Bureau of Justice Statistics

Special Report

August 2008, NCJ 222984

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Parents in Prison and Their Minor 

Children

Lauren E. Glaze

and Laura M. Maruschak

BJS Statisticians

An estimated 809,800 prisoners of the 1,518,535 held in 

the nation’s prisons at midyear 2007 were parents of minor 

children, or children under age 18. Parents held in the 

nation’s prisons—52% of state inmates and 63% of federal 

inmates—reported having an estimated 1,706,600 minor 

children, accounting for 2.3% of the U.S. resident population under age 18. Unless otherwise specified in this report, 

the word parent refers to state and federal prisoners who 

reported having minor children. The word children refers to 

youth under age 18.

Between 1991 and midyear 2007, parents held in state and 

federal prisons increased by 79% (357,300 parents). Children of incarcerated parents increased by 80% (761,000 

children), during this period (figure 1). The most rapid 

growth in the number of parents held in the nation’s prisons 

and their children occurred between 1991 and 1997 (both 

up 44%). From 1997 to midyear 2007, the number of parents and children continued to grow, but at a slower pace 

(both up 25%).

The findings in this report are based on the latest data 

collected through personal interviews with prisoners participating in the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ (BJS) 2004 Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities 

(SISFCF), which is comprised of two separate surveys. 

One survey is conducted in state adult correctional facilities 

and the other is conducted in federal correctional facilities. 

Estimates presented in this report may not be comparable 

to previously published reports. See Incarcerated Parents 

and Their Minor Children at <http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

abstract/iptc.htm>.

Parents of minor children held in the nation’s prisons 

increased by 79% between 1991 and midyear 2007

Growth in the number of parents held in state and federal 

prisons was outpaced by the growth in the nation’s prison 

population between 1991 and midyear 2007. Parents incarcerated in state and federal prisons increased by 79% during this period while the custody population grew by 92%.

Estimated number of parents in state and federal prisons 

and their minor children

Figure 1

1991 1997 1999 2004 2007

0

250,000

500,000

750,000

1,000,000

1,250,000

1,500,000

1,750,000

2,000,000

Parents

Minor children

Number

Detailed information is available in appendix tables in the online version 

of this report on the BJS Website at <http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/

pdf/pptmc.pdf>.

Revised 1/8/09
2 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Parents held in state prison increased from 413,100 in 

1991 to 686,000 at midyear 2007 (table 1). Children of parents in state prison increased from 860,300 to 1,427,500 

during this period. The largest growth in the number of parents (up 40%) held in state prison and their children (up 

42%) occurred between 1991 and 1997, compared to a 

19% increase for parents and a 17% increase for their children between 1997 and midyear 2007. 

The number of children under age 18 with a mother in 

prison more than doubled since 1991

The nation’s prisons held approximately 744,200 fathers 

and 65,600 mothers at midyear 2007 (appendix table 1). 

Fathers in prison reported having 1,559,200 children; 

mothers reported 147,400. 

Since 1991, the number of children with a mother in prison 

has more than doubled, up 131%. The number of children 

with a father in prison has grown by 77%. This finding 

reflects a faster rate of growth in the number of mothers 

held in state and federal prisons (up 122%), compared to 

the number of fathers (up 76%) between 1991 and midyear 

2007.

Of the estimated 74 million children in the U.S. resident 

population who were under age 18 on July 1, 2007, 2.3% 

had a parent in prison (table 2). Black children (6.7%) were 

seven and a half times more likely than white children 

(0.9%) to have a parent in prison. Hispanic children (2.4%) 

were more than two and a half times more likely than white 

children to have a parent in prison.

More than 4 in 10 fathers in state or federal prisons 

were black; almost 5 in 10 mothers were white

Similar to men in the general prison population (93%), parents held in the nation’s prisons at midyear 2007 were 

mostly male (92%) (not shown in table). More than 4 in 10 

fathers were black, about 3 in 10 were white, and about 2 in 

10 were Hispanic (appendix table 2). An estimated 

1,559,200 children had a father in prison at midyear 2007; 

nearly half (46%) were children of black fathers. 

Almost half (48%) of all mothers held in the nation’s prisons 

at midyear 2007 were white, 28% were black, and 17% 

were Hispanic. Of the estimated 147,400 children with a 

mother in prison, about 45% had a white mother. A smaller 

percentage of the children had a black (30%) or Hispanic 

(19%) mother.

The majority of prisoners reported having a minor 

child, a quarter of which were age 4 or younger

When interviewed during the 2004 survey, the majority of 

state (52%) and federal (63%) inmates reported having at 

least one child under age 18 (appendix table 3). Women in 

state prison (62%) were more likely than men (51%) to 

report being a parent. Among federal inmates, 63% of 

male inmates and 56% of female inmates reported being a 

parent.

Nearly 1 in 4 state (23%) and federal (24%) inmates 

reported having one child. Federal inmates (39%) were 

more likely than state inmates (29%) to report having multiple children. Women (41%) in state prison were more likely 

than men (29%) to report having more than one child. Similar percentages of women (36%) and men (39%) held in 

federal prison reported having multiple children. Parents in 

state and federal prisons reported having two children, on 

average (not shown in table). 

Table 2. Minor children in the U.S. resident population with 

a parent in state or federal prison, by race and Hispanic 

origin, 2007

Estimated number of 

minor children with a 

parent in prison

Percent of all minor 

children in the U.S. 

resident population

U.S. total* 1,706,600 2.3%

White, non-Hispanic 484,100 0.9%

Black, non-Hispanic 767,400 6.7

Hispanic 362,800 2.4

Note: Children were assumed to have the same race/ethnicity as the 

incarcerated parent. Percentages were calculated based on the U.S. 

resident population under age 18 as of July 1, 2007.

*Includes children of other races. Other races include American 

Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, other Pacific 

Islanders, and persons identifying two or more races.

Table 1. Estimated number of parents in state and federal 

prisons and their minor children

Total State Federala

Number of parents

2007b 809,800 686,000 123,800

2004c 754,900 644,100 110,800

1999 721,500 642,300 79,200

1997 649,500 578,100 62,500

1991 452,500 413,100 39,400

Number of children

2007b 1,706,600 1,427,500 279,100

2004c 1,590,100 1,340,300 249,800

1999d 1,515,200 1,338,900 176,300

1997d 1,362,900 1,223,800 139,100

1991d 945,600 860,300 85,100

Note: See Methodology for details about estimation methods. See 

appendix table 1 for estimates by gender.

aEstimates were based on the prisoner custody population in each 

year. The total custody population included inmates held in privately 

operated facilities and community corrections centers (30,379 in 

2007; 24,768 in 2004; and 3,828 inmates in privately operated facilities in 1999). In 1991 and 1997, the number of inmates in these facilities was not known.

bThe 2007 estimates were based on the distribution of parents from 

the 2004 SISFCF.

c

Numbers were estimated based on the custody population in state 

(1,241,034) and federal (176,156) prisons on June 30, 2004.

dEstimates may not be comparable to previously published BJS 

reports.
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 3

Twenty-two percent of the children of state inmates and 

16% of the children of federal inmates were age 4 or 

younger (table 3). For both state (53%) and federal (50%) 

inmates, about half their children were age 9 or younger. 

Children of female state inmates were slightly older than 

children reported by male state inmates. More than half 

(53%) of the children reported by women were between 

age 10 and 17, compared to 47% of the children reported 

by men. 

More than a third of minor children will reach age 18 

while their parent is incarcerated

Based on the number of adult children reported during the 

2004 survey, the total number of children affected by an 

incarcerated parent can be calculated by subtracting the 

amount of time served by the parent from their adult child’s 

age. Using this method, parents in prison had nearly 1.9 

million children at the time of admission (table 4). Of those 

children, an estimated 715,600 will reach age 18 while their 

parent is incarcerated.

Incarcerated parents of minor children most likely to 

be age 25 to 34

State inmates age 25 to 34 (64%) interviewed during the 

2004 survey were most likely to be parents of minor children, followed by inmates age 35 to 44 and inmates age 24 

or younger (table 5). Thirty-one percent of inmates age 45 

to 54 reported being a parent. The likelihood of being a parent in state prison was lowest among inmates age 55 or 

older (13%). Among state prisoners in all age categories 

except age 45 to 54, women were more likely than men to 

report being a parent. There was no difference in the prevalence of being a parent between men and women age 45 to 

54.

Federal inmates age 25 to 34 (74%) and age 35 to 44 

(72%) were more likely to report being a parent, compared 

to inmates in all other age categories. Forty-seven percent 

of inmates age 45 to 54 and 46% of inmates age 24 or 

younger reported being a parent. Federal inmates age 

55 or older were least likely to report that they had minor 

children. 

For men held in state prison, the likelihood of being a parent varied across racial categories (appendix table 4). Hispanic (57%) and black (54%) men were more likely than 

white (45%) men to report being a parent. Findings were 

similar for men held in federal prison. White men (48%) in 

federal prison were the least likely of all male inmates to 

report having children. Black (70%) and Hispanic (69%) 

men were equally likely to be parents. The likelihood of 

being a parent for white, black, and Hispanic women held in 

state prison did not vary by race. In federal prison, Hispanic 

women (63%) were more likely than white women (47%) to 

report being a parent. 

In state prison, the likelihood of being a parent was most 

common among married inmates (71%), compared to 

inmates who were separated (64%), divorced (55%), never 

married (45%), or widowed (36%). Among federal inmates, 

married inmates were more likely to report being a parent 

than inmates in all marital statuses except those inmates 

who were separated from their spouse. There was no difference in the prevalence of being a parent between married federal inmates and separated federal inmates. The 

likelihood of being a parent varied little by education for 

both state and federal inmates. 

Table 5. Percent of state and federal inmates who were 

parents of minor children, by age and gender, 2004

Percent of parents in 

state prison

Percent of parents in 

federal prison

Age of inmates 

who were parents 

of minor children Total Male Female Total Male Female

All inmates 51.9% 51.2% 61.7% 62.9% 63.4% 55.9%

24 or younger 44.1% 43.5% 55.4% 45.8% 45.7% 47.5%

25-34 64.4 63.3 80.7 74.1 74.1 74.5

35-44 58.9 58.3 65.7 71.9 72.1 68.2

45-54 31.0 31.4 25.8 47.0 48.3 31.2

55 or older 12.6 12.9 ^ 23.8 25.3 ^

Note: See appendix table 16 for estimated total counts.

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide 

reliable data.

Table 4. Estimated number of minor children of state and 

federal inmates at time of admission, at interview, and at 

expected release, by gender, 2004

Estimated number of minor 

children of parents in state 

prison

Estimated number of minor 

children of parents in federal 

prison

Total Male Female Total Male Female

At admission* 1,596,100 1,463,400 132,700 282,600 265,900 16,700

At interview 1,340,300 1,223,700 116,600 249,800 235,200 14,600

At expected 

release* 1,000,500 905,600 94,900 162,600 151,000 11,600

*Does not include children of parents in prison who did not report time 

served or time expected to be served. 

Table 3. Percent of minor children of parents in state and 

federal prisons at time of interview, by gender, 2004

Percent of minor children 

among parents in state 

prison

Percent of minor children 

among parents in federal 

prison

Age of minor child Total Male Female Total Male Female

Total 100.0%100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Less than 1 year 2.4% 2.5% 1.6% 0.7% 0.7% 1.1%

1-4 years 20.0 20.3 16.7 15.1 15.3 12.6

5-9 years 30.2 30.3 29.1 33.8 34.0 30.1

10-14 years 31.6 31.4 33.8 35.1 35.0 35.8

15-17 years 15.8 15.5 18.8 15.3 15.0 20.4
4 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Drug and public-order offenders in state and federal 

prisons were more likely than violent offenders to have 

children

Among male state prisoners, violent (47%) and property 

(48%) offenders were less likely to report having children 

than public-order (60%) and drug (59%) offenders (table 6). 

For women held in state prison, violent (57%) offenders 

were less likely than drug (63%), property (65%), and public-order (65%) offenders to be a mother.

The prevalence of being a parent differed by gender and 

offense for inmates held in state and federal prisons. For 

state inmates, female (65%) property offenders were more 

likely to be a parent than male (48%) property offenders. In 

federal prison, male (69%) drug offenders were more likely 

than female (55%) drug offenders to report having children.

Among men held in federal prison, drug offenders (69%) 

were more likely than property (54%) and violent (50%) 

offenders to report having children (appendix table 5). 

Public-order offenders (62%) were also more likely than 

violent offenders to report having children. For women in 

federal prison, the likelihood of being a mother did not differ 

by offense.

Inmates in state and federal prisons with a criminal 

history were more likely to be parents of minor children 

than those with no criminal history 

The likelihood of being a parent in prison varied slightly 

based on criminal history, including prior probation, parole, 

and incarceration sentences. Prisoners with a criminal history were more likely to report being a parent than prisoners with no criminal history. In state prison, 53% of inmates 

with a criminal history reported having children, compared 

to 48% with no criminal history. Sixty-six percent of parents 

held in federal prison reported having a criminal history, 

compared to 57% of parents with no criminal history. 

In state prison, drug recidivists (62%)—offenders with a 

prior drug offense—had a higher likelihood of being a parent than violent (52%) and other (54%) recidivists. For 

women in state prison, and both men and women in federal 

prison, the likelihood of being a parent did not vary by type 

of recidivist (appendix table 6).

Male (50%) and female (61%) inmates in state prison who 

reported no prior incarceration sentences were equally 

likely to be a parent as male (53%) and female (65%) 

inmates with 10 or more prior incarcerations. In federal 

prison, findings were similar for men while women with no 

prior incarceration sentences (54%) were less likely to be a 

mother than women who reported they had 10 or more 

prior incarcerations (81%).

Fewer than half of parents in state prison lived with 

their minor children either in the month before arrest or 

just prior to incarceration

Thirty-seven percent of parents held in state prison 

reported living with at least one of their children in the 

month before arrest, 44% reported just prior to incarceration, and 48% reported at either time (table 7). Mothers 

were more likely than fathers to report living with at least 

one child. More than half of mothers held in state prison 

reported living with at least one of their children in the 

month before arrest, compared to 36% of fathers. More 

than 6 in 10 mothers reported living with their children just 

prior to incarceration or at either time, compared to less 

than half of fathers. 

Parents held in federal prison were more likely than those 

held in state prison to report living with a child in the month 

before arrest, just prior to incarceration, or at either time 

(appendix table 7). Mothers in federal prison were more 

likely than fathers to report living with a child. 

Table 6. Percent of state inmates who were parents of 

minor children, by current offense and gender, 2004

Offense Total Male Female

All inmates 51.9% 51.2% 61.7%

Violent 47.5% 47.1% 57.3%

Property 49.9 48.2 64.7

Drug 59.6 59.3 62.5

Public-order 59.9 59.6 65.0

Note: See appendix table 17 for estimated total counts. 

Table 7. Parents in state prison who reported living with 

their minor children in the month before arrest or just 

prior to incarceration, by gender, 2004

Lived with their minor children Total Male Female

In month before arrest 37.1% 35.5% 55.3%

In two-parent household 17.9 18.3 13.6

In single-parent household 19.2 17.2 41.7

Prior to incarceration 43.8% 42.4% 60.6%

Either in the month before arrest 

or just prior to incarceration 47.9% 46.5% 64.2%

Estimated number of parents 

in state prison 636,300 585,200 51,100
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 5

More than 4 in 10 mothers in state prison who had 

minor children were living in single-parent households 

in the month before arrest

Parents held in state prison were equally likely to report living with their children in a single-parent household (19%) 

as they were to report living with their children in a twoparent household (18%) in the month before arrest. Mothers were three times more likely to report living in a singleparent household (42%) than in a two-parent household 

(14%). Fathers reported similar percentages of living in single or two-parent households in the month before their 

arrest. 

Parents held in federal prison were more likely overall to 

report having lived in two-parent versus single-parent 

households in the month before arrest. Mothers (52%) 

were more than two and a half times more likely than 

fathers (19%) to have lived in single-parent households.

Fathers living with their minor child relied heavily on 

someone to provide daily care 

Mothers and fathers in state prison responded differently 

when asked who provided most of the daily care for their 

minor children. Among parents in state prison who had 

lived with their minor children just prior to incarceration, 

mothers (77%) were almost three times more likely than 

fathers (26%) to report that they had provided most of the 

daily care for their children (appendix table 8). Sixty-three 

percent of fathers reported sharing the daily care, compared to 18% of mothers. About 1 in 10 fathers relied on 

someone to provide daily care for their children, compared 

to 1 in 20 mothers. Similar results were found for mothers 

and fathers in federal prison. 

Fathers most commonly reported the child’s mother as 

current caregiver of their children, while mothers most 

commonly reported the child’s grandparents 

The other parent (84%) was the most commonly reported 

caregiver for children of parents in state prison, followed by 

grandparents (15%), and other relatives (6%) (table 8). 

Three percent reported that their children were in the care 

of a foster home, agency, or institution. 

Mothers and fathers in state prison provided different 

responses about their children’s current caregivers. Eightyeight percent of fathers reported that at least one of their 

children was in the care of the child’s mother, compared to 

37% of mothers who reported the father as the child’s current caregiver. 

Mothers in state prison most commonly identified the 

child’s grandmother (42%) as the current caregiver. Nearly 

a quarter (23%) identified other relatives as the current 

caregivers of their children. The percentage of fathers in 

prison who reported that their children were in the care of a 

grandmother (12%) or other relative (5%) was much 

smaller. Mothers (11%) were 5 times more likely than 

fathers (2%) to report that their children were in the care of 

a foster home, agency, or institution.

About half of parents in state prison provided the 

primary financial support for their minor children

Mothers (52%) and fathers (54%) in state prison were 

equally likely to report that they provided primary financial 

support for their minor children prior to their incarceration 

(appendix table 9). Three-quarters (75%) reported employment in the month prior to their arrest. Parents who supported their children financially were more likely to have 

been employed (80%) in the month prior to arrest and to 

report wages or salary (76%) as income. 

Of parents with minor children who did not provide primary 

financial support, 68% reported employment in the month 

before their arrest and 64% reported wages or salary as 

income. More than a third (36%) of mothers in state prison 

reported government transfers such as welfare, Social 

Security, or compensation payment as income. Mothers 

were more likely than fathers to report receiving government transfers regardless of who provided the primary 

financial support for their children. The findings were similar for parents held in federal prison.

Table 8. Current caregiver of minor children of parents in 

state prison, by gender, 2004

Children’s current caregivera Total Male Female

Other parent 84.2% 88.4% 37.0%

Grandparent 15.1% 12.5% 44.9%

Grandmother 14.0 11.6 42.1

Grandfather 4.3 3.6 12.0

Other relatives 6.2% 4.7% 22.8%

Foster home or agency 2.9% 2.2% 10.9%

Friends, othersb 2.9% 2.4% 7.8%

Estimated number of 

parents in state prison 636,300 585,200 51,100

aIncludes all parents with minor children. Detail may sum to more 

than 100% because some prisoners had multiple minor children 

living with multiple caregivers.

bIncludes inmate's friends, friends of the inmate's children, cases 

where the parent reported that the child now lived alone, and others.
6 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Parents in state prison who provided primary financial support were more likely to report that they lived with their children in the month before arrest or just prior to incarceration 

(table 9). Among parents in state prison who provided the 

primary financial support to their children, mothers (89%) 

were more likely than fathers (67%) to report that they had 

lived with their children. 

More than three-quarters of state prison inmates who 

were parents of minor children reported that they had 

some contact with their children since admission

Seventy percent of parents in state prison reported 

exchanging letters with their children, 53% had spoken with 

their children over the telephone, and 42% had a personal 

visit since admission (appendix table 10).1 Mothers were 

more likely than fathers to report having had any contact 

with their children. Mothers and fathers were equally likely

1Question was asked about contact with any child, which could include 

children 18 years of age or older. 

to report having had personal visits with their children. A 

higher percentage of parents in federal prison reported 

contact with their children. In federal prison, 85% reported 

telephone contact, 84% had exchanged letters, and 55% 

reported having had personal visits.

More than three-quarters of state prison inmates who were 

parents of minor children reported that they had some contact with their children since admission (table 10). Thirtynine percent of fathers and 56% of mothers in state prison 

had at least weekly contact with their children since admission. Parents (86%) in state prison who reported living with 

their minor children in the month before arrest or just before 

incarceration were more likely to report having contact with 

their children than parents (72%) who had not lived with 

their children. Mothers (62%) and fathers (49%) who had 

lived with their children were more likely to report they had 

at least weekly contact with their children than mothers 

(44%) and fathers (30%) who had not lived with their children.

While the percent of parents in state prison who reported 

contact with their children varied little by expected release 

date, those having less time to serve reported more frequent contact with their children. About half (47%) of parents who expected to be released within six months 

reported at least weekly contact with their children, compared to 39% who expected to be released in 12 to 59 

months, and 32% in 60 or more months. Among parents 

who did not expect to be released, 22% reported at least 

weekly contact with their children.

Table 9. Financial support of minor children provided 

by parents in state prison prior to their incarceration, 

by gender, 2004

Total Male Female

Provided primary financial support 54.0% 54.1% 51.9%

Lived with minor child in the 

month before arrest or prior 

to incarceration 68.6% 66.9% 88.6%

Did not provide primary financial 

support 46.0% 45.9% 48.1%

Lived with minor child in the 

month before arrest or prior 

to incarceration 23.3% 22.0% 37.6%

Estimated number of parents 

in state prison 636,300 585,200 51,100

Table 10. Frequency of contact with adult or minor children among state inmates who were parents of minor 

children, by gender, 2004

Any contact Weekly or more Monthly or less

Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

All parents in state prison 78.6% 78.1% 85.0% 39.9% 38.5% 55.7% 38.8% 39.6% 29.3%

Lived with minor children*

Yes 86.0% 85.5% 89.7% 50.1% 48.6% 62.3% 35.9% 36.9% 27.4%

No 72.1 71.9 76.5 30.9 30.2 44.2 41.2 41.7 32.3

Time expected to serve until release

Less than 6 months 78.5% 77.7% 84.8% 47.3% 45.9% 56.9% 31.2% 31.7% 27.9%

6-11 months 79.1 78.4 84.8 42.8 41.3 55.9 36.2 37.1 28.9

12-59 months 79.0 78.5 86.7 39.4 38.4 54.9 39.6 40.1 31.8

60 or more months 78.6 78.5 80.6 32.3 31.7 47.9 46.3 46.8 32.8

No release expected 74.0 74.0 74.8 22.4 21.3 ^ 51.6 52.7 ^

Note: See appendix table 18 for estimated total counts. The contact question included in the 2004 SISFCF asked about contact with any 

child, which could include children age 18 or older.

*Inmate lived with minor children in the month before arrest or just prior to incarceration.

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide reliable data.
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 7

Half of parents in state prison reported that they had a 

family member who had been incarcerated

Mothers in state prison (58%) were more likely than fathers 

(49%) to report having a family member who had also been 

incarcerated (table 11). Parents in state prison most commonly reported a brother (34%), followed by a father (19%). 

Among mothers in state prison, 13% reported a sister and 

8% reported a spouse. Six percent of fathers reported having a sister who had also been incarcerated; 2%, a spouse.

While growing up, 40% of parents in state prison reported 

living in a household that received public assistance, 14% 

reported living in a foster home, agency, or institution at 

some time during their youth, and 43% reported living with 

both parents most of the time (appendix table 11). Mothers 

(17%) held in state prison were more likely than fathers 

(14%) to report living in a foster home, agency, or institution 

at some time during their youth. Parents in federal prison 

reported lower percentages of growing up in a household 

that received public assistance (31%) or living in a foster 

home, agency, or institution (7%). These characteristics 

varied little by gender for parents held in federal prison.

More than a third (34%) of parents in state prison reported 

that during their youth, their parents or guardians had 

abused alcohol or drugs. Mothers in state prison (43%) 

were more likely than fathers (33%) to have had this 

experience. Fewer parents (27%) in federal prison reported 

having a parent or a guardian who had abused alcohol or 

drugs. 

Mothers in state prison more likely than fathers to 

report homelessness, past physical or sexual abuse, 

and medical and mental health problems

Among parents in state prison, 9% reported homelessness in the year before arrest, 20% had a history of 

physical or sexual abuse, and 41% reported a current 

medical problem. Fifty-seven percent of parents in state 

prison met the criteria for a mental health problem and 67% 

met the criteria for substance dependence or abuse 

(appendix table 12).2 In comparison, parents in federal 

prison reported lower percentages of homelessness (4%) 

in the year before arrest, past physical or sexual abuse 

(11%), current medical problems (36%), mental health 

problems (43%), and substance dependence or abuse 

(56%).

Mothers in state prison were two times more likely than 

fathers to report homelessness in the year before arrest, 

four times more likely to report past physical or sexual 

abuse, and almost one and half times more likely to have 

either a current medical or mental health problem. The 

comparison by gender among parents held in federal 

prison was similar to those held in state prison, with the 

exception of homelessness in the year before arrest. Both 

male and female parents held in federal prison had similar 

rates (4.0%) of homelessness in the year before arrest.

Reports from fathers in state prison that showed past physical or sexual abuse, current medical problems, mental 

health problems, and substance dependence or abuse didnot vary overall by living arrangement (table 12). However, 

fathers who had not lived with their children were three 

times more likely than those who had lived with their children to report homelessness in the year prior to arrest.

2Inmates met the criteria for a mental health problem if they had a recent 

history of a mental health problem in the year before arrest or since admission, or if they experienced, in the 12 months prior to the interview, symptoms of mental health disorders. See Mental Health Problems of Prison 

and Jail Inmates, <http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/mhppji.htm>.

Table 11. Family incarceration of state inmates who were 

parents of minor children, by gender, 2004

Total Male Female

Family member ever incarcerated 49.6% 48.9% 58.4%

Mother 6.4 6.1 10.4

Father 18.8 18.6 20.7

Brother 34.4 34.2 36.8

Sister 6.5 6.0 13.0

Child 2.0 1.7 5.2

Spouse 1.9 1.5 7.5

Estimated number of parents 

in state prison 636,300 585,200 51,100

Table 12. Homelessness, physical/sexual abuse, medical/mental health problems, or substance dependence/abuse problems 

among state inmates who were parents of minor children, by living arrangement and gender, 2004

All parents in 

state prison

Lived with minor children* Did not live with minor children*

Male Female Male Female

Homelessness in year before arrest 8.9% 4.0% 8.5% 12.0% 28.7%

Ever physical/sexual abuse 19.9 16.1 59.7 15.7 72.4

Current medical problem 40.6 39.7 50.0 39.6 57.6

Any mental health problem 56.5 54.5 72.8 55.2 75.3

Any substance dependence/abuse 67.4 65.0 63.6 68.8 81.5

Estimated number of parents in state prison 636,300 272,200 32,800 313,000 18,300

Note: Measures of substance dependence or abuse and mental health problems were based on criteria specified in the “Diagnostic and Statistical 

Manual of Mental Disorders,” fourth edition (DSM-IV). For details, see Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004, <http://

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/dudsfp04.htm> and Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates, <http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/mhppji.htm>.

*Inmate lived with minor children in the month before arrest or just prior to incarceration.
8 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Mothers held in state prison who had not lived with their 

children were three times more likely to report homelessness (29%) than those who had lived with their children 

(9%). Mothers who had not lived with their children were 

also more likely to report past physical and sexual abuse, 

current medical problems, and substance dependence or 

abuse than those who had lived with their children. 

More than 4 in 10 parents in the nation’s prisons who 

met the criteria for substance dependence or abuse 

had received treatment since admission

About 4 in 10 parents in state prison who met the criteria for 

substance dependence or abuse reported ever receiving 

treatment for drug or alcohol abuse; 56% reported participating in other drug or alcohol abuse programs (appendix 

table 13). Forty-three percent of parents who met the criteria reported treatment since admission. For fathers (10%) 

and mothers (14%), placement in a residential facility or 

unit for drug or alcohol abuse was the most common treatment since admission. Parents held in federal prison who 

met the criteria for substance dependence or abuse 

reported similar percentages of alcohol or drug treatment 

and program participation. 

Of parents in state prison who had a mental health problem, 46% reported ever receiving treatment. About a third 

(31%) had been treated since admission. Prescription medication was the most common treatment for both those who 

had reported ever having treatment (38%) and for those 

who had received treatment since admission (25%).

About a third (33%) of parents in state prison with a mental 

health problem reported that they had ever received therapy and 18% reported they had ever had an overnight hospital stay. A fifth (21%) of parents with a mental health problem reported that they had received therapy since 

admission; 5% had an overnight hospital stay.

Mothers were more likely than fathers to report treatment 

for mental health problems either before or after admission 

to a state prison. In state prison, prescribed medication was 

the most common treatment for parents with a mental 

health problem. 

While parents in federal prison were less likely than those 

in state prison to report mental health treatment, the 

patterns by gender were similar for both. Participation in 

alcohol, drug, or mental health treatment did not vary by 

whether parents had lived with their children in the month 

before arrest or just prior to incarceration (table 13).

Table 13. Alcohol or drug and mental health treatment history of inmates in state prison who were parents of minor 

children and who had an alcohol or drug or mental health problem, by living arrangement and gender, 2004

All parents in 

state prison

Lived with minor childrena Did not live with minor childrena

Male Female Male Female

Alcohol or drug treatmentb

Ever any treatment or programs 69.8% 68.9% 74.3% 69.6% 77.2%

Received treatment since admission 42.9 41.7 46.4 43.0 49.8

Estimated number of parents who had an alcohol or drug 

problem 428,600 177,900 20,900 215,000 14,800

Mental health treatmentc

Ever any treatment 46.4% 42.2% 70.4% 44.1% 77.3%

Received treatment since admission 30.9 25.6 52.4 29.7 57.8

Estimated number of parents who had a mental health 

problem 359,200 148,700 23,900 172,900 13,700

aInmate lived with minor children in the month before arrest or just prior to incarceration.

bBased on parents in state prison who had an alcohol or drug problem.

c

Based on parents in state prison who had a mental health problem.
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 9

Among parents in state prison, two-thirds reported 

they had a work assignment; over half had attended 

self-help or improvement classes since admissions 

In state prison, about 7 in 10 mothers (70%) and fathers 

(67%) reported participating in work assignments since 

admission (appendix table 14). About two-thirds (65%) of 

mothers and more than half (57%) of fathers had attended 

self-help or improvement classes. While mothers and 

fathers were equally likely to report participating in employment and educational programming, mothers (27%) were 

about two and a half times more likely than fathers (11%) to 

attend parenting or childrearing classes. Mothers and 

fathers (both 62%) were equally likely to report having a 

high school diploma or GED at admission. 

Parents held in federal prison reported participating in work 

assignments and self-help programs and having a high 

school diploma or GED more frequently than parents in 

state prison. More than 9 in 10 parents in federal prison 

reported participating in a work assignment. Since admission, more than 7 in 10 had attended self-help or improvement classes. About 7 in 10 reported having a high school 

diploma or GED upon admission.

Similar percentages of participation in self-help or improvement classes were found between mothers and fathers in 

state prison who had lived with their children and those who 

had not lived with their children prior to arrest or incarceration (table 14). Mothers who had lived with their children 

prior to arrest or incarceration (72%) were more likely than 

mothers who had not lived with their children (67%) to participate in work assignments.

Table 14. Work assignments, program participation, and education among state inmates who were parents of minor 

children, by living arrangement and gender, 2004

All parents in 

state prison

Lived with minor childrena Did not live with minor childrena

Male Female Male Female

Work assignmentsb 66.8% 67.9% 72.2% 65.7% 66.6%

Self-help or improvement classes since admission 57.2% 57.4% 65.4% 55.8% 63.4%

Parenting or childrearing classes 11.9 12.1 29.7 9.3 22.5

Employment programs 30.4 30.6 33.2 30.1 26.9

Vocational or job-training program 26.5 26.2 27.0 26.8 22.2

Employment counseling 9.4 9.6 12.4 8.8 11.3

Education programsc 30.3 29.4 33.2 30.8 31.5

Other pre-release programsd 31.2 32.0 39.3 29.3 39.4

Had GED or high school diploma upon admission 62.4% 63.0% 65.5% 62.2% 56.4%

Estimated number of parents in state prison 636,300 272,200 32,800 313,000 18,300

aInmate lived with their minor children in the month before arrest or just prior to incarceration.

bIncludes work assignments both inside and outside the prison.

cExcludes vocational training. Includes basic classes up to 9th grade, high school diploma or GED classes, college level classes, or English 

as a second language. 

dIncludes inmate assistance/counseling groups, inmate self-help/personal improvement groups, including parent awareness groups, life 

skills/community adjustment classes, and other pre-release programs.
10 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Mothers in prison had served less time at time of 

interview and expected to be released in a shorter 

amount of time than fathers

Over half (52%) of parents in state prison had served 

between 12 and 59 months at the time of their interview 

(appendix table 15). A quarter (26%) had been in prison 60 

months or more. Mothers and fathers were equally likely to 

have been in prison for 12 to 59 months. For longer lengths 

of stay, mothers (13%) were less likely than fathers (27%) 

to have been in prison for 60 or more months. 

About 4 in 10 mothers in state prison expected to be 

released within 6 months. An additional 21% expected to 

be released in 6 to 11 months. Among fathers in state 

prison, a quarter expected to be released in less than 6 

months and 15% percent expected to be released in 6 to 11 

months. Compared to mothers in federal prison, fathers 

had served more of their sentence at the time of their interviews and expected to have a longer time remaining until 

their release. 

Time served and time expected until release varied little for 

fathers by whether they had lived with their children in the 

month before arrest or just prior to incarceration while differences were found among women (table 15). Compared 

to mothers who had not lived with their children in the 

month before arrest or just prior incarceration (46%), mothers who had lived with their children (39%) were less likely 

to expect to be released in less than 6 months.

Table 15. Time served since admission and time to be served until expected release among state inmates who were 

parents of minor children, by gender, 2004

All parents in state prison

Lived with minor childrena Did not live with minor childrena

Male Female Male Female

Time served since admissionb

Less than 6 months 9.4% 8.4% 17.9% 8.8% 17.8%

6-11 months 13.1 11.7 19.9 13.3 19.4

12-59 months 51.9 52.5 47.8 51.8 53.8

60+ months 25.5 27.4 14.5 26.1 9.0

Time left to be served on current sentencec

Less than 6 months 26.7% 25.4% 39.0% 25.4% 46.0%

6-11 months 15.4 15.0 20.5 14.8 20.3

12-59 months 37.9 37.6 30.2 39.8 26.4

60+ months 17.8 19.6 9.1 17.7 6.4

No release expected 2.3 2.4 1.2 2.3 ^

Estimated number of parents in state prison 636,300 272,200 32,800 313,000 18,300

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide reliable data.

aInmate lived with minor children in the month before arrest or just prior to incarceration.

bBased on time served from admission until time of interview.

c

Based on time from interview to expected date of release.
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 11

Methodology

Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional 

Facilities

The Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional 

Facilities (SISFCF), 2004, is comprised of two separate 

surveys. One survey is conducted in state adult correctional facilities and the other is conducted in federal correctional facilities. The surveys provide nationally representative data on state prison inmates and sentenced federal 

inmates. Both surveys use the same questionnaire and a 

stratified two-stage sample design where facilities are 

selected in the first stage and inmates to be interviewed in 

the second stage. 

The state prison sample was selected from a universe of 

1,585 facilities that were either enumerated in the 2000 

Census of State and Federal Correctional Facilities 

(CSFCF), or had opened between the completion of the 

Census and April 1, 2003. A total of 287 state prisons participated in the survey; 2 state prisons refused, 11 were 

closed or had no inmates to survey, and 1 was erroneously 

included in the universe.

The federal prison sample was selected from 148 prisons 

and satellite facilities holding inmates on January 4, 2003. 

Thirty-nine of the 40 federal prisons selected participated in 

the survey.

A total of 14,499 inmates in the state facilities were interviewed; 1,653 inmates refused to participate, resulting in a 

second-stage nonresponse rate of 10.2%. A total of 3,686 

inmates in federal facilities were interviewed and 567 

refused to participate, for a second-stage nonresponse rate 

of 13.3%. After the initial sample of inmates, a secondary 

sample of 1 in 3 drug offenders was selected for participation in the federal survey. 

Accuracy of the estimates

The accuracy of the 2004 SISFCF depends on sampling 

and measurement errors. Sampling errors occur by chance 

because a sample rather than a complete enumeration of 

the population was conducted. Measurement error can be 

attributed to many sources, such as nonresponse, recall 

difficulties, differences in the interpretation of questions 

among inmates, and processing errors.

The sampling error, as measured by an estimated standard 

error, varies by the size of the estimate and the size of the 

base population. These standard errors may be used to 

construct confidence intervals around percentages. For 

example, the 95-percent confidence interval around the 

percentage of state inmates who reported being a parent is 

approximately 51.9% plus or minus 1.96 times 1.41% (or 

49.1% to 54.7%).

These standard errors may also be used to test the statistical significance of the difference between two sample statistics by pooling the standard errors of the two sample estimates. For example, the standard error of the difference 

between male and female state inmate parents who lived 

with their children in the month before arrest or just prior to 

incarceration would be 3.69% (or the square root of the 

sum of the squared standard errors for each group). The 

95% confidence interval around the difference would be 

1.96% times 3.69% (or 7.23%). Since the difference of 

17.7% (64.2% minus 46.5%) is greater than 7.2%, the difference would be considered statistically significant. Differences discussed in this report were significant at the 95% 

confidence level.

Number of parents in prison who had minor children

To estimate the number of parents by gender in the 1991, 

1997, and 2004 SISFCF survey years, the distribution of 

parents from each of the survey years was applied to the 

prisoner custody population by gender for that specific 

year. In 1999 and 2007, the surveys were not conducted. 

To estimate the number of parents by gender in 1999, the 

distribution of parents from the 1997 SISFCF was applied 

to the prisoner custody population by gender in 1999. The 

distribution of parents by gender from the 2004 SISFCF 

was used to estimate the number of parents in prison at 

midyear 2007, by applying the distribution to the midyear 

2007 prisoner custody population by gender.

In 2007, 2004, and 1999, the total federal custody population included inmates held in privately operated facilities 

and community corrections centers (30,379 in 2007; 

24,768 in 2004; and 3,828 in privately operated facilities in 

1999). In 1991 and 1997 the number of inmates in these 

facilities was not known.

The 2007 estimates of the number of parents by race and 

gender were calculated based on the 2004 SISFCF distribution of parents, which was then applied to the midyear 

2007 custody population, by race and gender. The 2004 

estimates of the number of parents in prison by race and 

gender were calculated using the same method except the 

2004 SISFCF distribution was applied to the midyear 2004 

custody population, by race and gender.

Number of minor children of parents in prison

For this report, published estimates for 1991, 1997, and 

1999 were re-estimated to ensure comparability for the 

period covered. The 2004 SISFCF allowed prisoners to 

report a maximum of ten children. The 1997 SISFCF only 

allowed prisoners to report a maximum of six children and 

the 1991 SISFCF only allowed prisoners to report a maximum of five children.The 1997 distribution for six children 

was used to estimate the number of prisoners with six children in 1991. The 2004 distribution for seven through ten 

children was used to estimate the number of prisoners with 

seven through ten children in both 1991 and 1997.

Revised 1/8/09
U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Washington, DC 20531

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use $300

PRESORTED STANDARD

POSTAGE & FEES PAID

DOJ/BJS

Permit No. G-91

*NCJ~222984*

12 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

The Bureau of Justice Statistics is the statistical 

agency of the U.S. Department of Justice. Jeffrey L. 

Sedgwick is director.

This Special Report was written by Lauren E. Glaze 

and Laura M. Maruschak. William J. Sabol, Ph.D. 

and Christopher J. Mumola provided statistical 

review. Lara E. Allen and Margaret E. Noonan 

verified the report.

Georgette Walsh edited the report, Tina Dorsey 

produced the report, and Jayne Robinson prepared 

the report for final printing, under the supervision of 

Doris J. James.

August 2008, NCJ 222984

This report in portable document format and in 

ASCII and its related statistical data and tables 

(includes 20 appendix tables) are available at the 

BJS World Wide Web Internet site: <http://

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/pptmc.htm>.

Office of Justice Programs

Innovation • Partnerships • Safer Neighborhoods

<http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov>.

For each year, the estimated number of parents by gender 

was multiplied by the number of minor children reported by 

male and by female inmates. The estimates were then 

summed by gender for each year and reported as the 

totals. Because this estimation method was used, estimates presented in this report may not be comparable to 

previously published BJS reports. See Incarcerated Parents and Their Children at <http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

abstract/iptc.htm>.

The 2007 estimates by race and gender for the number of 

minor children of parents in prison were calculated based 

on the 2004 SISFCF distribution of parents and the number of minor children they reported. This distribution was 

then applied to the midyear 2007 custody population by 

race and gender. The estimated number of parents by race 

and gender was multiplied by the number of minor children 

they reported. The estimates were summed by race and 

gender for each year and reported as the totals. The 2004 

race and gender estimates for the number of minor children of parents in prison were calculated using this same 

method except the 2004 SISFCF distribution was applied 

to the midyear 2004 custody population, by race and gender.

Revised 1/8/09
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 13

Appendix table 1. Estimated number of parents in state and federal prisons and their minor 

children, by inmate’s gender

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prisona

Total Total Male Female Total Male Female

Number of parents

2007 809,800 686,000 627,800 58,200 123,800 116,400 7,400

2004b 754,900 644,100 592,300 51,800 110,800 104,200 6,600

1999 721,500 642,300 593,800 48,500 79,200 74,100 5,100

1997 649,500 587,000 544,100 42,900 62,500 58,500 4,000

1991 452,500 413,100 386,500 26,600 39,400 36,500 2,900

Number of minor children

2007 1,706,600 1,427,500 1,296,500 131,000 279,100 262,700 16,400

2004b 1,590,100 1,340,300 1,223,700 116,600 249,800 235,200 14,600

1999c 1,515,200 1,338,900 1,223,400 115,500 176,300 165,700 10,600

1997c 1,362,900 1,223,800 1,121,400 102,400 139,100 130,800 8,300

1991c 945,600 860,300 802,300 58,000 85,100 79,200 5,900

Note: See Methodology for details about estimation methods.

aEstimates were based on the prisoner custody population in each year. The total custody population included 

inmates held in privately operated facilities and community corrections centers (30,379 in 2007; 24,768 in 2004; and 

3,828 inmates in privately operated facilities in 1999). In 1991 and 1997, the number of inmates in these facilities 

was not known.

bNumbers were estimated based on the June 30, 2004, custody population in state (1,241,034) and federal 

(176,156) prisons.

c

Estimates may not be comparable to previously published BJS reports. See Methodology for more detail.

Appendix table 2. Estimated number of parents in state and federal prisons and their minor 

children, by inmate’s gender, race, and Hispanic origin, 2004 and 2007

Male Female

Totala Whiteb Blackb Hispanic Totala Whiteb Blackb Hispanic

State inmates

Number of parents

2007 627,800 197,800 262,400 127,600 58,200 29,000 16,100 8,800

2004c 592,300 189,800 279,500 113,100 51,800 23,300 19,000 8,200

Number of children

2007 1,296,500 373,400 577,900 263,500 131,000 60,000 39,600 22,900

2004c 1,223,700 358,000 611,600 233,000 116,600 47,900 45,700 21,000

Federal inmates

Number of parents

2007 116,400 25,900 57,000 32,500 7,400 2,700 2,200 2,300

2004c 104,200 20,900 49,300 31,000 6,600 2,000 2,100 2,200

Number of children

2007 262,700 45,100 144,800 71,200 16,400 5,600 5,100 5,200

2004c 235,200 36,300 125,400 67,800 14,600 4,200 4,900 4,900

Note: See Methodology for estimation methods.

aIncludes other races. Other races include American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, other Pacific 

Islanders, and persons identifying two or more races.

bExcludes persons of Hispanic or Latino origin.

cNumbers were estimated based on the June 30, 2004 custody population in state (1,241,034) and federal (176,156) 

prisons.
14 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Appendix table 3. State and federal inmates who reported having minor children, 

by gender, race, and Hispanic origin, 2004

Number of minor children

Percent of inmates 

with minor children 1 2 3 4 or more

State inmates 51.9% 22.5 14.8 8.1 6.5

Male* 51.2% 22.7 14.4 7.8 6.3

White, non-Hispanic 44.8% 21.6 12.9 6.5 3.8

Black, non-Hispanic 54.0% 23.3 14.4 7.9 8.4

Hispanic 57.0% 23.4 17.6 9.7 6.3

Female* 61.7% 20.7 19.3 12.4 9.3

White, non-Hispanic 61.8% 23.0 21.7 10.6 6.4

Black, non-Hispanic 61.0% 18.1 17.8 14.1 11.1

Hispanic 64.1% 18.3 15.9 14.1 15.8

Federal inmates 62.9% 24.4 17.8 10.9 9.8

Male* 63.4% 24.8 17.9 10.9 9.9

White, non-Hispanic 47.8% 26.2 12.7 6.3 2.5

Black, non-Hispanic 70.0% 24.2 18.1 12.9 14.8

Hispanic 68.5% 23.4 23.7 12.5 8.9

Female* 55.9% 19.5 17.0 10.7 8.7

White, non-Hispanic 47.4% 17.9 14.6 8.5 6.5

Black, non-Hispanic 55.2% 18.1 16.3 10.2 10.6

Hispanic 63.4% 21.6 18.2 13.9 9.6

Note: See appendix table 16 for estimated total counts.

*Includes inmates of other races. Other races include American Indians, Alaska Natives, 

Asians, Native Hawaiians, other Pacific Islanders, and persons identifying two or more races.

Appendix table 4. Percent of state and federal inmates who were parents 

of minor children, by selected characteristics and gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison

Total Male Female Total Male Female

All inmates 51.9% 51.2% 61.7% 62.9% 63.4% 55.9%

Race

White, non-Hispanic 46.3% 44.8% 61.8% 47.8% 47.8% 47.4%

Black, non-Hispanic 54.4 54.0 61.0 69.2 70.0 55.2

Hispanic 57.4 57.0 64.1 68.1 68.5 63.4

Other race* 51.5 50.8 59.6 61.8 61.9 60.7

Marital status

Married 71.3% 71.3% 71.0% 75.7% 76.9% 60.2%

Widowed 36.2 35.3 40.9 36.9 38.2 33.2

Divorced 55.0 54.7 59.0 58.8 59.0 56.1

Separated 64.2 63.9 66.4 68.9 68.8 69.7

Never married 44.6 43.7 60.6 57.7 58.1 52.4

Education completed

8th grade or less 49.5% 48.6% 61.8% 65.6% 66.2% 57.6%

Some high school 55.2 54.6 63.8 70.5 71.0 64.3

GED 51.3 50.6 64.1 62.4 62.8 56.6

High school graduate 52.1 51.6 58.7 63.9 64.6 54.8

Some college or more 48.5 47.3 59.2 54.6 55.1 49.8

U.S. citizenship

Citizen 51.6% 50.8% 61.8% 62.2% 62.7% 54.8%

Non-citizen 56.7 56.6 64.7 67.5 67.7 64.2

Note: See appendix table 16 for estimated total counts.

*Other race includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, other 

Pacific Islanders, and persons identifying two or more races. 
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 15

Appendix table 5. Percent of state and federal inmates who were parents of 

minor children, by current offense and gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison

Current offense Total Male Female Total Male Female

All inmates 51.9% 51.2% 61.7% 62.9% 63.4% 55.9%

Violent 47.5% 47.1% 57.3% 49.9% 49.8% 52.4%

Homicidea 40.3 39.9 46.6 51.6 51.7 ^

Sexual assaultb 45.4 45.3 61.9 30.7 30.1 ^

Robbery 47.0 46.5 59.6 49.5 49.5 49.2

Assault 56.9 56.5 64.2 56.2 56.5 ^

Property 49.9% 48.2% 64.7% 53.8% 53.5% 55.5%

Burglary 44.4 43.8 61.4 29.0 ^ ^

Larceny 49.9 47.8 61.8 40.9 ^ ^

Motor vehicle theft 52.0 51.2 67.6 43.8 ^ ^

Fraud 60.2 56.8 68.1 58.7 59.2 56.5

Drug 59.6% 59.3% 62.5% 67.6% 68.7% 54.5%

Possession 56.9 55.9 64.3 63.0 64.5 ^

Trafficking 61.3 61.3 61.7 67.9 68.9 55.9

Public-order 59.9% 59.6% 65.0% 62.4% 62.3% 64.7%

Weapons 64.9 64.9 66.4 63.8 63.8 65.6

DWI 52.9 52.6 59.3 38.7 ^ ^

Note: See appendix table 17 for estimated total counts.

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide reliable data.

aIncludes murder and manslaughter.

bIncludes rape and other sexual assault.

Appendix table 6. Percent of state and federal inmates who were parents of minor 

children, by criminal history and gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison

Total Male Female Total Male Female

All inmates 51.9% 51.2% 61.7% 62.9% 63.4% 55.9%

Status at time of current arrest

None 50.4% 49.9% 58.3% 63.3% 64.1% 53.8%

Status 54.0 53.0 65.5 61.8 61.7 63.8

On parole 50.0 49.6 59.6 59.5 60.0 46.1

On probation 57.2 56.1 67.3 64.5 64.1 69.7

Escaped from custody 43.6 40.9 66.5 ^ ^ ^

Criminal historya

None 48.0% 47.0% 57.9% 57.4% 58.0% 53.0%

Priors 53.2 52.5 63.5 66.0 66.3 59.9

Violent recidivistsb 52.3 51.9 63.6 62.6 62.7 59.1

Drug recidivists only 61.9 62.4 58.7 70.3 71.3 54.5

Other recidivistsc 53.5 52.4 64.2 67.7 68.1 61.6

Number of prior incarcerations

0 50.8% 49.8% 61.4% 62.0% 62.8% 53.9%

1 53.2 52.5 63.9 60.8 61.0 56.4

2-4 53.1 52.7 60.6 68.8 69.0 61.0

5-9 50.6 50.2 60.5 62.0 61.6 76.2

10 or more 53.9 53.2 65.2 61.7 60.3 80.5

Note: See appendix table 17 for estimated total counts.

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide reliable data.

aIncludes prior probation, parole, and incarceration sentences.

bRecidivists with at least one current or past violent offense.

cIncludes recidivists with unknown offense types.
16 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Appendix table 7. Parents in federal prison who reported living with their minor children 

in the month before arrest or just prior to incarceration, by gender, 2004

Parents in federal prison 

Lived with their minor children Total Male Female

In month before arrest 48.1% 46.4% 72.8%

In two-parent household 27.2 27.6 20.7

In single-parent household 20.9 18.8 52.1

Prior to incarceration 52.2% 50.5% 78.3%

Either in the month before arrest or just prior to incarceration 56.4% 54.7% 80.9%

Estimated number of parents in federal prison 81,300 76,200 5,100

Appendix table 8. Daily care and living status of minor children of parents in state and federal prisons, by gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison 

Total Male Female Total Male Female

Inmate lived with children just prior to incarceration 43.8% 42.4% 60.6% 52.2% 50.5% 78.3%

Estimated number of parents 636,300 585,200 51,100 81,300 76,200 5,100

Most of daily care of children provided bya—

Inmate who lived with children 31.8% 26.1% 77.1% 36.1% 31.3% 82.8%

Inmate shared care with someone else 58.3 63.3 18.1 54.9 59.0 14.5

Care was provided mostly by someone else 9.9 10.5 4.7 9.0 9.7 2.7

Estimated number of parents 278,900 248,100 30,800 42,500 38,600 3,900

Children currently living togetherb 61.9% 62.3% 59.0% 60.7% 61.0% 57.9%

Estimated number of parents 188,300 167,400 20,900 29,400 26,800 2,600

aIncludes parents who lived with their minor children just prior to incarceration.

bIncludes parents who had multiple minor children and lived with their minors just prior to incarceration.
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 17

Appendix table 9. Financial support of minor children, employment, and income among parents in 

state and federal prisons, by gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison

Total Male Female Total Male Female

Parents who provided primary financial support 54.0% 54.1% 51.9% 67.2% 67.1% 68.5%

Employed in month before arrest 80.3% 81.5% 66.4% 77.0% 77.6% 67.7%

Sources of income

Wages or salary 75.9% 77.1% 60.7% 73.0% 73.4% 67.5%

Transfer payments 11.7 9.6 36.1 8.4 7.4 23.7

Family/friends 10.1 9.1 21.0 8.5 8.0 15.4

Child support/alimony payments 1.0 ^ 9.3 0.6 ^ 7.5

Illegal sources 24.1 24.3 21.2 35.7 36.3 26.8

Other 2.9 2.9 3.3 3.6 3.7 ^

Personal income in the month before current arrest

No income 1.2% 1.1% 2.5% 1.0% ^% ^%

Less than $200 2.1 2.1 3.3 2.2 2.2 ^

$200-599 13.1 12.3 23.8 11.1 10.5 19.4

$600-999 13.8 13.3 19.8 12.2 11.9 16.9

$1,000-4,999 33.0 33.4 28.3 27.5 27.5 27.3

$2,000-4,999 23.6 24.4 14.0 22.5 22.8 17.0

$5,000 or more 13.1 13.5 8.3 23.5 24.1 14.8

Current caregiver of child receiving financial assistance 34.7% 34.3% 39.2% 29.1% 28.6% 35.4%

Parents who did not provide primary financial support 46.0% 45.9% 48.1% 32.8% 32.9% 31.5%

Employed in month before arrest 68.1% 70.1% 47.3% 66.4% 67.5% 49.1%

Sources of income

Wages or salary 63.5% 65.5% 42.7% 60.4% 61.0% 50.8%

Transfer payments 10.0 9.0 20.9 8.0 7.5 15.4

Family/friends 12.7 12.0 20.6 10.4 10.1 14.4

Child support/alimony payments 0.4 ^ 4.8 ^ ^ ^

Illegal sources 30.0 30.0 30.4 37.6 38.1 29.9

Other 2.0 2.1 ^ 3.9 3.8 ^

Personal income in the month before current arrest

No income 2.7% 2.4% 6.9% 2.0% ^% 11.5%

Less than $200 3.7 3.4 7.2 4.8 4.8 ^

$200-599 17.4 16.7 25.0 17.4 17.3 18.7

$600-999 16.3 16.2 18.2 13.4 13.6 11.1

$1,000-4,999 29.5 30.1 22.6 25.9 26.0 24.7

$2,000-4,999 19.4 20.0 12.1 15.7 16.0 12.4

$5,000 or more 11.0 11.2 8.0 20.7 20.9 17.4

Current caregiver of child receiving financial assistance 29.2% 29.1% 30.6% 22.1% 22.0% 23.7%

Estimated number of parents 636,300 585,200 51,100 81,300 76,200 5,100

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide reliable data.
18 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Appendix table 10. Frequency of telephone, mail, and personal contacts with adult or minor children among 

state and federal inmates who were parents of minor children, by gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison 

Frequency and type of contact with minor children Total Male Female Total Male Female

Any type of contact

Daily or almost daily 9.1% 8.7% 14.1% 18.8% 18.3% 26.9%

At least once a week 30.8 29.8 41.6 46.1 45.9 48.2

At least once a month 22.3 22.7 18.1 17.0 17.1 14.7

Less than once a month 16.5 16.9 11.2 9.4 9.6 6.2

Never 21.4 21.9 15.0 8.8 9.1 3.9

Telephone

Daily or almost daily 5.3% 5.0% 8.6% 16.9% 16.5% 23.4%

At least once a week 17.5 17.1 22.4 40.9 40.7 43.7

At least once a month 15.6 15.6 15.7 17.2 17.2 16.9

Less than once a month 15.0 15.3 12.4 10.1 10.2 7.4

Never 46.6 47.1 40.9 14.9 15.4 8.5

Mail

Daily or almost daily 4.5% 4.3% 6.9% 4.2% 4.0% 7.7%

At least once a week 24.0 23.0 35.3 29.0 28.3 40.4

At least once a month 23.2 23.3 22.5 31.0 31.2 28.2

Less than once a month 17.9 18.3 13.0 19.8 20.2 12.9

Never 30.4 31.1 22.3 16.0 16.3 10.7

Personal visits

Daily or almost daily 0.6% 0.6% ^% ^% ^% ^%

At least once a week 5.9 5.7 7.7 4.6 4.4 7.6

At least once a month 12.5 12.3 14.6 14.7 14.7 15.5

Less than once a month 22.5 22.7 19.7 35.6 35.9 31.5

Never 58.5 58.6 57.7 44.7 44.7 44.6

Estimated number of parents 636,300 585,200 51,100 81,300 76,200 5,100

Note: The contact question included in the 2004 SISFCF asked about contact with any child, which could include children age 

18 or older.

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide reliable data.

Appendix table 11. Family background of state and federal inmates who were parents of minor children, 

by gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison

Total Male Female Total Male Female

While growing up, parent—

Ever received public assistance 39.9% 39.8% 41.3% 31.2% 31.2% 31.7%

Ever lived in foster home, agency, or institution 14.0% 13.7% 17.3% 7.0 6.9 7.6

Lived most of the time with—

Both parents 43.1% 43.2% 41.1% 45.5% 45.2% 50.6%

One parent 43.5 43.7 42.0 41.2 41.6 34.3

Someone else* 11.5 11.2 14.0 12.6 12.5 14.1

Foster home, agency, or institution 1.9 1.8 3.0 0.7 0.7 ^

Parents or guardians of inmate ever abused 

alcohol or drugs— 33.7% 32.9% 43.0% 27.2% 27.0% 31.4%

Alcohol only 19.6 19.3 23.6 19.2 19.4 17.3

Drugs only 3.1 3.0 3.7 2.2 2.0 5.3

Both alcohol and drugs 11.0 10.6 15.7 5.8 5.6 8.8

None 66.3 67.1 57.0 72.8 73.0 68.6

Estimated number of parents 636,300 585,200 51,100 81,300 76,200 5,100

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide reliable data.

*Includes grandparents, other relatives, friends, and others.
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 19

Appendix table 13. Alcohol or drug and mental health treatment history of inmates in state and federal prisons who were 

parents of minor children and who had an alcohol or drug or mental health problem, by gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison

Total Male Female Total Male Female

Alcohol or drug treatmenta

Ever any treatment or programs 69.8% 69.3% 75.6% 69.1% 68.7% 75.9%

Any treatment 41.1 39.8 55.5% 36.9 36.2 49.5

Other alcohol/drug programs 56.3 56.2 58.0 54.4 53.9 61.7

Received treatment since admission 42.9% 42.4% 48.0% 45.9% 45.4% 54.1%

Any treatment 15.2 14.5 22.1 15.8 15.5 21.0

Residential facility or unit 10.1 9.7 14.3 8.9 8.5 16.8

Counseling by a professional 6.4 6.1 9.5 7.2 7.2 7.4

Detoxification unit 0.8 0.7 2.1 ^ ^ ^

Maintenance drug 0.2 ^ 0.8 ^ ^ ^

Estimated number of parents who had an alcohol or drug problem 428,600 392,800 35,800 45,900 43,300 2,600

Mental health treatmentb

Ever any treatment 46.4% 43.5% 71.0% 31.5% 29.0% 57.0%

Had overnight hospital stay 18.0 16.7 28.7 8.5 7.7 15.6

Used prescribed medications 37.8 34.8 63.0 24.3 21.6 50.2

Had professional mental health therapy 33.0 30.5 54.3 22.8 20.7 44.4

Received treatment since admission 30.9% 28.3% 52.9% 21.2% 19.0% 43.3%

Had overnight hospital stay 4.7 4.7 4.4 2.1 1.9 4.0

Used prescribed medications 24.5 22.3 43.6 17.0 15.3 34.0

Had professional mental health therapy 20.5 18.7 36.2 13.3 11.8 27.7

Estimated number of parents who had a mental health problem 359,200 321,600 37,600 34,700 31,500 3,200

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide reliable data.

aBased on inmate parents who had an alcohol or drug problem.

bBased on inmate parents who had a mental health problem.

Appendix table 12. Homelessness, physical/sexual abuse, medical/mental health problems, or substance dependence/

abuse problems among state and federal inmates who were parents of minor children, by gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison

Total Male Female Total Male Female

Homelessness in year before arrest 8.9% 8.3% 15.9% 3.9% 3.9% 4.4%

Ever physical/sexual abuse 19.9% 16.0% 64.4% 10.8% 8.0% 53.6%

Physically abused 16.6 13.4 52.8 9.1 6.6 46.8

Sexually abused 8.7 5.7 43.3 3.7 2.0 29.0

Current medical problem 40.6% 39.6% 52.8% 35.6% 35.0% 44.8%

Mental health problem

Any mental health problem 56.5% 55.0% 73.8% 42.6% 41.3% 62.1%

Recent history of mental health problem 22.6 20.4 48.8 11.9 10.3 35.1

Symptoms of mental health disorders 50.1 49.0 63.2 38.6 37.7 52.6

Substance dependence/abuse

Any alcohol or drugs 67.4% 67.1% 70.1% 56.4% 56.7% 51.3%

Alcohol only 44.4 45.0 37.6 36.7 37.0 32.5

Drugs only 55.4 54.8 62.8 45.7 45.9 43.4

Estimated number of parents 636,300 585,200 51,100 81,300 76,200 5,100

Note: Measures of substance dependence or abuse and mental health problems were based on criteria specified in the “Diagnostic and 

Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,” fourth edition (DSM-IV). For details, see Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 

2004, <http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/dudsfp04.htm> and Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates, <http://

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/mhppji.htm>.
20 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Appendix table 14. Work assignments, program participation, and education among state and federal inmates 

who were parents of minor children, by gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison

Total Male Female Total Male Female

Work assignmentsa 66.8% 66.5% 70.2% 93.0% 93.0% 93.6%

Self-help or improvement classes since admission 57.2% 56.5% 64.9% 72.8% 72.2% 81.0%

Parenting or childrearing classes 11.9 10.6 27.0 25.9 24.8 42.1

Employment programs 30.4 30.4 31.1 37.4 37.0 43.9

Vocational or job-training program 26.5 26.6 25.5 32.6 32.4 35.4

Employment counseling 9.4 9.1 12.1 11.8 11.4 18.3

Education programsb 30.3 30.0 32.7 46.9 47.0 45.4

Other pre-release programsc 31.2 30.5 39.7 38.1 37.3 48.6

Had GED or high school diploma upon admission

Percent 62.4% 62.4% 62.2% 70.7% 70.9% 68.6%

Estimated number 636,300 585,200 51,100 81,300 76,200 5,100

Completed GED since admissiond

Percent 2.0% 2.0% ^ ^ ^ ^

Estimated number 81,000 73,700 ^ ^ ^ ^

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide reliable data.

aIncludes work assignments both inside and outside the prison.

bExcludes vocational training. Includes basic classes up to 9th grade, high school classes to get a diploma, or GED, 

college level classes, or English as a second language. 

c

Includes inmate assistance/counseling groups, inmate self-help/personal improvement groups, including parent 

awareness groups, life skills/community adjustment classes, and other pre-release programs.

dBased on inmate parents who at the time of admission on their current sentence had not completed high school or 

did not have a GED.

Appendix table 15. Time served since admission and time to be served until expected release among 

state and federal inmates who were parents of minor children, by gender, 2004

Parents in state prison Parents in federal prison

Total Male Female Total Male Female

Time served since admissiona

Less than 6 months 9.4% 8.7% 17.7% 4.6% 4.5% 7.0%

6-11 months 13.1 12.5 19.8 7.5 7.1 14.1

12-59 months 51.9 52.1 49.9 56.2 55.9 60.5

60+ months 25.5 26.7 12.6 31.6 32.6 18.4

Time left to be served on current sentenceb

Less than 6 months 26.7% 25.4% 41.1% 14.2% 13.3% 28.1%

6-11 months 15.4 14.9 20.4 9.9 9.3 17.2

12-59 months 37.9 38.7 28.9 40.3 40.3 40.8

60+ months 17.8 18.6 8.2 34.1 35.5 13.6

No release expected 2.3 2.4 1.1 1.5 1.6 ^

Estimated number of parents 636,300 585,200 51,100 81,300 76,200 5,100

^Estimate not reported. Sample size too small (10 or fewer) to provide reliable data.

aBased on time served from admission until time of interview.

bBased on time from interview to expected date of release.
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 21

Appendix table 16. Estimated number of inmates, by selected characteristics and 

gender, 2004

Estimated number of state inmates Estimated number of federal inmates

Total Male Female Total Male Female

Total 1,226,200 1,143,400 82,800 129,300 120,200 9,100

Race/Hispanic origin

White, non-Hispanic 431,500 394,000 37,500 33,600 30,900 2,700

Black, non-Hispanic 496,900 469,200 27,700 56,000 53,200 2,900

Hispanic 222,700 211,100 11,600 32,400 29,700 2,700

Other race* 75,100 69,100 5,900 7,200 6,400 800

Age

24 or younger 212,400 200,900 11,400 11,600 10,800 800

25-34 405,500 379,800 25,700 49,700 46,700 2,900

35-44 373,700 341,800 31,900 37,300 34,500 2,800

45-54 172,700 161,100 11,600 22,200 20,600 1,700

55 or older 61,900 59,700 2,200 8,500 7,600 900

Marital status

Married 201,600 186,600 15,100 33,600 31,200 2,400

Widowed 24,100 20,100 4,000 1,500 1,100 400

Divorced 241,600 222,400 19,200 26,200 24,200 2,000

Separated 62,600 55,100 7,500 6,600 5,900 700

Never married 696,200 659,200 37,000 61,400 57,900 3,500

Education completed

8th grade or less 150,800 141,100 9,700 14,000 13,000 1,000

Some high school 298,100 277,300 20,800 20,700 19,100 1,600

GED 367,000 347,000 20,000 37,200 35,300 1,900

High school graduate 265,400 247,100 18,300 31,200 29,000 2,100

Some college or more 144,900 130,900 14,000 26,200 23,800 2,500

U.S. Citizenship

Citizen 1,163,000 1,081,600 81,400 108,100 100,400 7,700

Non-citizen 63,200 61,800 1,400 21,200 19,800 1,300

Note: Estimates may not sum to totals due to rounding.

*Includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, other Pacific 

Islanders, and persons identifying two or more races.
22 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Appendix table 17. Estimated number of inmates, by offense, criminal history, and gender, 2004

Estimated number of state inmates Estimated number of federal inmates

Total Male Female Total Male Female

Total 1,226,200 1,143,400 82,800 129,300 120,200 9,100

Offense

Violent 587,200 562,700 24,500 18,900 18,200 700

Homicidea 148,800 139,400 9,300 3,100 3,000 100

Sexual assaultb 131,400 130,200 1,300 1,100 1,100 ^

Robbery 155,100 149,800 5,400 11,000 10,600 400

Assault 124,500 118,100 6,400 2,600 2,500 100

Property 229,900 206,200 23,700 8,400 7,100 1,400

Burglary 100,200 97,000 3,200 600 600 ^

Larceny 47,600 40,800 6,900 600 500 100

Motor vehicle theft 20,800 19,800 1,000 400 400 ^

Fraud 35,100 24,700 10,400 6,000 4,900 1,200

Drug 261,500 235,900 25,500 71,400 66,000 5,500

Possession 73,000 64,300 8,700 3,800 3,600 200

Trafficking 181,400 166,100 15,300 65,200 60,300 5,000

Public-order 145,500 136,700 8,800 26,500 25,400 1,000

Weapons 30,500 29,900 600 14,200 14,000 200

DWI 32,300 30,600 1,700 300 300 ^

Status at time of arrest

None 698,400 654,200 44,200 94,600 87,400 7,200

Status 527,800 489,200 38,600 34,700 32,800 1,900

On parole 229,100 220,000 9,100 16,000 15,500 500

On probation 293,800 264,800 29,000 18,200 16,800 1,300

Escaped from custody 4,900 4,400 500 500 500 ^

Criminal history

None 288,700 261,300 27,400 45,600 40,500 5,100

Priors 937,500 882,000 55,400 83,700 79,700 4,000

Violent recidivistsc 536,700 518,200 18,500 32,800 32,000 800

Drug recidivists only 42,200 37,400 4,800 10,900 10,200 700

Other recidivistd 358,600 326,500 32,100 40,000 37,500 2,500

Number of prior incarcerations

0 561,400 512,900 48,500 71,800 64,900 6,900

1 267,900 252,100 15,800 27,300 26,100 1,200

2-4 250,500 238,600 11,800 21,700 21,100 600

5-9 101,600 97,400 4,100 6,200 6,000 200

10 or more 44,800 42,300 2,500 2,300 2,100 200

Note: Estimates may not sum to totals due to rounding.

^Based on a number of cases which rounded to less than 100.

aIncludes murder and manslaughter.

bIncludes rape and other sexual assault.

cRecidivists with at least one current or past violent offense.

dIncludes recidivists with unknown offense types.
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 23

Appendix table 18. Estimated number of parents in state prison, by 

selected characteristics and gender, 2004

Parents in state prison

Total Male Female

All parents in state prison 636,300 585,200 51,100

Lived with minor children*

Yes 305,000 272,200 32,800

No 331,300 313,000 18,300

Time expected until release

Less than 6 months 169,800 148,700 21,200

6-11 months 97,800 87,400 10,400

12-59 months 241,200 226,300 14,800

60 or more months 113,000 108,800 4,200

No release expected 14,500 14,000 500

Note: Estimates may not sum to totals due to rounding.

*Inmate lived with minor children in the month before arrest or just prior to 

incarceration.
24 Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children

Appendix table 19. Standard errors of the estimated percentages, state inmates, by gender, 2004

Estimated percentages

Base of the estimate and gender 98 or 2 90 or 10 80 or 20 70 or 30 60 or 40 50

 1,500

All inmates 5.83 12.50 16.67 19.09 20.41 20.83

Male 5.53 11.85 15.80 18.10 19.35 19.75

Female 2.45 5.25 6.99 8.01 8.57 8.74

 2,000

All inmates 5.05 10.83 14.43 16.54 17.68 18.04

Male 4.79 10.26 13.69 15.68 16.76 17.11

Female 2.12 4.54 6.06 6.94 7.42 7.57

 2,500

All inmates 4.52 9.68 12.91 14.79 15.81 16.14

Male 4.28 9.18 12.24 14.02 14.99 15.30

Female 1.90 4.06 5.42 6.21 6.64 6.77

 5,000

All inmates 3.20 6.85 9.13 10.46 11.18 11.41

Male 3.03 6.49 8.66 9.92 10.60 10.82

Female 1.34 2.87 3.83 4.39 4.69 4.79

 10,000

All inmates 2.26 4.84 6.46 7.40 7.91 8.07

Male 2.14 4.59 6.12 7.01 7.50 7.65

Female 0.95 2.03 2.71 3.10 3.32 3.39

 20,000

All inmates 1.60 3.42 4.56 5.23 5.59 5.71

Male 1.51 3.25 4.33 4.96 5.30 5.41

Female 0.67 1.44 1.92 2.19 2.35 2.39

 30,000

All inmates 1.30 2.80 3.73 4.27 4.56 4.66

Male 1.24 2.65 3.53 4.05 4.33 4.42

Female 0.55 1.17 1.56 1.79 1.92 1.96

 50,000

All inmates 1.01 2.17 2.89 3.31 3.54 3.61

Male 0.96 2.05 2.74 3.14 3.35 3.42

Female 0.42 0.91 1.21 1.39 1.48 1.51

82,794

All inmates 0.79 1.68 2.24 2.57 2.75 2.80

Male 0.74 1.60 2.13 2.44 2.61 2.66

Female* 0.33 0.71 0.94 1.08 1.15 1.18

 100,000

All inmates 0.71 1.53 2.04 2.34 2.50 2.55

Male 0.68 1.45 1.94 2.22 2.37 2.42

 200,000

All inmates 0.51 1.08 1.44 1.65 1.77 1.80

Male 0.48 1.03 1.37 1.57 1.68 1.71

 400,000

All inmates 0.36 0.77 1.02 1.17 1.25 1.28

Male 0.34 0.73 0.97 1.11 1.19 1.21

 600,000

All inmates 0.29 0.63 0.83 0.95 1.02 1.04

Male 0.28 0.59 0.79 0.91 0.97 0.99

 800,000

All inmates 0.25 0.54 0.72 0.83 0.88 0.90

Male 0.24 0.51 0.68 0.78 0.84 0.86

1,143,377

All inmates 0.21 0.45 0.60 0.69 0.74 0.75

Male* 0.20 0.43 0.57 0.66 0.70 0.72

1,226,171

All inmates* 0.20 0.44 0.58 0.67 0.71 0.73

Note: The reliability of an estimated percentage depends on the size and its base. Each standard error when multiplied by 1.96 provides a 

95-percent confidence interval around an estimated percentage. To calculate the difference between two estimated percentages, take the square 

root of the sum of each squared standard error for the percentages being compared. 

* The total number of male, female, and all state prisoners in 2004.
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children 25

Appendix table 20. Standard errors of the estimated percentages, federal inmates, by gender, 2004

Estimated percentages

Base of the estimate and gender 98 or 2 90 or 10 80 or 20 70 or 30 60 or 40 50

500

All inmates 6.33 13.56 18.08 20.71 22.14 22.60

Male 6.01 12.89 17.19 19.69 21.05 21.48

Female 2.78 5.96 7.94 9.10 9.73 9.93

1,000

All inmates 4.47 9.59 12.79 14.65 15.66 15.98

Male 4.25 9.11 12.15 13.92 14.88 15.19

Female 1.97 4.21 5.62 6.43 6.88 7.02

2,000

All inmates 3.16 6.78 9.04 10.36 11.07 11.30

Male 3.01 6.44 8.59 9.84 10.52 10.74

Female 1.39 2.98 3.97 4.55 4.86 4.96

5,000

All inmates 2.00 4.29 5.72 6.55 7.00 7.15

Male 1.90 4.08 5.43 6.23 6.66 6.79

Female 0.88 1.88 2.51 2.88 3.08 3.14

7,500

All inmates 1.63 3.50 4.67 5.35 5.72 5.84

Male 1.55 3.33 4.44 5.08 5.43 5.55

Female 0.72 1.54 2.05 2.35 2.51 2.56

9,063

All inmates 1.49 3.19 4.25 4.87 5.20 5.31

Male 1.41 3.03 4.04 4.62 4.94 5.05

Female* 0.65 1.40 1.87 2.14 2.28 2.33

12,500

All inmates 1.27 2.71 3.62 4.14 4.43 4.52

Male 1.20 2.58 3.44 3.94 4.21 4.30

15,000

All inmates 1.16 2.48 3.30 3.78 4.04 4.13

Male 1.10 2.35 3.14 3.59 3.84 3.92

25,000

All inmates 0.89 1.92 2.56 2.93 3.13 3.20

Male 0.85 1.82 2.43 2.78 2.98 3.04

40,000

All inmates 0.71 1.52 2.02 2.32 2.48 2.53

Male 0.67 1.44 1.92 2.20 2.35 2.40

50,000

All inmates 0.63 1.36 1.81 2.07 2.21 2.26

Male 0.60 1.29 1.72 1.97 2.10 2.15

75,000

All inmates 0.52 1.11 1.48 1.69 1.81 1.85

Male 0.49 1.05 1.40 1.61 1.72 1.75

100,000

All inmates 0.45 0.96 1.28 1.46 1.57 1.60

Male 0.43 0.91 1.22 1.39 1.49 1.52

120,237

All inmates 0.41 0.87 1.17 1.34 1.43 1.46

Male* 0.39 0.83 1.11 1.27 1.36 1.39

129,300

All inmates* 0.39 0.84 1.12 1.29 1.38 1.41

Note: The reliability of an estimated percentage depends on the size and its base. Each standard error when multiplied by 1.96 

provides a 95-percent confidence interval around an estimated percentage. To calculate the difference between two estimated 

percentages, take the square root of the sum of each squared standard error for the percentages being compared. 

* The total number of male, female, and all federal prisoners in 2004.