of stairwell doors.

The program, initially Intended for two years, has been extended an additional year. The literature analysis of emergency egress has been com- pleted and a report entitled "A Critical Assessment of the Technical

Literature on Emergency Egress From Buildings" has been authored by

Dr. Fred Stahl of the NBS Center for Building Technology. Tests have been

conducted on a full sized open stairwell test facility at NBS and in

cooperation with Underwriters Laboratories, tests have been initiated to

evaluate a shroud method (ISO approach) for using the standard door

19
furnace in a positive mode to determine leakage rate through fire doors

during the course of fire exposure.

Continue the development of the time available for egress model based on

smoke filling as a function of heat and mass transfer. The approach

consists of the theoretical transfer of the fire growth model, two room

model, smoke migration models, and experimental data to develop an applied

engineering technology useful in the design or evaluation of conditions as occur in actual or proposed buildings or building renovations.

4. Multi-Family Housing Life/Fire Safety Evaluation System

The objective of this project is the development of a fire safety evaluation system applicable to existing multi-family housing. The system will

be designed to evaluate equivalency of alternative fire safety approaches

as compared to the normal requirements of the Department of Housing and

Urban Development Minimum Property Standards.

The 18-month project was initiated in FY 1979. The evaluation system will

be based on the relevance of the various elements of building design to

the performance objectives of fire safety (e.g., prevention of ignition,

litigation of fire development capability, confinement of fire, detection

and extinguishment, and escape and rescue). A working evaluation system

that may be used as an alternative to the existing explicit requirements

has been developed and is now being tested.

5. Life/Fire Safety Evaluation Manual-Inmate Housing and Confinement

Facilities in Penal Occupancies

The purpose of this project is to develop a fire safety evaluation system

and supporting manuals to determine the relative level of safety in inmate

housing facilities in prisons and similar penal institutions. The approach

will be modeled after the other types of fire safety evaluation systems

prepared or underway by the program. The project, scheduled for 1 and 1/2

years’ duration, was initiated in mid 1979. The project has been extended

to include full scale test of the rate-of-energy release of fully involved

prison cells. The tests have been completed. The data has been used to

develop a smoke removal criteria for prison cell blocks. This criteria is

planned for inclusion in the 1980 Life Safety Code.

6. Coal Mine Fire Safety Evaluation

This is a three-year project to develop a methodology for determining

alternative means for providing fire safety in coal mines. The objectives

are both to protect the lives and health of the miners and to preserve the

national resources involved. Phase 1 (FY 81) is directed at the development of an event logic tree and other descriptions of the overall organization of elements and interrelationships involved in fire safety in coal

mines

The approach in Phase 1 consists of joint analysis by NBS and the Bureau

of Mines of the fire histories, available statistics, experience of

20
Bureau of Mines in coal and coal mining activities, and the experience and

knowledge of NBS in fire protection and fire safety system principles to

develop the resultant tree and supporting documentation.

7. Fire Safety for Handicapped Persons

To initiate important programs on providing needed fire safety for handicapped persons to enable broadening of their activity and more full entry

into the world of business, commerce and independent living. Initial

emphasis will be on general concepts and on the development of fire safety

aspects of the use of elevators as a means of emergency egress. A parallel effort will be directed to the development of acceptable design criteria for safe refuge for handicapped persons.

8. Extra-CFR Activities

A major portion of the activities of Design Concepts Research are con- ducted outside of Center for Fire Research. These include:

Center for Building Technology, NBS

1. "Simulation of Human Behavior in Fires: a Computer Model",

Fred I. Stahl.

2. "System for Cost Comparison of Fire Safety Alternatives",

Robert Chapman.

3. "The Evacuation of Nonambulatory Patients From Hospital and

Nursing Home Fires", John Archea.

4. "Time-based Provisions for Emergency Escape in Public Occupancy

Buildings", Fred I. Stahl.

Center for Consumer Product Technology, NBS

1. "Safe Environments—Anthropometric, Biomechanical, and Activity

Considerations", Clarke Jones and John Fechter.

Associated Grants

1. University of Maryland, John Bryan - "The Determination of

Behavior Response Patterns in Fire Situations - Project People

II"

2. North Carolina State University, Richard Pearson - "Occupant

Response Variability in Escape from Residential Fires."

21
3 . University of Florida, Richard L. Francis - "Network Models of

Building Evacuation."

4. University of North Carolina, Marc Waller and Robert Vreeland - "Guidelines for Preparing Fire Plan for Group Homes."

5. University of Washington, John Keating and Elizabeth Loftus - "Human Behavior in Fire Situations: A study of Post-Fire

Interviews .

22
FIRE HAZARD ANALYSIS

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Benjamin Buchbinder, Head

Alan Gomberg, Fire Prevention Engineer

Susan Helzer, Mathematician

James Slater, Mathematician

Vickie Shaw, Programmer

Program Objectives

The work carried on in this program is based on two major objectives.

The first is to characterize fire hazards by analytical means and to

evaluate strategies for reducing fire losses on a cost/benefit basis,

both to help establish research priorities and to guide the development

of test methods for codes and standards. The second objective is to

provide access to fire loss data for CFR,

Project Areas

1. Decision Analysis

Decisions on the choice between strategic alternatives for reducing

fire losses should be based on a systematic consideration of all

benefits, risks and costs. However, because of the complexity of

safety problems and the uncertainties inherent in the evaluation of

strategies for reducing accidental losses, the choice among strategies

is difficult. We have developed analytical techniques for assessing

the risks and avoided damages associated with different fire safety

alternatives, and the economic costs of these alternatives.

Decision analysis provides the analytical framework for the com- bination of these loss and cost assessments in choosing the most

cost effective strategy for addressing a particular fire problem.

The initial decision analysis study of alternatives for the re- duction of upholstered furniture fire losses served to establish

the utility of this approach for fire hazard applications. A

major decision analysis study is underway on the residential fire

problem. Decision analysis is also being applied in other fire

safety areas including transformer fluids and rail transportation.

2, Special Studies

The growth of the National Fire Data Center at the U.S. Fire

Administration has provided more and better data for fire hazard

analysis. Using these data as a basis, we perform special studies

23
related to the characterization of specific fire hazards. Current

special study topics include the following:

-Identification of factors associated with high fire death rates

in rural areas and certain geographical areas.

-Feasibility of linkage of fire incident report files with

demographic data bases, to pennit future analysis of fire

incident data as a function of population characteristics.

-Improvement of fire incident data through quality control in

editing and data processing.

Associated Contract

SRI International, Fred L. Offensend - "Continuation of Decision Analysis

Studies in Fire Hazard Analysis"

24
FIRE MODELING

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Technical Staff

James Qulntiere, Head

Howard Baum

Daniel Corley

Margaret Harkleroad

Walter Jones

William Rinkinen

Kenneth Steckler

Program Objectives

1. To develop, apply and facilitate the use of computer solutions

based on zone modeling techniques to predict fire growth and hot

gas flow in rooms.

2. To predict the hydrodynamic flow field and smoke transport arising

from fire induced buoyancy driven flows.

3. To develop quantitative methods to assess fire risk utilizing fire

growth models, test method data and fundamental analyses, and human

tolerance criteria.

Project Area

1. Dynamics of Room Fires

A study on fire induced flows through room openings was completed.

It yielded flow coefficient for various fire sizes and opening

configurations. These results ranged from 0.5 to 0.8 depending on the

method for defining the coefficient, and the coefficient tended to be

slightly higher for flows leaving the enclosure.

In another related series of experiments the fire plume angle for

centered flow burner fires was measured, and an entrainment rate was

estimated. This demonstrated the "wind" effect of the room opening on

the floor fire. Other experiments are planned to study the effect of

fire location and configuration on entrainment.

An attempt to model wall fire spread in an enclosure has begun. This

utilizes zone modeling techniques and incorporates analytical expressions

for the rate of flame spread and the rate of burning per unit area. The

expressions have been developed from material test data and more

fundamental results, and include the effects of oxygen concentration and

incident radiative heat flux. An experimental effort to support this

modeling activity is planned.

25
A brief series of experiments to measure the "filling" characteristics

of building corridors subject to a room fire were conducted. The room

fire and corridor size were varied and the smoke layer interface position

was determined by measuring either the temperature, smoke optical density,

or direct visual sighting.

2. Buoyant Convection and Smoke Dynamics

Computational methods are being developed and implemented to

predict the thermal-flow field arising from an idealized fire source

in a two-dimensional enclosure. Various special case problems have

been examined.

The theory of smoke particle coagulation and growth has been incorporated

with the governing equations for buoyancy driven flows to predict the

smoke transport characteristics. This has been done for a simple

buoyant plume and particle tracking techniques are being developed to

imbed the particle growth model into the two-dimensional transient

computations for enclosures.

Associated Grants and Contracts

Pennsylvania State University, G. M. Faeth - "An Investigation of Fire

Impingement on a Horizontal Celling".

California Institute of Technology, E. E. Zukoski - "Experimental Study

of Environmental and Heat Transfer in a Room Fire".

TRW, Fendell and Carrier - "Modeling of Wind-Aided Fire Spread.

Case Western Reserve, J. Tien, - "Flame Spread and Spread Limits".

26
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS RESEARCH

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Edward K. Budnick, Research Head

Richard G. Bright, Senior Research Engineer

Richard W. Bukowski, Research Engineer

David D. Evans, Mechanical Engineer

Warren D. Hayes, Fire Prevention Engineer

John H. Klote, Mechanical Engineer

John G. O'Neill, Fire Prevention Engineer

Research Group Ob.iectlves

An integrated approach to fire protection design includes considerations

for 1) alerting the occupants prior to the attainment of adverse environmental conditions, and 2) actively prohibiting or reducing the growth

and spread of the fire and combustion products. The principal objective

of this research group is to provide the engineering basis necessary to

rationally incorporate hardware technology which addresses these con- siderations into a broader, more integrated fire protection design.

At this time there are three general areas of concentration in this

group: fire detection, fire suppression, and smoke control. The primary

activities in these areas include the development of engineering design,

installation, performance, and reliability requirements which will lead

to appropriate test methods upon which to judge system capabilities, and

overall design technology.

Two key factors in the development of technology for these fire

protection systems are 1) the ability to extend research results to

innovative uses, and 2) the need to create cost reductions through

refinements in system designs. In order to provide the necessary attention to these factors, parallel research efforts will be pursued to

provide both a fundamental understanding of the physical phenomena to

which hardware systems respond, and the design and performance of the

systems themselves

Project Areas

1. Automatic Fire Detection: Considerable research is ongoing in this

area to identify key parameters and conditions which must be con- sidered when measuring the performance of detection devices.

Extensive full-scale and laboratory testing is being utilized as the basis for the identification process and will be extended to

support program efforts to develop standard tests for measuring

detector performance. Current activities also include studies on

27
the arousal potential of state-of-the-art detector alarms, and the

reliability of detector components and systems. Much of the technology developed in this program is inputted directly to U.S. and

international standards groups for automatic detection. A long

term objective in this area is the development of a prediction

methodology for siting and sensitivity of detection systems.

Success in this endeavor will be highly dependent on efforts outside this research group, Including modeling of smoke formation and

aging, and fire growth modeling. Work will continue within the

group on studying the effects of aerosol types, concentration, and

particle size distribution on smoke detector response.

2. Full-Scale Smoke Detector Performance Test: A full-scale test

facility has been completed which will be used initially to replicate and compare the current "standard" tests used by UL, and in

the proposed International Standards Organization (ISO) for performance of smoke detectors. This effort will provide initial

technical information necessary to evaluate detector performance

for a wide range of smoke aerosols produced in fires.

3. Fire Detection in Health Care Facilities: This project is designed

to provide data and ultimately guidance on means of optimizing

detection system performance in health care facilities. Full-scale

tests have been conducted in a simulated health care environment to

provide data on performance of detectors under actual fire conditions. A technical report was published based on the results of

Phase I testing. Phase II is now complete and data analysis is

ongoing. Field data has been collected and analyzed to assess the

performance of detection systems currently being used in typical

health care facilities. A report based on these studies is nearly

complete and will provide interim guidance on detector location and

response, and long term user information regarding performance,

false alarm propensity, and benefits derived from different types

of maintenance programs in health care facilities.

4. Automatic Fire Suppression: A great demand exists for technology

advancement for automatic fire suppression systems. Efforts in

this area have been directed toward full-scale performance testing

under varying conditions and exposure fires. Initial work included

an experimental study to develop design criteria for the use of

automatic sprinklers for the protection of corridors from fires

beginning in adjacent rooms with open doorways for multi-family and

care-type facilities. Work has also been done in development of

water distribution mapping techniques, identification of factors

affecting the geometric distribution of water from sprinklers,

examination of statistical parameters of water droplet populations

from sprinklers as a function of pressure and deflector design, and

the use of sprinklers in health care facilities.

28
In addition to this long range work, continuous efforts are made to

assist in the development of U.S. and international standards for

automatic sprinkler systems and components. This work has included

analysis of water distribution patterns, K-factor (coefficient

related to orifice pressure and flow rate) measurement techniques,

and mechanical safety factors applied to sprinkler devices.

5. Fire Tests of Patient Rooms with Automatic Sprinklers: The

objective of this study is to provide engineering design information on health care facilities incorporating automatic sprinklers.

The effectiveness of sprinklers is being measured in terms of

overall fire control, time available for evacuation, and the maintenance of tenable conditions for patients who cannot be evacuated.

Current nationally used fire safety design criteria for health care

facilities are being specifically examined from the viewpoints of

life safety of the occupants and cost efficiency of system designs.

Phase I tests were conducted during 1977 and 1978, and provided

important information on the movement and concentration of selected

combustion gases throughout the test space. Phase II of this

project, completed during 1980, examined variations in water flow

rates and nozzle pressures of sprinklers, thermal response of

sprinkler links, and different exposure fire growth rates. Improved

techniques were utilized to measure smoke movement and concentration in a corridor adjacent to the room of fire origin under these

many variations.

This work will be continued into 1981.

6. Sprinkler Protection of Open Stairways: The objective of this

study was to develop engineering design information for alternative

methods of protecting open stairways using sprinkler and spray

nozzle systems. This work was designed to refine and update test

results dating back to the 1940’ s which serve as the basis for

methods currently used in the National Fire Protection Association

(NFPA) sprinkler and life safety codes. Experimental full-scale

testing was conducted in a specifically constructed four story

facility. A propane burner served as the energy source and was operated at two heat release rates, 5.5 and 13.6 M Btu/hr (- 1500

and 4000 KW) . Performance curves were developed, based on temperature effects, for these systems to indicate their capacity to

inhibit passage of combustion gases into the stairway resulting

from the convective heat flow from the burner. A report has been

prepared on this work.

7. Sprinkler Response to a Compartment Fire: A modest effort was initiated this year to examine the response characteristics of

sprinkler heads at different locations in a compartment to various

simulated fire growth rates. Of particular interest was the collection of empirical data on time variations for sprinklers having

identical thermal link characteristics, depending on whether they

29
were positioned in a pendent location in the center of the room, or in a sidewall location along either a solid wall or above an open

doorway. Limited measurements of temperature effects on simulated

links of varying mass were also Included. This work is intended to

provide initial information which will lead to engineering guidelines for the use of sidewall sprinkler Installations, where delays

in activation due to sprinkler location may significantly affect

fire control at low water supply rates. The analysis of this work

is ongoing, and is expected to extend into 1981.

Fire Suppression Systems for Offshore Platform Blowout Fires:

During 1980, an analysis of blowout fire histories was conducted to

identify the key elements of the problem. As a result of this

study, a project plan has been developed.

The long range objective is to develop fire suppression systems

technology for blowout fires on offshore oil and gas platforms.

The objectives of the FY 81 phase of the project include development of interim design criteria for fire protection of structural

members in wellhead areas. Also included is the development of an experimentally based estimation of various fire suppression techniques for large flowing hydrocarbon fires, with special attention

given to the flow rates of suppression agents and the appropriate

delivery mechanisms.

Smoke Control Systems: The smoke control project has been in

operation for a number of years. During that time the work has

developed along twd parallel and now converging directions.

Initially work was done with simple computer modeling of smoke

movement in buildings. This effort builds upon the work of the

National Research Council of Canada and others. At the same time

field tests were conducted in actual office, apartment and hospital

buildings using sulfur-hexafluoride tracer gas to study the movement of simulated smoke under a variety of mechanical systems and

climatic conditions. Included in the field work were several

studies of buildings equipped with smoke control systems. In each

case the building was evaluated both with and without the smoke

control system in operation. This allowed for comparison of the

relative effectiveness of the systems compared to a building without any smoke control.

Work has also been done to compare the results of sulfur-hexafluoride smoke movement studies to actual movement of smoke in

dwellings. This work demonstrated a qualitative correlation between

the simulated smoke and real smoke. Future work will involve the

development of smoke control methodologies for residential

application.

The primary output mechanisms for the results of this research are through additions or changes to various voluntary standards including NFPA and the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air

Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) standards.

30
10. Field Investigations of Smoke Control Designs: Field tests have

been conducted using the sulfur-hexafluoride (SF^) tracer gas

technique to determine smoke flow patterns in various types of

occupancies, including office, apartment and health care facilities.

One investigation was conducted in the NIH Clinical Center in

Bethesda, MD, in which both winter and summer conditions were

tested. The objectives of these tests were to gain understanding

of smoke flow in buildings under normal operations, and under

operation of the smoke control systems. A report was completed on this work during 1980.

11. Stairwell Pressurization Systems: The use of stairwell pressurization systems has grown in the U.S. over recent years. Field tests,

including sulfur-hexafluoride (SF ) tracer gas tests, pressurevelocity tests, and smoke candle tests have been conducted in

buildings in Nashville, Tennessee which incorporate multiple

injection systems.

As an adjunct to this project a computer based model was developed

to simulate smoke migration in stairwells having pressurization

systems. This model provides a useful tool for the design of

stairwell pressurization systems in multistory buildings. A progress report of this effort was prepared during 1980.

During 1981, a joint effort will be conducted with CSTB to verify

the stairwell pressurization model with empirical data. In addition, the model will be extended to include analysis of elevators

and vestibules.

12. Computer Modeling of Smoke: Two computer programs designed to

model smoke movement in buildings have been developed under con- tract to Integrated Systems, Inc. (ISI) . One of the programs,

designed to evaluate steady-state conditions, is currently undergoing verification testing by comparing results with other computer

models and with manual calculations. Upon successful completion of

this in 1981, verification of the transient model will be initiated.

These programs will serve as a basis upon which to develop a methodology for analysis of building designs in order to optimize the

design of the smoke control systems.

13. Smoke Movement in Merchant Ships: This project will extend the use

of the SFg technique to study the smoke flow patterns aboard a merchant marine ship in order to provide recommended guidelines for

smoke control in such vessels.

Field tests have been conducted using pressure mapping and SF^

tracer gas to simulate the movement of "cold smoke". Evaluation of

this data is ongoing to determine the suitability of applying smoke

control techniques for buildings to merchant vessels, and necessary

modifications. A progress report will be prepared during 1981.

31
14. Smoke Penetration through Acoustical Tile Ceilings: A project was initiated in 1980 to examine the smoke penetration of acoustical,

fire rated ceilings under actual fire conditions as would typically

occur in a hospital patient room. The project will determine

whether smoke will penetrate the ceiling or flow into other hospital areas. A test facility consisting of four hospital rooms and a section of corridor was built within another building. The test

facility has a ventilation system which will simulate the air

movement from a hospital HVAC system.

Associated Grants/Contracts

"An Investigation of the Water Quality and Condition of Pipe in

Existing Automatic Sprinkler Systems", H. E. Hickey and J. E.

Alleman, University of Maryland.

"Waking Ef f ectiveness *of Household Smoke and Fire Detectors", E. H.

Nober, University of Massachusetts.

"Mechanical Designer's Smoke Control Manual", J. Fothergill,

Integrated Systems, Inc., New Brunswick, Maryland.

32
FIRE TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Pro fes s

onal Staff

Merritt M. Birky, Head

Maya Paabo, Research Chemist

Barbara C. Levin, Research Biologist

James E. Brown, Research Chemist

Alan Stolte, Technician

Dolores Malek, Guest Worker/ JHU

Greg Smith, SPI Research Associate

Program Objective

The objective of research in fire toxicology is to reduce human fire

losses from inhalation of toxic combustion products by providing test

methods and recommended practices for predicting and reducing the

hazard.

Project Areas

1. The development of a toxicity test method.

2. The correlation of small scale toxicity test system

with large scale fire experiments.

3. The identification of specific toxic products in thermal

degradation products.

4. The development of a gas generator to calibrate portable

"sniffers" to be used for arson investigation (Arson).

1. Development of Toxicity Test Method

A test method has been designed to identify materials that produce

"unusually" toxic and/or "super toxic" combustion products. An ad-hoc

committee from industry, academia, and government was established to

critique and participate in an interlaboratory evaluation (ILE) of the

proposed toxicity test method.

The experimental phase of the ILE has now been completed. Seven

laboratories participated and 12 materials were examined. All the

laboratories tested Douglas fir (the reference material) and 4 other

materials. The toxicity of the combustion products of each material

was determined at three decomposition temperatures, one flaming (25®C

above auto-ignition) and two non-flaming temperatures (25°C below

auto-ignition and at the non-flaming decomposition temperature of

Douglas fir). At each temperature, both animal incapacitation and

lethality were utilized as endpoints.

33
The results of the ILE indicated that no statistically significant

variation existed between the participating laboratories. In addition,

the data showed that the classification of materials was similar regardless of whether the incapacitation or 1 ethal ity endpoints were examined.

The ad-hoc toxicity group agreed that a 1 ethal i ty endpoints based upon

the 30-minute exposure and 14-day post-exposure period provides sufficient data with which to distinguish those materials which produce

combustion products that are much more toxic than Douglas fir. The

laboratories compared the toxicity of materials based on a statistically

determined LCcq result. The LC^q is the concentration which causes lethality in 50% of the animals.

Considerable amount of planning is going into relating the toxicity data

obtained from the test method to a hazard assessment. That is, the

potential hazard associated with the use of a given material is not

limited or determined by the toxicity of the combustion products from

this material. The hazard must take into account not only toxicity but

such parameters as ignitability, flame spread, heat release, smoke, etc.

Incorporation of these parameters into a hazard index is the desired

goal .

2. Correlation of Small Scale Toxicity Test System with Large

Scale Fire Experiments

Smoldering combustion of two materials, flexible polyurethane foam and

cotton, has been carried out in large scale (closed room) experiments

for comparison with the protocol procedure (small scale). Chemical

analysis of the products generated and animal exposures in both systems

are used as basis for determining whether toxic products generated in

the protocol system are consistent with self-smoldering combustion in

large scale. Smoldering combustion of cotton and polyurethane was chosen since smoldering ignition of these 2 materials is the principal

fire scenario that leads to loss of life.

In the case of flexible polyurethane foam, the yield of carbon monoxide

(CO) and carbon dioxide (.CO 2

) is very nearly the same in the large

scale and protocol experimental procedures. Total hydrocarbon production is somewhat lower in the large scale self-smoldering case, while

hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is higher. However in both cases, the HCN con- centrations are not high enough to be the primary toxicological factor.

"Fingerprint" profiles of the products from the 2 types of combustion

are qualitatively very similar.

Animal experiments confirm the relative significance of the CO and HCN

results. However, the LC^q results show the protocol to be toxicological ly more severe than the self-smoldering large scale experiments.

The toxicological syndrome also appears to be different in the 2 cases. The cause of the difference is being pursued actively.

In the cotton comparison, the yields of degradation products between

the 2 scales are very similar for CO and CO 2. Preliminary toxicological

data suggest that the 2 experiments are also very similar.

34
3. Identification of Specific Toxic Products

The toxicity of thermal degradation products from materials containing

chlorine in their structure, such as poly(vinylchloride) (PVC), is

frequently attributed to compounds such as phosgene. For example,

individuals in the fire services report unique toxicological products

that have been attributed to fires involving vinyls. As a result of

these factors, a study was undertaken to determine if phosgene is

produced during the thermal degradation of PVC.

Four types of experiments were performed to approximate scenarios in

which PVC is involved. They are:

1. thermal degradation of PVC in a furnace,

2. electrical over-loading of wire insulated

with PVC,

3. electrical arcing between wires coated with

PVC, and

4. electric-arc initiated flaming combustion in a cup furnace.

Minor concentrations (less than 5 ppm) of phosgene were found in the

first two scenarios. In the third scenario, concentrations in the order

of 50 ppm have been measured. A report on the identification and

measurement of phosgene generated from PVC has been published (Journal

of Analytical Toxicology, p. 166-173, July/August 1980).

4. Development of Gas Generator (Arson)

Combustible gas detectors, frequently referred to as "sniffers", are often used in on-the-scene fire investigations as the first step to

ascertain the presence of accelerants in cases where arson is suspected.

At the present time, a standard technique does not exist for the calibration of such detectors. As a result, a gas generator is being

developed to be used for the calibration of combustible gas detectors.

The accelerant gas generator will be used to establish a performance

standard for the evaluation of the sensitivity and selectivity of

detectors

The vapors of four organic compounds have been used as calibration

gases. They are: hexane, isooctane, toluene and o-xylene. These four

compounds were initially chosen as a result of their prevalance as components in gasoline and other accelerants. Vapor pressure was also

an important consideration since the more volatile compounds are not

likely to be present after a fire has occurred. Using these four

compounds, although the generation system can be used for other compounds as desired, a vapor standards system has been developed and

calibrated. A report describing this research is in review. Performance evaluation of commercial sniffers is in progress using the vapor

standards

35
Associated Grants

University of Maryland, Maryland Institute for Emergency Medical

Services, Roy Myers, "Fire Casualty Study",

University of Pittsburgh, Y. Alarie, "Toxicity of Plastic Combustion

Products"

Johns Hopkins University, Z. Annau, "Evaluation of Toxicity of Combustion Products".

36
AD HOC WORKING GROUP ON MATHEMATICAL FIRE MODELING

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Robert S. Levine, Chairman of Steering Committee

John A. Rockett, Chairman of Computer Committee

Irwin A. Benjamin, Chairman of Users Needs Subcommittee

James G. Quintiere, Chairman of Models Subcommittee

Note: The Modeling Committee is chaired by Professor Howard Emmons of

Harvard University, and the Subprogram Committee by John DeRis

of Factory Mutual.

A number of CFR personnel are members of the technical committees.

Program Objectives

The objectives of this committee are to facilitate the development and use of mathematical models of fire and to coordinate and facilitate

research needed to improve the models. The steering committee Includes

members from other Government agencies who have influence on their

agencies' R and D in this field. The coordination, of course, is

voluntary.

Project Areas

Each applicable area is Included in another program abstract. The major

portion of the CFR effort is in the Fire Physics Research Program.

Associated Grants

1. Harvard University /Factory Mutual Research Corporation,

Howard Emmons and John DeRis - "Home Fire Project"

2. Several others as listed elsewhere.

37
ARSON PROGRAM

FIRE RESEARCH RESOURCES DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Nora Jason, Technical Information Specialist

James Brown, Research Chemist

Robert Levine, Division Chief

Richard Bright, Senior Research Engineer

Bernard Levin, Research Psychologist

Program Objectives

The objectives of the Arson Program are to carry out certain specific

tasks in the U.S. anti-arson program. The overall program is coordinated by the U.S. Fire Administration in FEMA, and the Law Enforcement

Assistance Administration in the Department of Justice.

Project Areas

The CFR tasks include:

1. Preparation of a handbook for fire Investigators (Jason and Bright)

2. A device to calibrate "Sniffers” (used by fire investigators to

detect accelerants) (Brown)

3. A consensus standard for the laboratory analysis for accelerants

(Brown, FY 1980)

4. Psychology of Arson (Levin)

38
CONTRACTS AND GRANTS
I
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Auburn University

Grant No. : NB80NADA1012

Grant Title ; Investigations of the Safety Problems Associated with

Fireplace Inserts

Principal Investigators ; Professor Glennon Maples

Professor Timothy Maxwell

Professor David Dyer

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Auburn University

Auburn University, Alabama 36849

Other Professional Personnel ; Thomas E. Burch

NBS Scientific Officer : Richard Peacock

Technical Abstract :

The Increased popularity of fireplace inserts has brought to light

a need for further investigation of the capabilities as well as the

problems and limitations of the different fireplace and fireplace insert

combinations. The objective of the Auburn University effort is to

classify fireplace inserts according to generic types and to give some insight into their relative safety and efficiency when used in different

types of fireplaces. This effort involves a laboratory testing program

to evaluate the efficiency, heat output, creosoting potential, and

necessary clearances for representative units from each classification.

Selected units will also be field tested in homes in the Auburn area to

supplement the laboratory results. It is hoped that the information

obtained in this study will aid home owners in choosing equipment best

suited to their needs and manufacturers in their efforts to supply

safer and more efficient equipment.

39
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Brown University

Grant No . : NBS Grant G7-9009

Grant Title : Flame Propagation and Extinction for Solid Fuels

Principal Investigator : Professor M. Sibulkin

Division of Engineering

Brown University

Providence, RI 02912

Other Professional Personnel : A. Kulkarni, Graduate Research Assistant

S. Malary, Graduate Research Assistant

NBS Scientific Officer: J. Rockett

Technical Abstract :

The objectives of this program are to advance our understanding

of flame propagation and extinction for fuels involved in urban

fires. An understanding of the theoretical basis of flame propagation

which leads to quantitative predictions of flame spread rates is of

importance in several areas of the fire problem. A knowledge of

rate of flame spread on isolated components is necessary input

information for the calculation of more complex room fire scenarios,

and may be the determining factor in the time for fire build up to

hazardous conditions. A more fundamental understanding of

extinction mechanisms should enable improved methods of fire

suppression to be developed more rapidly than by wholly empirical

testing. In spite of the deficiencies of small scale tests, they

continue to be essential for the materials development community.

Our work aims to relate the results of such tests to the test

geometry and the material properties. In the past we have examined

the effects of gas phase extinguishing agents on propagation and

extinction by a combination of experiment and mathematical analysis.

Recent work is concentrating on the extinction of burning vertical

surfaces. Different hypotheses as to the controlling physical

mechanisms are tested by comparing the predicted conditions for

extinction with the measured ones. Future work will attempt to

extend these efforts to other materials and to solid phase

extinguishing agents.

Work has continued on the problem of a natural convection,

diffusion flame burning on a vertical fuel surface. The fuel sample

is thermally thick and sufficiently small that the flow is laminar.

The governing boundary layer equations are transformed to a set of

ordinary differential equations using a local similarity approximation, and numerical solutions are obtained by a finite difference

procedure. During the previous reporting period, results were

40
obtained in the thin flame limit (i.e., for infinite chemical

reaction rate) with emphasis on the effects of thermal radiation

from the hot fuel surface. During the present period, results have

been obtained for cases having finite chemical reaction rates, and

gas phase radiation has been included in the mathematical model

Since gas phase radiation is a local heat loss mechanism, it was foimd (as expected) that it resulted in a reduction in the

temperature level in the flame which led to a reduced convective

heat flux to the wall. However, it was then found that this

convective heat loss was approximately balanced by the radiative

heat flux absorbed by the wall. The net result is that the burning

rate was almost independent of gas phase radiation. This result

differs from that found for pool burning and for larger, turbulent

fires on vertical surfaces.

Since the true kinetics of hydrocarbon flame chemistry is still

unknown, the process was modelled by a one-step, second-order

reaction having a specific reaction rate constant of the form

k=Agexp(-Eg/RT) . Calculations were made for PMMA burning in mixtures

of oxygen, nitrogen and CF3Br. The reaction rate constants Ag and

Eg were treated as parameters using results from the literature

as base-point values.

The results which have been obtained using this model may be

summarized as follows:

(1) At conditions for which a flame exists, the burning rate is

nearly independent of the chemical reaction rate. As a consequence,

the mathematically simpler flame sheet theory adequately predicts

burning rates. This is illustrated in Fig. 1 which shows

nondimensional burning rate m^ as a function of ambient oxygen mass fraction Yq , 00 , (The calculation includes PMMA surface radiation.)

(2) The extinction limit depends upon two parameters for a prescribed fuel-gas system, viz., the chemical reaction rate and

the rate of heat loss from the fuel surface by thermal radiation.

Surface radiation can lead to extinction even in the limit of

infinite reaction rate.

(3) Experiments made using N2 and CF3Br as gas phase extinguishing

agents had shown that, at the same oxygen concentration, the effect

on burning rate was nearly the same; the effect on extinction,

however, was significantly different. This qualitative behavior is

reproduced by the calculated results when the "chemical effect"

of CF3Br is modelled by reducing the chemical reaction rate. These

results are shown in Fig. 2.

Reports and Papers :

"Effect of chemical reaction rate on burning and extinction of wall

fires," by A.K. Kulkarni and M. Sibulkin, Eastern Section Meeting

of The Combustion Institute, Nov. 1979.

41
"Effects of radiation on the burning of vertical fuel surfaces," by

M. Sibulkin, A.K. Kulkarni and K, Annamalai, Eighteenth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, 1980 (in press)

"Burning on a vertical fuel surface with finite chemical reaction

rate," by M. Sibulkin, A.K. Kulkarni and K. Annamalai (submitted

for publication)

i/2" PMMA CYLINDERS —-O- - Oj/Nj —- - 02/N2/CF3Br(Yottj/Y|^a, = 0.233/0.767)

CHEM . Ag = O.I3x io'°mVs g-mole

Fig. 1. Burning rate and

extinction limit as a function

of ambient oxygen concentration

for three chemical reaction

rates. E =180 kJ/g-mole.

g

Fig. 2. Comparison of

calculated burning rate

behavior with measurements

on vertical, PMMA cylinders.

E =180 kJ/g-mole in

calculated cases.

42
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution; California Institute of Technology

Grant No; NBS Grant G8-9014

Grant Title ; Experimental Study of the Environment and Heat

Transfer in a Room Fire

Principal Investigator ; Professor Edward E. Zukoski 301-46

California Institute of Technology

Pasadena, CA 91125

Other Professional Personnel; Professor Toshi Kubota

William Sargent, Ph. D. Candidate

Baki M. Cetegen, Ph. D. Candidate

California Institute of Technology

Pasadena, CA 91125

NBS Scientific Officer; Dr. James G. Quintiere

Technical Abstract

We are investigating a number of fluid dynamic and chemical

processes which occur in the early stages of a fire located in one

room of a multi- room structure. Under these conditions it is

often possible to divide the gas in any room into an upper layer

which contains hot combustion products diluted with air, called here

the ceiling layer, and a lower layer where the gas is cooler even

though it may also be contaminated by combustion products. In

order to be able to describe the growth of a fire in such a room,

we must be able to predict the history of the height of the interface

between these layers and the temperature of gas in the layers. To

do this, we must be able to describe the turbulent heat and mass

transport processes which take place between the layers, and between the layers and the surrounding structure.

At present we are investigating experimentally several mass

and energy transport processes. We have spent most of the past

year studying the entrainment rate of fire plumes both far from the

fire and in the neighborhood of the fire. In addition, we are studying the mass and energy transfer processes which occur between

the two layers as a result of flows into and out of a room through

various openings. We have also completed our work on convective

43
heat transfer produced by the impingement of a fire plume on a

ceiling when a ceiling layer is present. Finally these processes

are being modeled and the models are being used in the development of a simple computer code which will allow the prediction of

the interface heights and layer densities in a multi-room structure

due to a fire of specified but unsteady heat release rate located in

one room.

The results of this work will also be used in more complete

models of fire spread. The development of a reasonably complete

computer model for the prediction of the rate of spread of combustion products and fire through a complex structure is a primary

aim of this research work. This code will allow quantitative

assessments of risk to be made and will become a major factor in

fire safety design work.

The following paragraphs describe in more detail the work now

in progress at Caltech concerning fire-plume entrainment.

Experimental Approach

The problem we have been studying is illustrated by the sketch

of Figure 1. A fire with average height Zf is present in a room

Figure 1

and has produced a ceiling layer with an interface height Z^. In

the early stages of the fire, the hot products of combustion are

usually segregated in a well stirred ceiling layer whose properties

are roughly homogeneous. The flame and the buoyant plume it

produces entrain cool air from the room, rh;g, and heat it in the

fire by combustion processes and in the plume by mixing with the

hot plume gas. This heated gas is buoyant and flows into the

ceiling layer at a rate (ifiE + Other gas may flow into the

ceiling layer as a result of the disturbance produced by the plume

as it plunges into the ceiling layer (rhi ) or as a result of other

mixing processes which may occur at the interface separating the

hot ceiling layer from the cool air layer (rha ). Thus, the total

44
mass fl\ax to the ceiling layer, m^, will be the sum of these con

tributions. + rh^ + rh^ ) + rf^

The terms (m^ + mr + rhi ) are directly associated with the fire

plume and are called the plume mass flux ihp. We need to be able

to describe this flux as a part of any model which is used to predict the behavior of the early stages of a fire. Because the interface between the hot and cold gas is stabilized by the gravitational

field we expect that the mass entrainment rate at the interface far

from the fire, rhg , will often be negligible in the absence of some

other active mixing process such as air flow through a door or

window.

The primary purpose of our experiment is to measure the

plume related mass flux, ihp. This is accomplished by use of a hood shown schematically in^Figure 2. The interface level of the

Figure 2

ceiling layer in the hood is maintained at a constant height above

the fire by withdrawing a suitable flow of hot ceiling layer gas from

the hood. The hood is made large enough to insure that the gas

in the hood is kept relatively quiescent so that it will not entrain

air at the interface (rh^ of Figure 1). When this entrainment can

be neglected, a simple conservation of mass argument shows that

the mass withdrawal rate required to maintain a fixed interface

height is the plume mass flux ihp.

The top of the flame shown in Figure 1 lies below the interface (i. e. , Z£ < Z^); in many interesting situations it may lie well

above the interface and then the flame must depend on the vitiated

ceiling layer gas for its oxygen supply. We expect that the

geometry of the flame is an important parameter in the problem

and that we must be able to predict at least the flame height as

part of the solution of the entrainment problem.

45
Experimental Results

The results of experiments show that a simple Boussinesq

model can be used to give a useful prediction of plume mass flow,

ifip. The form of the results is;

rh = a p V^Z where Q" = Q/p Cp T

p oo '^oo-'^oooo

and a is a parameter. Here, p^, T^^ and are the density,

temperature, and specific heat of the ambient fluid, Z is the elevation above the base of the fire, g is the gravitational constant, and

Q is the heat release rate of the fire. For the "far field" (where

Zi > 2 Zf) the constant a has values which range from 0. 25 for the

0. 5 m burner to 0. 19 for the 0. 1 m burner. The value 0.21 appears to be a useful average value. As the interface height approaches the flame height, the value of the parameter a decreases

and, for 0. 8 < Z^/Zf < 1.5, it is in the range 0. 16 to 0. 18.

We have determined that for 0. 8 < Z^/Zf <10, a is almost

independent of the heating value of the fuel for the range 15 to 50

kJ/kg, and that aerodynamic disturbances can produce 50 to 100^

increases in a. In addition, proximity to a wall can have a large

effect when the plume is attached to the wall. An interesting deduction from the data is that the fuel-air ratio at the top of the

flame is close to , 06 of the stoichiometric value for a wide range

of conditions.

The results described above are presented in detail in ref. 2.

We have also begun to study entrainment in the range 0 < Zi/Zf < 0. 8 and preliminary results suggest that a is of the order

of 0. 15 for 0. 4 < Zj^/Zf < 0. 8 and increases by factors of 2 to 4

as Zj^/Zf approach zero. Visible soot is present in the combustion

products when the fuel-air ratio of the ceiling layer gas rises

above 80^ of the stoichiometric value and flames appear at the

interface at about 100^. For lower values of the fuel-air ratio,

combustion appears to be complete even when Zj^/Zf < 0. 25. These

preliminary results were obtained in a small hood and probably depend on the size of the hood and gas temperature in the hood which

is affected by heat losses.

References and Reports

Zukoski, E. E. and Kubota, T. "Two-Layer Modeling of Smoke

Movement in Building Fires", Fire and Materials, Vol. 4, No. 1,

1980, pp. 17-27.

Zukoski, E. E. , Kubota, T. and Cetegen, B. "Entrainment in Fire

Plumes", California Institute of Technology, April 1980.

46
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Case Western Reserve University

Grant No . : DA-1017

Grant Title : Flame Spread and Spread Limits

Principal Investigator : Professor James S. T’ien

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace

Engineering

Case Western Reserve University

Cleveland, Ohio 44106

216 368 4580

Other Professional Personnel : S. T. Lee CPh.D. Candidate)

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. James G. Quintiere

Technical Abstract

Most fires start from a small ignition source. The initial flame

will spread and grow in size if the environment is favorable. The limiting conditions for a flame to spread and the manner in which a flame

propagates are directly related to fire safety.

A theoretical model for flame spread limits in opposed flow has

recently been published [Frey and T’ien, Combustion and Flame, 36: 245-

262 (1979)]. In that work, a one-step finite rate gas-phase chemical

reaction and fuel-pyrolysis kinetics are included in the formulation.

Flame extinction limits, due to increased opposed velocity, reduced

pressure and reduced ambient oxygen, are all obtained in the results

calculated from this theory. Systematic examination of the detailed

computed profiles also reveal the extinction mechanism. In all cases,

as extinction is approached, the extent of chemical reaction decreases

within one gas-phase thermal length (i.e., preheating distance) and the

gas flame is shifted downstream (non-dimensionally) relative to the

pyrolysis zone. As a result, less heat from the flame goes to preheat

the fuel, less fuel vapor is produced in the preheat zone and a lower

flame spread rate occurs until finally the flame is extinguished.

So far, experimental results from several independent investigations

tend to support the basic formulation of the above-mentioned theoretical

work. The near-term objective of this research is to extend this model

for more practical applications. Two new elements will be added to the

theoretical model. The first is an external radiant flux term. This

will be used to simulate the well-known radiant panel test for floor

coverings and other materials. The second is the effect of additives in

solid fuels on the extinction limits. Both should have practical implications on material flammability.

47
The longer range objective is to formulate and to solve the extinction problem in downwind flame spread.

Since the project is in its very initial phase, no progress can be

reported at this time.

48
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Insti tution : Clemson University

Grant No

: NBS Grant NB79NADA0011

Grant Title : Antimony Oxide-Organohalogen-Polymer Substrate

Interactions in the Solid Phase

Principal Investigator : Dr. M. J. Drews

Department of Textiles

Clemson University

Clemson, South Carolina 29631

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. C. W. Jarvis

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. R. Gann

Technical Abstract :

The objective of this proposed research was the characterization of

the pyrolyti cal ly initiated reactions among antimony oxides, organohalogens and polymer substrates in the solid phase. The role of the polymer

substrate in the generation of volatile antimony halides and oxyhalides

was to be elucidated. These results would then be used to delineate the

relative importance of the solid phase (as compared to gas phase) re- actions in the flame retardant efficiency of antimony oxide/organohal o- gen additives and finishes. The effect of antimony oxide/organohalogens

on oxidative surface reactions occurring in the polymer substrate melt

were also to be explored. The organohalogens studied were organobromi ne derivatives since, in general, they are more efficient flame retardants

than chlorinated organics of comparable structure. In addition, several

reactions postulated as important in the retardant mechanism for chlorinated organics are more exothermic for brominated organics and, therefore, more thermodynamically favorable for the brominated analogs.

The research plan followed was initially divided into two phases.

The first phase was to consist of the study of the interaction between

antimony oxides and the model organohalogen compounds. In the second

phase, the effects of the three polymer substrates on the antimony

oxide/organohalogen reactions characterized during the first phase were

to be determined. However, as the research progressed, it became

apparent that it would be necessary to more completely characterize the

decomposition behavior of the additives themselves, the polymer substrates, and the polymer :organobromine binary mixtures. All of these

rameters were not considered in the initial research plan to be as significant as the early data suggested that they might be. In addition, the dramatic effects observed on going from a purely pyrolytic

49
to an air oxidative environment were such that these experiments were

considered to have been beyond the scope of the original research plan.

As a result, the work reported on here is concerned only with the

characterization of the decompositions of the individual components and

their binary mixtures.

The thermal reactive characteristics of the polymer substrates and

organobromine additives were the primary considerations used in choosing

materials for this study. For the polymer substrates, the principal

considerations were thermal stability, mode of depolymerization, and

presence of labile hydrogen atoms. The criteria used in selecting the

organobromine additives were thermal stability, potential for in situ

fixation during pyrolysis, and intramolecular hydrogen bromide release.

Based on these criteria, the polymer substrates chosen to be em- ployed in this study were polymethylmethacryl ate (PMMA), polypropylene

(PP), and polyethylene terephthal ate (PET). The decomposition of PMMA

is characterized by relatively low thermal stability and a chain un- zipping mechanism producing primarily monomer. Polypropylene exhibits

intermediate thermal stability and random chain scission, producing a sequence of volatile components differing primarily in molecular weight

and site of homolytic bond cleavage. Polyethylene terephthal ate

exhibits relatively high thermal stability and a random chain scission

decomposition involving primarily heterolytic bond cleavage.

Of the organobromine additives studied, decabromodi phenyl ene oxide

(DBDPO) exhibits the highest thermal stability, has no potential for

forming intramolecular hydrogen bromide, and appears to volatilize

without decomposition. Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) has relatively

low thermal stability, a low temperature release of hydrogen bromide,

and a complex subsequent degradation mechanism. Several different

classes of brominated flame retardants were screened using thermal

analysis before tetrabromobi sphenol -A was chosen as the third organobromine additive to be used in this study. In addition to its intermediate thermal stability, tetrabromobi sphenol -A has the potential for

undergoing an in situ fixation via a trans-esterification reaction during the pyrolysis of PET.

The thermolysis and/or volatilization of the organobromine additives DBDPO, HBCD, and TBBPA, as well as the polymer substrates PMMA,

PP, and PET, were studied by thermal gravimetric analysis, pyrolysis

gas chromatography and pyrolysis in the direct insertion probe of the mass spectrometer. In addition, binary mixtures of organobromine

additives and either the polymer substrates or antimony oxides were

studied. In the thermal analysis experiments the heating rate was varied from 2°C per minute to over lOO^C per minute. In addition,

pyrolysis under nitrogen was carried out under isothermal conditions

from 270°C to 480*^C. The bromine to antimony mole ratio was varied

from 1.5:1 to 3:1. The products of the TGA thermolysis experiments

were characterized by trapping the volatile bromide species produced,

analyzing for the ionizable antimony species volatilized, determining

50
the distribution of antimony among the TGA sample pan, the TGA furnace

tube, and the bromide ion trap. In addition, volatiles were trapped

and their infrared spectra and their gas chromatographic separation

patterns recorded and compared.

Based on the results of these experiments, it is possible to draw

some conclusions concerning the nature of the reactions necessary to form

volatile antimony species under pyrolytic conditions in the presence of

an organobromine additive. The heating rate was found to have no discernable effect on either the individual component, major decomposition

product distributions, or the extent of component interaction in the

binary mixtures.

Hexabromocyclododecane was observed to dehydrohalogenate on heating above 250OC to produce HBr which interacted directly with antimony

tri oxide to generate volatile antimony halide and oxyhalide species.

In the presence of antimony trioxide, a catalytic effect on the rate of

dehydrohalogenation was observed. With all three polymer substrates

the amount of free HBr released was found to decrease rather than in- crease.

Tetrabromobis phenol -A was determined to undergo in situ fixation

when pyrolyzed in the presence of PET but not either PP or PMMA. In

the presence of PET this in situ fixation results in an apparent increase in the hydrogen bromide release. Antimony tri oxide appears to

catalyze the dimerization of the TBBPA, producing a less volatile

species which consequently undergoes more extensive degradation resulting in an increase in hydrogen bromide release and residue formation.

No significant interaction was found to have occurred between

decabromodi phenyl oxide and any of the polymer substrates or Sb203.

Based on the results of this study to date, it appears that for

the organobromine additives studied here, if no intramolecular HBr is

produced, then no volatilization of antimony occurs when the antimony

is present as Sb203 in the initial mixture. Perhaps more significantly,

with the exception of the binary mixture of TBBPA and PET, at no time

was the polymer substrates observed to interact with the organobromine

additives in such a way as to increase the amount of hydrogen halide

generated during pyrolysis over that which occurred for the organobromine additive alone under the same experimental conditions. Even

in those cases where the temperature of the maximum rate of weight loss

of the additive and the polymer coincided, there were no dramatic in- creases noted in the generation of hydrogen halide during pyrolysis.

The results to date appear to emphasize the potential importance of

the ternary reaction, which apparently must occur between the antimony

oxide/polymer substrate and organobromine additive to generate the re- quired volatile antimony halide and oxyhalides, during the decomposition of the flame retarded polymer substrates. This must especially

51
be important for additives such as DBDPO which do not, either by themselves or in simple binary mixtures, undergo condensed phase reactions

consistent with current theories regarding organohalogen/antimony oxide

flame inhibition.

Consequently, it is anticipated that once the solid phase ternary

reactions between polymer substrate-organohal ogen-antimony oxide are characterized with respect to organohal ogen and polymer functionality,

these results will lead to a better understanding of the system parameters necessary for more efficient and safer flame retardation of

thermoplastic materials. In addition, the results of this work could

provide the basis for new studies into the role of antimony oxide itself in flame retardant formulations.

Reports and Papers :

Jarvis, C. W., Drews, M. J., and Leibner, J. E., "Organobromine/Antimony

Oxide/Polymer Substrate Interactions in the Solid Phase. Part I."

Binary Interactions, Organic Coatings and Plastics Preprints,

000 ( 1980 ).

52
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Grant No. : NB79NADA0014

Grant Title : Determination of Fuel Parameters for Fire Modeling

Principal Investigator : Dr. Archibald Tewarson

Applied Research Department

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike

Norwood, Massachusetts 02062

Other Professional Personnel : Mr. J. Lee, Research Scientist

Mr. R. F. Pion, Assoc. Research Scientist

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. David D. Evans

Technical Abstract

Generalized relationships are being developed for fuel parameters

as functions of fuel structures and experimental variables for fire

modeling, hazard evaluation, and analysis of fire test data. The parameters are being examined under the following variable experimental

conditions: fuel size (about 0.1 m and 0.3 m in diameter in a horizontal pool configuration, and up to about 1 m in height in the vertical wall configuration); air velocity; oxygen concentration; external

heat flux, q^; and water application rate. The fuels being examined

are: 1) granular polymers - polyoxymethylene , polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polymethyl methacrylate, polyvinyl chloride, chlorinated polyethylene, and nylon; 2) solid polymers - red oak and

Douglas fir, with and without fire retardants; 3) foamed polymers with

and without fire retardants - flexible and rigid polyurethanes, polyisocyanurates, polystyrenes, phenolics, and polyethylenes . Special

emphasis is placed on char-forming fuels.

The following parameters are being quantified as functions of

experimental variables:

53
1)

Ignition energy, E. , and fraction g, of external heat flux

supplied and/or removed by sources other than external heat source in

the ignition process. The ignition process is characterized in terms

of E /1+6. In addition, the critical mass loss rate and heat release

rate for ignition and flame extinction, m'^ and Q'^ respectively, are also being quantified. For several fuels, the relationships between

E. /l+g, m" , and q" have been examined^. E. /1+g appears to be a useig c e xg

ful quantity for the examination of flame spread data such as from the

ASTM E-162 radiant panel test and the ASTM E-84 tunnel test as well as ignition data reported in the literature. 3 appears to depend on test

conditions, whereas E. appears to be independent of test conditions.

xg

2 m” lies between about 3 to 5 g/m s for piloted Ignition and appears to

be independent of the physical and chemical properties of the fuels and

the experimental conditions.

2) Heat required to generate a unit mass of fuel vapors, L,

flame radiative and convective heat flux to the fuel surface, q^^ and

q”^ respectively, and surface heat losses, 4^^* several fuels, the

relationships between q" , q" and oxygen concentration have been

2 3

5- c r 10 examined ’

. Under combustion dominated by radiation, it appears, for

many types of fuels, that the mass loss rate, mj^, can be expressed as

m|^ = K (q^ + q^^)/L, where K is a constant. This expression has been

found to be useful for the examination of large-scale fire test data,

for example, in the U.S. Bureau of Mines large gallery fire tests performed at Factory Mutual.

3) Net heat of complete combustion, , combustion efficiency,

X, (including its radiative and convective components, Xr> X^. > respectively). H^/L is one of the fundamental properties of the fuel,

independent of experimental conditions. The heat release rate is given

by q” X H /L, where q" is the net heat flux absorbed by the fuel; q"

n i n n and X depend on the experimental conditions. For many types of fuels,

the relationships between the heat release rate and

q|| H^/L are being

developed. It appears that fuels follow the relationships according to

54
their chemical structure, i.e. , non-aromatic, aromatic, and highly

chlorinated. The relationships are useful for fire modeling, fire

hazard evaluations, estimation of magnitude of heat in fire scenarios,

determination of human escape potential and operation of fire sensing

4 devices . It has also been possible to examine the data from other

heat release rate apparatus such as the Ohio State heat release rate

apparatus and large-scale fire tests.

4) Elemental composition of the fuel and yield of products,

(j = CO

2

, CO, total hydrocarbons, soot, low-vapor pressure liquids,

NO,,, HCl and HCN only). Y. is equal to a.k., where k. is the stoichioX’ J J 1 J metric yield of the product and is the fraction of the stoichiometric yield, ^ fundamental property of the fuel, independent

of experimental conditions, whereas is dependent on experimental

conditions. The product generation rate is given by q^ a^k^/L, where

q^ is the net heat flux absorbed by the fuel. For many types of fuels,

the relationships between the individual product generation rate and

q^ being developed. It appears that fuels follow the relationships according to their chemical structure, i.e., non-aromatic,

aromatic, and highly chlorinated. The relationships are useful for

fire modeling, fire hazard evaluations, estimation of concentration of

products in fire scenarios, determination of human escape potential

and the operation of fire sensing devices. It has also been possible

to examine data from large-scale fire tests.

5) Optical density, D = iln where £ is the optical

path length and I and are optical transmission in the presence and

absence of the products. D depends on the mass loss rate, m, total

volumetric flow rate of product-air mixture, V^, fraction of the products in the mixture responsible for light obscuration, n, and wavelength of light, i.e., D = kqq^/L V^. The relationship between D and

q^/L is being examined for a variety of fuels and it appears that

the fuels follow this relationship according to their chemical structure, i.e., non-aromatic, aromatic, and highly chlorinated.

55
For fire testing of materials on a small-scale, the parameters

described are expressed in terms of indices such that only a few simple

tests are required, on the basis of which relative fire hazard of materials can be evaluated^

An attempt is currently being made for the establishment of parameters for flame extinction by water sprays and by reduced oxygen concentration.

Reports and Papers

1.

Tewarson, A. , "Ignition of Polymeric Materials" - in preparation

for J. Combustion and Flame.

2. Tewarson, A., Lee, J.L., and Pion, R.F.

,

"The Influence of Oxygen

Concentration on Fuel Parameters for Fire Modeling," 18th Symposium

(International) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute, August 1980

(to be published)

3. Tewarson, A., Lee, J.L., and Pion, R.F., "Flame Radiation and

Convection from Nitrogen and Chlorine Containing Polymers" in preparation for J. Combustion and Flame .

4. Tewarson, A., "Heat Release Rate in Fires", J. Fire & Materials

(to be published)

5. Tewarson, A., "The Factory Mutual Combustibility Apparatus for

Reliable Fire Testing of Materials on a Small Scale", Modern Plastics

(to be published)

56
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Harvard University, Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Grant No . : NBS Grant 7-9011

Grant Title : The Home Fire Project

Principal Investigators : Professor Howard W. Emmons

Division of Applied Sciences

Harvard University

Pierce Hall

Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138

Dr. Raymond Friedman

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike

Norwood, Massachusetts 02062

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Henri E. Mi tier, H.U.

Mr. Richard I. Land, H.U.

John Ramsdell, Ph.D. Candidate, H.U.

Arvind Atreya, Ph.D. Candidate, H.U.

Seng-Chuan Tan, Ph.D. Candidate, H.U.

Dr. John de Ris, FMRC

Dr. Franco Tamanini, FMRC

Dr. George Marks tein, FMRC

Dr. Ashok Modak, FMRC

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. John Rockett

Technical Abstract

The purpose of this project is to develop a flexible procedure

with which to predict the progress of a fire ignited in an enclosure,

however complex. The calculations are carried out with a deterministic

mathematical "model" of the physics, and are of arbitrary accuracy.

This explicitly includes the calculation of ignition of secondary

fires, development of flashover, and the transport of toxic (and other)

substances throughout the house, building, or other enclosure. This

model constitutes a powerful tool for several purposes, and primarily

for establishing the fire safety of given house designs. This (obviously) results from knowing whether a particular design and configuration will lead to flashover or not; if it does, it will tell us how

much time it will take between ignition and flashover, how much time

between activation of a smoke alarm and flashover. It will tell us how dangerous a smoke layer is from the point of view of radiation,

toxicity, and impairment of visibility. And so on. To this end, research proceeds in two main areas: a. The devel57
opment of a large-scale computer program which solves the equations

describing the principal relevant phenomena, and which thereby gives

the evolution of a fire from its inception to burnout or extinguishment,

b. Development of the understanding of the dynamics (physics, chemistry) involved in fire and its associated phenomena: the structure of

turbulent flames, spread of fire over various surfaces, mixing of hot

and cold gases at openings, etc. These basic research tasks are carried

out in part at the Factory Mutual Research Laboratories and in part at

Harvard University. The knowledge gained is then utilized in the

mathematical model.

Task 1 : Burning of Pool Fires in Vitiated Air

Task Leader : Dr. Franco Tamanlni, FMRC

Technical Abstract

The main objective of this task is to determine the effect of decreased oxygen concentration on the gas-phase burning distribution and

heat transfer characteristics of flames above pool fires. In order to

better simulate realistic conditions, the decrease in oxygen concen- tration is obtained by mixing ambient air with the products of combustion from a propane flame. At the time of this writing we have com- pleted construction, debugged and calibrated the experimental facility.

It consists of a 1.2 m diameter, water-cooled enclosure which is designed to allow testing with pool sizes up to 0.4 m in diameter. The

inlet air supply can provide 0.32m3/s of air (670 cfm) at oxygen con- centrations in the range from 21% (ambient) to 17% by volume. This design point was selected to assure that it would be possible to supply

30 times the stoichiometric (ambient) air requirement of a 40 kw flame.

Because of the size and relative complexity of the facility, we have

devoted considerable effort to insure that experiments can be run

safely by a single operator. For this reason we have implemented a series of automatic controls for flow and flame monitoring, as well

as safety interlocks. All these features are now fully operational

and have been found to perform as planned.

This combustion facility will certainly find a range of applications which go beyond the scope of our present study. At the moment

we are concentrating on making measurements of the distribution of O 2 , CO, CO 2 , H 2 O and total hydrocarbons (unburnt fuel being a very important species to monitor) as a function of height in propane jet flames.

These measurements are made by drawing the flame gases through a heat

exchanger which quenches the reaction, and by analyzing the mixture

collected downstream of this catcher-quencher device. Our current efforts are addressing the question of the dependence of the measured

flows of major species on the amount of suction applied through the

heat exchanger. For the acquisition of concentration data we are using a new piece of equipment, consisting of fast-response (^ 1 second)

continuous analyzers and a sampling system which can multiplex 8 gas

lines. We are developing a digital interface which will allow us to

operate the gas analysis and gas sampling equipment using a low-cost

58
computer (Commodore 2001-32N)

The measurements of total flow of unburnt fuel and products as a function of height in the flame provide needed experimental data to our theoretical work. The aim of the theory is to develop an integral

approach for the prediction of turbulent fire plumes. We have made

progress in this area by adapting the k-e-g model of turbulence to the

integral approach: our results for jet flames show good accuracy in

the predictions with a saving of almost two orders of magnitude of

computing time over the 2-D approach

We are currently monitoring the radiation emitted by horizontal

slices of the flame using a slit radiometer. We anticipate that we

will soon start additional measurements, particularly of the radiative

properties (Schmidt temperature and absorption coefficient) of the

flame gases. Earlier results obtained in a smaller enclosure (0.76 m

diameter) with PMMA 0.3 m diameter pool fires have been analyzed and

will be presented at the 18th Combustion S5nnposlum^^^ These tests,

which were carried out in nitrogen-diluted ambient air, have provided

guidance for the planning of measurements of radiative properties of

flames in the present program. We bellve that these results as well as those from the gas analysis data are necessary inputs which are required

for validation of models of enclosure fires.

Reports and Papers

1. Tamanini, F., "An Integral Model for Turbulent Fire Plumes", Paper

accepted for presentation at the 18th International Symposium on Combustion, University of Waterloo, Canada, 17-22 August 1980.

2. Santo, G. , and Tamanini, F., "Influence of Oxygen Depletion on the

Radiative Properties of PMMA Flames," Ibid.

Task #2a : The Prediction of a Fire

Task Leaders : Dr. Henri E. Mitler, Professor Howard W. Emmons, H.U.

Other Professional Personnel : B. London

Technical Abstract

Our mathematical model computes the development of a fire ignited

on a horizontal surface, in a vented enclosure. The calculation can be

carried forward as far as desired, through burnout and cooldown. Fairly

thorough discussion of the problem, plus a bibliography, are given in

references 1, 2 and 3.

Progress of the program in the last year has occurred in three

areas

1. Numerics: A very substantial improvement in speed of convergence has been obtained by changing from the Jacobi to the Gauss-Seidel

version of our successive-substitution method. A further improvement

59
has resulted from making this method more "robust" by using a damping

constant after a small number of iterations. The "predictor" calculation has been optimized. Finally, variables are now prevented from

wandering or oscillating beyond physically reasonable bounds; this also

contributes materially to the stability of the calculation.

2. Physics: A subroutine has been written which gives a fastspreading ignited fire. Another, which overcomes a previous difficulty

with spread-rate for large fluxes. The calculated smoke concentration

has been used to find the absorptivity of the layer. Radiation to vertical surfaces has been incorporated. Improvements have been made in

the pool fire subroutine, so that it runs more smoothly. An improved

expression for radiative absorption by the layer has been derived, but

not yet incorporated; perhaps by the end of the summer this will be in.

The same remarks apply to the calculation of the H2 O, particle, and

unburnt fuel concentrations in the layer; once these have been found,

Modak's absorptivity subroutine can be used. Flame-flame interaction

is being studied now, and (hopefully) will be incorporated by August.

The new VENT routine has been programmed and checked out for one room;

it is to be incorporated into the overall program by August. Considerable progress has been made with the multi-room version, but substantial problems remain in inserting it into the Computer Fire Code as it is structured at present.

3. Program Structure: A new INPUT routine has been written which

is much more convenient to use, and which permits correction of any

input errors (data or syntax) . An Improved wall- indexing arrangement

developed last summer has finally been successfully incorporated. The

option to use "Newton Fast" has been dropped, with a consequent simplification in the program. The large number of COMMONS is being halved,

and the program "cleaned up," as well as documented.

Finally, we might mention that an improved and generalized treatment of experimental data has been devised, which permits us to extract

a mean layer depth and temperature from an array of thermocouples in a room.

References

1. Emmons, H.W. , Mitler, H.E., and Trefethen, L.N. Jr., "Computer Fire

Code III," Home Fire Project Technical Report No. 25, Harvard University, January 1978.

2. Mitler, H.E., "The Physical Basis for the Harvard Computer Fire

Code," Home Fire Project Technical Report No. 34, Harvard University, October 1978.

3. Mitler, H.E., "Computer Fire Code IV," Program Tape, Harvard University, 1979.

60
Reports and Papers

1. Emmons, H.W., "Scientific Progress on Fire," Am. Rev. Fluid Mech.

12:223-36, 1980.

2. Emmons, H.W. , "The Growth of Fire Science," Plenary Lecture, Symp. on Advances in Fire Physics, Washington, D.C., April 14- 18, 1980.

3. Mi tier, H.E., "Computer Fire Code IV," Program Tape, Harvard University, 1979.

Task #2b : A Study of Computer Code Structures and Organization

Task Leader : John Ramsdell, Harvard University

Technical Abstract

We want to restructure the fire program with three goals in mind:

1. To improve transportability,

2. reduce the difficulty of modifying the program, and

3. reduce the numerical work required to find a solution at

each time step.

Transportability: This can be improved in two ways. First, the

fire code should be written assuming most of the users will run the

program in batch mode. Second, the fire code should be written in one uniform, consistent language. FORTRAN 77 should be considered.

Program Modification: At present, it is difficult to incorporate

a new physical subroutine into the fire code. The basic reason for this

is that logical divisions between sections of code have been blurred by

programmers interested in writing the code fast rather than logically,

with a consequent difficulty in Introducing new variables. A problem

with the code is the large number of common blocks that also blur logical boundaries of the program. There perhaps should be no common blocks

in the physical subroutines. We should redo the indexing scheme of the

program in such a way that any contributor of a physical subroutine to

the fire program need not know the details of how indexing is done in

the code.

The efficiency of the numerics can be improved by eliminating variables, as discussed in other reports, and by carrying out numerical integrations in the numerical routines. One can take advantage of knowing

which variables are integrated because they have different convergence

properties and never need be put through a Newton-like root-finding

routine.

Progress: I have written a small and incomplete fire program implementing most of the ideas above. The code is meant to test a vent

routine for a many-room single-story building, but it also is a model

for what I believe is a better and well-structured fire code. The code was written in PASCAL rather in FORTRAN 77, because (a) a compiler for

the latter is not yet available to us, and (b) I wanted to use a struc61
tured language to study the structure problem. A clear top-down description of the fire code has been written, and it will not be long

before these ideas are implemented.

Task #3 : Radiation from Pool Fires

Task Leader : Dr. Ashok T. Modak, FMRC

Other Professional Personnel: L. Orloff

Technical Abstract

Fire prevention engineers often need to estimate (1) fire growth

and peak burning rates, (2) time to ignition of remote fuel elements,

and (3) the Influence of sprinklers and reduced enclosure oxygen on these quantities. In each case the underlying problem is the evaluation of burning rates for fuels in their sundry arrangements. Flame

radiation is a fundamental aspect of this problem, because in realistic

fire situations , radiation is the principal (80-95%) mode of heat

transport to the fuel. The present program investigates modeling thermal radiation from pool fires.

1 2 The objective of developing engineering calculations ’ that are both relatively simple and generally applicable to a broad range of

practical fires is currently being pursued in this program. Detailed

studies3,4 have shown that pool fires are inhomogeneous and nonisothermal. For simplicity, however, it is desirable to be able to treat

these fires as if they were homogeneous and Isothermal. A simplified

model is developed to describe these fires by an equivalent homogeneous, isothermal, spectrally grey volume of flame gases defined by a composite flame shape. Input parameters are 1) the axisymmetric flame

shape for particular fuel scale, and configuration derived from photo^

graphs; 2) an averaged absorption-emission coefficient, kf, from flame

transmittance measurements; and 3) an averaged flame temperature, Tf,

from- measurements with a radiometer viewing the flames through a- horizontal slit. The averaging of radiative properties accounts for most

flame inhomogeneities.

Simple analytic expressions are provided for calculations of radiative feedback to the fuel surface and radiant transfer to targets

away from the fire. Results of those analytic calculations are in good

agreement with exact numerical computations and with experiments.

The simplified model is verified with measurements on 381 mm and

730 mm diameter PMMA pool fires. A two-fold variation in average pyrolysis rates is induced at the 381 mm scale by systematic variation

of the distance between the fuel surface and the container lip.

Composite photographic flame shapes are obtained for seven 381 mm

diameter pool fires with lip sizes between 0 and 76 mm, and for one

730 mm pool with a 13 mm lip. Identical_averaged radiation property

parameters kf (= 1 . 55 in.~^ f or PMMA and Tf = 1260 K for PMMA) are used with those respective flame shapes. Calculated radiant feedback

and radiant transfer to target locations are in good agreement with

measurement for PMMA pool fires.

62
For PMMA pool fires this equivalent homogeneous model appears to

be satisfactory for diameters at least up to 0.73 metres. Highly sooting fires (e.g., polystyrene) are, however, likely to be considerably

more inhomogeneous than PMMA. Several current studies are directed

towards generalizing and further simplifying existing radiation models

to be able to account for more sooty fuels than PMMA and larger diameters than 0.73 inches.

Reports and Papers

1. Orloff, L. , 18th Int. Comb. S 3mp. "Simplified Radiation Modeling

of Pool Fires", 1980 (in press).

2. Orloff, L. , "Simplified Radiation Modeling of Pool Fires,"

Factory Mutual Technical Report, RC80-BT-9 , 1980.

3. Markstein, G. H. , 17th Int. Comb. Symp. "Radiative Properties of

Plastics Fires", p. 1053, The Combustion Institute. 1979.

4. Modak, A. T. , "The Burning of Large Pool Fires", Proceedings of

Advances in Fire Physics S3anp, April 14-15, 1980. (in press)

Task #4 : Study of Radiation From Flames and Smoke Layers

Task Leader : Dr. George H. Markstein, FMRC

Technical Abstract

In many fires, energy transfer from the flame to the fuel and the

surroundings occurs predominantly by thermal radiation. For sufficiently large fires, e.g., pool fires with diameters exceeding about

0.3 m, consideration of nonuniform distribution of radiation sources

within the fire was found to be essential for quantitative evaluation

of radiative transfer. (See Task "Radiation From Pool Fires".) In the

present task, three instruments have been developed for the measurement

of nonuniformly distributed radiative properties of fires.

One of these, the scanning radiometer, can provide a complete map

of the spatial distribution of the time average of radiance (radiant

power emitted per unit solid angle and unit source area) of a fire.

Moreover, the instrument yields statistical data that characterize the

radiance fluctuations in turbulent fires; such data are important for

the development of analytical models of these fires. A series of measurements on 0.73-m diameter and 0.38-m diameter polymethyl methacrylate

(PMMA) pool fires have been performed. Results, including averaged ra- diance distributions, radiant power per unit flame height, radiance intermittency, spatial cross-correlation coefficients, and emissionabsorption coefficients computed by Abel inversion of the optical depth

63
tli 0 sssuiuptxon. of constsut irsdiation t snips rstmrsj sirs rspoirtsci in ons of ths publications listsd bslow.

Tbs sscond instirumsnt is a watsiT“Coolsd and nitirogsn—puirgsd fibsiT”

optic absorption probs that can bs inssrtsd into a firs to msasurs ths

local absorption cosfficisnt. By msans of a comsr~cubs rsflsctor, absorption of squars-wavs-modulatsd radiation from an infrarsd-smit ting diods (A=0.96 ym) is msasursd by doubls-pass ovsr a path Isngth of about

64 mm. Initial tssts with a 0.73-m diamstsr PMMA pool firs yisldsd rs- sults in good agrssmsnt with data obtainsd by other msthods (sss Task

Radiation From Pool Firss ), as rsportsd in anothsr publication listsd

bslow.

Ths third instrumsnt is a modification of the Schmidt msthod for

measuring radiation tempsraturs and smissivity of firss. Ths convsn- tional Schmidt msthod usss a furnace blackbody sourcs of background

radiation, and is thsrsfors slow and cumbsrsoms, sines ths measursmsnts

must bs rspsatsd at ssvsral ssttings of ths sourcs tsmpsraturs. Ths

prsssnt "fast-Schmidt" instrumsnt smploys a tungstsn-f ilamsnt sourcs with a sapphirs window that psrmits rapid changs of sffsetivs source temperature. Digital feedback control is ussd for matching ths effective background temperature automatically to the flame radiation temperature.

^ Results of measurements on gaseous-fuel (C2 H5 , CoHg and CoH^:) pool fires currently underway indicate good agreement with conventional

Schmidt data.

Reports and Papers

1. Markstein, G.H., "Scanning-Radiometer Measurements of the Radiance

Distribution in PMMA Pool Fires." Paper to be presented at the

18th Symposium (International) on Combustion, Waterloo, Ontario,

August 1980; FMRC Technical Report RC80-BT-4, May 1980.

2. Markstein, G.H. , 'Measurement of the Soot Absorption Coefficient in

Fires by a Fiber-Optic Probe," Paper No. 12, Fall Technical Meeting,

Eastern Section, The Combustion Institute, Atlanta, Georgia,

November 1979.

Task //5a ; Experimental and Theoretical Study of Horizontal Fire Spread

on Wood

Task Leader ; Arvind Atreya, Harvard University

Technical Abstract

Our understanding of how fire spreads on wood is at best in its

early stages. Apart from a scientific Interest, there is a more urgent

need for such an understanding i.e., to prevent or reduce the severity

of home fires. The present study is limited to fire spread on horizontal surfaces in a quiescent atmosphere.

The dynamics of fire spread on wood differs from that of the most

64
commonly studied synthetic materials in two major respects:

1. It forms an insulating layer of char (to date there does not

exist experimental data and a theory for any charring material).

2. The directional properties of wood. The rate of flame spread was found to be related to the orientation of the grain, because the pyrolysis gases are issued in preferred directions.

A solution to this problem requires a theoretical model that Includes

charring and anisotropy, along with supporting experimental data.

The experimental equipment described in Task 5c is used to measure

(as a function of time)

1. the pyrolysis weight loss of the sample,

2. the energy evolved by the growing fire, and

3. the flame spread radius.

Radiation and vitiation are treated as parameters. With the present

methodology and calibration the energy measurements can be made within

± 3% error.

In the first set of experiments on wood a repeatable geometry of

spread was not obtained. This non-uniformity has been traced to —

1. Non-uniform external radiation. (New, more powerful radiant

heaters have been installed with radiant flux now varying no more than 2.5% about the mean.)

2. Variable orientation of the grain with respect to the surface.

A second set of experiments has been started to study the behavior of

various kinds of wood and orientations of the grain.

On the theoretical side, analytical solutions to the moving boundary problems (boundary between char and virgin material) encountered in

the solid phase of a charring material have been obtained. The cases

for which solutions have been found are:

a) a steadily traveling Isothermal hot plate,

b) a growing hot strip, and

c) a growing hot disk,

each in contact with the surface of an infinite slab of material. The

chemical heat of pyrolysis is liberated at the char-virgin material

interface. Analytical solutions for cases b) and c) were possible only

for an expansion rate proportional to t^/2.

Considerable amounts of work need to be done before the gas and

the solid phase are knit into a complete theory.

65
Task #5b ; norizontal Fire spread on Plastics

T-ask. Leader ; Seng-Chuan Tan, Harvard University

Technical Abstract

Data from preliminary test burns with a retarded flexible polyurethane foam provided a basis for starting work on a theoretical model

that superposes equivalent point-radiant heat sou-rces above the fuel

surface to simulate heating by a flame. Some progress has been made on

the first part of the model, which requires the solution of the timedependent conduction equation in an axi-symmetric body with special

boundary conditions.

A survey series of experimental runs using many of the PRC foam

samples demonstrated strengths of our experimental methods as well as

a few problems. The matched computer data acquisition system permitted

detailed analysis of a burn, even to the extent of yielding an approximate measure of burning efficiency as a function of time. Gas samples

analyzed on a chromatograph gave remarkable agreement with burning rate

measures, supporting our calibration procedures. Two major difficulties

remain, however, without satisfactory solutions; Ignition under some conditions, and measurement of total radiated flux when burning takes

place deep within a sample.

Electrical ignition of a wax match that leads to spreading fire

on foam gives reproducible and very satisfactory knowledge of the time

when flaming ignition begins. When high levels of radiation are re- quired for retarded foam ignition, this procedure cannot be used, as the

match melts. A wooden match has not proved reliable. In fact, greater

energy has been required, so that small plastic cylinders with thin

edges are used as ignition sources; but different foams require larger

cylinders to initiate sustained burning. In a few cases, we have not

obtained sustained spread of fire for lack of sufficient controlled

ignition or a high enough radiation level.

Using a wide-angle small radiometer, distant from the flames and

level with the fuel surface, has given satisfactory flux measurements

in cases where the flames spread mostly across the upper surface of the

plastic. For low density foams and some retarded samples, the flames

plunge downward and then spread with a cylindrical front within the

sample, where much of the radiant flux is unseen by our radiometer.

Moving the radiometer high enough to see the flux brings other heat

transfer to the detector, as well as complicating the view factor

estimation.

Systematic work with plastic samples that behave suitably in our facility will continue. A gas ignition system is being readied to

provide a carefully controlled point source for all conditions. Further

study continues to determine techniques of radiant flux measurement for

all burning configurations.

66
Task #5c : Fire Spread Research Facilities

Task Leader ; Richard I. Land, Harvard University

Technical Abstract

Measurement ofr the total -energy release from certain transient

fires has been achieved in our facility. Exhaust gas analysis using a chromatograph and oxygen concentration measurements gave data in re- markable agreement with flow and radiometer measures for both calibration pool fires and growing fires on flexible foam. These tests also

provided data for the design of appropriate fast-response gas analysis

equipment. We are using a polarographic oxygen detector, dual beam

infrared absorption for CO and CO2 , and a dewpoint detection system for

v/ater vapor measurement. A flame ionization technique will probably be

used for total hydrocarbon detection, although it only gives methane

equivalent readings; but no available contlnous device seems wholly

satisfactory. The gas analysis system design has been closely coordinated with associates at Factory Mutual, who have also developed such

a system. Flexibility, response times of the order of a few seconds,

ease of calibration, and broad future use have been design goals.

Dangerous and inadequate radiant heaters have been replaced. We

now have a controlled power source, capable of more than 20 KW; and

heaters in place that provide a reasonably flat flux distribution, on

the order of 1 W/ cm^ over a 60 cm square area for our samples

An input air flow plenum has been built, and the facility can be

operated with a closed ventilating loop. These improvements reduce

the biased fire growth from air inflow nonuniformities, offer accurate

measurements of exhaust gas mass flow, and permit burning at sustained

values of reduced oxygen concentrations. Control and measurement of

other gas concentrations should be simplified, and temperature of

inflow air is stabilized. Soot and particle measurement and removal

systems are still being designed and investigated.

The complexity of our testing has outgrown the nine year oldPDP/8e

system, and is being replaced by an LSI/11 data acquisition system.

Programming had become too difficult within the limitations of slow

speed and limited memory in the old twelve-bit format.

A modest investigation of venting room fires was completed, using

a small model with fixed size enclosure and doorway Several fuel area sizes and distances between the ceiling and fuel surface were used.

During a burn, a large vent in the center of the ceiling could be

opened. In all cases of interest, the presence of a hot layer decreased

the pyrolysis rate of the plastic foam when the ceiling vent remained

closed. Opening the vent after layer development increased the pyrolysis rate, generally more dramatically as the fuel was closer to the

top of the enclosure. In several cases, the interior temperature rose after venting, as the burning rate increased faster than the cooling

effect of incoming air.

Reports and Papers : Land. R.I., "Fire Ventilation Reconsidered,"

International Fire Chief , Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 14-17, March, 1980.

67
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : IIT Research Institute

Contract No. : NB79-SBCA-0068

Contract Title : Preflashover Room Fire Model: Parametric Sensitivity

Analysis and Development of a Submodel for Burning

Furniture Items.

Principal Investigator : R. Pape

IIT Research Institute

Fire and Safety Research Section

10 West 35th Street

Chicago, Illinois 60616

Other Professional Personnel : T. Waterman, Engineering Advisor

T. Eichler, Senior Engineer

C. Foxx, Senior Experimentalist

NBS Scientific Officer: V. Babrauskas

Technical Abstract

This program has three objectives. The first objective is to conduct a parametric sensitivity evaluation of the IITRI (RFIRES) room

fire computer model. The second objective is to develop a user's manual for the RFIRES code, including a discussion of the parametric sensitivity study. The third objective is to develop a preliminary burning

furniture item model that ultimately could be incorporated into a room

fire code, such as RFIRES.

At the present time the users manual, including a discussion of

the program's parameter sensitivities, is being finalized. The majority of the program effort however has been devoted to the development

of the burning furniture item model. A summary of the approach and

status for this aspect of the program follows.

A review of flame spread literature has been completed to identify

analytic expressions which could be used to predict the progression of

the pyrolysis zone's boundary. In addition a number of furniture burns

and flame tracking experiments were conducted. It was determined that

the speed at which the pyrolysis zone's boundary progresses (loosely

denoted the "flame speed") can be estimated from simple experiments

using the actual material being evaluated (eg., downward spread with

different levels of imposed radiant heat flux) , or by adapting the

models of deRis, Lastrina et. al. and Fernandez-Pello . In all these

cases, a basic downward flame speed is derived and modified by preconditioning of the surface just ahead of the progressing pyrolysis front.

This preconditioning can be from radiation from hot surfaces and flames

68
elsewhere in the room, elsewhere on the item, or from the adjacent

flame itself.

The other elements needed to construct a burning furniture item

model are submodels for predicting fuel generation, the fire plume characteristics, the heat transfers, and the combustion process. For predicting fuel generation, it was decided to simply relate mass generation

rate to heat influx by an empirically derived latent heat.

Relatively simple heat transfer models are adequate for the furniture item model. Conduction related to flame spread is inherently included in the determination of the "basic" downward flame speed. Convection, is derived automatically in the plume model. For radiation

from the flame gases to solid surfaces, three simple approaches have

been examined. The first is based on the average temperature of a finite volume of gas in the flame. This approach may require that the grid

be relatively fine in order to resolve the flame configuration details

to obtain the correct partitioning of radiative and convective losses.

The second approach assumes that within each volume of flame gas a con- stant fraction of the energy released in combustion is radiated. The

third approach assumes that the flame envelope radiates as a surface

with a constant empirically derived emissive power. All three approaches are numerically quite simple but must be tested to determine which

gives the most realistic results.

Similarly, combustion models have been identified for the preliminary furniture item model: (1) a model based on availability of oxygen

to fuel, (2) a model based on resolving the flammable zone, and (3) a model based on an ignition criteria. The first approach (availability of

oxygen to fuel) was selected for the preliminary furniture item model.

The area where the most effort has been expended and the most difficulties encountered has been development of a plume dynamics model.

For the burning furniture item model, it is necessary that the flame

configuration (locations of the hot packets of gas) be known. These hot

packets of gas are the starting point for the heat transfer calculations which in turn define the fuel generation rate and pyrolysis zone boundary movement. Therefore, the flame shape (plume dynamics) dominates the furniture fire problem, and the available simple axis3rmmetric or vertical wall plume models are in themselves not adequate for this

application. Consequently, IITRI was forced to seek a new approach capable of predicting the flame configuration for complex furniture item

geometries. A new approach was required because the model must be

simple with low computer costs in spite of the extremely complex, coupled inherently 3-dimensional problem that must be solved. As a result,

a new plume modeling technique ("Macroscale Fluid Dynamics") has been

developed and preliminarily tested. It appears to give realistic

results and have all the practical features required.

69
In summary, all the furniture item submodels have been chosen or developed, however they have not been combined into the overall furniture item model at this time. Once a burning furniture item model is

developed and incorporated into a room fire model, the required experimentally derived inputs that are identified can be the basis for truly

meaningful standard tests whose data can then be related to the full

scale "real fire" by means of the furniture item and room fire models.

Reports and Papers

"Preflashover Room Fire Model: Parametric Sensitivity Analysis and

Development of a Submodel for Burning Furniture Items" Phase 1 Report

IITRI Projects J6485, September 1979.

70
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Integrated Systems, Inc.

(a Maryland corporation)

Contract No . : NB-79-SAC-A0230

Project Title : Development of a Mechanical Designer’s

Manual for Smoke Control Systems

Principal Investigator : J. W. Fotherglll, Jr.

President, Chief Scientist

Integrated Systems, Inc.

(a Maryland corporation)

318 W. Potomac St.,

Brunswick, Md. 21716

Other Professional Personnel : H. Y. Lee, Chief Engineer

H. DuBay, Sr. Architect

P. Fothergill, Sr. Scientific Programmer

M. Johnson, Sr. Technical Writer

NBS Scientific Officer: J. Klote

Technical Abstract

The objective of this project is to develop a basic mechanical

engineer’s manual for designing the mechanical portion of smoke

control systems based on the present state of the technology.

The approach that has been and is being applied to achieve the

objective is defined as follows:

1. To establish the extent of coverage of the various forms

of occupancies, forms of structures, and forms of HVAC

(mechanical) equipment

2. Develop a systems approach and the requirements for

a conceptual systems manual treating all aspects of

building design and define the interface between such

a manual and the mechanical designer’s manual.

3. Based upon the results of the above two efforts, define

the requirements for the mechanical designer’s manual

and its conceptual form and content.

71
4. Collect for the manual available and necessary data and

Information, and generate necessary data, graphs, nomographs and tables covering stairwells, stairwell vestibules

and elevator lobbies.

5. Collect for the manual available and necessary data and

information, and generate necessary data, graphs, nomographs and tables covering the balance of the structures

for the occupancies to be treated in the manual.

6. Develop the final design of the manual and prepare the

manual

A cataloging of structures by architectural features and mechanical systems as well as the definition of a conceptual systems manual

have been completed. Coverage of the manual and the conceptual form

and content of the manual has also been completed. Currently, data

is being collected and generated for designing pressurized stairwells,

vestibules, and elevator shafts. The availability of an effective

mechanical designer's manual for designing smoke control systems should

materially reduce failures in smoke control systems and thereby improve

the potential in saving lives during structural fires.

Reports and Papers

Fothergill, J.W. and Hedsten, G.C., "Testing of the IDS Tower Smoke

Control Systems," Vol. 86, Part 1, ASHRAE Transactions 1980.

Fothergill, J.W. , "The Atrium as a Fresh Air Channel — A Different

Concept in Smoke Control," Vol. 86, Part 1, ASHRAE Transactions 1980.

72
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Applied Physics Laboratory, The Johns Hopkins University

Grant No . : NB79NADA 0016

Grant Title : Combustion Research and Synthesis, Task I- Inhibition,

Extinction and Retardance.

Principal Investigator : Doctor R. M. Fristrom

Applied Physics Laboratory

The Johns Hopkins University

Johns Hopkins Road

Laurel, Maryland 20810

Other Professional Personnel : C. H. Hoshall, Senior Staff Engineer

NBS Scientific Officer : Doctor R. G. Gann

Technical Abstract :

The objective of the program has been to explore the chemistry of

flame inhibition, extinguishment, and fire retardance with the goal of

interpreting these phenomena in terms of elementary reaction mechanisms.

This has been a continuing program since 1971. Gollaborative studies

have been undertaken with the University of Galifornia, Berkeley; the

Institute of Physical Chemistry of the University, Gottingen, West

Germany; and the University of Louvain la Neuve, Belgium. The work has

produced theories which quantitatively link flame inhibition and ex- tinction with elementary flame reactions.

Three projects were undertaken during the current year. (Ref.l).

RADICAL SPECIES IN THE SURFACE LAYER OF BURNING LIQUIDS - (Ref. 2).

A drop burner with a quartz microprobe leading directly into the

molecular beam inlet mass spectrometer (Fig.l) was constructed to see if radicals produced in the burning zone of flames could be detected just beneath the fuel surface. Methanol was the fuel. l£ was added as a radical scavenger to identify radicals. Preliminary runs with the apparatus were unsuccessful because of clogging of the probe

and flooding of the beam-forming chamber. A modified inlet is planned

to circumvent these problems.

CHARACTERIZATION OF SPECIES APPEARING IN THE INTERSTITIAL SPAGES OF

BURNING CELLULAR POLYMERS

An apparatus was constructed (Fig. 2) which allowed sampling

below the surface of a burning pol3nner block. The effluent was withdrawn from one end of the "sampling” tunnel which was flushed with

inert gas (Ar) . The sample was separated into fractions of differing

73
volatility. In future runs, the objective will be to take multiple

samples in the course of each test run; tests comparing a foam with

and without fire retardant are planned.

EXTINCTION LIMITS OF FLAMES - (Refs. 4,5,6;Fig.3)

The extinction limits of flames (both self-induced and induced by

additives such as halogens) are of interest in fire safety. There has

been a long debate as to whether the observed limits are true chemicalphysical limits or are artifacts associated with quenching. We have

used an extension of the zonal flame model to examine this question.

We would like to verify our theoretical predictions experimentally

and have planned the study of some low-velocity, near- limit flames. To

reduce quenching we built a 30cm. -diameter burner suitable for sampling

at atmospheric or reduced pressure. In a preliminary test the behavior

of a pilot flame immersed in various methane/air atmospheres was studied (Fig. 4). Results suggest that pilot flames in situations with gas

leaks may be less dangerous than previously supposed and that an effective combustible gas detector could be made using the measured luminosity or increased temperature of the pilot.

EIGHTEENTH SYMPOSIUM ON COMBUSTION

One of the tasks was to act as program chairman of the Eighteenth

Symposium on Combustion. During the past year some three hundred manuscripts were processed and sent to some two hundred reviewers. One

hundred eighty five papers were chosen for presentation, and the program was organized for presentation at Waterloo, Canada, August 17-22,

1980. (Ref. 7).

REPORTS AND PAPERS

(1) R. M. Fristrom and C.H. Hoshall, "Combustion Research and Synthesis-Inhibition,

Extinction and Retardance", Proposal NB 79 NADA 0016 to Center for Fire Research, National Bureau of Standards (1979).

(2) C. H. Hoshall, "Sampling Condensible Liquids with the Molecular Beam Inlet Mass Spectrometer", RCP Internal Memo FR-1 (June, 1980).

(3) C. H. Hoshall, "Sampling of Interstitial Gases Evolved from Burning Cellular

Polymers", RCP Internal Memo FR-3 (July, 1980).

(4) R. M. Fristrom and P. Van Tiggelen, "An Interpretation of the Inhibition of C-H-0 Flame by C-H-X Compounds", Eighteenth Symposium on Combustion , the Com- bustion Institute, Pittsburgh, PA., p,773, (1979). (Presented at Leeds in August, 1978).

(5) R. M. Fristrom, "Chemical Factors in the Inhibition and Extinction of C-H-0

Flames by Halogenated Compounds Interpreted with a Zonal Flame Model", Sub- mitted for presentation at the Fall 1980 Meeting of the Western States Section of the Combustion Institute.

(6) C. H. Hoshall, "Large-Diameter Burner for the Study of Flames Near the Extinction Limits", RCP Internal Memo FR-2 (June, 1980).

(7) R. M. Fristrom, "Tentative Agenda for the Eighteenth Symposium on Combustion",

May, 1980.

74
Fig. 1- SAMPLING OF BUBNING DROPS

20v Quartz

Sampling Orifice

Burning Droplet

To Mass

Spectrometer

Flag

Fig, 1- Schematic of Droplet Burner Sampling Rig for Studying

the Composition of Liquid Surfaces During Combustion.

Fig. 2- SAMPLING OF CELLS IN BURNING

FOAMED POLYMER

FOAM POT.TME& PYMItYSlS TEST APPARAWR

Insert: Schematic of Sampling Procedure.

75
BURKJING

VELOCITY

-

C»A

Pte

5tC_

i

Fig. 3-EFFECT OF Br2 ON H2

- AIR FLAME

^EXPERIKENTAL BURNING VELOCITT

CP!9AlltO« Of CALCUUTI9 vm HftlDUXTAl. tOKCrmnon AT Tia B7t •oonuJiT or vn Motoo. nooucncM zoaa or a Mmun rues IWZItTD ft O.Olcr^tv * *

ADDED BROMINE. - 7o

Fig. 3- Burning Velocity as a Function of Added Bromine for a

A17. H

2

- Air Flame.

76

EXTINCTION

Lite!
Fig. 4 LARGE BURNER FOR LIMIT FLAMES

TO SPECTROMETER

PROBE POSITIONER »5- r

D

COOLING WATER

PROBE COOLING JACKET

PROBE

-VIEWING PORT

NICKEL SCREEN

PERFORATED ALUMINUM

MIXING CHAMBER

3 METERING “ ORIFICES BEHAVIOR OF PILOT FLAME IN

VARIOUS METHANE-AIR ATMOSPHERES

il 4

0 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10

METHANE CONCENTRATION (M.F.)

V- 1 CM/ SEC

0-0.02 PILOT BRIGHTENS

0.02-0.04 SECONDARY CONE FORMS

0.05 LEAN LIMIT WAVERING FLAME

0.06 ATTACHED ISLANDS

0.08 WANDERING ISLANDS

0.1 FLAME STRIKES BACK

Fig. 4- Large Burner for the Study of Near-Limit Flames.

Bottom: Behavior of a Small Pilot Flame in Various

Methane-Air Atmospheres. Flow Velocity of Mixture

1 cm/sec. Pilot Diameter 1.5 mm.

77
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : The Johns Hopkins University, School of Hygiene and

Public Health

Grant No

; NBS Grant NB 79-NADAOOlO

Grant Title : Evaluation of Toxicity of Combustion Products

Principal Investigator : Zoltan Annau, Ph.D.

The Johns Hopkins University

School of Hygiene and Public Health

Department of Environmental Health Sciences

615 North Wolfe Street

Baltimore, Maryland 21205

(301) 955-3029

Other Professional Personnel : Patricia S. McGuire, Ph.D.

Research Associate

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. Merritt Birky

Technical Abstract

Behavioral disruption as a consequence of exposure to the thermal

decomposition products of pol^nneric mater ials presents a serious hazard

to fire victims. Prior to exposure to lethal concentrations of toxic

gases, central nervous system functioning may be impaired resulting in

inappropriate behavioral responses which prevent escape from a fire

situation. To assess the behavioral disruption which results from ex- posure to a polymeric material, flexible pol 3mrethane foam, (PUF) two

measures were used: a continuous avoidance procedure and a variable

ratio schedule of water reinforcement using licking as the response.

These measures showed differential disruption as a function of exposure

to polyurethane foam. Licking was disrupted at very low concentrations;

avoidance responding remained intact until much higher concentrations

of polyurethane foam were decomposed.

Male Long-Evans rats served as subjects in all experiments. The

rats were individually housed in a temperature and humidity controlled

room with a 12-hour light-dark cycle.

Exposures were conducted in a 200 liter plexiglas exposure chamber

which housed four individual experimental chambers. A modified ceramic

coil furnace was underneath an opening in the base of the exposure

chamber. Carbon monoxide and oxygen concentrations were monitored at

five minute intervals throughout the exposure period with gas return

lines insuring constant conditions inside the chamber.

78
Rats were exposed to 2.0, 4.0, 6.0 or 8.0 grams of flexible polyurethane foam (PUF) (GM-21) . Each rat was used for only one exposure.

The furnace controller was set to rise to 650°C. This provided a temperature ramp which, although not linear, was constant across exposures.

The time course for combustion was consistent across concentrations of

PUF and across exposures. When the furnace was turned off at 30

minutes, the chamber was cleared. Rats remained in the chamber for an additional 30 minutes.

Experiment I ; Effects of exposure to polyurethane foam combustion

products on avoidance responding

On the continuous avoidance schedule brief electric shocks (0.5

sec., 2 ma) were delivered through a grid floor every 5 seconds unless

the rat pressed the lever. Each lever press response postponed the next

shock by 30 seconds. The total session length was 75 minutes with the

first 15 minutes considered a warmup period. The data from this period

was not used in analysis. A PDP 8/e computer controlled the schedule

contingencies and data recording. Total responses and shocks in five

minute intervals were recorded. Experimental sessions were conducted

five days/ week.

Results :

Response rate during the 30 minute exposure period decreased at all

the concentrations of PUF tested. Shock rate showed a consistent increase over control rate. In the 30 minute period following the exposure, response rate showed a dose related decrease. Shock rate was

also increased during the post-exposure period, with the predominant

effect at 8 g apparent in the post-exposure period.

Examination of the distribution of responses and shocks during the

60 minute experimental session showed a consistent pattern under control

conditions. Rats averaged about 5 shocks and 30 responses per 5 minutes

during the session. The effect of 2 g and 4 g PUF on avoidance responding was a decrease in responses and an increase in shocks during the

middle of the session. Exposure to 6 g and 8 g PUF produced a more pronounced disruption in the distribution of responses and shocks,

especially in the post-exposure period.

Experiment II.; Effects of exposure to polyurethane foam combustion

products on licking behavior

Rats were trained to lick a drinking spout on a variable ratio 50

(VR 50) schedule for water reinforcement. On this schedule, the number

of licks required for one reinforcement varies from reinforcement to

reinforcement in an irregular fashion. The average number of licks required on the VR 50 is 50.

Following stabilization of the licking rate, rats were exposed to

polyurethane foam under conditions identical to those described in

Experiment I. Exposures took place in the same exposure chamber as was

79
used for avoidance exposures.

Results ;

Licking behavior was sensitive to disruption by PUF during both the

exposure period and the post-exposure period. At 1.0 and 2.0 g PUF, re- sponding during the exposure period showed a decrease to approximately

50% of control responding. During the post-exposure period there was

some increase in responding but the responding remained decreased below

control levels (approximately 70% of control rates) . Exposure to 8 g

PUF produced a decrease in responding during the exposure period to 32%

of control values. This decrease persisted during the post-exposure

per iod

Control performance on the licking schedule showed a slight positive acceleration at the beginning of the 60 minute experimental session.

This was followed by a constant rate of responding for the remainder of

the session. At 0.1 g PUF there was a depression in responding around

25 minutes into the session. By 40 minutes into the session responding

had returned to control values. Both 1 g and 2 g PUF showed similar

patterns, with the depression in responding occurring slightly earlier,

around 15 minutes. Responding was consistently abolished from 25-35

minutes into the session. Return to baseline was not complete until the

last 15 minutes of the session. Exposure to 8 g PUF resulted in an earlier and larger decrease in responding. For at least 15 minutes

there was no responding by any of the rats tested.

Experiment III ; Interactions of ethanol and carbon monoxide on avoidance responding

Examination of human fire victims reveals that in a large percentage of these victims high blood alcohol content can be measured. This

elevated blood alcohol content in combination with the carboxyhemoglobin

content of the blood may result in the inability of the person to engage

in well coordinated escape behavior at carbon monoxide concentrations

where people with no prior alcohol intake may have no difficulty. To

determine whether treatment with ethanol, carbon monoxide (CO) and

ethanol and CO in combination differentially alters behavior, rats performing on the avoidance schedule described previously were tested

following 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 gm/kg ethanol (p.o., immediately pre-session),

150, 500, 1500 ppm CO (30 minutes exposure) and a combination of the

three CO levels and 4 gm/kg ethanol.

Results

Exposure to 150 and 500 ppm CO for 30 minutes did not affect avoidance responding either during the exposure or during the 30 minute postexposure period. Exposure to 1500 ppm CO produced a decrease in res- ponses and an increase in shocks during both the exposure and the postexposure periods.

Ethanol (1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 gm/kg) produced a dose dependent decrease

80
in responding and increase in shocks during the first 30 minutes of the

session. By the second 30 minutes of the session, responding had returned to control levels for all doses tested; shocks remained above

control levels only at 4 gm/kg.

During the 30 min. exposure period, the interaction of 4 gm/kg ETOH

with 150 and 500 ppm CO had less effect on avoidance responding than

4 gm/kg ETOH alone. Ethanol combined with 1500 ppm CO resulted in a decrease in responses and an increase in shocks comparable to that seen with 1500 ppm CO alone. The largest effect of the CO-alcohol interaction occurred in the 30 min post-exposure. All interactions produced an increase in shocks which was greater than that seen with CO or ethanol

(4 mg/kg) alone. Response rate decreases at 500 and 1500 ppm (plus ETOIO

were also below those seen with individual treatments.

The use of behavioral methodology in assessing the toxicity of

thermal decomposition products represents a new and critical change in

the evaluation of toxicity. Prior emphasis has been on the determination of the lethal concentration (LC50 ) of toxic gases. Examination of

fire fatalities suggests early disruptions in central nervous system

functioning and the consequent behavioral impairment (i.e. inability to

escape from the fire situation) account for fatalities. For this reason,

assessment of impaired behavioral performance may provide more critical

information on the potential hazards of materials at levels below those

of the LD50.

Exposure to the combustion products of flexible pol3mrethane foam

produces differential disruption as a function of the behavioral measure

assessed. Avoidance responding is more resistant to disruption than is

responding for water reinforcement on a variable ratio schedule. This

suggests the need for assessing more than one behavioral response when

evaluating the potential behavioral toxicity of combustion products.

The interaction between carbon monoxide and ethanol is complex and

dependent on dose and time parameters. The increased behavioral disruption which occurs during the 30 minutes following CO exposure

suggests a S3mergistic effect of CO and ethanol. Thus, the presence of

ethanol represents an increased hazard in fire situations when CO is

present

Reports and Papers ;

McGuire, P.S. and Annau, Z.: Behavioral effects of polyurethane foam

combustion products. Society of Toxicology, March, 1980.

McGuire, P.S. and Annau, Z.: Effects of combustion products from flexible polyurethane foam on two measures of behavior in rats (in preparation).

McGuire, P.S. and Annau, Z.: Interaction of ethanol and carbon monoxide

on avoidance performance in rats (in preparation)

81
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California,

Berkeley

Grant No : P. 0. 812464

Grant Title : Fire Growth Experiments - Toward a Standard Room Fire Test

Principal Investigator : Professor Robert Brady Williamson

507 Davis Hall

University of California

Berkeley, California 94720 (415) 642-5308

Other Professional Personnel : Wai-Ching Teresa Ling, Ph.D. candidate

Fred L. Fisher, Development Engineer

NBS Scientific Officer: William Parker

Technical Abstract : The object of this fire research project is to develop experimental

methods which can be utilized for a standard room fire test. There is a growing trend to use full-scale room fire experiments for evaluation of

the fire growth characteristics of materials and building systems. Yet,

in spite of this, there is still no standard version of a room fire

test. The exact details of a standard room fire test are presently

being debated by working groups within the American Society of Testing

and Materials (ASTM) . Their pl^ce of departure is the ASTM E603-77

Guide for Room Fire Experiments"^ which discusses the choices available

for such parameters as compartment design, ignition source, instrumentation, test procedure, analysis of data and reporting of results.

The purpose of a large-scale standard test would be to evaluate the

fire performance of materials ^nder actual in-use situations. Tests at

the Forest Products Laboratory to relate the 8-foot tunnel furnace to

^ realistic fire situations, and more recently, Lee and Parker's research

on the contribution of furnishing and lining materials to fire growth,

have found that compartment or room-like experiments were necessary to

predict realistically the behavior of a specimen when subjected to a pre-f lashover fire environment.

The two principal small-scale, or laboratory scale fire test

methods for fire growth in the United States, ASTM E84 and E162, have

simplistic data reduction schemes masking much of the true test specimen

performance. In addition, many plastic specimens give little indication

of how they will behave under end-use conditions. Presently, a series

of small-scale tests are being developed, but there is a need for fullscale test data to support the validity of these tests.

It is the researchers' view that a standard room fire test could be

used as both a development tool and as a performance evaluation method

until the series of smaller, less expensive tests have been verified.

Even then, new materials and systems would continue to require full

82
scale testing to prove applicability of the small-scale tests.

The experiments conducted in connection with this research have

been directed toward answering the following questions:

1. Can a room fire test be expected to be a repeatable, scientific

experiment and supply information on which to base a prediction

of the contribution of materials to fire growth?

2. What details have to be fixed to insure a meaningful standard

test and what values should be chosen for such important parameters as the ignition source?

3. What is the contribution of a thin cellulosic material to fire

growth under the standard test conditions?

Eleven room fire experiments were conducted in a 2.44m x 3.66m x 2.44m (S' X 12' x S') test compartment shown in Fig. 1. The experiments

had a variety of materials on all walls and ceilings

Test No . C-162

C-162,171,172

C-164

C-169

C-165 - 16S

C-170

Glass Fiber Insulation

Gypsum Wallboard

Plywood

Plywood

Glass Fiber Insulation

Plywood

Glass Fiber Insulation

Gypsum Wallboard

Gypsum Wallboard

Glass Fiber Insulation

Plywood

Plywood

The experimental conditions were chosen to be consistent with an earlier version of the standard room test

method under consideration by ASTM in

^ which a gas flow of 0.117 m /min (419 ft~

/min) of CH^ was specified. This is 50%

of that in the current draft standard.

Measurements were made of l)the oxygen

depletion in the exhaust gases leaving

the room, 2) the air temperature at a number of locations, 3) the air flow and

temperature at the doorway, and 4) heat

fluxes at several locations.

Fig. 1 The experimental

compartment and vent system

as shown in plan (a) and

elevation (b)

83
ACCOMPLISHMENTS DURING 1979

The eleven separate experiments are summarized in Table 1. They

fall into the following categories:

1. Experiments C-162, 163, 171, and 172 are essentially calibration experiments in which the ignition source released the only

significant energy within the compartment.

2. Experiments C-164 and 169 are duplicate experiments; both had

plywood on the walls. These two experiments are particularly

interesting since they took approximately the same time to

flashover (within 15 seconds) and thereby illustrate the re- peatability of such experiments.

3. Experiments C-165, 166, 167, and 168 prove that the plywood

ceiling was not ignited unless the flame from the Ignition

source played directly on its surface. In experiment C-168,

the ignition source was raised to enable the flames to reach

the celling and the compartment reached flashover in 6 minutes

,

13 seconds. Typical measurements of air temperature 1" below

the ceiling and heat flux as a function of time are shown for

C-168 in figs, 2 and 3 respectively.

4. Experiment C-170 with plywood on both walls and ceilings proved

to be the fastest and most intense fire.

The

believe

which is

results of these experiments have led the researchers to

that it is indeed possible to evolve a standard room fire test

a repeatable, scientific experiment able to supply the information allowing a prediction of the

contribution of materials to fire

growth.

The observations reported by

these eleven experiments should be

considered in establishing the many

details which have to be fixed in

order to prevent undesirable scatter

in the results of a standard test.

Other items, such as criteria for and

Fig. 2 Average temperature 1”

below ceiling for experiment C-168

which had exposed glass fiber

insulation on the walls (except

in the ignition corner which

was covered with gypsum wallboard) and 6.4mm (1/4") un- finished A—D plywood on ceiling.

84
size of the ignition source, are more than mere details; they are major

components of a standard teat method. These experiments also contributed to a better understanding of this major test method parameter.

The ignition source used in this research proved to be a reliable,

repeatable device, yet there are some problems in utilizing it in a standard room fire test. It is the researchers* opinion that the flames

should reach the ceiling from its standard location without the walls

contributing to the flame spread. This is necessary if ceilings and

walls are to be evaluated separately.

As mentioned above, the gas flow in these experiments was less than

the draft standard currently under consideration by ASTM. Preliminary

experiments show that ^f the gas flow is increased to the burner to

achieve 176 KW/sec (10 Btu/min) , the value under current consideration,

the flames reach the ceiling. This is true for either methane oi propane. The current ASTM draft standard specifies propane because it has

higher radiation which more closely approximates some actual ignition

sources. Measurements of the oxygen depletion of the fire in the

compartment lead to the determination of the heat release rate shown in

Fig. 4, which makes it apparent that the proposed increase in heat

release rate of the ignition source would not have been excessive.

Figure 4 shows that the specimen contribution increased from approximately 211 KW/sec to approximately 845 KW/sec in the one minute following 6:13 when the flames emerged from the door. Because of the time

delay in the measurement system, this increase probably occurred prior

to the flames emerging from the door, and it illustrates that the

Increased heat release rate from the proposed ignition source is well

below the heat release rate required for flashover.

Fig. 3. Total heat flux to the

center of the floor (location 4,6,0)

and to the center of the ceiling

(location 4,6,8) for experiment

C-168.

Fig. 4. The heat release rate for

experiment C-168 is shown here as

a function of time.

85
The results of these

eleven tests provide data on

the contribution of a thin

cellulosic material to fire

growth under standard test con- ditions. This information will

enable all parties involved in

the consensus standard process

to put the proposed test

methods into perspective. Furthermore, it is also the

researchers' view that the proposed standard room fire test

will be utilized on materials

contributing considerably less

to fire growth than the thin

cellulosic material used here, and that these 11 experiments will become

a benchmark for comparison with other materials. For this purpose, a pass /fail criteria might be imposed based on the average ceiling temperature, time-to-flashover , heat flux at the floor, heat release rate or other data from the tests. But considerable research, particularly

with regards to a precise definition of f lashover, needs to be undertaken before establishing such criteria.

Table 2. Comparison to total time of

States J, K, and L (i.e., "Time-toFlashover") with the measurement of

temperature, heat flux or the observation of flames out the doorway.

REFERENCES

1. Annual Book of ASTM Standards . American Society for Testing

and Materials, 1916 Race St., Phllidelphia, PA.

2. Anonymous, "Surface flammability as determined by the FPL

8-foot tunnel method," U.S.D.A. Forest Products Laboratory

Report 2257 (1^62)

3. R.B. Williamson, "Fire performance under full-scale test

conditions - A state transition model," 16th Symposium

'(International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, 1357-

1372 (1976).

REPORTS AND PAPERS

This includes papers written under earlier projects but published

during the current year,

1. "Fire Growth Experiments - Toward A Standard Room Fire Test,"

(with F. L. Fisher) presented at the Western States Section,

the Combustion Institute, Berkeley, CA, October (1979), Paper

No. WSS-79-48.

2. "Post-Flashover Compartment Fires'- Application of a Theoretical Model," (with V. Babrauskas) , Fire and Materials , 3,1, pp.

1-7 (1979).

86
3. "Coupling Deterministic & Stochastic Modelling to Unwanted

Fire," Presented at 'Advances in Fire Physics’ Symposium to

Honor Philip H. Thomas, National Bureau of Standards, April 14-

15, 1980, Proceedings to be published in Fire Safety Journal , 1980 .

4. "Using Fire Tests for Quantitative Risk Analysis," (with W.C.T.

Ling), Presented at the ASTM Symposium on Fire Risk Assessment,

Hilton Head, S.C., June, 1980, Proceedings to be published as ASTM Special Technical publication •

87
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California,

Berkeley

Grant No. : 809252

Grant Title : Fire Modeling

Principal Investigator: Professor Patrick J. Pagni

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of California

Berkeley, California 9^720

Telephone: (Ul5) 6^2-0729

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Charles M. Kinoshita

Dr. Steven Bard

Richard A. Beier, Ph.D. Candidate

Karen Den Braven

Arthur Ortega

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. W. Garv Mallard

Technical Abstract :

The overall goal of this project is to develop physical and mathematical models of the detailed combustion phenomena which control a fire's growbh within a compartment of origin and its subsequent propagation through a structure. These experimental and theoretical studies

may provide bases for development of test methods and for evaluation of

the real fire hazard of materials. This work is divided into two

broad categories: (l) soot volume fractions in diffusion flames, and

(2) extensions and applications of excess pyrolyzate to systems with

radiation.

1. Flame Soot : Measurements are reported of the evolution of soot

particle size distributions within a pool fire for several flame scales

and fuels. The multi-wavelength laser transmission technique used has

been previously described. The particle size distributions all peak

near particle diameters of 0.08 ym with concentrations ranging from lO®

to 5 X 109 cm“3. Polystyrene (PS) and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA.)

represent two distinct cases for which the flame is or is not optically

thick, respectively. For the optically thick PS the volume fraction

appears independent of fuel scale, decreases slightly with height within

the flame and is ~ 3 x 10“^. For PM^ the volume fraction increases

with fuel scale from 2 x 10“'^ to 10“^ and decreases slightly with

height, presmably due to oxidation. The practical consequence is that

88
for fuels which, produce optically thick flames, laboratory results may

be used to calculate directly radiation of full-scale actual fires.

2. Excess Pyrolyzate : Flame heights have been obtained for many

PRC sample bank materials in several useful geometries [1,6,7]. Emphasis is now being placed on making a firm connection between laboratory test results and full-scale fire behavior. Dr. Philip Thomas spent

three months at Berkeley this year and presented several lectirres on compartment fires. Work is in progress relating excess pyrolyzate to

his thermal instability analysis of flashover. In addition, bo'undary

layers with radiation are currently being examined experimentally and

theoretically since these phenomena tie together the two separate

modeling problems discussed here.

Reports and Papers :

1. C.M. Kinoshita and P.J. Pagnl , "Laminar Wake Flame Heights,"

Journal of Heat Transfer 102 , 10^-109, I98O.

2. S. Bard, K.H. Clow and P.J. Pagni, "Combustion of Cellular

Urethane," Combustion Science and Technology , 19 , IU1-I5 O, 1979.

3 . P.J. Pagnl and S. Bard, "Particulate Vol'ume Fractions in Diffusion

Flames," Proceedings of the Seventeenth Symposium (int'l) on Combustion, 1017-1028 (1979).

U. M.S. Sahota and P.J. Pagnl, "Heat and Mass Transfer in Porous

Media Subject to Fires," International Journal of Heat and Mass

Transfer , IO69-IO81 (1979).

5 . P.J. Pagni, A.R. Ortega, R. Toossl and J. Holthuis, "Flat Flame

Burner Analyses," in press.

6 . C.M. Kinoshita, P.J. Pagni and R.A. Beier, "Opposed Flow Diffusion

Flame Extensions" to be published in the Proceedings of the

Eighteenth (international) Symposium on Combustion, August, I98O.

7 . C.M. Kinoshita and P.J. Pagni," Stagnation-Point Combustion with

Radiation" to be published in the Proceedings of the Eighteenth

(international) Symposium on Combustion, August, I98O.

8. S. Bard and P.J. Pagni, "Diffusion Flame Soot," in preparation.

9 . S. Bard and P.J. Pagni, "Induced Fluorescence and Scattering in

Pool Fire Diffusion Flames," in preparation.

10. S. Bard and P.J. Pagni, "Spatial Variation of Soot Volume

Fractions in Pool Fire Diffusion Flames," in preparation.

89
10

Lq, cm

0 73 Morkstein [25]

o 3 1 " " o 15

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

HEIGHT ABOVE FUEL SURFACE (cm)

90
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Lawrence Berkeley Laboratoty, University of California,

Berkeley

Grant No

: NB80NAGE1653

Grant Title : Thermal Radiation of Luminous Flames and Smoke

Principal Investigator : Professor Chang-Lin Tien

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of California

Berkeley, California 94720

Telephone: (415) 642-0877

Other Professional Personnel : S. C. Lee (Ph.D. Candidate)

G. S. Shiralkar (Ph.D. Candidate)

T. W. Tong (Ph.D. Candidate)

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. Takashi Kashiwagi

Technical Abstract :

The overall goal of this project is to establish a simple physical

framework for complex fire and smoke radiation calculations. The basic

research approach is based on developing approximate formulations by

systematically experimenting and analyzing the fundamental aspects of

the problem. The present research is focused on three topics: (1)

experimental investigation on soot radiation in flames, (2) analysis of

radiative heat transfer in scattering media, and (3) computation of fire

radiation and plume convection in an enclosure.

Experiments on Soot Radiation : Measurements of optical and Infrared

radiation attenuation in small-scale flames of solid plastics are being

carried out to provide more information on soot radiation and other re- lated characteristics. Of particular interest are the effects of various

soot parameters such as optical constants, particle sizes, and particle

number density on flame radiation. The experimental system allows com- prehensive and accurate measurements of emission, transmission and

scattering characteristics of various kinds of flames under controlled

environmental conditions.

Analysis of Radiative Transfer with Scattering : Soot and smoke

particles absorb and scatter visible and infrared radiation. Radiative

heat transfer in flames and smokes can be modeled on the basis of dispersed particles acting as independent absorbers and scatterers in the

gaseous medium. Simple, convenient representation of the absorptionscattering field is being investigated. In particular, the mean beam

length formulation for anisotropic-scattering and the resistance network

91
representation of an absorbing-scattering system has been developed on

the basis of the two-flux and the linear anisotropic scattering model.

Computation of Enclosure Convection and Radiation : Different

computation schemes for enclosure convection (elliptic-type) have been

examined carefully with their respective strengths and limitations.

Progress has been made in achieving simple approximate solution for

radiation heat transfer in one-dimensional, non-planar geometries and

multi-dimensional geometries. Interaction between enclosure convection

and radiation is being pursued currently.

Reports and Papers

1. L. C. Chow, Y. K. Cheung, and C. L. Tien, "A Higher-Order Difference

Scheme for Convective-Diffusive Equations," AIAA Proc. 4th Comp.

Fluid Dyn. Conf . , Paper No. 79-1466 (1979).

2. T. W. Tong and C. L. Tien, "Resistance-Network Representation of

Radiative Heat Transfer with Particulate Scattering," Paper No.

79-42, Western States Section/The Combustion Institute, Fall Meeting

(1979); to appear in J. Quant. Spect. Radiat. Transfer.

3. W. W. Yuen and C. L. Tien, "A Successive Approximation Approach to

Problems in Radiative Transfer with a Differential Formulation,"

J. Heat Transfer, 102 , (1980).

4.

S. C. Lee and C. L. Tien, "Optical Constants of Soot in Hydrocarbon

Flames," Proc. 18th Int. Symp. Comb. (1980).

92
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Insti tution : North Carolina State University

Grant No. : DA-0012

Title : Occupant Egress from Simulated Fires

Principal Investigator : Richard G. Pearson, Professor

North Carolina State University

Dept, of Industrial Engineering

Box 5511 , Raleigh, North Carolina 27650

Other Professional Personnel : Mahmoud A. Ayoub , Professor

NBS Scientific Officer: Bernard Levin

Technical Abstract

A program of research is proposed in which response times and

behaviors of residential occupants to simulated fire emergency

situations will be evaluated under laboratory and field conditions. A

variety of egress scenarios will be used to provide data relative to

such factors (constraints) as human physical and sensory ability charac

teristics, alertness, environmental designs, level of visibility, personal needs adjunct to egress, and responsibility for others and for

property. Studies will involve emergency egress from a "living facility" laboratory containing two bedrooms and a hallway, and from a sleep state as confirmed by EEG recordings. Based upon collected data,

a computerized simulation model will be developed for predicting the

total time for egress under various conditions of fire behavior, building design, and occupant characteristics.

The descriptive behavioral data are expected to have educational

value relative to occupant guidance for fire emergency egress. Response time data for egress, including specific component times, would

be related to probabilities of successful egress. The sleep study will

provide data on "sudden-av^/aken i ng" behaviors. Finally, the simulation

model would have value in predicting total egress times under a variety of environmental and human constraints as related to fire survival.

Accomplishments to date include the following:

1. A smoke and odor simulator was developed. A schematic, parts

list, and operational description have been furnished to the NBS

Scientific Officer. Basically the device involves mechanical component

including valves which are under the control of programmable electronic

circuitry. The simulator operation permits presentation of either low or high "smoke" (from liquid nitrogen) flow, of a tar odor, or of a 93
pleasant odor (bubble gum).

2. A "Detection and Decision Time Study" was completed as part

of a doctoral student's dissertation (see "Reports and Papers" for

citation to this as well as to related papers by the same author).

The stid/ was conducted to test hypothesized relationships between attitudes toward fire, personality dimensions, and perceived danger of

fires, and (a) time to detection of fire cues, (b) time to decision on

a sequence of actions to take in response to fires, and (c) actual

sequences of actions taken in response to fire conditions. Twentyseven male and twenty-seven female subjects filled out a questionnaire

measuring personality traits and general attitudes toward and also

beliefs about fires, and were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups. A subject in Group 1 saw a burnt wall with blackened

and exposed wires and was given to believe that a fire accident had once occured in the immediate environment; each subject in Group 2 saw

the same wall but also saw a smoke detector which he/she was told was installed for complete protection; each subject in Group 3 saw no such

burnt wall. While performing a tracking task requiring sustained

attention, each subject was then required to detect four fire related

stimuli and two non fire related stimuli presented. The subject was

then subjected to simulated fire conditions and required to make a series of decisions regarding appropriate behavior in fires.

Attitude items from the questionnaire were subjected to factor

analysis; seven identified factors were named. The questionnaire also

included items concerning personality traits of sensation-seeking,

manifest anxiety, and locus of control, taken respectively from the

Zuckerman, Taylor and Rotter scales. A factor analysis here identified

four factors.

Results indicated significant effects of attitudes on decision

times and on sequences of actions taken in response to simulated fire

conditions, but not on stimulus detection times. Several personality

variables were found to be related to detection times and decision times.

Perceived danger was found to be related to the detection of odor

stimuli and several effects of experiential variables on detection and

decision times were noted. Regression equations were written which

appeared to be able to predict detection times, decision times, or actions chosen in response to fires on the basis of attitude and personality factors. The first, second, and third "most common actions"

taken by subjats were "alert others," "call fire department," and

"leave building" respectively. These results are identical to those

reported by Bryan (1976) for behavior in real fires. Thus our findings

support the use of a laboratory simulation approach to the investigation

of human behavior in fire situations.

Overall, the results support the contentions of past researchers

that behavior in fire situations is related to individual attitudes and

personality variables, providing empirical Information on the magnitude

and direction of these heretofore hypothetical relationships. Results

also suggest a need to inform the public about the dangers of total

94
reliance on smoke and fire detectors for fire warnings, to the extent

of ignoring physical cues to fire which may be detected earlier by the

i nd i V i dual h i mse 1 f

3 . Data collection on egress behavior involving non-disabled

college-student subjects, adults confined to wheelchairs, and blind

adults has recently been completed. Six scenarios were involved; these

vary in starting point (bedroom—on bed, or seated/reclining on couch

in living room), complexity of behavioral responses required (e.g.,

search for child under bed or In closet), and egress mode (hall door,

main entry, window). All subject movements are viewed by television

cameras located in the rooms and hallway and connected to a television

monitor located in the control room. Specific events noted in the

scenarios are timed thru the use (a) of microswitches connected to

all doors, the dresser drawer, and telephone, or (b) of pressuresensitive mats located outside of door and window exits. All such

events are recorded (for time-analyses) on a 20-channel event recorder.

Additionally, an electronic timer is used to measure the total time

of egress for each scenario. This is activated by the onset of the

fire alarm, and terminates with the final response, 1 .e. , exit thru door

or window. A printer then prints out the total egress time in .01

seconds

Data analysis completed to date reveal^that, as compared to non- disabled (N-D) subjects (N=l8), blind subjects (N=ll) have longer mean egress times, much larger standard deviations, and higher minimum and

maximum subject egress times for all scenarios. For example, for the

"easiest" scenario mean egress times were 14.3 and A9.8 seconds

respectively; for the "hardest" scenario, the respective differences

were disproportionately greater -- 56.4 versus 120.3* Minimum subject

egress times for these same scenarios (easy-hard) respectively were

10.0 (N-D) versus 23*5 (blind) and 38.7 versus 59*7, while maximum times

respectively were 21.0 versus 104.8 and 99*5 versus 227-8 seconds. In brief, considerable individual differences are observed in the data,

and, in the case of blind subjects, there is clear indication of longer

latencies of behavioral responses associated with egress.

Reports and Papers

Schwalm, N. D. An Exploratory Study of Human Behavior in Simulated

Fire Situations as a Function of Perceived Danger, Personality and

Attitudes. Doctoral dissertation. North Carolina State University, 1979*

Schwalm, N. D. Human Behavior and Escape Times from Fires. Fi re Journal , accepted for publication.

Schwalm, N. D. Attitudes and Human Behavior in Fires: An Exploratory

Study of Relevant Concepts. Journal of Fire and Flammability, I98O,

in press.

95
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Northwestern University

Grant No,: NB80NADA 1021

Grant Title: Fire Propagation in Concurrent Flows

Principal Investigator : Professor Ao C. Fernandez-Pello

Department of Mechanical and Nuclear

Engineering

Northwestern University

Evanston, IL 60201

Other Professional Personnel : C.-P. Mao, Ph, D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer: W. J. Parker

Technical Abstract

A research program has been undertaken to study the mechanisms

controlling the spread of fire in gas flows moving in the direction

of fire propagation. In fire-spread processes where the induced

(naturally or forced) oxidizing gas flow moves in the direction of

propagation, the environment favors the propagation of the fire. As a result the fire spread process is more rapid and hazardous than in

other modes of propagation and, consequently, of great interest in the

fire safety field. Fire propagation in concurrent gas flows (windaided propagation) typically occurs during the spread of fire up vertical walls, along wall-ceiling corners, ceiling or corridors with air

currents generated in the direction of propagation by ventilations in

the building. During the research program, experimental and analytical

studies will be performed of some of the above fire spread configurations. Efforts will concentrate on the ceiling fire configuration

both in natural and forced convection.

1. Ceiling fire spread in natural convection:

A theoretical analysis of this mode of fire propagation is currently under way. At the present time the analytical solution of the gas

phase equations is being pursued. Two approaches, one making use of a self-similarity analysis and the other applying a Polhausen technique,

are being followed. Both solutions will be compared to verify the

nature of their respective solutions and to improve, if necessary,

their underlying approximations. The gas phase solution will be used

as boundary condition in the solid phase analysis from which the rate

of fire spread will be determined.

96
Experimentally, the rates of fire spread and mass burning under

an axis 3rmmetric ceiling configuration will be measured. At present,

initial tests are being conducted to determine the optimum scale of

the experiments , ignition method and techniques to measure the rates

of fire spread. The possibility of performing the measurements under

two-dimensional flow configuration is also being considered. The

experimental results will be used to verify the theoretical predictions, If the results of the comparison are negative, a numerical

solution of the couple gas and solid phase equations will be followed

2. Ceiling fire spread in forced convection:

A second effort of the research program will concentrate on this

configuration of fire spread. It has been selected because it provides the simplest way for studying the influence on the fire propaga

tion process of such parameters as initial temperature of the solid

combustible and of the gas flow, oxygen concentration of the oxidizer

and environmental pressure under well-controlled conditions. An

experimental installation consisting of a small scale wind tunnel, a pressurized gas settling tank and solid and gas heaters will be con- structed. Measurements of the rate of flame spread as a function of

the velocity of the gas flow, oxygen concentration, temperature and

pressure will follow. The experimental results will be used in an attempt to develop non-dimensional parameters which could describe

the fire spread process, and to compare predictions of present theoretical models.

97
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : The Pennsylvania State University

Grant No

: NBS Grant 7-9020

Grant Title : An Investigation of Fire Impingement on a Horizontal

Ceiling

Principal Investigator : Professor G. M. Faeth

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The Pennsylvania State University

214 M. E. Building

University Park, PA 16802

Other Professional Personnel : H-Z. You, Ph.D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer : H. Baum

Technical Abstract

The structure and heat transfer characteristics of turbulent fires

and fire plumes impinging on a horizontal ceiling is being investigated

in order to provide a better understanding of unwanted fires within

structures. The results of the study have application to modeling

fires within buildings, to determining heat transfer to structural

members during fires, and to estimating the environment of fire detectors and fire suppression devices mounted near a ceiling. Particular emphasis is placed on summarizing experimental results using either

correlations or simplified theory in a manner which facilitates their

use within comprehensive fire models for rooms and structures.

Measurements have been made of convective and radiative heat

fluxes to the ceiling, radiative heat fluxes to the ambiance, and

flame shape. These experiments have employed laboratory-scale apparatus involving ceiling diameters of 610-1000 mm, ceiling heights of

58-940 mm, fire source diameters of 10-107 mm, flame heat release rates

of 54-14250 W, with fires simulated by liquid fuels burning from wicks

as well as natural gas diffusion flames.

Two flame configurations have been selected for detailed structure

measurements in order to provide a better understanding of flame radiation properties, air entrainment rates, energy release rates, rates of

fuel consumption and ceiling heat transfer rates. The configuration in

this case involves a 1000 mm diameter water cooled ceiling located

400 mm above a 55 mm diameter burner tube, which flows natural gas.

The heat release rates for the two flames are 1.67 and 8.41 kW, yielding flames which just impinge on the ceiling or spread roughly 200 mm

along the ceiling, respectively. The measurements include profiles of

98
mean velocities and turbulent fluctuations using a laser Doppler

anemometer, mean temperature using fine-wire thermocouples and mean

concentrations of gaseous species (CH^, C2H^, H2, CO2, CO, H2O, O2 and

N2) using isokinetic sampling and gas chromatography. Flame shape is

measured by probing and by photography. Measurements are also made of

static pressure variations and radiative and convective heat fluxes

along the ceiling as well as radiative heat fluxes to the ambiance.

Measurements of flame heights, flame lengths along the ceiling and

convective heat fluxes to the ceiling have been correlated using simple

dimensionless parameters. The structure of tne flow is being examined

theoretically employing a turbulence model for the plume. Finally,

simple integral models are being applied to both the plume and the

ceiling flow.

The turbulence model for the plume is a k-e-g model which involves

numerical solution of Reynolds averaged governing equations for mean

quantities. Turbulence characteristics are determined by solving model

transport equations for turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation, and

for concentration fluctuations. It is assumed that the exchange co- efficients of all species and heat are the same, that chemical equilibrium is maintained at each point in the flow, and that kinetic energy

and viscous dissipation of the mean flow are negligible. Radiation is

treated as a perturbation where it concerns flow properties. Under

these assumptions mixture fraction is a conserved property of the flow,

and the equation of state (providing instantaneous temperature, composition, etc.) is only a function of mixture fraction. In this circumstance, average properties (temperatures, compositions, etc.) at any

point in the flow can be determined from the value of mean mixture

fraction and concentration fluctuations, in conjunction with an assumed

form for the probability density function for the mixture fraction

(taken to be a clipped Gaussian function)

This model has been calibrated using constant and variable density

noncombusting flows and combusting jets—where buoyancy effects are

small. The model constants were not changed for the present calculations for the two buoyant flames. Calculations were initiated using

measurements at the lowest axial station as the initial condition.

The turbulence model provided fair predictions of mean and turbulence quantities in the two test flames (mean velocity, mixture

fraction, temperature, species concentrations and Reynolds stress);

however, agreement between predictions and measurements was poorer than

for earlier combusting flows where buoyancy effects were small. The

major discrepancy involved flow widths, which were generally underestimated by the model. Potential sources of error involve buoyancy

and low Reynolds number effects that were not considered in the model,

as well as flow disturbances from the ambiance. It is concluded that

the model provides useful predictions, however, further development is

needed to improve quantitative accuracy. In this regard new data is

needed on noncombusting weakly and strongly buoyant plumes in order to

99
allow systematic development of the model. Results for larger scale

turbulent fires are also needed, in order to assess Reynolds number

effects. Work is planned in this laboratory to provide these results.

Current activities involve the development of integral models for

the plume and ceiling flow regions. Great emphasis is being placed on simplicity, so that the models can be adapted for use within more com- prehensive models of fires within structures. This involves the use of

top hat profiles, entrainment expressions allowing for flow acceleration and Richardson number effects, and a simplified turbulent reaction

rate expression based on eddy dissipation. The models also consider

gaseous radiation. The turning region of the flow is being treated

similar to earlier work by Alpert, at Factory Mutual Research.

The results of this research provide heat transfer parameters that can be used in building design to reduce potential fire losses. The

structure measurements provide benchmark data for well-defined con- ditions which can be used to test fire models at all levels of sophistication. Initial turbulence modeling efforts appear promising,

continued model development has the potential for reducing the need for

expensive large-scale tests for fire hazard evaluation. The integral

model provides a rational means of correlating information on fire

structure, which can be applied in more comprehensive models of fires

within structures.

Reports and Papers

You, H-Z. and Faeth, G. M. , "An Investigation of Fire Impingement on a Horizontal Ceiling," Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, October, 1979.

You, H-Z. and Faeth, G. M. , "Ceiling Heat Transfer During Fire Plume

and Fire Impingement," Fire and Materials , Vol. 3, 140-147, 1979.

Ahmad, T. and Faeth, G. M. , "Turbulent Wall Fires," Seventeenth

Symposium (International) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute,

Pittsburgh, 1149-1160, 1979.

You, H-Z. and Faeth, G. M. , "Measurements and Predictions in Buoyant

Turbulent Fires," in preparation.

100
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Instltut ion ; Physio-Behavioral Consultants

996 So. 1500 E. Salt Lake City, Utah 84105

Grant No. ; Work conducted under purchase order agreement

Grant Title : Toxic Gas Tenability Limits in Fire Environments

Principal Investigator ; S. C. Packham, Ph.D.

NBS Scientific Officer ; M. M. Birky, Ph.D.

Technical Abstract

This project addressed the issue of estimating survivable exposures

of hvnnans to toxic gases frequently encountered in smoke from fires in

residential and other occupied structures. A rational basis for

estimating these "tenability limits" was formulated from a review of

laboratory animal data and available information from human exposures

both controlled and accidental.

Survivability was adopted as a working synonym for tenability and

biological endpoints ranging from respiration and escape/avoidance

responses to death were reviewed as relevant models of survivability

which could be objectively qualified and scientifically studied. The

ability of a chosen endpoint to model the eventual human response of

interest was emphasized as the first of two critical elements in estimating tenability limits.

All biological responses reported thus far in inhalation experiments

of combustion products have been found to be sensitive to both toxicant

concentration and duration of toxicant exposure. This characteristic

is the second necessary element in a tenability limit determination.

For any given biological endpoint an increase in toxicant concentration

will elicit an effect in a shorter exposure period once the toxicant s effective threshold concentration is exceeded. An endpoint will also

have a characteristic time asymptote, i.e. as toxicant concentrations

become excessively large. The minimum time-to-effeet will approach a fixed interval. The graphical representation of this time x concentration

relationship usually yields curves hyperbolic in form.

The exact placement of TC curves relative to the time and

concentration axis is a function of the biological endpoint and the

percent of the exposed population one wishes to prevent from reaching

that endpoint. For example, endpoints based on a median population

response, if strictly applied and perfectly predictive , would represent

and generate tenability limits effective for fifty percent of the

101
population. Thus either zero threshold effect levels must be determined

or some "safety factor" applied to median-response data. In either case

the report explains the time x concentration x percent /effect response

surface from which TC curves and tenable exposure conditions can be

estimated.

Two compounds, CO and HCN, were reviewed and tenability limits

based on motor coordinated behavioral responses were offered as illustrative examples which applied the approach developed in the

report.

102
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution ; Princeton University

Grant No. : NBS Grant 7-9004

Grant Title ; An Experimental Investigation of Flame Spread Over Conden

sible Combustibles; Gas Phase Interactions

Principal Investigators ; Profs. I. Glassman and F.L. Dryer

Dept, of Mech. and Aero. Eng.

Princeton University

Princeton, NJ 08544

NBS Scientific Officer ; B. McCaffrey

Technical Abstract

Work reported previously has shown that the dependence of flame

spread rate on the opposed flow velocity is a strong function of the

ambient oxygen concentration. For oxygen mass fractions above approximately 0.34, the flame spread rate was observed to increase with opposed flow velocity while for lower concentrations it decreased. Following a consideration including chemical kinetics, the results were

correlated by two non-dimensional parameters , one describing the gas

phase kinetic effects (a Damkohler number, D) and the other describing

the process of heat transfer from the flame to fuel (a non-dimensional

flame spread rate, V).

D = C

y p’^A Y (In

g 8 o (1+B)/B°*^^)

Le p

exp (-E /RT^)

g f

( 1)

V =

p C X V (T -T ) s s s V

p C A U (T^-T ) g p g m f V

( 2 )

The symbols are the standard ones used and it is to be noted that

U is the opposed flow velocity, V- the flame spread rate, and the

subscripts on T stand for vaporization, ambient and flame. The nondimensional rate was taken from the analysis of de Ris^ for thick fuels

2

This approach was similar to that used by Altenrich et al for

thin fuels. Previous work on thin fuels in an opposed flow has been ex clusively in air^“^. Consequently we extended our work on the effect

of oxygen concentration in opposed flows to thin fuels, paper, with the

realization that the mechanism of heat transfer for thin fuels is dif103
ferent from that for thick fuels. The analysis of de Ris^ provides the

following non-dimensional velocity flame spread velocity for thin fuels

V =

p C LV (T -T ) s s V a 2^^^ X (T^-T ) e f V

(3)

where L is the fuel thickness.

Expression (3) predicts that V is independent of U but increases

with Y , which was_exactly the trend of the experimental results found.

Further a plot of D vs V correlated all the extensive experimental results for thin fuels extremely well. Both correlations (thick and thin

fuels) were reported in a recently presented paper.

Additional experimental work on thick fuels was undertaken to evaluate the thermophysical properties of the gas phase which are important

parameters in the Damkohler number. The major modification made was to

replace the nitrogen diluent with argon. Although the results obtained

displayed all the trends present in the work reported above, the cor- relations were not as good. The scatter obtained raised some questions

concerning the fluid dynamical aspects of the problem. It seems possible that a transition to turbulent flow occurs within the range of

velocities studied. Another possibility is the influence of the flame

on the flow field upstream, which would thereby change the opposed flow

velocity experienced by the pre-mixed flame front.

Because of these questions, it was then decided to investigate in

detail the flow field ahead of the spreading flame, particularly just

in front of the premixed flame. It is hoped that some light might be

shed on what is the proper characteristic velocity for the correlations,

rather than simply the mid-flow velocity used. Also, a preliminary ex- periment using paper in an underdeveloped flow configuration seemed to

indicate the importance of the velocity gradient at the fuel surface

when the flame is near extinction. To achieve these aims, a wind tunnel

was constructed with a flexible ceiling. The cross sectional area of

the tunnel could thus be varied to produce a constant velocity gradient

along the surface of the fuel.

Some results have already been obtained showing the influence of

the flame on the upstream flow field. The flow is decelerated as it

approaches the flame until a point just ahead of the flame where the

velocity increases. This last increase is presumably due to the thermal expansion of the gases leading to a drop in density and hence a rise in velocity. Work is presently continuing using different flow

rates to see how the velocity gradient and the detailed flow field vary.

It is hoped that a clearer understanding of the flow field and its interaction with the flame will help toward a more concise application of

the correlation to the flame spread problem.

104
The success of our LDV system not only for making velocity measurements, but also measurements close to the flame, encouraged us to ex- tend our work to the axisymmetric horizontal flame spread and mass

burning problem. Essentially this problem is one of a buoyant plume and

a 'major objective is to measure the entrainment by the plume and the

major parameters which affect the entrainment. LDV measurements have

been made on 2 , 3 and 4 inch pool flames. Although progress has been

made, current efforts are directed to adapting the LDV system to this

experimental configuration, analyzing the turbulent transition conditions, and modifying the associated microprocessor equipment.

References

1. de Ris , J.N.: Twelfth S)miposium (Int’l) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, 241 (1969).

2. Altenrich, R.A. , Eichhorn, R. and Shang, P.C.: Buoyancy Effects

on Flames Spreading Down Thermally Thin Fuels, submitted to Combustion and Flame (1979).

3. Lastrina, F.A., Magee, R.S., and McAlevy, R.F.: Thirteenth Symposium (Int’l) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, 935 (1971).

4. Hirano, T. and Sato, K. : Fifteenth Symposium (Int’l) on Combustion,

The Combustion Institute, 233 (1975).

5. Sibulkin, M., Ketelhut, W. , and Feldman, S.: Combust. Sci. Tech

% 75 (1974).

6. Fernandez-Pello, A.C., Ray, S.R. and Classman, I.: Flame Spread

in an Opposed Forced Flow: The Effect of Ambient Oxygen Concentration, accepted for publication in Eighteenth S5nnposium (Int’l)

on Combustion.

Reports and Papers

Fernandez-Pello, A.C., ’’Flame Spread in a Forward Forced Flow”, Comb,

and Flame, 63 (1979).

Fernandez-Pello, A.C., and Santoro, R.J., ”0n the Dominant Mode of Heat

Transfer in Downward Flame Spread”, Seventeenth Symp. (Int’l) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, p. 1201 (1979).

Fernandez-Pello, A.C., and Classman, I., "The Effect of Oxygen Concentration on Flame Spread in an Opposed Forced Flow”, Western States

Section/The Combustion Institute Paper No. 79-26 (1979).

Ray, S.R., Fernandez-Pello, A.C., and Classman, I., "An Analysis of the

Heat Transfer Mechanisms in Horizontal Flame Spread”, ASME Publication

79-HT-25 (1979)

Santoro, R.J., Fernandez-Pello, A.C., Dryer, F.L., and Classman, I.,

"Laser Doppler Velocimetry as Applied to the Study of Flame Spread Over

Condensed Phase Materials”, in "Laser Velocimetry and Particle Sizing”,

H.D. Thompson and W.H. Stevenson, Eds., Hemisphere Publishing Company,

Washington, D.C. p. 166 (1979).

105
Ray, S.R., Fernandez-Pello , A.C. and Classman, I., "The Combined Effects of Oxygen Concentrations and Opposed Flow Velocities on Flame

Spread Over Thin Fuels", Eastern States Section/The Combustion Institute

Paper No. 79-25 (1979).

Fernandez-Pello, A.C., Ray, S.R. and Classman, I., "Flame Spread in an Opposed Forced Flow: The Effect of Ambient Oxygen Concentration" ac- cepted for publication in Eighteenth S5Tnposium (Int'l) on Combustion.

106
CEITTER FOR FIRE PZSK4P.CH

IIATIOIIAL BUPEIAU OF STAITRARES

Institution: Fire Research Departnent , Consnr'j.ction Fechnolcg;.' _ahcratories, Portland Ceinent Association

Grant Ro . ; IIBS Grant IIB8 QUADA1009

Grant Title : Extension of Short-lerm Creep Tests at Elevated Temperatures

Principal Investigator : Michael Gillen

Fire Research Department

Construction Technology.' lahoratories

Portland Cement Association

5^20 Old Orchard Road

Skokie, Illinois 6OOTT

Other Professional Personnel : ITone

MBS Scientific Officer : L. Is sen

Technical Abstract

This program is an extension of a previous investigation, also

funded by MBS, of the short-term, creep behavior of concrete at ele'/ated

temperatures. The current program examines the influence of variables

not studied in detail in the initial program, but that were observed to

have a measureable effect on concrete strain behavior. In particular,

the role of moisture in influencing creep behavior -will be studied at a number of loads and temperatures. In addition, one test series will

examine the effect of these variables on concrete compressive strength.

At the conclusion of the experimental portion of the program, an effort will be made to use the data to develop an analytical expression

that will adequately model concrete creep behavior as a function of the

variables studied. A suitable model for the short-term creep of concret

at elevated temperatures is essential for the accurate evaluation of the

design of a concrete structure to withstand fire.

The experimental program includes 2T6 creep and compressive

strength tests on concrete cylinders made from three types of mineral

aggregates. Significant variables are:

a. Aggregate type - calcareous, siliceous, and light'-eight

aggregates,

b. Temperature - ambient to 6^90 (1200F),

c. Static load - 0.3 to 0.6f'

c d. Concrete curing - 10, 50, and 100% PE, and

e. Test duration - 6 to 2h]i.

107
The analytical portion of the program will begin with, but not

be limited to, a comparison of test data to models proposed by other

investigators in the field of creep of concrete at room and elevated

temperatures. In addition, some alternative expressions will be

examined in the course of determining the mathematical model that

best matches experimental results.

Funding for the program was approved at the end of March, I98 O. Work completed from that time has included the fabrication of over 100 test cylinders, and the development of computer programs for

processing the large volume of test data generated by the experimental program. Creep tests on mature concrete specimens will begin

during July, I98 O, and continue for the following 12-15 months. Work

on the analysis of data and model-building will be carried out in

parallel with the experimental portion of the program.

Reports and Papers

None

108
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : Fire Research Department, Construction Technology

Laboratories, Portland Cement Association

Grant No . : NBS Grant G8-902T

Grant Title : Fire Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams

Principal Investigator : Dr. T. D. Lin

Fire Research Department

Construction Technology Laboratories

Portland Cement Association

5^20 Old Orchard Road

Skokie, Illinois 6 OOTT

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. W. G. Corley and M. S. Abrams

NBS Scientific Officer : L. Issen

Technical Abstract

The objective of this program is to obtain experimental data

for validating the computer program developed by the National Bureau

of Standards. The computer model provides for the analysis of shear

failure mechanisms in continuous beams exposed to fire. Because

the computer program considers the effect of various temperature-related parameters on thermal and structural responses of beams, the

analytical procedure becomes extremely complicated. It is, therefore, important to validate this computer software by the use of

experimental data.

The program involves six fire tests of reinforced normalweight concrete beams. All beams are 27 ft. (8.2m) long. Five

beams have cross sections of 21 in. x 9 in. (530mm x 230mm), and

one has a cross section of 2k in. x 10 in. (6l0mm x 250mm).

Standard test methods described in ASTM Designation EII9 are being used. Four beams were exposed to fires that were regulated

to follow ASTM Standard Time-Temperature Curve. Two beams will be

tested with a high-intensity, short -duration fire. Throughout the

tests, specimens were loaded to the level that the applied moments

were equivalent to nearly 60^ of the moment capacities of the beams.

The measured data during fire tests include steel and concrete

temperatures, deflections, and change of angle at several points along

the top surface of the member.

109
Major apparatus for the tests include a full-scale heani furnace

equipped with a hydraulic system that has a half-million pound capacity,

temperature recording equipment, and a data acquisition system con- trolled by an HP983O computer.

An effective method for measuring angle changes of the beam

during the fire test was developed. A sizeable program was prepared

for use with a HP9845 computer to analyze the flexural behavior of

beams due to load and fire.

To date, four beams have been tested. Shear cracks generally

occurred about 30 min. after start of heating, and flexural cracking

began nearly 2 hr later. However, the flexural cracks progressed

much faster than the shear cracks, and imminent flexural collapse

ended all four tests. Duration of tests was about hr.

Comprehensive test data will be submitted to NBS as soon as the test program is completed. The information will make validation

of the computer program possible. This computer program will be

useful in resolving difficult problems associated with analyzing

structural behavior under fire. Ultimately, this validated computer

program should be a powerful tool for designing more fire-resistive

concrete structiires.

Reports and Papers

Lin, T.D. and Abrams, Melvin S., "Fire Tests of Reinforced Concrete

Beams," A report to National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.,

(August, 1979)-

110
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution ; SRI International

Contract No. ; EO-AOl-78-00-3569

Contract Title ; Continuation of Decision Analysis Studies in

Fire Hazard Analysis

Principal Investigator ; Fred L. Offensend, Ph.D.

Decision Analysis Group

SRI International

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Co-Principal Investigator ; Burke E. Robinson, Ph.D.

Decision Analysis Group

SRI International

Menlo Park, CA 94025

NBS Scientific Officer ; Benj amin Buchbinder

Technical Abstract

The objective of the project is to develop and apply decision analysis methods to problems of fire safety planning. The project is being

conducted by personnel from CFR's Program for Information and Hazard

Analysis and SRI's Decision Analysis Group. Three principal fire problems have been addressed during the course of the project; upholstered

furniture fire safety, electric transformer fluids fire safety, and

residential fire safety.

Most of the work during fiscal year 1980 has been directed toward

the residential fire safety problem. The purpose of the effort has been

to develop a decision analysis model for use in evaluating alternative

strategies for use in reducing residential fire losses. The model is

also to be used to provide insight for identifying research priorities

for ameliorating the residential fire problem.

The decision analysis model has several important features. One

feature is that separate sub-models are included to reflect the public

acceptance and implementation of the alternatives. These sub-models are important because the ultimate effectiveness of an intervention strategy

depends not only on the underlying technical effectiveness of the alternative, but also on the extent to which the alternative is implemented

by the target population. Sub-models are also included to allow for

technological breakthroughs that may occur through research efforts.

Central to the decision analysis model is a fire spread and growth

sub-model. This model accounts for type of fire scenario (e.g. interior

living space, heating room, etc.), detector performance, size of fire at

111
time of initiation of effective suppression, extent of flame damage, and

personal and property losses. A simple human behavior model is included

to account for the fact that some victims are subjected to the fire

before the intervention strategy can take effect. As with the other submodels, the fire spread and growth model is developed in the form of a probability tree to account for uncertainty on the various input factors.

The model has been purposely kept simple to allow for an initial screening of the most interesting alternatives. Detail will be added to the

model as the most important model parameters become evident.

The model is used by first specifying an intervention strategy to

be evaluated. The public acceptance and implementation model then calculates the fraction of target residences that implement and install the

intervention measure correctly. The fire spread and growth model calculates the change in personal and property losses that occur, given the

implementation level of the alternative. A value model converts the

reduction in fire losses to economic terms, thereby allowing for a determination of the cost plus loss of the alternative in question. The

analytical process is repeated for other intervention strategies. From

an economic standpoint, the most attractive alternative is the one with

the least total cost plus loss.

The model is being used to carry out a preliminary evaluation of

residential sprinklers and smoke detectors. Where possible we have used

1978 NFIRS data to establish model parameters for current conditions.

Expert judgment is used to assess input factors for which statistical

data do not exist. Sensitivity studies are performed to determine how

the comparison of alternatives changes with changes in the expert assessments. We hope to have initial results ready for review by early autiimn,

1980.

Reports and Papers

Levinthal, D., "Application of Decision Analysis to a Regulatory Problem:

Fire Safety Standards for Liquid Insulated Transformers" Center for Fire

Research, National Bureau of Standards, 1979.

Quinn, D.J., "Combining Expert Judgment and Historical Data: Some

Illustrative Examples" SRI International, 1980.

112
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : SRI International

Grant No : EO-AOl-78-3559

Grant Title : The Effect of Fire Retardants on the Heat-Release Rate

of Building Materials

Principal Investigator : Stanley B. Martin

Director, Fire Research Department

Physical Sciences Division

SRI International

333 Ravenswood Avenue

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Other Professional Personnel : Lawrence B. Inman

Robert G. McKee, Jr.

Jana Backovsky

NBS Scientific Officer: W. J. Parker

Technical Abstract

Since fire losses are a direct result of the heat released by burning materials during a fire, it would be extremely useful to know how to

modify materials to limit their ability to release heat during exposure

to fire. It may be unrealistic to expect to appreciably reduce the timeintegrated quantity of heat released (per unit area of material exposed

to fire) when a material suffers prolonged fire exposure, that is, long

enough to oxidize even the most resistant chars. However, it is well

within the current knowledge of fire retardant technology to markedly

slow the rate of release by enhancing char formation. Carbon-rich chars

represent fuel that is not available to the gas-phase combustion processes, thereby reducing the caloric value of the volatiles. It is

reasonable to speculate that the reduction in fuel value of the volatiles, a qualitative gain, is the main effect of char-yield enhancement.

Yet there are recognized quantitative effects as well—some being antagonistic—that may be either more or less important. For example, charenhancing additives in cellulose increase the rate of decomposition and

volatilization, presumably by reducing either the pyrolysis activation

energy or the heat of gasification (or both) , to at least partially

negate the reduction in calorific value of the combustion of the volatiles. This assumes, of course, that the cellulose, with or without

additive, experiences the same temperature-time history. But chars may

also act as insulative barriers between the heat source and the undecomposed cellulose to slow heat conduction and, thereby, the rate of volatile supply.

The objective of this research is to experimentally evaluate the

113
relative importance of these effects of char production in cellulose,

which are not known at the present time.

The essential measurement is temperature-time records at various

depths below the heated surface during exposure of suitably prepared

specimens to selected radiant-heat fluxes in the air stream of a rateof-heat -release (RHR) calorimeter. Supplementary measurements should

include: (1) the corresponding heat-release record, (2) weight loss,

(3) char yield and composition, (4) heat of combustion of unburned

residues.

Our method to date makes use of the SRI/RHR Calorimeter, a scaledup version of the original NBS/RHR Calorimeter. With minor modification so that thermocouple leads can be brought out from the specimen

to suitable cold junctions and recording equipment, the measurement of

temperature-time records can readily be accomplished concurrently with

the measurement of the rate of heat release. It would be our preference

to also measure the other properties and responses, particularly the

weight loss rates, concurrently, or at least in a measurement derived

from the resultant state of the exposure of the same specimen. Unfortunately, the SRI calorimeter is not presently capable of continuous

weight-loss monitoring nor does its design allow for ready recovery of

specimen residuals following an exposure terminated at specified duration. Therefore, these supplementary data may have to be acquired independently, and our approach to date reflects this limitation.

Valid interpretation of measured temperature profiles requires

well-defined boundary conditions of specimen exposure, and great simplification is afforded by close experimental approximation to one-dimensional conduction in solids of unlimited depth. The implied requirement of uniform heating over the entire surface, normal to the direction

of heat conduction, is met by the design of the radiant heating system

of the calorimeter; specimen surface areas up to 18 in. by 24 in.

(46 cm . by 61 cm = 2800 cm^) can be uniformly exposed to radiant heat

fluxes in the range from 1 to 7 w/cm^. Temperature-time histories at

various depths in poorly conducting solids such as cellulose (the magnitude of thermal conductivity, k, in most cellulosic solids is on the

order of 10“^ watt/cm^ - °K/cm) are measured with fair spatial resolution and minor perturbation, due to the measurement itself, with finewire thermocouples. However, the required thick specimens are not

readily obtained.

Specimen stock composed of high quality alpha-cellulose pulp is

commercially available in thicknesses of less than millimeter. These

may be laminated to any desired thickness, at the same time providing a convenient method for thermocouple implantation at the lamination interfaces, but such techniques are not used commercially and must be specially developed to suit particular application. At best these techniques are tedious, and so our goal has been to keep the thickness to

a bare minimum that is consistent with the requirement for one-dimensional conduction of heat into a uniform solid of unlimited depth.

Additionally, it is very desirable to be able to prolong the exposures

114
until an approximation to steady state is achieved. This translates

to a requirement for minimum ^-cm slabs.

We have developed a very successful method for making up thick

cellulosic specimens with thermocouples implanted at various depths to

measure the time-temperature history at each depth from which timedependent temperature profiles can be derived. These specimens largely

overcome the delamination problems that plague applications of large

surface area dry laminates of cellulose. Slabs of ^-cm thickness have

been exposed in the RHR calorimeter, providing data on heat release and

detailed temperature records in both "neat" and Na^B^O^-treated (2% w/w

add on) cellulose. Clearly marked deficits in heat release rates were

exhibited by the treated specimens. This success favors further experimental efforts along the originally proposed lines of investigation.

Temperature measurements to date are limited, and any conclusions

must be regarded as somewhat tentative. The data suggest that char

enhancement reduces heat release mainly by reducing the caloric value of

the volatile products, rather than by slowing the rate of volatile

production as a result of any insulating effect of the char. On the

contrary, the evidence suggest that rates of pyrolysis are greater in

the treated cellulose.

It seems noteworthy that early-time temperature profiles are very

regular in shape, conforming to a classical conduction-in-inert-solid

form, and distinctly nonclassical features appear only later. This

argues that: (1) locations of the implanted thermocouples are precisely

known and (2) appreciable sources (and/or sinks) of heat accompany the

pyrolytic chemical reactions. A feature that suggests an exotherm can

be seen progressing into the material as a thermal wave; this is more

pronounced in the Na

2

B^0^-treated cellulose.

Reports and Papers

Martin, S. B. and Inman, L. B. , "The Effect of Fire Retardants on the

Heat Release Rate of Building Materials," Summary Report, SRI Project

PYU-7929, 1980 (in publication).

115
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : SRI International

Grant No . : NBS Grant DA1003

Grant Title : Polymer Degradation During Combustion

Principal Investigator : Dr. S. K. Brauman

Polymer Sciences

SRI International

333 Ravenswood Avenue

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Other Professional Personnel : I. J. Chen, M.S.

NBS Scientific Officer: R. G. Gann

Technical Abstract

The degradation of burning polystyrene is being investigated to

provide understanding of the detailed degradation processes occurring

in the condensed phase of a burning poljrmer that result in fuel production and to allow prediction of the effect of certain thermal or chemical variables on the rate or mechanism of fuel production. We are using

a novel driven-rod apparatus with superimposed radiant heating to study

steady-state linear regression of vertically mounted polymer rods degrading under nonflaming conditions that simulate those of combustion.

Absence of the flame simplifies experiments and analysis. The investigation entails: (1) steady-state linear regression rate studies to

relate the radiant pyrolysis situation to the combustion situation, and

to provide samples and information (temperature profiles, oxygen involvement) needed for analysis; (2) characterization of radiant pyrolysis

residues and off-gases to provide mechanistic information of the con- densed-phase degradation processes; (3) kinetic analysis of the

degradation rates.

The combustion studies in phase 1 have been completed. Typically,

for a 0. 5-in. -diameter polystyrene rod burning from the top in air,

steady-state combustion is achieved after 15 minutes. A steady-state

combustion rate of 0.091 cm/min is maintained throughout the remainder

of the burn (30-40 min) . The temperature profile is determined with a thermocouple embedded in the sample. The surface temperature, or temperature when the thermocouple appears at the surface, is 376 ± 8°C.

The temperature profile extends some 2 cm into the polymer. The top

7 ± 1 mm of the rod sample is fluid: the topmost 1 mm is actively

bubbling.

Radiant pyrolysis studies using the identical rod configuration are now in progress. We are attempting to achieve the combustion linear

116
regression rate for nonflaming degradation of the polymer rod in air and

nitrogen by using superimposed radiant heating on the top of the polymer

rod. To achieve a pyrolysis temperature profile and melt depth resem- bling those during combustion, we had protected the length of the rod

from the incident light with a water-cooled stainless steel shield.

From preliminary experiments, the incident light flux on the rod surface

required to achieve the desired pyrolysis rate is approximately 3.5 to

4.0 cal cm ^sec ^ in air. We expect the required flux level to be

independent of atmosphere, indicating that polymer surface oxidation is

unimportant during pyrolysis and, presumably, during combustion in this

top-burning configuration. Characterization of radiant pyrolysis residues and off-gases will begin in the near future.

The information obtained from this research will contribute to

reducing the nation's fire loss by providing understanding of the

chemistry of the combustion process of fuel production. With this

knowledge, understanding of the effectiveness of and even prediction of

improved fire retardants used to control fires by altering fuel production become possible.

Reports and Papers :

Brauman, S. K. and Chen, I. J. , "Polymer Degradation During Combustion,"

SRI International Quarterly Report No. 1, April 4, 1980.

117
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution ; Underwriters Laboratories Inc.

Grant No

; NB80NADA1016

Grant Title ; Investigation of Fire Hazards of Fireplace

Inserts in Factory-Built and Masonry

Fireplaces

Principal Investigator ; Charles H. Gibbons

Underwriters Laboratories Inc.

333 Pfingsten Rd

Northbrook, IL 60062

Other Professional Personnel ; Wayne Terpstra

NBS Scientific Officer: R. Peacock

Technical Abstract:

The purpose of this program is to evaluate installation, constructional and performance features of fireplace

inserts in factory-built and masonry fireplaces. Current

designs are now being reviewed and an experimental program,

to be conducted over the next 12 months, will provide

information on the compatibility of inserts and fireplaces with respect to installation and operation.

The experiments will be designed to develop information on the following constructional and operational

f ea tures

a. Temperatures on adjacent combustible materials.

b. Temperatures on the fireplace.

c. Temperatures on the fireplace insert and

fire chamber walls.

d. Compatibility of the insert with the fireplace.

e. Methods of sealing the fireplace opening.

f. The effects of installation of the insert on

airflow and air-cooling of the fireplace.

U8
g. The effects of chimney size and construction

on the performance of the insert.

h. Securement or removal of existing fireplace

dampers when installing the insert.

i. Material, construction, and structural

integrity of the fireplace insert.

j. Evaluation of electrical components and

controls associated with the fireplace inserts.

k . Flue-gas temperature and composition.

l. Carbon monoxide leakage.

The experiments will be carried out, using 15 combinations of fireplaces and fireplace inserts. The factorybuilt fireplaces will be installed in accordance with

the manufacturer's installation instructions and the

Standard for Safety for Factory-Built Fireplaces, UL 127.

Two masonry fireplaces of normal construction and in

conformance with building code requirements will be used

in the program. The fireplace inserts will be installed

in the fireplaces in accordance with the manufacturer's

instruct ions

The experiments will be conducted, using a fuel

source consistent with the methods presently being used

for solid-fuel-burning appliances under nationally

recognized standards.

The results will be arranged and presented such that

model code agencies, trade groups, independent laboratories, etc., can utilize them to modify or develop

standards or codes.

119
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

October 22-24, 1980

Institution : University of California, San Diego

Grant No : NBS Grant G8-9005

Grant Title : Studies of Flame Extinction in Relationship to Fire

Suppression

Principal Investigator : Professor Forman A. Williams

Department of Applied Mechanics

and Engineering Sciences

University of California, San Diego

La Jolla, California 92093

(714) 452-3172

Other Professional Personnel : Sia Sohrab, Graduate Student

Amable Li'nan, Visiting Professor

Alvin S. Gordon, Adjunct Professor

NBS Scientific Officer : T . Kashiwagi

Technical Abstract :

The objective of this work is to develop an improved understanding of mechanisms of fire suppression by studying flame extinction in

the presence of suppressive agents. Main suppressants considered are nitrogen and halons. Principal configurations studied are the downward propagation of premixed flames through quiescent mixtures con- tained in tubes and the counterflow diffusion flame produced by directing an oxidizing gas stream, containing suppressant, downward onto the

burning surface of liquid or solid fuel. Data include concentrations

(obtained by sampling and gas chromatographic analysis), temperature

profiles (measured with thermocouples), flame shapes, flame speeds and

extinction conditions. Results are interpreted on the basis of theory

which specifies a critical Damkohler number of extinction. Plan is to

apply the theory to extract overall chemical kinetic information under

conditions near extinction, to attempt to relate such information to

chemical kinetic mechanisms underlying suppression, to ascertain differences in the thermal, flow and kinetic aspects of extinction by the

different agents, and to develop theoretical descriptions of influences of radiant losses on extinction in the counterflow diffusion flame.

Most of the progress made during the past year concerns studies of

premixed flames in mixtures of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. This

120
work demonstrated the importance of thermo-diffusive instabilities,

with negligible effects of buoyancy, in producing cellular flames over

a wide range of mixture ratio for near-limit, downward propagation in

tubes. Curves of flammability limits, which are of significance in con- nection with fire suppression by inerting of enclosures, were shown to

be affected by these cellular-flame phenomena. In particular, they are responsible for the fuel-rich shift of the peak in the curve of nitrogen

content required to prevent flame propagation as a function of equivalence ratio. Also, they cause extinction by conductive heat loss to be

uninfluenced by the walls of the tube, since the loss occurs from cells

to nonreacting intercellular gases.

Among the theoretical developments was an analysis of the influence

of flame curvature (the important cellular-flame characteristic produced by the thermo -diffusive instability) and heat loss on flame propagation and extinction. In this theory, a Newtonian, homogeneous approximation for the heat loss was employed, both for analytical convenience

and also because procedures for accurate calculation of two-dimensional,

conductive losses are unavailable for these flames. Through approximate

identification of the heat-loss term with estimates of transverse rates

of heat conduction, approximate agreement of theoretical predictions

with experimental curves of flammability limits was obtained. Measurements with fine thermocouples of rates of decrease of temperature behind

flames provided heat-loss values consistent with observed extinction

conditions, according to the theory. Therefore a theoretical justification for the observations was obtained.

Additional measurements of diffusion-flame extinction in the

counterflow experiment were made for polymers that had not been tested

previously. Specifically, polyoxymethylene, polystyrene and polyethylene were studied. Previously developed procedures for extracting overall activation energies and pre-exponential factors for the combustion

process from the extinction measurements were applied to these fuels to

obtain their rate parameters. Radiant heat loss from the surface of the

fuels was taken into account in the data reduction and was found to be

of some importance for polystyrene. Measurements of regression rates

and of surface temperatures (by means of imbedded thermocouples) were

made to improve the accuracy of the calculation of the effect of radiant loss.

Apparatus was modified to enable HBr to be used as a suppressant

in the diffusion- flame extinction studies. The intent is to compare

extinction data of HBr with that obtained previously with CF^Br for

heptane pools, to ascertain if there is a correspondence of extinction

effectiveness with bromine content in these experiments. This work is

directed toward developing a simplified description of the effect of

chemical suppressants on extinguishing gas -phase flames above condensed

fuels. It had previously been established that the methods employed for

data reduction with inert suppressants did not provide reasonable kinetic

parameters if used for bromine-containing suppressants. The rate formula has now been modified by insertion of an efficiency factor for

121
chemical suppression, dependent on suppressant concentration and temperature. Efforts are in progress to ascertain the functional dependence of this factor through use of extinction data. Theoretical con- siderations of detailed mechanisms of chemical suppression by bromine

compounds also are in progress, with the objective of justifying a simplified model that can be used in extinction theory.

Also in progress is a theoretical analysis of influences of radiant

heat loss from the gas on diffusion-flame extinction conditions. A

perturbation approach is being pursued, with the radiant loss treated

as a perturbation to the activation-energy as3nnptotics . The resulting

correction will be negligible for the laboratory experiments performed

in this study but may be of significance in connection with extinction

of larger fires.

The objective in extracting overall rate parameters is to enable

improved estimates of extinction conditions to be obtained in practical

situations. In a first approximation, extinction may be said to occur

at a critical flame temperature. However, this critical temperature

varies somewhat as conditions are varied. The information developed in

this program should help to provide a basis for calculating this variation, thereby improving accuracies of extinction calculations.

Information obtained from these results ultimately may afford improvements in techniques for fire suppression, derived from increased

understanding of mechanisms of flame extinction, taking into account

interactions between chemical kinetics, fluid flow and heat transfer.

These studies present the possibility of extracting basic information

on both the fluid mechanics and the chemical kinetics of combustion

near extinction, which may be useful in analyzing extinctions under

widely different conditions of burning and of suppressive action. Consequent improvements in fire suppression may reduce fire loss.

Reports and Papers

Corlett, R. C. and Williams, F. A., "Modeling Direct Suppression of

Open Fires," Fire Research, 1 , 323-337 (1979).

Mitani, T., "Propagation Velocities of Two-Reactant Flames," Combustion

Science and Technology, to appear (1980).

Joulin, G. and Mitani, T., "Linear Stability Analysis of Two-Reactant

Flames," Combustion and Flame, to appear (1980).

Mitani, T. and Williams, F. A., "Studies of Cellular Flames in HydrogenOxygen-Nitrogen Mixtures," Combustion and Flame, to appear (1980).

Mitani, T., "Asymptotic Theory for Extinction of Curved Flames with

Heat Loss," Combustion Science and Technology, to appear (1980).

Williams, F. A., "A Review of Flame Extinction," Fire Safety Journal,

submitted (1980) . 122
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : University of Florida

Grant /Contract No. : NB79NADA0021

Grant Title ; Network Models of Building Evacuation

Principal Investigator : Professor Richard L. Francis

University of Florida

Department of Industrial and

Systems Engineering

303 Weil Hall

Gainesville, Florida 32611

Other Professional Personnel : Professor Luc G. Chalmet

S. Yeralan, Ph.D, Candidate

L. Lemonidis, M.Sc. Candidate

J. Madariaga, B.Sc. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer ; Dr. Leonard Cooper

Technical Abstract

The research deals with the further development of the EVACNET

approach as presented in the report NBSIR 79-1593, "EVACNET: Prototype

Network Optimization Models for Building Evacuation." Basically, the

research involves developing modeling guidelines to help make EVACNET

accessible to users, developing theory to help identify critical EVACNET

computer model output, and developing simpler auxiliary models of building evacuation.

EVACNET work began with a pilot project conducted to analyze the

evacuation of buildings by means of computerized network flow optimization models. A major effort during this study involved constructing

such an evacuation model of Building 101, an eleven-floor building

located at the Gaithersburg, Maryland campus of the National Bureau of

Standards. A "skeletal" network model of the building has been constructed which represents the following entities (as well as paths of

movement between them): workplaces, halls, doors between workplaces

and halls, stairwells, doors between halls and stairwells, doors between

stairwells and the lobby, and lobby doors. The model determines by

itself an evacuation routing of the people in the building so as to minimize the time to evacuate the building. Further, the model is dynamic,

in the sense that it represents the pattern of the building evacuation

over time. Just as one might imagine photographing an actual building

evacuation using automatic time-lapse cameras which take pictures of

relevant evacuation activities over regular time intervals, so the model

depicts the evacuation of the building as it changes over time: time is

divided into discrete time periods, and the model indicates the changes

123
in the evacuation status during each time period, as well as the evacuation status at the end of each time period.

The modeling principles developed in the pilot project are quite

general, and permit modeling the evacuation of most buildings having

well-defined passage ways used for evacution purposes.

Models which depict the evacuation of a building as it changes over

time may have a quite substantial computer output , and the magnitude of

this output can present assimilation problems to users. Thus theory is

being developed to help identify critical output. It is believed that

linear programming "dual variable” information will allow the identification of those portions of buildings being modeled which constitute

bottlenecks, in the sense that comparable increases of their flow capacities would, among all building portions being modeled, lead to the

greatest decreases in building evacuation time.

For some purposes a time-dependent network model, such as discussed

above, is unnecessary, and a much smaller network model of the building,

referred to for convenience as an "intermediate model", may be adequate.

In such a model the building evacuation time is the maximum of the times

for flows to traverse certain arcs (e.g., the longest of the times for

flows to clear exits) , with such time being a monotonic function of the arc flow. Efficient algorithms have been developed which solve the intermediate model in the sense that they determine evacuation flow patterns leading to evacuation of the building of interest in minimum time.

The evacution of a number of actual buildings, university dormitories

and a classroom building, has been represented by means of the intermediate model.

In order to help make the evacuation models developed accessible to users unfamiliar with network optimization ideas, a "prototype primer"

on the use of such models for building evacution analysis is being prepared, and will provide a number of modeling guidelines.

In the long run, it is felt that network models of building evacuation will facilitate the study of the interrelationships of building

evacuation with building design, building redesign, and building evacuation standards, and will lead to improvements in design for evacuation.

Reports and Papers

Chalmet, L. G. , Francis, R. L. , and Saunders, P. B. , "Network Models for

Building Evacuation," Research Report No. 80-8, Department of Industrial

and Systems Engineering, The University of Florida, April, 1980.

124
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution ; University of Maryland, College Park

Grant No ; NBS Grant 7-9014

Grant Title ; The Determination of Behavior Response Patterns in Fire

Situations, Project People II.

Principal Investigator ; Dr. John L. Bryan, Professor and Chairman

Department of Fire Protection Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

(301) 454-2424

Other Professional Personnel ; Mr. James A. Milke, Research Assistant

NBS Scientific Officer; Dr. Bernard Levin

Technical Abstract

The study involves the identification and analysis of the behavior

patterns of building occupants in fire situations. Intensive in-depth

open-ended interviews are conducted with participants, supplemented with

a structured questionnaire. The interviews have been conducted by the

research study personnel at the scene of the fire incident between one

to four weeks following the fire incident.

The study population is currently limited to health care and educational occupancies, with other significant occupancy fires within the

following criteria for the selection of fire incidents; 1. Any known

nursing home or hospital fire in the State of Maryland that involved

staff procedural action, the evacuation of one or more rooms, the operation of a fire extinguisher, or the occurrence of any personnel injuries. 2. Any known school fire that involved the evacuation of the

students, and procedural extinguishment action by the public fire

department. 3. Any known fire in a business, residential, mercantile

or public assembly occupancy that involved the evacuation of more than

200 occupants.

The detailed information from the interviews and the questionnaires

is studied to determine the behavior response patterns of the participants, and the psychological, sociological, educational, and physical

variables influencing the predisposition to the adopted response. Thus,

the total interactional context of the individual, the functional population, the time variables, the parameters of the fire incident, and

the physical environment of the structure in relation to detection,

alarm, protection and evacuation variables is being studied. The study

has obtained data on minor or successful fires, in which the fire

125
incident was successfully controlled by personnel without the assistance

of the public fire department. The behavior response patterns from the

fire incidents of the non-threatening type are being compared with the

fire incidents which were perceived to be threatening to the extent the

assistance of the public fire department was requested by the occupants.

The concept of realms and episodes, with mapping techniques developed by

Lerup have been applied to these studies.

A total of sixty-four fire incidents were under study and analysis

as of June 30, 1980, with a total of sixty-four reports having been

submitted to the Center for Fire Research. Reports completed since May

1, 1979 are cited:

Reports and Papers :

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Crownsville

Hospital Center on January 26, 1979 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, June 30, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Pikesvllle

Nursing and Convalescent Center on February 8, 1979 . College Park:

University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, August 31,

1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Hidden Brook

Treatment Center on February 15, 1979 . College Park: University

of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, August 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Montgomery

General Hospital on March 28, 1979 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, May 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L., James A. Milke and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and

Analysis of the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident

at University of Maryland Hospital on April 4, 1979 . College Park:

University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, May 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L., James A. Milke and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and

Analysis of the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident

at Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital on April 5, 1979 . College

Park: University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, July 31,

1979.

Bryan, John L. , James A. Milke and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and

Analysis of the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident

at Taylor House on April 11, 1979. College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, October 31, 1979.

126
Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at University

Nursing Home on April 13, 1979 . College Park: University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, June 30, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Kensington

Gardens Nursing Home on April 14, 1979 . College Park: University

of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, June 30, 1979.

Bryan, John L., James A. Milke and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and

Analysis of the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident

at Thurston Hall on April 19, 1979 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, July 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at National

Institutes of Health Clinical Center on April 21, 1979 . College

Park: University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, July 31,

1979.

Bryan, John L., James A. Milke and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and

Analysis of the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident

at Roosevelt Hotel on April 24, 1979 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, October 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Mt. Wilson

Center on June 10, 1979 . College Park: University of Maryland,

Fire Protection Engineering, October 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Bethesda

Health Center on June 12, 1979 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, November 30, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Franklin

Square Hospital on June 13, 1979 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, October 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Maryland

Masonic Home on June 21, 1979 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, August 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Sheppard

and Enoch Pratt Hospital on June 24, 1979 . College Park:

University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, August 31, 1979.

127
Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Reeder’s

Memorial Nursing Home on July 29, 1979 . College Park: University

of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, November 30, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Union Hospital of Cecil

County on July 29, 1979 . College Park: University of Maryland,

Fire Protection Engineering, November 30, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Crownsville

Hospital Center on August 19, 1979 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, November 30, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Mt. Wilson

Center on September 4, 1979 . College Park: University of Maryland,

Fire Protection Engineering, December 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Thomas

B. Finan Center on September 9, 1979 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, December 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Peninsula

General Hospital on September 22, 1979 . College Park: University

of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, February 29, 1980.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Crownsville

Hospital Center on October 5 and 12, 1979 . College Park: University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, December 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Crownsville

General Hospital on October 12, 1979 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, January 31, 1980.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Guns ton

School on November 30, 1979 . College Park: University of Maryland,

Fire Protection Engineering, February 29, 1980.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Sheppard and

Enoch Pratt Hospital on December 10, 1979 . College Park: University of Mairyland, Fire Protection Engineering, January 31, 1980.

128
Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Falls ton

General Hospital on January 27, 1980 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, March 31, 1980.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Chesapeake

Hall on February 3, 1980 . College Park: University of Maryland,

Fire Protection Engineering, June 30, 1980.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Washington

Adventist Hospital on March 5, 1980 . College Park: University of

Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, April 30, 1980.

Bryan, John L. and James A. Milke, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at Patuxent

Institute on March 5, 1980 . College Park: University of Maryland,

Fire Protection Engineering, June 30, 1980.

129
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution ; University of Maryland

Grant No ; NB80-NADA-1011

Grant Title ; An Investigation of the Water Quality and Condition of

Pipe in Existing Automatic Sprinkler Systems for the

Analysis of Design Options with Residential Sprinkler

Systems

Principal Investigators ; Dr. Harry E. Hickey

Department of Fire Protection Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

Dr. James E. Alleman

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

Other Professional Personnel ; James A. Milke

NBS Scientific Officer ; J. O'Neill

Technical Abstract

The objectives of this study are established as follows;

1. to investigate the potential effect of backflow of sprinkler

water into potable water, thereby assessing the need for backflow prevention in residential sprinkler systems.

2. to investigate the potential severity of the pressure reduction

due to tuberculation in pipes in residential sprinkler systems.

The first objective will be achieved by physical, chemical and biological analyses of water samples drawn from selected locations on existing sprinkler systems. The latter objective will be accomplished

by measuring the discharge flow and pressure from selected orifices to

subsequently calculate the Hazen-Williams coefficient for the pipe.

The selection of certain sprinkler systems and specific locations will

be based on the provision of a wide variety of conditions for the project relative to the study parameters of pipe material, pipe age, size

of pipe, and the pipe network configuration.

130
In particular, this study will attempt to compare the quality of

water in dead-end and other sprinkler system pipes with the potable

water supplied to the building. The detailed analyses should facilitate relevant and significant comparisons to be conducted to assess the

necessity for backflow prevention in residential sprinkler systems.

Derivation of the Hazen-Willlams coefficient from measurement of the

water discharge parameters and comparison of the resultant value with the

coefficient for new pipe will permit approximation of the degree of

tuberculation in the pipe. This result will provide sufficient information to assess the severity of the pressure reduction and the useful life

of the pipe as affected by the tuberculation.

During the first quarter of the project, approximately 25 samples

have been obtained for the water quality analysis. The samples are analyzed for chemical composition, including metals, dissolved ions,

etc. The biological analysis utilize the following tests: total

conform tests, fecal coliform tests, total bacteria plate counts,

yeasts or mold tests, enterotube analysis and streak tests.

Some difficulty was experienced in the first quarter calculation

of the Hazen-Williams coefficient due to the limitations of the measurement system employed, especially the attempts of measuring the flow

rate through the use of a Pitot gauge. This problem was alleviated

through the use of a large calibrated container into which the water

is discharged.

131
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

national bureau of standards

Institution : The Maryland Institute for Emergency Medical Services

Systems, University of Maryland

Grant No. : NB80NADA1023

Grant Title : Psychometric Testing and Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

Principal Investigator : Roy A.M. Myers, M.D.

Director of Hyperbaric Medicine

MIEMSS

22 S. Greene Street

Baltimore, MD 21201

Other Professional Personnel : Steven Linberg, Ph.D.

Jeffrey T. Mitchell, M.S., Ph.D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. Merritt Blrky

Technical Abstract:

In March, 1979, the Maryland Institute for Emergency Medical

Services Systems (MIEMSS) initiated a study to determine a more accurate

method of assessing the neurological effects of acute carbon monoxide

poisoning. A number of psychometric tests were evaluated and a short

(10-15 minute) screening battery for perceptual motor and high cognitive

function deficits (diffuse brain dysfunction) was developed. This was

to supplement the assessment by clinical and chemical analysis of

alveolar and blood carbon monoxide levels. The tests are easily administered and can be evaluated by examiners with a minimum of training.

They can furthermore be utilized on a wide range of patients, despite

differences of intelligence levels and backgrounds.

The basic premise underlying the use of psychometric testing in the

assessment of CO poisoning is that any disturbance of brain tissue or brain function will result in deficits in answering the questions, and the

ability to relate to one's self and to one's environment.

An orderly and careful mental status examination is crucial in the

proper assessment of carbon monoxide poisoning. Mental status examination is incorporated into this screening battery. This measures

memory, comprehension, attention, concentration, abstract thinking and

one's ability to learn.

Trail Making Test A measures spatial orientation, perceptual motor

speed while Test B measures the ability to shift concepts. These tests

have good reputation for Indicating diffuse cerebral deficits.

132
The Benton Visual Retention Test is useful as a measure of visual

perception, visual memory and visioconstructive abilities.

The battery is concluded with a block design subtest from the

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 1955 and measures the spatial orientation, constructual speed and accuracy, fine motor control, visual

motor coordination and perceptual analysis.

A scoring system with the high of 60 has been devised to assist

in the assessment of the patient. The higher the score, the less

diffuse the brain dysfunction would appear to be.

Sixty-four patients have been evaluated in terms of the diffuse

brain dysfunction screening battery. Several patients have been

eliminated because their dysfunction was clearly linked to alcohol

intoxication. Data for sixty-four patients is to be presented. Preliminary evaluation indicates several important considerations.

1. Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy results in a more rapid and more

dramatic elimination of carbon monoxide from the system.

2. Patients with HbCO of 15% or less demonstrated minimal diffuse

brain dysfunction.

3. Patients with HbCO levels higher than 15% demonstrated moderate to severe diffuse dysfunction. Their scores were lower on the

estimated pre-treatment mental impairment index. The post-treatment re-evaluation of some of the cases demonstrated a higher score

on the mental Impairment index indicating an improvement of the

effects of CO poisoning.

It is obvious that more study is necessary in this area before

final conclusions can be drawn. Psychometric testing of carbon monoxide

poisoned victims greatly enhances the ability to predict which patients

will benefit more from Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy as opposed to those

only requiring the routine 100% oxygen for two half lives, i.e. four

hours

Since March, 1980, MIEMSS has been testing the MINICO carbon

monoxide analyzer at the scenes of multiple alarm fires. The analyzer

is used for accessing the alveolar air CO content from samples from

fire fighters, fire victims, and bystanders. These results are com- pared with carboxyhemoglobin blood samples obtained at the same time.

All sampling is done on a voluntary basis. The MINICO is being tested

for its accuracy in evaluating alveolar air samples of carbon monoxide

victims. Some 200 alveolar air/blood samples are required for corre- lation and standardization of the equipment. To date approximately 25

have been obtained. MIEMSS is testing the MINICO with the aim of

providing an additional mechanism for field triaging by the EMT/CRT

133
rescuer in smoke inhalation victims. The EMT/CRT is following a written protocol developed by MIEMSS in their evaluation of the smoke

victim. At the present time the EMT/CRT is triaging the smoke victim

based on history and clinical appearance. Utilizing the MINICO will

allow them to make a more accurate diagnosis by using alveolar air

sampling with its proven close correlation to blood HbCO levels.

With cooperation of the fire departments ' central alarm, the MIEMSS

"Smoke Team" responds to all two or more fire alarm fires in the

Baltimore metropolitan area. The fire departments’ central dispatch

activates the smoke team through MIEMSS SYSCOM. The team member

closest to the fire then responds by notification of SYSCOM via a twoway radio system.

The members of the Smoke Team have developed a successful working

relationship with the fire departments and have no decision making

role in patient triage. This duty belongs with the fire department

personnel. The team is however a valuable resource if required.

The Smoke Team is also actively involved in establishing training

programs in diagnosing and giving initial treatment for Smoke Inhalation/

Carbon Monoxide poisoning for field personnel. Many requests for these

programs have been received. Through these training programs, the care

of the smoke victim in the State of Maryland will be improved.

Reports and Papers : None

134
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

INSTITUTION : University of Massachusetts

GRANT NO. : NBS Grant DAOOOl

GRANT TITLE: Waking Effectiveness of Household Smoke Alarm Detector

Devices

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR : Dr. E. Harris Nober, Professor

Department of Communication Disorders

122 Arnold House

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, MA 01003

OTHER PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL : Henry Peirce, Ed.D., Research Associate

Charles Johnson, Ph.D., Research Associate

Arnold Well, Ph.D., Research Associate

Charles Clifton, Ph.D., Research Associate

NBS SCIENTIFIC OFFICER : Richard Bright

TECHNICAL ABSTRACT

Experiment A assessed intensity-frequency characteristics of several

smoke alert detector signals. Overall dBA levels of detector acoustic

signals were obtained at 10 feet and 15 feet from the source in an anechoic chamber and a reverberant room. Smoke alarm signals were

analyzed at nine octave bands and refined analyses at 1/3 octave bands.

At 10 feet the detector alarm output mean was 85 dBA with a range

from 80 to 92 dBA. In the anechoic chamber octave band energy peaks

generally occurred at 4000 Hz with a second energy cluster at 2000-3000

Hz. Reverberant room energy peaks occurred at 4000-5000 Hz. Directional

axis variations in energy were up to 10 dBA in the anechoic chamber and

3.5 dBA in the reverberant room.

Experiment B quantified sleep-waking behavioral performance

relative to alarm decibel levels and extraneous environmental noise

background. This component employed 30 college-aged subjects (18-30

years) who received an electronically’ controlled recorded detector

alarm signal. Subject responses were the waking trial durations from

"signal-on" presentation to the "signal-off" response and a phone call

to the Amherst Fire Department. Experiment B included several variables,

i.e., three alarm sound levels (85, 70, 55 dBA), 63 dBA air-conditioner

background noise, hours into sleep, night of the week, sex, VCR/TV.

Alarm intensity equated to alarm levels calculated earlier from 10 feet

(85 dBA), at ear/pillow site, bedroom door open (70 dBA) and bedroom

door closed (55 dBA). Sound level was controlled using a tape recorded

135
alarm signal of the current electromechanical horn used in most household dwelling detectors. One dwelling member served as respondent and

performed two tasks when awakened by the alarm: (1) deactivated the

automated apparatus and (2) phoned the local fire department. Responses

were recorded in second units as S-R latency. The subject also filled

out a pre-alarm and post-alarm questionnaire for pertinent behavioral

and supplemental data. Latency responses and other behavioral data from

the two questionnaires provided an index of expected behavior to current

alarms in households by profiling stress-reaction patterns of individuals and families when suddenly awakened from nighttime sleep in

different living conditions, day(s) of the week, alarm levels, alarm

modes, alarm installation sites, environmental noise masking conditions,

age, etc.

Data for the 30 subjects who received 55, 70 or 85 dBA (10 Ss each

level) in quiet listening condition showed 13.60, 9.50 and 7.40 seconds

mean latencies (alarm-on to alarm turned-off by Ss) respectively, for

the three levels. T^-tests revealed significant differences between

55 dBA and 70 dBA, 55 dBA and 85 dBA, but not between 70 dBA and 85 dBA.

Other data also included phone call interval latency to the fire

department

Data for the 20 subjects who received the 55 dBA alarm (10 Ss) and

the 70 dBA alarm (10 Ss) with a taped air-conditioner background noise

(63 dBA measured 12 inches from source, but 51 dBA mean at ear/pillow

position) showed a mean waking latency of 43 seconds for 55 dBA alarm

(for the 7 of 10 subjects who awakened within four minutes of the onset

of the alarm), and 19 seconds for the 70 dBA level. T-tests revealed

signigicant waking-time differences; two subjects never awakened and one took 433 seconds at the 55 dBA level of alarm.

Twenty subjects received alarm levels of 55 dBA (10 Ss) and 70 dBA

(10 Ss) while viewing a video-taped recording in the privacy of their own bedroom. These subjects were awake when the alarm signal was activated as compared to all other data obtained after subjects were

awakened from sleep. The video sound volume was set at comfortable

level” by each subject. Thus, the video volume range extended from

40 dBA to 68 dBA. Mean shut-off latency was 10 seconds at 55 dBA alarm

level and 6 seconds at 70 dBA level. tests revealed significant

latency differences between the two mean values.

A series of t-tests were performed comparing the alarm levels

relative to the three listening condition variables, i.e., quiet, airconditioner noise, video-taped TV movie. Generally, it took significantly longer time to be awakened and respond with the air-conditioner

background noise occurring although the absolute values amounted to 30

seconds or less. The shortest response latencies were with the VCR/TV

mode; it is noteworthy that VCR/TV subjects were not asleep in the

VCR/TV experimental condition. Means were also significantly different

when the listening conditions were compared to each other at the various

alarm levels. Thus, when the alarm alone ( Experiment B ) means were

136
compared to alarm plus air-conditioner noise ( Experiment Bacn ) with

55 dBA vs. 55 dBA, the difference was significant; the same held true

for the comparison with video tape and comparing air-conditioner mean

differences comparing listening conditions.

Pre-trial and post-trial questionnaire data on 25 items were

analyzed using Pearson correlation and multiple regression. Generally,

subjects were able to self rate themselves accurately as "light” or "heavy" sleepers and estimate speed of performance. Also, the number

of times subjects were normally awakened at night correlated with

performance to alarm waking episodes.

Conclusion: Subjects can be awakened and alerted by smoke detector

alarm levels as low as 55 dBA, even with extraneous background noise,

when sufficiently sensitized to the signal and motivated to respond

accordingly. Air-conditioner background noise significantly increased

waking time latency and in the 55 dBA condition 20% never awakened.

REPORTS AND PAPERS

Nober, E.H., Peirce, H. , Johnson, C., Well, A. and Clifton, C., "Waking

Effectiveness of Household Smoke Alarm Detector Devices." Twentieth

Meeting of the Association for the Psychophysiological Study of Sleep,

Mexico City, Mexico, March 1980.

137
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution: University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812

Grant No.

NBS Grant G8-9011

Grant Title: Ignition and Fire Spread of Cellulosic Materials

Principal Investigator: Professor Fred Shafizadeh

Wood Chemistry Laboratory

University of Montana

Missoula, MT 59812

(406) 243-6212

Other Professional Personnel: William F. DeGroot

Thoams W. Aanerud

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. William Earl

Technical Abstract

Objectives

The objective of this project is to investigate the kinetics and

chemical mechanism of smoldering combustion and to determine the effects

of inorganic additives in order to provide a chemical description of the

processes involved in ignition and fire spread in cellulosic materials.

Experimental Approach

It has been shown that smoldering combustion of cellulosic materials involves; (a) pyrolysis of the substrate to a highly reactive and

pyrophoric char, (b) chemisorption of oxygen on the fresh char, (c) gasification of the chemisorbed char and propagation of the process. Therefore, the experimental approach has been focused on investigation of the

kinetics and mechanism of these reactions and how they are influenced by

various inorganic additives, using various methods of chemical analysis,

spectroscopy and thermal analysis.

Results

Pervious studies in this laboratory have provided considerable information on the mechanism and kinetics of the charring reactions. ^ >2

the significant characteristics of char,^ the mechanism and kinetics of

oxygen chemisorption^ and ultimately gasification of the char. 5 Current

investigations are aimed at showing how various inorganic additives

could enhance or inhibit the smoldering combustion by altering the course and kinetics of these reactions.

The results obtained from pyrolysis of treated cotton fabrics at

138
550°C are shown in Table I. These data show a strong correlation between the tendency for smoldering combustion and relative intensity of

the ESR signals. These signals are related to the concentration of

free radical sites that are available for chemisorption of oxygen on the char. However, contrary to the process of flaming combustion,

there is no correlation between the amount of char formed during the

pyrolysis and the inhibition of smoldering combustion.

In the previous studies it was shown that the kinetics of oxygen

chemisorption on chars left after pyrolysis of cotton follow the Elovich equation, as shown below:

dq/dt = ae~^^

Where a and h are constants and q is the amount of oxygen chemisorbed.

According to this equation the rate of oxygen chemisorption decreases

with the level of surface oxides formed during the chemisorption. The

magnitude of a indicates the extent of the chemisorption and the magnitude of h relates to the quenching process. The Elovich parameters obtained for oxygen chemisorption at 228°C on chars formed from untreated

and treated fabrics are shown in Table I. These data show a general

correlation between the tendency for smoldering combustion and the preexponential constant a which provides a measure of available sites for

chemisorption. This also fits in with the data in Table I for concentration of free radicals measured by ESR spectroscopy. Higher a and h

constants for the enhancers means a rapid quenching and high intensity

chemisorption reaction. The constants obtained for the inhibitor indicate less abundant and slower-reacting sites for diammonium phosphate

and less abundant sites of medium reactivity for boric acid. The differences in the nature and reactivity of available sites have also been

observed by the IR spectroscopy of the chars subjected to chemisorption

in previous studies^ and the theory of the stable and mobile surface

oxides which affect the gasification process.

The kinetic parameters obtained for the production of CO 2 and CO

by gasification of chars formed from untreated and treated cotton fabrics are shown in Table II. These data again show the tremendous effect of the various additives on the reaction rates and composition of

the product (ratio of CO to CO 2 ) which affect the rate of heat release

and the driving force for propagation of smoldering combustion. For

the production of CO 2 which is the main contributor to the heat release,

the energy of activation is almost the same for the untreated substrate

and those doped with diammonium phosphate (an inhibitor) or sodium

chloride (an enhancer). However, the pre-exponential factor is reduced

for the inhibitor and increased for the enhancer which closely parallels

the variation of the pre-exponential factor observed for the oxygen

chemisorption of the char.

A direct comparison of these data is rather difficult because the

magnitude of the two parameters affect the rates inversely. The ratio

of these reactions and the associated rates of heat release at 500°,

750° and 1000°C given in Table II provide better data for comparison.

139
These data show that the rate of heat release is substantially reduced

by boric acid and di ammonium phosphate which are known inhibitors and

increased by sodium chloride which is an enhancer; borax and aluminum

chloride have marginal effects.

Conclusions

Inorganic additives change the nature of the pyrolytic reactions

and combustion characteristics of the remaining pyrophoric char. This

includes changes in concentration and reactivity of the sites involved

in oxygen chemisorption by the char and ultimately the rates of gasification and heat release which provides the driving force for propagation of the smoldering combustion. The catalytic effect of the additives at the pyrolysis rather than the chemisorption stage was confirmed by the fact that post-treatment of char obtained from untreated cellulose did not affect the Elovich parameters for the oxygen chemisorption.

Reports and Papers

Recent Publications.

^ Shafizadeh, F. and A.G.W. Bradbury, "Thermal Degradation of Cellulose

in Air and Nitrogen at Low Temperatures," J. Appl . Polym. Sci . , 23,

1431 (1979).

^ Bradbury, A.G.W. , Y. Sakai, and F. Shafizadeh, "A Kinetic Model for

Pyrolysis of Cellulose," Appl . Polym . , Sci . , 23 , 3271 (1979).

3 Shafizadeh, F. and A.G.W. Bradbury, "Smoldering Combustion of Cellulosic Materials," Thermal Insulation , 2^, 141 (1979).

^ Bradbury, A.G.W. and F. Shafizadeh, "Chemisorption of Oxygen on Cellulose Char," Carbon , 18 , 109 (1980).

^ Bradbury, A.G.W. and F. Shafizadeh, "The Role of Oxygen Chemisorption

in Low Temperature Ignition of Cellulose," Combustion and Flame , 37

85, (1980).

140
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141
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

Grant No. : NB79NADA0020

Grant Title : Plans for Action in Fire Emergencies in Group Homes for

the Developmentally Disabled

Principal Investigator : Marcus B. Waller, Professor

Department of Psychology

Davie Hall 013A

University of North Carolina

Chapel Hill, NC 27514

Other Professional Personnel : Robert G. Vreeland, Research Associate

NBS Scientific Officer: Bernard Levin, Ph.D.

Technical Abstract :

The objective of this grant was to create guidelines for fire

emergency planning in group homes for the developmentally disabled.

The method used was to hold a conference of experts from the various

areas of impact. The experts were drawn from local fire service, fire

inspectors, fire protection engineering, group home owners and operators, developmental disabilities professionals, group home licensure

officials, state regulatory authorities, and fire research professionals. Following the circulation of a preliminary assessment of significant issues and a proposal of guidelines, the conference of experts

was held in Chapel Hill, North Carolina on June 2 and 3, 1980.

The purpose of the conference was to generate a full and candid

discussion of the issues involved in recommending particular guidelines

for fire emergency plans for group homes for developmentally disabled

people. We also attempted to lead the discussion into controversial

areas in which strongly held differences of opinion might be expected.

We anticipated that in this manner we could estimate and perhaps re- solve major problems before they arose within the guidelines themselves.

We view the conference as successful. We discovered numerous areas of agreement among the participants, several areas in which con- sensus was possible following discussion, and a few areas of disagreement. The report of the conference and the resulting guidelines con- stitute a report submitted to NBS. Recommendations for further effort

in the area of fire emergency planning in group homes for the developmentally disabled were also discussed.

142
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution ; The University of Notre Dame

Grant No . ; NBS Grant G7-9002 Mod. No. 2

Grant Title ; Fire and Smoke Spread

Principal Investigators ; Professor K. T. Yang

Professor J. R. Lloyd

Professor A. A. Szewczyk

Professor A. M. Kanury

Department of Aerospace and Mechanical

Engineering

University of Notre Dame

Notre Dame, Indiana 46556

Other Professional Personnel ; H. C. Chiou, Ph.D. Candidate

C . J . Huang , M . S

K. Satoh, M.S.

NBS Scientific Officer ; J. Quintiere

Technical Abstract ;

The objective of this continuing project is to develop a threedimensional UNDSAFE (University of Notre Dame Smoke and Fire in

Enclosure) computer code based on first principles for predicting smoke

and fire spread in rooms and corridors, as well as to apply this code,

together with the previously developed two-dimensional UNDSAFE-II code,

to physical problems of current interest in the fire physics field. In

addition to the demonstrated capability of UNDSAFE-II, the current code

is also capable of treating passive smoke movement, two-dimensional

thermal gaseous radiation, and both algebraic and differential field

models of turbulence. The current progress may be summarized as follows

1. The calculation of the E-84 tunnel flow was completed, and

details of the analysis and results are now contained in the M.S. thesis

by C. J. Huang. The calculated convective heat flux to the surface

neglecting radiation was in reasonable agreement with the empirical data

Adiabatic boundary conditions were assumed in the model on the floor and

on the first 1.07 m of the ceiling, and consequently the calculated re- sults over estimated the temperature distributions in the tunnel. It was found that the air inlet velocity and spatial distribution of the

heat source and turbulent heat transfer mechanisms all had a significant

influence on the temperature, velocity and pressure distributions.

2. A numerical study has been initiated to study the effects of

vertical venting on fire and smoke spread in an enclosure. Smoke

generation and the appropriate species equations is incorporated into

the basic UNDSAFE-II code. Calculations have been carried out for six

143
basic combinations of floor and ceiling vent locations and five

volumetric heating rates. Velocity, temperature, smoke concentration,

and opacity have been determined. If has been found that when the floor

heat source is located between the floor and celling vents, the long

time venting phenomenon is oscillating, while steady state behavior is

observed in all other cases including those where the heat source is

situated in a corner. The mass rates of flow at the ceiling vent and

the depths of the smoke layer are now being correlated with the strength

and location of the heat source and the geometries of the enclosure together with the vent locations.

3. The complete three-dimensional code has been written and debugged on the basis of limiting cases for which solutions are known.

This code includes more effective routines for the pressure correction

and the tridiagonal matrix algorithm, and is more self consistent in the

finite differencing schemes than UNDSAFE-II. Additional features of

this code consist of Inclusion of species equations and flexibility in

accommodating various turbulence models Including the ic-e-g differential

field model reported a year ago. Controversies on turbulence models for

elliptical flows still persist and a flexible position is maintained by

the Fire Research Group at Notre Dame in the development of the threedimensional code. This code is now operational.

4. Another numerical study has recently been instituted to study

the three-dimensional single doorway venting in a cubical enclosure with

a volumetric heat source located over the floor at the center of the

enclosure. The doorway openings are varied to yield results which could

indicate the small and large opening limits of ventilation. Preliminary

results show that these limits are associated with the characteristic

vertical and horizontal dimensions of the door opening. Difficulty has

been experienced in adequately providing pictorial' three-dimensional

velocity, temperature and smoke concentration fields from the computer

output, and a joint effort with the Notre Dame Computer Center has just

been initiated to resolve this difficulty.

It is generally recognized that fire losses can be reduced in

Instances where the physical fire and smoke spread phenomena are better

understood and can be adequately predicted in advance. Research efforts

in the area of mathematical fire modeling specifically address this

problem by the development of fire models such as zone models and field

models, of which the present project is but one example. Despite early

controversies, there is a general agreement now that both the zone and

field models should be developed simultaneously and made to complement

each other. While field models are not yet ready for general application, they nevertheless can serve a good purpose to provide needed

detailed information for the benefit of the zone models. This is

particularly critical in view of the fact that zone models are much

easier to use and are now on the verge of being applied to realistic

fire problems.

144
Reports and Papers

1. Lloyd, J. R. , Yang, K. T. and Liu, V. K. , "A Numerical Study of

One Dimensional Surface, Gas and Soot Radiation for Turbulent

Buoyant Flows in Enclosures National Conference on Numerical

Methods in Heat Transfer, University of Maryland, September 24-26,

1979, pp 142-161.

2. Kanury, A. M. and Lloyd, J. R. , "A Numerical Study of Interacting

Transient Two-Dimensional Laminar Buoyant Plumes in a Semi-Infinite

Enclosure," 1979 Technical Meeting, The Eastern Section of the

Combustion Institute, November 7-9, 1979, 5 pp.

3. Huang, C. J., "A Numerical Study of Flow and Heat Transfer in a Long 2-D Tunnel with Interaction Between Longitudinal Forced Flow

and Transverse Buoyant Flow," M.S. Thesis, Department of Aerospace

and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, January 1980,

150 pp.

4. Lynch, N. P. and Lloyd, J. R. , "An Experimental Investigation of the

Transient Build-Up of Fire in a Room-Corridor Geometry," accepted

for publication at the 18th International Symposium on Combustion,

August 1980, The University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.

145
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

INSTITUTION : The University of Pittsburgh

GRANT NO.: NBS Grant #NB79NADA0009

GRANT TITLE : Toxicity of Plastic Combustion Products

PRINCIPAL

INVESTIGATOR : Professor Yves Alarie, Ph.D.

Department of Industrial Environmental

Health Sciences

Graduate School of Public Health

University of Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh, PA 15261

OTHER PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL: None

NBS SCIENTIFIC

OFFICER : M.M. Birky, Ph.D.

TECHNICAL ABSTRACT :

The objective under this grant is to arrive at classifications of the

potency of thermal decomposition products of synthetic and natural

polymers for toxic reactions of relevance in either impeding escape

from a fire or recovery from smoke inhalation following a fire. Several

toxicological indices are being used:

0 sensory irritation

0 physiological stress

0 asphyxiation

0 acute lethality

0 pulmonary irritation

0 histophathological examination of various organs

We have been able to classify materials for the first 4 indices given

above using a concentration-response approach and comparisons to a "standard" material such as wood have been made. Currently the same materials are being investigated for pulmonary irritation. Using the

toxicological data for acute lethality a Toxicological Hazard Index

(THI) was formulated for a series of materials used for insulation and

comparisons made with a "standard", i.e. fiberglass insulation.

146
In terms of reducing fire losses, we believe that the toxicological

methodology developed under this project permits the very rapid recognition of highly toxic thermal decomposition products from polymers

and alerts manufacturers of this property in a very reliable manner. Better selection of materials for a particular function will be achievable using the THI approach.

REPORTS AND PAPERS (1979) :

Anderson, R.C., Stock, M.F.. , Sawin, R. and Alarie, Y. Toxicity of decomposition products of urea formaldehyde and phenol formaldehyde foams.

Toxicol. Appl . Pharmacol. 9-17, 1979.

Alarie, Y. and Anderson R.C. - Toxicological and acute lethal hazard

evaluation of thermal decomposition products of synthetic and natural

polymers. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 341-362, 1979.

Anderson, R.C. and Alarie Y. - Acute lethal effects of polyvinylchloride

thermal decomposition products in normal and cannulated mice. Toxicol.

Appl. Pharmacol. A3, 1980.

147
CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Institution : The University of Washington

Grant No. : DA1053

Grant Title : "Post-Fire Interviews: Development and Field Validation"

Principal Investigator : Dr. John P. Keating

Department of Psychology NI-25

College of Arts and Sciences

University of Washington

Seattle, Washington 98195

Co-Principal Investigator: Dr. Elizabeth F. Loftus

NBS Scientific Officer : Bernard Levin

Technical Abstract :

During the past two years, a new technique for Interviewing victims and

witnesses has been developed. This technique differs from previous

approaches developed by Bryan, Lerup and Wood in that (1) it does not

require (but can be used in conjunction with) graphic mapping of the

building environment, (2) it yields readily quantifiable data, (3) it is

adaptable to large and small numbers of witnesses and various size fires

and types of occupancies, and (4) it is relatively resistant to the

biasing effects of conventional interview and questionnaire methods.

The method employs a two-step procedure where the witness first provides

an unobstructed narrative account of his or her actions during the fire.

The interviewer only keeps the narrative "on-track", but does not ask

questions pertaining to the content. This step serves to enhance the

accuracy and completeness of the account as well as prepare the interviewer and witness for subsequent probing.

Following the narrative, the interviewer obtains a retelling of the

incident, but this time using a predetermined structure. This structure

breaks the narrative account down into a sequence of discrete actions.

The interviewer accomplishes this by assisting the witness in creating

a statement for each action. Each statement has three components,

a situational or cognitive cue, a behavioral response, and a reason why.

An example of such a statement follows:

Situational Cue Behavioral Response Reason Why

I saw smoke seeping from So I opened the door to see how serious

under Mr. Smith's door using my pass key the fire was j

148
This technique has been tested during the last year in 35 interviews with

persons present during residential fires. Based on these interviews, we

have made adjustments in our procedures, and we are confident that the

technique is now ready to be applied to other types of fire incidents.

Therefore, in the coming years, we are turning our attention to a program

of research to identify and compensate for various threats to the accuracy

of interview data.

Our plans are to investigate the following research needs:

1) Scientific parameter testing of three critical variables of the

post-fire interview situations:

a) Fire-related, affective processes which influence the recall

process during post-fire interviews.

b) Time as a factor which affects quality and quantity of information recalled.

c) Salient cues which affect the recall of participants/witnesses

of domestic and arson fire incidents.

2) Structured field-testing of the proposed instrument.

a) Analyses related modifications will continue to be made and

assessed from current Seattle based sample.

b) Field-testing suggested by the ongoing laboratory studies will

be conducted each quarter in cooperation with the Seattle

Fire Dept.

c) The developing data bank will be continuously assessed, and

pertinent theoretical issues formulated for empirical tests

when appropriate.

3)

The final need is for increased quantities of data enabling the

research team to:

a) Assess limitations of premature generalization about the

validity/reliability of the instrument.

b) Identify additional parameters that constrain application of

the instrument (cf. above: witnesses must be articulate,

have reliable memories, and be accessible.)

c) Assess the practicability of instrument administration by

on-line fire personnel.

149
In order to accomplish these objectives, we will be employing a combination

of laboratory research, field validation of the results of the laboratory

research, and the training of on-line fire personnel in the use of the

"action-sequence" interview technique.

Progress report: Arrangements to train fire personnel in the interviewing

technique have been made with fire departments in Houston and Seattle.

Research plans for the laboratory studies have been largely completed.

Accomplishments: The interview technique as applied to small residential

fires has been completed and tested.

Potential applications: The project provides a technique for obtaining

a large quantifiable data-base in an efficient manner. This large

data-base has the potential of providing information pertaining to models

of human behavior in fire situations and the reduction of counter-productive behaviors.

Future milestones: During the coming year we expect to have completed

laboratory studies, field tests, and fire personnel training as described

in this abstract.

150
APPENDIX A

CONFERENCE PROGRAM

ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

October 22, 23, 24, 1980

Tuesday, October 21

7:00 p.m. Registration and Informal Reception

Ramada Inn, Rockville, Maryland

Wednesday, October 22

8:15 a.m. Registration, Green Auditorium Lobby

9:15 a.m. Introduction and Welcome, Green Auditorium - Dr. F. Clarke,

Director, Center for Fire Research

9:30 a.m. 9:35 a.m. 9:55 a.m. 10:15 a.m. 10:35 a.m. 11:05 a.m. 11:25 a.m. 11:45 a.m.

I. Fire Risk Management

Session Chairman (Overview) - B. Buchbinder, CFR/NBS

Data Collection and Analysis - J. Slater, CFR/NBS

Decision Analysis - Dr. F. Offensend, Stanford Research Institute

Decision Analysis - Residential - A. Gomberg, CFR/NBS

Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

FSES for Residences - H. Nelson, CFR/NBS

(FSES) Evaluation of Risk - Dr. N. Groner, CFR/NBS

Cost Comparisons - Dr. R. Chapman, Center for Applied Mathematics/NBS

II. Home Hazards

12:00 noon

12:05 p.m.

12:25 p.m.

12:35 p.m.

12:55 p.m.

1:15 p.m.

Session Chairman (Overview) - J. Winger, CFR/NBS

Practical Aspects of Cigarette Ignition of Upholstered Furniture -

J. Krasny, CFR/NBS

Overview of Wood Heating Safety Research - R. Peacock, CFR/NBS

Fireplace Inserts: Creosoting and Chimney Fires - Dr. T. Maxwell,

Auburn University

Fireplace Inserts: Thermal Hazard on Surrounding Combustibles -

C. Gibbons, Underwriters Laboratories

Lunch, NBS Cafeteria

2:15 p.m.

2:20 p.m.

2:40 p.m.

2:50 p.m.

3:10 p.m.

3:30 p.m.

III. Fire Response of Materials and Structures

Session Chairman (Overview) - S. Davis, CFR/NBS

Laboratory Tests for Fire Properties of Materials - Dr. V. Babrauskas,

CFR/NBS

Room Fire Testing - W. Parker, CFR/NBS

Standard Room Fire Test Parameters, Dr. B. Williamson, University

of California, Berkeley

Role of Fire Retardants on Heat Release - Dr. S. Martin, Stanford

Research Institute

Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

A-1
4:00

4:20

p .m p.m

4:30 p .m

4:40 p.m

4:50 p.m

5:00 p.m

6:30 p.m

Fire Response of Materials and Structures (cont'd)

ISO Flame Spread Tests - Dr. A. Robertson, CFR/NBS

Structural Fire Endurance Tests - D. Jeanes, Research Associate

from American Iron and Steel Institute (Washington, D.C.)

Fire Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams - M. Abrams (M. Gillen,

Speaker) , Portland Cement Association (Chicago)

Creep Tests at Elevated Temperatures - M. Gillen, Portland Cement

Association (Chicago)

Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Fire Performance Structural Behavior

Dr. J. Shaver, Center for Building Technology/NBS

Adj ourn

Volleyball Game and Barbecue at Smokey Glen Farm

Thursday, October 23

IV. Human Behavior in Fires

9:30 a.m. 9:40 a.m.

10:00 a.m.

10:20 a.m. 10:40 a.m. 11:00 a.m. 11:30 a.m.

11:50 a.m.

12:10 p.m.

12:30 p.m.

12:50 p.m.

1:10 p.m.

2:00 p.m.

2:10 p.m.

2 : 30 p .m. 2:50 p.m.

3:10 p.m.

3:30 p.m.

4:00 p.m.

4:20 p.m.

Session Chairman (Overview) - H. Nelson, CFR/NBS

Response Variability in Escape - Dr. R. Pearson, North Carolina

State University

Waking Effectiveness of Alarms - Dr. E. Nober, University of

Massachusetts

Project People - Dr. J. Bryan, University of Maryland

Post Fire Interviews - Dr. J. Keating, University of Washington

Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

Actions in Fire Emergencies - Dr. R. Vreeland, University of

North Carolina, presented by Dr. Bernard Levin, CFR/NBS

Rapid Emergency Escape Time-based Capabilities of Building Occupants

Dr. F. Stahl, Center for Building Technology/NBS

Model for Building Evacuation - Dr. R. Francis, University of Florida

Analysis of Escape Potential for the Developmentally Disabled from

Group Homes - Dr. S. Gupta, Northeastern University,

presented by Dr. J. Berlin, Consultant, Modeling Systems

Inc., Boston, Massachusetts

Fire Safety for the Handicapped - Dr. Bernard Levin, CFR/NBS

Lunch, NBS Cafeteria

V. Toxicology

Session Chairman (Overview) - Dr. M. Birky, CFR/NBS

Toxicity Screening Protocol - Dr. Barbara Levin, CFR/NBS

Large-Scale Correlation with Test Method - M. Paabo, CFR/NBS

Concepts of Tenability Limits - Dr. S. Packham, Consultant

Time-Concentration Effects of Toxic Products - Dr. Y. Alarie,

University of Pittsburgh

Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

Incapacitation Models and Effects of Alcohol - Dr. Z. Annau, Johns

Hopkins University

Treatment for Fire Injuries - Dr. R. Myers, Maryland Institute for

Emergency Medical Services Systems, Baltimore, Maryland

A-2
4.40 p.m.

5:00 p.m.

5:45 p.m.

Toxicology (contM)

Fire Fighter Exposures - Dr. G. Hartzell, Southwest Research Institute

Adj ourn

Buffet Dinner at Urbana Fire Hall

Friday, October 24

9:30 a.m. 9:40 a.m. 10:05 a.m.

10:25 a.m. 10:40 a.m. 11:00 a.m.

11:30 a.m. 11:40 a.m. 12:00 noon

12:20 p.m.

12:40 p.m.

VI. Fire Protection Systems

Session Chairman (Overview) - E. Budnick, CFR/NBS

A Fundamental Program in Sprinkler Research - Dr. D. Evans, CFR/NBS

FMRC - L.A. Sprinkler Project - Dr. H. Rung, Factory Mutual Research

Corporation

Backflow Preventer - Prof. H. Hickey, University of Maryland

Smoke Control - J. Klote, CFR/NBS

Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

VII. Modeling as an Engineering Tool

Session Chairman (Overview) - I. Benjamin, CFR/NBS

Compartment Fire Zone Modeling - Dr. J. Quintiere, CFR/NBS

Post-Flashover Models - Dr. V. Babrauskas, CFR/NBS

Smoke Movement - Dr. E. Zukoski, California Institute of Technology

Recent Developments in Fire Modeling for Evacuation Safety - Dr. L. Cooper, CFR/NBS

Closing Remarks

Closing Remarks - Dr. J. W. Lyons, Director, National Engineering

Laboratory, NBS

Dr. R. Levine, Chief, Fire Research Resources Division, CFR

1:00 p .m.

APPENDIX B

ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

October 22, 23, 24, 1980

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

ADAMS, Dr. H., Jr., MMFPA, 1150 - 17th St., N.W., Washington, DC 20036

ALARIE, Yves, University of Pittsburgh, lEHE-GSPH A730 Crabtree Hall, 130 DeSoto

Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15261

ANDERSEN, Dr. Donald E., DuPont, 323/215 DuPont Experimental Station, Wilmington,

DE 19898

ANNAU, Zoltan, School of Hygiene & Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe St., Rm. 7021,

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205

BABRAUSKAS, Dr. Vyto, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BAUM, Dr. Howard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BEITEL, Jesse J., Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Rd., San Antonio,

TX 78284

BELL, James R., National Fire Protection Association, 1800 M Street, N.W.,

Suite 570 South, Washington, DC 20036

BENDERSKY, Charles, Pyros, Inc., 2 Professional Drive, Suite 220, Gaithersburg,

MD 20760

BENJAMIN, Irwin A. , Center for Fire Research, NBS

BERLIN, Geoff, Modeling Systems, Inc., Ten Emerson Place, Suite 4-J, Boston,

MA 02114

BIORDI, Joan, AeroChem Research Labs, P.O. Box 12, Princeton, NJ 08540

BIRKY, Dr. Merritt, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BLOMQUIST, Jan, Lund Institute of Technology Fack 725, S-220 07 Lund 7, Sweden

BLOSSER, W. I., U.S. Gypsum Company, 1000 E. N.W. Highway, Des Plaines, IL

BOGNER, C.E., Transportation Systems Center, Kendall Square, Cambridge, MA 02142

BRAUMAN, Dr. Sharon K. , SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park,

CA 94025

BRENDEN, John J., U.S. Forest Products Laboratories, P.O. Box 5130, Madison,

WI 53705

BRIGHT, Richard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

B-1
BRYAN, James C., E. I. du Pont de Nemours, Elastomers Lab, Chestnut Run,

Wilmington, DE 19898

BRYAN, Dr. John L. , University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering,

College Park, MD 20742

BUCHBINDER, Benjamin, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BUDNICK, Edward K. , Center for Fire Research, NBS

CALLAHAN, Joseph, Naval Ship Systems Engineering Station, NAVSSES, Philadelphia,

PA

CAMPBELL, John, Gage-Babcock & Associates, 135 Addison Street, Elmhurst, IL 60126

CHALMET, Luc G. , University of Florida, 303 Weil Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611

CHANDLER, Harrison C., Jr., Toyad Corporation, 6902 Maple Ave. , Chevy Chase,

MD 20015

CHAPMAN, Robert, Center for Applied Mathematics, NBS

CHIEN, William P., Upjohn Company, North Haven, CT 06473

CLARK, William R. , Jr., M.D., Department of Surgery, Upstate Medical Center,

750 E. Adams Street, Syracuse, NY 13210

CLARKE, Dr. Frederic B., Center for Fire Research, NBS

CLINE, Douglas, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185

COLLINS, Hank, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., 1435 G St., N.W., Washington,

DC 20005

COOPER, Leonard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

CUSTER, Richard L.P., Center for Fire Research, NBS

DATTA, A., U.S. Coast Guard, Groton, CT 06340

DALY, Thomas G., National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA, Code

NIG-3/Safety Office, Washington, DC 20546

DAVIS, Sanford, Center for Fire Research, NBS

DEMAS, Peter, Davis Taylor Naval Ship R & D Center, Annapolis, MD 21402

DENSLOW, Victor A., Amoco Chemicals Corporation, 200 E. Randolph, M/C 4403,

Chicago, IL 60601

DONALDSON, W. Lyle, Southwest Research Institute, Box 28510, San Antonio,

TX 78284

DREWS, Dr. Michael J., Clemson University, Department of Textiles, Clemson

University, Clemson, SC 29631
DUBE, Donald A., Sandia National Labs, Albuquerque, NM 87185

DUNHAM, Bill, NAVY, NAVSEASYS COM, Washington, DC 20362

DYER, Dr. John H. , The Ansul Company, One Stanton Street, Marinette,

WI 54143

EARL, William, Center for Fire Research, NBS

RICHER, W. J. , Mobay Chemical Corporation, Penn Lincoln Parkway West,

Pittsburgh, PA 15205

EMMONS, Howard W. , Harvard University, 308 Pierce Hall, Harvard University,

Cambridge, MA 02138

EVANS, David, Center for Fire Research, NBS

FAETH, G. M. , The Pennsylvania State University, 214 M.E. Building,

University Park, PA 16802

FANG, Jin, Center for Fire Research, NBS

FITCH, William E., Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation, Fiberglas Tower,

Toledo, OH 43659

FOO, Oliver, FAA Technical Center, Atlantic City, NJ 08405

FOTHERGILL, John W. , Jr., Integrated Systems Inc., 318 W. Potomac St.,

Brunswick, MD 21716

FRANCIS, Richard L. , Department of Industrial & Systems Engineering, 303 Weil

Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611

FREDERICKS, A. A., Toyad Corporation, P.O. Box 30, Latrobe, PA 15650

GALLOWAY, John R., DuPont Company, 1007 Market St., Wilmington, DE 19898

GANN, Dr. Richard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

GIBBONS, Charles H., Underwriters Laboratories Inc., 333 Pfingsten Rd.

,

Northbrook, IL 60062

GILLEN, Michael, Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Rd. , Skokie,

IL 60077

GLOWINSKI, R.W. , National Forest Products Association, 1619 Massachusetts Ave.,

N.W. , Washington, DC 20036

GOMBERG, Alan, Center for Fire Research, NBS

GOODALE, Thomas, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park, CA 94025

GRONER, Dr. Norman, Center for Fire Research, NBS

GROSS, Daniel, Center for Fire Research, NBS

B-3
HANDA, Prof. Takashi, Science University of Tokyo, Japan

HASEMI, Yuji, Building Research Institute, Japan

HARTZELL, Dr. Gordon E., Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Rd.,

P.O. Drawer 28510, San Antonio, TX 78284

HASEGAWA, Harry K. , Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 5505,

Livermore, CA 94550

HESKESTAD, Gunnar, Factory Mutual Research, 1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike,

Norwood, MA 02062

HICKEY, Prof. Harry E. , Department of Fire Protection Engineering, College of

Engineering, University of Maryland, S. Building, Rm. 1129, College Park,

MD 20742

HO^TELL, Wayne D., FAA-Technical Center, Atlantic City, NJ 08405

HUGGETT, Dr. Clayton, Center for Fire Research, NBS

ISHII, T., Science University of Tokyo, Japan

ISSEN, Lionel, Center for Fire Research, NBS

ISTVAN, Sharon, Rolf Jensen & Associates, 5803 Rolling Rd., Springfield, VA 22152

JACISIN, Joe, Bell Laboratories, North Rd., Chester, NJ 07930

JEANES, David, Center for Fire Research, NBS

JIN, Dr. Tadahisa, Fire Research Institute, Japan

JONES, Dennis W. , R.N., Maryland Institute for Emergency Medical Services Systems,

22 S. Greene St., Baltimore, MD 21201

JONES, Walter, Center for Fire Research, NBS

KASEN, Dr. M. , Department of Consumer and Corporate Affairs, Ottawa, Canada KLA-0C9

KASHIWAGI, Dr. Takashi, Center for Fire Research, NBS

KEATING, John P., University of Washington, Psychology NI-25, University of

Washington, Seattle, WA 98195

KENNEDY, Thomas E., Defense Nuclear Agency, ATTN: SPTD, Washington, DC 20305

KERR, James W. , FEMA, 1725 I Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20472

KLOTE, John, Center for Fire Research, NBS

KRASNY, John, Center for Fire Research, NBS

B-4
KULKARNI, Anil K. , Pennsylvania State University, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802

KUNG, Dr. Hsiang-Cheng, Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 1151 BostonProvidence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062

LABES, Willis G. , Consulting Engineer, RFD 3, Box 464, Charlottesville, VA 22901

LACKOVIC, John, Johnson & Higgins, P.O. Box 1137, Richmond, VA 23208

LAND, Richard, Harvard University, 40 Oxford St,, Cambridge, MA 02138

LEE, Calvin K. , Bureau of Mines, P.O. Box 18070, Cochrans Mill Rd. , Pittsburgh,

PA 15236

LEITNER, George, Stauffer Chemical Company, Grasslands Rd., Elmsford, NY

LEVIN, Dr. Barbara, Center for Fire Research, NBS

LEVIN, Dr. Bernard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

LEVINE, Dr. Robert, Center for Fire Research, NBS

LEVY, Arthur, Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, 505 King Avenue, Columbus, OH

43201

LOMARTIRE, John, Monsanto Textiles Company, 1114 Avenue of America, New York,

NY 10036

MAXWELL, Dr. Timothy T., Auburn University, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830

MALLARD, Dr. William G. , Center for Fire Research, NBS

MANNING, John, E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Wilmington, DE 19898

MARTIN, Stan, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave. , Menlo Park, CA 94025

McCaffrey, Dr. Bernard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

MEHKERI, Dr. A., Department of Consumer and Corporate Affairs, Ottawa, Canada K1A-0C9

MERRY, Joe, Eastman Kodak, 1669 Lake Ave., Kodak Park, Rochester, NY 14650

MERTENS, John M. , Illinois Institute of Technology, Fire Protection and Safety

Engineer, 10 W. 32nd St., Chicago, IL 60616

MILKE, Jim, Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

College Park, MD 20742

MIYAMA, Prof. June, Sophia University, Japan

MOREHART, Jonas L., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Room 4711

North Building, 330 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, DC 20201

MORISHITA, Y. , Building Research Institute, Japan

B-5
MURCH, Robert, W. R. Grace & Company, 7379 Rt. 32, Columbia, MD 2104A

MYERS, Dr. Roy A.M. , MIEMSS, University of Maryland, 22 S. Greene St.,

Baltimore, MD 21201

NAANEP, Geronimo, Econ Incorporated, 4020 Moorpark Ave., Suite #216, San Jose,

CA 95121

NELSON, Harold, Center for Fire Research, NBS

NOBER, E. Harris, University of Massachusetts, Department of Communication

Disorders, Amherst, MA 01003

OFFENSEND, Fred L. , SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park, CA 94025

OGBURN, Carl, Toyad Corporation, P.O. Box 30, Latrobe, PA 15650

O’NEILL, John, Center for Fire Research, NBS

PAABO, Maya, Center for Fire Research, NBS

PACKHAM, Dr. Steven C., Consultant, Physio-Behavioral Consultant, 966 S. 15th

East, Salt Lake City, UT 84105

PAGNI, Prof. Patrick J., Mechanical Engineering Department, University of California,

Berkeley, CA 94720

PAPE, Ronald, IIT Research Institute, 10 W. 35th Street, Chicago, IL 60616

PEACOCK, Richard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

PEARSON, Richard G., N.C. State University, School of Engineering, Department

of Industrial Engineering, Box 5511, Raleigh, NC 27650

PEIRCE, Henry, University of Massachusetts, Department of Communication

Disorders, Amherst, MA 01003

PERKINS, Lowell R. , E.I. du Pont de Nemours, Inc., DuPont Experimental Station

Building 323, Room 219, Wilmington, DE 19898

PETERS, Al, Naval Ship Systems Engineering Station, NAVSSES, Philadelphia, PA 19112

PETERSON, Pete, Office of Mitigation and Research, Federal Emergency Management

Agency, Washington, DC 20472

PRAGER, Dr. F., Mobay Chemical Corporation, Penn Lincoln Parkway West,

Pittsburgh, PA 15205

PRIEST, Deggary N. , Commercial Testing Company, 1215 S, Hamilton, Dalton,

CA 30720

QUINTIERE, Dr. James, Center for Fire Research, NBS

ROBERTSON, Dr. Alex, Center for Fire Research, NBS

B-6
ROBINS, Robert F., Hardwood Plywood Manufacturers Association, 1825 Michael

Faraday Dr., Res ton, VA 22090

ROCKETT, Dr. John, Center for Fire Research, NBS

SAITO, Dr. Fumiharu, Building Research Institute, Japan

SCHAENMAN, P.S., National Fire Data Center, U.S. Fire Administration, 2400 M St.,

N.W. , Room 405, Washington, DC 20036

SCHEFFEY, Joseph L., Rolf Jensen & Associates, 5803 Rolling Rd. , Springfield,

VA 22152

SHAFIZADEH, Fred, University of Montana, Wood Chemistry Laboratory, 417 Science

Complex, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812

SHAVER, James, Center for Building Technology, NBS

SIBULKIN, Prof. Merwin, Brown University, Division of Engineering, Brown

University, Providence, RI 02912

SIMPSON, John, Bell Laboratories, North Rd. , Chester, NJ 07930

SLATER, James, Center for Fire Research, NBS

SMALL, Dr. Richard D., Pacific-Sierra Research Corporation, 1456 Cloverfield

Boulevard, Santa Monica, CA 90404

SMYTH, Dr. Kermit, Center for Fire Research, NBS

SOHRAB, Siavash H. , University of California, Ames Dept. BOlO, San Diego, CA 92115

SPRINGER, George S., University of Michigan, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109

SPRUNG, Jerry L. , Sandia National Labs, Albuquerque, NM 87185

STAHL, Fred, Center for Building Technology, NBS

STRIDH, Goran, Statens Provningsanstalt , Box 857, S-50115 Boras, Sweden

SUNDSTROM, Bjorn, Statens Provningsanstalt, Box 857, S-50115 Boras, Sweden

SURESHWARA, Dr. B., Underwriters Laboratories Inc., 333 Pfingsten Rd.

,

Northbrook, IL 60062

SWARTZ, Joseph A., National Fire Protection Association, 470 Atlantic Ave.,

Boston, MA 02210

TEWARSON, Dr. Archibald, Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 1151 BostonProvidence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062

T’lEN, James S. , Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106

B-7
UNOKI, Juzo, Japanese Association of Fire Science & Engineering, Japan

VANNELLI, Anthony, Weyerhaeuser Company, P.O. Box 188, Longview, WA 98632

WAKAMATSU, Dr. Takao, Building Research Institute, Japan

WATERMAN, T.E., IIT Research Institute, 10 W. 35th St., Chicago, IL 60616

WILLEY, A. Elwood, National Fire Protection Association, 470 Atlantic Ave.,

Boston, MA 02210

WILLIAMSON, Robert Brady, University of California, Berkeley, 508 Davis Hall,

University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720

\7INEMAN, Phil, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, 1401 Research

Blvd., Rockville, MD 20850

WINGER, James, Center for Fire Research, NBS

WRIGHT, G. Todd, Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation, Life Safety Systems,

Granville, OH 43023

ZUKOSKI, Edward E. , California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125

B-8

o U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1961 340-997/337
NBS-114A (REV. 9-78)

U.,s. DEPT. OF COMM.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBSIR 80-2127-12.Gov't. Accession No. 5.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

FourthAnnual Conference on Fire Research

5. Publication Date December 1980

6. Performing Organization Cede

7. AUTHOR(S) Xleana M. Martinez, Editor

Sonya M. Cherry, Editor

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, DC 20234

1(1, Project/Task/Work Unit No.

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS ('Sfree<, City, state. ZIP)

Same as No. 9 above

13. Type of Report & Period Covered Final

14. ^nswing Ag«jcy Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

none

I I Document (jescribes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

16. ABSTRACT (A 200^word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or

literature survey, mention it here,)

This report contains descriptions of the internal

programs of the Center for Fire Research as well as extended abstracts of grants and contracts sponsored

by the Center for Fire Research, National Bureau of

Standards

.

NOTE: This publication supercedes NBSIR 80-2127

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name;

separated by semicolons)

Chemistry of fire; combustion products; detection; fire hazards; fire modeling;

fire protection; fire suppression; fire research; human behavior in fires; physics

of fire; toxicity of combustion products

18. AVAILABILITY ^Unlimited 19. SECURITY CLASS 21. NO. OF

(THIS REPORT) PRINTED PAGES

1 1 For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS UNCLASSIFIED

1 1 Order From Sup. of Doc., U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

20402, SD Stock No. SN003-003-

20. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS PAGE)

22. Price

1^ Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA. 22161 UNCLASSIFIED

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