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NIST Special Publication 1102

FIRE FACTS

James Randall Lawson

NisrNational Institute of Standards and Technology • U.S. Department of Commerce

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NIST Special Publication 1102

FIRE FACTS

James Randall Lawson

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute ofStandards and Technology

August 2009

U.S. Department of Commerce

Gary Locke, Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Patrick D. Gallagher, Deputy Director
Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately. Such

identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the

National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the

entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 1102

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 1102, 7 pages (August 2009)

CODEN: NSPUE2
NO" BFRL

National Institute of Standards & Technology Building & Fire Research Laboratory

FIRE FACTS

Heat Flux, Temperature, & Thermal Response

Abstract

Fire Facts gives the reader an ordered series of heat flux values and temperatures that may be associated with

fire growth conditions and relates specific human response to these thermal conditions. The thermal

conditions are presented in ascending order relative to the potential for hazard. Use example: compare the

time relationship between second degree bum response from heat flux and second degree bum response

associated with temperature. Reference information is provided for all thermal conditions and response

values.

Keywords: bum injury, fire, heat flux, humans, temperature, thermal response

Having an understanding of fire growth dynamics is essential to safety on the fireground. A discussion of

some basic concepts related to fire growth and prevention of thermal injuries follows. A firefighter may arrive on the fire scene during any of the various stages of fire development, from initial buming to post flashover

decay. The dynamic thermal environments associated with stmcture fires are primarily controlled by heat

release rate (HRR).' What is heat release rate? The Nafional Fire Protection Association standard, NFPA 921,

defines heat release rate in the following way: - The rate at which heat energy is generated by burning.^

Additionally, NFPA 921 defines temperature as: - The degree ofsensible heat ofa body as measured by a

thermometer or similar instrument? Essentially, the rate at which heat is release by a fire determines the size

and intensity of the fire. Thermal energy measured as heat release rate has a direct impact on the temperatures

associated with the fire environment.' Additionally, HRR, when combined with ventilation and compartment

geometry, are major factors that influence the onset of flashover. Flashover is a transition phase in the

development of a compartment fire in which surfaces exposed to thermal radiation reach ignition temperature

and fire spreads rapidly throughout the space, resulting in full compartment involvement.^ Flashover of an

average-sized family room will usually occur at a heat release rate of about 1000 kW, equivalent to the power

used when energizing ten thousand 100 W light bulbs.'

Firefighters are exposed to varying thermal conditions that are generated by growing fires. There are two

primary components to thermal exposures that impact the firefighter: 1) heat flux - the rate ofheat energy

transfer to a surface,^ - and 2) temperature. These two types of thermal insult are physically coupled and work

together as a dynamic condition that threatens the well-being of the firefighter. Often when humans think of

dangers from fire, they think in terms of temperature and how temperature creates a bum injury. However,

temperature related to fire environments is only a part of the threat; temperature is a measurable quantity that can be physically related to heat flux and is determined by the fire's HRR and other heating and cooling

process that may be present. Fire gas temperatures and temperatures of firefighters' protective clothing,

human skin, fiamishings, etc., are the direct result of heat energy generated by the fire and transferred as heat

flux to the surrounding environment. Therefore, heat flux is a driving force that causes temperatures to change

in a fire environment. Simply, heat is transferred by three processes: 1) convection, the movement of hot

gases or fluids; 2) thermal radiation, movement of heat by electromagnetic waves; and 3) conduction, transfer

of heat by atoms through and between solids.' Each of these forms of heat flux has a direct impact on threats

of bum injury, and they cause the changes in temperature felt by the firefighter. Therefore, when using FIRE

FACTS one must always keep in mind this important relationship. It is a combination ofheatflux and

resulting changes in temperature that causes burn injuries.

References:

^ Lawson, J. Randall, NISTIR 5804, "Fire Fighter's Protective Clothing and Thermal Environments of Structural Fire Fighting," NIST,

Gaithersburg, MD 1996.

NFPA 921, Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, 2008 Edition, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 2009.

Discussion
Nisr

National Institute of Standards & Technology

BFRL

Building & Fire Research Laboratory

FIRE FACTS

Heat Flux & Response

This fact sheet provides information for a set of heat flux levels commonly experienced during firefighting operations and information on

the human response to these heat flux levels. The unit kW/m^ defines an amount of heat energy or flux that strikes a known surface area

of an object. The unit (kW) represents 1000 watts of energy and the unit (m^) represents a surface measuring one meter long and one

meter wide. Example: 1 .4 kW/m^ represents 1 .4 multiplied by 1000 and equals 1400 watts of energy on a surface area equal to one meter

square.

Heat Flux Level Response

kW/m^

«1 A typical clear day solar flux on the earth's surface with direct solar radiation;

a sun burn may occur in approximately 20 min to 30 min. ^

2.5 Typical firefighter exposure and working environment ^ (About 2.5 times the

solar flux).

4.5 Unprotected human skin will receive a second degree burn injury in about

30 s. ^ (About 4.5 times the solar flux)

6.4 Unprotected human skin has pain with 8 s exposure and blisters in 18 s with a

second degree burn injury.^ (About 6.4 times the solar flux)

10 Unprotected human skin will receive a second degree burn injury in about

1 0 s

^ (About 1 0 times the solar flux.)

13 Wood volatiles ignite with flame exposure."^ (About 13 times the solar flux)

16 Unprotected human skin experiences sudden pain and blistering after 5 s exposure with second degree burn injury.^ (About 16 times the solar flux)

20 Unprotected human skin will receive a second degree burn injury in less than

4 s ^. This heat flux level represents the heat flux in a room at floor level at the

beginning of flashover."* (About 20 times the solar flux)

80 Unprotected human skin will receive an Instant second degree burn injury.^

Flashover is established in a room.'' (About 80 times the solar flux)

84 Heat flux level specified in the NFPA 1971 test for Thermal Protective

Performance (TPP) to evaluate firefighters' thermal protective clothing.^

170 Maximum heat flux level measured by NIST with a post-flashover fire inside a

burning room.^ (About 170 times the solar flux)

References:

1 Stickler, Greg; "Education Brief, Solar Radiation and the Earth System, Relating Solar Radiation Physics to Earth & Space Science

Concept," NASA, http://edmall.qsfc.nasa.qov/inv99Proiect.Site/Paqes/science-briefs/ed-stickler/ed-irradiance.html , 2009.

2 Donnelly, M.K., Davis, W.D, Lawson, J.R., Selepak, M.J., "Thermal Environment for Electronic Equipment Used by First Responders, NIST Technical Note 1474, 2006.

3 NFPA 1971, Standard on Protective Ensembles for Structural Fire Fighting and Proximity Fire Fighting 2007 Edition, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 2007

4 Lawson, D.I. and Simms, D.L., "The Ignition of Wood by Radiation, " British Journal of Applied Physics, 3, pp. 288-292. 1952. 5 4 Fang, J.B., and Breese, J.N., "Fire Development in Residential Basement Rooms," National Bureau of Standards (currently

NIST), NBSIR 80-2120, Gaithersburg, MD, 1980

Second Edition prepared by J. Randall Law/son, NIST/BFRL Fire Research Division, August 2009
Nisr

National Institute of Standards & Technology

BFRL

Building & Fire Research Laboratory

FIRE FACTS

Temperature & Response

This fact sheet provides information on temperatures commonly experienced during firefighting operations and information on the associated human response to these temperatures.

Temperature Response

°C (°F)

37.0 °C (98.6 °F) Average normal human oral/body temperature ^

38 °C (101 °F) Typical body core temperature for a working fire fighter^

43 °C (109 °F) Human body core temperature that may cause death ^

44 °C (1 1 1 °F) Human skin temperature when pain is felt

48 °C (1 18 °F) Human skin temperature causing a first degree burn injury

^

54 °C (130 °F) Hot water causes a scald burn injury with 30 s exposure^

55 °C (131 °F) Human skin temperature with blistering and second degree burn injury

62 °C (140 °F) Temperature when burned human tissue becomes numb

72 "C (162 °F) Human skin temperature at which tissue is Instantly destroyed ^

100 °C (212 °F) Temperature when water boils and produces steam ®

250 °C (482 °F) Temperature when charring of natural cotton begins ^

>300 °C (>572 °F) Modern synthetic protective clothing fabrics begin to char

>400 °C (^752 °F) Temperature of gases at the beginning of room flashover ®

=1000 "C («1832 °F) Temperature inside a room undergoing flashover ^

References:

1 Klinghoffer, Max, M.D., "Triage Emergency Care Handbook," Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., Lancaster, PA, 1985. 2 Veghte, James H., Ph.D., "Physiologic Response of Fire Fighters Wearing Structural and Hazmat Protective Clothing," Second Annual

Conference on Protective Clothing, Clemson University, May 1988.

3 Huck, Janice, "Evaluation of Heat Stress Imposed by Protective Clothing," First Annual Conference on Protective Clothing, Clemson

University, May 1987.

4 American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM C1055, Standard Guide for Heated Systems Surface Conditions That Produce

Contact Burn Injuries, 4:6, ASTM West Conshohocken, PA, 1997. 5 Bynum Jr., D. Dr., Petri, V. J., et. Al.; Domestic Hot water Scald Burn Lawsuits - The Who, What, When, Why, Where How; Annual

ASPE Meeting; Indianapolis, Indiana, October 25-28, 1998.

6 Shugar, G.J., Shugar, R.A., Lawrence, B., "Chemical Technicians' Ready Reference Handbook," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New

York, 1973.

7 Krasny, John F., Sello, Stephen B., "Fibers and Textiles, Fire Protection Handbook," 16"" Edition, 1986. NFPA, pp. 5-27.

8 Fang, J B., and Breese, J.N., "Fire Development in Residential Basement Rooms," National Bureau of Standards (currently NIST),

NBSIR 80-2120, Gaithersburg, MD, 1980.

Second Edition prepared by J. Randall Lawson, NIST/BFRL Fire Research Division, August 2009
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