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CO Q NBS TECHNICAL NOTE 1118

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/ National Bureau of Standards

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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The National Bureau of Standards' was established b\ an act ot Congress on March 3, 1901. The Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the Nation's science and technology

and facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the Bureau conducts

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the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology.

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physical and chemical measurement throughout the Nation's scientific community, industry,

and commerce: conducts materials research leading to improved methods of measurement,

standards, and data on the properties of materials needed by industry, commerce, educational

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calibration services. The Laboratory consists of the following centers:

Absolute Physical Quantities- — Radiation Research — Thermodynamics and

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'Headquarters and Laboratories at Gailhersburg, MD, unless otherwise noted: mailing address Washington, DC 20234. -Some divisions within the center are located at Boulder, CO 80303.
HAT]OJ«AL BtTBiBAI? or SfAJIDAKOS Stone Consolidating Materials— jufiT""TM

A Status Report notacc-cr^.

ClC/oo

James. R. Clifton /^^

Center for Building Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

Sponsored by:

National Park Service U.S. Department of Interior Washington, D.C. 20240

r\\rc

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Philip M. Klutznick, Secretary

Luther H. Hodges, Jr., Deputy Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Productivity, Technology, and Innovation

y-'i (j.-^- NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director

Issued May 1980
National Bureau of Standards Technical Note 1118

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note 1118. 52 pages (May 1980) CODEN: NBTNAE

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1980

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402

Price S3. 50 (Add 25 percent additional for other than U.S. mailing)
ABSTRACT

Information on types of stone consolidating materials, their performances, and uses are critically reviewed. Processes responsible for

the deterioration of stone and criteria for selecting stone consolldants

are also reviewed. The main function of stone consolldants is to reestablish the cohesion between particles of deteriorated stone. In addition,

a good consolidant should meet performance requirements concerning durability,

depth of penetration, effect on stone porosity, effect on moisture transfer,

compatibility with stone, and effect on appearance.

Stone consolldants can be divided into four main groups, according

to their chemistry. These groups are inorganic materials, alkoxysl lanes,

synthetic organic polymers, and waxes. Epoxles, acrylics, and alkoxysllanes are currently the most commonly used consolidating materials.

Certain waxes have been found to have excellent consolidating abilities.

Waxes, however, tend to soften and to accumulate grime and dust. Inorganic

materials and some organic polymers have a tendency to form shallow,

brittle layers near the surfaces of stone. These treated layers often

separate from the untreated stone. Alkoxysl lanes have excellent penetrabilities and are considered by some stone conservators as the most promising

consolidating materials. However, a universal consolidant does not exist

and many factors must be considered in selecting a consolidant for a

specific stone structure.

Key Words: Conservation; consolidating materials; deterioration of stone;

preservation; stone; stone consolidation.

lii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT iii

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. DETERIORATION OF BUILDING STONE 2

2.1 Salt Crystallization 3

2.2 Aqueous Dissolution 3

2.3 Frost Damage 4

2.4 Microbiological Growth 5 2.5 Human Contact 5 2.6 Original Construction 5

3. PERF0RI4ANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR CONSOLIDANTS 6

3.1 Primary Performance Requirements 7 3.1.1 Consolidating Value 7 3.1.2 Durability of Consolidated Stone 8

3.1.3 Depth of Penetration 8

3.1.4 Stone Porosity 10

3.1.5 Moisture Transfer 10

3.1.6 Compatibility of Consolidant with Stone 11

3.1.7 Effect on Appearance 13

3.2 Secondary Performance Requirements 14

4. STONE CONSOLIDANTS 15

4.1 Inorganic Materials 15

4.1.1 Siliceous Consolidants 16

4.1.1.1 Alkali Silicates 16

4.1.1.2 Silicof luorides 17

4.1.2 Alkaline Earth Hydroxides 18

4.1.2.1 Calcium Hydroxide 18

4.1.2.2 Strontium and Barium Hydroxides 19

4.1.3 Other Inorganic Consolidants 21

4.2 Alkoxysilanes 21

4.2.1 Uses and Developments 21

4.2.2 Alkoxysilane Chemistry 22

4.2.3 Performance of Alkoxysilanes 23

4.3 Synthetic Organic Polymer Systems 24

4.3.1 Acrylic Poljnners 26

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

4.3.2 Acrylic Copoljnners 27

4.3.3 Vinyl Polymers 27

4.3.4 Epoxies . 28

4.3.5 Other Synthetic Organic Polymers 30

4.4 Waxes 30

5. COMMENTS ON STONE CONSOLIDANTS 31

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 34

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 36

8. REFERENCES 37

1. INTRODUCTION

This report is a critical literature review of the types, performances,

and uses of stone consolidants. Processes responsible for the deterioration

of stone and criteria for selecting stone consolidants are also reviewed.

Stone consolidants are generally considered [1-4] to be deeply penetrating

materials which have the ability to re-establish the cohesion between particles

of deteriorated stone. A variety of materials have been used in attempting

to consolidate deteriorated stone, including inorganic chemicals, organic

polymers, alkoxysilanes, resins, and waxes, either by themselves or in

combinations. Because of an increasing worldwide interest in preserving

historic structures and an apparent acceleration in the rate of stone decay,

the use of stone consolidants is growing [5,6]. However, concern

is growing over the use of unproven materials on important historic structures.

This review has been carried out under the auspices of the National Park

Service to assess the current status of stone consolidation technology.

Stone preservatives whose chief functions are to prevent the ingress

of moisture into stone, i.e., water repellents, have been covered elsewhere

[7-9] and are not included in the present report. Treatments with water

repellents often do not have long term preservation effects and may even

accelerate stone decay through two major processes [10,11]. First, water

will often collect behind the treated stone and upon evaporation of the

water any salts in solution will be deposited and crystallize in the untreated

stone. This may lead to spalling of the treated stone from the untreated

stone. In the second process, because of differences in thermal expansive
properties of the treated and untreated portions of the stone, shear stresses

may be generated that eventually result in interfacial delamination. Sleater

[12] recently tested over 50 stone preservatives and found that none of

them gave satisfactory performance.

Numerous reports have been published on stone preservation and consolidation and an extensive bibliography covering the literature through

1963 was prepared by Lewln [13] . Excellent sources of information on

the mineralogy, weathering, and conservation of building stones are the

books by Winkler [14], Schaffer [15], and Warnes [16]. Because of the

growing Interest in the preservation of historic stone structures, several

international symposia have been held recently on the deterioration and

conservation of stone [17-20].

In this report the deterioration and consolidation of limestone and

sandstone mainly will be addressed. This is because most of the problems

encountered in the preservation of historic stone structures located in

the United States are associated with these types of stone. Problems are

also being encountered with the preservation of marble in countries where

it has been extensively used, such as Italy and Greece.

2. DETERIORATION OF BUILDING STONE

The processes leading to the deterioration of building stone have been

the subject of numerous publications [11, 14-16, 21-23]. Therefore, stone

deterioration Is only briefly reviewed herein for the purpose of providing

a basis for understanding the performances of stone consolidants. The factoi

considered to be among the leading causes of building stone deterioration

In recent times the term "stone preservatives" has been used to Identify

water repellent and/or shallow penetrating coatings.

2
Include salt crystallization, aqueous dissolution, frost damage, microbiological growth, human contact, and original construction. In this review,

however, only a few cases were found in which the cause of stone deterioration

was unequivocally determined. All too often a speculative approach was

used in the analysis of stone deterioration, in place of a more scientific

diagnostic method.

2.1 Salt Crystallization

Crystallization of salts within the pores of stones can generate sufficient stresses to cause the cracking of stone, often into powder fragments.

This process is considered to be the major cause of stone deterioration

in many parts of Western Europe [24-26] . Closely related to the crystallization of salt is damage caused by salt hydration and by differential

thermal expansion of salts [14]. The resistance of stone to salt damage

is dependent on the pore size distribution and decreases as the proportion

of fine pores increases [11]. Crystallization damage caused by highly

soluble salts, such as sodium chloride and sodium sulfate, is usually manifested by powdering and crumbling of the stone's surface [11]. Less soluble

salts such as calcium sulfate form glassy, adherent films which cause spalling

of a stone's surface [16].

A major source of salts in urban environments is the reaction between

air pollutants and stone. For example, limestone can react with sulfur

dioxide to ultimately produce calcium sulfate. Other sources of salts

include ground water [27], airborne salts [27], sea spray [28], chemical

cleaners [29], and deiclng salts [30].

2.2 Aqueous Dissolution

Carbonate sedimentary stones (e.g., limestone and dolostone),

carbonate-cemented sandstone, and marbles are types of stone that are

3
susceptible to dissolution by water acidified with dissolved carbon

dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides [31]. It has been reported

[32, 51] that the rainwaters in many urban areas in the United States and

Europe are sufficiently acidic to accelerate the weathering of exposed

building stone. In areas where the rainwater is relatively free from

pollutants, the dissolution of most common building stones is usually

not a serious problem [30]

.

2 .3 Frost Damage

Certain stones which are exposed to freezing temperatures and wet

conditions may undergo frost damage. The frost susceptibility of a stone

is largely controlled by its porosity and pore size distribution [33,34].

Of stones with a given porosity, those with the smallest mean pore size

will generally be the most susceptible to frost damage. Frost resistance

also generally decreases with increased available porosity [15], i.e., pore

volume which is accessible to water. The frost resistance of a stone is

2 often assessed from its saturation coefficient, with stones having saturation coefficients less than 0.8 being generally Immune to frost damage

[35].

Some European stone conservators [11,26] believe that in their

countries frost damage is not an important process in the deterioration

of stone. They regard frost damage as a secondary process, e.g., frost

damage may be responsibile for the final fragmentation of stone damaged

by other processes, such as salt crystallization. However, because of

the use of possibly more frost-susceptible stone and more severe climates,

2 Saturation coefficient is defined as the ratio between the natural

capacity of a stone to absorb water and its absolute porosity [35]

.

4
frost damage may be an important factor in the northern part of the

United States [36,37].

2.4 Microbiological Growth

The attack of stone by a variety of plants and animals has been reported

[14] including roots of plants, ivy vines, microorganisms, boring animals,

and birds. Of these, microorganisms appear to be the most destructive.

Some types of bacteria, fungi, algae, and lichens produce acids and other

chemicals which can attack carbonate and silicate minerals [14, 38]. It

appears that under certain environmental conditions attack by microorganisms

can be a serious problem [39-41]. However, it seems that many conservators

feel that such instances are uncommon and that microorganism growth usually

takes place in stone which had been partially deteriorated by other processes.

2.5 Human Contact

Because of an increasing interest by the public in historic structures,

the effects of human contact upon the condition of stone, as well as all

other building materials, is of growing concern. For example, stone floors

are gradually worn by foot traffic, stones are damaged by people either

collecting souvenirs or poking into soft stone [28], and graffiti removal

has become an important maintenance problem [42-48]. It is conceivable that

human contact may become a major problem challenging the ingenuity of both

stone conservators and maintenance specialists.

2.6 Original Construction

The durability of stone structures also depends on factors encountered

during their original construction^ including proper design, good construction practices, and proper selection of materials. Unfortunately, these

are factors over which the preservation scientist has no control. However,
the same mistakes should not be repeated In repairing or restoring historic

structures. For example, normal steel and cast iron anchors, dowels,

reinforcing rods, etc., were often used in the construction or repair of

stone structures. Certain ferrous metals are susceptible to corrosion which

can lead to the cracking and spalling of stonework [11] . Therefore, non- ;

corroding material should be selected, e.g., epoxy-coated steel [44], certain

types of stainless steel [45], or non-corroding non-ferrous alloys [11].

A large portion of stone durability problems are the consequence of

using poor quality stone in the original construction. Riederer has

suggested [46, 47] that air pollution is often blamed for stone deterioration in Germany which actually should be attributed to the natural weathering

of poor quality stone. The use of poor quality sandstone in completing

the Cathedral of Cologne [48,49] is presenting acute conservation problems. In another example, a poor quality dolomite limestone was used in

the construction of the British Houses of Parliament [50] which eventually

had to be replaced with a more durable limestone [15] . It is doubtful

that a stone consolidant can make a poor quality stone durable and, as

with the above example, stone replacement can be at times the most rational

approach [52]

.

3. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR CONSOLIDANTS

Performance requirements for stone consolldants have gradually emerged

as understanding of the factors controlling their performance has improved.

These requirements can be divided into two major categories. The first

category, which we will term primary requirements, consist of invariable

performance requirements that consolldants must fulfill regardless of the

specific application. In the remaining category are secondary performance
requirements. These are requirements Imposed on a consolidant by a specific

application. The distinction between the two categories will become clearer

as they are discussed.

3.1 Primary Performance Requirements

Primary performance requirements for stone consolidants are applicable

to essentially all stone consolidants regardless of the specific use. These

requirements are based on the premise that the main functions of such

materials are to restore the cohesion, physical properties, and appearance

of a deteriorated stone to near its original condition. Considerations are

given in the requirements to the necessary levels of performance of consolidants for consolidation, durability of the consolidated stone, depth

of penetration, effect on stone porosity and moisture transfer, compatability

of consolidant with stone, and effect on appearance. These performance

considerations could become the basis for stone consolidant specifications.

3.1.1 Consolidating Value

The most Important function of a stone consolidant is to re-establish

cohesion of the particles of deteriorated stone [1-4]. Methods which

have been used to obtain a qualitative assessment of the consolidating

value of stone consolidants include the measurement of the tensile strength

of treated unweathered stone [25, 53], measurement of surface hardness of

treated weathered stone [54,55], and the abrasion resistance of treated

unweathered stone [56] . A more quantitative test needs to be developed,

which incorporates the testing of standard deteriorated stone. A standard deteriorated stone may merely be finely crushed stone, which is then

treated with consolidants and its tensile strength measured. The tensile

strength of the treated crushed stone could be compared to the strength

of the original stone.
Only one recommendation was found in this review for what constitutes an acceptable performance level for consolidation value. Gauri has

recommended [54] that the compressive strength of a treated weathered stone

should be at least 10 percent above that of the untreated and unweathered

stone. However, increasing the strength of weathered stone substantially

above that of unweathered stone may accelerate the decay of the unweathered

stone [68] , unless the complete structure is treated with the consolidant.

3.1.2 Durability of Consolidated Stone

The consolidated stone should generally be as durable as the unweathered

stone. If the consolidated stone is substantially less durable than unweatherec;

stone, it may be advantageous to replace the deteriorated stone with new stone.

In addition, treated stone should weather (in terms of appearance) at nearly

the same rate as the original stone, to retain, as closely as possible,

the authentic appearance of the stone. Torraca [1] has suggested that it

is not justified to demand that a consolidant should protect a stone forever

from any environment.

Durability of a consolidated stone is dependent on several factors,

including the durability of the consolidant, compatibility of the consolidant with the weathered stone, properties of the consolidated stone,

and the environment. The complex interaction among these factors makes the

development of appropriate accelerated durability tests difficult. A methodology is given in ASTM E-632 [69] which can be useful in the design and

development of rational accelerated durability tests for consolidants.

3.1.3 Depth of Penetration

Past experience with stone consolidants has shown that their ability

to penetrate weathered stone is one of the main factors controlling their

performance [3, 16, 25, 57-60]. Superficially-penetrating consolidants tend
to fill the pores of stone surface layers, thereby reducing the permeability.

This may result in the accumulation of moisture and salts behind the treated

layers [58, 61]. Furthermore, interfacial delamination often occurs because

of a marked difference in the thermal properties of the treated and untreated

stone [10, 11, 58]. Price has suggested [58] that a good consolidant should

be able to penetrate a weathered porous stone to a depth of at least 25 mm.

This should result in a gradual transition in the thermal and mechanical

properties from the exterior treated surface to the inner layer of untreated

stone. A slightly different requirement has been given by Torraca [1].

He proposed that a stone consolidant should penetrate a weathered stone to

a depth that all incoherent material is solidified and attached to the sound

core of the stone.

Properties of a stone consolidant which affects its ability to penetrate

a specific stone at a given temperature include its viscosity [57, 59,

61], surface tension [59], the rate at which gel or precipitate is formed

[16], method and conditions of application [2, 63], and rate of evaporation

of any solvent [66]. Tammes and Vos [67] developed the following relation

for the horizontal transport of liquid through porous materials;

1/2 1/2 ,/2

2N

where X is the displacement of the liquid front, a is the surface tension

of the solution, r is the average capillary radius, N is the viscosity

of the liquid, and t is time. A is a measure of the permeability of the

porous material to a particular liquid. Munnikendam [59] showed that

this equation can be used to estimate the penetration ability of a consolidant into a specific stone.
This survey revealed that a need exists for the development of a standard

test to measure the penetration of consolidants into stone. This standard

test should specify the testing temperature and relative humidity, condition

and size of the stone specimen, methods for applying and curing consolidants,

and techniques for measuring the depth of penetration.

3.1.4 Stone Porosity

As previously mentioned, the porosity and pore size distribution of a

stone can have a major effect on its durability. For example, the resistance of a given type of stone to frost damage and to salt damage decreases

as the proportion of fine pores increase [11, 33].. Therefore, a stone consolidant which reduces the size of large pores but does not close them may

be harmful. For example, Dukes [2] found that silicone ester consolidants

decreased the frost resistance of portland stone used as gravestones by

increasing the number of small pores.

A method which can be used to determine the effects of a stone consolidant on pore size distribution was described by Clifton et al. [70].

In their work, the pore size distributions of both impregnated and unimpregnated hardened cement pastes were measured using a mercury porosimeter.

Both pressurization and depressur ization studies were performed. Pressurization results give an indication of the total open porosity and pore

size distribution. Information on the shape and continuity of pores is

obtained by depressurization work. Pressurization studies on stone have

been performed by Biscontin and Pavan [71] and by Alessandrini et al. [72].

3.1.5 Moisture Transfer

Many stone preservatives and stone consolidants have performed poorly

because they form a surface film which impedes liquid water migration through

the treated stone, but allows water vapor to pass. This can lead to a

10
situation where water evaporates behind the treated stone leaving deposits

of salts [59, 61]. Because water vapor can pass in and out of the stone,

the deposited salts may rehydrate and possibly be converted into different

crystal forms. Further, larger crystals may grow through the dissolution

of small crystals and reprecipitation on larger crystals. These processes

may result in the disruption of the microstructure of the stone and breakdown

of cohesion between stone particles [14], Further, impeding the passage

of water vapor may increase the susceptibility of a stone to frost damage

and to thermal shock.

If a material produces a film which prevents the passage of both water

and water vapor, large amounts of moisture could accumulate in a structure.

In addition to decreasing the resistance of the stone to frost damage,

excess moisture in a structure could cause the rotting of wood, corrosion

of metals, and degradation of plaster and roofing materials.

Munnikendam has suggested [73] that a consolidant should be hydrophilic

to allow moisture to pass through the treated stone. In addition, he suggested that the water vapor transmission of treated stone should not be

decreased by more than 30 percent compared to untreated stone.

The water absorption and water vapor permeability of stone, untreated

and treated, can be measured by following the procedures of ASTM C97 [74]

and ASTM C355 [75], respectively.

3.1.6 Compatibility of Consolidant with Stone

Experiences with stone consolidants have demonstrated [16, 61]

that they should be compatible with stone to form a durable composite.

Specific compatibility requirements should include the following:

11
1. Cured consolidants should have thermal -dimensional properties

similar to those of sound stone [16, 73]. Otherwise, delamlnation

of the consolidated stone from the untreated stone could occur

[76], especially If the stone Is subjected to thermal shock. In

addition, the cured consolldant should not become brittle [16,

76, 77].

2. The consolldant should not severely disrupt the mlcrostructure

of the stone [16]. For example, If the crystals formed from the

precipitation of an Inorganic consolldant exhibit crystal growth

sufficient tensile stresses may be produced to cause the development of mlcrocracks, and ultimately macrocracks in the matrix.

Further, Marsh [50] pointed out that replacing a constituent

of stone with another of a larger molecular volume can cause

dilation stresses leading to cracking.

The effects of a few Inorganic consolidants, e.g., hydrofluoric acid, depend on their reacting with the constituents of

the stone to form insoluble products. Many conservators [5, 16,

76, 78] are opposed to the use of such materials because the

reaction products usually fill the voids and pores, thereby

sealing the surfaces.

3. Consolidants should not form by-products which can be harmful to

the stone. Many of the inorganic consolidants are precipitated

as a result of the reaction between two dissolved salts [1, 16,

50] . In addition to the precipitate, at least one soluble salt

is formed, much of which is deposited in the stone as the water

evaporates. These soluble salts can damage the stone through

12
recrystalllzatlon processes and/or produce unsightly effloresence

on the treated stone's surface.

3.1.7 Effect on Appearance

Ideally the application of a stone consolidant would not cause any

change in the appearance of a stone. Most inorganic consolidants, however,

produce a white deposit within the voids and pores of a stone, the color

of which may not match the color of the stone. While organic consolidants

j usually form transparent polymers when cured, they can change the reflec-

. tive properties of a stone [79]. Further, the optical properties of

i organic polymers may gradually change because of their degradation by

photochemical processes, oxidation by oxygen and ozone, and attack by

air pollutants.

The permissible extent of change in appearance accompanying the use

of a consolidant is probably best dealt with by the conservator responsible for the preservation of a structure. This is because the extent

of the change in appearance is partially controlled by the interactions

between a consolidant and a specific stone, and also by the environment.

Furthermore, the location of the deteriorated stone within a structure,

the extent of stone deterioration, the nature of the change in appearance,

and the Importance of a structure should be considered in deciding what

constitutes a permissible change in appearance.

In laboratory evaluations of the performance of stone consolidants,

the change in appearance of a standard stone specimen should be quantitatively determined. The preparation of test specimens, exposure condition

and evaluation methods should be standardized. Then the results of such

a standard test could form the basis for selecting promising materials

for specific applications. Gaurl et al. [54] developed a laboratory

13
performance test for organic consolidants In which the absorbancy of a

polymer at 254 mu was compared to that of bisphenol-A epoxy resin.

Several methods can be used in the laboratory and in the field to

measure the change in appearance of stone caused by consolidating materials. In a laboratory evaluation of preservatives, Sleater [12] instrumentally compared the color and gloss of treated and untreated stone

specimens following the methods given in ASTM D 2244 [80] and ASTM D 523

[81]. He also recommended that a visual estimation of color differences

be made. The Munsell color system [82] can be used in both the laboratory

and field to determine color changes. Winkler [83] has developed a promising method to measure rapidly the reflectance of stone using a photographic

light meter and reflex camera.

3.2 Secondary Performance Requirements

Secondary performance requirements are those requirements which may

be imposed in addition to the primary performance requirements because

of specific preservation problems encountered at certain structures.

For example, the leading cause of stone deterioration in England is salt

crystallization [24-25] . Therefore, in England the capacity of stone

consolidants to encapsulate salts or to otherwise mitigate the effects

of salts is an important consideration in their selection. Arnold and

Price [84] have observed that certain consolidants facilitate the extraction

of salts from stone, which could be more important than their ability to

Immobilize salts.

Other attributes which may be required of stone consolidants in certain

situations include the ability to prevent further microbiological growth,

to greatly increase the resistance of stone to abrasion by foot traffic,

and to rebond large stone fragments.

14
4. STONE CONSOLIDANTS

In this review, stone consolidating materials are divided into four

main groups, according to their chemistry. These groups are inorganic

materials, alkoxysllanes , synthetic organic polymers, and waxes. Considerations of their performance are based on the requirements described in

Section 3.

4.1 Inorganic Materials

Inorganic stone consolldants were extensively used during the 19th

century and still are occasionally being used. Most inorganic consolldants

produce a white Insoluble phase within the voids and pores of a stone,

either by precipitation of a salt or by chemical reactions with the stone.

It has been rationalized that the development of a new phase similar in

composition to the matrix of a stone will bind together the particles

of deteriorated stone. For example, consolldants which result in the formation of a silica phase should be used to consolidate sandstone, and calcium

carbonate or barium carbonate used to consolidate calcareous stones such

as limestone. In practice, however, little concern is given to chemical

compatibility between the consolldants and stone.

Little success has been achieved in consolidating stone with inorganic

materials, and in some cases their use has greatly accelerated stone decay

[16, 50, 78]. Some of the reasons given for the poor performance of

inorganic consolldants are their tendencies to produce shallow and hard

crusts [16, 60, 76], the formation of soluble salts as reaction by-products

[1, 16, 60, 86, 87], growth of precipitated crystals [50], and the questionable

ability of some of them to bind stone particles together [6, 85]. Of these,

the most difficult problem to overcome Is the formation of shallow hard

surface layers by inorganic consolldants because of their poor penetration

15
I. abilities. Precipitation processes are often so rapid that precipitates

are formed before the inorganic chemicals can appreciably penetrate the

stone. A method, referred to as precipitation from homogeneous solutions,

has been developed to obtain deeper penetration of stone by some inorganic

consolidants . This method is discussed in Section 4.1.2.

4.1.1 Siliceous Consolidants

Siliceous consolidants are materials which have been used to consolidate

sandstone and limestone through the formation of silica or insoluble silicates.

4.1.1.1 Alkali Silicates

Both nonstoichiometric dispersions of silica in sodium hydroxide and

soluble alkali silicates have been used to conserve and consolidate stone.

When dispersions of silica in sodium hydroxide solutions are applied to a stone,

silica is deposited [16, 88]. If sodium hydroxide is not removed by washing,

it can react with carbon dioxide or sulfur trioxide to form sodium carbonate

or sodium sulfate, respectively. These salts can cause unsightly effloresence

and salt crystallization damage. In addition, it seems that sodium hydroxide

can react with the constituent of some stones, thereby accelerating stone

deterioration [16].

Silica can be precipitated by the reaction between sodium silicate,

as well as postassium silicate, and acids such as hydrochloric acid and

arsenic acid [16, 88, 89]. However, these reactions result in the formation

of soluble salts such as sodium chloride and sodium arsenate. If the sodium

silicate-arsenic acid mixture is used to consolidate limestone, crystalline

calcium arsenate can be produced by a reaction between calcium carbonate

and arsenic acid. The crystalline calcium arsenate appears to damage limestone

by anistropic crystal growth [16].

16
Insoluble silicates have been precipitated in stone by alternate

treatments of sodium silicate and a variety of salts such as calcium

chloride [16, 85, 88, 91] and zinc carbonate [90]. Colloidal silicates

are first produced which eventually become crystalline [16], while soluble

salts are produced as by-products. Impervious surface layers are also

produced which trap water beneath [92]. Apparently, the silicates precipitate

relatively rapidly so that they are deposited near the surfaces of the

treated stones.

Even with all the problems associated with the use of alkali silicates,

they are still occasionally being applied [5]. Recently, the successful

use of soluble silicates was reported [93]. However, the overwhelming

evidence clearly indicates that alkali silicates should not be used for

stone consolidating purposes.

4.1.1.2 Silicofluorldes

Both hydrofluosilicic acid and soluble silicofluorldes have been used

to preserve and consolidate stone. Hydrofluorosilic acid should not be

used on limestone as it reacts vigorously with calcium carbonate to form

crystalline calcium silicofluoride, carbonic acid, and carbonate salts [91].

The reaction occurs upon contact of the acid with the limestone producing

a shallow crust with little consolidating value. Hydrofluorosilic acid

reacts more slowly with siliceous-based sandstones to form a cementitious

material, but again only the surface is hardened. Hydrofluorosilic acid

has a tendency to discolor both limestones and sandstones, especially if

they contain iron [16].

Many soluble types of silicofluorldes, such as magnesium, zinc, and

aluminum, have been applied to limestone. Resulting products are silica,

insoluble fluoride salts and carbon dioxide, which are formed near the

17
surface of the limestone. Therefore, only the surface is hardened, which

eventually exfoliates [52, 76, 94]. Soluble silicofluorides also react with

calcareous sandstones and again only a hardened surface is obtained. Further,

soluble salts are formed when both limestone and calcerous sandstone are

treated with silicof luorides [60]. These soluble salts have caused damage

through salt recrystallization processes [86]. Penkala [95] recently carried

out a systematic study of several stone treatments and also found that

f luorosilicates were not effective consolidators

.

4.1.2 Alkaline Earth Hydroxides

4.1.2.1 Calcium Hydroxide

Aqueous solutions of calcium hydroxide (its saturated solution is often

called limewater) have been used for many centuries to protect and consolidate limestone [96] . Calcium hydroxide itself does not appear to consolidate

stone, but when in solution or a wet state it reacts with atmospheric

carbon dioxide to form insoluble calcium carbonate, which may bind particles

of calcareous stones together. The solubility of calcium hydroxide is only

about 1 gram per liter at room temperature [97], therefore repeated applications

are necessary to produce sufficient calcium carbonate to consolidate stone.

Furthermore, unless very dilute solutions are used, only the calcium hydroxide

deposited near the surface of a stone is carbonated. This happens if the

dense calcium carbonate being formed at the surface fills the pores and voids

in the stone. This severely impedes the migration of carbon dioxide through

the treated surface to the interior of the stone.

The newly produced calcium carbonate is susceptible to the same deterioration processes as the calcareous stone. For example, it can react with

sulfur trioxide to form calcium sulfate, which is relatively soluble compared

to calcium carbonate. Therefore, the treated stone may not be protected

18
against further weathering. However, the treated stone may eventually

gain the authentic appearance of the weathering stone.

Conflicting opinions have been given of the effectiveness of the

calcium hydroxide process. Some conservators [8, 16] have felt that while

treatment with calcium hydroxide causes no harm, little permanent consolidation is obtained, while others [50, 96, 98, 99] have recommended the use

of lime water to protect limestone from weathering and to consolidate them.

The effectiveness of freshly prepared slaked lime (calcium oxide mixed

with water) in consolidating statues at the Wells Cathedral in England is

being investigated by Professor Baker [100]. He is applying 38 mm thick

layers of slaked lime to statues, which are being removed several weeks

later. Some consolidation appears to be occurring.

Apparently, repeated limewater and slaked lime treatment can gradually

consolidate limestone, but such processes are only economically feasible

for small objects.

4.1.2.2 Strontium and Barium Hydroxides

Similar to calcium hydroxide, strontium and barium hydroxides will

react with carbon dioxide to form insoluble carbonates. Again, only

the hydroxide near surface of a stone is usually carbonated. However, unlike

calcium sulfate, strontium and barium sulfates are insoluble and thus the

application of strontium and barium hydroxides may reduce the weathering

of stone exposed to polluted environments.

The early work on the use of barium hydroxide to conserve stone was

performed by Church [101-103] . Initially, excellent results were obtained.

However, only a surface hardening was being obtained and eventually the

barium carbonate or barium sulfate layer exfoliated [16, 50, 76, 92].

The exfoliation problem has been attributed not only to the formation of

19
a dense Impervious surface layer, but also to anisotropic crystal growth

of barium carbonate and barium sulfate [16, 50].

Lewln [104] and Sayre [105] have developed methods Intended to

precipitate barium carbonate and barium sulfate deeply within a stone.

These methods are based on a process known as precipitation from homogeneous

solution [106]. In this process the material to be precipitated and the

precipitating chemicals are present in the same solution. For example,

barium carbonate Is precipitated from an aqueous solution of barium

hydroxide and urea [104, 108]. The urea slowly undergoes hydrolysis producing

ammonia and carbon dioxide. The liberated ammonia and carbon dioxide dissolves

in the water forming ammonium carbonate which raises the pH of the solution.

When a certain pH is reached, barium hydroxide reacts with the carbonate ion

and barium carbonate is precipitated. The reaction rate can be controlled

so the barium carbonate precipitate forms days after a stone is treated.

The slow formation of barium carbonate is reported to give a crystalline

solid solution with the calcite crystals of calcareous stone. Barium sulfate

can be precipitated in a stone by an analogous method. An aqueous solution

of a barium monoester of sulfuric acid hydrolyzes slowly when a base is

added, releasing barium and sulfate ions [106]

.

The precipitation of barium carbonate and barium sulfate by homogeneous

solution precipitation methods is clearly a promising approach. To date,

however, only experimental testing has been carried out and little is

known concerning the long-term consolidating effectiveness of this approach.

Warnes [16] and Marsh [50] have both suggested that crystalline Inorganic

precipitates, such as barium carbonate and sulfate, do not have long term

consolidating value. Also the precipitates of barium carbonate and barium

sulfate have a larger molecular volume than calcite and appear to exhibit

20
anisotropic crystal growth [16, 50]. It should not be assumed that deteriorated stone will have sufficient empty volume to accommodate these precipitates. Therefore, until more is known of the long-term effects of barium

carbonate and barium sulfate on the durability of stone, they should be

regarded as experimental materials which should not be applied to important

historic structures.

4.1.3 Other Inorganic Consolidants

Many other inorganic materials have been used in attempts to conserve

and consolidate stone, including zinc and aluminum stearates [16, 28, 50,

95], aluminum sulfate [16, 50, 106], phosphoric acid [50], phosphates [50],

and hydrofluoric acid [5]. Hydrofluoric acid appears to have a consolidating

effect because it removes deteriorated stone, thereby leaving a sound surface.

A saturated aqueous solution of calcium sulfate has been recently used to

consolidate a stone consisting of a conglomerate of microfossils cemented

by gypsum [107]

.

4.2 Alkoxysilanes

4.2.1 Uses and Developments

Alkoxysilanes are regarded by many stone conservators [8, 25, 59, 99,

109-114] as being among the most promising stone consolidating materials

for siliceous sandstones. The feasibility of using alkoxysilanes to

consolidate calcareous stone is also being studied [115-116]. The main

reasons that alkoxysilanes are being highly regarded are their abilities

to penetrate deeply into porous stone and the fact that their polymerization

can be delayed until deep penetration has been achieved [25, 58, 99, 109,

110, 112]. In addition, they polymerize to produce materials similar to

the binder in siliceous sandstone.

21
The use of alkoxysilanes for consolidating stone is not a recent

development. For example, Laurie [117] received a patent in 1925 for producing such a material to be used for stone consolidation. Other early

researchers on the use of alkoxysilanes to consolidate stone are Cogan and

Setterstrom [118-119]. Alkoxysilanes have been commonly used since around

1960 in Germany [5]. Recently, a promising alkoxysilane consolidating

material was developed at the UK Building Research Establishment, called

"Brethane" [112].

4.2.2 Alkoxysilane Chemistry

Alkoxysilanes are a family of monoraeric molecules which react with

water to form either silica or an alkylpolysiloxane. Three alkoxysilanes

are commonly used to consolidate stone. They are tetraethoxysilane,

triethoxjrmethylsilane and trimethoxymethylsilane [109]. Tetraethoxysilane

is an example of a silicic acid ester [110]. Their polymerization is

initiated by a hydrolysis reaction.

I catalyst - Si OR + H2O - Si - OH + ROH. ^^^

I I Then'Ipolymerization commences,

' -Si — ' (3) OH + Si - OR _ Si _ _ Si _ + R' OH. ^^^

I where R = CH3 (methyl),

I C2H5 (ethyl)

II

and R' = H, CH3, C2H5

Polymerization continues until all the alkoxy groups have been liberated

and either an alkylpolysiloxane or silica is produced. Silica is produced by the polymerization of a silicic acid ester. An alkylpolysiloxane

is formed by the polymerization of other types of alkoxysilanes. An acidic

catalyst, e.g., hydrochloric acid, is used to increase the rate of hydrolysis

22
(equation 2). The alkoxysilanes are diluted with solvents to reduce their

viscosities. Thus, their reaction rate and depth of penetration Into stone

can be controlled. It Is claimed that their consolidating ability can

be Increased by using a mixture of alkoxysilanes [110].

Some confusion appears In the literature regarding silicon esters,

silicones and alkoxysilanes. Silicon esters are partially polymerized

alkoxysilanes which still have ester groups attached to silicon. Silicones

are polymerized alkoxysilanes which are dissolved in organic solvents, and

used as water repellents [110]

.

4.2.3 Performances of Alkoxysilanes

Price [58] and Weber [111] have observed that alkoxysilanes can penetrate

porous stones to a depth of between 20 to 25 mm. The newly developed

Brethane has been reported [112] to penetrate as deeply as 50 mm. No noticeable polymerization occurs with Brethane for at least 3 hours after it is

mixed with a solvent and catalysis [58, 109]. The large sizes of unpolymerlzed

alkoxysilane molecules, no doubt, will prevent them from entering the smaller

pores of a stone.

Marschner reported [120] that alkoxysilanes improved the resistance

of sandstone to sodium sulfate crystallization. However, she also observed

that their performance varied from sandstone to sandstone and also depended

on the compatibility between the solvent and the specific stone being treated.

Similar findings were reported by Moncrleff [115] who studied the consolidation

of marble. Snethlage and Klemm [121] observed in a scanning electron microscope analysis of Impregnated sandstone that a polymerized alkoxysilane

appeared to fill the space between sandstone grains and form a continuous

coating. However, polymerized alkoxysilanes are reported [25, 58,110, 115] to

have little effect on moisture passage in stone and the frost resistance of

23
stone. Some slight changes In the color of treated stone have been observed

[122, 123]. For example, statutes on the Wells Cathedral have become more

dull grey following treatment with an alkoxysllane [123] . Further, a treated

stone panel on the Cathedral has acquired a slightly more orange tone than

adjacent untreated panels.

Once a section of stone is treated with alkoxysllane, it will probably

weather differently than the untreated stone. Thus, unless most of the

visible parts of a structure are similarly treated, the contrast between

the treated and untreated stone could become very noticeable.

Strength improvements of around 20 percent have been reported [25, 110]

when sandstone specimens were impregnated with alkoxysilanes. The ability

of alkoxysilanes to consolidate deteriorated stone in the field, however,

has not been unequivocally demonstrated. Further, it appears that the

performance of alkoxysilanes varies from stone to stone.

Even if alkoxysilanes are found to be effective consolidants, their

high cost [28, 112] will probably limit their use to statues and smallersized stone objects.

4.3 Synthetic Organic Polymer Systems

Two general types of synthetic organic polymer systems are used to

consolidate stone. In the first, monomeric organic molecules are first

polymerized, dissolved in appropriate solvents, and then applied to stone.

They are deposited within the voids and pores of the stone as the solvent

evaporates. The second type are monomeric organic molecules, either pure

or dissolved in a solvent, which are polymerized within the voids and pores

of a stone. Viscous monomers are diluted with solvents so that deep penetration can be achieved [57]. Solvents which evaporate rapidly (most common

organic solvents), however, have been found to draw organic consolidants

24
back to the surface of a stone, resulting In the formation of Impervious hard

surface crusts [57, 61]. Munnikendam [59] has recommended that organic consolldants should be selected whose solidification does not depend on solvent

evaporation.

Both thermoplastics and thermosets have been used to consolidate stone.

A thermoplastic is a material which can be reformed by the application of

heat without significant changes in properties. Examples of thermoplastics

are poly(vinylchlorlde) , poly(ethylene) , nylon, poly(styrene) and poly-

(methylmethacrylate) . A thermoset is a material which is formed into a

permanent shape by the application of heat, and once formed, cannot be remelted

or reformed. Polyester, epoxy, and polyurethane are examples of thermosets.

Methylmethacrylate can be converted into a thermoset by copolymerization with

a three dimensional cross-linking material.

The use of synthetic organic polymer systems to consolidate stone is

a recent development, dating back to around the early 1960's. Therefore,

little is known regarding the long-term performance of these materials.

Some organic consolidants have been found to improve significantly the

mechanical properties of deteriorated stone. Many organic polymers are

susceptible to degradation by oxygen and ultraviolet radiation, but this

would only affect the materials on the surface of a treated stone [1].

Riederer reported [5] that the surfaces of some stone structures in Germany

which had been consolidated with organic polymers in 1965 had exhibited

deep channel erosion by 1975. Apparently, water gradually eroded the consolidated surface and once the surface was pierced, erosion proceeded rapidly

into the untreated stone.

25
4.3.1 Acrylic Poljiners

Methylmethacrylate and to a lesser extent butylmethacrylate have been

used to consolidate concrete [64, 65] and stone [58]. These monomers

I can be applied solvent-free to porous solids and can be polymerized in situ.

An excellent source for information on their polymerization as well as on

poljmier-impregnated concrete is the report by Kukacha et al [64]. Methylmethacrylate has been polymerized into poly(methylmethacrylate) by heating

with an initiator, by gamma radiation, and at ambient temperature by combinatior

of promoters and initiators [64, 124]. For thermal polymerization, the chemica"

initiator (catalyst) azobis(isobutyronitrile) has been found to be effective

[125]. Heating blankets could be used to thermally polymerize methylmethacrylat(

or other monomerics applied to a stone structure. Poljmierization by radiation !

is only feasible if carried out in special chambers because of the radiation i

hazards. Chemical promoters convert initiators into free radicals at ambient

temperatures. Then these free radicals induce the polymerization of methylmethacrylate. Munnikendam [61] used N,N-dimethyl-P-toluldine to decompose

benzoyl peroxide into free radicals. He found, however, that oxygen inhibited

the subsequent polymerization reaction of methylmethacrylate. Better success

probably could be achieved by using azobis( isobutyronitrile) as the initiator

[125].

Where deep or complete impregnation and complete poljmierization was

achieved, methylmethacrylate and other acrylates have been shown to

improve substantially the mechanical properties and durability of porous

materials such as concrete [64]. However, incomplete impregnation, with

acrylates may result in the formation of a distinct interface between treated

and untreated stone [120].

26
Pol3^er- impregnated concretes based on acrylics are classified as

brittle materials based on their stress-strain curves [64, 125, 126].

Stone consolidated with methylmethacrylate and other acrylics can be

expected to exhibit a similar brittle behavior.

Methylmethacrylate, no doubt, can harden the surface of a stone and

effectively consolidate the stone if both deep penetration and complete

polymerization are achieved. Similar to the case with alkoxysilanes,

however, stone impregnated with methylmethacrylate will probably weather

differently than untreated stone. In addition, erosion through the

treated stone [5] could contribute to the development of an unsightly

appearance.

4.3.2 Acrylic Copolymers

Copol3rmers are produced by the joining of two or more different monomers

in a pol3Tiier chain [127]. A commercially available acrylic copoljmier used for

stone consolidation is copoljmierized from ethylmethacrylate and methylacrylate

[38, 121]. Other acrylic copolymers which have been studied for stone

conservation include copolymers between acrylics and f luorocarbons [128, 129]

and between acrylics and silicon esters [59, 121].

The acrylic copolymers are dissolved in organic solvents then applied

to stone. As discussed earlier, unless very dilute solutions are applied

to a stone solvent evaporation will tend to draw the acrylic copolymers

i back to the surface. Then, even if diluted to the lowest concentration

that will give some consolidation, their solutions still may have

viscosities which impede their penetration into stone.

4.3.3 Vinyl Polymers

Several vinyl polymers have been studied or used for conservation

and consolidating of stone including poly(vinylchloride) [54, 130],

27
chlorlnated-poly(vinylchlorlde) [130], and poly( vinylacetate) [38, 54, 130,

131]. These polymers are dissolved in organic solvents and then applied

to stone. Photochemical processes could release chlorine from the chloride

poljmiers, which could damage stone [130]. Poly( vinylacetate) has been found

to produce a glossy stone surface [130]. If not carefully applied and if not

sufficiently diluted, use of the vinyl polymers undoubtedly will result in the

formation of impervious layers which entrap moisture and salts underneath [38].

4.3.4 Epoxies

The feasibility of using epoxies to consolidate stone is addressed

by first briefly discussing their chemistry and then applications.

An epoxy consists of an epoxy resin and a curing agent which is

actually a polymerization agent. Cure, i.e., poljmierization, of an epoxy

is initiated by mixing the epoxy resin with the curing agent. The epoxy

resin is then converted into a hard thermosetting cross-linked polymer.

The most commonly used epoxy resins are monomers of diphenylolpropane,

called bisphenol A, and epichlorohydrin. Resins produced from these

reactants are liquids, but are too viscous to penetrate stone deeply.

Therefore, they are diluted with organic solvents. These epoxy resins are

often cured using an amine curing agent. Their cure time can be adjusted

by selecting a slowly or rapidly reacting curing agent and by controlling the

curing temperature. The resulting cross-linked polymers have excellent

adhesion to stone and concrete, and excellent chemical resistances. Two

recommended sources for information on epoxies, such as their chemistry,

curing, and applications are reference Nos. 132 and 133.

Gauri [134-135] developed a method to achieve deep penetration with

viscous epoxy resins and at the same time avoid the formation of a sharp

interface between the consolidated and untreated stone. First, specimens

28
are soaked in acetone, then in a dilute solution of epoxy resin in acetone,

followed by soaking in increasingly concentrated solutions. This method

is feasible for small stone objects such as tombstones and statues, but

would be too time consuming and expensive for stone structures.

Less viscous epoxy resins are available including diepoxybutane

diglycidyl ether and butanediol diglycidyl ether [58]. Munnikendam [61]

cured butanediol diglycidyl ether with alicyclic polyamines such as

menthane diamine. However, the viscosity was still too high and he diluted

the mixture with tetraethoxysilane and tetramethoxysilane . A complex

reaction took place involving the epoxy resin, curing agent and solvent

to produce a tough, glassy material. A white efflorescence also developed

due to a reaction between the polyamine and carbon dioxide to form arainecarbonates [61, 137]. Formation of the aminecarbonates can be avoided by

preventing carbon dioxide from coming in contact with the solution.

Gauri [128, 136] observed that when low viscosity aliphatic epoxy resins

were applied to calcareous stones, the reaction rates between the stones

and carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide were increased compared to the rates

with untreated stones. He suggested that the increased reactivity could

be caused by absorption of the gases by the epoxy poljnner or by the pol5mier

acting as a semipermeable film to the gases. In contrast, bisphenol Abased epoxy poljrmers were found to protect the stone from both carbon

dioxide and sulfur dioxide.

The use of epoxies has been suggested for consolidating limestone

[14, 128, 129], marble [134-139], and sandstone [61, 121] as well as for

re-adhering large stone fragments to mass stone [1]. Moncrieff and

Hempel [138] found that certain epoxies could encapsulate salts in marble.

29
thereby preventing them from re-crystallizing. A large restoration project

using epoxies for masonry consolidation is that of the Santa Maria Maggiore

Church in Venice [140].

Similar to poly(methylmethacrylate) , epoxies have produced brittle

epoxy-impregnated concretes with high mechanical properties [65, 141,142].

The long-term effect on incorporating a brittle material in stone is not

known, but could render a structure vulnerable to seismic shock, vibrations

and thermal-dimensional effects.

Many types of epoxies have a tendency to chalk, i.e., to form a white

powdery surface, when exposed to sunlight [132]. Therefore, epoxy should

be removed from the surface of a treated stone before it cures.

4.3.5 Other Synthetic Organic Polymers

Other synthetic organic polymers studied as possible stone consolidants

include polyester [38, 143], polyurethane [121], and nylon [77]. Polyester

has been shown to decrease the porosity of stone substantially [143] and,

therefore, may form an impervious layer which prevents the passage of

entrapped moisture or salts [38]. Manaresi [121] and Steen [144] observed

that polyurethanes were poor cementing agents. Steen [145] also found that

polyurethane film gradually became brittle when exposed to sunlight.

Similarly, DeWhite (77) found that nylon can produce a brittle film on

the surface of stone.

4.4 Waxes

Waxes have been applied to stone for over 2,000 years. Vitruvius

[146] described the impregnation of stone with wax in the first century

B.C. A wax dissolved in turpentine was one of several materials applied

to the decaying stone of Westminster Abbey between 1857 to 1859 [147].

30
Cleopatra's Needle (London, England) was treated with wax first in

1879 and several times since [148]. Kessler [149] found that paraffin

waxes were effective in Increasing the water repellency of stone. Waxes

have also been found to be effective consolidants [25, 53, 54, 58].

For example, a paraffin wax increased the tensile strength of a porous

Stone from 1.06 MN/m to 4.12 MN/m , while triethoxymethylsilane only

increased it to 1.88 MN/m [25, 53]. In addition, paraffin waxes are

among the most durable stone conservation materials [16, 54] and can

immobilize soluble salts [58]

.

Waxes have been applied to stone by applying the wax dissolved in

organic solvents [16, 78, 148], by immersing a stone object in molten

wax [58] , or by applying molten wax to preheated stone [150] . If deep

penetration is not achieved a nonporous surface layer may be formed causing

the eventual spalling of the treated stone surface [78].

Major problems encountered in using waxes to conserve stone include

their tendency to soften at high ambient temperatures [76], and to entrap

dust and grime [2, 54, 58]. Wax applied to Cleopatra's Needle has gradually

converted to a tarry substance which cannot be removed by ordinary washing

methods. For example, a mixture of carbon tetrachloride, benzene and

detergent was needed in 1947 to clean the Needle [148] .

5. COMMENTS ON STONE CONSOLIDANTS

Although stone consolidants have been extensively used for over a

century, their selection is still largely based on empirical considerations. If a consolldant appears to give acceptable results with one

type of stone, it is often applied to other types of stone, without properly

determining if the consolidant is compatible with them. Some of the factors

31
affecting the performances of consolidants are known, such as depth of

penetration and moisture transfer through consolidated stone. However,

insufficient consideration has been given to equally important factors such

as their consolidating abilities and the compatibility of their thermaldimensional properties with stone. Finally, the long-term performances of

consolidated stone of historic structures are rarely documented.

These considerations point to the inadequacy of the present state of

stone consolidation and conservation technology. For example, stone consolidants should be selected on the basis of an understanding of the deterioration processes of stone, of the factors affecting the performances of

consolidants, and of the compatibility of consolidants with specific stones.

Presently, such information is often not available. Further, standard test

methods and performance criteria should be developed to form the basis for

selecting promising consolidants. Documentation of the performances of stone

consolidants should be an integral part of each preservation or restoration

program. Documentation of unsuccessful consolidation work is just as

important as documenting successful work in that it assists other stone

conservators in rejecting ineffective materials and methods.

This review clearly indicates that a perfect stone consolidaiit has

not been developed and that many of the consolidants can do more harm

to stone than natural weathering processes. Therefore, the general use

of stone consolidants is open to question. In fact, the Commonwealth

War Graves Commission, which is responsible for Over one million headstones in Europe, has concluded [2] that no type of consolidant should

be applied to headstones. This commission has over 50 years experience

with the chemical treatment of stone. There are cases, however, in

which the use of stone consolidants can be beneficial. The work by

32 *
Hempel and Moncrieff [115, 116, 131, 138, 139] has shown that decaying

stone statues can be conserved by deep impregnation with certain stone consolidants. While statues and smaller objects can be removed to laboratories, surfaces thoroughly cleaned, freed from soluble salts, and all

sides treated with a consolldant, such processes are not possible with

massive stone structures. Risks involve in treating massive structures

are, therefore, much greater. Consolidants might be used on structures

of little historical or intrinsic value, and other cases where the

benefits outweight the involved risks [2] . For example, consolidants

could be applied to deteriorated stone to delay to a future time the

need to replace it with new stone. (This approach could be dangerous if

the consolidation measure is later regarded as "permanent"). Any permanent consolidation effort involving important historic stone structures

should be carefully planned and carried out to minimize the risks.

This Includes making certain that moisture and soluble salts cannot

become entrapped behind the treated stone. In addition, the compatibility of a consolldant with a specific stone should be determined

with separated or isolated test specimens rather than using a historic

structure as an experiment.

Stone conservators should be cautioned in the indiscriminate use

of newly developed materials which have shown promise in accelerated

laboratory tests. While these tests are useful in determining what

materials are unacceptable, good results are not unequivocal proof that

a material will have a lasting beneficial effect. Further, at present,

we are not able to predict the durability of consolidated stone for even

20 to 30 years. Yet, unproven consolidants are being used on stone

33
structure which have lasted for hundreds of years and which with rational

conservation programs will last for many more years.

6. SUMMARY AND CONLCUSIONS

The main function of stone consolidating materials is to re-establish

cohesion between particles of deteriorated stone. In addition to consolidation

requirements, a good consolidant should meet performance requirements concerning durability, depth of penetration, effect on stone porosity, effect

on moisture transfer, compatibility with stone, and effect on appearance.

These have been termed "primary performance requirements" as they are considered to be generally invariable, i.e., they are essentially applicable

to all stone consolidants regardless of the specific use. Secondary

performance requirements are requirements which may be imposed In addition

to the primary requirements because of specific problems encountered at

certain structures. For example, to require a consolidant to immobilize

soluble salts in a stone would be a secondary performance requirement.

Stone consolidants can be divided into four main groups, according

to their chemistry. These groups are inorganic materials, alkoxysllanes,

synthetic organic polymers, and waxes. Selection of what material to use

depends on many factors including the type of stone to be consolidated,

processes responsible for the deterioration of stone, degree of stone

deterioration, the environment, amount of stone to be consolidated, and

the Importance of the stone structures. An universal consolidant does not

exist because many of these factors will vary to some extent from structure

to structure. Therefore, the preservation of each stone structure should

be considered as an unique problem.

34
Few cases of long-term success with consolidating stone structures

were disclosed in this review. Some apparent success has been achieved

in consolidating small stone objects, such as statues, which can be

treated in a laboratory. Consolidants should be used on massive stone

structures only after an appraisal has been made which considers the risk

involved, the benefits to be realized, and the probability of success.

35
7 . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Henry Judd

and Mr. Hugh Miller of the National Park Service, who provided information

valuable to this review.

I :

36
8. REFERENCES

1. G. Torraca, Treatment of Stone in Monuments. A Review of Principles

and Processes, in the Conservation of Stone I, Proceeding of the

International Symposium, Bologna, June 1975, pp. 297-315 (Centro

per la Conservazione delle Sculture all'Aperto, Bologna, Italy,

1976).

2. W. H. Dukes, Conservation of Stone: Chemical Treatments, The

Architects' Journal Information Library, pp. 433-438 (August 23, 1972).

3. W. H. Gutt, Conservation of Stone. The Next Steps, Stone Industries

(London), May-June (1973).

4. G. Alessandrini, C. M. Del Fa, P. Rossi-Doria, M. Tabasso , and

S. Vannucci, pp. 635-650, in reference 1.

5. J. Riederer, Further Progress in German Stone Conservation, pp. 369-385,

in reference 1.

6. Preservation and Conservation: Principles and Practices (The Preservation Press, Washington, D.C., 1976)

7. G. A. Sleater, A Review of Natural Stone Preservation, NBSIR 74-444,

National Bureau of Standards (Washington, D.C., 1973).

8. Stone Preservatives, Digest First Series No. 128, Building Research

Station (Garston, England, 1963).

9. Colourless Treatments for Masonry, Digest 125, Building Research

Station (Garston, England, 1971).

10. B. L. Clarke and J. Ashurst, Stone Preservation Experiments,

Building Research Station (Garston, England, 1972).

11. Decay and Conservation of Stone Masonry, Digest 177, Building Research

Station (Garston, England, 1975).

12. G. A. Sleater, Stone Preservatives: Method of Laboratory Testing

and Preliminary Performance Criteria, NBS Technical Note 941,

National Bureau of Standards (Washington, D.C., 1977)

13. S. Z. Lewin, The Preservation of Natural Stone, 1839-1965, An Annotated

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Research Special Report No. 18 (Garston, 1931); Reprinted 1972 by

Building Research Station (Garston, England).

37
16. A. R. Warnes, Building Stones, Their Properties, Decay, and

Preservation (Ernest Benn Ltd., London, 1926).

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Italy, 1972).

18. The Conservation of Stone I, Proceedings of the International

Symposium, Bologna, June 1975 (Centro per la Conservazione

delle Sculture all'Aperto, Bologna, Italy, 1976).

19. Conservation of New Stone and Wooden Objects, New York Conference,

June 1970 (The International Institute for Conservation of Historic

and Artistic Works, London).

20. Deterioration and Protection of Stone Movements, International

Symposium, June 1978 (Paris).

21. Decay and Preservation of Stone, Engineering Geology Case Histories

No. 11, E. M. Winkler ed. (The Geological Society of America,

Boulder, 1978).

22. D. Carroll, Rock Weathering (Plenum Press, New York, 1970).

23. F. C. Loughnan, Chemical Weathering of the Silicate Materials

(Elsevier Publishing Co., 1969).

24. A. Arnold, Soluble Salts and Stone Weathering, pp. 133-135, in

reference 18.

25. L. Arnold, D. B. Honeyborne and C. A. Price, Conservation of Natural

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28. J. M. Garrido, The Portal of the Monastery of Santa Maria de Ripoll,

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29. W. H. Dukes, Conservation of Stone: Cleaning Natural Stone Buildings,

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1972).

30. E. M. Winkler, Stone Decay in Urban Atmospheres, pp. 53-58, In

reference 21

.

31. W. D. Keller, Progress and Problems in Rock Weathering Related to

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38
32. G. E. Likens, Acid Precipitation, Chemical and Engineering News,

pp. 29-44 (November 22, 1976).

33. P. P. Hudec, Rock Weathering on the Molecular Level, pp. 47-51, in

reference 21.

34. J. Lautrldou and J. Ozouf, Relations Entre la Gelivite et les

Proprietes Physiques (Porosite, Ascension Capillaire) des

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35. J. Hirschwald, Handbuch der Bautechnischen Gesteinsprufung

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Practical Aspects of a UNESCO Course, October and November 1976,

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des Thiobacilles dans les Alterations des Pierres a Rome Identification de Certaines Souches, paper 4.1, in reference 20.

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Monuments en Pierre: Nuisance au Protection, Paper 4.6., in

reference 20.

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reference 18.

42. M. Godette, M. Post, and P. Campbell, Graffiti-Resistant Coatings:

Methods of Test and Preliminary Selection Criteria, NBSIB 75-914,

National Bureau of Standards (Washington, D.C., 1975).

43. M. Godette, M. Post, and P. Campbell, Graffiti Removers: Evaluation

and Preliminary Selection Criteria, NBSIR 75-914, National Bureau

of Standards (Washington, D.C., 1975).

44. J. R. Clifton, Protection of Reinforcing Bars with Organic Coatings,

Materials Performance, Vol. 15 (No. 5), pp. 14-17 (1976).

45. Stainless Steel Reinforcement, BRE Information 99.78, Building

Research Station (Garston, England, November 1978).

39
46. J. Riederer, No Decomposition of Stone by Air Pollution, Colloque

International sur la Deterioration des Pierres en Oeuvre, 1st,

La Rochelle (1972).

47. J. Riederer, Recent Advances in Stone Conservation in Germany,

pp. 89-93, in reference 21.

48. Y. Efes, The Corrosion of Natural Stones at the Cathedral of

Cologne, Centre Beige d 'Etude et de Documentation des Eaux,

No. 373, pp. 495-507 (December 1974).

49. Y. Efes and S. Luckat, Relations Between Corrosion of Sandstones

and Uptakes Rates of Air Pollutants at the Cologne Cathedral,

pp. 193-200, International Symposium on the Deterioration of

Building materials (Athens, Greece, 1976).

50. I. E. Marsh, Stone Decay and Its Prevention (Basil Blackwell,

Oxford, 1926).

51. G. Thomson and R. White, The pH of Rain and the Destruction

of Alkaline Stone, Studies in Conservation, Vol. 19, pp. 190-191

(1974).

52. T. Stambolou, Conservation of Stone, pp. 119-124, in reference 19.

53. L. Arnold and C. A. Price, The Laboratory Assessment of Stone,

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54. R. L. Gauri, J. A. Gwinn and R. K. Popli, Performance Criteria

for Stone Treatment, pp. 143-152, in reference 49.

55. K. L. Gauri, D. J. Hagerty and C. R. Ullrich, Comparative Physical

Properties of Weathered Impregnated and Unimpregnated Marble,

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56. G. Alessandrini, C. M. Del Fa, P. Rossi-Doria, M. Tabasso, and

S. Vannucci, pp. 635-650, in reference 18.

57. R. A. Munnikendam, Preliminary Notes on the Consolidation of

Porous Building Stones by Impregnation with Monomers, Studies

in Conservation, Vol. 12 (No. 4), pp. 158-162 (1967).

58. C. A. Price, Stone Decay and Preservation, Chemistry in Britain,

Vol. 11 (No. 9), pp. 350-353 (1975).

59. R. A. Munnikendam, Acrylic Monomer Sytems for Stone Impregnation,

pp. 15-18, in reference 19.

60. G. Torraca, Brick, Adobe, Stone and Architectural Ceramics:

Deterioration Processes and Conservation Practices, pp. 143-165,

in reference 6.

40
61. R. A. Munnikendam, A New System for the Consolidation of Fragile

Stone, Studies in Conservation, Vol. 18, pp. 95-97 (1973).

62. R. Wihr, Deep- Impregnation for Effective Stone-Protection,

pp. 317-318, in reference 18.

63. K. L. Gauri, Preservation and Strengthening of Porous Solids,

U.S. Patent 3,795,533 (1974).

64. L. E. Kukacha, A. Auskern, P. Colombo, J. Fontana, and M. Steinberg,

Introduction to Concrete-Poljnmer Materials, Brookhaven National

Laboratory; Available from National Technical Information Service,

No. PB 241-691.

65. J. Clifton and G. Frohnsdorff, Polymer-Impregnated Concretes,

pp. 174-196, in Cements Research Progress 1975 (American Ceramic

Society, Columbus, Ohio, 1975).

66. E. M. Winkler and J. R. Clifton, Solvents for Adobe and Stone

Preservatives, Paper 6.14, in reference 20.

67. E. Tammes and B. H. Vos, Vocht in Bouwconstructies , Bouwcentrum

(Rotterdam, 1966).

68. J. R. Clifton, Preservation of Historic Adobe Structures-A Status

Report, NBS Technical Note 934, National Bureau of Standards

(Washington, D.C., 1977).

69. Standard Recommended Practice for Developing Short-Term Accelerated

Tests for Prediction of the Service Life of Building Components and

Materials, American Society for Test Materials (ASTM) Designation:

E632-78.

70. J. R. Clifton, J. E. Fearn and E. D. Anderson, Pol3mier Impregnated

Hardened Cement Pastes and Mortars, Building Science Series 83,

National Bureau of Standards (Washington, D.C., 1976).

71. G. Biscontin and R. Pavan, A Consolidant for Stonework Conservation:

Test and Experiences, paper 6.2, in reference 20.

72. G. Allesandrini, R. Peruzzi, P. Rossi-Doria and M. Tabasso, Control

of the Behavior of the Two Epoxy Resins for "Stone" Treatments,

Paper 6.1, in reference 20.

73. R. Munnikendam, private correspondence dated January 1, 1978 to

J. R. Clifton.

74. Standard Method of Test for Absorption and Bulk Specific Gravity

of Natural Building Stone, ASTM Designation: C97-47.

75. Standard Methods of Test for Water Vapor Transmission of Thick

Materials, ASTM Designation: C355-64.

41
76. N. Heaton, The Preservation of Stone, Journal of the Royal Society

of Arts, Vol. 70, pp. 129-139 (1921).

77. E. DeWhite, Soluble Nylon as Consolidation Agent for Stone, Studies

in Conservation, Vol. 20 (No. 1), pp. 33-34 (1975).

78. A. P. Laurie and C. Ranken, The Preservation of Decaying Stone,

Journal of the Society of the Chemical Industry, Vol. 37,

pp. 137T-147T (1918).

79. G. Biscontin, S. Frascati, L. Marchesini, Colour Variations in Old

Bricks and Stones as a Result of Consolidation with Resin, pp. 731-

747, in reference 18.

80. Test for Instrumental Evaluation of Color Differences of Opaque

Materials, ASTM Designation: D2244-68.

81. Test for Specular Gross, ASTM Designation: D523-67.

82. A. H. Munsell, Color Notation, Munsell Color Company, 18th revised

edition (Baltimore, 1947).

83. E. W. Winkler, Simple Field Determination of Stone Colors,

paper 3.9, in reference 20.

84. L. Arnold and C. A. Price, The Laboratory Assessement of Stone

Preservatives, pp. 695-704, in reference 18.

85. A. P. Laurie, Building Materials, Oliver and Boyd Publishing Co.

(Edinburgh, 1922).

86. J. Lehmann, Damage by Accumulation of Soluble Salts in Stonework,

pp. 35-46, in reference 19.

87. D. S. Knopman, Conservation of Stone Artworks: Barely a Role for

Science, Science, Vol. 190, pp. 1187-1188 (Dec. 19, 1975).

88. J. W. Mellor, A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical

Chemistry, Vol. VI, Silicates (Longmans, Green and Co., London,

1925).

89. Encyclopedia of Chemical Reactions, Vol. VI (Reinhold Publishing

Corp., New York, 1956.)

90. F. S. Barff, Stone Artificial Stone, Preserving Stone, Colouring,

British Patent 2608 (1860); from reference 13.

91. L. Kessler, A Process for Hardening Soft Limestone by Means of

the Fluosilicates of Insoluble Oxides, Comptes Rendus, Academie

des Sciences, Institute de France, Vol. 96, pp. 1317-1319 (1883).

42
92. The Artificial Hardening of Soft Stone, Stone, Vol 34, pp. 365-366

(1913).

93. R. Wihr and G. Steenken, On the Preservation of Monuments and Works

of Art with Silicates, pp. 71-75, in reference 19.

94. B. G. Shore, Stones of Britain (Leonard Itill Books Ltd., London,

1957).

95. B. Penkala, The Influence of Surface Protecting Agents on the

Technical Properties of Stone, Ochrona Zabytrow, Vol 17 (No. 1),

pp. 37-43 (1964).

96. A. R. Powys, Repair of Ancient Buildings (J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.,

London, 1929).

97. W. Llnke, Solubilities of Inorganic and Metals Organic Compounds,

Vol. I (Van Nostrand, Princeton, 1958).

98. H. G. Lloyd, Hardening Stone and Earth, British Patent 441,568 (1934).

99. V. Mankowsky, The Weathering of Our Large Monuments, Die Denkmalpf lege

Vol. 12, (No. 1), pp. 51-54 (1910); from reference 13.

100. Breathing New Life into the Statues of Wells, New Scientist,

pp. 754-756 (22/29 December 1977).

101. A. H. Church, Stone, Preserving and Colouring; Cements, British

Patent 220 (1862); from reference 13.

102. A. H. Church, Treatment of Decayed Stone-work in the Chapter House,

Westminster Abbey, Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry,

Vol. 23, pg. 824 (1904).

103. A. H. Church, Conservation of Historic Buildings and Frescoes,

Proceedings of the Meetings of the Members, Royal Institution

of Great Britain, Vol. 18, pp. 597-608 (1907).

104. S. Z. Lewin, The Conservation of Limestone Objects and Structures

in Study of Weathering of Stone, Vol. 1 (International Council of

Monuments and Sites, Paris, 1968).

105. E. V. Sayre, Direct Deposition of Barium Sulfate from Homogeneous

Solution Within Porous Stone, pp. 115-118, in reference 19.

106. G. G. Scott, Process as Applied to Rapidly-Decayed Stone in

Westminster Abbey, The Builder (London), Vol. 19, pp. 105 (1861);

from reference 13.

107. G. Zava, B. Badan and L. Marcheslnl, Structural Regeneration by

Induced Mineralization of the Stone of Eraclea (Agrigento)

Theatre, pp. 387-399, in reference 18.

43
108. S. Z. Lewin and N. S. Baer, Rationale of the Barium HydroxideUrea Treatment of Decayed Stone, Studies in Conservation,

Vol. 19, pp. 24-35 (1974).

109. C. A. Price, Research on Natural Stone at the Building Research

Establishment, Natural Stone Directory (1977).

110. Bosch, Use of Silicones in Conservation of Monuments, pp. 21-26,

First International Symposium on the Deterioration of Building

Stones (1972).

111. H. Weber, Stone Renovation and Consolidation Using Silicones and

Silicic Esters, pp. 375-385, in reference 18.

112. Preserving Building Stone, BRE News, Vol. 42, pp. 10-11 (Winter, 1977)

113. J. Taralon, C. Jaton, and G. Orial, Etat des Recherches Effectuees

en France sur les Hydrofuges, Studies in Conservation, Vol. 20,

pp. 455-476 (1975).

114. J. Riederer, Die Echaltung Agyptischer Baundenkmaler, Maltechnik

Restauro, Vol. 74 (No. 1), pp. 43-52 (1974).

115. A Moncrieff, the Treatment of Deteriorating Stone with Silicone

Resins: Interim Report, Studies in Conservation, Vol. 21,

pp. 179-191 (1976).

116. K. Hempel and A. Moncrieff, Report on Work since Last Meeting

in Bologna, October 1971, pp. 319-339, in reference 18.

117. A. P. Laurie, Preservation of Stone, U.S. Patent 1,607,762 (1926).

118. H. D. Cogan and C. A. Setterstrom, Ethyl Silicates, Industrial

Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 39, pp. 1364-8 (1947).

119. H. D. Cogan and C. A. Setterstrom, Chemical Engineering News,

Vol. 24, pp. 2499-2501 (1946).

120. H. Marschner, Application of Salt Crystallization Test to Impregnated

Stones, paper 3.4, in reference 20.

121. R. Snethlage and D. D. Klemm, Scanning Electron Microscope Investigations on Impregnated Sandstones, paper 5.7, in reference 20.

122. R. Rossi-Manaresi, Treatments for Sandstone Consolidation,

pp. 547-571, in reference 18.

123. M. B. Caroe, Wells Cathedral, The West Front Conservation Programme,

Interim Report on Aims and Techniques (June, 1977).

124. M. Steinberg et. al.. Concrete Polymer Materials, First Tropical

Report, Brookhaven National Laboratory Report No. BNL-50134 (1968).

44
125. L. E. Kukacka, et. al., Concrete-Polymer Materials, Fifth Topical

Report, Brookhaven National Laboratory Report No. BNL-50390 (1973).

126. E. Dahl-Jorgensen and W. F. Chen, Stress-Strain Properties of

Polymer Modified Concrete, Fritz Engineering Laboratory Report

No. FEL 390.1 (Lehigh University, Pennsylvania, 1973).

127. R. B. Seymour, Introduction to Polymer Chemistry (McGraw-Hill,

Inc., 1971).

128. K. L. Gauri, P. Tanjaruphan, M. A. Rao and T. Lipscomb, Reactivity

of Treated and Untreated Marble in Carbon Dioxide Atmospheres,

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science, Vol. 38 (No. 1-2),

pp. 38-44 (1977).

129. K. L. Gauri and M. V. A. Rao, Certain Epoxies, Fluorocarbon-Acrylics

and Silicones as Stone Preservatives, pp. 73-80, in reference 21.

130. Usefulness of Some Vinyl Polymers in the Conservations of Monuments,

Ochrona Zabytkow, Vol 14 (No. 3-4), pp. 81-92 (1961); from reference 13

131. K. F. B. Hempel, Notes on the Conservation of Sculptue, Stone,

Marble, and Terracotta, Studies in Conservation, Vol. 13, pp. 34-44

(1968).

132. H. Lee and K. Neville, Handbook of Epoxy Resins (McGraw-Hill Book

Company, 1967).

133. W. G. Potter, Uses of Epoxy Resins (Chemical Publishing Company,

New York, 1975).

134. K. L. Gauri, Cleaning and Impregnation of Marble, in reference 17.

135. K. L. Gauri, Improved Impregnation Technique for the Preservation

of Stone Statuary, Nature, Vol. 228 (No. 5274), pg. 882 (Nov. 28,

1970).

136. K. L. Gauri, Efficiency of Epoxy Resins as Stone Preservatives,

Studies in Conservation, Vol. 19, pp. 100-101 (1974).

137. G. Marinelli, Use of an Epoxy Aliphatic Resin in the Consolidation

of Porous Building Materials Having Poor Mechanical Properties,

pp. 573-591, in reference 18.

138. A. Moncrieff, Work on the Degeneration of Sculptural Stone,

pp. 103-114, in reference 19.

139. K. Hempel and A. Moncrieff, Summary of Work on Marble Conservation

at the Victoria and Albert Museum Conservation Department up to

August 1971, in reference 17.

45
140. Epoxy Resins Saves Venice Church, Corrosion Prevention and Control,

pp. 12-13 (October, 197A).

141. D. A. Whiting, P. R. Blankenhorn and D. E. Kline, Effect of Hydration

on the Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Impregnated Concrete, Cement

and Concrete Research, Vol. 4 (No. 3), pp. 467-476 (1964).

142. D. A. Whiting, P. R. Blankenhorn and D. E. Kline, Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Modified Concrete, Journal of Testing and Evaluation,

Vol. 2 (No. 1), pp. 44-49 (1974).

143. M. Kranz, 1 'Evaluation de I'Etat de Conservation de la Pierre et de

I'Efficacite des Traitements, pp. 443-453, in reference 18.

144. C. R. Steen, Some Recent Experiments in Stabilizing Adobe and Stone,

pp. 59-64, in reference 19.

145. C. Steen, An Archaelogist 's Summary of Adobe, El Palacio, Vol. 77

(No. 4), pp. 29-38 (1971)

146. Vitruvius, de Architecturia, I.X.; from reference 58.

147. G. G. Scott, Process as Applied to Rapidly-Decayed Stones in

Westminster Abbey, The Builder, Vol. 19 (No. 941), pp. 105 (1861);

from reference 13.

148. S. G. Burgess and R. J. Schaffer, Cleopatra's Needle, Chemistry

and Industry, pp. 1026-1029 (1952).

149. D. W. Kessler, Exposure Tests on Colourless Materials, Technological

Papers of the Bureau of Standards, No. 248.

150. The Preservation of Ruins, Literary Digest, pp. 94-95 (July 16th,

1910).

46
NBS-114A- IREV. 9-78)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO.

NBS TN 1118

2.G0V't Acc«ssiw» No.;

:^ >-.^. -^^^. ..

3, Rfldptent'a Accession No,

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Stone Consolidating Materials

A Status Report

5. Publication Date May 1980

6. Perfoitnittg Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

James R. Clifton

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, DC 20234

le, ProJect/task/Work Unit No.

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS rsfreef. City, st^te. ziP)

National Park Service

U. S. Department of Interior

Washington, D.C. 20240

13. Type of Report & Period Covered Final

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

m Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

16. ABSTRACT (A 200'word or less factual summary ol most significant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or

literature survey, mention it here.) Information on types of stone consolidating materials, their performances, and

uses are critically reviewed. Processes responsible for the deterioration of stone

and criteria for selecting stone consolidants are also reviewed. The main function

of stone consolidants is to reestablish the cohesion between particles of deteriorated stone. In addition, a good consolidant should meet performance requirements

concerning durability, depth of penetration, effect on stone porosity, effect on moisture transfer, compatibility with stone, and effect on appearance.

Stone consolidants can be divided into four main groups, according to their chemistry. These groups are inorganic materials, alkoxysilanes, synthetic organic polymers, and waxes. Epoxies, acrylics, and alkoxysilanes are currently the most

commonly used consolidating materials. Certain waxes have been found to have excellent consolidating abilities. Waxes, however, tend to soften and to accumulate

grime and dust. Inorganic materials and some organic polymers have a tendency to

form shallow, brittle layers near the surface of stone. These treated layers often

separate from the untreated stone. Alkoxysilanes have excellent penetrabilities and

are considered by some stone conservators as the most promising consolidating materials. However, a universal consolidant does not exist and many factors must be considered in selecting a consolidant for a specific stone structure.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first tetter of the first key word unless a proper name;

separated by semicolons) Conservation; consolidating materials; deterioration of stone; preservation; stone;

stone consolidation.

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Monographs—Major contributions to the technical literature on

various subjects related to the Bureau's scientific and technical activities. Handbooks—Recommended codes of engineering and industrial

practice (including safety codes) developed in cooperation with in- terested industries, professional organizations, and regulatory

bodies.

Special Publications—include proceedings of conferences sponsored by NBS, NBS annual reports, and other special publications

appropriate to this grouping such as wall charts, pocket cards, and

bibliographies. Applied Mathematics Series—Mathematical tables, manuals, and

studies of special interest to physicists, engineers, chemists,

biologists, mathematicians, computer programmers, and others engaged in scientific and technical work.

National Standard Reference Data Series—Provides quantitative

data on the physical and chemical properties of materials, compiled from the world's literature and critically evaluated. Developed under a worldwide program coordinated by NBS under

the authority of the National Standard Data Act (Public Law

90-396).

NOTE; The principal publication outlet for the foregoing data is the Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data (JPCRD)

published quarterly for NBS by the American Chemical Society

(ACS) and the American Institute of Physics (AIP). Subscriptions,

reprints, and supplements available from ACS, 1 155 Sixteenth St., NW, Washington, DC 20056.

Building Science Series—Disseminates technical information developed at the Bureau on building materials, coinponents,

systems, and w hole structures. The series presents research results,

test methods, and performance criteria related to the structural and

environmental functions and the durability and safety characteristics of building elements and systems.

Technical Notes—Studies or reports which are complete in themselves but restrictive in their treatment of a subject. Analogous to monographs but not so comprehensive in scope or definitive in treatment of the subject area. Often serve as a vehicle for final reports of work performed at NBS under the sponsorship of other government agencies.

Voluntary Product Standards—Developed under procedures

published by the Department of Commerce in Part 10, Title 15, of

the Code of Federal Regulations. The standards establish nationally recognized requirements for products, and provide all concerned interests with a basis for common understanding of the

characteristics of the products. NBS administers this program as a supplement to the activities of the private sector standardizing

organizations. Consumer Information Series—Practical information, based on NBS research and experience, covering areas of interest to the con- sumer. Easily understandable language and illustrations provide

useful background knowledge for shopping in today's tech- nological marketplace. Order the above NBS publications from: Superintendent of Documents. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. Order the following NBS publications—FIPS and NBSIR 's—from

the National Technical Information Services, Springfield, VA 22161

.

Federal Information Processing Standards Publications (FIPS

PUB)—Publications in this series collectively constitute the Federal Information Processing Standards Register. The Register

serves as the official source of information in the Federal Govern- ment regarding standards issued by NBS pursuant to the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 as amended.

Public Law 89-306 (79 Stat. 1127), and as implemented by Executive Order 11717(38 FR 12315, dated May II, 1973) and Part 6

of Title 15 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations).

NBS Interagency Reports (NBSIR)—A special series of interim or

final reports on work performed by NBS for outside sponsors

(both government and non-government). In general, initial dis- tribution is handled by the sponsor; public distribution is by the National Technical Information Services, Springfield, VA 22161,

in paper copy or microfiche form.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC SUBSCRIPTION SERVICES

The following current-awareness and literature-survey bibliographies

are issued periodically by the Bureau:

Cryogenic Data Center Current Awareness Service. A literature sur- vey issued biweeklv. Annual subscription; domestic $25; foreign

$30. Liquefied Natural Gas. A literature survey issued quarterly. Annual

subscription; $20.

Superconducting Devices and Materials. A literature survey issued

quarterly. Annual subscription; $30. Please send subscription or- ders and remittances for the preceding bibliographic services to the National Bureau of Standards, Cryogenic Data Center (736) Boulder, CO 80303.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

Washington. DC. 20234

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