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A1 11 00985941

J /Thermal analysls--human comtort--lndoor S QC100 .U57 V491;1977 C.I NBS-PUB-C 1977 QC100

V) NBS SPECIAL PUBLICATION 491

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE / National Bureau of Standards

MM

Thermal AnalysisHuman ComfortIndoor Environments
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

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aonal Bureau ot Standard!

OCT 2 6 1977

Thermal Analysis— Human Comfort—Indoor

Environments ^

Proceedings of a Symposium Held at the

National Bureau of Standards

Gaithersburg, Maryland

February 11, 1977

Edited by:

B.W. Mangum

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

J.E. Hill

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

Sponsored by:

The National Bureau of Standards

Department of Commerce

Washington, D.C. 20234

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary

Dr. Sidney Harman, Under Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

1/ NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Acting Director

Issued September 1977
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title: Thermal analysis-human comfort—indoor environments.

(NBS special publication ; 491)

(Supt. of Docs. No.: €13.10:491

1. Environmental engineering (Buildings)—Congresses. 2. Buildings—Energy conservation—Congresses. 3. Human engineeringCongresses. I. Mangum, Billy Wilson, 1931- II. Hill, James

Edward, 1942- III. United States. National Bureau of Standards.

IV. Series: United States. National Bureau of Standards. Special

publication ; 491. QC100.U57 no. 491 |TH6014] 602Ms [697] 77-12602

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 491

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 491, 197 pages (Sept. 1977)

CODEN: XNBSAV

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WASHINGTON: 1977

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.
PREFACE

A symposium on "Thermal Analysis - Human Comfort - Indoor Environments" was held at

the National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, Md., February 11, 1977, The symposium was sponsored by the National Bureau of Standards and co-chaired by Dr. B. W. Mangum, Institute

for Basic Standards and Dr. J. E. Hill, Institute for Applied Technology.

The symposium was prompted by the increasing emphasis on energy conservation practices

in existing buildings as well as new building designs that emphasize energy conservation.

Some of the practices have no effect on the thermal comfort of occupants. Others, such as limiting the use of both cooling and installed capacity of heating, ventilating, and air

conditioning equipment, lower thermostat settings in winter, higher thermostat settings in

summer, and eliminating climate control in halls, entryways, and storerooms may have an adverse effect on occupants, however.

The purpose of the symposium was to bring together leading scientists, engineers,

architects, physiologists, and government officials who were interested in how new energy

conservation strategies in buildings will affect human comfort. The symposium was successful in identifying and reviewing the vast amount of research work done in this field over

the past fifty years. In addition, material on new and current research was presented as well as some specific suggestions for work that should be undertaken in the near future.

It is hoped that the proceedings will stimulate a desire on the part of government organizations conducting major research programs to recognize the need for additional research in

this field.

The proceedings of the conference reflect, in chronological sequence, the main presentations by the speakers. Every effort has been made to minimize the editing and to reflect

each author's original material as submitted prior to the symposium.

iii
Conversion Table to SI Units

This publication uses customary English units for the convenience of engineers and others

who use them habitually. The table below is for the reader interested in conversion to SI

units. For additional information see:

(1) NBS LC1078, Dec, 1976, "The Metric System of Measurement".

(2) Z210. 1-1976, "ASTM/IEEE Standard Metric Practice".

Quantity To convert from To Multiply by

Length inch m (meter) 2.540x10"^

foot m 3.048X10""'-

mile m 1.609x10^

Area in2 2 m 6.452x10"^

ft2 2 m 9.290x10"^

Volume in^ 3 m 1.639x10"^

ft^ 3 m 2.832x10"^

gallon 3

m 3.785x10"^

Temperature °F °C to^ = (top-32)/1.8

T. Difference Ato-,F

K AT =Ato^/1.8 K °F

Mass pound kg 4.536x10"

ounce kg 2.835x10"^

Pressure psi Pa 6.895x10^

in 2

in Hg Pa 3.386x10^

mmHg Pa 1.333x10^

Energy Btu J 1.055x10^

MBtu J 1.055x10^

kWh J 3.600x10^

f t« Ibf J 1 "^sfivin^

kilocalorie J 4.184x10^

Power Btu/h W 2.931x10"-'"

hp W 7.457x10^

Flow gal/min 3 , m /s 6.309x10"^

f t"^/min

3 , m Is 4.719x10"^

Density Ib/ft^ kg/m^ 1.602X10-'-

lb/gal kg/m^ 1.198x10^

Heat Capacity Btu/(lb'°F) J/(kg-K) 4.187x10^

Btu/(ft-^.°F) J/(m-^.K) 6.707x10^

Met met

2 W/m 5.800xl03

Iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

Opening Remarks

J. E. Wright, National Bureau of Standards 1

Thermal Comfort in Indoor Environments

P. 0. Fanger, Technical University of Denmark 3

The Use of Modeling Human Responses in the Analysis of Thennal

Comfort of Indoor Environments

N. Z. Azer and S. Hsu, Kansas State University 18

Industrial Heat Stress Monitoring

F. N. Dukes-Dobos, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 41

Establishment of the Boundaries to Comfort by Analyzing Discomfort

R. F. Goldman, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine 52

Heat Stress, Work Function and Physiological Heat Exposure Limits in Man

A. R. Dasler, Naval Medical Research Institute 5^

Effect of Energy Conservation Guidelines on Comfort, Acceptability and Health

A. P. Gagge and R. G. Nevins, John B. Pierce Foundation 93

Radiation Measurement for Thermal Comfort Assessment in The Built

Environment

L. G. Berglund, John B. Pierce Foundation 117

Experimental Analysis of Thermal Acceptability

R. R. Gonzalez, John B. Pierce Foundation I3I

Rating of Environments for Human Thermal Comfort by "Resultant Surface

Temperature"

T. H. Benzinger, Bethesda, Maryland I52

Aspects of Indoor Environments: Tolerable Vs Comfortable Thermal Environments

E. R. Buskirk and J. L. Loomis, Pennsylvania State University I69

Assessing Productivity Decrements in Heat and Cold: On-Site Simvilation of Industrial

Work in a Mobile Climate Chamber

D. P. Wyon, National Swedish Institute for Building Research 174

Summary and Closing Remarks

P. E. McNall, National Bureau of Standards 190

V

ABSTRACT

These are the proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the National Bureau of Standards

and held in Gaithersburg, Maryland on February 11, 1977. The symposium was held for the

purpose of exploring new aspects of indoor thermal environments, caused primarily by the

impact of energy conservation in new and existing buildings. Included in these proceedings

are eleven formal papers which were presented by leading researchers in the field of thermal comfort and heat stress. The contributed papers were from Denmark, Sweden, and several

research institutions within the United States including the John B. Pierce Foundation at

Yale University, Kansas State University, and Pennsylvania State University. Information

was presented on a variety of approaches to determining human response to thermal environments. These included laboratory studies in environmental chambers utilizing instrumented

human subjects, field studies involving surveys and questionnaires, mathematical modelling

of humans, an analysis of some types of instruments used in assessing the quality of the

environments, and a discussion of the relationships between productivity and the thermal

environment

.

Key words: Energy conservation in buildings; heat stress; hioman comfort; indoor

environment; mean radiant temperature; thermal comfort.

Disclaimer

Certain commercial products are identified in this paper in order to specify

adequately the e^qjerimental procedure, or to cite relevant examples. In no case does

such identification imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Bureau of Standards, nor does it imply that the products or equipment identified are necessarily the best

available for the purpose.

vll

OPENING REMARKS

J. R. Wright

Institute for Applied Technology

National Biireau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 2023^^

It is a great pleasure and an honor for me to have been asked to welcome you to the

National Bureau of Standards today to discuss a subject of mutual interest, namely, that of

the effects of energy cronservation in buildings on human comfort. With the increased emphasis on energy conservation practices in existing buildings as well as new building designs

that emphasize energy conservation, you, o\ir leading scientists, engineers, government officials, architects, physiologists, and manufacturers are faced with the challenge of protecting the comfort, health, and performance of building users. This symposim, therefore,

is unusual because we will be trying to explore how much we really know about the effects

of interior thermal environments on people.

We are very fortunate to have with us today some of the leading experts of the world

in this field, scientists who have been conducting research in this area for some years.

We have speakers from Denmark, Sweden, and a variety of research institutions in this

coimtry including the John B. Pierce Foundation at Yale University and from Kansas State

University and Penn State University. We also have representatives from both U.S. Army and

Navy research organizations who will give us some Insight into the work they are doing on heat stress. This work has relevance to the general problem being discussed because as we move further away from comfort conditions, we begin to move into a region of heat or cold

stress.

We will also hear about a variety of approaches for obtaining information about h\aman

reactions to thermal environments. These include laboratory studies in environmental

chambers using instrumented human subjects, field studies involving s\irveys and questionnaires, mathematical modeling of humans and their environments, and a discussion of some types of Instruments used in assessing the quality of the environments.

We will also take this opportunity to describe some of the work the National Biureau of

Standards has been doing over the past several years in promoting energy conservation in

the design, construction, and operation of our nation's buildings. Based, in part, on -che work done here, it is now relatively easy to predict how much energy is conserved as a result of any one of a number of building design or operation strategies. Recommendations

made in this area, however, must consider what effect the resulting indoor environment has on the building occupants. President Carter's recent request to conserve energy by keeping

the interior temperat\ire of buildings at l8° Celsius (65°F) during the day and 13° Celsius

(55°F) at night prompts further consideration of this impact. The question that arises is

what do we really know about the short-term and long-term effects of this type of building

control? This is a big part of the challenge, and we in the National Bureau of Standards'

Institute for Applied Technology and Institute for Basic Standards are pleased to be able

to rise to the challenge by sponsoring today's symposium.

On behalf of all of our staff members, I bid you welcome sind trust that you will find

the sessions both enjoyable and worthwhile.

1

THERMAL COMFORT IN INDOOR ENVIRONMENTS

P. 0. Fanger

Laboratory of Heating and Air Conditioning

Technical University of Denmark

DK 2800 Lyngby - Denmark

ABSTRACT

A review is given of existing knowledge regarding the conditions for thermal comfort

for man, emphasizing research data obtained during recent years.

Equations, indices, and diagrams predicting man's thermal sensation, comfort, and

discomfort as a function of air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air velocity,

humidity, clothing, and activity are discussed. The influence on comfort conditions of

age, adaptation, sex, seasonal, and circadian rhythm, temperature swings, color, and noise

are dealt with. The term "climate monotony" is considered.

Local discomfort due to radiant asymmetry, vertical air temperature gradients, and

non-uniformity of clothing are discussed.

New preliminary research data are presented on limits for draft and on comfort limits

for floor temperatures.

Future research needs are identified.

KEY WORDS

Thermal comfort - human comfort - thermal neutrality - thermal environment - indoor

environment - indoor climate.

INTRODUCTION

In a modern industrial society, man spends the greater part of his life indoors. A

large proportion of the population spends 23 out of 24 hours in an artificial climate - at

home, at the workplace, or during transportation.

During recent decades this has resulted in a growing understanding of and interest in

studying the influence of indoor climate on man, thus enabling suitable requirements to be

established which should be aimed at in practice.

At the same time an increasing number of complaints about unsatisfactory indoor

climate suggest that man has become more critical regarding the environment to which he is

subjected. It seems that he is most inclined to complain about the indoor climate of his

workplace (offices, industrial premises, shops, schools, etc.) where he is compelled to

spend his time in environments which he himself can control only to a very limited degree.

Field studies indicate that in practice many of these complaints can be traced to an unsatisfactory thermal environment.

About one third of the world's energy consumption is used to provide thermal comfort

for man. It is no wonder, therefore, that efforts towards energy conservation in recent

years have led to an increased interest in man's comfort conditions in order to assess the

human response to different conservation strategies. (1,2,3,4)

In this paper the conditions for man's thermal comfort will be discussed, as well as the thermal environments which should be aimed at and the methods which should be employed

in practice to evaluate a given thermal environment.

3
DEFINITION OF COMFORT

In agreement with ASHRAE's Standard 55-74 (5), thermal comfort for a person is here

defined as "that condition of mind which expressed satisfaction with the thermal environment." This means that he feels thermally neutral for the body as a whole, i.e., he does

not know whether he would prefer a higher or lower ambient temperature level. Furthermore, it is a requirement that there is no local warm or cold discomfort at any part of

the human body, e.g, due to asymmetric radiation, draft, warm or cold floors, vertical

temperature gradients, non-uniform clothing, etc.

People are not alike, thermally or otherwise. If a group of people is exposed to the same room climate, it will, therefore, normally not be possible, due to biological variance,

to satisfy everyone at the same time. One must aim at creating optimal thermal comfort

for the group, i.e., a condition in which the highest possible percentage of the group are thermally comfortable.

COMFORT PARAMETERS

What is required in practice is that the comfort conditions are expressed in con- trollable factors, namely, the following four main environmental parameters:

1. Mean air temperature around the human body.

2. Mean radiant temperature in relation to the body.

3. Mean air velocity around the body.

4. Water vapor pressure in ambient air.

Besides the environmental factors, man's comfort is also influenced by the following two

factors

:

5. Activity level (internal heat production in the body).

6. Thermal resistance of clothing.

As suggested by Gagge et al (6), activity is often expressed in met-units (1 met = 58

W/m^ corresponding to sedentary activity) and the thermal resistance of the clothing is

express ed in clo-units (1 clo = 0.155 m^ °C/W).

Seppanen et al (7) have used a thermal manikin to measure the clo-value of many

typical garments and Sprague and Munson (8) have suggested formulas from which the clovalue of a clothing ensemble can be calculated when the clo-value of the individual

garments is known. Madsen (9) has measured clo-values of different bed clothing with a thermal manikin. Nishl et al (10,11) have suggested a simple method by which the clovalue of a clothing ensemble can be measured while being worn by man, and Azer (12) has

suggested a theoretical model for estimating clo-values. The above-mentioned clothing

studies during the last couple of years have established quite a comprehensive list of

clo-values for typical clothing ensembles. A similar table of met-values for typical

activities has existed for a long time. The activity and the thermal resistance of the

clothing can thus be estimated with reasonable accuracy by considering the application of

the room concerned.

In practice, quantitative knowledge is needed as to which combinations of the abovementioned six main variables will lead to thermal neutrality for man. But according to

the definition of comfort, it is furthermore requested that there be no local discomfort

on the human body. It can, therefore, be necessary to consider also the following factors:

the asjrmmetry of the radiant environment, the fluctuations of the air velocity, the vertical

air temperature gradient, the floor temperature (and material).

PHYSIOLOGICAL COMFORT CONDITIONS

The purpose of the human thermoregulatory system is to maintain a reasonably constant

deep body temperature around 37 "C; a requirement for this is the maintenance of a heat

balance so that the heat lost to the environment is equal to the heat produced by the

body. Man possesses the most effective physiological mechanisms for maintaining a heat

4
balance: the sensible heat loss can be altered by a variation of the cutaenous blood flow

and thus of the skin temperature, latent heat loss can be increased by sweat secretion,

and internal heat production can be increased by shivering or muscle tension.

These mechanisms are extremely effective and ensure that the heat balance can be

maintained within wide limits of the environmental variables. Maintenance of heat balance

is, however, far from being a sufficient condition for thermal comfort. Within the wide

limits of the environmental variables for which heat balance can be maintained, there is

only a narrow interval which will create thermal comfort.

It has long been known that man's thermal sensation is related to the state of his

thermoregulatory system, the degree of discomfort being greater the heavier the load on the effector mechanism. Experiments by Yaglou (13) in the 1920's indicated a correlation

between the skin temperature and the sensation of thermal comfort; later and more complete

studies by Gagge and several others (14,6,15) showed a correlation between thermal sensation and skin temperature, independent of whether the subjects were nude or clothed.

Therefore, it was generally accepted for a long time that the physiological conditions for

comfort were that a person had a mean skin temperature of 33-34 °C and that sweating (or

shivering) did not occur. This was later confirmed in experiments by Fanger for sedentary

subjects. At activities higher than sedentary ones, man prefers a lower mean skin temperature and prefers to sweat (16,17). By setting up a heat balance equation for the human

body, Fanger then used the comfort values of skin temperature and sweat secretion (both as

a function of the metabolic rate) to derive his comfort equation (16).

Gagge et al (18,19,20) found that cold discomfort is related to skin temperature

while warm discomfort is more closely, related to the wettedness of the skin, defined as the relation between the actual evaporation from the skin and the maximum possible evaporation from a completely wet skin. Gagge later used these observations in his derivation of

the New Effective Temperature Scale (ET*)

.

Although the skin temperature is important for comfort during steady state (or quasi

steady state) conditions, it is obvious that the thermal sensors in the skin do not in

themselves determine the sensation of comfort. This is apparent just from the fact that

the skin temperature during comfort decreased with increasing activity. Furthermore,

transient experiments by Gagge et al (18,19) show that subjects, when transferred from a cold or a warm to a neutral environment, felt immediately comfortable although their skin

temperature was far from the steady state level considered comfortable. This indicates

that the rate of change of the skin temperature is also important for the thermal sensation.

Other transient experiments by Cabanac (21,22) and by Hardy (23) with subjects immersed

in a water bath indicate that an interaction of internal and skin temperature might be

important in evoking discomfort.

As yet, we have not reached a full understanding of the physiological factors determining man's thermal sensations and his sensation of comfort and discomfort. Future

research aimed at establishing these factors and their quantitative influence on man's

subjective sensations will not only be of scientific significance but will also provide a better foundation on which to evaluate thermal environments in practice.

ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT CONDITIONS

When, in practice, artificial climates are to be created which will provide thermal

comfort for man, it is, of course, insufficient merely to have some knowledge of the

physiological comfort conditions. What is necessary is a detailed quantitative knowledge

of those combinations of the environmental variables which will provide thermal comfort.

Such information exists today due to a comprehensive experimental research effort

during the last decade, especially at Kansas State University (KSU) and Pierce Foundation

Laboratory in the U.S., at the Electricity Council Research Center in England, and at the

Technical University of -Denmark. Besides these laboratories, which have advanced experimental facilities at their disposal, several other research groups have performed comfort

studies in the field.

5
Fanger (16) derived in 1967, based on experimentally determined physiological comfort

criteria and heat transfer theory, the comfort equation, which determines all combinations

of the six main parameters which will provide thermal neutrality for man, and the equation was depicted in 28 comfort diagrams, applicable in practice. Subsequently, he derived the

PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) and the PPD (Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied) indices which

predict the degree of discomfort and the percent of people who will experience discomfort

for any combination of the six comfort parameters measured in practice (24).

Nevins, Rohles, McNall and their co-workers at KSU used a more emperical method where

they related the subjective response of their subjects directly to the environmental

parameters to which they were exposed, without taking any physiological measurements.

Their classical experiment comprised 1600 sedentary subjects clothed at 0.6 clo who were

exposed to different combinations of ambient temperature and humidity and they derived

regression equations from which the mean vote could be predicted as a function of temperature and humidity (25,26,27). They later used the same method to study the effect of

activity (17), clothing (28), mean radiant temperature (29) and velocity (30). The

results showed an excellent agreement with Fanger 's comfort equation.

Gagge, Stolwijk, Nishi and Gonzalez (31,32,33,34) established the New Effective

Temperature Scale (ET*) which is a rationally derived thermal index based on physiological

criteria for discomfort (skin temperature and wettedness) and heat transfer theory. The

New Effective Temperature (ET*) is defined as the temperature of an imaginary uniform

enclosure with 50% relative humidity at which man would feel the same level of warmth,

acceptability, or coolness as he would in the actual environment.

Lines of equal ET* were depicted in a psychrometric diagram for lightly clothes

sedentary or slightly active persons at low air velocity, and regions for different

degrees of discomfort and for heat tolerance were identified in the diagram. A graphical

method for the construction of diagrams for other activities, clothings, and velocities

was recommended (35). They introduced later the Standard Effective Temperature (SET*)

defined as the temperature of an imaginary uniform enclosure with 50% relative humidity

and still air, in which sedentary man in standard clothing (0.6 clo) would feel the same level of warmth, acceptability, or coolness as he would (while sedentary) in the actual

environment and with the actual clothing worn.

The SET* thus combines clothing and the four environmental factors into one index

from which man's thermal sensation and discomfort can be evaluated at a given activity

level. Diagrams showing SET* as a function of ambient temperature for humidities, air

velocities, clothings, and activities typical in normal offices during winter and summer have recently been published (36).

Griffiths and Mclntyre studied the relative influence of air temperature and mean

radiant temperature (37) on man's thermal sensation based on subjective votes and they

used a similar method to study the influence of humidity (38) and clothing (39,40).

A comparison of the results of the above-mentioned studies show remarkably good

agreement. It seems fair, therefore, to state that we today have the necessary information

to identify all the combinations of the six main parameters which most likely will provide

optimal thermal comfort (neutrality) for a large group of people. We are, furthermore,

able to predict the thermal sensation or the degree of discomfort for any other combination

of the parameters.

This applies to steady state conditions or when the environmental variables are changing slowly (41,42). For sudden or quick changes of the variables, more studies will

be needed in the future.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Everyone is not alike. How then is it possible, from an equation, to specify one particular temperature which will provide comfort? The answer is that this temperature

does not necessarily satisfy everyone. It gives, however, combinations of the variables

which will provide comfort for the greatest number of people. This is exactly what should

6
be aimed at when a large group of people are together in the same room climate (optimal

comfort for the group)

.

It has been found from experiments involving 1300 subjects that the best result

attainable is 5% dissatisfied (Fanger (24)). Any deviation from this condition will

result in an increase in the percentage of dissatisfied.

The individual differences can also be described by the standard deviation of the

preferred temperature defined as that ambient temperature at which a person does not know

whether he would prefer a warmer or a cooler environment. The preferred temperature for a given person can be determined in a climatic chamber by changing the temperature according

to the wishes of the subject (43,44). Fanger and Langkilde found the standard deviation

for sedentary, lightly clothed subjects to be 1.2 "C (45).

VARIABILITY IN MAN'S COMFORT CONDITIONS FROM DAY TO DAY

How reproducible are the comfort conditions for the individual? Is not the subjective

thermal sensation so uncertain that large variations in comfort requirements can be expected from day to day? This has recently been investigated by determining the preferred

ambient temperature for each subject under identical conditions on four different days

(Fanger (46)). A standard deviation of only 0.6 °C was found.

It is concluded that the comfort conditions for the individual can be reproduced and

will vary only slightly from day to day.

AGE

It has often been claimed that due to the fact that metabolism decreases slightly

with age, the comfort conditions based on experiments with young and healthly subjects

cannot be used as a matter of course for other age groups. Studies by Fanger (24),

Rohles and Johnson (47), and Griffiths and Mclntyre (48) with the young and the elderly

showed, however, no difference in the comfort conditions for the different age groups.

The lower metabolism in elderly people seems to be compensated by a lower evaporative

loss.

It should be kept in mind that the experiments were performed at the same standardized

activity level for young and elderly subjects. In certain cases in practice, e.g. homes

for the aged, the activity level will often be quite low, and there will thus be a natural

tendency to prefer a higher temperature.

ADAPTATION

It is widely believed that, by exposure to hot or cold surroundings, people can acclimatize themselves so that they prefer other thermal environments, and that the comfort

conditions vary in different parts of the world, depending on the outdoor climate at the

relevant place.

Comparison between results of identical experiments in the U.S. and in Denmark showed

no difference between the comfort conditions for Europeans and Americans (24) . In other

Danish comfort experiments, people who daily had been exposed to cold by working in the

meat-packing industry or who were winter- swimmers were not found to prefer indoor temperatures lower than that preferred by other people (49,50).

People from tropical countries were also tested in Copenhagen shortly after their

arrival by air, and they were found to prefer a temperature only about 1 °C higher than

that preferred by Europeans (51) . A small difference was found also between Melanese and

Australian subjects in a comprehensive field study in Papua by Ballantyne et al (52).

Humphreys (53) found in an interesting comparative analysis of more than thirty field

studies throughout the world that people from the tropics voted comfortable at temperatures

higher than would be predicted from the comfort equation. Mclntyre and Griffiths (54)

discuss this result and suggest that the subjective scale applied might influence the

result: dwellers in hot climates may prefer a lower temperature than the one they describe

as comfortable.

7
In conclusion, it seems fair to state that the effect of adaptation (if it exists) is

quite small and that the comfort criteria established in climate chamber studies in Europe

and the U.S. can be applied with good approximation throughout the world.

MEN AND WOMEN

The climate chamber studies of Kansas State University (25,26,27) and at the Technical

University of Denmark (24,45) showed no significant differences between the comfort

conditions for men and women. Women's skin temperature and evaporative heat loss are slightly lower than those for men, and this balances the slightly lower metabolism of women (43,45). But in practice women may tend to wear less clothing and be slightly more

sensitive to cold (Gagge and Nevins (2)).

SEASONAL AND CIRCADIAN RHYTHM

As adaptation seems to have only a minor effect on man's thermal preference, there is no reason to expect major differences between comfort conditions in winter and in summer. This was confirmed by a KSU study where results of winter and summer experiments showed no difference (McNall et al (55), while Mclntyre and Gonzalez (40) found a slightly higher

preferred temperature late in the summer than early in the summer. Although the comfort

conditions seem to be constant or vary little with season, it should be kept in mind that

, the clo-value is usually lower during the summer, resulting in a higher preferred temperature.

On the other hand, it is reasonable to expect the comfort conditions to alter during

the day as the internal body temperature has a daily rhythm, a maximum occurring late in

the afternoon and a minimum early in the morning. We have recently investigated this

experimentally by comparing the preferred temperature for subjects in the morning and in

the evening (56), during a normal 8-hour simulated working day (57), and during the night

(shiftwork) (58). No significant difference was found in the ambient temperature preferred

during a 24-hour period, provided that the activity, clothing and the other environmental

parameters were the same.

CLIMATE MONOTONY

It has sometimes been claimed that a constant thermal environment is not ideal as it

produces so-called climate monotony - increased fatigue, lower arousal, lower performance,

etc. But such claims have not so far been supported by experimental evidence.

We have performed a preliminary study of this problem by exposing subjects to temperature swings of varying amplitudes and frequencies around the comfort level (Wyon et al

(59)). At the same time, their thermal sensations, mental performance, and behavior were

studied. Slight positive effects on performance were observed but only with large temperature swings which were felt to be definitely uncomfortable. Mclntyre (60) studied the

effect of quick swings of the mean radiant temperature, but the subjects disliked the

swings. More comprehensive studies are needed. Until then, I would not recommend aiming

at temperature swings.

COLOR AND NOISE

During the energy crisis, the idea was put forward that by using "warm" colors (red

and yellow) on walls or by the use of reddish lighting, a psychological feeling of heat

could be conveyed to people, so that thermal comfort could possibly be maintained at lower

ambient temperatures. Similarly, in summer "cold" color's should be aimed at, or blue

lighting used. Some people have even spoken of "color conditioning" rooms instead of air

conditioning them.

Unfortunately, no energy saving seems to be involved in such measures. Fanger,

et al (61) studied subjects in rooms with extreme blue or red lighting but found practically no difference in the temperature preferred. Neither did the noise level (white noise,

40-85 dB(A)) have any psychological effect on man's thermal comfort.

8
LOCAL THERMAL DISCOMFORT ON THE BODY

Although a person may feel thermally neutral for the body in general, i.e., he would

prefer neither a warmer nor a cooler environment, he might not be in thermal comfort if one part of the body is warm and another is cold.

This might be caused by an asymmetric radiant field, a local convectlve cooling of

the body (draft), by contact with a warm or cool floor, by a vertical air temperature

gradient, or by non-uniformity of the clothing. Besides the comfort conditions for the

body in general, it is, therefore, essential to establish limits for how non-uniform the

heat loss from the body can be without evoking discomfort.

ASYMMETRIC RADIATION

Limits for asymmetric radiation were recently studied experimentally by Olesen et al

(62). The following formula for estimating the limits of acceptable temperature differences of a local radiant source for sedentary persons in thermally neutral environments

with still air was recommended:

-2.4 - 1.81 ,< At F < 3.9 + 1.81 , cl= w p-w= cl

where I^^ = clo-value of clothing

F = angle factor between person and radiant source p-w

At = temperature difference (°C) between radiant source

and mean radiant temperature in relation to the person

This formula is in reasonable agreement with other recent data by McNall and Biddison (63)

and by Mclntyre and Griffiths (54).

DRAFT

Draft is defined as an unwanted local convective cooling of the body. It is perhaps

the most common reason for complaints in ventilated spaces. As mentioned earlier, the

mean air velocity around the body influences the ambient temperature necessary for thermal

neutrality for the body as a whole (64,44,65,30). However, in spite of thermal neutrality,

local velocities can provide an unwanted cooling (= draft) of some parts of the body; the

neck and the ankles seem to be the most sensitive parts of normally clothed persons.

Unfortunately, very few experimental results on this subject have been published.

However, extensive studies (yet unpublished) on this problem have been performed at

the Technical University of Denmark during the last couple of years. More than one hundred

college-age students have been involved in experiments where subjects were exposed at the

neck and the ankle to fluctuating and uniform air flows with different mean velocities,

with different amplitudes and frequencies of the fluctuating velocity, and with different

air temperatures. Based on the subjective reactions of the subjects, it has been possible

to establish a mathematical model which predicts the percentage of uncomfortable persons

(due to draft) as a function of the above-mentioned factors.

As examples of the preliminary results, the diagrams in Figs. 1 and 2 are shown. For

two different frequencies and amplitudes (expressed as the relationship between maximum

and mean velocity), the diagrams show the mean velocity which at different air temperatures

would create draft discomfort among 5, 10, 20, and 30% of the occupants.

The diagrams show that much higher mean velocities are acceptable when the velocity

is uniform than when it is fluctuating. They show, furthermore, that frequencies around

0.33 Hz are more uncomfortable than frequencies around 0.05. Preliminary analyses of

velocity fluctuations in, a number of real spaces indicate, however, that the characteristic

frequencies are closer to the conditions given in Fig. 1 (0.05 Hz).
Figure 1. Mean air velocities (as a function of air temperature) which are

predicted to create draft-discomfort among 5, 10, 20 or 30% of

the occupants. The dotted lines correspond to a fluctuating

velocity with a frequency of 0.05 Hz and a relation between

max - and mean - velocity, v /v = 2. The solid lines correspond max

to "uniform" velocity, where v /v = 1.2. The diagram applies max

for sedentary persons with a neutral temperature around 23 °C,

10
0 I

I 1 1 1—>——1 1 1

1 1

1—

I

18 20 22 24 26 28 °C

TEMPERATURE

Figure 2. Mean air velocities (as a function of air temperature) which are

predicted to create draft-discomfort among 5, 10, 20 or 30% of

the occupants. The dotted lines correspond to a fluctuating

velocity with a frequency of 0,33 Hz and a relation between

max - and mean - velocity,^ v /v = 2. The solid lines correspond ' max

to "uniform" velocity, where v /v = 1.2. The diagram applies max

for sedentary persons with a neutral temperature around 23 °C.

11
FLOOR TEMPERATURE

Due to the direct contact between the feet and the floor, local discomfort of the

feet can often be caused by a too high or too low floor temperature. Studies on comfort

limits for floor temperatures have recently been performed at the Technical University of

Denmark by Olesen (66), who found the following main results.

For floors occupied by people with bare feet (in swimming halls, gymnasiums, dressing

rooms, bathrooms, bedrooms, etc.), the flooring material is important. Based on the

results of experiments comprising 16 subjects and based on heat transfer theory, Olesen

found the optimal temperatures and recommended temperature intervals, given in Table 1,

for a number of typical flooring materials. For 10 minutes occupancy, about 10% of the

people can be expected to experience discomfort at the optimal floor temperature while

fewer than 15% can be expected to be uncomfortable within the recommended temperature

interval.

For floors occupied by people with footwear (normal indoor footwear) , the flooring

material is without significance. Olesen found, based on his own experiments and a re- analysis of the results of Nevins et al (25,68,69), an optimal temperature of 25 °C for

sedentary and 23 °C for standing or walking persons. At the optimal temperature, 6% of

the occupants felt warm or cold discomfort at the feet. If one accepts up to 8% uncomfortable, the floor temperature should be within the interval 22-30 °C for sedentary and

20-28 °C for standing or walking persons.

VERTICAL AIR TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS

In most spaces in buildings, the air temperature is not constant from the floor to

the ceiling; it normally increases with the height above the floor. If this gradient is

sufficiently large, local warm discomfort can occur at the head, and/or cold discomfort

can occur at the feet, although the body as a whole is thermally neutral. Little information on this subject has been published but preliminary results from studies at the

Technical University of Denmark by Sch^ler (70) , and results by McNair (71) and Eriksson

(72) indicate that the risk of local discomfort is negligible provided that the air temperature difference between head and feet level is less than 2-3 °C.

NON-UNIFORMITY OF THE CLOTHING

The clo-value is an expression for the mean thermal resistance of a clothing ensemble

over the entire body. But if the clothing is very non-uniformly distributed over the

body, it is likely that local warm and cold discomfort can occur at different parts of the

skin, although the body as a whole is thermally neutral. No systematical studies of this

phenomenon have been performed, but Mclntyre and Griffiths (73) found that although the

general thermal sensation of sedentary subjects at 15 and 19 "C was altered when they put on an extra sweater, this did not decrease the local cold discomfort on the hands and

feet.

FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS

Conclusive new evidence has come to light on man's comfort conditions as a result of

extensive research carried out during recent years. This knowledge is quantified so that

it is directly applicable in practice. However, several problems still exist which demand

our efforts in this field of research in the future.

It is partly a matter of establishing comfort conditions during transients (including

temperature and humidity fluctuations and sudden changes, for instance, when a person moves from outdoors to indoors). In this connection, it would be appropriate to perform

more fundamental studies to clarify the correlation between man's thermal sensation and

comfort and the function of his thermoregulatory system.

Comfort studies on children are needed to investigate whether the comfort conditions

for adults apply also to this age group.

12
Table 1 . Comfortable Temperatures of Floors Occupied by

People with Bare Feet.

Flooring Material

Optimal Floor

Temperature

for

1 min 10 min

Occupancy Occupancy

Recommended

Floor Temp,

Interval

Pinewood Floor

Oakwood Floor

PVC-Sheet with Felt

Underlay on Concrete

Hard Linoleum on Wood

5 mm Tesselated Floor

on Gas Concrete

Concrete Floor

Marble

25

26

28

28

29

28.5

30

25

26

27

26

27

27

29

22.5 - 28

24.5 - 28

25.5 - 28

24

26

26

28

- 28

- 28.5

- 28.5

- 29.5

13
Information on the effect of the thermal environment on sleep quality is required.

The establishment of optimal thermal conditions for sleep is of practical significance for

the planning and operating of heating and air-conditioning systems, e.g., for hotels and

hospitals

.

More studies are needed on the thermal properties of clothing ensembles, on the

effect of non-uniform clothing, and on the connection between clothing habits and behavioral temperature regulation.

Development of new light-weight clothing ensembles with easily adjustable clo-value,

high permeability for transfer of water vapor, and acceptable to people seems required.

Development of thermally rationally designed uniforms for different typical industrial

jobs requires special attention.

Information on the acceptability of spot heating and cooling in industry are required.

Possibilities of individual heating or cooling of the body should be considered.

A study should be made on how people evaluate thermal discomfort compared to other

types of discomfort in a building (visual, acoustical, etc.). Such information could be

useful for building designers when deciding how given resources should be spent optimally

to minimize the "total" experience of discomfort in a building.

It would be useful to investigate whether people find any of the combinations of the

environmental parameters which provide comfort preferable to other combinations ("positive"

comfort?)

.

Furthermore, studies are needed on whether thermally comfortable environments also are optimal for human performance, productivity, learning, and health. The influence on these factors of slight warm and cold discomfort also requires further investigation.

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14
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,

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1107.

23. Hardy, James D. , "Skin Temperature and Physiological Thermoregulation", in Physiological and Behavioral Temperature Regulation, ed. by James D. Hardy, A. Pharo Gagge

and Jan A. J. Stolwijk, Chapter 57. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, 1970.

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25. Nevins, R. G. , Rohles, F. H. , Springer, W. , and Feyerherm, A. M. , "TemperatureHumidity Chart for Thermal Comfort of Seated Persons", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 72,

part 1, 1966.

26. Rohles, F. H. , Jr., "The Measurement and Prediction of Thermal Comfort", ASHRAE

TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 80, part 2, 1974, pp. 98-114.

27. Rohles, F. H. , Hayter, R. B. , and Milliken, G., "Effective Temperature (ET*) as a Predictor of Thermal Comfort", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol 81, part 2, 1975, pp. 148-

156.

28. Rohles, F. H. , Jr., Woods, J. E., and Nevins, R. G. , "The Influence of Clothing and

Temperature on Sedentary Comfort", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 79, part 2, 1973, pp.

71-80.

29. McNall, P. E. , Jr. and Schlegel, J. C. , "The Relative Effects of Convection and

Radiation Heat Transfer on Thermal Comfort (Thermal Neutrality) for Sedentary and

Active Human Subjects", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 74, part 2, 1968.

30. Rohles, F. H. , Jr., Woods, J. E., and Nevins, R. G. , "The Effects of Air Movement and

Temperature on the Thermal Sensations of Sedentary Man", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol.

80, part 1, 1974.

31. Gagge, A. P., Stolwijk, J. A. J., and Nishi, Y., "An Effective Temperature Scale

Based on a Simple Model of Human Physiological Regulatory Reponse", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 77, part 1, 1971.

32. Gagge, A. P., Gonzalez, R. R. , and Nishi, Y., "Physiological and Physical Factors

Governing Man's Thermal Comfort, Discomfort and Heat Tolerance", Build International,

Vol. 7, 1974, pp. 305-331.

33. Gonzales, R. R. and Gagge, A. P., "Magnitude Estimates of Thermal Discomfort During

Transients of Humidity and Operative Temperature and Their Relation to the new ASHRAE

Effective Temperature (ET*)", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 79, part 1, 1973.

34. Gonzalez, R. R. , Nishi, Y. , and Gagge, A. P., "Experimental Evaluation of Standard

Effective Temperature. A New Biometeorological Index of Man's Thermal Discomfort",

Int. J. Biometeor., Vol. 18, No. 1, 1974, pp. 1-15.

35. Nishi, Y. and Gagge, A. P., "A Psychrometric Chart for Graphical Prediction of Comfort

and Heat Tolerance", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 80, part 2, 1974.

36. Gagge, A. P., Nishi, Y., and Nevins, R. G. , "Role of Clothing in Meeting FEA Energy

Conservation Guidelines", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 82, part 2, 1976.

15
37. Griffiths, I, D. and Mclntyre, D. A., "Subiective Response to Radiant and Convective

Environments", Environ. Res., Vol. 5, No. 4, 3972, pp. 471-484,

38. Mclntyre, D. A. and Griffiths, T. D., "Sub.iective Responses to Atmospheric Humiditv",

Environ. Res., Vol. 9, 1975, tip. 66-75.

39. Mclntyre, D. A. and Griffiths, I. D. , "The Effects of Added Clothing on Warmth and

Comfort in Cool Conditions", ECRC/N23, Capenhurst, England, Mav 1974.

40. Mclntyre, D. A. and Gonzalez, R. R. , "Man's Thermal Sensitivity DurJng Temperature

Changes at Two Levels of Clothing Insulation and Activity", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol.

82, part 2, 1976.

41. Griffiths. I. D. and Mclntyre, D. A., "Sensitivity to Temporal Variations in Thermal

Conditions", Ergonomics, Vol. 17, No. 4, 1974, pp. 499-507.

42. Mclntyre, D. A. and Griffiths, I. D., "Chaneinc Temperatures and Comfort", B.S.E.,

Vol. 42, Aug. 1974, pp. 120-122.

43. Olesen, B. W. and Fanger, P. 0., "The Skin Temperature Distribution for Resting Man

in Comfort", Arch. Scl. Physiol., Vol. 27, No. 4, 1973, pp. A385-A393.

44. Olesen, S., Bassinp, J. J.„ and Fanger, P. 0., "Physiological Comfort Conditions at

Sixteen Combinations of Activity, Clothing, Air Velocity and Ambient Temperature",

ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 78, part 2, 1972, pp. 199-206.

45. Fanger, P. 0. and Langkilde, G,, "Tnterindividual Differences in Ambient Temperatures

Preferred by Seated Persons",, ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 81, part 2, 1975, pp. 140-147.

46. Fanger, P. 0. , "The Variability of Man's Preferred Ambient Temperature from Day to

Day", Arch. Sci. Physiol., Vol. 27, part 4, 1973,, pp. A403-A407.

47. Rohles, F. H. , Jr. and Johnson,, M. A., "Thermal Comfort in the Elderly", ASHRAE

TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 78, part 1, 1972.

48. Griffiths, I. D. and Mclntyre,, D. A,, "The Balance of Radiant and Air Temperature for

Warmth in Older Women", Environ. Res,, Vol. 6, 1973, pp. 383-388.

49. Fanper, P. 0., H^jbjerre, J., and Thomsen J.O.B.. "Can Winter Sx^imming Cause People

to Prefer Lower Room Temperatures?", Int. J. Biometeor., Vol. 20, No. 4. 1976 (in

press)

.

50. Olesen, S. and Fanger., P. 0. "Can Man be Adapted to Prefer a Lower Ambient Temperature?", In: 5th International Congress for Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning,

ed. by H, Salmark, Copenhagen, Vol. I, 1971, pp. 27-40.

51. Fanger, P. 0. , "Near-Future Prospects of the Meteorological Environment in Developing

Countries in Deserts and Tropical Areas. Improvement of Comfort and Resulting Effects

on Working Capacity", In S. W. Tromp, W. H. Weihe and Janneke J. Boima (eds.):

52. BaJlantyne, E. R., Hill, R. K. , and Spencer, J,. W. , "Probit Analysis of Thermal

Sensation Assessments", Paper to Annual Meeting Australian Institute of Refrigeration,

Air Conditioning and Heatin<2;, Melbourne, 1976.

53. Humphreys, M. A., "Field Studies of Thermal Comfort Compared and Applied", Proceedings

of the Sjmiposium on Physiological Requirements on the Microclimate in Industry and

Problems on the Realizations, Prague, 1975 (in press).

54. Mclntyre, D. A, and Griffiths, I. D., "The Effect of Uniform and Asymmetric Thermal

Radiation on Comfort", Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of Cllmatistics

"CLIMA 2000", March 1975.

55. McNall, P. E. , Jr., Ryan, P. W. , and Jaax, J., "Seasonal Variation in Comfort Conditions for College-Age Persons in the Middle West", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 74,

part 1, 1968.

56. Fanger, P. 0,, H^jbjerre, J., and Thomsen, J. 0. B. , "Thermal Comfort Conditions In

the Morning and in the Evening", Int. J. Biometeor., Vol. 18, No. 1, 1974, pp. 16-22.

57. Fanger, P. 0., H^jbierre, J., and Thomsen, J. 0. B. , "Man's Preferred Ambient Temperature During the Day", Arch. Sci. Physiol., Vol. 27, part 4, 1973, pp. A395 - A402.

58. Fanger, P. 0., Ostberg, 0., Nicholl, A. G. McK. , Breum, N.-O., and Jerking, E.

,

"Thermal Comfort Conditions During Day and Night", Europ. J. Appl. Physiol., Vol. 33,

1974, pp. 255-263.

59. Wyon, D. P., Asgeirsdottir , Bora, Kjerulf-Jensen, P., and Fanger, P. 0., "The Effects

of Ambient Temperature Swings on Comfort, Performance and Behaviour", Arch. Sci.

Physiol.,, Vol 27, No. 4, 1973.

60. Mclntyre, D. A., "Subjective Response to Rapidly Varying Thermal Radiation", ECRC/R404,

Capenhurst, England, Aug. 1971.

16
61. Fanger, P. 0., Breiim, N.-O., and Jerking, E., "Can Colour and Noise Influence Man's

Thermal Comfort?", Ergonomics, Vol. 20, 1977 (in press).

62. Olesen, S., Fanger, P. 0., Jensen, P. B., and Nielsen, 0. J., "Comfort Limits for Man

Exposed to Asjnmnetric Thermal Radiation", Proceedings of CIB Symposium on Thermal

Comfort, Building Research Station, London, Sept. 1972.

63. McNall, P. E. , Jr. and Biddison, R. E., "Thermal and Comfort Sensations of Sedentary

Persons Exposed to Asymmetric Radiant Fields", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 76, part 1,

1970.

64. Burton, D. R. , Robeson, K. A., and Nevins, R. G., "The Effect of Temperature on Preferred Air Velocity for Sedentary Subjects Dressed in Shorts", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS,

Vol. 81, part 2, 1975, pp. 157-168.

65. Ostergaard, J., Fanger, P. 0., Olesen, S., and Madsen, Th. Lund, "The Effect of Man's

Comfort of a Uniform Air Flow From Different Directions", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol.

80, part 2, 1974.

66. Olesen, B. W. , "Termiske Komfortkrav til Gulve", (Thermal Comfort Requirements for

Floors), Ph.D. -Thesis, Laboratory of Heating & Air-Conditioning, Technical University

of Denmark, 1975.

67. Nevins, R. G. , Michaels, K. B., and Feyerherm, A. M., "The Effect of Floor Surface

Temperature on Comfort. Part I: College Age Males", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 70,

1964.

68. Nevins, R. G. , Michaels, K. B. , and Feyerherm, A. M. , "The Effect of Floor Surface

Temperature on Comfort. Part II: College Age Females", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 70,

1964.

69. Nevins, R. G. and Feyerherm, A. M. , "Effect of Floor Surface Temperature on Comfort.

Part IV: Cold Floors", ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 73, part 2^ 1967.

70. Sch^ler, M. , "Vertikale temperaturgradienters indflydelse pa menneskets termiske

komfort" (The Influence of Vertical Temperature Gradients on Human Comfort), M.S.-

Thesis, Laboratory of Heating & Air-Conditioning, Technical University of Denmark,

1976.

71. McNair, H. P., "A Preliminary/Further Study of the Subjective Effects of Vertical Air

Temperature Gradients", British Gas Corporation, Project 552, London, 1973-74.

72. Eriksson, H.-A. , "Varme och Ventilation i Traktorhytter" , Jordbrukstekniska Institut,

S25-Ultuna, Sweden, 1975.

73. Mclntyre, D. A. and Griffiths, I. D. , "The Effects of Added Clothing on Warmth and

Comfort", Ergonomics, Vol. 18, No. 2,. 1975, pp. 205-211.

17
THE USE OF MODELING HUMAN RESPONSES

IN THE ANALYSIS OF THERMAL COMFORT OF INDOOR ENVIRONMENTS

N. Z. Azer and S. Hsu

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Kansas State University

Manhattan, Kansas 66506

ABSTRACT

Modeling the thermoregulatory system is used in evaluating the threshold WBGT Values

of OSHA Heat Stress Standards. It is shown that physiological reactions above or within

the tolerance limits can be experienced during exposure to environments having the same threshold WBGT Values, particularly at heavy work loads. Also, the use of modeling human

subjective reactions in planning energy conservation strategies in buildings is also discussed.

Key Words: OSHA Standards; WBGT; core temperature; modeling; thermal sensation; energy

conservation

INTRODUCTION

OSHA Heat Stress Standards [1] were developed in an attempt to establish work conditions which would insure that workers' deep body temperature would not exceed 38°C (100. 4°F).

The 38° C limit was based on the recommendations of a panel of experts of the World Health

Organization (WHO) [2]. The Standards consider the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) Index

as the most suitable index to specify the work environment. In these Standards, threshold

WBGT values, for three different work loads and two different air velocity ranges, were

recommended. Also recommended were certain work practices, which emphasized the need for

acclimating the workers, and adopting work-rest regimens to reduce peaks of physiological

strain in order to improve recovery during rest periods. The WBGT Index was chosen to

identify the environment because it is simple as far as measurements needed for its determination. It also consolidates into a single value the four environmental factors, namely,

the dry bulb temperature T^bj the relative humidity RH or vapor pressure, the mean radiant

temperature Tmr, and the air velocity V. For. indoor environments with no solar load

WBGT =0.7T +0.3T nw g

where

T = natural wet bulb temperature obtained with a wetted sensor exposed to the

natural air movement

T = temperature at the center of a 6 inch (15cm) diameter hollow copper sphere,

^ painted on the outside with a matte black finish (globe temperature)

One aspect which makes the WBGT Index attractive is the fact that the air velocity need

not be measured, since its value is reflected in the measurement of the natural wet bulb

temperature T

^ nw

One of the deficiencies in the WBGT Index is the fact that the natural wet bulb

temperature is not a thermodynamic property. As a result, different combinations of en- vironmental parameters could have the same WBGT. Undoubtedly, when man is exposed to

different combinations of environmental factors, having the same WBGT, he experiences

different physiological reactions. Therefore, the experimental evaluation of all possible

combinations of environmental parameters, having the same threshold WBGT values, recommended

by OSHA Standards, is time consuming and expensive. In addition, nowhere in the Standards was the planning of the work-rest regimens specified. It is a fact also, that the durations of the work and rest periods depend on the work load, clothing, and the work environment. The first objective of the present paper is to show how modeling of the thermoregulatory system can be used in evaluating the validity of using the WBGT as a heat stress

index, and in the planning of the work-rest regimen for any work load and environment.

18
During the past fifty years, extensive studies were conducted to determine man's

physiological and subjective reactions when exposed to different combination of environmental parameters, clothing, and activity levels. Most of the efforts in this area were primarily experimental. One of the major contributions of such studies was the identification of generally acceptable thermal conditions for comfort for slightly active, healthy,

normally clothed subjects when the air movement is less than 0.2 m/s (40 f pm) . These

studies were conducted without any regard to energy conservation. Because of the current

drive towards energy conservation, new aspects of indoor thermal environments need to be

explored. For example, one needs to consider the possible "trade-off" between clothing insulation value and the different environmental factors which can allow lowering the

thermostatic setting in winter, and raising it during the summer. The experimental evaluation of all possible combinations of factors involved, and the identification of the

optimum combinati )n of these factors, which can result in energy conservation while providing a reasonable degree of comfort, is also time consuming and expensive. The alternative

approach is the use l modeling of the human responses, to specific environments, to provide

this needed information. This is the second objective of the present paper.

ASSESSMENT OF THE WBGT INDEX

Table 1 lists the recommended threshold WBGT values of OSHA Standards [1]. To assess

the validity of the WBGT index by the use of modeling the thermoregulatory system, one

needs to identify different combinations of environmental parameters having the same threshold WBGT values.

TABLE 1: RECOMMENDED THRESHOLD WBGT VALUES OF OSHA STANDARDS

Work Load Threshold WBGT Values

Air Velocity < 300 fpm (1.5 m/s) Air Velocity > 300 fpm (1.5 m/s)

Light (200 kcal/hr

or below) 86°F (30.0°C) 90°F (32.2°C)

Moderate (201 to

300 kcal/hr) 82°F (27.8°C) 87°F (30.6°C)

Heavy (above

300 iccal/hr) 79°F (26.1''C) 84°F (28.9°C)

Determination of the WBGT in Terms of the Environmental Factors

The instruments required for determining the WBGT Index, for an indoor environment, are

the natural wet bulb and globe thermometers. If both thermometers are placed in an environment having certain Tdb , Tmj-, RH or vapor pressure, and V, and if both thermometers reach

equilibrium with the environment, one can write two equations which govern the heat and mass transfer of both thermometers. The governing equations can then be solved using an iterative procedure to yield the natural wet bulb and globe temperatures T^w and To, respectively, from which the corresponding WBGT can be calculated. Following this procedure, a summary of which is given in Appendix A, lines of constant threshold WBGT values, of Table

1, were generated and plotted on the psychrometric charts in Figs. (1), (2), and (3). In

Fig. (1), the threshold values are plotted for the case T^jb = T^r at two velocities. In

Fig. (2), the threshold values are plotted for the case Tmr = Tdb + 30°F (16.6°C), also at

two different velocities, while in Fig. (3) the WBGT lines were plotted for Tmr ~ T^b > and

Tmr = Tdb + 30°F (16.6°C) at a velocity 400 fpm (2 m/s). Values of Tjur and V were arbitrarily selected. Different constant WBGT lines can result for different values of Tmr and

V. The question arises at this point as to how would one react physiologically when exposed

to all possible different combinations of environmental factors, having the same threshold

WBGT values? It is quite obvious that the determination of these physiological reactions

experimentally in a climatic chamber is a tremendous if not an impossible task. A more

direct approach is through modeling of the thermoregulatory system.

19
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, C

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, F

Fig. (1) Constant Threshold WBGT Lines of OSHA Standards

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, C

20 30 ho 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, F

Fig. (2) Constant Threshold WBGT Lines of OSHA Standards

20
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, C

30 ItO 50 60 70 80 90 loO

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, F

Fig. (3) Constant Threshold WBGT Lines of OSHA Standards

Modeling of the Thermoregulatory System

Interest has developed during the past fifteen years by engineers in applying the

principles of control theory to the regulation of body temperature. As a result, several

thermoregulatory models were developed [3,4,5,6,7,8,9]. In all these models, the human body

is divided into a number of geometrical segments, and each segment into a number of layers

or compartments. Passive state equations for thermal balance, due to blood flow between the

various compartments, and energy exchange between the skin surface and the environment are developed on the basis of known thermal and circulatory characteristics of the human body.

Control signals based on set-point temperatures in the skin, core, and muscle are introduced

into the passive state equations to form a regulatory model for predicting changes in body

temperature after exposure to any combination of environmental variables, clothing, and ac- tivity.

In 1971, Gagge et al. [5] developed a two-node thermoregulatory model. In the present

paper, a modified form [10] of the two-node thermoregulatory model was adopted. A summary

of the passive state equations and the control function of this model is given in Appendix

B. A computer program was developed to integrate the passive state equations of the model.

The input parameters to the program were the four environmental factors (Tdb> '^mn ^>

V) , the clothing insulation value, and the metabolic heat production rate M which is a function of the work load. The output of the program gives the physiological reactions,

namely, the core and skin temperatures, and the sweat rate or skin wettedness.

To assess the WBGT Index, different combinations of environmental factors having the same threshold WBGT values listed in Table 1 were selected, from Figs. (1), (2), and (3),

together with their recommended work loads, and a clothing insulation value 0.60 clo. These

were used as input parameters to the thermoregulatory model computer program to predict the

physiological reactions after two hours exposure. The results are summarized in Tables 2,

3, and 4. The first column in each table lists the work load. The second column lists the

ZL
recommended threshold WBGT Index corresponding to each load. The following three columns

list the environmental parameters having the same WBGT at two different air velocities. The

last three columns list the predicted physiological reactions. These are the core temperature Tcr» the mean skin temperature Tsk> and the skin wettedness WSW. Since the heat stress

criteria of OSHA Standards were developed to insure that the workers' deep body temperature

would not exceed 3S°C (100. 4°F), the emphasis in the discussion of the results in the tables

will be on the core temperature results. Situations where such temperature reached or ex- ceeded 38°C are identified by an asterisk (*) in the tables. In Table 2, at light work load,

TABLE 2: PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES IN ENVIRONMENTS

HAVING THE SAME THRESHOLD, WBGT VALUES WHEN

Tmr = Tdp, Id = 0.60 clo,

AFTER TWO HOURS OF EXPOSURE

OSHA STANDARDS ENVIRONMENT PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES

T

db

RH

V T cr ^sk WSW**

Work Load I^BGT °F °C % fpm m/s °C °C

87.8 31.0 90 25 0.13 37.3 35.1 1.00

88.0 31.1 90 100 0.50 37.3 34.2 0.81

Light 96.6 35.9 50 25 0.13 37.3 35.1 0.79

150 kcal/hr 86°C 97.2 36.2 50 100 0.50 37.3 34.6 0.59

(600 Btu/hr) (30.0°C) 107.0 41.7 20 25 0.13 37.3 35.5 0.65

108.5 42.5 20 100 0.50 37.3 35.1 0.40

83.7 28.7 90 25 0.13 38.0* 36.1 1.00

83.8 28.8 90 100 0.50 37.7 34.2 0.96

Moderate 92.0 33.3 50 25 0.13 37.7 35.3 1.00

250 kcal/hr 82°F 92.8 33.8 50 100 0.50 37.7 34.6 0.75

(1000 Btu/hr) (27.8°C) 101.8 38.8 20 25 0.13 37.7 35.3 0.87

103.8 39.9 20 100 0.50 37.7 35.0 0.63

80.7 27.1 90 25 0.13 39.3* 36.9 1.00

80.8 27.1 90 100 0.50 38.0* 35.0 1.00

Heavy 88.8 31.6 50 25 0.50 38.8* 36.4 1.00

350 kcal/hr 79°F 89.3 31.8 50 100 0.50 38.0* 34.8 0.89

(1400 Btu/hr) (26.1°C) 98.2 36.8 20 25 0.13 38.3* 35.6 1.00

99.9 37.7 20 100 0.50 38.0* 35.1 0.76

* T reached or exceeded 38°C, ** See Appendix B for its definition

Tcr reached 37.3^C (99.1°V) after two hours exposure in all environments. Tsk ranged between 34.2 and 35.5°C (93.6 and 95.9°F) while the skin wettedness WSW ranged between 0.49

and 1.0. The higher the skin wettedness the higher is the thermal discomfort, according to

Gagge et al. [11]. At moderate work load, the 38°C (100. 4°F) T^r was reached in the environment with 90% RH and air velocity 25 fpm, while it reached 37.7°C (99.9°F) in the other

environments. The skin temperature and wettedness were different for all environments. At

heavy work load, when the air velocity was 0.5 m/s (100 fpm), the core temperature reached

38°C (100. 4°F). At air velocity 0.13 m/s (25 fpm), the core temperature varied between 38.3

and 39.3°C (100.9 and 102. 7°F). Also, the skin temperature and wettedness were different

for different environments. Similar observations can be made on the results in Table 3,

which were obtained for the case when T^r = T^b + 30°F (16.7°C). Table 4 gives the physiological reactions at an air velocity 400 fpm (2.0 m/s) when Tjn^ = T^b* aiid T^jp + 30°F

(16.7°C). Although the observations made about the two previous tables could also be made

about the results of this table, yet it is significant to point out that at similar work ^ loads, particularly at the heavy work load, the final core temperatures, for all environments, were lower than their corresponding values at the lower velocities. This emphasizes

the significance of air velocity in reducing the heat stress.

22
TABLE 3: PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES IN ENVIRONMENTS

HAVING THE SAME THRESHOLD WBGT VALUES, WHEN

Tmr = Tdp + 30°F (16.7°C), Id = 0.60 clo,

AFTER TWO HOURS EXPOSURE

OSHA STANDARDS ENVIRONMENT PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES

T V T WSW

Work Load WBGT

db cr

RH

°F °C % f pm m/

s

°C °C

80. 2 26 8 90 25 0. 13 37. 3 35. 3 0. 88

83. 1 28 4 90 100 0. 50 37

.

3 34. 9 0. 68

Light 86°F 87. 9 31 1 50 25 0. 13 - 37. 3 35. 7 0. 75

150 kcal/hr (30.0°C) 91. 6 33 1 50 100 0. 50 37. 3 35. 3 0. 57

(600 Btu/hr) 97. 1 36 2 20 25 0. 13 37. 4 35. 0 0. 71

102. 3 39 1 20 100 0. 50 37. 3 35. 8 0. 53

76. 1 24 5 90 25 0. 13 38. 0* 36. 2 1. 00

79. 0 26 1 90 100 0. 50 O *7 37

.

5 35. 5 0. 76

Moderate 82°F 83. 3 28 5 50 25 0. 13 37. 8 35. 9

11

.

UU

250 kcal/hr (27.8°C) 87. 0 30 6 50 100 0. 50 37. 5 35. 6 0. 68

(1000 Btu/hr) 91. 9 33 3 20 25 0. 13 37. 7 35. 9 0. 97

97. 0 36 1 20 100 0. 50 37. 6 35. 8 0. 64

73. 0 22 8 90 25 0. 13 39. 2* 36. 8 1. 00

77. 9 25 5 90 100 0. 50 38. 1* 35. 5 1. 00

Heavy 79°F 80. 0 26 7 50 25 0. 13 38. 8* 36. 4 1. 00

350 kcal/hr (26.1°C) 83. 7 28 7 50 100 0. 50 38. 0* 35. 2 0. 86

(1400 Btu/hr) 87. 7 30 9 20 25 0. 13 38. 5* 36. 0 1. 00

93. 0 33 9 20 100 0. 50 38. 0* 35. 5 0. 78

* T reached or exceeded 38°C

cr

At this point one can argue the accuracy of the thermoregulatory model in predicting the

physiological reactions. Irrespective of the accuracy of the predictions, the fact that

different combinations of environmental factors, having the same threshold WBGT values of

OSHA Standards, can result in different physiological reactions, is still valid. These re- actions could vary between tolerable and intolerable limits depending on the work load, the

air velocity and its relative humidity as well as the mean radiant temperature. Such observations point clearly to a major deficiency in the WBGT if adopted as a heat stress index.

Gagge and Nishi [12] pointed out the fact that there is no single physical index of the

thermal environment universally useful for judging both comfort and varying levels of heat

strain. They also pointed out that the only true environmental index temperature is the one based on the heat balance equations between man and his thermal environment, and it is then

limited to the specific activity concerned and to the specific heat and mass transfer coefficients in terms of clothing insulation and air movement of the test environment. Such

observations of Gagge and Nishi [12] support the observation made by the present authors

regarding the deficiency of the WBGT as a heat stress index. Since the OSHA Standards for

work in hot environments were developed to establish work conditions which would insure

workers' deep body temperature would not exceed 38°C (100. 4°F), it is proposed here that

safe hot work environments be identified by plotting, on a psychrometric chart, lines of

constant 38°C (100. 4°F) core temperature for different periods of exposure at specified

work loads, air velocities, mean radiant temperatures, and clothing insulation values. This

can be accomplished using modeling of the thermoregulatory system. For the purpose of illustration only, constant 38°C core temperature lines were generated for two work loads,

namely, 1 and 3 mets (1 met = 58 W/m2) , at velocities 0.15 m/s (30 fpm) and 1 m/s (200 fpm)

when Tmr = T^dht when dressed in a 0.6 clo uniform, and after one and two hours of exposure.

The results are plotted in Fig. (4). These lines were generated using a modified form of

the computer program of the two-node thermoregulatory model of the present paper. In Fig.

23
(4) the region above the constant core temperature line at a specified work load and exposure time identifies unsafe environments while the region below identifies safe environments.

As one would expect, as the work load, and the exposure time increase, the safe region moves

toward cooler environments.

TABLE 4: PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES IN ENVIRONMENTS

HAVING THE SAME THRESHOLD WBGT VALUES AT

V = 400 fpm (2 m/s), and I^i = 0.60 clo,

AFTER TWO HOURS EXPOSURE

OSHA Standard Environment Physiological Responses

Tmr

T

db

Work Load WBGT

°F

T

db

°C

RH

%

Tcr

°C

^sk

°C

WSW

Light

150 kcal/hr

(600 Btu/hr)

90°F

(32.2°C)

91.9

101.7

115.0

33.3

38.7

46.1

90

50

20

37.3

37.3

37.3

34.6

35.0

35.6

0.88

0.55

0.46

Moderate

250 kcal/hr

(1000 Btu/hr)

87°F

(30.6°C

88.8

98.2

110.8

31.6

36.8

43.8

90

50

20

37.7

37.7

37.7

34.5

34.8

35.3

1.00

0.68

0.56

Heavy

350 kcal/hr

(1400 Btu/hr)

84°F

(38.9°C)

85.6

95.0

107.1

29.8

35.0

41.7

90

50

20

38.0*

38.0*

38.0*

34.7

34.9

35.3

1.00

0.77

0.65

TmrT, + 30°F

dp (16.7°C)

Slight

150 kcal/hr

(600 Btu/hr)

90°F

(32.2°C)

89.2

98.8

111.5

31.8

37.1

44.2

90

50

20

37.3

37.3

37.4

35.2

35.5

36.0

0.72

0.55

0.48

Moderate

250 kcal/hr

(100 Btu/hr)

87°F

(30.6°C)

86.2

95.4

107.4

30.1

35.2

41.9

90

50

20

37.7

37.7

37.7

35.0

35.3

35.7

0.88

0.67

0.58

Heavy

350 kcal/hr

(1400 Btu/hr)

84°F

(28.9°C)

83.2

92.1

103.4

28.4

33.4

39.7

90

50

20

38.0*

38.0*

38.0*

35.3

35.3

35.3

0.76

0.76

0.67

* T reached or exceeded 38 °C cr

2h
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, C

50 60 70 80 90 100 no 120 130

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, F Fig. (4) Lines of Constant Core Temperature (38°C) at One and Three Mets, after One and Two

House Exposure.

Planning of the Work-Rest Regimen

In OSHA Standards, in addition to the recommendation that during any two-hour period of

the workday, workers are not to be exposed to hot environmental conditions and work-loads in excess of the levels shown in Table 1, certain work practices were recommended. One of

these recommended practices specifies that work-rest regimens be established to reduce the

peaks of physiological strain and improve recovery during the rest period. The duration of

the work period in any extreme heat exposure is to be determined by experienced or professional judgment based on similar work under similar conditions. It is a fact that no work

place or conditions are like another. It is also a fact that the durations of the work and

rest periods depend on the work load, and the environment of the work and rest places. Establishing suitable work-rest schedules for every possible work situation in the laboratory

is also impossible. A practical approach to planning the work-rest regimen is through the use of modeling of the thermoregulatory model. To illustrate such possible use, three

work-rest schedules were developed in which the core temperature was not allowed to exceed

38°C when the worker works at a load 226 W/m^ (heavy load) while dressed in a 0.6 clo uniform, in environments where the velocity is 25 fpm (0.13 m/s) and the WBGT value is equal

to 79°F (26.1°C). The three environments having such WBGT were selected from Table 2 where T^r = T^b- The rest environment was arbitrarily selected to be 75°F (23.9°C), 50% RH,

and air velocity 25 fpm (0.13 m/s). The activity level during the rest period was sedentary (58 W/m2) . The work-rest schedules were developed through a computer program, which

integrates the passive state equations of the two-node thermoregulatory model. The model

predicts the changes in core temperature, as well as other physiological reactions, with

time after exposure and work in the hot environment. The initial input parameters to the

program were the environmental factors and the work load. The initial core and skin

temperatures were arbitrarily selected 37°C (98.6°F) and 34°C (93. 2^) respectively. When

the core temperature reached 38°C, the computer, through the program, was instructed to

change the environmental factors and the work load to those of the rest period specified

above. Figure 5 shows a plot of the core temperature variation with time during the work

and rest periods. Arbitrarily, the rest period was terminated when the core temperature

25
Work Environment

M-226 W/m^, 0.6 do

WBGT-79 F(26.1 C)

R«st Envl ronnunt

M=58 W/m^, 0.6 clo

^mr''^db' ^"^5 fpn(0.13 m/t) V.25 fpm(0.13 m/s),

80.7 F(27.l C), 90*RH

88.8 F(31.6 C). 50*RH

98.2 F(36.8 C), 20«RH

TIME, Hour

Fig. (5) Work-Rest Schedules for Three Different Environments at a Specified Work Load.

reached 37.3°C (99.1°F). Had the core temperature been allowed to return to the original

value 37°C (98.6°F), the rest period would have lasted longer. If one disregards the first

work-rest cycle, the results suggest that for the environment with 90% RH, the duration for

the work and rest periods are 0.48 and 0.35 hours, respectively, compared to 0.56 land 0.29

hours at the 50% RH environment, and 0.69 and 0.28 hours at the 20% RH environment.

On the basis of the previous discussions, the point was made about the inadequacy of

the WBGT Index. An alternative approach in developing a heat stress standard was suggested.

It was based on using the modeling of the thermoregulatory system in identifying on a psychrometric chart lines of constant 38°C core temperature for different environmental

parameters, work loads, and durations of exposure, and in planning the work-rest schedule.

A two-node thermoregulatory model developed by the authors [10] was used for this purpose.

The predictions of the model were checked against limited experimental data and the correlations can be ranked between good and fair [10]. This statement is also true for other

existing models. Therefore, there appears to be a need for identifying the most reliable

thermoregulatory model, among the existing ones, to be used in developing heat stress standards .

MODELING HUMAN SUBJECTIVE REACTIONS TO INDOOR ENVIRONMENTS

To determine the range of thermal conditions at which men and women report feeling com- fortable when dressed in 0.60 clo uniforms, at a sedentary level of activity, at air movements less than 40 fpm (0.2 m/s), when Tmr = T^jb, Rohles and Nevins [13] conducted a series

of tests at 20 dry bulb temperatures ranging from 60°F to 98°F (15.6 to 36.7°C) at 2°F

(1.1''C) increments, and at 8 relative humidity levels ranging from 15 to 85% in 10% increments. From these data, regression equations were developed for predicting thermal sensations for men, women, and combined sexes after 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 hours of

exposure. These data also constituted the basis of the Comfort Envelope of the ASHRAE

Comfort Chart. Because of the current drive towards energy conservation, new aspects of

indoor environments need to be explored. For example, one needs to refocus attention on the area of comfort/environmental factors/activity/clothing interactions by generating data

similar to those of Rohles and Nevins [13], when subjects are dressed in uniforms having clo

values different from 0.60 (lower than 0.60 for summer and higher than 0.60 for winter) at

26
activity levels different from sedentary, at air velocities higher than 40 fpm (0.2 m/s)

,

when Tmr / Tdp. Undoubtedly, this is a time-consuming proposition. For example, to test

human reactions at the 160 combinations of Tdb and RH of Rohles and Nevins [13], at 3 levels

of activities, 3 velocities, and 3 clothing insulation values, while still maintaining

Tmr = Tdp, requires performing 4320 experiments. This is on the basis that both sexes will

be tested simultaneously. If five experiments were to be conducted each week all year

around, barring any delays due to breakdown of equipment, etc., approximately 17 years will

be required to complete the testing, and even then not all possible combinations of parameters would be covered. A practical approach to this problem is through modeling the

human subjective reactions.

Recently, a model [14] was developed by the authors to predict thermal sensation on a nine point scale in which zero represents thermal neutrality, and numerically positive and

negative values represent warm and cold sensations, respectively. Warm thermal sensation

was correlated with a new factor identified as wettedness factor. Cold thermal sensation

was correlated with a new factor identified as vasoconstriction factor. For a given combination of environmental parameters, clothing, and activity, both factors could be determined

by the two-node thermoregulatory model of Appendix B. Predicted thermal sensations of the

model were compared with steady state and transient experimental thermal sensation data

over a wide range of environmental conditions (cold, hot-dry, and hot-humid), clothing

insulation (0.05 to 0.7 clo) , and activity levels (1 to 6 mets) . The accuracy of the predictions was comparable to the uncertainties in experimental measurements and the individual

differences among subjects. A summary of the model is included in Appendix C. The objective now is to show the capability of this model in supplying some of the information

referred to earlier.

A computer program was developed for the thermal sensation model to predict the thermal

sensation for any combination of environmental factors, clothing, and activity. Through a search technique the program is also capable of identifying the proper combination of

factors which can result in a specific thermal sensation. For illustration purposes, a few

of the model predictions are shown in Figs. (6) through (9). Figure (6) shows a comparison

between the thermal sensation predictions of the model and the experimental data of Rohles

and Nevins [13] plotted on the psychrometric chart. The agreement is good over the entire

range of the dry bulb temperature and relative humidity. Figures (7) and (8) show the

constant thermal sensation lines predicted by the model at activity levels 2 and 3 mets,

respectively, for air movement 0.15 m/s (30 fpm), 0.6 clo, and T^j^ — T(^p respectively. On

the hot side, thermal sensation lines were terminated when the skin wettedness WSW reached

unity. At this point, it is assumed that the tolerance limit has been reached. Figure (9) was reproduced from the previous 3 figures and it shows the lines of thermal neutrality at

activity levels 1, 2, and 3 mets. All other factors being the same, the lines of thermal

neutrality move to cooler zones with the increase of the metabolic rate. Similar charts can

be generated for other air velocities, clothing insulation values, and mean radiant temperatures. Although no experimental data are available at the present time to check the

predictions in Figs. (7) and (8), yet because of the fact that the predictions of the model were tested for a wide range of environmental factors, activity levels and clothing [14], it

is safe to say that the model is reliable in its predictions. However, if experimental

verification of the predictions in the above figures is needed, one needs to be mainly con- cerned with lines of thermal neutrality. In such a case, a limited number of experiments

will be needed. This is one of the principal advantages of modeling the human subjective

reactions

.

One of the recommended measures to conserve energy in existing buildings is raising

the thermostatic setting in the summer, and lowering it during the winter, without any

consideration to the effect on the thermal comfort of people occupying these buildings. It

is also conceivable that these new thermostatic settings might become the basis for designing cooling and heating systems in new buildings. Other measures need to be considered

besides changing the thermostatic setting. For example, raising the setting during the summer can be compensated for by increasing the air movement, and changing the clothing

habits. Therefore, what is needed most at the present time is ttie identification of those

combinations of environmental factors (T^^, T^j.>^

and V), and clothing insulation values

which can provide a reasonable degree of thermal comfort for a given level of work. The

identification of these combinations can be achieved by the thermal sensation model discussed in the previous section. A few of these combinations were identified in Fig. (9).

These lines were for air velocity 0.15 m/s (30 fpm). The determining factors in selecting

27
any combination would be its energy demand, and the acceptability of certain factors such as the air velocity, and relative humidity of the environment.

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, C

20 30 itO 50 60 70' 80 90 100 110 120

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, F

Fig. (6) Lines of Constant Thermal Sensation at one Met.

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, C

20 30 ttO 50 60 70 80 90 too 110 120

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, F

Fig. (7) Lines of Constant Thermal Sensation at Two Mats.

28
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, C

<

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, F

Fig. (8) Lines of Constant Thermal Sensation at Thr«!e Mets.

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, C

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, F

. (9) Lines of Thermally Neutral Thermal Sensation at Different Metabolic Rates

29
Modeling the human subjective reactions can also play a significant part in making decisions

regarding energy use and conservation in building design. Hill, Kusuda, Liu and Powell [15]

made a feasibility study in which combinations of selected weather data for a selected locale

and selected building data were combined in a computerized thermal simulation program called

National Bureau of Standards Load Determination (NBSLD) , the output of which was a dally

profile of indoor conditions of the building over an extended period of time. The

frequency and duration of the various indoor parameters were then evaluated in terms of an index which was called the Predicted Indoor Habitability Index (PIHI) . The object of the

index was to determine whether the space should be air-conditioned or not. Conceptually,

the PIHI was described as a numerical index covering a range of values that is consistent

with human comfort under the environmental conditions that are likely to be produced indoors

as a result of diurnal weather cycles outdoors, typical living functions, and a range of

building parameters. Several subjective and physiological Indices were considered for

determining the extent of indoor thermal comfort for inclusion as part of the PIHI Index.

Some of these indices were: old ET [16], Rohles and Nevlns [13], PVM of Fanger [17], new

ET* [5], HSI [18], and P4SR [19]. Each of these indices has its limits of applicability in

terms of metabolic production (mostly sedentary), clothing, dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures, and air velocity. Figure (10) depicts how the feasibility study was carried out.

It is proposed here that the thermal sensation model, discussed earlier, be used as the

PIHI Index. On this basis. Fig. (10) can be modified to Fig. (11). By integrating the

weather data, building data, and the thermal sensation prediction model into a computer

program, one can predict the profile of indoor thermal comfort on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis during the heating or cooling seasons and then decide what actions regarding

controlling the environment within the building need to be taken to insure the comfort of

its occupants. Such integrated programs can also be used during the design stage of a building to select the best combination of building parameters (insulation materials, ratio

of class to wall areas, etc.) as well as environmental parameters within the building which

can result in the best energy usage.

Selected weather

data (daily profiles of dry-bulb

temperature, wetbulb temperature,

solar radiation,

wind, cloud cover)

Selected building

data (thermal mass, thermal resistance,

interior and exterior shading. Internal loads,

exterior finishes,

air leakage rates,

ratio of glass to wall areas)

Indoor

^db ^""^ "^wb

Algorithms

for computing

the state of the art Comfort Indices

Statistics

and Profiles

of Indoor Comfort

Fig. (10) Approach of the Feasibility Study, Ref . [15]

30
Selected weather

data (dally profiles of dry-bulb

temperature, wetbulb temperature,

solar radiation,

wind, cloud cover)

Selected building

data (theraal mass, thermal resistance,

interior and exterior shading,

internal loads,

exterior finishes,

air leaksga rates,

ratio of glass to wall areas)

Indoo ^db»

rnd T . wb

Thermal Sen- sation Pre- diction

Model [U]

Statistics

and Profiles

of Indoor Comfort

Fig. (11) Proposed Modification of the Feasibility Study of Ref. [15]

REFERENCES

1. , Recommendation for a Standard for Work in Hot Environments, Draft No. 5,

Occupational Safety and Health Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, January 9, 1974

2. , Health Factors Involved in Working Conditions of Heat Stress, WHO, Techn.

Rep. Ser. No. 412, Geneva, 1969.

3. Cooper, J.W., Jr., A Computer Simulation of Human Thermoregulatory System, Interim RePort, ASD-ASTIN-1586.

4. Crosbie, R. J. , Hardy, J.D. and Fessenden, E., Electrical Analog Simulation of Temperature Regulation in Man, Chapter 55, pp. 627-635 in Temperature—Its Measurement and

Control in Science and Industry, Vol. Ill, Part 3, edited by Hardy, J.E., Reinhold

Publishing Corporation, New York, 1963.

5. Gagge, A. P., Stolwijk, J.A.J, and Nishi, Y. , An Effective Temperature Scale Based on a Simple Model of Human Physiological Regulatory Response, ASHRAE Trans. 77-1, pp. 247-

262, 1971.

6. Stolwijk, J.A.J, and Cunningham, D.J., Expansion of a Mathematical Model of Thermoregulation to Include High Metabolic Rates, Final Report-A, NAS-9-7140, 1969.

7. Stolwijk, J.A.J, and Hardy, J.D., Temperature Regulation in Man—A Theoretical Study,

Pflugers Archiv. 291, pp. 129-162, 1966.

31
8. Wissler, E.H. , A Mathematical Model of the Human Theraal Systems, Final Report, NAS

9-8121, 1970.

9. Wyndham, C.H. and Atkins, A.P., An Approach to the Solution of the Human Biothermal

Problem with the Aid of an Analog Computer, No. 27, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Medical Electronics. London. 1960.

10. Hsu, S. , A Human Thermoregulatory Model for Long-term Heat Exposure and Some of Its

Applications, Ph.D. Dissertation in progress. Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, 1976.

11. Gagge, A. P., Stolwijk, J.A.J, and Hardy, J.D., Comfort and Thermal Sensations and

Associated Physiological Responses at Various Ambient Temperatures, Envir. Res. 1,

pp. 1-20, 1967.

12. Gagge, P. A. and Nishi, Y. , Physical Indices of the Thermal Environment, ASHRAE J., p. 47, January 1976.

13. Rohles, F.H. , Jr., and Nevins, R.G., The Nature of Thermal Comfort for Sedentary Man,

ASHRAE Trans. 77-1, pp. 239-246, 1971.

14. Azer, N.Z. and Hsu, S., The Prediction of Thermal Sensation from a Simple Model of

Human Physiological Regulatory Response, submitted for publication.

15. Hill, J.E., Kusuda, T. , Liu, S.T., and F. J. Powell, A Proposed Concept for Determining the Need for Air Conditioning for Buildings Based on Building Thermal

Response and Human Comfort, NBS Building Science Series 71, 1975.

16. Houghton, F.C. and Yaglou, CP., Determination of the Comfort Zone, ASHVE Trans. 29,

p. 361, 1923.

17. Fanger, P.O., Thermal Confort, Danish Technical Press, Copenhagen, 1970.

18. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, p. 134, 1972.

19. McArdle, B. , Durham, W. , Holling, H.E., Ladell, W.S.S., Scott, J.S., Thomson, M.L. and

Weiner, J.S., The Prediction of the Physiological Effects of Warm and Hot Environments,

MRC R.N. P., 47, p. 391, 1947.

20. Nishi, Y. and Gagge, A.P. , Direct Evaluation of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

by Naphthalene Sublimation, J. Appl. Physiol. 29, pp. 830-838, 1970.

21. Kerslake, D. Mck. , The Stress of Hot Environments, Cambridge, The University Press,

1972.

22. Iberall, A.S. and Schindler, A.M., On the Physical Basis of a Theory of Human Thermoregulation. ASME Trans., J. of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control, pp. 1-8,

1973.

23. Nishi, Y. and Gagge, A.P., Moisture Permeation of Clothing-A Factor Governing Thermal

Equilibrium and Comfort, ASHRAE Trans. 76(1), pp. 137-145, 1970.

24. Nadel, E.R. and Stolwijk, J.A.J. , Effect of Skin Wettedness on Sweat Gland Response, J.

Appl. Physiol. 35(5), pp. 689-694, 1973.

25. Benzinger, T.H., Peripheral Cold Reception and Central Warm Reception, Sensory Mechanisms of Behavioral and Autonomic Thermostasis, Chapter 56 in Physiological and Behavioral Temperature Regulation, edited by Hardy, J.D., Gragge, A.P. and Stolwijk, J.A.J.

,

Springfield, IL, C.C. Thomas, 1970.

32
APPENDIX A

DETERMINATION OF THE WBGT IN TERMS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Figure (A-1) shows a schematic view of the wetted wick of the natural wet bulb thermometer. At equilibrium, the energy exchange by convection and radiation with the surrounding

environment is dissipated by evaporation. Therefore,

h (T,, - T)+c a(T -T )=h(P -RH.P) (A-1)

c db nw nw mr nw e snw sa . . ^

'

where

T^^ = dry bulb temperature of the environment, °K

T = natural wet bulb temperature, °K nw r >

T^^ = mean radiant temperature, °K

e = emissivity of the surface of the wetted wick

nw ^

P = saturated water vapor pressure at T , mm He

snw nw

2 h^ = convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m .°C

2 h^ = evaporative heat transfer coefficient, W/m . mm Hg

RH = relative humidity ratio

_8 2 if a = Stefan-Boltzman constant, 5.6696 x 10 W/m . °K

The convective heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by

0.466 2 h^ = 42.024 V W/m . °C (A-2)

where V is the air velocity in m/s. The evaporative heat transfer coefficient is related to

the convective heat transfer coefficient by

h = 2.2 h (A-3)

e c where 2.2 is the modified Lewis relation in "C/mm Hg

Figure (A-2) shows a schematic view of the globe thermometer. At equilibrium, with the

surrounding environment the energy received by radiation is dissipated by convection.

Therefore,

<T„ - T ) = e a (T - T ) (A-4)

c g db g mr g

where

T = globe temperature, °K

e = globe surface emissivity

The convective heat transfer coefficient from the surface of the globe can be calculated by

0.6 2 h^ = 15.889 V W/m . °C (A-5)

where V is in m/s. "

'

The emissivities of e and e are assumed equal to unity. To determine the saturation nw g vapor pressure P and P at T and T, respectively, the following equation, relating

the saturation pressure of water vapor P^^(mm Hg) to the saturation temperature t ("C) can

be used

2 _3 3 ^ P = 6.168 + 0.0358 t - 0.55 x 10 t + 0.105 x 10 t (A-6)

s s s s

33
If the four environmental factors, namely, T^^, T ^, RH, and V are specified, Eqs. (A-1)

and (A-4) can be solved, by Iteration, for T an3 T from which the WBGT can be calculated.

A computer program was written and is availaBYe for the solution of the governing equations.

In the program, the mean radiant temperature T ^ was set T^^ ~ ^d~ ^' where C is a constant which can be arbitrarily specified. Speci?ying T in^this manner permits solving

Eqs. (A-1) and (A-4) separately by iteration for T and T respectively.

Fig. (A-1) A Naturally Convected Wet Bulb Thermometer

Fig. (A-2) The Globe Thermometer.

34
APPENDIX B

A SUMMARY OF THE TWO-NODE THERMOREGULATORY MODEL

In this model, the human body may be represented by two concentric cylinders as shown

in Fig. (B-1) . The inner cylinder represents the body core, which includes the skeleton,

muscle, and all internal organs and has a uniform temperature. The outer layer represents

the skin. A third layer may be added to represent the clothing. Energy is exchanged between the core and the skin through direct contact and peripheral blood flow. This is

expressed in terms of conductance KS. Metabolic heat production M is generated in the core

and it depends on the activity level. The core also exchanges energy E^^^ with the environment through respiration. The outer layer, the skin for nude and the clothing for

clothed body, exchanges energy with the environment by convection and radiation. In

addition, body heat is dissipated through evaporation of sweat and/or water vapor diffusion

through the skin. These principles are used to write the following passive system equations.

d T

M C , = M + W- E - KS (T - T , ) (B-1) cr cr d t res cr sk

^ ^sk

^sk ^sk d-^ =

(^^cr - Tsk> + + C) - E^^ (B-2)

where

M^^ = core mass per unit body surface area

2 = 90% of the body mass per unit body surface area, kg/m

M^j^ = skin mass per unit body surface area

2 = 10% of the body mass per unit body surface area, kg/m

C = average specific heat of body core = 0.97 W.hr/kg,°C

c'^^ = specific heat of skin = 0.97 W.hr/kg.°C

T = core temperature, °C

T , = mean skin temperature, °C

t = time, hr

M = total metabolic heat production rate per unit body surface area

= sum of basal metabolic rate (M^) > activity C^^^^) > ^^'^ shivering (M^j^) if any,

W = external mechanical work, W/m2

^ ^res ~ sensible and latent respiratory energy exchange with the environment, W/m

KS = overall skin conductance, W/m .°C

Egk = total evaporative energy loss from the skin by diffusion and regulatory

sweating, W/m2

2 R + C = dry energy exchange by radiation R, and convection C, W/m

The total heat exchange (latent + sensible) through the respiratory system Ej-gg can be calculated by the expression suggested by Fanger [17]

.

E = 0.0023 M [44 - (RH) P ] + 0.0014 M (34 - T,, ) res as ab

The first term on the right hand side represents the latent part, while the second term represents the sensible part.

The dry heat exchange by radiation R and convection C can be calculated as follows:

(R + C) = h f , F , (T , - T ) cl cl sk o

35
where

2 h = the combined convective and linear radiative heat exchange coefficients, W/m ."C

f^^ = the ratio of the surface area of the clothed body to that of the nude body

F^j^ = thermal efficiency factor of the clothing

1 2

, h in W/m .°C, I in clo units

1 + 0.155 hi' ' • ' cl

cl

T = operative temperature of the ambient, °C

° h T + h T

c db r mr

h + h

h^,h^ = convective and linear radiative heat exchange coefficients, respectively, W/m .°C.

T^^ is the mean radiant temperature, and T^^ is the ambient temperature in degrees Centigrade. The convective heat transfer coefficient can either be estimated from the values

suggested by Nishi and Gagge [20] for certain laboratory exercises or calculated from the

formula suggested by Kerslake [21]:

h^ = 8.3 V, W/m^.°C, V < 5 m/s

where V is the air velocity in m/s. The linear radiative heat transfer coefficient can be

estimated from the relationship suggested by Iberall et al. [22]:

h = 3.87 + 0.031 T , W/m^.°C

r mr

5°C 5 T ^ 50°C mr

2 The total evaporative heat loss from the skin Egj^, in W/m , takes place by diffusion of

water vapor through the unwetted area and by the evaporation of sweat:

E^^ = SW + (1 - WSW) E^.f^, if SW < E^^^

= E , if SW > E max' max

where

WSW = sweat wettedness = SW/E ^ 1 max

2 and SW is the equivalent evaporative heat loss of sweat, in W/m , and will be determined

later. E,.^^ is the evaporative heat loss due to skin diffusion [17].

dif f

Ej... = 0.408 [P - (RH) P ] , W/m^

aiii s as

E is the maximum evaporative capacity from the skin surface to the ambient and is given max

by:

E = 2.2 h F , [P - (RH) P ] , W/m^ max c pel s as

F , = clothing moisture permeation efficiency factor [23]

pel

1 2

, h in W/m .°C, I , in clo units

1 + 0.143 h I / c

" ' ' cl

c cl

P^^ = saturated vapor pressure at T^^^, mmHg

P^ = saturated vapor pressure at Tgj^j mmHg

RH = relative humidity ratio

36
Three control signals, based on set-point temperatures in the skin and body core modulate the thermoregulatory mechanism. These are the skin conductance KS, thermoregulatory

sweating SW, and the metabolic response by shivering Mg^- These are given by the following

expressions.

KS = 5.3 +

6.75 + 42.45 (T - 36.98) + 8.15 (T - 35.15)°'^ (T . - 33.8) „ 1.0 + 0.4 (32.1 - T^^) ' W/m . C (B-3)

and

[260(T -36.9) + 26(T -33.8)] exp [ (T -33.8)/8.5]

SW = $ — — ' (^"^^

1.0 + 0.05(33.37-T^j^)

where

$ = suppression factor due to skin wettedness [24]

=1.0, when WET < 0.4

= 0.5 + 0.5 exp [-5.6 (WET - 0.4)], when WET > 0.4 (B-5)

WET = skin wettedness = E , /E sk max

and

= 20 (36.9 - T^^) (32.5 - T^^) + 5 (32.5 - T^j^) ,W/m^ (B-6)

When Tcr > 37.1°C, no shivering occurs irrespective of the skin temperature. Such a situation was identified as the central warm inhibition effect, according__to Benzincer [251.

All bracketed terms in Eqs. (B-3), (B-4) and (B-6) must be positive. Negative values are assigned a zero value. After the control signals equations are introduced into the passive

system equations, Eqs. (B-1) and (B-2) , they can be integrated numerically for small time

increments (At = 0.01 hr) or small increments in core and skin temperature (0.01°C) which-

.ever is smaller, with certain initial values of Tcr ^rid Tgj^, for any combination of environmental parameters (T(jb, Tmj-, RH and V), clothing insulation Icl, and metabolic heat

production M. The integration results give the variations in Td- and Tgj^, with time and the

associated values of WSW and KS

.

37
Fig. (B-1) Schematic Representation of the Two-Node Thermoregulatory Model.

38
APPENDIX C

A SUMMARY OF THE THERMAL SENSATION PREDICTION MODEL

In the model the following thermal sensation scale was adopted:

Thermal Sensation (TS~) -4 -3 -2 -1 0

Category Very Cold Cool Slightly Neutral

Cold Cool

Thermal Sensation (Ts"^) 12 3 4

Category Slightly Warm Hot Very

Warm Hot

Positive numerical values are for warm sensations, and negative values are for cold sensations. In the model, warm thermal sensations (TS+) can be predicted by

TS"^ = [5.0 - 6.56 (RH - 0.50)] Eg^g (C-1)

where RH is the relative humidity ratio, and EysW ^-S a wettedness factor defined by

WSW - WSW^

^SW " 1.0 - WSW

o

where

WSW = skin wettedness due to regulatory sweating

= SW/E , dimensionless

max WSW^ = skin wettedness at thermal neutrality, dimensionless

WSW can be determined from the two-node thermoregulatory model discussed in Appendix B. WSWo can be calculated by

WSW^ = 0.02 + 0.4 {1.0 - exp [-0.6(NMET - 1.0)]} (C-3)

where

MMPT = i 58

NMET

^

(C-4)

2 M = metabolic heat production, W/m

2 W = external body work, W/m

Cold thermal sensation (TS ) can be predicted by

TS" = 1.46 E + 3.75 E^ - 6.19 E"^ (C-5) vc vc vc ^ ^

where E is a vasconstriction factor defined by vc

KS - KS

7 = —2

'vc KS - KS,

o (-4)

(C-6)

KS is the overall skin conductance given by Eq. (B-3) of the two-node thermoregulatory model.

KSo is the overall skin conductance at thermal neutrality and is given by

KS^ = 12.05 exp [0.23 (NMET - 1.0)], W/m^.°C (C-7)

39
where NMET is defined by Eq. (C-4) . KS. is the overall skin conductance at thermal sensation very cold (-4 on the thermal sensation scale) . It can be calculated by

KS^_^^ = 5.3 + 0.261 (KS^ - 5.3), W/m^.°C

At a given activity level and a set of environmental parameters, the overall skin conductance KS can be calculated from the two-node thermoregulatory model in Appendix B. If

KS - KSqj the thermal sensation will be on the warm side of the scale and can be determined

by Eq. (C-1) . If KS < KSq, the thermal sensation will be on the cold side of the scale and

can be determined by Eq. (C-5) . Any detailed information about the development of this model

can be found in reference [13].

40
INDUSTRIAL HEAT STRESS MONITORING

Francis N. Dukes-Dobos

U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

Public Health Service

Center for Disease Control

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Division of Biomedical and Behavioral Science

Cincinnati, Ohio

When assessing the heat load which is imposed on a worker by his job, the

method of choice will depend on the purpose for which this information is

needed. If the question is whether the heat load exceeds the threshold limit

value (TLV) adopted by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial

Hygienists (ACGIH) or whether the job is in compliance with the standards

recommended by NIOSH or by the OSHA Standards Advisory Committee, the method

to be used is the WBGT index. There are some important differences, however,

between the monitoring requirements in the three documents which will be

discussed in detail.

Since work metabolism is fairly constant for a given job, once it has

been reliably established, no further monitoring is required. However,

since environmental conditions of the job-site vary with changing outdoor

temperatures, environmental monitoring has to be either continuous or at

least measurements have to be repeated in certain intervals. To eliminate

the need for either continuous or repetitive monitoring, NIOSH initiated studies

for the development of mathematical models to predict job-site WBGT values

from outdoor temperatures. Such a model is of particular value when jobs have

to be rated according to the heat load they impose on the worker throughout

a year. This information is necessary for studying the long range health

effects of work in hot environments.

If the question is how to reduce the heat load most efficiently or if

human responses to heat stress are analyzed, monitoring has to be performed

by one of the physical heat stress indices. Several investigators recommended

that industrial heat exposure limits shall also be expressed in terms of

physical indices. However, this cannot be done until the permissible exposure

limits expressed in units of these indices are validated for all combinations

of environmental factors, clothing, metabolic rates and then displayed in a simple graph, such as the present TLV. The limits must also be validated to

be safe for the worker population, as it was done with the WBGT index.

Key words: Industrial heat stress; heat stress monitoring; environmental

monitoring; heat stress indices; metabolic heat load; heat stress control.

INTRODUCTION

Industrial heat stress is defined as the heat load which is imposed on the worker by

hot climatic conditions of the work environment and by the metabolic heat generated inside

the worker's body. The assessment of the magnitude of heat stress to which a worker is

exposed on his job is a very difficult problem which is far from a satisfactory solution.

The reason for this difficulty is that there are many factors which influence the heat

exchange between man and his environment and these factors may vary a great deal with

time and space as well as from one individual to the other. In order to make this point

clearer, a short review is presented here of the problems which may arise when measuring

the environmental and metabolic heat load.

Environmental Heat Load . There are four climatic factors contributing to heat stress:

air temperature, humidity, wind speed and mean radiant temperature. A worker's exposure

to these may change a great deal within a short period of time, particularly when the

character of his task is such that he or she has to move frequently from one place to

another or the climatic conditions of the job site change very rapidly. The instruments
available for measuring the climatic factors, especially those for humidity and radiant

heat, are not well suited to follow rapid changes. Furthermore, the readings of the instruments do not tell us directly the magnitude of the environmental heat load. They have to be

inserted into mathematical equations in order to calculate the heat gain and/or loss by

conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation. However, heat exchange between man and

his environment depends greatly on skin temperature, surface area, wettedness, body position,

speed of movement and clothing. All of these factors have a great intra- and interIndlvidual variability so that even if we could measure all of the climatic factors

accurately, the calculated heat load would be valid only for the moment when the instruments were read, and for a single set of combinations of all the variables listed above.

Metabolic Heat Load . The amount of heat generated within the worker's body is the

other component of heat stress, and it may vary greatly as the work rate changes; it also

varies from one individual to the other even if performing the same job, depending on body

weight, age, sex, physical fitness and skill. In addition, even the best methods for

measuring work metabolism have an accuracy no better than + 10% in skilled hands.

Heat Stress Indices . In an effort to simplify the assessment of the worker's heat

load, several heat stress indices have been developed which combine either the four

climatic factors or both the climatic and metabolic factors into a single number by using

equations or nomograms. The authors of these heat stress indices claim that if a heat

stress condition is characterized by a certain index value, no matter in what proportion

the climatic or metabolic factors contribute to the condition, the resulting physiological

strain will be identical. However, in a recent well-controlled experiment, Wenzel-L could

not confirm these claims for most of the heat stress indices, even while keeping wind speed

constant and mean radiant temperature equal to air temperature. It is fair to assume that

if wind speed and radiant heat would also be treated as variables, the claim for identical

physiological strain for each combination of climatic factors would be even less tenable.

Furthermore, the heat stress indices were derived from data obtained from experiments which

did not reproduce the complex real life situation of an industrial workshop. First of all,

the experimental subjects were highly trained young men whose physical fitness was above

that of an average worker population of hot plants; they were dressed in gym shorts and

shoes instead of work uniforms; the climatic conditions and work rate were kept constant,

thus bypassing most of the problems encountered when measuring the climatic factors and

work metabolism in the real life situation. As was pointed out by Belding,^ all heat stress

indices are poor predictors of physiological strain when used under conditions which differ

substantially from those used in the experiments for developing the index. Gagge and Nishi^

rated several empirical heat stress indices according to the accuracy by which they can predict heat discomfort and wettedness of skin in the average acclimatized individual, but

this by itself is not the most important criterion for the applicability of an index for

industrial heat stress monitoring. Other factors related to the worker's heat exposure in

industry vary so rapidly and to such a great extent that even the most accurate prediction

of heat strain will be valid only for a specific individual and for a short-lived situation.

Simplicity of application is a much more important requirement in heat stress indices for

industrial use.

Other investigators recommended assessing heat strain directly by measuring the

workers' physiological responses characteristic of heat strain, such as heart rate, body

temperature or sweat rate instead of monitoring the climatic factors and work metabolism.

Whereas such measurements are indeed most helpful in preventing heat illnesses, they

cannot be used in industry because the presently available methods for monitoring physiological responses are not acceptable for routine use on workers. Furthermore, physiological measurements per se will not tell us anything about the magnitude of different heat sources on the job site. Thus, they do not eliminate the need for the assessment of the

climatic and metabolic factors for developing corrective procedures.

In spite of their shortcomings, certain heat stress indices can be applied for a number of practical and scientific purposes such as developing guidelines for industry to

safeguard workers' health in hot jobs, for establishing workers' tolerance to different

combinations of heat stress factors and for determining the most efficient ways of reducing

heat stress in specific jobs. Each of these applications requires a different level of

simplicity and accuracy, as well as different type of information. Let us now examine

which of the available heat stress indices satisfy best the requirements of industrial heat

stress monitoring.

42
HEAT STRESS MONITORING FOR PREVENTION OF HEAT ILLNESS

Environmental Heat Load . There are two different basic approaches possible for the

prevention of heat illnesses among workers of hot industries: one is to prescribe limits

for permissible heat exposure levels; the other is to specify certain preventive measures,

i.e. work practices which have to be introduced in a workshop when the heat stress exceeds

established levels. The first approach has been adopted by the American Conference of

Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) in their Threshold Limit Value (TLV) for heat_

stress.^ The second has been followed in the recommended heat stress standards of NIOSH^

as well as of the Standards Advisory Committee on Heat Stress (SACHS) ^ which was convened

by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in 1972. All the three above

mentioned documents prescribe the use of the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index^ for

the purpose of monitoring the environmental heat load. Other indices considered by the

committees approving these documents were the Effective Temperature (ET),^ the Heat Stress

Index of Belding and Hatch (HSI),9 and the Predicted 4 Hour Sweat Rate (P4SR).^^ They all

agreed to select the WBGT index because of its simplicity of application. The equations for

calculating the WBGT index are indeed very simple:

For indoor use: WBGT =0.7 NWB + 0.3 GT (1)

For out-of-doors use: WBGT =0.7 NWB + 0.2 GT + 0.1 DB (2)

where NWB = Natural Wet Bulk Temperature

GT = Globe Temperature

DB = Dry Bulk Temperature

Another way by which the use of the WBGT index simplifies environmental heat stress

monitoring is that it does not require the measurement of wind velocity. It has been

assumed that since both the natural wet bulb thermometer and the globe thermometer are sensitive to air movement, the WBGT index includes the cooling effect of increased wind

speed satisfactorily. However, Romero's-'-'^ experiments showed that the natural wet bulb

thermometer loses its sensitivity to wind speed if that exceeds 250 fpm. Therefore the

SACHS document stipulates that the threshold WBGT values (above which preventive work

practices have to be introduced) shall be 4 to 5 °F higher if the air velocity exceeds

300 fpm as shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Threshold WBGT Values

Workload

Threshold

Degrees Celsius

WBGT Values

and Fahrenheit

Low

(Up

air velocity

to 300 fpm)

High air velocity

(300 fpm or above)

Light (Level 2)

(200 kcal/hr or below) . (86) 32 (90)

Moderate (Level 3)

(201 to 300 kcal/hr C82) 31 (87)

Heavy (Level 4)

(Above 300 kcal/hr) (79) 29 (84)

This provision of the SACHS makes industrial heat stress monitoring more complicated because

it requires either wind speed measurement or at least some rough estimate of the air

velocity at the job site. Interestingly, recent experiments performed at the Pennsylvania

State University by Eliezer Kamon under NIOSH auspices, cast severe doubt on the need for

correcting the threshold WBGT for the effect of air velocity. The results of these

43
experiments indicate that there seems to be no benefit to the worker in terms of physiological responses if the air velocity is increased from 100 to 800 fpm in hot environments

ranging from 27.2 °C (81.0 °F) to 34.4 °C (94 °F) WBGT, with no radiant heat sources

present. One possible explanation of these results is that the subjects in these experiments wore regular work uniforms, the type of clothing worn by workers in hot jobs. Such

clothing acts as a wind buffer and reduces the air velocity substantially by the time it

reaches the subject's skin surface. Thus, it is entirely possible that even though the

wind speed was increased up to 800 fpm in the test chamber, the air movement at the skin

surface never exceeded 300 fpm. If these results are confirmed in further studies, it will

not be necessary to use a correction for wind speed, and thus not have to estimate air

velocity when applying the WBGT index for heat stress monitoring.

The use of the natural wet bulb thermometer and the globe thermometer is quite time

consuming. Depending on the climatic conditions the equilibration time may be as long as

30 minutes. Olander-'-^ in Sweden recommends the use of an aspirated wet bulb thermometer

instead of the natural wet bulb and an aluminum sphere or a balloon instead of the copper

globe, thus reducing the time needed for a WBGT index assessment to 10 minutes. The only

correction needed in calculating the WBGT index by use of aspirated wet bulb thermometer is

that at air velocities below 100 fpm (0.5 m/sec) the WBGT index value has to be increased

by 4 °F (2 °C). A lagtime of 10 minutes is still very long for measuring the climatic

factors in a workshop where the level of heat stress may change substantially from one minute to the next. To overcome this problem, the SACHS document stipulates that in

extremely high heat exposures the workers should be permitted to withdraw from the heat

whenever they feel that they may become overheated. Furthermore, all three heat stress

standards, (NIOSH, SACHS, and ACGIH TLV) , express their limits in terms of time-weighted

average WBGT index values. According to the NIOSH and SACHS standards, these time-weighted

WBGT index values will determine whether or not preventive measures have to be introduced.

According to the provisions of the ACGIH TLV, the time-weighted WBGT values can also serve

for calculating how much time has to be spent in the cooler areas of the workshop so as not

to exceed the TLV values for continuous work, as shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2

Permissible Heat Exposure Threshold Limit Values

Values are given in °C and in (°F) WBGT

Work Load

Work — Rest Regimen Light Moderate Heavy

Continuous work 30.0 (86.0) 26.7 (80.1) 25.0 (77.0)

The NIOSH and ACGIH documents prescribe that in jobs with continuous heat exposure, the

time-weighted average WBGT value has to be calculated hourly, whereas for jobs where heat

exposure is intermittent this calculation has to be done for periods of 2 hours. This

provision is based on the assumption that in continuous heat exposure, one hour may be

long enough for a worker to develop a heat illness if the heat exposure is at a level which

does not force the worker to move away from time to time to cooler areas but high enough

to cause excessive heat accumulation in the body. In intermittent exposure, if heat accu- mulation does occur, it will be slower, thus it will be safe to do the averaging over a period of two hours. The SACHS version, however, eliminated the requirement for calculating

hourly averages in continuous exposure and prescribes for all hot jobs, continuous and

intermittent, that the averaging be performed for periods of 2 hours. The assumption here

is that only in very rare instances would a 2-hour time-weighted average WBGT remain below

the threshold values shown in Table 1 when the 1-hour average exceeds these same threshold

values.

According to the SACHS document, heat stress monitoring is not mandatory as long as preventive measures are practiced. This policy is supported by the observation-'-^ that

where workers are provided with adequate drinking water and supplementary salt, where they are given time to become acclimated before they are required to carry a full load of heat
exposure, where they are given advice how to prevent heat illnesses and to take rest breaks

whenever they start to feel overheated, where the management is thoughtful of reducing the

workers' heat exposure by all possible means, including protective clothing and engineering

control of climatic conditions, in hot industries like this the occurrence of heat illnesses

will be extremely rare.

If heat stress monitoring is required only for the purpose of determining whether or not preventive measures are required, the main problem of heat stress monitoring in most

hot plants will be not so much the accuracy of environmental measurements but the relationship between the climatic conditions out of doors and at the job site. According to the

NIOSH heat stress standard, a WBGT profile has to be established for each work place by

monitoring the climatic conditions of the jobs both during the winter and summer so as to

determine during which part of the year preventive work practices are required. After this

has been accomplished, heat stress monitoring is required only during the hottest months

of each year, i.e. in July and August. According to the SACHS version, heat stress

monitoring must be performed during the hottest two-hour period of the work shift, in order

to determine whether or not preventive measures must be applied. However, as mentioned

before, once preventive measures are observed, heat stress monitoring is not mandatory.

The text of the ACGIH TLV does not address the question at all at what time of the day or

of the year the environmental measurements shall be performed. Mutchler et al^^ under

NIOSH contract developed a methodology for assessing the relationship between the climatic

conditions out of doors and on-the-job site. This requires a minimum of 30 simultaneous

assessments of the climatic factors out of doors and at the job site. In order to predict

the climatic conditions at the job site at a given out-of-doors temperature, one of 7 equations have to be used, depending on the degree of difference between inside and outside

ambient temperatures specific to that particular job. There are three regression constants

in each equation which have to be calculated from the simultaneous measurement results by

multiple regression analysis. Subsequently, from the U. S. Weather Bureau reports, a prediction can be made concerning the dates when the job site temperature may exceed the

Threshold WBGT values, i.e. when preventive measures will have to be observed. Another

important application of this method is in the area of assessing the long-term health

effects of employment in hot jobs. In studies dealing with this problem, there is a need

for estimating the workers' heat load retrospectively over a period of several years. This can be done by obtaining the U. S. Weather Bureau records and inserting the values in the

appropriate equations selected in accordance with the difference between outdoor and jobsite temperatures.

Last but not least, the prediction of heat load on the job site from the records of

the U. S. Weather Bureau can be helpful in planning the energy needs for climate control

in a particular industry as well as planning for the increased manpower need in view of the

necessary rest allowances in hot plants. However, before this methodology can be recommended

for general use, its accuracy has to be tested in further field studies. Several industries

and investigators are already trying to use this approach, but the results have not yet

been published.

An alternative approach for simplifying environmental measurements would be to develop

a technique for personal heat stress monitoring. This would have the advantage that the

instruments would be exposed to the same climatic conditions as the worker all the time. If

fast responding sensors for measuring the climatic factors would be available, personal

monitoring could give us a true picture of the workers heat exposure over the whole work

shift. Studies for developing such a system have been carried on by Peters et al under

NIOSH contract.' The approach they recommended was to develop miniaturized sensors for the

different climatic factors to be attached to the workers and the readings should be either

recorded on magnetic tape by a small recorder also carried by the worker or telemetered to

a nearby receiver. They prepared a mock-up model showing the sensors attached to a safety

helmet (Figure 1). Simultaneously, Gempel et al-'-^ experimented with Botsford's Wet Globe

Thermometer-*-^ in rubber tire manufacturing plants. They also fastened this instrument on

the workers' helmets and found the obtained readings are comparable with stationary WBGT

measurements. However, in earlier studies at NIOSH, Sundln et al^ found that the relationship between the Wet Globe Temperature (WGT) and WBGT is curvilinear with a correlation

coefficient of 0.9755 (Figure 2). At different job sites where the WGT reading was 80 °F,

the simultaneously observed WBGT values ranged from 80 to 94 °F WBGT. Compared to other

single reading instruments described earlier in the literature, the Wet Globe Thermometer

45
FIGURE 1: Mock-up model of miniaturized sensors for measuring the

climatic factors of the work environment in hot jobs. The sensors are mounted on a safety helmet.

has the advantage of simplicity and is relatively inexpensive. Thus, it may be a useful

tool for preliminary exploratory measurements in hot plants. The idea of developing such

an instrument explored at NIOSH by Hughs led to the conclusion that even if modern

technology would permit the construction of such an instriment, it would be too complicated

and expensive for routine use in industry. Similar experiments at the University of

Pittsburgh performed by P. C. Magee (under NIOSH grant) utilized the ideas of T. Hatch

and resulted in some definite progress in making the instrument's heat exchange coefficients

resembling that of man's; however, a number of problems still remained unresolved.

Metabolic Heat Load . The most accurate method for measuring the heat generated in the

body during work and rest is indirect calorimetry, i.e. the assessment of oxygen consumption.

This requires the measurement of expired air volume as well as its oxygen and carbon dioxide

content. This method requires that the worker carry on his back an air-collecting bag or a gasometer connected through a flexible tube with the worker's mouth. A face mask or a mouthpiece with a nose clip has to be worn in order to assure an airtight connection. Wearing

such equipment and breathing through the tube against the resistance of the system, is

quite burdensome and therefore cannot be tolerated for a long period of time. Furthermore,

wearing the equipment in hot jobs interferes with heat loss from the body and with moving

rapidly back and forth around furnaces and other extremely hot areas. Therefore, in order

46
140

130 -

120

110

100 -

*~ 90

00

• 1

80 -

70 -

60 -

WBGT=(O.OI 1 75) WGT - (O 5599)

WGT+ 54.928

Correlation Coefficient= 0.9755

50

NORMAL DATA BASE

50 60 70 80 90

WGTfF)

100 110 120

FIGURE 2: Relationship between WBGT and WGT. Each point represents

one simultaneous pair of measurements in a hot industry or out of doors.

47
to determine the metabolic heat generated during a long period of time, the tasks performed

have to be broken down into small components, such as standing, walking, lifting, carrying,

machine operating, etc. and the metabolic cost of each component has to be assessed. Thereafter, a time study has to be performed to determine how much time is spent during the

workday with each component activity so that the hourly or daily metabolic heat load can be

estimated. This whole procedure is quite complicated, requires some expensive instruments

and its accuracy is quite limited because of the variable intensity by which each task is

carried out and the intra- and inter-individual variability of metabolic rate as mentioned

above. Therefore, none of the three heat stress standards (NIOSH, SACHS, and ACGIH TLV)

requires the application of indirect calorimetry. The SACHS version prescribes rough

categorization of jobs into light, moderate, and heavy workload, as shown in Table 1. The

ACGIH TLV mentions indirect calorimetry as one of several alternatives for measuring

metabolic heat. The TLV lists several references to energy requirement tables published

in the literature for estimating work metabolism. Such methods are much simpler but still

require experience to achieve an acceptable level of accuracy (± 10%). In unskilled hands,

the scattering of the estimates can be as high as + 30 - 100%. A time study is required

to calculate hourly time-weighted average metabolic rates for continuous heat exposures.

For intermittent heat exposures, the averaging has to be done for periods of two hours,

similarly as with the time-weighting of the WBGT values.

Realizing the cumbersomeness and limited accuracy of all the available methods for

assessing metabolic heat, the NIOSH heat stress standard refrained from prescribing such

measurements. Instead, it establishes fairly low limits: 79 °F WBGT for men and 76 °F WBGT

for women to be estimated in terms of one or two hour time-weighted averages for continuous

or intermittent work, respectively. This limit applies only to deciding whether or not

preventive measures should be introduced for a job. According to the ACGIH TLV, 79 °F is

the permissible heat exposure TLV for continuous work between heavy and moderate levels,

as shown in Table 2. Since most of the hot jobs are in the moderate or light work category,

the 79 °F WBGT seems to be too restrictive. However, it was the concensus of the review

committee that the restrictiveness of this provision is well compensated by the fact that

metabolic measurements are not required,

22 23

The recommended lower limit for women was based on data in the literature ' showing

that women have a higher heart rate and body temperature than men when exposed to identical

levels of heat stress. However, recent studies performed by Kuhlmeier^ under NIOSH auspices

showed that the upper limit of the prescriptive zone (ULPZ) of heat acclimatized women,

working in hot jobs, is not significantly different from the ULPZ of men. In view of these

results, it may not be necessary to prescribe lower limits for women, if the limits are

used only for deciding when and where to introduce preventive measures. Actually, the SACHS

version and the ACGIH TLV do not have a different set of limits for women.

Several hot industries have available the experts and instruments for measuring work

metabolism and have in the past applied these techniques for heat stress monitoring. For

these industries, it may be advantageous to abide by the SACHS version or by the ACGIH TLV

because they permit higher environmental heat loads for moderate and light work. Furthermore, once the work metabolism of a job has been measured, it does not have to be repeated

as long as the tasks to be performed on the job remain the same. Recently, several direct

reading, self-contained, portable instruments for measuring oxygen consumption became

commercially available.^ They are quite expensive, but if their accuracy can be verified,

they may be well suited for the purpose of monitoring metabolic heat load.

Monitoring for Engineering Heat Stress Control . When faced with the problem of how to

reduce the workers' heat load most efficiently, it is necessary to know the proportion that

the different climatic and metabolic factors contribute to the existing condition. The

empirical heat stress indices such as the WBGT, ET or P4SR are not well suited for this

purpose. Physical or rational indices such as the HSI and the operative temperature (T ) make it possible to calculate the amount of heat gained or lost by an individual through

different heat exchange mechanisms such as convection, radiation, and evaporation as well

as by metabolic heat generation. If the results show that most of the heat is gained

through convection, then the most effective way of reducing heat stress will be in lowering

the air temperature. On the other hand, if most of the heat is gained through radiation,

then the lowering of the mean radiant temperature will be more helpful. This can be done by

placing a reflecting barrier between the radiation source and the worker. However, it is

48
even more useful to better Isolate hot ovens or furnaces in the workers' surroundings. This

may require initially a large investment, but in the long run, the pay off is much greater

because it not only reduces the need for air cooling devices but also reduces the energy

need for both air conditioning and the manufacturing process.

If the main problem is high humidity, the most efficient method of climate control will

be dehumidif ication of the air by cooling. However, by using a rational index, it is possible to predict whether facilitation of sweat evaporation by increasing the wind speed would

be sufficient enough by itself to reduce the heat stress. If this turns out to be the case,

then substantial amounts of energy can be saved by making cooling of the air unnecessary.

Similarly, it is possible to calculate by a rational index, whether the worker can be kept

in heat balance without excessive strain by making available near the hot job sites air con- ditioned resting cabins instead of air conditioning the whole plant. If this can be accomplished, the energy saving can be tremendous. However, on the negative side of the balance,

there will be some loss in per capita productivity due to the need for increased rest

allowances and also due to higher wages paid to workers who have to tolerate the discomfort

and health risks connected with working in hot environments.

Heavy physical work in hot environment is undesirable not only because it causes great

discomfort but also because the metabolically generated heat imposes twice as much stress on

the circulatory system as the environmental heat load.^''*^^ The method for reducing the

physical work load is either mechanization or employing more workers. The decision between

the two alternatives should be based on the availability of energy sources and manpower and

economic payoff,

29 Recently Gagge et al developed a new effective temperature scale based on a mathematical model of human physiological regulatory response. This new index not only corrects

some of the distortions of the original ET scale but also makes it possible to use a com- puter for estimating the heat load of a worker and the most effective way of reducing the

heat stress of a hot job.

Several investigators recommended that industrial heat exposure limits should also be

expressed in terms of rational or physical indices; however, for industry-wide use, they are too complicated at the present, as was explained before. Furthermore, the rational

Indices are based on laboratory experiments on subjects not representative of industrial

worker populations. In order to make rational indices applicable for a practical heat

stress standard, permissible exposure limits would have to be established in terms of these

standards, and they would have to be validated in^gield studies of industrial workers, in a fashion similar to that done with the WBGT index. Furthermore, the estimation of these

indices would have to be greatly simplified and limits displayed in a simple table or graph,

encompassing all combinations of environmental and metabolic factors, as well as clothing

worn, encountered in hot jobs,

REFERENCES

1, Wenzel, H.G. Probleme der Voranssage warmer Klimabedingungen auf den Menschen.

Arbeitsmedizin-Sozialmedizin, Praventivmedizin, December 1974, pp. 273-276.

2, Belding, H, S, The Search for a Universal Heat Stress Index, Chapter 13, In:

Physiological and Behavioral Temperature Regulation. Ed: Hardy, J.D. et al. Charles

C, Thomas. Springfield, Illinois, 1970, pp. 193-202,

3, Gagge, A, P, and Y, Nishi, Comparison of Rational and Empirical Indices of Comfort

and Heat Strain Symposium on Microclimate. Prague, 1975.

4, Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agent in the Workroom

Environment, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. 1976,

pp. 58-66.

5, Criteria for a Recommended Standard. Occupational Exposure to Hot Environments,

U. S. DREW HSM-72-10269, 1972.

49
6. Ramsey, J. D. Standards Advisory Conmlttee on Heat Stress - Recommended Standard for

Work in Hot Environments. In: Standards for Occupational Exposures to Hot Environments.

Proceedings of Symposium. Eds: S. Horvath and R. Jensen, U. S. DHEW Publication No.

(NIOSH) 76-100, 1976, pp. 191-204.

7. Yaglou, CP. and D. Minard. Control of Heat Casualties at Military Training Centers.

AMA Arch. Industr. Health, 16, 302-316 (1975).

8. Houghton, F. C. and C. P. Yaglou. Determining Lines of Equal Comfort. J. ASHVE 29^, 165-176 (1923).

9. Belding, H.S. and T. F. Hatch. Index for Evaluating Heat Stress in Terms of Resulting

Physiological Strains. Heat. Pip. Air. Condit. 27_, 129-135 (1955).

10. McArdle, B. , W. Dunham, H. E. Holling, W. S. S. Ladell, J. W. Scott, M. L. Thompson and

J. S. Weiner. The Reduction of the Physiological Effects of Warm and Hot Environments:

The P4SR Index. Med. Res. Coun. Rep. No. 47/391, London, 1947.

11. Dukes-Dobos, F. N. Rationale and Provisions of the Work Practices Standard for Work in

Hot Environments as Recommended by NIOSH. In: Standards for Occupational Exposures to

Hot Environments. Proceedings of Symposium, Eds: S. Horvath and R. Jensen. HEW Publication No. (NIOSH) 76-100, 1976, pp. 27-42.

12. Romero, B. H. A. Effect of Air Speed and Radiation on the Difference between Natural

and Psychrometric Wet Bulb Temperatures. Thesis. University of Pittsburgh, 1971.

13. Olander, L. Measurement of Heat Stress Indices. Arbetc och Halsa (Stockholm) 1976: 8,

pp. 29-38.

14. Dukes-Dobos, F. N. , A. Henschel, C. Humphreys, K. Kronoveter, M. Benner and W. Carlson.

Industrial Heat Stress - Southern Phase. U. S. DHEW, PHS, DOH, Research Report No. 5.

December, 1966.

15. Mutchler, J. E. , D. Malzahn, J. Vecchio, and R. Soule. An Improved Method for Monitoring

Heat Stress Levels in the Workplace. U. S. DHEW Publication No. (NIOSH) 75-161, May

1975.

16. Peters, W. R. , G. T. Darilek and F. X. Hertig. Survey of Environmental Parameter Sensors

for a Personal Heat Stress Monitor. U. S. DHEW Publication No. (NIOSH) 76-182, 1976.

17. Gempel, R. , W. A. Burgess and R. D. Treitman. Heat Stress in Tire Plants: Physiological

Effects. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Conference, 1976.

18. Botsford, J. H. A Simple Method for Rating Hot Environments. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.

32, 11-16 (1971).

19. Sundin, D., F. Dukes-Dobos, R. Jensen and C. Humphreys. Comparison of the ACGIH TLV for

Heat Stress with other Heat Stress Indices. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Conference, 1972.

20. Hughes, T. F. Evaluation of a Single-Reading Heat Stress Instrument. U. S. DHEW

Publication No. (NIOSH) 75-148, 1975.

21. Hatch, T. F. Design Requirements and Limitations of a Single-Reading Heat Stress Meter.

Amer. Ind. Hyg. J. 34, 66-72 (1973).

22. Astrand, I. Aerobic Work Capacity in Men and Women. Acta. Physiol. Scand. 49 , Supplement 169, (1960).

23. Hertig, B. A. Human Physiological Responses to Heat Stress: Males and Females Compared,

Le Thermoregulation Comportementale. Lyon, 1970.

24. Dukes-Dobos, F. N. , R. Jensen and K. Kuhlmeier. Differences in Heat Tolerance Between

Male and Female Workers Residing in a Hot Climate. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Conference, 1976.

50
25. James, R. H. Technology for the Development of a Portable Metabolic Monitor. U. S,

DHEW Publication No. (NIOSH) 76-171, 1976.

26. Winslow, C. E. , L. P. Herrington and A. P. Gagge. Physiological Reactions of the Human

Body to Varying Environmental Temperatures. Am. J. Physiol. 120 , 1-22 (1937).

27. Kraning, K. K. , H. S. Belding and B. A. Hertig. Use of Sweating Rate to Predict Other

Physiological Responses to Heat. J. Appl. Physiol. 21 , 111-117 (1966).

28. Dukes-Dobos, F,, R. Jensen, and W. Carlson. Differences in Physiological Strain Due to

Environmental versus Metabolic Heat Load. Amer. Inc. Hyg. Assoc. Conference, 1973.

29. Gagge, A. P., J. A. Stolwijk and Y. Nishi. An Effective Temperature Scale Based on a Simple Model of Human Physiological Regulatory Responses. ASHRAE Transactions 77 , (Part I) 247-2> (1971).

30. Dukes-Dobos, F. and A. Henschel. Development of Permissible Heat Exposure Limits for

Occupational Work. ASHRAE J. 15, No. 9, 57-62 (1973).

51
ESTABLISHMEFT OF THE BOUNDARIES TO COMFORT BY MALYZING DISCOMFORT

by

Ralph F. Goldman

US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine

Natick, Massachusetts 01760

ABSTRACT

The simple word "comfort" confounds a variety of social, psychological and physiological

perceptions. Even if one delimits the comfort area to the physiological correlates of human

thermal comfort, there are still a number of facets which must be addressed. Physiologically,

thermal comfor^t is an integrated system state, with primary inputs from the mean weighted skin

temperature (Tg) , the % skin wettedness and the temperature of the extremities (particularly

^toe '^finger) secondary inputs from alterations of deep body temperature (Tj.e) and

heart rate (H.R.). These secondary inputs result from the body attempting to compensate for

the strain imposed changes in the resting level of body heat content (AS) by the environment

and work load. As one might expect, comfort exists across a range of these various parameters, rather than at any single, unique, state point. It is easier to delineate the boundary

between comfort and discomfort, or between comfort and performance decrement, than it is to

delineate comfort per se . llle following table provides some representative values for comfort, discomfort and performance decrement levels, and adds the confounding factor that the

comfort zone can be dramatically altered by clothing insulation (clo)

:

COMFORT DISCOMFORT PERFORMANCE +

"A

RH/VP

Wind

Eff. Temp.

WIND CHILL

T

s

% Wet Skin

Tfinger

T

toe

re

AS

% H2O LOSS

WORK

H.R.

25.5 °C

50%

<0.2 m/sec

21.6 °C ET

200 kcal/m^ • hr

33.3 "C

<20%

>21 °C

>18.5 'C

37 + 0.5 °C

0 kcal

0%

100 kcal/hr

60 - 80 min

f (clo + RH)

<5 mm Hg

>18 mm Hg

>4 m/sec

26" - 29.5 "C ET

>600

31 "C

>20%

<20 "C

<17 °C

?

+ 25 kcal

2%

>300 kcal/hr

>30/min+

f (clo + RH)

>6 m/sec

>30 °C ET

f (clothing)

30 °C

>40%

<15 °C

<13 "C

>38.2 °C

<36.0 "C

+ 80 kcal

4%

>425 kcal/hr

?

Key Words: Clothing effects; comfort; heat storage; work effects

52
There has been a great deal of work on assessment of comfort, usually by comfort vote.

Other studies have shown that subjective interpretations of comfort are different from those

of pleasant versus unpleasant, and different again from those of temperature sensation. All

three are clearly related to the immediately preceding environment of the subject, with a pronounced hysteresis loop in pleasantness, comfort and temperature sensation depending upon

the direction of change from an existing baseline.

One of the problems in the definition of comfort has been that in a comfortable environment little or nothing changes. There are clearly differences in comfort sensation associated with season of the year, with habituation as well as acclimatization, and perhaps with

such other factors as age, sex and physical condition. Thus, studies of comfort which merely

attempt to define the zone of comfort have to decide at what point the normal variability

associated with the season, the Individual, and his clothing, etc. diverges sufficiently to

be considered a significant departure from the comfort zone. In addition, the "pass band"

(i.e. the range over which comfort is not significantly altered) is fairly wide not only with

regard to temperature, but also humidity, air motion and radiant heat exchange.

The approach taken to this problem in my laboratory has been rather different. Instead

of trying to define comfort and its associated ranges, we have looked at tolerance to heat,

to cold, and to work. We thus approach comfort along the other end of the axis; instead of

working from comfort to discomfort, we work from discomfort or limits of physiological tolerance, where very dramatic changes in physiological status can be monitored, and approach

less severe conditions. Thus, we Interpret comfort as those conditions where significant

physiological changes do not occur. The argument used is that somehow the cessation of physiological alterations is easier to detect and delineate than the onset of altered physiological status. This approach also Involves an attempt to express the physical factors in the

environments, and the relevant physiological factors of the individual, in fairly rigorous

theoretical physical terms. These are assessed by either direct physical measurement or biophysical simulation, such as the heated copper manikin, by subsequent development of predictive models of what the physiological responses would be to any given combination of work,

temperature, humidity, air motion and clothing and, finally, by controlled physiological

studies to refine and ultimately validate the biophysical models developed.

This manuscript will review this approach to comfort and consider the comfort equation

primarily from two aspects, heat production and heat loss. We will reference the comfort

sensation associated with the percentage of the body surface area that is sweat wetted, but

the primary emphasis will be on the terms in the classic heat balance equation which specify

that change of heat storage (AS) should equal 0 for true physiological comfort. This equation is

:

AS = m + q^ + (R + C) - E (1)

where M equals metabolic heat production, qg equals solar heat load if any, R + C represent

radiant and convective heat exchanges respectively, and E represents evaporative heat loss.

In the usual resting situation, the metabolic heat production term (M) is readily

described as a heat production of 1 Met, defined as 50 kcal/m^/hr; roughly a heat production

of 105 Watts for an average male with a surface area of 1.8 m2. On the other hand during

work, heat production can be varied over a significant range, perhaps by an order of magnitude of fifteen for short bursts of activity. Thus, definitions of heat production can pose

a problem in assessment of comfort. There are several approaches that can be used other than

actual measurement of metabolic heat production by the usual oxygen consumption measurements

and calculations. Many tables exist which describe the heat production for almost all con- ceivable forms of recreation, work or other activity. In addition, we have explored this end

of the heat balance equation quite thoroughly and can predict heat production as a function

of the subject's weight, speed, the load he carries if any (and its placement), the type of

terrain he is covering, and its grade. Alternatively, when the work Involved Is not simply

walking and carrying a load, and if we know the physical work of an individual (i.e. foot

pounds of lift work per minute), we can assume an efficiency factor of about 20% If the individual is using his large muscle masses and convert the physical work to a heat production

merely by multiplying physical work (expressed in kcal/hr) by 5. If only arm work is involved, i.e. smaller muscle masses, then we can use an efficiency factor of about 10 or 12%.

53
Thus, for well defined work routines, we have a variety of approaches; either direct measurements, or tables of existing values, or estimation as a function of speed, grade, terrain and

weight, or estimation of the physical work involved.

On the other hand, in the usual industrial situation, the individual tends to set his " own pace rather than to work at a given rate. We have explored this problem and have determined that, given reasonably good motivation, a relatively fit 18 to 25 year old soldier will

tend to pace himself as a function of his load, the type of terrain and its grade, so that

the physical work will be regulated to give a heat production, at most, of about 425 kcal/

hr + 10%. This self-paced hard work level seems to be relatively independent of fatigue, " ambient temperature, or time of day, but may be considerably different from 425 kcal/hr for

less fit, older or female populations. The 425 kcal/hr level for these fit young male subjects represents between 40 and 50% of their maximum work capacity and is an intermediate

value between the 600 kcal/hr rate which would exhaust them in about an hour if they worked

at this rate continuously, and the 300 kcal/hr rate which, again for this population only,

represents only moderately hard work. These then are our various alternative methods for

assessment of the metabolic heat production in our heat balance equation.

The solar heat load is not usually a major consideration in indoor environments, but

must of course be considered a prominent feature in outdoor environments. Without dwelling

deeply on this rather specialized portion of the heat balance equation, I should merely like

to indicate that solution of this term involves knowing 3 terms in the radiant surround—the

direct, the diffuse, and the reflected terrain albedo radiation, and the surface area of the

individual exposed to these three radiations in an XYZ plane, for a given individual, how ' ^ his surface area is changed by his clothing, and the transmisslvity and absorptivity of his

clothing. We have developed such a model. It appears to be able to predict the net solar

heat load arriving at the skin within 5 or 10 Watts of that actually measured. Our major

effort in this area at the moment is directed towards resolving how one adds solar heat load

arriving at the skin to metabolic heat production in terms of physiological effects. Surely

the effects of solar heat are quite different from the effects of an equivalent wattage of

metabolic heat produced internally, but the relative proportioning and effects on skin temperature, rectal temperature, heart rate, sweat production, and evaporation require elucidation.

Turning next to the heat loss side of the equation, let us consider the radiant and con- vective heat losses. Conductive heat loss is ignorable in most practical cases since it usually involves only a very small surface area (e.g. merely the soles of the shbes for a standing individual) . While rigorous physical equations do exist for the heat transfer between a nude individual and his environmental surround (as a function of the temperature differences

and vapor pressure differences using such sophisticated theoretical physical terms as Reynol<is

Grassoff, and Prandtl numbers), no such analyses or equations exist for the clothed man. Indeed the problems of combined evaporative and sensible heat transfer through multiple clothing layers, with their associated multiple layers of trapped still air, is one that currently

defies rigorous theoretical solution and will probably continue to do so for many years.

Instead, to resolve this problem we have resorted to a biophysical analog, a heated life-sized

copper manikin which, when fitted with a thin nylon-cotton skin which can be saturated with

water, can define not only the radiant and convective heat exchanges of a human through a given clothing system, but also his evaporative maximum heat transfer.

One can measure the actual change in body heat content using the classic relationship

that_there is a mean temperature for the mass of the body, T^, (usually defined as Tj, = 1/3 Tgkin + 2/3 Trectal) ^'^'^ that the specific heat of human tissues is 0.83 kcal/kg • °C.

Thus the change in heat content (heat storage or AS) can be defined as:

AS = 0.83 • mass • AT^ (2)

If we define the mass of a standard reference man as 70 kg, the simple multiplication 0.83 x 70_implies that a change of 58.1 kcal corresponds to a 1 "C change in mean body temperature

(AT^) . Thus we have a physiologically measurable quantity to use as the basis for heat storage (AS) in the heat balance equation (Equation 1)

.

Having defined the metabolic heat production, and indicated an approach to resolving the

solar load problem if necessary, it only remains for us to interpret the data from our anthropomorphic copper manikins, for us to be able to completely resolve the comfort equation, using

as the criterion for comfort that there should be no change in heat storage.

54
We have based this Interpretation upon the classic work of Gagge et al. , who defined the

clo unit of thermal Insulation as that Insulation which allowed the transfer of 5.55 kcal/in2

of surface area per hour for each "C difference between skin and air temperature. We then

Introduced, following Woodcock, the concept of the permeability index (ijn) . This describes

the ratio of the possible evaporative heat loss to the maximum that could exist in any given

ambient vapor pressure environment, as a function of the difference between the vapor pressure of the skin (Pg) and ambient vapor pressure (Pg) , When this difference is converted to an equivalent temperature gradient using the physical relationship (Lewis relationship) that

1 mm Hg vapor pressure differential is equivalent to a temperature difference of 2.2 °C (as

observed in the slope of the wet bulb lines on a psychrometric chart), we can write the following two equations for radiation and convection H (R + C) and maximum evaporative (Hg) heat

transfer from the body, for our standard man with 1.8 m2 of surface area, as a function of

the clothing (clo) and its permeability (1^)

:

H (R + C) = 10 • 1/clo • (T - T ) (3)

s a

= 10 . 1^/clo • (2.2) . (P^ - P^) (4)

Assuming a standard reference skin temperature of 35 (95 °F) for a nude man, there is an associated saturated vapor pressure of 42 mm Hg for sweat at the skin surface; for a clothed man we generally have found skin temperatures of approximately 36 "C, and therefore an associated vapor pressure of 44 mm Hg. It can readily be seen that, having established the skin

temperature (and its associated vapor pressure) of men in a hot environment, we can estimate

the radiation and convectlve heat exchanges and the evaporative heat loss for any ambient temperature and humidity, since equations 3 and 4 above give these heat losses per "C and per mm Hg of vapor pressure difference between skin and ambient environment conditions. Thus, we

can define, for a given uniform of measured clo and ijjj/cio characteristics, the actual radiation and convectlve heat transfers, and the maximxim evaporative heat transfer possible in

any given environment.

We now can define the "Psychrometric Range" of a given clothing system. The lower limit

of this range is the lowest dry bulb temperature at which an individual seated at rest (losing

about 25% of his resting heat production from the respiratory tract and by diffusion of water

vapor from the skin without active sweating) will lose only 75% of his resting heat production,

i.e. no more than 75 kcal/hr (300 BTU/hr) of a total 100 kcal/hr (400 BTU/hr) of heat production at rest. Note that this limit parallels the dry bulb temperature lines on a psychrometric chart. The upper limit is a line paralleling the wet bulb temperature lines and defines

those combinations of air temperature and vapor pressure below which an individual having a heat production of 300 kcal/hr (1200 BTU/hr) is able to eliminate 75% of it by a combination

of radiation plus convection and evaporation, when he is 100% sweat wetted (assuming roughly

that 25% of his metabolic heat production can be lost from the respiratory tract as a result

of the increased respiratory response associated with the increased oxygen demand of the work)

.

This concept is illustrated in Figure 1, which shows the predicted psychrometric range for an individual with and without body armor, at rest (100 kcal/hr = 400 BTU/hr of heat production),

with a need to lose not more than 75 kcal/hr (300 BTU/hr) by radiation and convection, and at

work (heat production of 300 kcal/hr = 1200 BTU/hr) , with the requirement to lose 225 kcal/hr

(900 BTU/hr) by combined evaporative and non-evaporative heat transfers through these two

clothing systems.

This concept of psychrometric range is clearly an imprecise statement because of the

alteration of the insulation and vapor permeability of clothing with varied air motion, the

ability of the body to produce different amounts of sweat, to accustomize to different degrees

of heat storage, and to alter skin temperature as a function of state of acclimatization and

hydration etc. Nevertheless, it is a very useful concept in delineating those environmental

conditions under which tests of several clothing systems are most apt to show physiological

differences. This can be exemplified by considering that if two clothing systems are studied

under conditions well below the upper psychrometric range of either, then the body can come

to a common physiological state (as indicated by measurements of evaporative sweat loss, rectal

temperature and heart rate) by relatively minor variation in the sweat wetted surface areas. Thus any difference between the two uniform ensembles is apt to be lost between this immeasurable and the normal variability inherent in small sample analyses. On the other hand,

should the study of these two theoretical clothing systems be conducted well above the theoretical upper range of either, then the physiological responses of subjects wearing either

55
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56
garment will be driven to their maximum heart rates, rates of rectal temperature change, and

100% sweat wetted areas. Rather than studying the differences in uniforms, one will be studying the differences in physiological tolerances of the wearers under extreme stress. The

results will be relatively independent of whether, with one uniform, the stress is 130% of

the maximum the individual can bear or 115% with the other. This lack of discrimination is

shown in Figure 2, where the change in rectal temperature for men during a 100 minute march

is graphed at 5 different environmental conditions, expressed as the WBGT index (WBGT = 0.7 T^b + 0.2 Tq + 0.1 Tdb) • It can readily be seen that the 100 minute march cannot be com- pleted at either of the two highest WBGT conditions and that the difference between the rectal temperature change with or without armor is barely distinguishable. In a- similar manner,

although all subjects can complete the march without difficulty under the lowest WBGT condition, there is again no difference in rectal temperature response. The comparability of rectal temperatures is achieved by small, relatively immeasurable differences in sweat wetted

body surface area. Only in the mid range, i.e. conditions which lie between the psychrometric

upper ranges of the two uniforms, can one clearly see the difference of wearing or not wearing body armor. The advantage of the Psychrometric Range concept is that it allows the scientist to select those conditions which are most likely to exhibit any differences in the

physiological responses of men wearing various clothing systems. In other words, the investigator can dramatically alter the signal (data) to noise (variability) ratio in his study

by appropriate selection of the environmental condition under which he studies a given clothing system, based upon consideration of its insulating clo and vapor permeability im values,

as determined on the heated copper manikin.

An example of this approach is given in Figure 3, which shows the average change in heat

storage for 8 subjects walking at 29.5 °C (85 °F) , 50% R.H. wearing either a full length plastic raincoat, or the same coat cut down to 3/4, 1/2 and 1/4 length. The copper manikin values, given at the right hand side of the figure, were used to calculate that at the ambient

temperature of 85 °F and 50% relative humidity, the maximum combined heat loss by radiation,

convection and evaporation is 142 kcal/hr wearing the 1/4 length raincoat. This is reduced

to 126 kcal/hr by the 1/2 length and to 108 kcal/hr by the 3/4 length raincoat while, when

wearing the full length raincoat the wearer will have only a total 92 kcal/hr of non-evaporative plus maximum evaporative heat loss. A resting individual, producing perhaps 90 kcal/hr

(105 Watts), should have no problem with heat storage; however, during work (walking at 3 mph)

,

there should be a distinct difference in the relative heat storages of men when they wear

these 4 raincoat systems. The agreement with this prediction is clearly demonstrated in the

figure (cf. Fig. 3). With no heat storage at rest, there is good agreement in the rank ordering of the 4 raincoats as a function of their clo and ijjj/cio ratio rank order. Similar agreement between the relative rank ordering of clothing systems suggested in the ±^/clo ratios

and the actual heat storages, is shown in Figure 4, for 7 men walking in a 95 °F environment.

This condition minimizes the differences between the clothing systems associated with differences in clo. In the absence of a significant skin to air temperature gradient, there will

be almost no radiation and convective heat transfer. The heat storage when wearing the two

garments with a 0.34 i^/clo are obviously identical during the two walk periods, as are the

heat storages of the men wearing the two garments with 0.22 and 0.23 im/clo ratios, at least

for that portion of the time when enough of the subjects (small numbers in circles represent

subjects remaining) are still able to continue. The heat storage of these men when they wear

the 0.27 im/clo ratio garment can be clearly seen to be between the heat storage with the 0.34

and 0.22 garments.

Another point illustrated by Figure 4 is our usual finding that 80 kcal of heat storage

represents the usual limit of voluntary heat tolerance; i.e. the "ouch" level at which our volunteer subjects usually choose not to continue to participate in the exposure. Obviously,

if one can define the limit of voluntary tolerance, and add to it the knowledge that subjects

of this age and size who store approximately 160 kcal of heat in their body run a 50% risk of

being a heat exhaustion collapse casualty, this information, in combination with the ability

to predict heat production as a function of the task and heat losses as a function of the

clothing, forms a complete system for prediction of tolerance time. Tolerance time can simply

be defined as the time to accxunulate either 80, or 160 kcal of body heat storage. This time

is a function of the difference between the working heat production and the ambient environmental heat loss capacities. Similarly, evidence suggests that the threshold of discomfort

is an alteration of + 25 kcal of body heat storage; thus the comfort zone can be considered

as those work, clothing, environment combinations which do not alter body heat storage by more

than 25 kcal.

57
CHANGE IN RECTAL TEMPERATURE

WB6T note:

Closed Symbols =W/Armor

Open Symbols - W/0 Armor

I

I I

I

I

I

I > I

I

I

I

I I > I 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

ELAPSED MARCH TIME

(min)

Figure 2

58
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60
One problem in this otherwise ideal system is that the observed heat storages, while

almost always ranking in the order predicted by the static copper manikin values, very seldom

actually equal the predicted heat storages. The observed heat storages are almost always

significantly less than those predicted from the static copper man values. The difference

reflects the fact that clo and i^ change as a function of the air motion. The air motion

occurring in the studies are usually different from those used during the determination of

the clo and ij^ on the copper manikin, and the subjects generate air motion while walking and

wearing the clothing. The change in clo and i^ as a function of wind velocity can be readily

determined by exposing our copper manikin in the wind tunnel while measuring clo and t^.

These changes in clo and ij^ with wind speed are illustrated for a standard tropical fatigue

uniform in Figure 5.

The problem of dealing with the air motion generated by the wearer while walking is more

complex. Studies have been conducted using naphthalene spheres set off the skin surface, but

attached by bands to the skin surface. The rate of air motion across the naphthalene spheres

is directly determined by the rate of sublimation (weight loss) of the naphthalene while subjects wearing the spheres walk either on a regular flat surface or on treadmill. Treadmill

walking obviously results in different air motion from road walking because of lack of forward progression. This data is currently being correlated with the effective air motion we

calculate by assessment of the "effective clo and 1^" values, "which must have existed", for

subjects wearing given clothing systems in given environments while walking at given speeds

and accumulating the heat storage. In essence, one uses the physiological heat storages and

matches them against the ambient temperature and vapor pressure differences to determine what

the effective clo and i^ values must have been. The effect of the combination of wind and

subjective air motion is expressed in our models as a "ptimping coefficient", an exponent which

modifies both clo and i^ as a function of what we have chosen to call the effective wind

velocity, Vgff . This is the sum of the ambient wind speed plus a mathematical constant times

the metabolic heat production generated while walking.

Using either measured or predicted heat production, and the clo, and ij^ for a given

clothing system as modified by the pumping coefficient, Vgf£, we have been able to predict

both the rectal temperature and heart rate response patterns for a wide variety of work, rest

and recovery over a wide range of warm to hot temperatures with low to high humidities. A

sample of the agreement between predicted and measured rectal temperatures is shown in Figure

6. One can see that the agreement is usually with 0.1 "C for the average of a group of 8 subjects. The agreement between the predicted and measured heart rates is shown in Figure 7 and,

again, the agreement is quite good, usually on the order of 3 to 6 bpm.

In summary, our approach to comfort is to use this well validated prediction model to

predict those environmental conditions (i.e. those combinations of temperature, humidity,

solar heat load and wind speed) which do not significantly alter either rectal temperature

or heart rate. Heat production, skin temperature, skin wettedness and heat storage can also

be predicted. This approach allows us to consider comfort for almost any clothing system

and work—rest —recovery combination. It is, we believe, a fruitful approach to the prediction of discomfort and to the establishment of appropriate working conditions and appropriate

recovery times. Indeed, we feel that this approach to defining the discomfort boundaries to

comfort is a valuable supplement, and offers several distinct advantages over the usual subjective comfort vote evaluation.

61
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64
HEAT STRESS. WORK FUNCTION AND PHYSIOLOaTnAL HEAT EXPOSURE LIMITS IN MAN

A. R. Dasler, Ph.D. *

Naval Medical Research Institute

National Naval Medical Center

Bethesda, Maryland 20014

Abstract

Various operational trials using tolerance criteria available in the literature

revealed that predictions of physiological exposure limits were rarely compatible with the

observed status of men in a wide range of heat stress and work conditions. Computer

integration of laboratory and industrial -type data led to establishing a comprehensive set

of physiological criteria for tolerance limits appropriate to man at work within timeweighted-mean (t ) metabolic rates from 76 - 126 kcal/(m^«hr) [88.4 - 146.5 W*m~^] . These

criteria and worlc^rates were integrated with industrial -type heat stress conditions over

the tvfln WBGT Index range of 82 - 130°F [27.8 - 54.4°C]; which resulted in developing the

Physiological Heat Exposure Limits (PHEL) concept. Several electronic heat stress monitordevices were evaluated and employed in determining environmental conditions. In all laboratory and field studies the dry- and wet -bulb and globe temperatures were recorded.

Physiological data were obtained at the same time as the environmental data. Although the

physiological data obtained in the laboratory were much more broad in scope than in the

field settings, the field approach included physical characteristics of the subjects, body

temperatures (skin and rectal) , cardiovascular (heart rates and blood pressures) and

metabolic-respiratory (O2 consumption, respiratory minute volvime and respiration rates)

data during rest and performance of dynamic work; sweat rates were determined by body

weight changes when feasible in the non- laboratory trials. Coefficients for physiological

factors in the heat stress and strain equations were automatically adjusted for physiological changes determined in the actual situations. Comparison of over 200 sets of environmental and physiological data supported the PHEL concept and permitted more definitive

identification of material areas requiring corrective engineering actions in the industrial

type settings. Corrective engineering actions based upon results of the data analyses have

permitted nearly a sixfold increase of the maximum physiological exposure times; simultaneously, the estimated cardiovascular reserve increased from 15% to as much as 85% during

routine work.

Key Words : Heat Stress, Exposure Limits, Thermal Analysis

Introduction

Heat stress and strain have a profound impact upon man and industry. Regardless of

the specific causes, the immediate consequences of uncompensated heat stress upon man are observed as a major loss of man's performance efficiency and the loss of work productivity

time. It is generally known that excessive heat stress exposures lead to a progressive

loss of performance capability, lowered resistance to some stresses, and low retention of

personnel.

Establishment of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 was a significant

* Commander, Medical Service Corps, U.S. Navy; Head, Heat Stress Division.

Supported by Naval Medical Research § Development Command, Navy Department, Research

Subtask MF51. 524. 023- 1005.

The opinions and statements contained herein are the private ones of the author and are not

to be construed as official or reflecting upon the naval service at large.

65
stimulus for the civilian community to recognize the need for much greater awareness and

initiation of corrective actions relative to heat stress problems. Lengthy deliberations

were held by the- Steering Committee for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration

(OSHA) . Numerous testimonies were given and a number of drafts of a proposed U.S. Federal

Heat Exposure Standard were submitted to OSHA. The Steering Committee's final

document was submitted on 11 January 1974. The main intent of the proposed Standard

document was to provide guidelines as to when sound health practices should be introduced

to protect workers. In the final document it was clear that questions regarding heat

tolerance limits remained unanswered. In other words, the proposed Standard was to serve

as a basis whereby industry should begin to institute sound health practices as the thermal

environment and rate of work began to impose strain within workers; conversely, the document

did not truly address tolerance limits where exposures and work rates would have to be

terminated. A number of pitfalls in attempting to establish a more encompassing heat expo- sure standard were recently presented,^ and it is very likely that many of the limitations

in the proposed standard have had a major impact upon the absence of a currently OSHA

approved set of heat exposure guidelines in this country.

Progress in identifying and combatting the adverse effects of heat stress and attempting to minimize the physiological strain in men have been extremely varied over the years.

It is readily apparent that the total problem is far more complex when research is confronted with the real world of multiple combinations of physical factors in the environment and

the physiological capabilities of m'an, whether it is a civilian or military situation. The

majority of prior efforts were limited to studying only a few variables simultaneously. The

technology-of-the-day did not permit development of concise solutions to involved questions;

the scope of generally used physiological variables was extremely narrow; and, occasionally

some past research was influenced by subjective information. Exploitation of modem technology has increased the ability to integrate numerous research findings and to improve

bilateral cross-overs between laboratory and field efforts. It was through the use of the

practical state-of-the-art technology today that the questions regarding heat stress, work

function and physiological heat exposure limits were examined. The product, in terms of

what can be assessed objectively at this time, has been the demonstration that it is

feasible to dramatically reduce high heat stress levels and obtain a marked improvement in

physiological performance.

Physiological Criteria of Heat Tolerance in Man

Studies of man's capacity to endure heat stress, or heat tolerance as used herein,

have utilized a wide range of upper limits for the same physiological parameters. The

conventional physiological criteria of heat tolerance have been associated with a range of

heart rate (HR) values from 150 - >200 beatS'min"-^ , rectal temperature (T^-g) from 38.0 - 40.8°C, and sweat rates (SR) to 3.5 liters •hr"''' , ^" ^ ^ Furthermore, there has been the "too

late" approach of allowing exposures to continue until personnel demonstrate imminent

collapse or an overt illness.

It has been shown that HR, by itself, is a poor predictor of cardiovascular limits

when dealing with various ages of workers, rates of work, and states of physical conditioning and acclimatization.^' ^^"^^ On a sound physiological basis it is not surprising that a HR limit cannot be well-defined as there are numerous offsetting cardiovascular factors

which are not illustrated by HR alone. ^'^ In occupational situations the sole use of HR may

be of little significance relative to heat tolerance under a variety of conditions; ' ^^"^'^ HR may be altered by the influence of items such as sodium chloride, ^-^ or may be misleading

in comparison with other changes within the cardiovascular system. ^ > On the other hand,

Tre is subject to various interpretations, dependent upon the rates of change, ^ ^ » -^^'^^ and the dynamics of other internal body temperatures are such that in transient states T-^g

is the least reliable of the internal body temperatures to depict the more meaningful

thermal status of man. ^^'^^ Also, the use of SR must be done with caution as there is

evidence that SR's are subject to decrease in comparison with high SR's found early in the

total heat acclimatization profile,'*'^'* and SR's are markedly reduced with varying amounts

of sodium chloride ingestion.

66
Driven by a basic common sense question regarding what are tolerance limits to heat

stress over a variety of general work tasks, and an urgent need for a simplified method

which employs factors essential for practical engineering actions, a review of physiological data from over 160 experiments resulted in Table It Application of Table 1 required

at least two objectives to be reached In order to define physiological heat exposure

limits within man; the most appropriate for laboratory and field studies are Indicated by

of "t" respectively.

Table 1

Improved Physiological Heat Exposure Limits Criteria

At Any Time During An Exposure:

Heart Rate >180 beats'min"^

* t Rectal Temp. ^SQ-O'C or ^1.6°C-hr-l

* Tympanic Temp. ^39.5°C or ^3.5°C'hr-l

* Esophageal Temp. ^40.0°C or ^4.4°C'hr-l

* t Total Vascular Resistance =20% of Control value

or

* t Cardiovascular Reserve^ ^'^^ 0%

Mental Disorientation

II. During Sustained Physical Work:

* ^ Systolic Blood Pressure

* Electrocardiogram

Korotkoff Sound Intensity

Ventilation Equivalent

Ratio of Oxygen Removal

Mental

III. Recovery:

* + Total Vascular Resistance

* t Cardiovascular Reserve

Heart Sound Intensities

Creatinine Phosphokinase

=40 mm Hg decrease within 3.5 min. interval

R-wave height =1 mm of T-wave (using Lead I or Transthoracic) or T-wave inversion

>3-fold increase from Control value

=47% increase from Control value

=33% decrease from Control value

Onset of euphoria immediately post-irritable

<80% of Control value within 20 min. postexposure

<75% within 20 minutes post-exposure

Sounds I and II remain >3-fold higher than

Control even though Heart Rate back to

Control level

Blood level >1000 units 24-hours postexposure

* These factors most common in controlled laboratory experiments.

t These factors most common in field experiments where monitoring is less

extensive than in laboratory experiments.

67
Selection of a Simplified Index of Environmental Heat Stress

Earlier experiments in high temperature situations illustrated the difficulties in

using available heat stress indices to scale short to long exposure times for men performing a range of routine tasks in industrial-type environments. 7^8,18-20,26 ^3 ^j^g U.S.

Navy Psychrometric Chart for High Temperature Habitability Limits (NAVSHIPS 4767) had a potential of application, a series of experiments were conducted to examine the validity

of the NAVSHIPS Chart for exposures from 15 minutes to 6 hours. Results of the study

clearly indicated that the NAVSHIPS Chart was able to provide reasonable agreement with

heat tolerance in the so-called "4-hour" and "3-hour" zones, as long as no radiant heat

was present and the metabolic rate (MR) was between 55 - 94 W*m"^. However, when radiant

heat was present there was virtually no agreement with the "4-hour" and "3-hour" zones,

and absolutely no agreement with any time zones of less than three hours. Careful examination of the original Bureau of Ships files indicated that the limits for less than three

hours, in the proposed but unissued Chart, were based upon the original coefficients of

the Belding and Hatch Heat Stress Index (HSI)^^ and that men were dressed only in shorts,

socks and shoes; whereas, the "3-" and "4-hour" zones were very wide and were based upon

data from men normally clothed. Obviously, the NAVSHIPS 4767 Psychrometric Chart for

High Temperature Habitability Limits was unsatisfactory in dealing with combinations of

radiant heat environments, was not sufficiently specific even in the absence of radiant

heat for short exposure time, required a broader range of MR and should have been consistent with men wearing normal working clothes throughout delineated zones.

The HSI, with revised Fort Knox coefficients, was a likely candidate for selection as

it developed the rational concepts of evaporation required to maintain heat balance (Ej.gq)

and maximum evaporative capacity (Ej^^ax^ order to obtain the HSI (See Appendix) . Unfortunately, even the new nomograms of McKarns and Brief^^ to estimate ^req> ^max and HSI are much more complicated than a simplified chart for lay usage. Furthermore, using the

improved coefficients and making corrections for actual skin temperatures, numerous calculations of the HSI revealed that the HSI values were either negative, implying mild cold

stress when in reality there was high heat stress, or the values were far beyond the

upper limit of 100. In separating out the factors within the HSI that may have been

subject to further modifications, it was determined that when the partial vapor pressure

(P^ partial) of the air exceeded the corrected vapor pressure at the skin the value for

Ereq became negative; in other words, a negative E^ax in high heat stress denoted that at

the higher P^^, partial of the air, water would condense on the skin of man. These results

also meant that the HSI concept was limited, in its current scaling terms, to environmental

conditions where evaporative cooling (compensated heat stress) was present. Rescaling of

the HSI was considered unwarranted to fit environmental conditions of uncompensated heat

stress and tolerance times of less than 8-hour exposures. (Data relative to these

negative and greater than 100 values are given later in this text.)

Selection of the Prescriptive Zone (PZ)^'^^ relative to physiological heat tolerance

and the physiological heat exposure limits criteria, as given in Table 1, was not appropriate. By definition, the PZ is based upon 95% of an average population not exceeding

a body temperature of 38.0°C. The PZ concept emphasizes the need for a nearly steady level

of equilibrium in a wide range of climates. Above the upper limits of the PZ an increase

in heat stress would result in a disportionate increase in cardiovascular strain unless

^ma? increased teyond 38.0°C. As indicated previously, ^ . ^ °" ^2 , 1 8-20 , 26 ^gat tolerance

limits rarely can be defined by internal body temperatures as low as 38.0°C; tolerance

limits must be judged by objective criteria which truly reflect the upper points (which are limits) rather than the points of departure from equilibrium . Data comparing "1-hour"

and "30-minute" "heat tolerance" using the PZ versus HSI and other indices of heat stress

are discussed later in this text.

68
Review of information on the Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) Index indicated that

there were no less than six WBGT equations used in both theoretical and practical situations. Furthermore, reports of Yaglou et. al.,^'^ and Yaglou and Minard, did not specify

which WBGT equation must be applied indoors. Although usage of WBGT^* for outdoors and

WBGT^** for indoors has been widely referenced back to these reports, there was information 32-3 3 that WBGTc*** was applicable indoors with varying radiant heat levels and was

the significant form of WBGT in establishing standard criteria for heat tolerance limits.

This latter approach utilizes the integration of time -weighted-mean (twm) metabolic rates

(MR) and tivm WBGT^. with scaling for physiological heat tolerance limits, as given in Table

1, to permit practical utilization of essential environmental factors for physiological

tolerance limits, corrective engineering actions and routine surveillance of work areas in

industrial -type situations.

Physiological Heat Exposure Limits (PHEL) Chart

Curve fitting of radiant heat research data obtained by the Heat Stress Division,

Naval Medical Research Institute (NMRI) , revealed that the best fit curves were power

regression relationships (r's = -0.985 and -0.998) between tj^ MR's of men in normal work

clothes, twm WBGT^ and exposure time limits when the physiological heat exposure limits

criteria (Table 1) were met but not exceeded. On an initial basis there were two MR's

(88.8 and 111.7 W-m"^) and the majority of the 70 sets of data from 15 subjects for each

ty]Jf^ MR were within the t,^ WBGT's from 31.1 - 36.7°C. At approximately the same time Royal

Navy researchers^ combined WBGTj**** with a continuous MR of about 170 W'm~^, but without

the presence of radiant heat. Results of combining three phases of the Royal Navy effort

included a total of 87 subjects, 440 sets of observations, and WBGT^j from 32.1 - 53.9°C.

Replotting the Royal Navy data revealed that again the best fit curve was described by a power regression (r = -0.983). One major difference between the NMRI research and that of

the Royal Navy was that in the NMRI studies exposures were terminated in accordance with

the criteria associated with Table 1, whereas, the Royal Navy researchers terminated

exposures at the point of imminent collapse or overt illnesses. Another major difference

was that the Royal Navy studies were based upon continuous work at a much higher MR than in

the t;^ MR method used by the Heat Stress Division of NMRI. The Royal Navy goal was predominately directed to problem situations where emergency work would have to be performed

continuously at a very high rate of energy expenditure. The goal within the U.S. Navy was directed to a broader spectrum of exposure times (up to six hours) with t;^ MR and t,^ WBGT

values representing a more normal range of environmental and physical work conditions

encountered in hot, industrial-type civilian and military situations alike. Noise levels

in both the NMRI and Royal Navy studies were maintained at 90 dbA. In NMRI trials away from

the laboratory the subjects were required to wear standard stock hearing protection devices

-when the noise levels exceeded 90 dbA.

Research was continued by the Heat Stress Division, NMRI, and in September 1971 the

Navy established the Physiological Exposure Limits (PEL) Chart for use in high temperature

environments. It could be said at that time that the PEL Chart permitted determination of

the maximum physiological exposure limits, which if not exceeded would permit reversibility

of the physiological strain without detectable harm provided rest was allowed in a cool

environment. The acronym PEL came into general usage within the Navy^^ until identical

acronyms also appeared. In 1973 the Environmental Protective Agency initiated a series of

Public Exposure Limits (PEL) covering a broad scope of circumstances which did not include

heat stress; furthermore, the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

published Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL) in September 1973.^ In order to avoid con- fusion in referring to the three identical acronyms, the Navy, in November 1973, adopted

the more appropriate title Physiological Heat Exposure Limits (PHEL).^^ The PHEL Chart,

* WBGT^ = [(0.1 T^,,) . (0.7 T^^ ^^^^^^^) . (0.2 T^)]

** WBGT^= [(0.7 T^^ ^^^^^^P ^ (0.3Tg)]

*** WBGT = [(0.1 T., , . , , ,) + (0.7 T , , ^ ) + (0-2 T„) ] c db shielded wb psychrometric g **** WBGT^ = [(0.7 T^^^) + (0.3 T^^)]

69
as of 1973, consisted of the previous U.S. Navy PEL curves of 1971 with an additional curve

for tvvm MR (146.5 W-m-^) and extension of the t,^ WBGT range to 51.7°C for all three curves. Clearly there is a difference between the U.S. Navy PEL or PHEL Charts and the NIOSH PEL

concept; it must' be recognized that heat strain will be readily apparent with the U.S. Navy

PEL or PHEL when physiological heat exposure limits are reached, but the strain will be

reversible if the limits are not exceeded. On the other hand the NIOSH PEL was designed to

restrict deep body temperature rises to a maximum of 38''C.

Following the original research design of six equal increments of twm MR from "76 - 126

kcal/(m^'hr)" [now in equivalent metric units of 88.4 - 146.5 W«m"2] the PHEL Chart development continued by obtaining exposure limit curves for 100.0, 123.3 and 134.9 W»m"2. The

number of subjects, number of observations and other pertinent information regarding each

curve are summarized in Table 2 below, with equations for the respective PHEL curves given

in the Stress/Strain Evaluation Program (STEP-M2) Abbreviated in the Appendix. As indicated

previously, the twni WBGT range was 31.1 - 51.7°C.

Table 2

^wm MR Laboratory Data Field Data

(W*m-2) No . Sub

j

No. Obser.

Power Reg.

r

No., Subj

.

No. Obser.

Power Reg. r

88. 4 32 147

*(t =

-0.

155.

,997

,1063)

18 66

*(t

-0.995

= 79.6997)

100. 0 26 132

*(t =

-0.

180.

,998

,0070)

16 52

*Ct

-0.994

= 64.2589)

111. 7 28 137

*(t =

-0.

149.

,997

,6623)

18 57

*(t

-0.992

= 58.2778)

123. 3 25 128

*(t =

-0.

144.

,997

,5875)

15 48

*(t

-0.993

= 57.0198)

134. 9 17 67

*(t =

-0,

49.

,987

,3516)

7 20

*(t

-0.978

= 19.8907)

146. 5 11 46

*(t =

-0.

44.

,989

,3516)

5 12

*(t

-0.975

= 13.8756)

* t statistics from correlation coefficients. using Hewlett -Packard HP-65 STAT 2-16A

transposed for Hewlett-Packard HP-67/97; df = nobser. ~ 2; all t values significant

at p< 0.0001. Ages of subjects from 19 - 43 years; all subjects health classified

as "fit for duty" and each subject experienced in work tasks performed at the

twmMR's.

Utilization of all of the data resulted in the equation PHELgpg^^^^fj^^, given in the

Appendix (STEP-M2 Section) for tv^ MR's 88.4 - 146.5 W-m'^ and t^^ WBGT's 31.1 - 51.7''C.

Comparing PHELgpg^. j^fj^^, exposure times with the "Safe Exposure Times" given by Bell et. al.

indicated that the upper and lower 99% confidence limits of PHELspecific safe for

>95% of the population of subjects; for >99% of the population the lower 99% confidence

limits from PHELspecific were safe, but the upper 99% confidence limits exceeded the

classification of^"safe".

Figure 1 is the PHEL Chart as developed for operational usage and released in the

revision of Chapter 3 (Ventilation and Thermal Stress Ashore and Afloat) of the Manual of

Naval Preventive Medicine.^'' However, for practical situations which do not need all six

of the PHEL curves, an abbreviated PHEL Chart was issued^^ which contains only PHEL curves

I ("A"), III ("B") and VI ("C") ; the abbreviated PHEL Chart is also given in the Manual of

Naval Preventive Medicine.

70
figure 1

--I25 PHYSIOLOGICAL HEAT EXPOSURE LIMITS (PHEL)

50 --

45 --

40--

30 --

-105

35 -- 95

-too

- 90

J I I I I I I I I I I I I > I 1 I I I

I 1^1 I 12 I 3 4 5 6

HRS.

Curve I ("A") for MR 88.5 W-in-2; Curve II for t^^ MR 100.0 W«m-2; Curve III ("B")

for tyna MR 111.7 W«m-2; Curve IV for MR 123.3 W«m-2; Curve V for ty^ MR 134.9

W-m-2; and. Curve VI ("C") for ty^i MR 146,5 W«m-2.

71
Statistical comparison of adjacent PHEL curves I - IV, within the WBGT range of

35 - 45°C, are presented in Table 3. Paired data from field trials show that the adjacent

PHEL curves, based upon the physiological heat tolerance criteria from Table 1, are significantly different.

Table 3

Statistics

Comparison Of Adjacent PHEL Curves

I vs. II II vs. Ill III vs. IV

Paired t df

P

10.0489

33

< 0.0001

7.9242

18

< 0.0001

6.4916

19

< 0.0001

The series of intermittent work-rest cycles in Table 4 demonstrate the utility of the

PHEL Chart within the steady state oxygen consumption versus physical activity descriptions

given in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.^^ In contrast with the intermittent workrest limits suggested by Esso Research § Engineering Co.,'*'' a limited number of calculations using PHELspecific for light and moderate work showed that the large percent

differences between the Esso approach and PHEL are related to the more conservative physiological limits criteria used by Esso compared to the criteria limits In Table 1 of this text.

Table 4

PHEL Curves For Intermittent Work--Rest *

Physical Activity ** WorkO2 Con sump.

(L-min"^)

No. Minutes Work/No. Minutes Rest

10/50 20/40 30/30 40/20 50/10

Standing 0.50 I Average Light Work 0.75 I II III IV

Upper Light to

Lower Moderate Work

1.00 II IV VI

Average Moderate Work 1.25 I III VI

Upper Moderate to

Lower Heavy Work

1.50 II V

Average Heavy Work 1.75 II VI

Upper Heavy to Lower

Very Heavy Work

2.00 III

Average Very Heavy Work 2.25 IV

Upper Very Heavy Work 2.50 IV

* Use of this approach involves the selection of the closest PHEL curve representing

the twj„ MR appropriate to the work-rest cycle at the specified level of physical

activity. An alternate approach is to use PHELgpecific given in STEP-M2 of the

Appendix.

** As indicated in Table 5 of ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals . ^9

72
Another important set of comparisons with the PHEL concept is given in Table 5. As

WBGT increased 8-11 percent and MR remained the same it was expected that heat

tolerance times would decrease and cardiovascular strain would increase, or cardiovascular

reserve would decrease. In Table 5, due to changing the environmental temperatures, WBGT

increased within each set of physical activities, the PHEL decreased and estimated cardiovascular reserve^ ^'^^ (CVR) decreased; therefore, the stress increased and the strain also

increased. However, the work of Nishi and Gagge'*^ to predict both comfort and heat tolerance through use of the PZ does not agree with the above expectations. Although a deep

body temperature rise limit of 38.0°C for the PZ may be practical for instituting sound

health practices of a preventive nature (^uch as providing drinking water, etc.), as environmental temperatures increase (like that in the proposed OSHA Heat Standard) , the limit of

38.0°C again does not define heat tolerance limits of man. Furthermore, as previously

noted relative to the HSI, a negative HSI does not necessarily mean the presence of "mild

cold stress".

Table 5

"1-Hr. Heat Tolerance" Using Prescriptive Zone * Other Comparisons **

Activity T^^, § Tg T^^b P„ partial ^*** "SI WBGT PHEL CVR

(°C) (°C) (Torr) (%) ("C) (hr:min) (%)

Sedentary 35,,4 35,.4 43,.1 100 -32,.1 35,.4 5;:10 56

(58.2 W-m-2) 42.,2 34,.8 37,,9 61 137,.9 37..0 4::00 52

47,,8 34,.3 33,.7 41 75,.9 38,.4 3::20 48

Light Work 34.,3 34..3 40,,5 100 -57,,3 34,,3 2::50 45

(116.3 W.m-2) 41..7 33.,8 35..4 59 82,,8 36,,2 2::05 40

46.,9 33.,3 31.,4 40 62,.3 37,.4 1::40 37

Medium Work 34. 1 34,,1 40..1 100 -85.,7 34,,1 0::10 32

(174.5 W«m-2) 41.,7 33.,8 35.,4 59 88,.7 36.,2 0::05 26

47.,2 33.,4 31.,5 39 66,,5 37..6 0::05 22

"30-Min. Heat Tolerance" Using Prescript ive Zone *

Medium Work 34.,9 34,,9 41,,9 100 -55.,8 34,,9 0 :10 30

(174.5 W'm-2) 42..2 34,,8 37,,9 61 157..9 37,,0 0 :05 24

48.,3 34,,6 34,,2 40 89..0 38,.7 0::05 19

* Adapted from Nishi and Gagge.^^

** Using STEP-M2 Abbreviated (See Appendix), with PHEL's rounded to the nearest 5 mins.

*** Relative humidity, as obtained from STEP-M2 Abbreviated.

Note: There are considerable differences within the literature as to definitions of

physical activity relative to MR, therefore, the MR's given in this table are those appropriate to uses by Nishi and Gagge.**^ PHEL's of very short lengths of

time are comparable with Bell et . al.^ in the sense that the PHEL's would be "safe"

for 99% of the population of unacclimatized, fit exposees.

73
Initial Field Surveys and Development of Analyses and Corrective Programs

A series of 15 special field surveys were conducted in industrial -type environments.

The operational objectives of the surveys were to determine the range of thermal conditions

to which workers were exposed, the magnitude of physiological strain during routine work in

these environments, and to attempt to identify primary problem areas where corrective

engineering actions could most significantly minimize high levels of heat stress. In

order to permit comprehensive and more expeditious monitoring of the environment and physiological parameters a number of techniques, developed originally for laboratory research, were introduced into the field surveys. Critical data from the 15 initial surveys are summarized in Table 6.

Table 6

Average Range Maximum Range

Environmental Factors:

Dry-bulb Temp. (°C) 46.7 - 55.0 65.6 - 73.9

Wet -bulb Temp. (°C) 29.4 - 33.9 40.6 - 73.9

Globe Temp. (°C) 63.3 - 67.2 68.3 -82.2

Effective Air Movement Over Men (m/sec) 0.10 - 1.78 1.78 -7.62

Mean Radiant Temp. (°C) 75.6 - 85.0 87.2 - 106.7

Partial Vapor Pressure In Air (Torr) 17.6 - 53.9 11.9 -82.0

Relative Humidity (%) 14.9 - 68.9 6.2 - 100.0

Physiological Factors :

Mean Skin Temp, of Men (°C) 38.8-41.6 41.9-45.4

Rectal Temp. (°C) 38.6 - 39.3 39.4 - 40.2

Heart Rates (beats-min"^) 147 - 176 180 - 190

As has been presented in this text, there are many combinations of environmental and

physiological factors which can be used to obtain practical estimates of environmental

stress and to predict the impact of heat stress upon and within man. Fortunately, the

computer programs SPEEDARD-I and -II* have been in large scale usage"*^ to integrate heat

stress and strain data. These programs, designed for bulk data processing in a Univac

1108 at the National Bureau of Standards, were reviewed and markedly condensed to provide

the most significant 20 outputs for these special field surveys The resultant SHIP-6/4

program, requiring only 7 inputs, was modified for operation in a Hewlett-Packard HP-65

Programmable Pocket Calculator . '^^ SHIP-6/4 was gradually improved as there were needs for more descriptive information as the surveys proceeded. The most important change, prior

to designing the third generation program STEP**, was to develop the equations for

estimating mean skin temperature (Tsk) and rectal temperature (T^e) from 213 sets of data

(See Table A-1 of the Appendix); in turn, the estimated Tg^ was used as a means of better

correcting radiant (R) and convective (C) heat transfer, Ej-eqj Emax HSI. Furthermore,

cardiovascular factors monitored in both laboratory and fiela studies, within the heat

stress ranges noted in Table 6, were selected for their value in STEP programs. The

techniques for monitoring the cardiovascular factors, steps to carry out the necessary

calculations, and meaning of the products have been presented elsewhere .-^^'^^ The

pertinent aspects relative to t,^ MR's from 50.0 - 146.5 W'm"^ and t,^ WBGT's from 19.8 - 49.7°C are presented in the Appendix (Tables A-2 - A-5 and STEP-M2) . Therefore, in the

* Unique computer programs within the Heat Stress Division, NMRI

.

** STEP is the master program used to develop STEP-M2 Abbreviated as given in the Appendix.

74
final development of the STEP series of programs, for the most advanced, programmable,

self-contained, portable calculator*, the cardiovascular factors were incorporated with

heat stress analysis equations such that one could easily obtain practical estimates of

environmental heat stress and resultant physiological strain. To assist the many requests

for the now obsolete SHIP-6/4 program written for the HP-65, and the increasing number of

requests for STEP-M2 Abbreviated, the HP-97 program is given in the Appendix for STEP-M2

Abbreviated. STEP-E2 is the same as STEP-M2, but STEP-E2 is written for mixed English and

metric inputs and outputs. Another advantage of the STEP programs is the section which

permits calculation of maximum allowable exposures (MAE) for noise levels without hearing

protection; as noise levels were monitored in all heat stress surveys, this portion of the

STEP programs became very important.

Key to analysis of heat stress data from surveys is the quality of the heat stress

data obtained from the industrial-type . environments . Therefore, two series of evaluations were conducted to find a simple, light weight, fast response, small electronic device which measures and displays values for Tdb> Ty^jj, Tg and air velocity within desired accuracies

while exposed to dynamic heat stress conditions.'*^''*'* Over the range of temperatures to be

encountered and the types of hard usage and shipping constraints, there were five such

devices** evaluated in changing environmental situations, as viewed by the devices. In

reality, there were fixed environments of different Tj^,, T^^^,, Tg and air movements which

the electronic monitoring devices were moved into and out of for 30 minutes or more. From

the standpoint of T^j^ and Ty^^ sensors absorbing radiant heat, the Bendix units were the

most influenced and the Reuter-Stokes units were the least influenced by the radiant heat.

From the standpoint of fastest Tg response, the Reuter-Stokes devices were the most com- parable (within less than three minutes) with the values obtained from a Vernon globe that

had been in position for 30 minutes or more. The electronic device which best met the

defined performance needs'*^ was the Reuter-Stokes digital display unit that had been

built as part of a six sensing head monitor system.

A composite of the environmental and physiological findings from the special heat

stress surveys was assembled and subjected to critical review at various levels of policy,

research and development, and operational supervision. This led to the formulation of a high temperature/heat stress correction program which was divided into seven major categories; maintenance, medical, design, development, education/training, emergency ventilation problems, and related topics. Each of the categories had a number of sub-elements

to accomplish the objectives of the categories. The most decisive phase of the total

program was to determine if a routine engineering overhaul was sufficient to minimize the

heat stress and strain or if additional corrective engineering actions were required.

Three separate industrial -type settings were used to compare the impact of routine

overhauls and the additional corrective engineering actions. Settings No. 1 and No. 2 were

alike in terms of layout of machinery, types of machinery and operational status. Setting

No. 3 was documented to be the highest heat stress industrial-type setting found during the

special heat stress surveys. A general comparison of what was to be done is given in

Table 7. The emphasis of the additional corrective engineering actions was to ensure that

steam leaks were reduced as much as possible, that the majority of heat radiating surfaces were sufficiently insulated, and that there was a more effective delivery of ventilating

air to work sites and improved exhaust of air from the areas. These actions were undertaken to produce a combined effect of increasing the economy and performance of both the

workers and the equipment. Followup evaluations, after returning the Settings to full

* Hewlett-Packard HP-97; for HP-67 operations delete SPC steps and it is recommended that

R/S steps be substituted for PRTX steps.

** Light Laboratories Min-Lab 3 (England), with anemometer; Bendix WBGT Meter (manufactured 1972), finely adjusted prototype with anemometer; Bendix WBGT Meter (manufactured

1975), pre-production unit without anemometer; Reuter-Stokes RSS-211 Analog Readout,

commercial grade without anemometer; and Reuter-Stokes RSS-211 Special Digital Readout

unit [also known as the NMR^D MK-I/S(LED)] , a linearized unit with anemometer.

75
operation, were scheduled at approximately six month intervals for no less than one year.

Table 7

Industrial n « u

„ Basic Approach Setting No.

1 To receive a routine overhaul and completion of

previously scheduled alterations.

2 To receive a routine overhaul, completion of the same previously scheduled alterations as Setting

No. 1, and accomplishment of additional corrective

engineering actions. (Setting No. 2 was used for

the most direct comparison with Setting No. 1)

3 To receive a routine overhaul, completion of

previously scheduled alterations, and accomplishment

of additional corrective engineering actions.

(Setting No. 3 was to serve as a means of evaluating

the benefits of the additional engineering actions

in what had been the highest heat stress setting

found during the special heat stress surveys.)

Present Results of Engineering Actions to Minimize High Heat Stress

Comparative environmental and physiological data from followup evaluations for the

corrective action program in industrial-type Settings No. 1 - No. 3 have revealed significant reductions of high heat stress and physiological strain through a comprehensive

approach to the total problem, rather than pursuing routine overhauls in anticipation that

the overhauls alone will significantly minimize heat stress. Table 8 clearly shows that it was possible to decrease the level of heat stress, even in the worst thermal stress situation reported here, to the point where routine maintenance could be conducted much more efficiently and a small reduction of heat stress continued over a one year time after

restoring the Setting back into operation.

Table 8

Averaged Data from 14 Sites in Setting No. 3

Environmental Factors Pre-Corrective Post-Corrective Actions

and PHEL's Actions 6 Months 12 Months

Tdb (°C) 53.9 37.1 39.6

Twb (°C) 33.5 26.8 27.0

Tg (°C) 71.5 43.9 41.2

Effective Air Velocity

Over Workers (m/sec) 1.15 1.27 1.27

* Tj. (°C) 102.5 53.9 43.3

Pw partial (Torr) 29.7 21.6 20.7

t,^ WBGT (°C) 43.2 31.3 31.2

PHEL's for t^^ MR's: (hrs:mins)

88.4 W-m-2 1:20 7:10 7:10

146.5 W-m-2 0:20 2:10 2:10

Tj. = mean radiant temperature.

76
Siomraarized results of PHEL values, body temperatures and cardiovascular factors are presented in Table 9 for all three industrial -type settings. This information clearly

indicates the value of a comprehensive approach to heat stress rather than expecting

routine engineering overhauls alone to combat high heat stress.

Table 9

Averaged Data from Settings No. 1, No. 2 § No. 5

PHEL (hrs:mins) Cardiovascular Factors * Setting Corrective Action Tgj^ Tj-e

No. Phase Normal Maximum ,o^^ ^op^, HR SP/DP MAP CVR

twm MR MR ^

^

2 30 Days Post-Action 8 00 + 6 00 34 6 37 8 98 138/77 95 83

6 Mos. Post-Action 8 00 + 6 00 34 8 37 5 98 137/76 95 84

12 Mos. Post-Action 8 00 + 3 40 35 0 37 6 98 134/74 93 87

1 8 Mos. Post-Action 3 20 1 00 37 5 39 0 128 207/51 75 15

3 Pre-Action 1 20 0 20 44 9 39 8 180 184/42 71 1

6 Mos. Post-Action 7 10 2 10 36 4 38 1 107 165/75 93 63

12 Mos. Post-Action 7 10 2 10 34 8 37 5 109 171/72 92 59

* The cardiovascular factors are defined and in the following units: HR = heart rate

(beats "min" ; SP = systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) ; DP = diastolic blood pressure (mm

Hg) ; MAP = estimated mean arterial blood pressure (mm Hg) ; and, CVR = estimated cardiovascular reserve (%)

.

The cardiovascular responses in Setting No. I were such during the first one-third of the

trials that compensation was approaching its maximum; thereafter, there was rapid

decompensation due to the excessively high level of heat stress at the same time that

workers were attempting to perform their normal tasks. As discussed earlier, the low HR's were not descriptive of heat tolerance limits being reached as the strain was shifted to

other aspects of the cardiovascular system.

Summary

Major accomplishments have been achieved during the past few years in the control

of industrial heat stress. It is highly encouraging to note that through the strong

support of management'*^ and the capability of biomedical R§D to assist both management and

industrial-type workers that significant reductions of excessive heat stress are a reality

today. The utilization of research technology has permitted the establishment of an objective basis to dramatically improve highly limiting heat stress situations which have

had a profound, adverse impact upon man and industry.

Documentation of the ranges of industrial heat stress and the physiological responses

to that stress was the first step in initiating a direct attack upon high levels of heat

stress. Once evidence could be produced to show the problems involved, a series of phases were formulated whereby the goals of reduced levels of heat stress, increased work

function and availability of objective exposure l imits were instituted to guide

the design of better wprklne environments. The establishment of

comprehensive physiological heat exnosure criteria was imperative in order to

77
develop true exposure limits. As exposure limits are a function of the intensity of the

exposure, length of time in the specific environment and the rate of performing work under

those conditions, it was possible to develop the PHEL concept and exposure limit curves which recognized that physiological strain would be present but also would be reversible.

Meanwhile, a series of computer programs were prepared to integrate the variables of heat

stress and strain. This was done in such a manner as to permit practical partitioning of

the components of the stress, serve as a guide in making recommendations that would produce

significant changes of the environment, and better predict alterations of limiting physiological systems.

The benefits of the program to date have been illustrated in terms of a marked reduction of physiological strain and nearly a sixfold increase o^ maximum exposure times for

greater productivity. In areas where corrective engineering actions from the program are not yet existent or are not completed, the PHEL concept and associated guidelines'^ have

not resulted in a detectable increase of morbidity. However, it is very likely that none

of the operational exposure limiting methods today can be safe for all workers, even though

there is reasonable assurance that the PHEL concept is safe in a practical sense up to the

limits for greater than 95 percent of the fit population of workers within the range of

19 - 43 years of age. Therefore, in support of Dinman et. al. a standard for heat stress

must neither be overly conservative on the side of the workers nor too liberal on the side

of management. The most practical approach to an industrial-type standard for heat toler- ance limits is where workers perform within their limits as shown herein, while at the same time a concerted effort is made to minimize the intensity of the environmental stresses.

References

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78
13. Eichna, L. W., W. F. Ashe, W. B. Bean, and W. B. Shelley. The Upper Limits of

Environmental Heat and Humidity Tolerated by Acclimatized Men Working in Hot

Environments. J. Indust. Hyg. 5 Tox. 27(3): 59-83, 1945.

14. Dasler, A. R. Laboratory Induced Advanced Heat Acclimatization. Proc. Intemat.

Union Physiol. Sci. Vol. IX, 1971.

15. Dasler, A. R. Cardiovascular Changes during Exercise Testing in Cool and Hot Environments. (Submitted for publication)

16. Dasler, A. R., and E. Hardenbergh. Cardiovascular Differentiators of Training and

Advanced Heat Acclimatization. Fed. Proc. 31:363, 1972.

17. Rowell, L. R. Human Cardiovascular Adjustments to Exercise and Thermal Stress,

Physiol. Rev. 54:75-159, 1974.

18. Yaglou, C. P., and D. Minard. Human Endurance to High Levels of Heat and Humidity.

Nav. Med. Res. Inst. Proj . X-205, Rep. No. 9, 9 July 1952.

19. Dasler, A. R. BuMed Final Report on Shipboard Toxicological Operational Protective

Systems (STOPS) (U) Phase No. 2, Evaluation during Sea Trials. Nav. Med. Res. Inst.

Rep. NMRI-0130aw, 3900, Ser: 09, 27 July 1964. (Classified: C)

20. Minard, D. , J. R. Kingston, and H. D. VanLiew. Heat Stress in Working Spaces of an Aircraft Carrier. Nav. Med. Res. Inst. Proj. MR 005.01-0001.01, Rep. No. 3, 26

September 1960.

21. Dasler, A. R. , S. Karas, and B. Beckner. Effects of Supplementary Sodium Chloride on Heat Adaptation. (Submitted for publication) Also see: Dasler, A. R., S. Karas,

J. S. Bowman, and E. Hardenbergh. Adverse Effects of Supplementary Sodium Chloride

on Heat Adaptation. Fed. Proc. 32:336, 1973.

22. Dasler, A. R., D. J. Clausen, and A. P. Bickenbach. Effects of Epinephrine Impregnated Cord on Generalized Cardiovascular Reserve. (Submitted for Publication)

23. Minard, D., and L. Copman. Elevation of Body Temperature in Disease. In Temperature:

Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry. 3:253-273. Reinhold Pub. Corp.:

New York. 1963.

24. Dasler, A. R., and E. Hardenbergh. Decreased Sweat Rate in Heat Acclimatization.

Fed. Proc. 30:209, 1971.

25. Office of the Chief of Naval Operations OPNAV NOTICE 5100 of 6 June 1972.

(Subj : Shipboard Personnel Hazard due to Heat and Humidity)

26. Dasler, A. R. Heat Stress in Closed Fire Room Spaces, Rep. at the Thirtieth

Meeting of the NAS-NRC Subcommittee on Thermal Factors in Environment. Washington.

30 March 1964.

27. Belding, H. S., and T. F. Hatch. Index for Evaluating Heat Stress in Terms of

Resulting Physiological Strains, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning 27:129-136,

1955.

28. McKarns, J. S. , and R. S. Brief. Nomographs Give Refined Estimate of Heat Stress

Index. Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning 38:113-116, 1966.

29. Leithead, C. S., and A. R. Lind. Heat Stress and Heat Disorders. F. A. Davis Co:

Philadelphia. 1964.

30. Yaglou, C. P., G. Lee, and A. Messer. Habitability in Climatic Extremes. Annual

Rep. No. 9 to the Commission on Environmental Hygiene, Armed Forces Epidemiological

Board, 28 February 1956.

31. Yaglou, C. P., and D. Minard. Control of Heat Casualties at Military Training

Centers. A.M. A. Archives of Industrial Health 16:302-316, 1957.

32. Hertig, B. (Personal Communication) 30 October 1973.

33. Dasler, A. R. Impact of Heat Stress and Strain. National Safety Council Proc,

Chicago, 31 October 1973.

79
34. Dasler, A. R. Development of Standard Criteria for Extreme WBGT Values. ASHRAE

Seminar: Effects of OSHA's Thermal Stress Standard on Design and Control of Industrial

Environmental Systems. 30 January 1975.

35. Commander, Naval Ships Systems Command NAVSHIPS NOTICE 5100 of 24 October 1972.

(Subj : Shipboard Personnel Hazard due to Heat and Humidity)

36. Office of the Chief of Naval Operations OPNAV INST 5100.20 of 20 November 1973.

(Subj : Shipboard Personnel Hazard due to Heat and Humidity)

37. Ventilation and Thermal Stress Ashore and Afloat, Chapter 3 in Manual of Naval

Preventive Medicine, Navy Department, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, Washington.

1974. (Revision of 1956 issue; revised by A. R. Dasler)

38. Office of the Chief of Naval Operations OPNAV INST 5100. 20A of 13 April 1976.

(Subj : Shipboard Personnel Hazard due to Heat and Humidity)

39. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. Chapter 7 (Physiological Principles, Comfort and

Health) (Table 5, p. 130), 1972.

40. Medical Research Division, "Heat," Health Hazard Handbook, Esso Research and

Engineering Co., Linden, N. J., February 1964.

41. Nishi, Y. , and A. P. Gagge. A Psychrometric Chart for Graphical Prediction of

Comfort and Heat Tolerance. ASHRAE Trans. 80(11) :115-130. 1974.

42. Dasler, A. R. Heat Stress Criteria. ASHRAE Jour. 16(12) :9-12, 1974.

43. Dasler, A. R. Functional Evaluation of Different Electronic WBGT Instruments in

Dynamic Environments. Nav. Med. Res. Inst. Rep. NMRI-E2-mpb, 6420, Ser 10354,

18 December 1974.

44. Dasler, A. R. Report on Performance Evaluations of Two Heat Stress Monitors and

Accuracy Impacts. Nav. Med. Res. Inst. Rep. NMRI-E2-rtw, 6420, Ser 10515, 13

November 1975.

45. Commanding Officer, Nav. Med. Res. § Devel. Command letter Rep. NMRDC-471 : jac, 6420,

13 January 1976 (Subj : Information to Improve Heat Stress Meters)

46. Rear Admiral J. D. Bulkeley, U. S. Navy. President, Board of Inspection and Survey;

Navy Department, Washington, D.C.

47. Dinman, B. D., R. R. Stephenson, S. M. Horvath, and M. 0. Colwell. Work in Hot

Environments: I. Field Studies of Work Load, Thermal Stress and Physiologic Response.

Jour. Occup. Med. 16:785-791, 1974.

80
Appendix

Table A- 1 Stunmary of T Encountered versus T , Determined and T Measured * r sk re

T Range (°C) N T Encountered (°C) T , Determined (°C) T Measured (°C) r X SK 1*6

32.2 - 37.7 24 33..9 + 0.37 33.,4 + 0..13 36,.6 + 0,,31

37,8 - 43.3 44 40,.9 + 0.18 34,,5 + 0..14 37.,5 + 0,,04

43.3 - 48.8 16 45.,7 + 0.42 35., 1 + 0.,24 37.,7 + 0,,04

48.9 - 54.4 22 51.,3 + 0.28 35.,8 + 0.,13 38.,0 + 0.,07

54.5 - 59.9 20 57.,3 + 0.30 36.,6 + 0.,18 38.,1 + 0.,09

60.0 - 65.5 15 63.,3 + 0.41 38.,3 + 0.,36 38.,4 + 0.,03

65,6 - 71.1 22 68..0 + 0.33 39.,3 + 0.,31 38.,6 + 0.,03

71.2 - 76.6 12 74.,1 + 0.47 39.,7 + 0.,08 38.,8 + 0.,02

76.7 - 82.2 12 79.,5 + 0.52 40..6 + 0.,09 39.,1 + 0.,03

82.3 - 87.7 15 84.,4 + 0.43 41..4 + 0.,07 39.,2 + 0.,02

87.8 - 93.3 11 90.,4 + 0.51 42.,5 + 0.,08 39.,5 + 0.,02

* Subjects age range 19 - 43 years. Subjects normally clothed

93.3 °C. t MR range 50.0 - 146.5 W«m"2. All values given in above Table

T^ range 32.2 -

are expressed as Mean ± Standard Error when appropriate. Total N = 213.

Best fit estimates of T , and T : sk re

Estimated T^j^ ("C)

4 321'10"3 T

T , = 28.857 e^--^^-^ r

sk

N = 213

r = 0.953

t = 45.4796

p < 0.0001

Estimated T ("C) re ^ ^

T = 27.366 + C2.678 Ln T ) re

^ N = 213 r = 0.944

t = 41.5976

p < 0.0001

T^ = mean radiant temperature. T^j^ = mean skin temperature. T^^ = rectal temperature.

t MR = time-weighted-mean metabolic rate, wm

81
Appendix

Table A- 2 Summary of Cardiovascular Factors versus t WBGT at t MR 50.0 W«m"2 wm wm

t WBGT (range 19.8 - 22.2°C)

Factors —

20.8 ± 0.1 21.4 ± 0.2 20.7 ± 0.2 18.9 ± 0.1 20.6 ± 0.1

(n = 27) (n = 16) (n = 22) (n = 19) (n = 15)

HR 81,,7 + 1.5 94..0 + 2.4 90. 6 + 1.6 83.,7 + 2.6 76. 0 + 3.5

SP 130. 8 + 1.2 130..9 + 1.9 130. 3 + 1.1 128.,3 + 0.8 124. 9 + 2.5

DP 78..5 + 1.4 80.,7 + 1.4 83. 1 + 1.1 84.,5 + 0.7 72. 5 + 2.0

MAP 95.,9 + 1.2 97.,4 + 1.4 98. 6 + 0.9 99.,1 + 0.5 89. 8 + 2.1

CO *4.,9 + 0.1 5.,2 + 0.2 4. 9 + 0.1 4.,4 + 0.1 5. 1 + 0.1

TVR 1572.,7 + 48.9 1526.,7 + 57.0 1641. 9 + 42.2 1801.,9 + 50.9 1430. 2 + 57.2

CVR 100..0 + 0.0 100..0 + 0.0 100. 0 + 0.0 100..0 + 0.0 100. 0 + 0.0

Table A- 3 Summary of Cardiovascular Factors versus t WBGT at t MR 88.4 W-m'^ wm wm

t WBGT (range 23.8 - 39.5°C) wm ^ ^

'

Factors

26.4 ± 0.5 30.5 ± 1.1 32.7 ± 1.4 35.4 ± 1.0 37.8 ± 0.0

(n = 22) (n = 5) (n = 5) (n = 8) (n = 4)

HR 86.,0 + 3.1 106.,0 + 1.9 119. 0 + 4.1 105,,6 + 1.6 152.,5 + 3.,2

SP 122.,8 + 1.4 138..0 + 4.0 119. 0 + 4.0 121,.9 + 3.2 103.,8 + 1.,3

DP 73.,3 + 1.8 82.,8 + 2.3 82. 4 + 2.4 63,,4 + 5.0 34.,8 + 3.,5

MAP 89.,7 + 1.5 101..2 + 2.6 94. 6 + 2.9 82,.7 + 4.0 57..8 + 2.,6

CO *

5.,6 + 0.2 6.,4 + 0.5 6. 3 + 0.3 8,.3 + 0.5 15.,7 + 0.,8

TVR 1288.,4 + 35.6 1277,.9 + 56.9 1216. 3 + 89.9 829,,5 + 83.1 298.,6 + 0.,8

CVR 88.,1 + 3.5 91,.1 + 4.9 69. 2 + 3.2 32,,8 + 5.8 9.,6 + 3. 6

values given as Mean ± Standard Error, t^ = time-weighted-mean. HR = heart rate

(beatS'min"^) . SP = systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) . DP = diastolic blood pressure

(mm Hg) . MAP = mean arterial pressure (mm Hg) . CO * = estimated cardiac output

(liters -min" ) ; these values are conservative estimates. TVR = estimated total

vascular resistance (dynes -sec* cm" ^) . CVR = estimated cardiovascular reserve (%)

.

82
Appendix

Table A-4 Summary of Cardiovascular Factors versus t WBGT at 111.7 W'm' wm

t WBGT (range 20.7 - 49.7°C)

Factors

24.1 ± 0.5 29.3 ± 1.5 31.3 ± 0.0 30.7 ± 0.6 44.9 ± 1.4

(n = 22) (n = 5) (n = 4) (n = 11) (n = 12)

HR 8-,,,5 + 1.8 112,.4 + 2.7 91,,5 + 0.3 99,,8 + 2.5 145,.3 + 9,7

SP 126,,/ 1.3 146,,2 + 1.9 117,.5 + 0.9 119..2 + 3.8 143,,4 + 8.5

DP 72.,7 + 1.4 78,,4 + 2.7 69,.0 + 0.6 59,,6 + 4.0 51,,3 + 3.2

MAP 90.,4 + 1.1 101,,0 + 1.8 85,,0 + 0.8 79,,3 + 3.9 82,.0 + 4.0

CO *6., 1 + 0.2 7,,2 + 0.5 6,,5 + 0.1 7,,6 + 0.3 14,.4 + 1.4

TVR 1208. 7 + 44.9 1142,.4 + 107.6 1047,,5 + 16.4 867.,7 + 76.6 505..1 + 55.3

CVR 83. 2 + 3.3 64., 1 + 13.8 63.,7 + 1.4 35,.5 + 5.4 15,,3 + 5.0

Table A- 5 Summary of Cardiovascular Factors versus t WBGT at 146.5 W-m ^

' wm

t WBGT (range 21.7 - 37.3°C) wm ^ ^

' Factors

25.2 ± 0.4 29.5 ± 0.6 31.6 ± 1.0 34.1 ± 0.8 36.4 ± 0.0

(n = 31) (n = 19) (n = 12) (n = 12) (n = 6)

HR 90.,9 + 0.9 115,, 1 + 3.3 122,.6 + 6.4 110. 1 + 1.9 131,,8 + 3,.2

SP 131.,7 + 1.5 147,,7 + 3.0 136,,3 + 3.5 129. 6 + 3.5 116,,8 + 3,,0

DP 79.,1 + 0.7 67,,0 + 1.7 70..3 + 3.9 64. 1 + 3.8 27,.5 + 1,. 1 MAP 96.,3 + 0.7 93,,9 + 1.7 92,.2 + 1.9 85. 9 + 3.4 57,.3 + 0,.4

CO * 5.,1 + 0.1 9,,6 + 0.4 8,,1 + 0.7 7. 8 + 0.4 14,,7 + 0,.3 TVR 1534,,4 + 28.7 807,,9 + 38.5 971.,4 + 71.8 923. 0 + 89.5 313,,5 + 8,.5

CVR 78.. 1 + 2.1 43..9 + 3.4 43,,4 + 5.5 38. 6 + 6.0 1,,1 + 0,,8

Values given as Mean + Standard Error, t^ = time-weighted-mean. HR = heart rate

(beats 'min" ^) . SP = systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) . DP = diastolic blood pressure

(mm Hg) . MAP = mean arterial pressure (mm Hg) . CO * = estimated cardiac output

(liters-min"^) ; these values are conservative estimates. TVE = estimated total

vascular resistance (dynes'sec*cm"^) . CVR = estimated cardiovascular reserve (%)

.

83
Thermal Analysis Metric Equations For

Stress/Strain Evaluation Program (STEP-M2) Abbrevi at ed

Appendix

Saturated Vapor Pressures :

P „ = [Antilog (2.339 - X-Y)]'P

S , 1 where: P^ ^ = saturated vapor pressure at T,, or T ^ = fTorr)

k s , 1 ^ ^ db wb

X

= [A^(l-17-10-Q)] + [A (5.868-10-3) ^. 3.244]

1 + [A (2.188-10"3)]

A = 647.27 - [(T^^ or T^^^) + 273.15]

A

Y =

^'^db °^ ^wb^ ^ 273.15

T^^ = dry-bulb temperature (°C)

T^^ = wet-bulb temperature (aspirated) (°C)

P = barometric pressure (Torr)

Solve using T^^^ for P ; and, T^^ for P db wb

Partial Vapor Pressure :

P^ partial = P - [[(6.6.10"'^ P) (T,^ - T^J] • [1 . (T,^ - T.,J 1.5 lO'S]]

wb

where: P^ partial = (Torr)

Relative Humidity :

RH = (P partial / P „ )

• 100 = (%) " ^'^db

Mean Radiant Temperature :

T^ = [(Tg + 273.15)'+ + [(0.247-10^ V° • 5) (T^ - Tj^)]]0-25 _ 273.15

where: T^ = mean radiant temperature (°C)

Tg = globe temperature (°C)

V = air velocity (m/sec)

Terms, where appropriate, are consistent with the International Union of Physiological

Sciences. (Glossary of Terms for Thermal Physiology, JAP 6(35) ;941-961 , 1973)

Once a symbol is defined herein the repeat of the symbol is not redefined.

84
Appendix

Estimated Skin Temperature :

T , = 28.857 e^-^^^*-^° ^ '^r = (°C) sk

where: Estimated T^j^ is applicable to normally clothed man within the

ranges of 32.2 - 93.3 °C and time-weighted-mean metabolic

rate 50.0 - 146.54 W-m"^. (n = 213, r = 0.953, t = 45.4796, p<0.0001)

Estimated Rectal Temperature :

T = 27.37 + (2.68 Ln T ) = (°C) re

K J

where: Estimated T^^ is applicable to normally clothed man within the

ranges of T^ 32.2 - 93.3 °C and time-weighted-mean metabolic

rate 50.0 - 146.54 W^m'^. (N = 213, r = 0.944, t = 41.5976, p<0.0001)

Radiant Heat Exchange :

[13.130 (T - T )]

R = m2

0.7 = W«m"2 (reduced 30% due to clothing)

where: m^ = DuBois surface area from [71.84-10"'* Ht°-^25 . 1^0-425]^

where Height in cm. and Weight in kg.

Convective Heat Exchange :

[13.456 vO-58 (T^^ - T^^)]

m2

0.7 = W'm"2 (reduced 30% due to clothing)

Evaporation Required For Heat Balance :

E =t MR+R+C= W'm"2 (using R and C as reduced above)

req wm

where: t = time-weighted-mean

wm " As in the case of t Metabolic Rate the following applies wm o rr

[(ti . MRi) + (t2 • MR2) (t^ • MR^)]

t MR = ti . t2 ^ .... - t^

where: t^ is the first time interval and MR^

is the metabolic rate for the respective

time interval, etc.

85
Appendix

Maximum Evaporative Capacity :

[25.15 vO-58 [[(T - 34.94) 2.34] + 42.00] - P partial]

E =— ^ !^ 0.7 max 9 m^

where: E^^^ = W-m"^ (reduced 30% due to clothing)

Heat Stress Index (Belding and Hatch) :

HSI = [(E /E )

• 100] (unitless) *• req max *

^

Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature Index : (See Text)

WBGT = [(0.1 T^^^) + (0.7 T^^) + (0.2 T^) ] = (°C)

Physiological Heat Exposure Limits (Dasler) : (See Text)

PHEL I ("A") for t MR 88.39 W«m"2

PHEL I = 741.594-10^ WBGT-5-369

where: PHEL in hrs. with mins. in decimal; PHEL converted to

hrs:min in STEP-M2 Abbreviated.

Laboratory data: N = 147, r = -0.997, t = 155.1063, p< 0.0001

Field data: N = 66, r = -0.995, t = 79.6997, p< 0.0001

PHEL II for t MR 100.02 W-m'^ wm

PHEL II = 592.561-10^ WBGT-5-356

where: PHEL in hrs. with mins. in decimal; PHEL converted to

hrs:mins in STEP-M2 Abbreviated.

Laboratory data: N = 132, r = -0.998, t = 180.0070, p< 0.0001

Field data: N = 52, r = -0.994, t = 64.2589, p< 0.0001

PHEL III ("B") for t MR 111.65 W-m'^ wm

PHEL III = 487.461-10^ WBGT"5-351

where: PHEL in hrs. and mins. in decimal; PHEL converted to

hrs:mins in STEP-M2 Abbreviated.

Laboratory data: N = 137, r = -0.997, t = 149.6623, p< 0.0001

Field data: N = 57, r = -0.992, t = 58.2778, p< 0.0001

PHEL IV for t MR 123.28 W-m"^ wm

PHEL IV = 432.399-106 WBGT"5-371

where: PHEL in hrs. and mins. in decimal; PHEL converted to

hrs:mins in STEP-M2 Abbreviated.

Laboratory data: N = 128, r = -0.997, t = 144.5875, p< 0.0001

Field data: N = 48, r = -0.993, t = 57.0198, p< 0.0001

86
Appendix

PHEL V for t MR 134.91 W-m'^

wm

PHEL V = 334.370-106 WBGT"5-373

where: PHEL in hrs. and rains, in decimal; PHEL converted to

hrs:mins in STEP-M2 Abbreviated.

Laboratory data: N = 67, r = -0.987, t = 49.3516, p< 0.0001

Field data: N = 20, r = -0.978, t = 19.8907, p< 0.0001

PHEL VI ("C") for t 146.54 W«m"2

PHEL VI = 207.825-106 WBGT"5-3't't

where: PHEL in hrs. and mins. in decimal; PHEL converted to

hrs:min5 in STEP-M2 Abbreviated.

Laboratory data: N = 46, r = -0.989, t = 44.3516, p< 0.0001

Field data: N = 12, r = -0.975, t = 13.8756, p< 0.0001

PHEL for t MR range 88.39 - 146.54 W-m'^ specific wm ^

PHEL = [17.251-108 - (12.967-10^ t MR) + (18. 611-103 t MR^) ] WBGT~5-360

spec. ^ wm ^ wm

where: PHEL in hrs. and mins. in decimal; PHEL converted to specific

hrs:mins in STEP-M2 Abbreviated. PHEL applies to specific

WBGT's through 55 °C. The first three coefficients of

PHEL .-. were derived from PHEL's I - VI above; N = 6, specific

r = 0.994, t = 18.4887, p< 0.0001. Exponent for WBGT based

upon N = 6 with SE ±0.005.

Estimated Recovery Times :

Minimum Recovery Time = PHEL - 1.195

spec.

where: PHEL .-. prior to conversion to hrs:mins. specific ^ Minimum recovery time based upon a minimum Relaxation Allowance

of 119.5% (See Footnote). STEP-M2 converts to hrs:mins.

General Recovery Time = PHEL • 1.994

spec.

where: PHEL prior to conversion to hrs:mins. specific

General recovery time based upon a general Relaxation Allowance

of 199.4% (See Footnote). STEP-M2 converts to hrs:mins.

Maximum Recovery Time = PHEL • 2.260

^ spec.

where: PHEL ... prior to conversion to hrs:mins. specific ^ Maximum recovery time based upon a maximum Relaxation Allowance

of 226.0% (See Footnote). STEP-M2 converts to hrs:mins.

Relaxation Allowance concept from: Curie, R. M. Work Study . Coppclark Pub., Co.;

Toronto, Canada. (Chapter 12, pp. 156 - 164) Reprinted 1969.

87
Appendix

Cardiovascular Factors Without Subjectively Detectable Levels Of Fuel Combustion

Gases or Pre-Combustion Fuel Vapors :

Heart Rate (beats-min--^)

HR = [48. 15 + (0.08 t MR) wm

+ (1. 64 WBGT]]

N = 277 r

X • yz

0. 4052 t = 7 "^497 P

^ n , nnni KJ \J U ±

r = y • xz0. U O 1 o P

<

nu . nnn U U U 11

r = z-xy0. 6519 t = 14.2544 P

< 0.,0001

Systolic Blood Pressure (mm Hg)

SP = [125.67 + (0.06 t MR] (0 . (Jo WBb 1 J J N = 277 r

X- yz

0. 5741 t = 11.6279 P

< 0.,0001

r = y-xz

: 0. 5627 t = 11.2876 P

< 0.,0001

r =

z • xy

0. 1526 t = 2.5610 P

< 0.,012

Diastolic Blood Pressure (mm Hg)

DP = [107.88 - (0.01 t wm

MR] - [1 .29 WBGT]]

N = 277 rx-yz

: 0. 5215 t = 10.1349 P

< 0. 0001

r = y-xz

: 0. 7196 t = 17.1839 P

< 0.,0001

r =

z - xy

0. 6506 t = 14.2607 P

< 0. 0001

Mean Arterial Pressure (mm Hg]

MAP = [109.669 + (0.022 t wm

MR] - (0.765 WBGT]]

N = 277 r

x yz

: 0. 4862 t = 9.2265 P< 0.,0001

r = y-xz

0. 6079 t = 12.6957 P

< 0. 0001

r =

z - xy

: 0. 4445 t = 8.2293 P< 0.,0001

Subscripts of multiple correlation coefficients (r's] apply as follows: x = t^ MR

y = WBGT, and z = cardiovascular factor.

BreakdowTi of sets of observations as follows: t MR 50.01 W'm"^ (N = 99), wm

t MR 88.39 W-m-2 (N = 45) , t MR 111.65 W.m-2 (N = 52], and t _ MR 146.54 W-m'^

wm ^ ' wm ^ ^ ' wm

81); WBGT's obtained as t during the determine t MR's. Total N = 277 per

cardiovascular factor, t MR and WBGT. wm

88
Appendix

Estimated Cardiac Output ( liters •min"^) (See Text regarding evidence of conservative

estimates by the technique utilized)

CO = [-2.608 - (0.001 t^ MR) - (0.765 WBGT) ]

N = 277 r

X •yz

0.,5345 t = 10,,4876 p < 0.0001

r

X'•XZ

0,.8186 t = 23,,6327 p < 0.0001

r

z

••xy

" 0,,7842 t = 20,,9612 p < 0.0001

Estimated Cardiovascular Reserve (%) (See Text)

CVR = [170.978 - (0.242 t^ MR) - (2.843 WBGT)]

N 277 r

X'•yz

0.,6229 t = 13,,2033 p < 0.0001

r

X'• XZ

0.,7879 t = 21,,2174 p < 0.0001

r

z ••xy

" 0.,8305 t = 24,,7231 p < 0.0001

Supplementary Section Of STEP-M2 Abbreviated :

Maximum Allowable Exposure Time Without Hearing Protection * Based Upon Noise Level

^^oise " [AntiLn [(db A - 105.00)/-7.21]]

where : db A

Note

noise level on "slow" A scale

The above equation is a transposition of a logarithmic curve

fit with r = 1.0000; the equation may also be written as an exponential curve fit (with r = 1.0000) in the following

form:

MAEnoise 2097151.954 e -0.138629 db A

From data provided in: Control of Noise (12) , American

Foundrymen's Society, 3rd Ed., 1972,

Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, Navy

Department, BUMED Instruction 6260. 6B,

5 March 1970.

Data from these sources were subjected to the least squares

family of regression curves to provide the above equations.

89
Appendix

STEP-M2 Abbreviated Program For Hewlett-Packard Calculator (HP-97)*

(Total running time, including inputs and all prints, averages 1 min. 56 sec.)

Inputs : T^^ (LBL A); T^^^ (LBL B or R/S) ; (LBL C or R/S) ; V (LBL D or R/S) ; t^ MR (LBL E or

R/S) . [Tj^ must be entered using key "A"; T^^, T^, V and t^ MR may be entered by using

the designated key or by use of R/S key. Using the user defined key permits altering

the sequence of entries; however, STEP-M2 starts running immediately after entering

t MR.] wm *

Grouped Order of Printing : (each group separated by a space)

[Tji,; T , ; T ; V; t MR] [P „ ; P „ ; P ^. J [RH] [T ] [R; C: E ; E ] db' wb' g ' wm *- s,!^^' ^' wb " P^^^^^^ j

i ^.j l > > j.gq> j^^^i

[WBGT] [P^ELgpgcific-' Recovery Time; General Recovery Time; Maximum Recovery

Time] [PHEL I; PHEL II; PHEL III; PHEL IV; PHEL V; PHEL VI] [HSI] [T , ; T ] [HR; SP;

S K X6

DP; MAP; CO; CVR] [T,, ; T , ; T ; V; t MR are repeated at the end as a means of db wb g wm ^

rechecking and/or permitting comparisons]

Supplementary Portion of STEP-M2 for MAE . : noise

Two options exist for calculating MAE . : (1) After STEP-M2 has run as given above, ^ * noise ^ 6 » input db A using key "A" and ^^^j^Qj^gg will be printed in hrs:mins provided the program

from Card #4 is still in the HP-97; or, (2) Insert Card #4 (both sides) and input db A

using key "A" to get ^^^Qj^gg printed.

Card #1

001 *LBLA 017 SPC

002 DSP2 018

003 STOA 019 5 004 PRTX 020 8

005 R/S 021 x

y

006 *LBLB 022 STO0

007 STOB 023 RCLD

008 PRTX 024 R/S

009 R/S 025 *LBLE

010 *LBLC 026 STOE

Oil STOC 027 PRTX

012 PRTX 028 SPC

013 R/S 029 SPC

014 *LBLD 030 RCLA

015 STOD 031 2 016 PRTX 032 7

033 3 049 ST03

034 050 RCLB

035 1 051 RCLI

036 5 052 + 037 STOI 053 ST04

038 + 054 RCL6

039 ST02 055 X=*=Y 040 6 056

041 4 057 ST05

042 7 058 RCL3

043 059 ENT+

044 2 060 X2

045 7 061 X

046 ST06 062 1 047 X^ 063

048 064 1

065 7 081 ST08

066 EEX 082 X

067 CHS 083 + 068 8 084 3

069 ST07 085

070 X 086 2 071 RCL3 087 4

072 5 088 3

073 089 8

074 8 090 ST09

075 6 091 + 076 8 092 RCL3

077 3 093 2 078 EEX 094

079 CHS 095 1 080 3 096 8

* (from title) STEP-M2 Abbreviated provides 68% of the full STEP-2 Program. The

program as given herein permits autoloading of Sides #1 of Cards #2 - #4; when Sides #2

of Cards #2 - #4 are entered the program restarts automatically, should and ERROR

display occur reenter Sides #1 and #2 of that Card and press key R/S to continue

program. All factors printed in units of time are printed as hrs.mins, the decimal

point serves as a colon (:); e.g., 3.55 in units of time is 3:55 as hrs:mins.

90
Appendix

Card #1, continued Card #2, continued

097 7 156 2 215 RCLI 048 2 107 4 166 5 098 8 157 216 + 049 7 108 _ 167 1 099 EEX 158 3 217 ENTt 050 109 2 168 EEX

100 CHS 159 3 218 ENT+ 051 3 110 169 8

101 3 160 8 219 ENT+ 052 7 111 3 170 RCLE

102 X 161 8 220 X 053 + 112 4 171 1 103 1 162 X:^Y 221 X 054 ST03 113 X 172 2 104 + 163 _ 222 X 055 RCLI 114 4 173

105 164 10^ 223 PSE 056 RCL2 115 2 174 9

106 RCL3 165 7 224 RTN 057 _ 116 175 6

107 RCL2 166 6

Card #2

058 1 117 0 176 7 108 167 0 059 3 118 0 177 EEX

109 X 168 X 001 RCLC 060 119 + 178 6

110 2 169 ST04 002 RCLA 061 1 120 RCL6 179 X

111 170 PRTX 003 _ 062 3 121 _ 180

112 3 171 6 004 RCLD 063 0 122 RCL0 181 RCLE

113 3 172 005 064 X 123 X 182 X2

114 8 173 6 006 065 124 2 183 1 115 8 174 EEX 007 2 066 7 125 5 184 8

116 X?Y 175 CHS 008 4 067 X 126 185

117 176 4 009 7 068 1 127 1 186 6

118 10^ 177 ST07 010 EEX 069 128 5 187 1 119 7 178 RCLA Oil 9 070 8 129 X 188 1 120 6 179 RCLB 012 X 071 5 130 189 EEX

121 0 180 013 X 072 STOl 131 7 190 3

122 X 181 STOl 014 + 073 132 X 191 X 123 ST02 182 RCL7 015 074 ST04 133 RCLI 192 + 124 DSPl 183 7 016 075 PRTX 134 193 RCL9

125 PRTX 184 6 017 RCLI 076 RCLA 135 ST08 194 5 126 RCL5 185 0 018 _ 077 RCL2 136 PRTX 195

127 ENT+ 186 X 019 STOl 078 _ 137 SPC 196 3

128 X2 187 X 020 DSPl 079 RCL0 138 RCL7 197 6

129 X 188 RCLl 021 PRTX 080 X 139 198 0

130 RCL7 189 1 022 SPC 081 1 140 199 CHS

131 X 190 023 4 082 3 141 EEX 200 yX

132 RCL5 191 1 024 083 142 2 201 X

133 RCL8 192 5 025 3 084 4 143 X 202 ST05

134 X 193 EEX 026 2 085 5 144 ST04 203 ^HMS

135 + 194 CHS 027 1 086 6 145 RCLA 204 DSP2

136 RCL9 195 3 028 EEX 087 X 146 205 PRTX

137 + 196 X 029 CHS 088 147 1 206 SPC

138 RCL5 197 1 030 3 089 7 148 X 207 RCL5

139 2 198 + 031 X 090 X 149 RCLB 208 1 140 199 X 032 e^ 091 RCLI 150 209 1 141 1 200 RCL4 033 2 092 151 7 210 9

142 8 201 X^ 034 8 093 ST05 152 X 211

143 7 202 _ 035 094 PRTX 153 + 212 5 144 8 203 PRTX 036 8 095 RCLE 154 RCLC 213 %

145 EEX 204 ST06 037 5 096 RCL4 155 214 ->HMS

146 CHS 205 SPC 038 7 097 RCL5 156 2 215 PRTX

147 3 206 RCL2 039 X 098 + 157 X 216 RCL5

148 X 207 040 ST02 099 + 158 + 217 1 149 1 208 EEX 041 RCLI 100 ST07 159 ST09 218 9

150 + 209 2 042 LN 101 PRTX 160 PRTX 219 9

151 210 X 043 2 102 RCL2 161 SPC 220

152 RCL5 211 DSP0 044 103 3 162 1 221 4

153 RCL4 212 PRTX 045 6 104 4 163 7 222 PSE

154 213 SPC 046 8 105 164 223 RTN

155 X 214 RCLC 047 X 106 9 165 2 224 R/S

91
STEP-M2 Abbreviated Program Appendix

Card #3

001 % 060 CHS

002 ->HMS 061 yX

003 PRTX 062 4

004 RCL5 063 8

005 2 064 7 006 2 065

007 6 066 4

008 067 6

009 0 068 1 010 % 069 EEX

Oil ->HMS 070 6

012 PRTX 071 X

013 SPC 072 ^HMS

014 RCL9 073 PRTX

015 5 074 RCL9

016 075 5 017 3 076

018 6 077 3

019 9 078 7 020 CHS 079 1 021 yX 080 CHS

022 7 081 yX

023 4 082 4

024 1 083 3

025 084 2 026 5 085

027 9 086 3

028 4 087 3

029 EEX 088 9

030 6 089 EEX

031 X 090 6

032 ->HMS 091 X

033 PRTX 092 ->HMS

034 RCL9 093 PRTX

035 5 094 RCL9

036 095 5 037 3 096

038 5 097 3

039 6 098 7 040 CHS 099 3

041 yX 100 CHS

042 5 101 yX

043 9 102 3

044 2 103 3

045 104 4

046 5 105

047 6 106 3

048 1 107 7 049 EEX 108 0

050 6 109 EEX

051 X 110 6

052 ^HMS 111 X

053 PRTX 112 ^HMS

054 RCL9 113 PRTX

055 5 114 RCL9

056 115 5 057 3 116

058 5 117 3

059 1 118 4

119 4 178 0

120 CHS 179 8

1 O 1 Iz 1 y

1 o r\ 180 X

Izz Z

1 O 1 lol

U loz

1Z4 1

1 Q 7 183 1 IOC Izb 1 O ^ 184 U IZD oo IOC 18b 7

1 O "7 Iz / Z 18d

Izo rD

1 O 'T 187 o8

Izy CC V CCA 1 o o 188 o8

13U /-o ion 189 RCLE

131 VX 190 • 13z ->-Hlvlb

1 n 1 191 0

ITT 166 nnTV 192 1 134 c nr' 1 r» 7 193 X

135 nc Di UoFl 194

1 3o KLL4 1 n r 195 RCL9

13 / DDTY r Kl A lyo 1

1 7 Q 13o 197

1 7 Q i3y or* T 0 KLLz 19o Z 14U DDTY rKl A lyy y 141 r>o T 1 200 X

1 /I O 142 PRl A 201

143 202 PRTX

t A A 144 A4 203 1

1 >i r 145 QO 204 0

146 205

147 1 206

1 ,1 O 148 rb 207 6

i4y KLLc T r\ o 208 D IbU 209 y

1 r 1 151 U 210 RLLc

1 r" o 152 oO 211

153 VA 212 0

154 + 213 Z loo or*! Q RLLy 214 Z 156 1 215 X

157 216 + 158 6 217 RCLy

159 4 218 rbc

160 VX 219 RTN

161 +

o o r\ 220 R/b

162 DSP0

163 PRTX Card # A #4

164 1 165 2 001

166 5 002 7 167 • 003 6

168 6 004 5 169 7 005 X

170 RCLE 006

171 007 DSPl

172 0 008 PRTX

173 6 009 2 174 X 010

175 + Oil 6

176 RCL9 012 0

177 013 8

92

014 CHS 073 SPC

015 RCLE 074 RTN

016 • 075 *LBLA

AIT 017 0 076 DSPl

A 1 O 018 0 077 PRTX

A 1 r\ oiy 1 078 SPC

OzU X 079 1 A O 1 021 ~ 080 0

A O O 022 RCL9 081 5 023 • 082 • 024 3 083 0

025 5 084 0

A O ^ 026 6 085 - A O "7 027 X 086 7

A O O 028 + 087 • A o r\ 0z9 PRTX 088 2 A 7 A 030 1 089 1 A 7 1 031 -77 090 CHS

032 0 091

033 • 092 e^

034 9 093 DSP2

035 7 094 ^ilMS

036 8 095 PRTX

037 RCLE 096 SPC

038 • 097 SPC

039 2 098 SPC

040 4 099 SPC

041 2 100 SPC

042 X 101 RTN

043 ~ 102 R/S

044 . RCL9

045 2 046 • 047 8

048 4

049 3

050 X 051 - 052 DSP0

053 PRTX

054 SPC

055 SPC

056 SPC

057 SPC

058 RCLA

059 DSP2

060 PRTX

061 RCLB

062 PRTX

063 RCLC

064 PRTX

065 RCLD

066 PRTX

067 RCLE

068 PRTX

069 SPC

070 SPC

071 SPC

072 SPC
EFJ^CT Oi- MERGY CONSERVATION GUIDELINES ON COMFORT. ACCEPTABILITY AND HEALTH

A. Pharo Gagge and Ralph G. Nevins*

John B. Pierce Foundation

290 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT

Abstract

Both the Winter and Summer Surveys in a New York government building validate the

recommendations of ASHRAE STANDARD 55-74 that the optimum acceptable thermal environment, in which at least 80% of normally clothed men and women living in the United States

and Canada would express thermal comfort, lies in the range 72°-78° (°F) ET* (22.2°-

25.6° C). The ASHRAE ET* is the dry bulb temperature of a uniform thermal environment

at 50% rh with air movement in range 20-25 fpm (0,1-0.125 m/s) for sedentary man

(1.-1.2 mets) while wearing an intrinsic thermal insulation of 0.6 Clo.

The PEA Summer Conservation Temperature limits of 78°-80° F (25.6°-2 6.7° C) can be

made 80% acceptable (1) by use of light clothing with insulation less than 0.4 Clo,

(2) by increasing the air movement above 50 fpm, (3) by reducing the relative humidity,

or (4) by all. These FEA Guidelines, which require the elimination of thermostats and

reheat processes, make (1) and (2) the more desirable approaches to 80% acceptability.

In summer time heat, men tend to wear 50% more clothing (insulation) than women, while

at work. In summer the practical minimum level of clothing insulation for men appears to

be 0.4-0.5 Clo while for women, 0.2-0.3 Clo.

For the 68°-70° F (20°-21.1° C) FEA Conservation Guideline temperatures for winter,

the 80% acceptability is possible for persons wearing 0.9-1.2 Clo insulation, provided

proper care is made to cover legs with socks and trousers or wear dresses with stockings

and with shoes without open toes.

Except for the seriously ill and those in hospitals, there appears to be no serious

health hazard for properly clothed individuals due to exposure to the FEA Winter and Summer

Guideline Temperatures.

For simple sedentary tasks, no decrements in performance can be expected for the FEA

Guideline temperatures - winter or summer - as long as the applicable ASHRAE ET* falls

within the 80% acceptability range defined by our Comfort Charts in terms of Tg , Clo, air

movement and relative humidity. A loss of dexterity may occur when air temperature falls

below 65° F (18.3° C). Decrements in the performance of simple manual and mental tasks

may occur when the ASHRAE ET* rises above 90° F (32.2° C)

.

Comfort Charts are presented to show how various clothing insulations can be used to

convert any combination of dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, air movement to an

equivalent ASHRAE Effective Temperature ET*. From these charts the reader can recognize

for himself additional strategies possible to meet the 72°-78° F (22.2°-25.6° C) ET*

necessary for 80% acceptability.

Keywords: Effective Temperature (ET*) , Clothing Insulation, Thermal Acceptability

,

Energy Conservation, Thermal Preference Survey, Winter Temperature

Guidelines, Summer Temperature Guidelines

late Fellow of the Pierce Foundation

93
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY BY REDUCING FUEL CONSUMPTION for heating during

winter and for air conditioning during summer is an easy technical possibility when the living

space is cooler than normal in the winter and warmer without humidity control in the summer.

The question arises, how can these changes be accomplished without losing the general

acceptability of such a working environment. Based on the combined advice of many professional organizations, assembled for a three day conference in November 1973 at Airlie

House, Arlington, the Federal Energy Administration (FEA) introduced in summer 1974 their

Guidelines for Comfort Conditions in Government Buildings and Homes in General . For

winter, indoor temperatures were to be set at 68°-70° F (20-21.1° C) and for summer at

78-80° F (25.6-26.7° C) . The summer setting would be accomplished without humidity

control and reheat. These design values were chosen as being 6° F (3.3° C) above and

below the optimum level of 75° F (23.9° C) currently set by ASHRAE Standard 55-74,

Thermal Environmental Comfort Conditions for Human Occupancy.

In July 1974 , the late Dr. Ralph Nevins, and the Pierce Foundation, were contracted

by the FEA to initiate a series of laboratory tests and field surveys to determine occupant

reaction to their proposed Guidelines. The complete report has been published (March,

1976) (1). In the present paper we will briefly summarize results and general implications

of the two field surveys in a New York GSA multistory office building. My associate

Dr. Richard Gonzalez is covering the laboratory tests associated with the present study

and will present their behavioral implications. In the present paper we will summarize

from a short literature survey the expected effect of the FEA Guidelines on man's health

and performance. Finally we will present a series of working charts by which the

reader can see how changes in humidity, ambient temperature, air movement, clothing

habits and activity can attain environmental acceptability within the Guidelines as well

as compliance with the ASHRAE Standard 55-74, which requires an Effective Temperature

(ET*) that lies in range 72-78° F (22.2 -25.6° C)

.

94
THE SUMMER SURVEY OF THERMAL PREFERENCE

The summer survey of thermal preferences was made of typical groups of workers in the

General Services Building, 26 Federal Plaza, New York City. Of the 46 floors in the GSA

Building, the 23rd, 26th, 33rd and 39th floors were selected for the survey. Approximately

230 people were questioned twice; in all approximately 460 responses were obtained.

During the distribution and completion of the questionnaires, the dry and wet temperatures,

the air movement, and the Black Globe temperature were evaluated in each local area. From

these four basic measurements and from the clothing insulation worn (as determined from

the questionnaire) it was possible to describe quantitatively the thermal environment and to

correlate these values with the thermal preferences presented. The outside weather data

was taken from the daily weather records for the test period (1300-1500 EST) at Central

Park. These records agreed well with casual readings in the shade at street level outside

of the GSA Building itself.

During the survey period the outside weather temperature averaged 75.3° F (24° C);

the average dew point was 61.4° F (16° C) which corresponded to an average humlditv of

60% rh. The average dry bulb temperature indoors, was 7^° F (23.3° C) with a dew point of

58° F (14.5° C) and relative humidity of 59%- The range of indoor tenperatures surveyed ex- tended from 72.5° F (22.5° C) to 78° F (25.5° C) . Over half the responses were made at

temperatures between 72° F and 75° F. Due to the generally pleasant outdoor weather conditions and an obvious lack of need for air conditioning indoors , none of the test conditions

fell in the FEA Summer Guideline area.

For the survey group the average intrinsic clo was 0.45 for males and 0.35 for females.

For both sexes the metabolic rate was estimated as 1 met. There were no significant re- lationships to age.

By using cross-correlation methods of analysis, the following significant observations

were made:

A. Cross-Tabulations: Temperature Sense vs Comfort Sense (entire group)

Comfortable Uncomf. V. Uncomf. Totals

(Row (Row (Row N (Row N

%) N (Col 7^ %) N (Col 7^ %) %)

Cold 2 (1) 27 (21) 6 r35

Cool 67 (22) 19 (15) " 0 (28) L86

Sit. Cool 77 (25) 10 (8) r87

Neutral 117 (38) 7 (5) (61) 124

Sit. Warm 36 (12) 32 (25) L68

Warm 7 (2) 31 (24) 3 (n) r41

Hot 3 (2) 4 L 7

Totals (68) 310 (100) (29) 129 (100) (3) 13 (100) 452

The above table shows that:

(1) The % of those voting "SI. Cool-Neutral-Sl. Warm" and of those voting "Comfortable" were essentially equal at 68%. Thus either grouping may be considered as a good

index of acceptable.

95
(2) Of those voting "Comfortable", there was a tendency to prefer parallel cool sensation over a warm one. This proved specially true both for females and for the 51-70 year age

group. This asymmetry was not typical of a general population as most of the test conditions

fell in temperature ranges expected for cool and comfortable.

B. Cross-Tabulation: Perspiration Sense vs Comfort Sense

% with

NONE Slight Moderate Heavy + PSENS Total

(Col. %) Row % Col. %

Comf

.

222 (78) 70 16 0 28 52 308

Uncomf

.

58 (20) 42 27 2 55 43 129

Very Uncomf. 6 (2) 2 4 1 54 3 13

N (Row %) 285 (63) 114 (25) 47 (10) 3 (2) 450

The above table shows that:

(3) Although only about a third of the group stated they had a strong perspiration sense,

this sense was associated with "warm" and "uncomfortable" votes.

C. Cross -Tabulation: Dry-Humid Sense vs Temperature Sense

Normal

Very dry Dry (Neutral) Humid Very Humid Total

Cold 3 15 14 3 2 37

Cool 2 64 19 51 13 27 2 87

Sliahtlv Cool 2 23 56 7 88

Neutral 3 23 83 13 1 123

Slightly Warm 3 14 11 37 1 66

Warm 23 5 7 23 72 6 41

Hot 1 1 5 7

Totals 14 99 223 96 15 449

E Sum of observations

(4) In judging air quality, described by "Dryness" and "Humid", the

former significantly correlated with a sense of "Cool" and the latter with a sense

of "Warm".

96
D. Cross-Tabulation: Air Flow Sense vs Temperature Sense

X^Alr Flow

\v Sense Pleasant Neutral Unpleasant

TempX^^ (with high air movement) (with low air movement) Total

Sense \

N (row %)

Cold-Cool 86 (41) 62 (29) 64 (30) 212 (100)

SI. Cool

Neutral 32 (26) 63 (51) 28 (23) 123 (100)

SI. Warm- 9 (8) 27 (23) 79 (69) 115 (100)

Warm-Hot

127 (28) 152 (34) 171 (38) 450 (100)

(5) When air quality was judged by the "Pleasantness" of air flow sense, 66% of the

group had a-positive feeling divided between "Pleasant" and "Unpleasant". "Pleasant" was

usually associated with "Cool" and "Comfortable" sensation and "Unpleasant" with

"Warm" and "Uncomfortable" sensations.

E. Cross-Tabulation: Temperature Sense vs Air Temperature

Cold Cool

SI.

Cool

E

Cool

(Row %)

Neutral

E,N

(Row %)

E

Warm

(Row %)

SI.

Warm Warm Hot Total

22 .5 (72. 5° F) 13 13 10 36 (59) 18 (29) 9(15) 5 2 2 63

22. 7 22 .5-22.9 6 21 12 39 (42) 30 (33) 33 (36) 15 7 1 92

23. 2 23 .0-23.4 7 19 26 52 (57) 24 (26) 16(17) 9 7 0 92

23. 7 23 .5-23.9 4 11 8 23 (49) 11 (23) 13 (28) 8 4 1 47

24. 2 24 .0-24.4 0 4 7 11 (33) 7 (21) 15 (45) 6 8 1 33

24. 7 24 .5-24.9 0 2 6 8 (18) 14 (31) 23 (51) 13 10 0 45

25. 2 25 .0-25.4 0 0 2 2 (15) 4 (31) 7(54) 3 2 2 13

a 25.0 (77° F)

Col. Total (Row %) 30 70 71 171 (45) 108 (28) 105 (27) 58 40 7 384

(% Total) {8} ( 1?) (1 8) 05} (10) (2)

(6) Although the maximum probability of those voting both "Cool" and "Warm"

occurring at 74.8° F (23.9° C) , this temperature did not prove to be the temperature

range where the greatest number voted "Acceptable" as judged by "Neutral" and

"Comfort" sensations.

97
F. Cross -Tabulation: Comfort Sense vs Air Temperature

rn^a Uomtortable Uncomfortable Very Uncomfortable iotal

VKOW /o) S 22.5 37 (60) 22 (35) 3 (5) 62 (100)

22.5-22.9 71 (76) 19 (21) 3 (3) 93 (100)

Zo . U— Zo .

4

0 / \l £.) zo vz/; i U;

23.5-23.9 31 (62) 18 (36) 1 (2) 50 (100)

24.0-24.4 22 (67) 9 (27) 2 (6) 33 (100)

24.5-24.9 27 (59) 18 (39) 1 (2) 46 (100)

25.0-25.4 9 (69) 2 (15) 2 (16) 13 (100)

5 25.5 0 0 0 0

Col. Total 264 (68) 113 (29) 13 (3) 390

(7o Total)

(7) The entire temperature range of the survey (72.5-77.9° F) or (22.5-25.5° C) was

considered comfortable by 68% of those voting and lay, for the most part, on the cool

side of the optimum, which would have been expected theoretically at 78° F (25.6° C)

for the average clothing worn ( 0.4 Clo)

.

WINTER SURVEY OF THERMAL PREFERENCE

The winter survey was made at the same building location (GSA Building, Federal

Plaza, NYC) as the Summer (Task II). The last two weeks in January and the first week

in February were chosen for the study. The questionnaire for Winter was essentially

the same as that for Summer except for the additional interest in the effect of cold

extremities. The sections of the building surveyed were the same as before. All

instrumentation was identical to the previous study. The mode of the survey was

slightly different in that half of the observations were made in the afternoon and the

other half in the morning before lunch.

The number of questionnaires completed was 514 from a maximum of 2 62 individuals.

The number retested was 125.

The outside weather conditions were ideal for the survey and typical for the New York

area. The average outdoor temperature was 34° F; the lowest was 17° F and the warmest,

43° F. The outside vapor pressure ranged from 1.6 Torr to 7. 1 Torr with an average of 3.6,

which value corresponds to a dew point of 30° F.

Indoor temperature during the survey varied widely, due to the poor control of internal

temperature by the building engineer. The average indoor temperature was about 77° F; 80% of the observations were evenly distributed over the 73° F-81° F range. The highest

zone temperature observed was 84° F while the lowest was 71° F. Although the indoor

temperatures were well above the FEA Guideline level of 68°-70° F (in spite of frequent

complaints to the building engineer that the test areas were too warm), this relatively

even temperature distribution from 73° to 81° made possible a significant statistical

analysis of thermal responses over this range so that reasonable projections could be

made towards both the FEA Guidelines for both Winter and Summer.

98
The average dew point temperature was 44° F, corresponding to an average indoor

relative humidity of 30%, The average indoor air movement was about 30 ± 10 fpm.

The average intrinsic clothing insulation worn to work was 0.7 clo for menand 0.65 for

women. These values are 50 % higher for men and 100 % higher for women than those observed during the Summer Survey. Thus people dress for work according to oucside weather

conditions rather than for the expected ideal office temperature or for their often over- heated offices in the present building.

From a cross -correlation analysis, the observations with high significance were

as follows:

G. Cross-Tabulations: Temperature Sense vs Comfort Sense

Both Sexes Comfortable Uncomfortable Totals

N (Col %) N (Col 7o)

Cool and Cold 63 (16) 33 (32) 86

SI. Cool-Neutral--SI. Warm 299 (76) 9 (9) 308

Warm-Hot 43 (8) 61 (59) 104

Totals 395 103 498

Males Comfortable Uncomfortable Total

N (Col 7c) N (Col 7o)

Cool and Cold 18 (10) 6 (16)

SI. Cool-Neutral-SI. Warm 143 (81) 3 (8)

Warm-Hot 16 (9) 29 (79)

Totals 177 38 215

Females Comfortable Uncomfortable Total

N (Col 7o) N (Col 7o)

Cool and Cold 40 (19) 25 (40)

SI. Cool-Neutral- SI. Warm 143 (68) 6 (9)

Warm-Hot 27 (13) 32 (51)

Totals 210 63 273

99
Age Col. % Comfortable Col. % Uncomfortable

Age yrs. Age yrs.

Group <30 31-50 >50 <30 31-50 >50

Cool-Cold 18 15 15 52 10 41

SI. Cool-Neutral-Sl. Warm 68 73 76 10 7 10

Warm-Hot 14 12 9 38 83 48

The above tables show:

(1) As high as 79% of all observations were in the "Comfort" category. This sense of

comfort was primarily associated with a general neutral thermal sense. Of the remaining,

who voted "Uncomfortable", a majority (91%) always associate their feelings with either a sense of coolness (32%) or warmth (59%).

(2) For both men and women, the trend above for "Comfort" was the same. However,

for "Uncomfortable", men associate this feeling primarily with warmth, while women were

equally divided between cool and warm.

Comfortable Uncomfortable

While Air Flow

SENSE was: Pleasant Unpleasant Pleasant Unpleasant

Col SN 274 20 107 80

(Col %) (Col %) (Col %) (Col %)

Cool-Cold 41 (15) 21 (30) 6 (20) 25 (31)

» Neutral 211 (77) 65 (15) 3 (60) 6 (8)

Warm-Hot 22 (8) 21 (55) 11 (20) 49 (61)

Total (N) 481

(3) A cool air flow sense improved Comfort.

While Comfort

was (below)

,

Air Sense was: Dry Normal Humid Total

Row (%) N Col (%)

Comfortable (48) 193 (75) (46) 186 (94) (16) 24 (52) (100) 403 (80)

Uncomfortable (66) 66 (25) (12) 13 (6) (23) 22 (48) (100) 100 (20)

Total (51) 259 (100) (39) 198 (100)(10) 46 (100) (100) 503 (100)

100
(4) A sense of air dryness in air quality could account for 66% of those voting

uncomfortable and coolness.

Cross-Tabulation: Temperature Sense vs Air Temperature

All observations: Winter Study

Temp. Range ° C 22.-22.9 23.-23.9 24.-24.9 25.-25.9 26.-26.9 27.-27.9 Total

No. Obs. 38 108 79 102 125 45 497

% Cool-Cold 37 28 24 17 14 0

% *» Neutral

(Acceptable)

63 70 67 66 55 24

% Warm-Hot 0 2 9 17 31 76

(5) The temperature range for maximum acceptability (i.e. those who do not vote

"cool-cold" or "warm-hot"), is (72.5°-76° F) for men at 80% level and (72.5°-78° F) for

women at 60% level. For maximum acceptance at 70%, the temperature range is 74°-77.7°

which falls within temperature range for Comfort prescribed by ASHRAE Standard 55-74.

This is illustrated in Figure 1 for all subjects.

68 72 76 80

§10

I

|30

Qj

^50

-^, §70

J? 90

84

NYC WINTER SURVEY

JAN. 75 I ALL SUBJECTS I

20

I T ; I TT r O Z OF CO(iL~(iOL0l VOTES/[T0TAL VOTES %

2 OF WAIRM~HOT | VbTES/lTOTAL VOTES %

I OF NEUtRAL~sL. COOL-SL. warm VOTE/ TOTAL VOTES % (ACCEPTABLE)

72! F ET •

1

zaaMc etI ASHRA^ COMI

A

f

78 F Et • H

ak cioiyae do

TORTZONIIE

22 24 26

To OR ET*

28 30 'C

Percent thermal sensation vs T^ on probability

Since average 1^,^^ was 0.6

Figure 1 coordinates - all subjects,

and humidity 40-50% RH, T = ET*, by definition.

101
(6) The temperature range for 80% "Comfortable" is 71.5 -78°; for 90% comfortable,

the range narrows to 74°-76°. The optimum temperature for Comfort is 75° F for our survey. In terms of ASHRAE ET* (i.e. equivalent temperature for 0.5 Clo and 50% rh)

,

this optimum corresponds to 74° F. This is illustrated in Figure 2 for all subjects.

68 72 76

I

^30

|50

i

90

T T

60 84

NYC WINTER SURVEY

JAN. 75

ALL SUBJECTS

ASHRAE

Tfl ET*

% COMFORTABLE O

% UNCOMFORTABLE •

AV. clo ifO.SO clo

.-. To S ASHRAE ET*

ALL SUBJ.- 492 DBS.

as % LEVEL

COMFORTOBLE

3o^LeveL

20 22

_L

24 26

Ta OR ET*

28 30 'C

Figure 2 . Percent comfort-uncomfortable sensation vs

T^ on probability coordinates.

o

(7) The temperature range for Comfort found in the present survey matches the range

for Comfort, prescribed by ASHRAE Standard 55-74.

HEALTH EFFECTS OF MODERATE THERMAL STRESS

The present phase of our FEA study on the effect of the Guidelines was a survey of the

literature on the effects of moderate heat and cold stress.

The effects of moderate heat stress have received by far the greatest attention in the

literature by clinicians, meteorologists, physiologists and statisticians. The most recent

and perhaps now classical study was done by Lee and Henschel (1963)(2) on the effects of

heat stress that might be encountered in fallout shelters - a great concern at that period

of history. The conclusions of their study were clinical judgments for an abnormal minority of our population under heat stress well above moderate levels. A second now classical series of studies was the work of Burch and DePasquale (1962)(3) summarized in the

102
book on the effects of air conditioning warm and humid chambers on the heart of normal

and chronic patients . They did show that heart patients , who showed no deleterious

health effects at 75°-76° F (23.9-24.° C) were selected for large exposures to 84°-86° F

(28.9°-30° C), a level slightly above the FEA Guidelines.

There is very little in the literature on the effects of moderate cold, which can best

be defined as occurring when skin temperature falls below 85° F (29° C). Extreme

cold has long been an interest of the Armed Services, whose members must perform at temperatures

well below freezing. The laboratory studies, to be reported by Dr. Gonzalez, are the

best available for the lower Guideline temperatures (68°-70° F or 20°-21° C)

.

PERFORMANCE UNDER GUIDELINE TEMPERATURES

The earliest observations on the practical problem of performance of mental and physical tasks for working man appear to be those of Vernon (4) during the First World War. He

equated accident frequency with atmospheric conditions (dry bulb temperature) in a munitions factory. For each work spell, the frequency of minor accidents was recorded. A

rough calculation of the accident frequency showed that accident frequency was least

among workers at shop temperatures of between 65 (18° C) and 69° F (20° C). For

cooler ambient temperatures of less than 65° C (18° F) or higher ambient temperatures

a 69° F (21° C), the frequency of accidents increased.

The classic studies of Mackworth (1946)(5) and later Pepler (1965)(6) at Oxford were

done specifically to quantify any deterioration in task performance as a function of warm

ambient conditions. In the studies by Mackworth male wireless telegraph operators, in

laboratory conditions, were studied. Their activity would be comparable to our everyday

office work. Before the main study the men were acclimatized to heat at 95° F (35° C)

for 3 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week. The actual work procedure was for 3 hrs, at dry

bulb temperatures of 85° (29.5° C) to 105° F (40.5° C) and wet bulb temperature 10° F

(5.6° C) below DB, during which time 9 messages from a pool of 250 groups were transmitted at a speed of 22 words per minute.' The subjects were dressed in gym shorts

(approx. 0.1 Clo) and air velocity was at 100 fpm (0.5 m/s) . The table below shows

their averaged observed data.

Table 1. Average mistakes per hour.

T^ °F ( °C)

a

85 (29 .4) 90 (32.2) 95 (35.0) 100 (37. 8) 105 (40

Conditions

Wet bulb °F (°C) 75 (23 .9) 80 (26.7) 85 (29.4) 90 (32. 2) 95 (35

RH% 63 65 66 68 69

Av. mistakes/subject per hour 12 11.5 15.3 17.3 94.7

Decrement in performance 0 0 30% 47% 700%

Mackworth' s findings showed that increases in both dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures impaired the accuracy of the operators to record messages over the telephone and

that decrements in task performance were primarily a function of the skill of the operator.

Very skilled operators showed no significant mistakes until DB reached 100° F (38° C)

and wet bulb was at 90° F (32° C)

.

103
By using the above tabulated basic data, plus the fact that the activity was about

1.1 met, which is typical of the metabolic rates for an office worker, his data have been

standardized to the ASHRAE Effective Temperature ET* as shown in the following table.

ASHRAE ET*

Op o^

1 TSENS2

DISC (w)

%

Av. mistakes/sub)

.

per hour

Decrement in

performance

74.0 (23.4) - .1 0.1 6 12 0%

80.6 (27.0) 1.4 .4 13 11.5 0%

88.7 (31.5) 3.0 1.0 26 15.3 30%

98.6 (37.0) 4.6 2.3 51 17.3 47%

109.8 (43.2) 5.2 6.3 100 94.7 700%

1 - 1 - SI. cool; 0 - Neutral; 1 - 81. warm; 2 - Warm; 3 - Hot; 4 - Very hot;

5 - Intolerable

2 0 - Comfortable; 1 - SI. uncomfortable; 2 - Uncomfortable; 3 - Very uncomfortable

From the above studies of Mackworth it was clear that up to ET* levels of 80° F

(2 6.7° C) no significant decrement of performance would be expected. The initial

decrement could be expected for an average person as ET* rises above 82-84° F

(28°-29° C) levels.

Decrements in performance toward the cold for a similar type activity as Mackworth'

s

would depend primarily on the temperature of the fingertips and hands. The vertical finger

skin temperature lies about 75° F (24° C) which would occur for normally clothed persons

(0.6 « 1 Clo) for ambient temperatures well below the guideline temperature of 68° F

(20° C)

Our final conclusion was that the FEA Guideline temperatures for heat and cold should

cause no significant drop in performance per se .

ROLE OF CLOTHING IN MEETING BOTH FEA ENERGY CONSERVATION GUIDELINES

AND ASHRAE STANDARD 55-74.

In reviewing, the ASHRAE Standard 55-74 (Thermal Environmental Conditions for

Human Occupancy) describes the optimum "Comfort Envelope" as being the adjusted

dry bulb temperatures falling within an envelope defined oh a psychrometric chart by

71.6° F (21.9° C) and 77.6° F (25.3° C) at 14 Torr (1.9 kPa) and by 72.6° F (22.6° C)

and 79.7° F (26.5° C) at 5 Torr (0.7 kPa) . In terms of the new Effective Temperature

(ET*) , defined as the adjusted dry bulb temperature at 50% relative humidity, the optimum

ET* range lies between 72° F (22.2° C)-78° F (25.6° C) . Further this optimum range

applies for normally clothed people while engaged in sedentary or near sedentary activi- . ties, such as light office work. The Federal Energy Conservation Guidelines for control

of indoor environments in government office buildings require that dry bulb settings in

the winter be within 68° F (20° C) - 70° F (21° C) and in the summer be 78° F (25.6° C)

80° F (26.7° C). The feasibility of the higher guideline 80° F (26.7° C)- 820F (27.8° C)

has also been considered. Summer setting should be accomplished without humidity

control and reheat. The question is now how do the Standard and Guidelines relate

to each other.

104
The Pierce Laboratory's FEA survey of thermal preference in a typical government

office building located in New York City during both the summer, 1974, and winter, 1975,

produced two general observations. The first was that, during the winter, an acceptable

environment (defined by Standard 55-74 as an expression of thermal comfort by 80% of

those surveyed) occurred over the 72-78 ET* range and thus fell within the ASHRAE "Comfort Envelope. " Further the average clothing insulation worn in winter was approximately

0.6 clo (intrinsic) for both males and females. The average activity was rated as sedentary office work and fell in range 1.0-1.2 mets (60-70 W/m^). Air movement

observed was within 20-30 fpm (0.10-0.15 m/s). A second general observation was that

this same working population habitually clothed themselves for office work according to

the season and outdoor weather conditions prevailing rather than for any expectation of

the indoor climate, which was on an average 75° F (23.9° C) the year around. During

the summer the average clothing insulation worn in New York was 0.4 clo; men wore

a slightly higher value of 0.45 clo, compared to the women's 0.35 clo value. Adjusted

dry bulb temperatures within 72-78° F range proved to be on cool side while wearing

such light clothing during the summer.

Our laboratory study on FEA Winter Guideline Temperatures, which is being covered

by my associate Dr. Richard Gonzalez today, shows that the 80% acceptability criterion

was possible for groups of subjects exposed to 68° F (20° C) , specially if they were

given access to additional clothing insulation for comfort. In his study, the wearing of

a clothing insulation of about 1.0 clo (intrinsic) proved sufficient to make 68° F (20° C)

fall in the 80% acceptability range.

Our Summer Laboratory Study (also covered by Dr. Gonzalez) showed that, when

light clothing insulation was worn, it fell in the range 0.3-0.5 clo, and thermal

comfort was achieved by the majority of those tested up to 82° F (27.8° C)

.

Our studies on clothing requirements under FEA Temperature Guidelines Conditions

indicate in general that there is a need to relate the equivalence of various levels of

clothing insulation worn under various environmental conditions to the Comfort

Envelope of ASHRAE Standard 55-74. For this purpose we have used the latest dynamic

model of thermal regulation (7) to calculate ASHRAE ET*. The particular feature of this

FORTRAN program is that the ET* can be calculated from the basic environmental conditions described by (1) activity (metabolism), (2) operative temperature or ambient air

and mean radiant temperature, (3) room air movement, (4) ambient vapor pressure (or

relative humidity) and (5) the intrinsic clothing insulation worn. The basic clothing

and heat transfer conditions associated with the ASHRAE ET* are used as a standard

for comparison. Any thermal environment can be described in terms of the temperature

of a standard equivalent environment controlled at 50% relative humidity with air movement of 20-30 fpm (0.1-0.15 m/s) in which a sedentary subject (1-1.2 mets) wearing a

standard 0.6 intrinsic clo would exchange the same amount of heat by radiation, convection and evaporation at the same thermal strain, as he would in the actual working

environment, described by adjusted dry bulb or operative temperature, air movement

and humidity and clothing insulation worn. See Appendix 1 for calculation of ET*.

The primary objective of this section is to show how clothing insulation worn can

be used as a key parameter in choosing the proper combination of environmental

factors that fit the ASHRAE ET* Comfort Envelope (72-78° F) as defined by ASHRAE

Standard 55-74 and secondly to show what practical clothing strategies in conjunction

with existing humidity and air movement are possible to make the FEA Winter-Summer

Guideline Temperatures fit within the basic ASHRAE Comfort Envelope.

105
In Figs. 3-6, which are all applicable for sedentary activity, the upper and lower

temperature limits for 80% acceptability have been drawn as horizontal lines at 72° F

(22° C) and 78° F (25.6° C) ET* on the ordinate in accordance with Standard 55-74.

The abscissa is ambient air temperature (Tg = MRT) or the adjusted dry bulb temperature.

Our New York survey showed that 90% acceptability would fall within the ET* limits

74° F (23.1° C)-76.5° F (24.5° C) . Each figure shows what clothing insulation will result in values of ASHRAE ET* that fall within the 80% acceptability ranges for the air

movement and relative humidity indicated.

18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32

AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE

Figure 3. Relation of ASHRAE ET* temperature with varying

clothing insulation for 40-60% relative humidity and 20-30 fpm

Note: Since by definition ASHRAE ET* describes the effective

temperature as the dry bulb at 50% rh associated with 0.6 Clo

and 20-25 fpm, the locus of ET* vs T^ for 0.6 Clo is always a straight line with unit slope.

Figure 3 relates ASHRAE ET* at normal humidity (50% RH) and air movement (0.1-0. 15 m/s , 20-30 fpm), to the ambient air temperature or operative temperature (or adjusted

dry bulb) for various Clo-levels. The 80% acceptability range of 72°-78° F is covered

106
best by 0.6 clo (by definition). At the FEA Winter Guideline temperature of 68° F

(20° C) an acceptable Clo range would be 0.9-1.5. At 72° F (22.2° C) the range of

acceptable Clo is 0.6-1.2 clo; at 78° F (25.6° C) the acceptable clo range is 0.1 to

0,6 clo, at 82° F (27.8° C) the range of acceptable Clo narrows to 0-0.2 clo. For

0.4 clo the range of 80% acceptable extends from 74° F (23.3° C) to 80° F (26.7° C)

.

AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE 'C

Figure 4. Relation of ASHRAE ET* to with varying

Clo insulation for 60-80% rh and other factors the

same as in Figure 3. Note: Humidity is typical

of summer indoors in NYC.

The conditions for high humidity and normal air movement, such as would occur in

summer time, are illustrated in Figure 4. The acceptable clothing limits at 68° F (20° C)

remain essentially unchanged over those in Fig. 3. At 80° F, the upper FEA Summer Limit,

the acceptable Clo-range would be only 0-0.15 clo, which values are obviously impractical for daily wear. The temperature range for 80% acceptable with 0.6 clo narrows

to 72-77° F (22°-25° C) and rises to 75-80° F (23.9-26.7° C)

.

107
Low humidities such as would occur indoors during winter time or in desert climates

and with normal air movement are illustrated in Fig. 5. The acceptable Clo range for 68° F

Tg is slightly higher (1.0-1.6 clo) than values for normal humidity in Fig. 2. A 0.3 clo

ensemble would prove effective for the 78-80° F FEA Summer range but only marginally

effective at 82° F.

68 72 76 80 84 88 "F

I f ' I I 1 I I 1 I 1 I

AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE 'C

Figure 5 . Relation of ASHRAE ET* to with

varying clothing insulation for 20-40% RH and other

factors the same as in Figure 3, Note: Humidity

is typical of winter indoors in NYC.

108
AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE 'C

Figure 6. Relation of ASHRAE ET* to T with

varying clothing for normal humidity and air

movement in 80-100 fpm range. Note: Air

movement typical under tropical ceiling fans.

Figure 6 demonstrates how air movement (80 «* 100 fpm), for example, caused by

ceiling fans such as used in the tropics, greatly improves Comfort and acceptability while

wearing clothing in range 0.5 » 0.8 clo within the FEA Summer Guideline temperatures.

109
0.3 0.4 clo 0,4 0,6 clo

Summer - FEA Summer - Normal

0.7 0.9 clo 1 1.1 clo

Winter - Normal Winter - FEA

Figure 7. Clothing Ensembles for FEA Summer and Winter Guideline Temperature Ranges

A.

110
}'

0.15 0.25 clo

Summer - FEA

0.7 0.8 clo

Winter - Normal

0.4 0.5 clo

Summer - Normal

0.9 1.1 clo

Winter - FEA

Figure 7. Clothing Ensembles for FEA Summer and Winter Guideline Temperature Ranges

B.

Ill
Figure 7 illustrates typical clothing combinations for both males and females that can

be used to meet both the Guideline and ASHRAE Standard 55-74

From the accompanying figures it is clear that a proper choice of clothing insulation

can make a wide range of ambient temperatures and air movements fit within the ASHRAE

Comfort Envelope specified by Standard 55-74. The figures also show how habitual use

of light clothing in summer and warmer clothing in winter allow readjustment of 80%

acceptable ambient air temperature and still meet the 72-78° F ET* standard. Finally, these

figures show why^ as was the case for the old ASHVE Effective Temperature of Houghten

and Yaglou (1923), clothing habits of the past caused the preferred ambient temperatures

to be slightly higher in the summer than in the winter for the same optimum ET*.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

The authors are indebted to many during the preparation of the above contract study.

The New York surveys were accomplished under the direction of Professors Dorothy

Cunningham and Paul Brandford of Hunter College, New York City. The statistical

evaluation of these surveys was done by Professor Brandford. The evaluation of

clothing and its significance was primarily the work of Dr. Y. Nishi, now at Hokkaido

Institute of Technology, Japan. Through the course of this study we must acknowledge

the valuable guidance and advice of Dr. R. R. Gonzalez, Dr. B. Wenger and Dr. J. A. J. Stolwijk of our Laboratory, Dr. P. O. Fanger of the Technical University of Denmark,

and Dr. R. F. Goldman, the Chairman of TC 2.1, Physiology and Human Environment of

the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Gagge, A. P. and R. G. Nevins. Effect of Energy Conservation Guidelines on

Comfort, Acceptability and Health. Final report of Contract #00-04-51891-00

of Federal Energy Administration, March, 1976.

2. Lee, D. H. K. and A. Henschel. Evaluation of Thermal Environment in Shelters

.

Report prepared for Office of Civil Defense under contract No. OCD-OS-62-100

.

U. S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,

Division of Occupational Health, 1963.

3. Burch, G. E. and N. P. DePasquale. Hot Climates , Man and His Heart . Springfield, 111.: Thomas, 1962.

4. Vernon, H. M. In: Basic Principles of Ventilating and Heating . ByT. Bedford,

Lewis & Co. , 1948.

5. Mackworth, N. H. Effects of heat on wireless operators' hearing and recording

Morse Code messages. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 3.: 143-158, 1946.

6. Pepler, R. D. Performance and well-being in heat. In: Temperature , its Measure - ment and Control in Science and Industry . Vol. 3, Part 3. J. D. Hardy, ed.

Reinhold Publ. 1965, pp. 319-336.

7. Gagge, A. P., Y. Nishi and R. G. Nevins. The role of clothing in meeting FEA

energy conservation guidelines. ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS 82. (H) , 1976.

112
APPENDIX 1 Annoted FORTRAN Program for Calculation of ASHRAE ET*

The present program is designed to calculate the ASHRAE ET* when the following basic

factors are known and evaluated:

TA - ambient air or dry bulb temperature C

TR - the mean radiant temperature C

VEL - room air movement m • s"''^ RH - relative humidity as fraction

CLO - intrinsic insulation of clothing worn clo

ACT - level of activity in met units met

(ACT = ACT*58.2 in W . m"2 in program)

WK - work accomplished W • m~^

The above factors are defined by READ and DO statements

.

The basic physiological terms used to describe the regulatory model are as follows.

Secondary definitions will occur in the program itself.

TSK = mean skin temperature

TCR = internal body temperature

SKBF = skin blood flow

REGSW = regulatory sweating

The following function relating saturation vapor pressure SVP in Torr to temperature T

in C is used. The function is known as the Antoine Equation.

SVP(T) = EXP(18. 6686-4030. 183/(T+235.))

C STEADY STATE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODEL AT THERMAL NEUTRALITY

TTSK«3^.0

TTCR=36,6

ALPHA«0.1

TTBM«ALPHA«TTSK+( 1,-ALPHA)*TTCR

CSW«200.

CSTR»0.5

CDIL=150.

C INITIAL CONDITIONS-PHYSIOLOGICAL THERMAL NEUTRALITY

TSK«TTSK

TCR«TTCR

TBM»ALPHA»TSK+< 1»-ALPHA)»TCR

SKBFN=6.3

SKBF=SKBFN

EV»0.1»ACT

C CLOTHING AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEAT TRANSFER FACTORS AT SEA LEVEL

C CHCA IS EFF, CHC DUE TO ACT IN STILL AIR (TREADMILL WALKING)

CHCA«5«66*(ACT/58.2-0.85)»»0«39

C CHCV IS FUNCTION OF ROOM AIR MOVEMENT (VEL)

CHCV=8.6*VEL**0.53

IF(CHCV-CHCA) 4.4,5

4 CHC»CHCA

GO TO 6

5 CHC»CHCV

6 CONTINUE

C

C

liters • m~^ • h

g • m~2 • h"-'-

113
C CHC VALUE FOR STILL AIR IS 3.0 AT SEA LEVEL

7 IF(CHC-3.) 8»9»9

8 CHC»3.0

9 CONTINUE

FACL»l.+0. 15*CL0

CHR-A.7

CTC»CHC+CHR

T0« ( CHR»TR+CHC*TA ) /CTC

CL0E«CL0-(FACL-1. ) /(0.155*FACL»CTC>

FCLE»l./( l.+0.15 5»CLOE>

FPCL=l./( 1«+0«143»CHC»CL0EI

C TIME OF EXPOSURE SET AT ONE HOUR

TIM»0.

TIME=1.

C SIMULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION - START OF REG. LOOP

100 CONTINUE

CL0E«CL0-(FACL-1. ) / ( 0. 155»FACL*CTC

)

FCLE»l./< l.+0.15 5»CTC«CLOE)

TCL=TO+FCLE*( TSK-TO)

CHR=4.*5.67E-8»( ( ( TCL+TR ) /2 .+273 . 2 ) *3 ) *0. 725

CTC»CHR+CHC

T0= ( CHR*TR+CHC*TA ) /CTC

ERES=0.0023*ACT*(44.-RH»SVP(TA)

)

CRES»0.001^»ACT*( 34.-TA)

C HEAT FLOW EQUATION AT SKIN SURFACE

DRY=FCLE»CTC»( TSK-TO)

ESK=EV-ERES

HFSK=( TCR-TSK )*( 5.28 + 1. 163»SK;BF)-DRY-ES<

HFCR=ACT-( TCR-TSK)*< 5.28+1. 163»SKBF)-CRES-ERES-WK

C AVERAGE MAN 70KG» 1.8 SO. METER

TCSK=0.97»ALPHA»70.

TCCR=0. 97* ( 1. -ALPHA )»70.

DTSK=(HFSK*1.8)/TCSK

DTCR=<HFCR*1.8)/TCCR

DTIM=l./60.

DTBM=ALPHA*DT5K+{ 1 ."ALPHA ) *DTGR

TIM»TIM+DTIM

TSK=TSK+DTSK*DTIM

TCR»TCR+DTCR»DTIM

C DEFINITION OF REGULATORY CONTROL SIGNALS

SKSIG=TSK-TTSK

IFtSKSIG) 10»10»15

10 COLDS=-SKSIG

WARMS=0.

GO TO 20

15 COLDS=0.

WARMS=SKSIG

20 CRSIG=TCR-TTCR

IF(CRSIG) 30»30»35

30 COLDC=-CRSIG

WARMC=0.

GO TO 40

35 WARMC=CRSIG

COLDC=0.

40 CONTINUE

Ilk
C CONTROL SKIN BLOOD FLOW

STRIC=CSTR*COLDS

OILAT=CDIL*WARMC

SKBF=(S<BFN+DILAT)/( l.+STRIC)

C RELATIVE WT. OF SKIN SHELL TO BODY CORE VARIES WITH SKBF

ALPHA«0. 04415+0.351/ <SKBF-0«O 14)

C DEFINITION OF CONTROL SIGNALS FOR SWEATING

TBM=ALPHA»TSK+( l.-ALPHA)»TCR

BYSIG=TBM-TTBM

IF(BYSIG) 50»50»55

50 COLDB=-BYSIG

WARMB = 0-. GO TO 60

55 WARMBsBYS*-^.

COLDB=0.

60 CONTINUE

C CONTROL OF REGULATORY SWEATING

REGSW=CSW*WARMB*EXP ( WARMS/ 10 .7

)

ERSW=0.68*REGSW

EMAX=2.2*CHC*<SVP( TSK)-RH*SVP( TA) )*FPCL

PRSW=ERSW/EMAX

PWET=0.06+0.94*PRSW

EDIF=PWET»EMAX-ERSW

EV=ERES+ERSW+EDIF

IF( EMAX-ERSW) 70»70»75

70 EV=ERES+EMAX

ERSW=EMAX

EDIF=0.

PRSW=1.

PWET=1«

75 CONTINUE

IF(TIM-TIME) lOOtllOtllO

110 CONTINUE

C END OF REGULATORY LOOP

At the end of exposure TIME, all the basic physiological terms listed above are now

evaluated for activity and environment defined above. The state of thermal equilibrium

(STORE) and the skin heat loss to the environment (HSK) now follow:

C CALCULATION OF HEAT STORAGE

STORE=ACT-WK-CRES-EV-DRY

C CALCULATION OF SKIN HEAT LOSS( HSK > HSK=ACT-ERES-CRES-WK-STORE

C CALCULATION OF ASHRAE STANDARD EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE - SET

C DEFINITION OF ASHRAE STANDARD ENVIRONMENT

CHRS=CHR

C CHCS IS CHCA VALUE FOR ACT SELECTED IN STILL AIR

CHCS=CHCA

CL0S=0.6

FACLS=1.09

CTCS=CHRS+CHCS

CLOES=CLOS-( FACLS-1 . ) / ( 0. 155»FACLS»CTCS

)

FCLES=1./ ( l.+0.15 5*CTCS*CLOES)

FPCLS=1./ ( l.+0.143*CHCS*CLOES)

C STANDARD ACTIVITY POINT

TACTS=TSK-HSK/ (CTCS»FCLES)

C AT START OF ITERATION

SET=TACTS

115
C DEF. OF SET IS SOLUTION OF HEAT BAL. EQ. WHEN ERROR=0.

200 ERROR»HSK-CTCS*FCLES»( TSK-SET)-PWET*2.2*CHCS*FPCLS»(SVP( TS<

)

X-0.5*SVP(SET)

)

IF( ERROR)210»220»220

210 SET=SET+0.1

GO TO 200

220 CONTINUE

For the present analysis, the following printout is useful.

WRITE I l»4000)TA»CLO»ACTtPWET.EMAX»TSK»TCR»TBM»HSKtDRY»EV»STORE»SET

4000 FORMAT(13F7.2)

The above program applies for sea level conditions and may be used to develop psychrometric tables for clothed subjects in heated, ventilated and air-conditioned environments

encountered in normal engineering practice and for prediction of comfortable-acceptable

environments, when basic indoor temperatures are determined by a Building Simulation

Program such as the National Bureau of Standards NBSLD.

For Fig. 3-6 the following common inputs were used:

END of program

ACT

WK

TIME

TA

1 . 1 mets for sedentary office work

0. W.m-2

1 . hour

TR = TO °C

Other environmental factors used are indicated on the figures themselves.

116
RADIATION MEASUREMENT FOR THERMAL COMFORT ASSESSMENT IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

L. G. Berglund

John B. Pierce Foundation and Yale University

New Haven, Connecticut

, Abstract

The major properties of the environment that affect thermal comfort include: air temperature, humidity, air velocity,and thermal radiation. The first two can be readily and

accurately measured. Field instrumentation for measuring air velocity has greatly improved in recent years. The fourth quantity, thermal radiation, is still elusive to the

HVAC engineers and has often been overlooked or neglected because of the difficulty in

measuring it accurately. Thermal radiation as a factor in attaining comfort has traditionally been expressed in terms of the "Mean Radiant Temperature" of the environment.

Various instruments have evolved to measure mean radiant temperature. Some are passive

and elementary like the Vernon Black Globe while others are active and complex like the

Pa nradiometer, for example. The present paper summarizes the operating principles and the

technique of application of the various types of instruments developed in the past^and compares their advantages and disadvantages as to inherent accuracy, ease of operation,

simplicity of design,and speed of response. Reviewed are those instruments applicable

to the needs of environmental scientists and HVAC engineers for thermal radiation measurement in the built environment. Some development needs and design suggestions are also

presented.

Key Words: Thermal radiation, mean radiant temperature, thermal comfort,

directional radiant temperature , radiation measurement, radiometer

Introduction

Thermal comfort is perceived when body temperatures can be maintained within certain

limits with a minimum amount of physiological regulatory effort. The major environmental

properties that affect the outward flow of metabolic energy, physiological strain, and

thermal comfort are: air temperature, humidity, velocity, and thermal radiation.

Extensive laboratory studies over the years have quantitlzed the effects of these

parameters on comfort and energy flow. The experimental studies have led to mathematical

models, some of the more popular of which are Fanger's Comfort Equation (1) and Gagge's

et al Two-Node Physiological Model ( 2)« The models have permitted the extrapolation

of the experimental results to almost limitless combinations and have greatly expanded

the engineers comfort assessment and design potential. In the laboratory the determination

or control of the environmental parameters has always been possible by some means or other. Such is not always the case when taking a field survey or assessing or improving

the comfort environment of a building. Air temperature and humidity can be readily and

accurately measured in both the laboratory and field. Field instrumentation for measuring

air velocity has greatly improved in recent years. However, the measurement of thermal

radiation in the built environment is still elusive to the HVAC engineer and has often been

117
neglected because accurate measurement is difficult and time consuming. In the hope that

radiation instrumentation for field use may be improved and made more available in the

future the operating principles of various types of instruments developed in the past will

be reviewed.

Radiation Theory

Radiation heat transfer from a person in an enclosed space is classically modeled

as:

4 4

Qj. = A-Q fcl ^eff s (T^i - Tj^t ), (1)

where A-p = the area of the skin surface as predicted by the DuBois equation

f^Y - 'the ratio of the area of the clothed body surface to that of the nude

body itself

fgff = the fraction of the body surface effective for radiation exchange

e - emissivity of clothing or exposed skin surface

CT = Stephan-Boltzmann constant

T^Y ~ absolute clothing or skin temperature

'^mrt ~ mean radiant temperature on absolute temperature scale

Mean radiant temperature is defined (3) as the uniform black body temperature of an

imaginary enclosure in which a person will exchange the same heat by radiation as he

would in the actual complex environment. It is, thus, a convenient property to express the

radiant quality of an environment.

For long wavelength radiation ( A. =3yin),skin behaves very much like a black body with

an absorptivity close to unity (4). Black body radiators of 200 C or less emit more than

99% of their radiation with wavelengtPis of 3m or longer. In addition the emittance of most

clothing surfaces is about 0.95 (3. Thus, in this region body surfaces may be modeled as

gray bodies ( e = » independent of \) . If surfaces in the built environment are hotter than

o 200 C, as with high temperature infrared heaters and sunlight, then skin and clothing

surfaces are not gray ( egk ~ c^sk^ special precautions must be followed with radiation

measuring equipment to enable Tj^j.^ to fulfill the definition given above. This will be

discussed further in a later section.

For some applications, the radiation equation is linearized to:

Qr = ^r (Tel " ^mrt) '

' (2)

where h^. is the radiation coefficient. By algebraic equivalence

\ " ^cl ^eff ^ CT (Tci'^ - Tjnrt^)/(Tcl " '^mrd • (3)

Then if Tj^rt ^

\ =fcl feff ^ ^((T^l + . (4)

Another way to characterize and quantify the radiant environment is through the term

Effective Radiant Field (ERF) (6). This is an energy flow term that relates Tjj^j.^ or surface

118
temperatures of the enclosure to air temperature. If Tj^j.^. is greater than air temperature

(Tg), ERF will be positive and negative when Tmrt is less than Tq. The radiation per unit area can then be expressed in terms of ERF as O/Ad = hr(Tci - Tg) - ERF (5)

where ERF = hj. (Tj^j.^ - Tg) .

If the temperatures and geometries of the enclosure surfaces can be measured and

further if the emissivities of these surfaces can be assumed to be near unity the mean

radiant temperature can be calculated from

4 4 4 1/4

Tmrt = (Fp-lTi Fp-Z^Z + + ^ Fp-i^i ) (6)

where ^r,-i shape factor, which represents the fraction of the total energy that

leaves trie person and strikes surface i. If the surface emissivities are not all near

unity or if short wavelength (high temperature) radiation is present the calculated estimate

of Tjjjj.^ becomes more involved (5). Thus, for field assessment a reliable instrument that

rapidly integrates the radiant effects of the enclosure in terms of MRT is desirable.

Surface integrating radiometers may be classed as either passive or active in their

operation. Active radiometers either supply or remove energy from the sensor. Rate of

energy flow can be interpreted in terms of mean radiant temperature. The active class can

be further grouped into ones that are heated to a temperature greater than air temperature

and those that are clamped at the air temperature.

Passive Radiometers

The first and simplest passive radiometer developed for comfort assessment in the

built environment was the Vernon Globe thermometer (7 )• It is a black thin-walled hollow

sphere with a thermometer bulb at its center. Probably because of its simplicity, ruggedness,and minimal cost,it is still the most commonly used field radiometer. Recently,

NIOSH ( 8) has advocated the same 15 cm diameter globe as a component of its WBGT

Heat Stress Index. Thermally,the temperature of the globe floats between the air and

mean radiant temperatures of the enclosure (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Energy flow of globe thermometer.

119
An energy balance on the globe yields

Qr ^ Qc = I" dTg /dt (7)

where m and c are mass and specific heat of globe.

At steady state, the rate of change of internal energy (m c dTg/dt) is zero and

Qr = Qc (8)

or

e a A (Tj^rt'^ " Tg^) = A h^ (Tg - T^) . (9)

Solving for the mean radiant temperature

^mrt = (Tg' ^ (V^-HTg T„., = (T„^ + - (h /ca)(T - T ))^/^ (10)

where h^ is the convective heat transfer coefficient averaged over the surface of the

sphere. When there is forced flow^h^ can be estimated from the following Nusselt

equation:

he d/k - 0.37 (U d/v)°'^ (11)

where Uis velocity, k is the thermal conductivity, and v is the kinematic viscosity

of the fluid. For the case of natural convection (U = 0)

.

h^d/k - 2 +a393 (g (Tg - Tg ) d^T^ v^) . (12)

The forced convection heat transfer mode dominates in the case of the 15 cm globe in

air at comfort temperatures if

U 5 0.03 (Tg - Tg) m/s . (13)

Therefore, the forced convection equation can be used with confidence at velocities down

to about 0.1 m/s even with a globe air temperature difference of St. Equations 10,

lljand 12 show that to reliably calculate T^^^^ with the globe, an accurate measurement

of Tg, Tg,and U is required.

The transient response of the globe can be examined from equation 7 rearranged to

A hr (Tjnrt - '^g) - A h^ (Tg - T^) = A p x c dT /dt (14)

where x is the thickness of the sphere and p is its density. Rearranging and

integrating, equation 14 yields

\ ^mrt + ^c^a - (^r + ^^c^ Tg2

_ -(t2 - ti)/T = e (15)

hr Tmrt + h^Tg - (hr + h^) Tgi

where t - pc x/(hr + h,-,) is the globe's time constant.

Substituting the h^^ equation for forced convection,

T - pC x/(hr +0.37 k U°V(cP' v°- ^)) (16)

which shows that the time constant decreases as the velocity increases and diameter

decreases. Therefore, for a fast response the globe should be small. However, if the

120
sphere is made too small, Tg - Tg may be too small to measure accurately, resulting in an

error in calculated Tj^ff

How the sensitivity of the globe to radiation (Tg - Tg)/(Tjj^.|. - Tg) is affected by its

design can be seen from equation 8 written as

^r (^mrt " '^g) = ^c(Tg - Tg) or

(Tg - Ta)/{T^t - V - + ^c)

- 1/(1 +0.37 k U°*V(4 a Tg^d°-^v°-^)) . (17)

It is seen that Tg - Tg becomes small in comparison to the potential difference when

the globe diameter is decreased. If the globe temperature is to be midway between air

and mean radiant temperatures, equation 17 predicts for typical room temperatures and

velocities (0.2 m/s or 40 fpm) that the diameter should be 15 cm.

For steady state applications^the original 15 cm Vernon globe is a simple and useful

instrument. However, it is very slow to use and requires 10 to 20 minutes to reach

equilibrium with a new steady state environment. For that reason it is awkward to use

when taking comfort surveys in the field (e.g. when comparing comfort votes in an office

building to the local environmental parameters as the radiometer is moved from place to

place). Exact velocity measurement at low air speeds is difficult. A 0.1 m/s error in

velocity measurement with a 15 cm globe at a 5 C difference between air and globe can

result in a 1 . 6°C error in the calculated mean radiant temperature. If the globe is reduced

to 2.5 cm for quicker response the calculated MRT error would also be 1 . 6°C in the same

environment with the same velocity error. HoweveP, Tg would be only 2.4°C instead

of 5°C making accurate temperature measurement even more critical.

For a rapid radiometer to be used in an environmental survey of British operating

rooms, Lidwell and Wyon ( 9) designed a tiny 2 mm diameter unheated globe inside a thin (OJ.mm) polyethylene spherical ^5 mm diameter) shell. Polyethylene is generally

transparent to long wavelength radiation.

Q anemometer

Figure 2. Polyethylene shield globe thermometer of Lidwell and Wyon.

121
The air space between the globe and the polyethylene shell acts as a thermal resistor (Rg)

and at 25 mm is also much lower than at the 2 mm diameter. The steady state energy

balance is:

Ag h^(Tnirt " Tg) = (Tg - Ta)/(Ra + l/Aghc) . (18)

Figure 3 shows that the polyethylene shielding greatly decreases the velocity dependence

of the instrument as well as increasing its sensitivity. The time constant of this device

is about 1 . 3 min.

I 1 1 1 1 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5

velocity m/s

Figure 3. Velocity dependence of globe with and without polyethylene shield.

To make their radiometer convenient for field surveys,Lidwell and Wyon integrated

an anemometer and air temperature sensor into the base of their small radiometer. More

recently^McIntyre (10) has reported shielding a 50 mm black globe with a 100 mm diameter

polyethylene sphere. The radiation sensitivity of this larger sensor is higher than that

of Lidwell and Wyon's and has even less velocity dependence. Mclntyre estimates that

(Tg - Ta)/{Tmrt - Ta) is 0.75 and 07 at velocities of 0. 1 and 0.5 m/s respectively. Polyethylene shielded radiometers require calibration to measure Tmrt because of uncertainty

in calculating the thermal resistance between the globe and the outside surface of the

shield

.

Another passive approach to determine MRT is through multiple unheated spheres with

unequal emissivities (lO). For two such spheres of equal diameters the steady state

energy balance equations are: ^l^'^mrt - ^gl) = ^ <V

"

^2(Tinrt - V = (Tg2 - V '

In the absence of natural convection the convection coefficients can be assumed equal.

3 Combining the two equations, with hj. = 4 e oT , yields:

T

- V^/n - Tgl(Tg2 - Ta)/(Tgi-T3)

^^^^

122
With this method T^^-i can be determined without a knowledge of air velocity. Thus the

instrument's performance potential would be limited only by the accuracy and sensitivity

of the temperature measuring system and the knowledge of e-|^ and From equation 16

the two spheres would have different time constants.

Active Radiometers

Active radiometers supply or remove energy from the MRT sensor and MRT is related

to this flow of auxiliary power (P) . There are two types of active radiometers; one uses

the auxiliary power to keep the sensor above the ambient and the other type uses the

power to hold the sensor at air temperature.

Radiometers heated above ambient.

The Panradiometer was developed by Richards, StoU and Hardy to measure the

mean long wave radiation temperature and solar or high temperature radiation intensity

while being independent of the air velocity. The radiometer consists of three 6.5 mm

hollow spheres. One is black, one is white^and the remaining is polished metal.

When the instrument is placed in an environment with a high temperature radiation

source, the black sphere will become warm due to absorption of short wave radiation.

The polished sphere, unable to absorb or emit well,will remain near air temperature.

The white sphere will reflect the short wave radiation but emit long wave radiation

and be cooled to a temperature below ambient if the surrounding surfaces and/or sky

is below Tg, If the cooler spheres are electrically heated to the temperature of the

black sphere the short wave radiation intensity and mean radiant temperature can be

calculated from energy balances and surface properties of the spheres. The energy

balances on the spheres are:

black

la, =Qc + cre,, (T, -T (20) bs bl b mrt

white

Pw + I '^ws - + ^wl^Tw"* - Tmrt"*) (21)

polished

Pp^I^ps-Q^^ + ^^wlV-^mrt') (22)

where I = direct, diffuse and reflected solar or high temperature radiation = absorptivity of black sphere for short wave (X^3u) thermal radiation

= absorptivity of white sphere for short wave radiation

01 = absorptivity of polished sphere for short wave radiation

P^ = power supplied to white sphere

Pp = power supplied to polished sphere

®wl ^ emissivity of white sphere for long wave radiation

epj^ = emissivity of polished sphere for long wave radiation

Since the spheres are at the same temperature (Tp = T^ = Tj-)),the convection heat losses

to the air are the same for each. Simultaneous solution of equations 20, 21 and 22

result in

123
(23)

and

mrt b r(e bl ~ ^wl ) (24)

The T^^^ from this calculation does not include short wave radiation. If no short wave

radiation is present (I = 0), then only two spheres are needed and for better accuracy the

black and polished should be used. Then

4 „ 4 Tmrt' = Tb' +M^(^bl " V (25)

Calibration studies showed that indoors the mean radiant temperature could be

measured with an accuracy of ± 0.3°C and outdoors to within ± LS*^. The response

is rapid with a time constant of approximately 1 minute.

Sutton and McNall (12) further modified the principles of the Panradiometer for

better accuracy and less sensitivity to drafts. Their Two-Sphere Radiometer consists

of two 51 mm diameter heated spheres (Figure 4). One is black and the other polished

gold. Both of the spheres are heated to the same temperature, usually 10 to 20°C above

air temperature. In the Panradiometer one of the three spheres is unheated. Substantially heating both spheres together with larger diameters^ improved accuracy and

decreased the sensor fluctuation due to drafts.

Q

^b

Figure 4. Two sphere radiometer.

The energy balance equations are:

'b

p

- Qc + atp

and

P^ = Qc + ae^ (T^^ - T^^^^)

P^ - Qc + a (T,^ - T^^^^)

Tk = T„ b p

Therefore

^mrt' - \ ^

(Pp - Pb)/('(^b - ^» (26)

124
To use the instrument jOne sets the globe temperature to the desired level and then

records the differential power consumption when the instrument reaches equilibrium.

Globe temperature uniformity was achieved by boiling a liquid which condenses inside

on the shell walls. The temperature control of the sphere was automatic, regulated by

vapor pressure. With this instrument,it is believed MRT measurements can be made with

'an accuracy of ± 1 C. A commercial version has recently been introduced in Germany (13),

In the mid 60's,Gagge et al (iH) developed the R-Meter for measuring operative temperature. Operative temperature (T^) is defined as the temperature of an imaginary

enclosure with which man will exchange the same total dry heat by radiation and convection as in the actual environment.

or

(he + hi.)(Tskin - Tq) = hc(Ts]^in " ^a) (Tg^in " ^mrt)

^ ^ ^a +^r/^c(^mrt) . (27) o 1+hr/hc

The R-Meter can also be used to measure MRT and ERF. It consists of a single heated

pink skin colored 51 mm diameter globe. An energy balance at steady state shows:

• • P = Qr + Qc

or

P = Ah(T -T ^)+Ah (T -T) r g mrt e g a Vt = + h^/h^ (T T3)-P/(Ah^) . (28)

Therefore,Tj^,(. requires measurement of Tg, Tg^and power (P) together with estimates of

he and h^. In addition, h^ is a function of velocity. Therefore, overall accuracy is

dependent on the individual accuracies of many parameters. For normal service^the temperature of the globe is set at 40 In the absence of a radiant field^the globe can be

used as an anemometer. The interesting feature of the instrument is that the globe is

constructed from 41m of No. 36 enameled copper vare wound on two hemispheres. The

wire once coated with thin epoxy serves as shell wall, uniform heat source, and

temperature sensor.

Radiometers clamped at air temperature.

Two radiometers have evolved that eliminate convection problems altogether by

controlling the globe temperature equal to air temperature. When this is done only one

globe is required.

Aagard (I5)designed a globe to measure the mean radiant temperature of the cold

night sky. Because the radiant temperature is always colder than the air temperature,,

the 25 mm diameter black globe made from a single layer of #3 6 enameled constantan

wire needs only heat to maintain its temperature at the air temperature. The control

signal to regulate the power to the heater wire of the sphere's shell comes from a 12

couple thermopile between the shell wall and the surrounding air. Accuracy is not

clearly reported but is said. to deteriorate as air temperature fluctuation rates increase.

For application to the built environment where MRT may be either warmer or cooler

than air temperature. Bra un and McNall (16) modified the radiometer principle of Aagard

so that it could be both heated and cooled. Their Thermoelectric Radiometer consists

of a 51 mm hollow silver sphere supported by an insulated silver rod (Figure 5). The

125
silver rod with thermocouples at each end serves as a heat flow path and meter between

the sphere and a thermoelectric heating and cooling device. The output of a 4 couple

thermopile with junctions on the sphere and radiation shielded in the air provides the

error signal to control the thermoelectric unit.

Qr

sensor

device

Figure 5. Thermoelectric radiometer.

The sphere is skin colored so that it reflects and absorbs high 3 u) and low temperature radiation like skin and clothing (Figure 6)

.

wave length \ microns \i

Figure 6. Reflective properties of skin and flesh-colored pink paint.

126
With paint, the emissivity of the sphere at skin and air temperatures is 0.87. The emisf sivity of skin and clothing at this temperature is about 0.95. With this paint^the

measured MRT should more closely fit the demands of the definition and not be restricted

to environmental surfaces which are less than 200° C. By comparison to other instruments

and from MRT calculations based on wall temperatures the designers determined that MRT

can be determined to within ±0.7° C. It takes 10 minutes to reach steady state after

being turned on and it can automatically follow slow temperature changes in both air

and MRT.

An interesting feature of this instrument is that it is a direct indicator of the

Effective Radiant Field of the environment. If the controller must supply heat to the

sphere jthere is a negative ERF or the MRT is lower than ambient air. If heat is removed,

there is a positive ERF or MRT is higher than ambient.

Directional Radiometers

While the mean radiant temperature obtained from a spacial integrating radiometer

is an important comfort parameter for the successful design, control,or alteration of an

environment, there is often a need for directional radiometers. They can be a valuable

investigative tool for comfort and energy conservation applications. If an enclosure

has an undesirable MRT, the directional or scanning radiometer permits the mapping

of radiant surfaces. This can lead to identification and improvement through increased

insulation, radiation shielding, etc.

The first directional radiometer measurements in the built environment were undertaken by Korsgaard (17). He proposed a directional radiant temperature (DRT) which is

analogous to mean radiant temperature but refers to the temperature of a black hemispherical surface enclosing a plane element that would exchange radiant energy with

the element at the same rate as the actual enclosure does. To measure this property he

developed a sensitive net radiometer (18). It consisted of 4 small black and polished

surfaces facing the unknown enclosure. The emf developed by a thermopile attached

between these absorbing and reflecting segments is proportional to the average temperature of radiometer surfaces and the directional radiant temperature. However, the

device is not a basic instrument and requires calibration. The NBS has recently developed an elegant scanning direction radiometer (19) based on this principle. The portable

NBS machine is designed to produce 1 mv/ °C temperature difference between scanner

and the DRT. It has a time constant of 5 s. Some commercial net radiometers are also applicable (.20).

Hager ( 21) developed an Absolute Differential Radiometer that can be used without

calibration (Figure 7). It consists of 2 black surfaces separated by a thin air space.

One surface looks forward, the other backward. To minimize velocity effects the air in

front of each black surface is insulated from the moving ambient by a thin polyethylene

sheet. The unit can detect radiation intensity differences between front and back of the

detector as small as 0.06 watt/m^ and reaches equilibrium within 1 min.

Comfort researchers have shown that people are rather tolerant of asymmetric

radiant fields. Mclntyre (22) concluded that for resting clothed (0.6-0.7 clo) people,

asymmetry does not contribute to discomfort until the difference in DRT in opposite

directions is about 20° C or greater.

127
Figure 7. Absolute differential radiometer.

Development Needs

As seen above , the practicing engineer has a large number of radiometric instruments

from which to choose. Unfortunately, most are laboratory prototypes unavailable except

through self fabrication. What an engineer needs is a fast-acting, rugged, reasonably

priced MRT indicator for field survey work. In past studies (23) we have compared comfort votes to environmental parameters in office and laboratory settings. This required

polling the occupants in their work areas at various times during the day, while simultaneously measuring environmental parameters. Instruments were moved from place to

place, with the measurements being made while the subject answered the questionnaire.

For MRT determination, the 15 cm globe and R-Meter were used. Both proved to be

somewhat unsatisfactory for reasons outlined above.

Of the instruments reviewed, the polyethylene shielded radiometer with integral

anemometer and air temperature sensor by Lidwell and Wyon proved to be a desirable

field package. Its dependence on air velocity for MRT determination and its need for

calibration in a radiant wind tunnel is a disadvantage, however. An instrument with

a MRT reading independent of the air velocity measurement is desired. With this in

mind the two sphere radiometer concept appears well suited for field use in the built

environment. It is a fundamental instrument allowing MRT to be calculated without

directly measuring air temperature or velocity. Flesh-colored pink paint instead of

black might be considered for the surface treatment of black spheres to approximate

the thermal properties of exposed skin and clothing of the average person. Other

design approaches should also be further explored. The thermoelectric radiometer

concept of Braun and McNall is appealing. For better modeling the shape and surface

orientation of the human, an. ellipsoidal radiation sensor,as in the Comfy-test meter

(24)jhas merit over a sphere, particularly if the radiant field is asymmetric.

128
References

1. Fanger, P. 0. Calculation of themial ccmfort: Introduction of a basic comfort

equation. ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS 73 (II), 196?.

2. Gagge, A. P., J. A. J. Stolwljk and Y. Nlshl. An effective tenperature scale based

on a sinple model of human physiological regulatory response. ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS 77 (I): 2il7-262, 1971.

3. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, p. 119-1^5, 1972,

4. Mitchell, D. Measurement of the thermal emlsslvlty of human skin In vivo.

In: J. D. Hardy: Physiological and Behavioral Tenperature Regulation. Charles

C. Thcsnas, Illinois, 19T0.

5. Fanger, P. 0. Thennal Canfort, McGraw-Hill Book Conpany, New York, 1973.

6. Gagge, A. P., G. M. Rapp and J. D. Hardy. The effective radiant field and

operative temperature necessary for comfort with radiant heating. ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS 73 (I): 2.1-2/8, 1967.

7. Vernon, H. M. The globe thermoneter. Proc. Inst, of Heating and Ventilating

Engineers 39: 100, 1932.

8. Recomnendations for a Standard for Work in Hot Environments. Occupational

Safety and Health Reporter, The Bureau of National Affairs, p. 1050-1057, 197^.

9. Lidwell, 0. M. and D. P. %on. A rapid response radiometer for the estimation

of mean radiant temperature in environmental studies. J. Scl. Instruments,

Series 2, 1: 53^-^38, 1968.

10. Mclntyre, D. A. A Polyethlene Shielded Globe Thermoneter . The Electricity

Council Research Centre, Capenhurst, Chester. May, 1976.

11. Richards, C. H., A. M. Stoll and J. D. Hardy. The panradlometer: An absolute

measuring Instrument for environmental radiation. Rev. Scl. Inst. 22: 925, 1951.

12. Sutton, D. J. and P. E. McCall. A two-sphere radloneter. ASHVE Trans. 60: 297,

1954.

13. Schluter, G. Ein elektronlscher Ranumklima-Analysater. Gesundhelts Ingenleur

93 (1): 289-320, 1972.

14. Gagge, A. P., H. Graichen, J. A. J. Stolwljk, G. M. Rapp and J. D. Hardy.

ASHRAE-sponsored research project RP-^l produces R^Tieter. ASHRAE Journal 10:

77-81, 1968.

15. Aagard, R. L. Convection-free instrument for measuring infrared radiation In the

atmosphere. Rev. of Scl. Instruments 22: 1011-1016, 1958.

16. Braun, D. L. and P. E. McNall. Radiometer for environmental applications.

ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS, 75 (I): 235-245, 1969.

17. Korsgaard, V. Necessity of using a directional mean radiant temperature to

describe the thennal conditions in rooms. Heat. Pip. Air Condlt. 21: 117, 19^9.

18. Korsgaard, V. A new radiometer measuring directional mean radiant tenperature.

Heat. Pip. Air Condlt. 21: 129, 1949.

129
19. Benzlnger, T.H., B. W. Mangum and J. E. Hill. The design, construction and

operation of a scanning radiometer for thermal confort analysis In buildings,

ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS 82 (II), 1976.

20. Montelth, J. L. Survey of Instruments for Mlcrcmeteorology, Blackwell, Oxford,

1972.

21. Hager, N. E. Absolute differential radiometer. Review of Scientific Instruments

^: 1028, 1963.

22. Mclntyre, D. A. and I. D. Griffiths. The effect of uniform and asymmetric thermal

radiation on comfort. Clima 2000. 6th Intematlon. Congress of Climatrltlcs.

Milan 1975.

23. Gagge, A. P. and R. G. Nevlns. Effects of Energy Conservation Guidelines on

Comfort, Acceptability and Health, prepared for Federal Energy Administration by

John B. Pierce Foundation Laboratory, New Haven, 1976.

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%

130
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF THERMAL ACCEPTABILITY

R. R. Gonzalez

John B. Pierce Foundation and Yale University School of Medicine

New Haven, Connecticut

ABSTRACT

This paper reviews recent laboratory studies and research needs in human physiology

that will be important in specifying thermal acceptability; it compares these results with

guidelines proposed by the Federal Energy Administration for summer and winter months.

Male and female subjects, in both younger and older age groups, were exposed while

sedentary or slightly active, to fluctuating dry bulb temperature (at 50% RH) and to constant dry bulb temperatures (at 40, 60, 80% RH) in summer experiments. In winter experiments, subjects were exposed to 209C and colder environments and were allowed the use

of extra outer clothing to avoid cold discomfort. Clothing insulation was directly

evaluated. In both studies judgments of whole body thermal discomfort and thermal

sensation were made; in addition, in winter studies direct votes of acceptability, as

well as regional thermal sensation (face, trunk and extremities) were taken. A method

of estimating preferred comfort and neutral thermal sensation temperatures is described

for fluctuating air temperature conditions.

The results of summer studies indicate that 60% RH (16 Torr) at 26.7°C is the maximum

limit for thermal acceptability which corresponds to a 28 ET* or 2 °C ET* above the

optimal ASHRAE neutral/comfort zone. The results of the winter experiments showed that

the FEA winter temperature guideline lower limit (20°C) proved 80% acceptable. Specific

groups of individuals have been identified for whom winter and summer guidelines will

not be wholly acceptable.

Key words: Thermal acceptability, energy conservation, cold discomfort, humidity,

temperature , clothing

INTRODUCTION

Energy conservation practices in many buildings have resulted in lower ambient temperature levels in the winter and either higher air temperatures or little humidity control

in the summer. Such a direction offers a paradoxical reversal from the trend occurring

since the 1920's in which human thermal preferences and engineering practices have

been towards higher indoor dry-bulb temperatures (T^) . Generally in the U.S. , optimal

comfort zones (for sedentary persons, dressed at 0.6 clo and ambient air velocity around

0.10-0.20 m/s) in winter time have increased from 20°C to 25.6°C; summer T^ levels have

remained roughly around 25.0 to 25.6°C (1). Most of the research done under the auspices

of ASHRAE (2) in comfort has been towards securing environmental specifications for atmospheric conditions which achieve or describe maximal thermal acceptability for persons

assumed to be in thermal balance at least one hour or more. This research has led to a description of an environmental zone in which the body is in the state of physiological

thermal neutrality. In this region the resting person is able to maintain thermal steadyst-te (viz, heat balance) such that internal body and skin temperatures are constant without excessive physiological regulatory activity such as sweating, vasoconstriction or vasodilation of skin blood vessels. The body is also effectively "neutral'' to any feelings

131
of warmth or cold and generally the occupant is satisfied with the environmental

conditions. Studies by Fanger (3, ^) , Rohles and Nevins ( 5) and McNall ( 6 ) equate a thermal neutral point with preferred comfort state or temperature and show that for individuals at 0.6 clo, air velocity near still conditions (v at 0 J.0-0A5 m/s), 50% rhjand

sedentary activity, the thermal neutral (comfort) temperature is invariable regardless of

age span, sex or season. Fanger (3) also demonstrated that other preferred comfort temperatures during thermal balance may be ascertained for any metabolic heat production

(S 3 met), from the variables most important in influencing heat balance: clothing insulation (Iq]^) / dry bulb and mean radiant temperature (MRT) and ambient vapor pressure as well as heat and mass transfer coefficients. The requirement is that during thermal

neutrality there occurs: a) a linear relationship between skin temperature (Tgj^) and metabolic rate {M) i.e. activity state, and (b) a linear function between evaporation of sweat

and metabolic heat production. Fanger (3) can therefore predict thermal sensation (PMV)

for an individual from thermal load on the body; a thermal load is presumed to occur

whenever there is a difference between heat production and the heat loss to the actual

environment for a person kept in heat balance (i.e. comfort) at the mean skin temperature

and sweat secretion of the specified activity level. Thus a change in heat loss is the

prominent effect which occurs if a person (having a given metabolic rate, clothing

insulation value) is displaced from a comfortable environment to the actual environment.

The alternative approach to assessment of a person's heat exchange with the environment relates thermal subjective responses (discomfort) to actual physiological changes,

This approach utilizes a two node model of human thermoregulatory processes

(7). The added feature is that proportional control coefficients for effector responses such

as sweat secretion or skin blood flow, as well as sensible and insensible heat exchange

coefficients, are accurate for wider thermal stress and exercise levels. Loci of constant

physiological strain in the heat are dependent on skin wettedness which reflect the

probable sweat secretion on the skin surface; in the cold, skin temperature level (T^]^)

reflects the vasoconstrictor activity. Both of these factors are important in judgment of

warm and cold discomfort. In the physiological neutral zone, comfort responses and

"neutral" votes are equivalent. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) New Effective Temperature (ET*) was derived by using

the Gagge et al two node model (2, 7).

Physiologists and sensory psychologists have recognized for a long while that thermal

neutrality is not a totally sufficient criterion for thermal comfort; the affective responses

are influenced by other physical factors besides those that change heat balance^and many

other factors such as fatigue, endocrine (humoral) influences play a significant role. The

relative state of hyper- or hypothermia of the body, as shown by Cabanac (8), has a marked influence on feelings of displeasure; also, while in thermal balance, whether

thermal radiative heating of segmental areas such as the face is considered pleasant or unpleasant depends strongly on prestimulus skin temperature ( 9). There again the size

of a particular skin area stimulated has as great importance as how much heat is applied.

Hardy (10) has characterized, for ASHRAE, the major physiological factors which are important in judgment of thermal acceptability to any thermal stress. His account garnered

from extensive studies makes a clear distinction between affective responses (i.e. those

mediated by comfort or displeasure) and thermal sensations (thermal warmth and cold

sense). Warm discomfort occurs whenever physiological mechanisms such as sweating and

increase in skin blood flow are activated to bring heat loss into balance with metabolic

heat production. Its antithesis, cold discomfort, arises predominantly from vasoconstriction

and a subsequent decrease in skin temperature necessary for heat conservation.

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In contrast to affective responses involving some degree of central nervous system

(CNS) integration before effector action are those thermal sensations arising from skin

heating or cooling (U). Although an adequate description of sensory responses to cold

environments can be made by either cold discomfort or cold sensation, a quantification

of warm discomfort or warmth sensation is possible only by assessing multiple physiological responses (12,13). Warm sensation essentially follows from warm skin heating; but,

warm discomfort is composed of an interaction between physiological and

physical factors all tied in with at least these variables: sweating, fraction of skin areas wet with sweat, peripheral blood flow, and central and peripheral temperatures.

Subjective responses and thermal acceptability will be influenced by physical factors

(Tq, Pq, etc.) and individual factors (sex and clothing effects). However, the final

reactions are based on efferent control of physiological functions.

Although we know a great deal about the thermal sensations equated with comfort re- sponse in thermal neutrality from the work of others (4, 12, 5)/ very little is still known

of the way internal and peripheral thermal signals affect thermal acceptability in persons.

How the different sexes or age groups respond to warm stress and humidity and to moderate

cold stress or whether local sensations of feet, hands and face aversely affect the acceptability in cold environments is also not fully understood. Such information is sorely needed since it is apparent (l4) that the cross section of average office workers in large cities are not uniformly clothed and don't dress according to indoor weather conditions.

The following summer and winter laboratory studies were done as a part of a large

multi-pronged field survey designed to investigate recent energy conservation guidelines

on comfort, acceptability,and health by Gagge and Nevins (15).

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Environmental Chamber and Dry Bulb Temperature Cyclic Changes

All our summer and winter experiments were done in a 5. 3x5. 3x2. 4 m^^ test chamber

with a rapid system response in air temperature (± 2% rh at 25 C T^). The design and

control characteristics of the chamber have been described in detail by Kjerulf-Jensen et

al (l6). In the first part of the experiments relative humidity was kept constant at 50%

(by controlling dew-point temperature) and dry-bulb temperature (Tg = Tj.) altered + or - 5

° C from a starting temperature of 25°C with the room controls set at an average rate of + or - 0.3 °C/mln over a 2-hr period.

Summer Studies

A total of 18 subjects were used in the experiments. The individuals were divided

into 3 groups; each group was run on separate days. The groups consisted of 5 young

females (age 22 ± 3 yrs), 6 older females (44 ±11 yrs), and 7 males (25 ± 4 yrs).

Elderly males were not available at the time of the experiments.

Each subject served in two sessions which took place on successive days between 9

and 12A.M. in the month of July. In a preliminary session, which lasted 2 hr from time

zero, each group was exposed simultaneously to the air temperature swing shown in

Fig. 1.

Each of the subjects rested on a plastic/aluminum office chair for 15 min and walked

about the chamber at a rate of 50 steps/min for 5 min. Average metabolic rate during the

walking period was estimated to be about 88 W/m^ (1.5 met) by spot measurements on

the subjects. For the total 15 min rest plus 5 min walking period, the activity level for

133
Figure 1, Typical changes in ambient temperature (T^)

at 50% rh and averaged discomfort and thermal sensation

votes for the three groups of subjects used in summer

study. Horizontal bars on time scale indicate cadence

walking interval.

both male and female subjects was about 1.2 met, typical of light office work activity

(3). The average relative air velocity for resting and walking was about 0.2 5 m/s or a mean heat transfer coefficient (h^) = 3.3 W/(sq m *C)

.

In a second session each subject was exposed to 21°C dry-bulb temperature and the

humidity level was changed each hour from 40% to 60/6 to 80% rh over a 3-hr experiment.

The activity was similar to the first experiments; however, the time sequence was 5 min

walk, 25 min rest. At the end of the 30th min a vote was taken. Only the terminal 1-hr

votes for each group were averaged.

In two of the subjects, one female and one male, average skin temperatures were

measured continuously by thermocouples at 8 locations (head, shoulders, chest, back,

thigh, calf, arm, and hand). Core temperature was measured from a thermocouple in the

rectum. Clo values were estimated from a check list which each subject answered before

entering the test chamber (14) . The subjects were requested to wear typical apparel for

office work in summer months (i.e., no shorts permitted).

Winter Studies

The subjects were first exposed to a preliminary session in which T^ was changed

cyclically as in the summer studies. In a separate run afterv;ards, a change (- l°C/min)

towards the desired exposure temperature occurred after the subjects had initially

stabilized at 25''C for 1 hr. Each subject was exposed 3 times to 20° C and 3 times to

15° C for 1 hr on different days. Zero time of exposure at 20''C or IS^C began after T^

134
reached a steady-level. Relative humidity was controlled at 30-40%. All experiments

occurred in mid-February, typically the coldest part of the year in New Haven.

Twenty subjects were used in the winter experiment. Each subject attended as a member of his respective age group and sex: males age, 21 ± 1 and 52 ± 6 yrs and

females 21 ± 2 and 49 ±2 yrs. Each group consisted of 5 members who were exposed to

the swing experiments and constant T level experiments on alternate days - morning

and afternoon sessions interchanged. Each day afterwards, a different group was subjected

to the constant sessions of 20**C and IS'^C.

The instructions given to the subjects, when they were initially hired, were to wear

their typical winter indoor clothing but to bring additional outer wear such as sweaters,

or light jackets but not overcoats. Most females attended with pant-suits and males

with slacks and pullover sweaters.

The initial time (at 25°b) after arriving from the cold outdoors was spent in answering

a preliminary clothing check list (l4) as before in the summer study, in receiving specific

instructions regarding voting scales and, in general, time was given in explaining the

activity while in the chamber. Lavatory privileges were also given at this time. The

activity (1.2 met)(as in the summer study) was a 5 min walk for the first 30 min of an

experiment at 50 steps/min, kept constant with a metronome, and a 25 min sitting period

on a plastic/aluminum chair (2). The sitting period was occupied in reading, writing or talking at leisure. No communication about the environmental conditions, nor any smoking

or eating was permitted. Subjects voted, and each ballot was collected, every 1/2 hr. At

the end of one hour at 20°C conditions, an effective clothing insulation measurement was

taken (17). During constant air temperature level experiments, adding or removal of extra

clothing was permitted at any time after the start of an experiment. Unlike the occurrence

in the summer study,this behavioral activity was of major concern to us but subjects were

given no encouragement to alter their ensemble. The only requirement was that a subject

noted the article added or removed and the exact time he/she did it.

Comfort and Thermal Sensation Scales

Some mention should be given to the scales we used in the specific summer and

winter studies. In the past we have used magnitude estimation techniques ( 9 / 11).

However, in order to directly compare our results with other studies done for ASHRAE (2,

5 # 18)/ we used the ordinal scales previously discussed by Gaggeet al(12). Additionally, in the winter study we used a direct vote of acceptability (+ or -) and a symmetrical

scale for local thermal sensation votes. Subjects had no difficulty in understanding either

type of scale. A category interval from neutral thermal sensation can be either positive or negative, for warm sensation and cold sensation respectively. For discomfort scale each

category interval describes an increase from "comfort point."

ANALYSIS OF SPECIFIC SUMMER AND WINTER LABORATORY STUDIES

Thermal transients can have a decided effect on person's thermal acceptability by

influences on physiological and sensory responses. The common way thermal transients

occur is by a change in location; that is , movement from one room to another one , cooler

or warmer (2). Another occurrence is while a person stays in the same place but air

temperature or humidity vary either as ramp increases or decreases over time, or via cyclical changes (19, 20).

135
Early research was done using thermal transients by changes in room site. Houghten

and Yaglou ( 2l) were able to use this technique in arriving at an empirical index (effective

temperature, ET) for human thermal response. They showed that thermal sensation e.g.

judgment of warmth or coolness of an environment^ was closely associated with dry bulb

temperature and humidity (Pg) . Lines of equal thermal sensation formed the basis of their

old ET scale which was described using the 100% rh environment. However, this scale

was deficient in that it placed too much emphasis on humidity effects in cold environments

and did not show clearly effects of humidity in warm environments. By transferring subjects to different room sites. Hardy and Stolwijk (22) and Gagge et al (12) were able to

derive useful data from which they separated sensory and thermoregulatory processes and

derived proportional control coefficients necessary for their model. In moving their subjects from a room at 29° C to a room set at 17.5° C, they found that cold sensation and

discomfort were almost immediate; our estimate (from their thermal sensation and discomfort votes) is that towards the cold, owing to vasoconstriction, a change in one category of thermal sensation and cold discomfort occurred as a result of a drop of 7° C.

When subjects were moved from 17.5 C to 29"'c, thermal sensation and thermal comfort

votes were not concurrent - thermal sensation votes lagged behind (a 11.5° C/category in

sensation vote) the comfortable feeling (a 7.7° C/category discomfort vote). Thus the lag

was related to rate of change of skin temperature, but the hedonic estimate was immediate.

Figure 1 shows the typical cyclical changes in Tg we used to derive comfort and

thermal sensation thresholds in summer and winter studies. Figure 2 depicts for one

subject how such thresholds were estimated by intersection of regression lines from

these cyclical Tg changes. Table 1 compares comfort and thermal sensation votes

for both summer and winter studies determined by this method.

UNCOMF

70 78 86

20 24 28°

SL.WARM

SL.COOL

NEUTRAL

COOL

WARM

70 74 78 82 86 °F 20 22 24 26 28 30 °C

Ta( = Tr ) or Tq

Figure 2. Discomfort estimates and thermal sensation

judgments plotted as functions of ambient temperature

for one female subject. Only votes between 5-120 min

are plotted. Intersection of cold and warm discomfort

lines indicate optimal T^ comfort point (24 . B^C) . Intersection of thermal sensation line occurring with 0 on

ordinate is Tg neutral point (25*'C). Votes at end of

walk are indicated by outer circled points.

136
Table 1. Optimum (= fj.) conditions for comfort, neutral thermal sensation and calculated

clo values (Nevins et al.) derived by temperature swing method in summer and

winter laboratory studies.

T- for Warm disc Cold disc for neutral AT^^„^/aT^ I a a sens' a Group comfort sensitivity sensitivity thermal sensation

SUMMER

Males 24 .7 0

,

. 294 - 0. 182 24

,

. 8 0

,

.232 0 . 3 ± 0 .33 ±0,.840 ±0. 138 ± 0,.5 ±0,.030

Young females 24

,

.8 0

.

. 327 - 0. 157 26

,

. 1 0

,

. 360 0

,

.3

± 0,.20 dh ,.091 ±0. 119 ± 0,.3 ± ,.022

Older females 25

,

.0 0

,

. 338 - 0. 195 25

,

. 8 0

,

. 318 0,. 5 ± 0,.30 ±0,.018 ±0. 313 ± 0,.5 ±0,.044

WINTER

Young males 22.,8 0.,26 - 0. 29 22..72 0.,34 0.,78

± 0,,56 ±0.,11 ±0. 07 ± 0,,70 ±0.,06 0., 10

Older males 21.,9 0.,32 - 0. 27 22.,22 0.,37 0.,75

± 1.,05 ±0., 12 ±0. 04 ± 0. 59 ±0.,03 ± 0.,04

Young females 23.,55 0.,26 - 0. 37 24.,08 0.,50 0.,83

± 0.,78 ±0.,18 ±0. 07 ± 1.,48 ±0.,08 0.,14

Older females 22.,54 0.,28 - 0. 38 22.,36 0.,43 0. 76

± 0.,54 ±0. 15 dbO. 15 ± 0.,98 ±0.,05 0.,16

Values are means (± S.D.); I , evaluated from Nevins et al (1^).

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In the summer study, (shown in Fig. 1), discrete subjective responses occurred between

groups as a response to the cyclical changes in T^. In the older females warmth sensation increased between the 50th to 80th min time period. For the most part these individuals were in the comfortable range despite a thermal sensation described as warm.

At the peak of the second Tg cycle (85th min) , feelings of warmth had decreased but a lag occurred in the discomfort vote. Two factors may have been associated with this

effect: one associated with a subjective dissatisfaction (sticky feeling) as a result of

permeability of clothing to water vapor which becomes reduced the higher the clothing

insulation. This permeation efficiency factor (Fpd) modifies evaporative heat exchange

from under the clothing (17). Another factor related to 'Ppcl have been the direct

effect of this delayed evaporation cooling the skin but not reducing thermal discomfort

perceived by the skin wettedness (7, 23, 13).

Our dry bulb temperature cyclical method proved a reliable means for assessing short

term preferred comfort (thermal sensation) temperatures for both winter and summer studies as shown in Table 1. It was found that the mean preferred ambient temperature for comfort (24.7 to 25°C) does indeed agree well with the long period studies of Rohles and

Nevins ( 5) and Fanger(2^)in sedentary subjects. In the summer study, the activity

level of 1 • 2 met, as in office work, did not alter appreciably the preferred temperature

for comfort which was within the optimal ambient temperature described by the Fanger

comfort equation (3). On the other hand, there were specific differences between men

and women and between age gcoups within the females in thermal sensation regression

lines and in optimal ambient temperature judged as neutral. Rohles and Nevins (25) have

reported that males felt warmer than females during their first hour of exposure to various

air temperatures. Rohles et al (l8) suggest, from their observations of thermal sensation

differences among males and females, that the "same clothing is responsible for different

thermal sensations in men and women." Unfortunately, only combined equations go into

formulation of their "Comfort Zone Envelope. " In a study by Wyon 17-year-old males

generally "felt hotter and reacted more rapidly to changes in air temperature "(10)

.

Stolwijk (personal communication) has found that males exposed to thermal transients

from 30 to 50°C had higher warm discomfort compared to females per change in central

drive for evaporative heat loss. All these studies served to show that the thermoregulatory

responses closely tied in with (and which modify) thermal acceptability are not uniform

between sexes - a finding originally noticed by Hardy and DuBois (26)- These differences

become apparent only under fluctuating temperature conditions

.

In contrast to other studies (24 )with sedentary subjects, in which there was a constant preferred temperature regardless of age, we found that older females preferred

warmer ambient temperatures during slight activity in the summer experiments. Since

clothing habits in summer months differ widely among females and males, we have

reduced analytically differences in apparel and neutral temperature sensation votes

to make them comparable to the ASHRAE ET* recommended comfort zone bounded by 22.2

and 25.6 ET* as seen in Fig. 3. This approach was used in earlier work (13) in which

subjects do not wear similar clothing. We have used Standard Operative Temperature

(STO) because STO more clearly defines the present conditions since skin wettedness

was not actually measured in all our subjects. In brief, STO is defined as the uniform

138
2

IV)

Ixl (O o 5

I

I-

-2

20

70

ASHRAE COMFORT ZONE

75 80

22 24 26 ST0at50%rh or SET*

WARM

SL WARM

NEUTRAL

SL, COOL

COOL

28 °C

Figure 3. Estimating equations for average thermal

sensation estimates as functions of standard effective

temperature (SET*) or STO at 50% rh and the optimal

SET* point (± 1 SD) for neutral thermal sensation for

males (open circle), young female group (open squares)

and older female group (open triangle). The regression

equations are:

Males

:

Young females:

Older females:

TSENS - 0.23 (SET*) -5.15

TSENS = 0.36(SET*) - 8.57

TSENS = 0.318(SET*) - 8.01

temperature (T_^) at 50% humidity of a standard sea level environment (air movement 20 to

35 fpm) in which a subject wearing standard clothing (0.6 clo) loses the same heat by

evaporation, radiation, and convection as in the actual complex environment. The "standard" environment at sea level (760 mmHg) is the same as the one in which ASHRAE ET*

(2) is determined: i.e., in which a subject wears 0.6 clo and the air movement renders

a convective heat transfer coefficient (h^) of 2.9 W/(sq m "C) and a combined heat

transfer coefficient (hg) of 8.0 W/(sq m "C)

.

For our summer experiments, STO was determined by the following relationship:

STO = [hF^/hgF^iglT^ + [1 - hFci/hgFcislTgk (1)

where:

operative temperature T^, h = h^, + h^. and equalled

8.3 W/(sq m ''C) in our experiments; and F^^^ is the

Burton clothing efficiency factor determined by the relation:

F^^= 1/(1 +0.155h . I^J (2)

I , is the clothing insulation in clo units °°

(1 clo = 0. ISS'^C • sq m/W) and

F^^^ is the standard clothing efficiency factor for a subject

v,/earing 0.6 clo and equals 0.58, using hg = 8.0 W/sq m C)

from Eq (2)

.

139
Since the relative humidity in these experiments was 50%, then by definition (10)

STO equals the Standard Effective Temperature (SET*).

Figure 3 presents the estimating equations for thermal sensation determined from

analysis of the corresponding thermal sensation votes and SET* (or STO at 50% rh) from

the same data as used in Table 1. Two observations can be made from this plot. One

is that the SET* (i.e. , STO at 50% rh) preferred temperature determined for the subjects

in our study, although within the ASHRAE comfort zone, is significantly different

(P ^ 0.01) between the young male and both female groups. Secondly, the Tg preferred

temperature for younger females (Table 1) when normalized by SET* (STO at 50% rh) in

respect to and clo, is lower in terms of SET* (STO at 50% rh) compared to the older

female group. On the other hand, it can be inferred that the tendency for older females

to prefer warmer T^'s may be a result of lower metabolic heat production in these

individuals (26 )

.

There was a significant difference in the subjects' sensitivity in judging thermal

sensation as determined by statistical analysis of the regression coefficients. Young

females and older females had significantly higher warmth sensitivity than the male

group (P 5 .005). However, there was no significant difference (P s 0.05) in warm

sensitivity between the young and older groups. The data suggest that a change

in 4.34 °G in ambient temperature caused one category change in warmth sensation

in the male group (i.e. , reciprocal of the regression coefficient) while a 2.8 °C

and 3.1 °C change In would result in a similar category change in the young

female and older female groups, respectively.

The results of the preferred optimum T^ levels, derived by our swing method for the

winter laboratory study, in which subjects were allowed to wear typical winter indoor

clothing, can be compared to the values obtained during the summer study. In the

summer laboratory study described above, males' thermal-sensation neutral point

(24.8° C) was significantly lower than the females; the thermal sensation sensitivity

was also less. In the winter series (Table 1), however, the temperature for neutral thermal sensation was not significantly different within the groups, but was significantly

reduced compared to summer values. In the winter study, the higher clothing insulation

contracted the preferred air temperature for comfort and neutral thermal sensation about

2° C compared to the zone observed for the summer study. The thermal sensitivity

values (ATgens/A^a) were in line with Fanger's predicted («.4) but were higher, as a group, then for the summer series. The lower displacement in winter preferred temperatures for comfort is in itself interesting and has been also shown in the survey findings

by Dr. Gagge discussed in this Symposium.

Effect of Level of Humidity on Comfort and Thermal Sensation in Summer

The results of the experiments in which humidity was elevated each hour for 3 hr at

27 C are shown in Table 2, and these discomfort and thermal sensation judgments are plotted in relation to ET* in Fig. 4. Each comfort and thermal sensation value is the

average terminal judgment of a 1-hr exposure.

No significant differences were evident between thermal sensation values for the

groups, or for individual changes within a group, at each humidity level (Table 2 and

Fig. 4). In the male and female subject in which skin temperatures and core temperatures were measured, a humidity level of 40%, 60%, and 80% rh at 27 C T^ did not

affect mean skin temperature which stayed constant within ± 0.2°C throughout a 3-hr

period. Core temperature was also not elevated more than ± 0.1 °C. This is direct

evidence that temperature sensation, as judged psychophysically by the subjects, is

associated with skin temperature, which is governed by ambient temperature rather than

U+0
Table 2. Comfort and thermal sensation values at the end of a I-hr

humidity exposure at 27**C T^. Activity level at 1 . 2 met.

COMFORT THERMAL SENSATION

Relative humidity (%) 40 60 80 40 60 80

(Torr) 10 15.9 20.7 10 15.9 20.7

Males , n = 7 (22-32 yr) 0 57 0 82 1 .57 0 50 0 81 0. 54

± sem 0. 19 0 24 0 12 0 33 0 08 0. 33

Females, n = 5 (18 -24 yr) 0 60 0 40 0 60 0 50 0 25 0. 10

± sem 0, 36 0. 22 0 38 0 14 0 18 0. 38

Females, n = 6 (33 -60 yr) 0. 42 0. 33 0 83 0. 33 0 42 0. 58

± sem 0, 30 0. 15 0 25 0. 33 0 30 0. 27

n is number of individuals in each group; sem is the standard error of the mean.

UNCOMF

SL UNCOMF.

COMFORTABLE

-2 o young males

young females

83 °F 27 Zt5 "iS 26.5 °C Ta ot 50% rh or ET*

'Figure 4. Average discomfort estimates (upper

ordinate) and thermal sensation estimates (lower

ordinate) as functions of ET* for humidity experiments . Solid line is combined Kansas State Univ.

(KSU) regression equation: Y = 0. 151T + ,010 H- 8.371

where T (T , °F); H (% RH) (Rohles et al, 1973).

a

'

141
modified by humidity level as long as skin temperature is higher than dew-point temperature. This response would be expected since relative humidity exerts little effect on the

loss of heat by evaporation when the body is in the zone of vasomotor regulation (26). It also serves to show that one would not be able to predict accurately the clear effect of

humidity on thermal affective responses by merely using an equation shown in Fig, 4. As

evident in Fig. 4, humidity level affected judgments of discomfort, which varied markedly

within the groups. There was a significant increase in discomfort, (using paired sample

analysis, P ^ 0.05) for the male group from 60 to 80% rh level (Table 2, Fig. 4). However, for the younger female group or older female group, no significant increase in

discomfort occurred during the 60% to 80% relative humidity increases. The mean discomfort value at 80% rh for the male group was significantly higher than the discomfort

values for the younger female group (t = 2.43, P 5 0.05) and for the older female group

(t = 2.52, P « 0.05). Analysis at variance for repeated measures of

unequal group size (Winer, p. 599)(27) confirmed the fact that humidity level was the

significant main effect on subjects' discomfort votes.

Thus we can surmise that all groups were not affected at all by the 40% rh level at

constant 27°C Tg. Males sensed a greater discomfort with increases in humidity level

from 60% to 80% ( «16 to 21 Torr) at an activity level of 1 . 2 met in 27°C T^ , while

females did not. Furthermore, the discomfort at 80% rh was significantly higher in males

than the discomfort felt by the younger female and older female groups. In terms of

discomfort a change of 1 category Disc per change of 10.7 Torr is balanced by a change

in 1.1°C Tg level in males. Griffiths and Mclntyre (28) also found that at 28°C a low

humidity was preferred and 50% and 75% rh were considered by their subjects as "more

oppressive and uncomfortable." All these studies indicate that the minimum acceptable

humidity conditions in summer months for a dry-bulb temperature of 27''C (80.6 F)

appear to be at 60% rh ( 16 Torr), corresponding to a ET* of about 27.7 or 2 °C

ET* above the optimal ASHRAE neutral/comfort zone. However, further studies are needed

at higher ambient temperatures and humidity levels. Males, engaged in office-type

activity (1.2 met), as shown in this study, appear to be very sensitive to elevations in

humidity; and level of skin wettedness, determined by the ratio of evaporation of sweat

to the maximum evaporative capacity of the environment, probably plays an important

role in adding to the warm discomfort as shown in earlier studies (7 and 1 3) . Decrements

in performance of light physical and mental tasks may occur at increasing levels of

humidity (l 60% rh at n°C , as in our study) and higher ambient temperature for longer

exposure periods.

Based on the present study (Table 2, Fig. 4), at the upper T^ of the FEA guideline

(26.7''C) thermal discomfort and sensations (at ? 1.2 met) would not be appreciably

elevated for humidity levels ^ 59% rh (15 Torr) regardless of clothing ensemble if ^0.6 clo. Higher humidities than these at the required summer ambient temperature

conditions in office buildings may result in significant increases in warm discomfort and

indicate a need for some humidity control.

Special consideration should be given to elderly office workers. As shown in this

study, older females after 1-hr exposure were not excessively disturbed by the 80%

humidity level at 27°C. However, because of the general lower physical fitness and

resulting lower sweat secretion and poor skin circulation, level of skin wettedness does

not serve as an early cue for thermal discomfort in the elderly as it does for more fit

individuals (17). Other symptoms of distress (syncope, headache, etc.) are less

ostensible and can occur at higher levels of humidity and ambient temperatures.

142
Effect of Level of Ambient Temperature on Thermal Acceptability in the Winter

The basis of this study was that subjects were allowed at will to increase their

clothing insulation (by addition of sweaters). As such, behavioral thermoregulation

would be the major way to avoid displeasure from cold aided also by vasoconstriction.

We limited our exposures to 1-hr so that excessive heat loss would not be a major

factor and decrease core temperature. In other studies we have done (19) at similar

time periods, esophageal temperature was maintained constant (37 ± 0.2° C) in

sedentary individuals (« 0.6 clo) even at ambient temperatures of 5*C and lO^C.

In the present study, we were also interested in evaluating how cold discomfort varies

over different body segments among males and females of different age groups.

A plot of the whole-body discomfort, thermal sensation, and effective clothing

insulation (17) is shown in Fig. 5 for each group. The most significant observation

is that at neither of the two T^ levels did the subjects manage to avoid discomfort

totally by use of extra clothing (shown by the effective I^j^^ increase). Young females

always had a significantly higher effective clo increase from comfort conditions

compared to the other groups (roughly a change of 0.3 clo) from baseline comfort

conditions. What is apparent in this figure is that subjects, for some reason, never

added sufficient clothing which would bring them close to the intrinsic I ,^ of 1.4,

(about 0.9 effective clo), which Fanger (3) has recommended as a clo value for a 20°C preferred temperature at 1 . 1 met. Humphreys (29) has pointed out that an

individual may find it more acceptable to function by intermittent activity levels,

of rest and work, if he/she is lightly dressed in a comfortable environment than if he/she is heavily dressed in a cool one.

4

• YOUNG MALES

o OLDER MALES A YOUNG FEMALES

Figure 5. Whole body thermal discomfort, thermal sensation, and

increase in effective I„i_, at 20 C

0.3

143
A plot was made of whole body discomfort and arithmetic means of the local regional

thermal sensation votes at 20° C and 15° C as shown in Fig. 6.

I— O YOUNG MALES • - OLDER MALES - O YOUNG FEMALES 4 - •—A OLDER FEMALES -

V UNCOMF 41-

V UNCOMF 4 r (FEET- TOES)

y-5.l6-l.33x

4 3 2 NEUTRAL COLD

LOCAL SENSATION

Figure 6. Relationship between whole body thermal

discomfort and local thermal sensation from various

body segments

.

Clearly, what this figure indicates is that thermal sensation votes over the face,

back, arms and hands tended to be distributed unevenly. The assessment of thermal

sensation from the covered legs for the two levels proved a good predictor of the

total cold discomfort for all groups regardless of clothing insulation. Thus^ every increase

in local cold sensation from the legs (and possibly also feet and toes) away from a thermally neutral point may be a reasonable indication of total cold discomfort and by inference - thermal dissatisfaction for all individuals.

Fanger has shown (3) that even within the level of ASHRAE's Comfort Standard (2),

which is rigidly specified for both winter and summer conditions, 5% of the people will

still be dissatisfied with the environment. In our study it was possible to directly compare the frequency of votes (5 subjects/group over 3 sessions), each subject checked

as acceptable or not acceptable^ over the two dry bulb temperatures. The results are shown

in Table 3a. The hypothesis was tested of no difference between groups (i.e. , equal acceptability among young males, older males, young females and older females). The

analysis gave 10.84 (df 3) which shows a highly significant difference in acceptability.

Young females had the most dissatisfaction at 20° C environment despite a higher clo

value (0.9 clo). As expected, at 15° C all groups had similar dissatisfaction with the

environment (viz: = 1, df 3, PS .05), Interestingly, when Fanger' s criteria (3) are used to estimate acceptability (i.e. , all votes + 1 or - 1 from neutral, acceptable) , the

percentages are somewhat lower (70%) compared to our direct group votes as seen in

Table 3b.

In our winter study it was found that at ZO^C, the effect of added clothing by the subjects (generally done by adding sweaters and determined by the effective clo increase

(l7))did maintain 3 of the groups in the comfort range. In this respect, our results concur

with the observations of Mclntyre and Griffiths (30) in which donning of a sweater (wO.3

clo) increased feelings of warmth. Differences between males and females were again

observed in the winter study. Local sites producing the highest cold sensation votes at

i
Table 3-A. Directly observed acceptability of 20*'C.

Young males Older males Young females Older females Total

Acceptable 13 12 8 15 48 (80%)

Not acceptable 2 3 7 0 12 (20%)

15 15 15 15 60

= 10. 84; df 3 (P s 0.001)

Table 3-B. Fanger's criteria of acceptability for same data.

Young males Older males Young females Older females Total

Acceptable

votes*

13 13 8 8 42 (70%)

Non-acceptable 2 2 7 7 18 (30%)

15 15 15 15 60

X = 8.08 & 7.8; df - 3 (P ^ 0.05)

Acceptable votes according to Fanger include all votes + or - 1 category from 0 or neutral.

20 C showed a similarity to others' results {^G > 3Q) • However, the areas constantly exposed to cold such as the face and hands were not consistently sensed as the coldest

by every group (variable heat loss in the face) (Fig. 6). The cold sensation votes from

the uncovered legs^ however^ were highly correlated with total cold discomfort for all

groups (Fig. 6) and may be a good predictor for both thermal sensation and discomfort.

Another factor which should be considered in judging thermal acceptability at 20**C

and above is body weight-to-DuBois surface area ratio or the ponderal index of Fanger

(e.g. "^wt/Ac), which factor is a relative indication of body build and amount of subcutaneous fat (in lieu of skin fold measurements). This factor is another way of aiding

thermal insulation and, thus^ enhance cold resistance (26). In this respect, young females had the lowest weight-to-surface area ratio, but were more dissatisfied at 20 C

despite a higher calculated I^j^q than the other groups. The combination of increased

local air movement around extremities while walking and increased dry heat loss around

these specific body segments may have also contributed to the dissatisfaction apparent

in young females. In the winter study it was found that older individuals complained

less of the cold than did younger females and they had less cool discomfort at both 20 C

and 15*'C (Fig. 6). Such response has been shown in other studies on elderly persons by

Watts (31) and by Horvath et al (32). Horvath et al (32) noticed that although older

subjects (male and female) did not make discomfort complaints (at lO^C), they were less

able to maintain core temperature than the younger^ subjects . We are especially concerned with responses from the elderly age group because in older individuals metabolism

145
is generally decreased compared to young individuals and problems of adequate circulation may occur, especially in the inactive. Cold discomfortj however, may not serve as

an adequate cue as shown in the study by Watts (31), Horvath (32) and ours.

In summary, as shown in these laboratory experiments, a 20*^0 environment^ of

possible interest nationally as an energy conservation strategy, may never be wholly

accepted by a significant percentage of all individuals despite added clothing or doing

light office work with increased activity. When occupant comfort and acceptability of

such an environment is considered, local cold discomfort from peripheral extremities,

such as arms, legs and feet, surface area-to weight ratio, sex and age, duration of

occupancy, as well as level of activity, must all be considered. All the problems,

introduced by these factors, certainly will not be remedied by merely adding extra

clothing. However, an awareness of which groups of subjects are the most likely to

be dissatisfied is a step in the proper direction. Even while left free to increase

clothing at 20°C, only 80% of the subjects in our laboratory winter study found the

conditions thermally acceptable.

Special Study: Seasonal Acclimatization

Despite extensive research in this field, little is known about the effects of long-term

heat exposures for subjects working and living in hot climates on their thermal comfort

response and on their thermoregulatory system. Equally unclear is human acceptability

of such an environment even though many spend whole lives in warm regions. For

example, a sedentary office worker in a hot climate is not necessarily acclimated to

moderate or hard work in that climate. Thus^both physiological and sensory responses

may be clearly different in the same individual depending on the task he performs.

Whether at rest or active, heat acclimated subjects, both clothed and unclothed,

should have an upward displacement in preferred Tq (or acceptability of a given warm environment) compared to an unacclimated state. However, Fanger (24)

has never observed this in individuals brought to Denmark from tropical areas.

Additional basic studies are necessary, however, because Nicol (33) has analyzed

the field studies made by Webb (34) and found that natives of certain hot-wet regions,

with varied occupations and presumably heat acclimatized, do prefer warmer ambient

conditions (up to 32-33° C) in summer seasons. Humphreys (29) has compared

results of extensive field studies in various climates around the world and concludes

that "Fanger' s results which suggest that acclimatization does not affect thermal

comfort requirements, may need some qualification."

A just-completed study (25) explored the physiological and affective changes

occurring during seasonal heat acclimatization in 20 young males attending Yale

Summer School sessions. Subjects rested or did light exercise (» 2 met) while exposed

to ambient temperature changes, either unclothed or heavily clothed. The conditions

were done in early June and repeated in late August. Results of the study are shown in

Table 4.

In general, the affective responses for resting subjects, both clothed and unclothed

showed no statistically significant difference between June and August. This confirms

McNall's et al ( 6 ) early studies in resting subjects. However, the light exercise was,

in fact, instrumental in changing affective responses. Exercising subjects in August

preferred a warmer temperature (Scale 1), thought they were sweating less (Scale 3),

had lower internal temperatures (oral), and felt cooler (Scale 5). Figure 7 shows that,

for subjects in which sweat loss was directly measured, a displacement occurred

towards lower internal body temperature without a change in the proportional control

coefficient for evaporative heat loss.

146

I
Table 4.

Summary of DiTferences Between June and August

Scale Conditions Test (n) Mean difference

1 (Preference) Rest Sign (9) N.S.

Exercise 16+, 6- p ? 0.05

2 (Discomfort) No test significant

3 (Sweating) Resting (1 & 2) Paired t (9) - 0 l N.S.

Exercise (3 & 4) Paired t (9) 0 9 p « 0.01

A (EsUmoto) No test significant

5 (Warmth) Resting (1 & 2) Paired t (9) - 0 1 N.S.

Exercise (3 & 4) Paired t (9) 0 7 p 5 0.01

6 (Hands) No test significant

7 (Feet) No test significant

B (Face) No test significant

Mean skin Clothed (2 & -1) Paired t (5) 0 5 p $*.01

Unclothed (1 & 3) (1) 0 1 N.S.

Internal Resting (I & 2) Paired t (9) 0 1 N.S.

Exercise (3 & 4) (9) 0 2 p 5 0.01

A positive difference Implies a lower value in August, In scale 1, more people

requested a warmer environment in August than In June.

(AUG) '-'""E)

Figure 7. Relationship between evaporative

heat loss (E , ) and internal body temperature.

1A7

*
These experiments have broad relevance to energy conservation requirements in

summer months. For one thing, if subjects' thermal preference is for higher ambient

temperature in late August, the thermal acceptability criteria (2) may in fact be

changed. Building environments (Tg and rh) could be allowed to rise during the day

in summer months with only minimal dissatisfaction. Essentially, physiological

processes (improved skin blood flow, evaporative heat loss) occurring during normal

heat acclimatization could compensate for the reduced air conditioning necessary for

conservation of energy. However, our results have to be confirmed by more extensive

field surveys

.

CONCLUSIONS

The present review has focused on some physiological and subjective factors

which will be important in Energy Conservation practices in the future. Throughout

this paper the emphasis has been that, before we consider engineering applicability

in built environments, we must first consider physiological consequences. It is an

easy matter to lower thermostat settings in the winter or raise temperature settings

or eliminate humidity control in the summer. As we have shown in these laboratory

studies, such practices will involve a measure of discomfort. Thermoregulatory

and heat exchange models can offer a useful first order prediction of the degree of

thermal discomfort; but, we need to realize that such model predictions have to be

compared with actual experimental data which may not necessarily involve thermal

steady-state conditions. It is not the physiological comfort point where we need

additional studies - it is at displacements from this point. Such studies in the

future should focus on a disinterested resolve to such factors as sex, age effect,

frequency and direction of dry bulb and humidity and possibly any changes in

human comfort criteria caused by normal physiological acclimatization.

14d
Acknowledgnents

This research was initially supported by a contract from the Federal Energy

Administration (CO-04-5l891-00) and by contract from the American Society of

Heating, Refrigeratijng and Air-Conditioning Engineers 1^-1^14. I thank

Drs. A. P. Gagge, R. G. Nevins, Y. Nishi, and D. Mclntyre who participated

with me in many of these studies.

REFERENCES

1. Nevins, R. G. Energy conservation, comfort acceptability, and health. Aus.

Ref . Air Cond. and Heating Jourl . 28: 1-7, 1974.

2. ASHRAE STANDARD 55-74, "Thermal Comfort Conditions for Human Occupancy,"

1974.

3. Panger, P. 0. Thermal Comfort. New York, McGraw-Hill Co., 1973.

4. Fanger, P.O., J. Hojbjerre, and J. 0. B. Thomsen. Man's preferred ambient

tenperature during the day. Arch. Sci. Physiol . 27A: 395-402, 1973.

5. Rohles, F. H. and R. G. Nevins. The nature of thenml comfort for sedentary man. ASHRAE Trails . 77(1): 239-246, 1971.

6. McNall, P. E., P. Ryan, and J. Jaax.- Seasonal variation in comfort conditions

for college-aged persons in the Middle West. ASHRAE Trans . 74: IV2.1-IV2.9,

1968.

7. Gagge, A. P., J. A. J. Stolwijk, and Y. Nishi. The prediction of thermal comfort

when thermal equilibrium is maintained by sweating. ASHRAE Trans . 75(2):

108-125, 1969.

8. Cabanac, M. Plalsir ou deplaisir de la sensation thermique et homeothermie

.

Physiol, and Behav . 4: 359-364, 1969.

9. Kferks, L. E. and R. R. Gonzalez. Skin temperature modifies the pleasantness of

thermal stimuli. Nature 274: 473-475, 1974.

10. Hardy, J. D. Thermal ccmfort and health. ASHRAE Journal 13: 43-51, 1971.

11. Stevens, J. C, L. L. Marks, and A. P. Gagge, The quantitative assessment

of thermal discomfort. Environ. Research 2: l49-l65, I969.

12. Gagge, A. P., J. A. J. Stolwijk, and J. D. Hardy. Comfort and thermal sensations

and associated physiological responses at various ambient temperatures. Environ. Research 1: 1-20, 1967.

13. Gagge, A. P., Y. Nishi, and R. R. Gonzalez. Standard effective temperature - A single temperatiare index of temperature sensation and thermal discomfort. Proc.

of the CIB Commission W45 (Human Requirements) Symposium: Thermal Comfort and

Moderate Heat Stress. Building Research Station, London, pp. 229-249, 1973.

14. Nevins, R. G., P. E. McNall, Jr., and J. A. J. Stolwijk. How to be comfortable

at ,65 to 68 degrees. ASHRAE Journal 16: 41-43, 1974.

15. Gagge, A. P. and R. G. Nevins. Effect of Energy Conservation Guidelines on

Confort, .Acceptability and Health. Final Report of Contract #CO-04-5l891-00

of Federal Energy Administration, March, 1976.

149
16. Kjerulf-Jensen, P., Y. Nishl, H. Graichen, and R. Rascatl. A test chamber

design for investigating man's thermal ccanfort and physiological response.

ASHRAE Trans . 8l(l): 73-82, 1975.

17. Nlshi, -Y., R. R. Gonzalez, and A, P. Gagge. Direct measurement of clothing

heat transfer properties during sensible and Insensible heat exchange with the

thermal envlrcnment. ASHRAE Trans . 8l(2): 183-199, 1975.

18. Rohles, R. H., J. Woods, and R. G. Nevins. The Influence of clothing and

temperature on sedentary comfort. ASHRAE Trans . 79(2): 71-80, 1973.

19. Sprague, C. H. and P. E. McNall. The effects of fluctuating tenperature and

relative humidity on the thermal sensation (thermal comfort) of sedentary

subjects. ASHRAE Trans . 76: 146-156, 1970.

20. Vfyon, D. P. , I. Andersen, and G. R. Lundqvlst. Spontaneous magnitude estimation

of thermal discomfort during changes in the ambient temperature. J. Hygiene

(Cambridge) 70: 203-221, 1972.

21. Houghten, P. C. and C. P. Yaglou. Determining lines of equal comfort. ASHVE

Trans . 29: 163-176 and 361-384, 1923.

22. Hardy, J. D. and J. A. J. Stolwljk. Partltional calorlmetric studies of man

during exposures to thermal transients. J. Appl. Physiol. 21: 1799-l806, 1966.

23. Gagge, A. P., J. A. J. Stolwljk, and Y. Nishl. An effective tenperature scale,

based on a simple model of human physiological regulatory response. ASHRAE

Trans. 77(1): 247-262, 1971.

24. Fanger, P. 0. Conditions for thermal comfort - A review. Proc. of the GIB

Ccromlsslon W45 (Human Requirements) Symposium: Thermal Comfort and Moderate

Heat Stress. Building Research Station, London, pp. 3-15, 1973.

25. Mclntyre, D, A. and R. R. Gonzalez. Man's thermal sensitivity during tenperature

changes at two levels of clothing insulation and activity. ASHRAE Trans . 82(11),

1976, In press.

26. Hardy, J. D. Physiology of tenperature regulation. Physiol. Rev . 4l: 52I-606,

1961.

27. Winer, E, J. Statistical Principles in Experimental Design. New York,

McGraw-Hill, 1971.

28. Griffiths, I. D. and D. A. Mclntyre. Subjective responses to relative humidity

at two air tenperatures . Arch Scl. Physiol . 27: 459-466, 1973.

29. Hunphreys, M. A. Field studies of thermal comfort conpared and applied.

"Physiological Requirements of the Microclimate" Symposium held in Prague,

Czechoslei'akla, 1975.

30. Mclntyre, D. A. and I. D. Griffiths. Effects of added clothing on wairoth and

comfort. Ergonomics l8(2): 205-211, 1975.

31. Watts, A. J. Hypothermia in the aged: a study of role of cold sensitivity.

Environ. Research 5: 119-126, 1972.

32. Horvath, S. M., C. E. Radcllffe, B. K. Hutt, and G. B. Spurr. Metabolic

responses of old people to a cold environment. J. Appl. Physiol . 8: l45-l48,

1955.

150
Nicol, J. R. An analysis of seme observations on thennal ccanfort In Roorkee

India, and Baghdad, Irag. Annals of Human Biol . 1: ^111-426, 197^ •

Webb, C. G. Thermal discomfort in a tropical environment. Nature 202:

193-194, 1964.

151
RATING OF EIIVIROWMENTS FOR HUMAN THERMAL COMFORT BY "RESULTAUT. SURFACE TEMPERATURE"

by

T. H. Benzinger

Bethesda, Maryland

ABSTRACT

A concept is introduced for rating thermal environments on their potential for human

comfort. It involves the measurement of the surface temperature (designated Resultant

Surface Temperature) of an object placed in a building environment and producing heat per

unit surface area at a rate equal to that of a human body. A detailed description is given

of a prototype RST-Meter that has been built. The intended applications for the instrument

and how it could be used for rating environments is described.

Key Words: Indoor Environmental Measurement, Rating of Indoor Environments, Thermal

Comfort

INTRODUCTION

It is generally accepted that there are six primary variables that govern the "feeling"

of comfort or discomfort on the part of occupants of any given structure (1, 2)*. The

variables are air temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, mean radiant temperature,

the level of activity of the occupant, and the amount of clothing worn. Experimental work

has been done over the past fifty years to determine the interrelationships among these

variables and how a change in one, with given fixed values of the others, affects comfort

(3,4,5,6,7,8,9). More recently, mathematical models, which have been verified by some of

the past experiments, have been used in these studies (1,10,11,12).

In making measurements to determine the acceptability of indoor environments from a thermal standpoint, the air temperature, relative humidity, and velocity are most often

measured with conventional instruments and the mean radiant temperature (MRT) determined

by using a globe thermometer. However, it is difficult to accurately measure the air velocity

because of the relatively small air movement in most occupied spaces of buildings. In

addition, the accuracy of determining MRT with the globe thermometer is a function of the

accuracy of determining the air velocity. The globe normally is a 15 cm (6 in.) diameter

hollow copper sphere coated with flat black paint and having a thermometer at its center.

The temperature assumed by the globe at equilibrium is a result of a balance between the

energy gain or loss by radiation and the gain or loss by convection. The MRT is then

calculated using the air t .iperature, air velocity, and globe temperature. There have

been a number of instruments built over the last decade to determine MRT more directly.

They are reviewed in a separate paper presented at this symposium (13).

There have been very few instances where the measurements of all the variables or at

least the effect of all the variables have been combined into a single instrument. Two

of the most significant attempts at doing this have resulted in the so-called "Thermal

Comfort Meter" (14,15,16) and .the "R-Meter" (17).

The "Thermal Comfort Meter" consists of an ellipsoidally-shaped sensing body and an

associated control circuit and calculating device. The size, shape, and surface properties

of the sensing body were chosen so that the relationship between the energy exchange by

convection and radiation is the same as that for a human. The control circuit maintains

the surface temperature of the sensing device at a prescribed level (chosen by the instrument user and depending upon the occupant's metabolic rate and nature of the clothing

specified) and the amount of energy required to maintain this temperature (i.e. , the heat

loss from the sensing body) is then used in the calculating device to give a direct readout in terms of relative position on a comfort scale.

Numbers in parenthesis indicate references at the end of the text.

152
The R-Meter consists of a sensor unit which is a 0.5 cm (2 in.) diameter skin-colored

sphere formed by No. 36 enamel copper wire, bifilarly wound as two hemispheres. The wires

are held as a rigid sphere by a thin epoxy coating. The sphere serves not only as a sensor

but also as a uniform and rapid heating element. The sensor and associated control box

can be operated to determine the operative temperature (.18,19), defined as the uniform

temperature of an enclosure surrounding the subject in which he would have the same heat

exchange by radiation and convection as he does in the actual environment.

The major advantages of such instruments are their ease of use and the fact that the

individual environmental variables need not be measured. This latter advantage however

is also a disadvantage. Whereas the instruments will give an indication of the relative

feeling of discomfort to be expected, it is not possible to determine the reason for

discomfort without additional measurements. The exception is with the use of the R-Meter,

where it can also be used to measure MRT and equivalent "free-stream" air velocity.

The subject of this paper is new instrumentation and the experimental approach which

should allow a thermal environment to be fully characterized including the asymmetrical

aspects of low temperature radiation and air motion.

RESULTANT SURFACE TEMPERATURE (RST)

The task of characterizing and rating a given environment on its potential for human

thermal comfort could be resolved in an ideal manner, if there existed one measurement that

would reflect, and be responsive to, all factors of the thermal environment, in the same way as a human body is affected and induced to respond. It is proposed that a measurement

of surface temperature (to be called resultant surface temperature (RST)) of an object,

producing heat per unit surface area at a rate the same as the heat production of a human

body and placed in the position where the occupant of the environment would place himself,

will satisfy the requirement.

Inherent in the concept of RST are the following assumptions:

1. Whenever, at a given rate of heat production, any factor

of the thermal environment changes, the RST must also

change in order that the" equilibrium between production

and loss of heat can be restored. In other words, whenever the MRT rises, and everything else stays the same,

the RST must rise. Whenever air temperature falls, and

everything else stays the same, the RST must fall. Whenever air motion increases and everything else stays the

same, the surface temperature of the heated object must

go down.

2. There is, in any one environment at a specified location,

at one time, and in one direction of space, only one RST

that can fulfill this condition.

"RST" is therefore chosen to be the variable to rate thermal environments objectively

and unequivocally with respect to their effects on human occupants in given places. Moreover, unlike ratings obtained by means of the state-of-the-art indices, the measurements

of RST would be independent of any study or findings, past, present or future, on the re- actions of human subjects, their physiological (pheripheral or central) temperatures and

their subjective sensations, behavioral reactions, or votes of comfort. The essential

physical characteristics of a given environment would be measured in an exactly reproducible

manner

.

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN RST-METER

Some work has been done to design and build a prototype RST-Meter. This work will be

described herein.

153
Since two of the four physical factors involved in the heat exchange process between

the occupant and space, radiant heat transfer and air motion, have directional characteristics,

it was decided to construct a sensor that could be used to "scan" the environment. In this

way, the directional characteristics of RST could be determined. Since a scanning radiometer

had already been built (20) for determining directional radiant temperature (DRT) (see

Figure 1) , it was tentatively decided to incorporate the prototype RST-Meter onto the top

of the existing scanner head.

A schematic of the proposed RST-Meter construction as originally conceived is shown

in Figure 2. It consists of a tightly bonded lamination of several components. The center

is an insulating base which serves to unite mechanically, yet separate thermally, the two

heaters supplied with identical amounts of energy per unit time and surface area. External

to the twin heaters are twin thermometers bonded to the heaters by a thin layer of

electrically insulating material. The outermost layers are coated with some material

absorptive to low-temperature long-wave radiation.

When the instrument was first conceived, it was planned to build the sensor head by

depositing thin layers of metal on opposite sides of a thin "Mylar" sheet. Each sheet was

then to form one half of the symmetrical instrument sensor of Figure 2. On one side of

the sheet, the metal was to be reference grade platinum which would serve as the resistance

thermometer and on the other side, a metal alloy (called LTC) of gold, chromium, and nickel

with an extremely low temperature coefficient of resistance for the heating element. It was planned to bond the resistance heater directly to the central insulating panel. In

turn, the resistance thermometer deposited on the opposite of the "Mylar" sheet was to be

covered by an overlapping layer of silicon monoxide (also accomplished by deposition)

allowing a covering metal foil to be applied for an outer surface. It was recognized that

the only disadvantage of such a design was the relatively low resistance (on the order of

ten ohms) obtained for square layers that were thick enough to be uniform. However, the

resistance could be increased to the order of 200 ohms by dividing the square into a continuous ribbon. Figure 3 shows the basic pattern for both the resistance heater and

resistance thermometer. It was planned to accomplish the pattern by placing certain "masks"

over the substrate during the deposition processes.

After several months of experimentation, the basic design described above had to be

modified for two main reasons. First, it was not possible to accomplish a uniform comb

pattern as shown in Figure 3 by deposition even though two different techniques were used

for "masking" the substrate. Secondly, it was found that the resistance thermometers could

not be electrically isolated from the covering metal foil by the deposition of the silicon

monoxide layer. A microscopic investigation of the deposits revealed innumerable pinholes

which resulted from not being able to obtain a completely dust-free substrate.

As a result of the above efforts, a change in design was made. It was decided to use

a substrate of synthetic sapphire and to deposit the same metals as initially selected but

to do it by the technique of "sputtering". The facility for sputtering (in this case at

the National Bureau of Standards) had a size limitation on the target. Consequently, the

size of the prototype sensor which was actually built was reduced somewhat from the original

design.

Figures 4 through 7 are schematic diagrams showing the essential features of the

prototype that was finally built. The substrate of sapphire that was used had a thickness

of 0.2 mm. Figure 4 is a front view of the sensor head showing the essential dimensions.

The surface of the sensor measures 1 cm^. The two deposits, gold for the resistance

thermometer and LTC for the heater, are on opposite sides of the substrate with the slicing

patterns rotated by 90°. This rotation was done to insure a uniform temperature distribution

across the surface of the sensor. The figure also indicates the wires required for connection

to either a linear bridge (thermometer) or a power supply (heater). The five shown are for

the thermometer and heater in front. A total of ten were required for both thermometers and

heaters and were fed down through stainless steel tubing having an inside diameter of 6 mm

as indicated in Figure 5.

154
Figure 1 NBS Scanning Radiometer (20)

155
COVERS

THERMOMETERS

ELECTRICAL

INSULATION

Figure 2 Schematic Diagram of the Major Elements of an RST-Meter

156
-TERMINALS

T

60

mm 6.25

mm

1

50

mm

60

mm

50

mm

1

Figure 3 Comb Pattern Proposed for the Resistance Thermometer

and Heating Element of the RST-Meter

157
Figure 4 Front View of the Prototype RST-Meter Sensor

158
RST- METER SENSOR
RST-METER SENSOR

(SIDE VIEW)

Figure 6 Side View of the RST-Meter Sensor

160
RST-METER SENSOR

(CUTAWAY VIEW)

Figure 7 Cutaway View of the RST-Meter Sensor

l6l
Figures 6 and 7 show a side view and cutaway view, respectively, of the sensor head.

The air space between the two heaters was left open. After further analysis, the space

could be filled with an insulating material. The prime considerations will be the required

speed of response to changing environmental conditions as well as having the measurement

in one direction not influence the measurement in the opposite direction. As can be seen,

the outer ring of the sensor head serves as a carrier for the lead wires. The wires of 1 mm

in diameter run in separate grooves rather than in one 4 mm conduit. This allows the wires

to be separately and securely located.

Figure 8 shows one thermometer and heater unit prior to assembly in the sensor head.

The comb pattern shown was not obtained during the deposition process as originally planned;

instead, it was made after deposition by a special scribing process. The substrate was fastened to a movable table fitted with a low-magnification microscope and a special coneshaped carballoy stylus. In such a rig, it was possible to form lines of less than 0.05 mm

in width.

Figure 9 shows the completed prototype sensor head. It has been assembled in the

metal ring and silver epoxy resin was used to attach the lead wires to the terminals of

the resistance thermometers and heaters. The necessary bridges and power supplies have been

added to the table of the existing scanning radiometer shown in Figure 1. Some preliminary

calibration work has begun to determine the characteristics of both the thermometers and

the heaters. Further development work is planned to examine alternate and better ways of

making such an instrument.

APPLICATION OF THE RST-METER

A brief description will be given of the intended uses for the RST-Meter.

An Environmental Physiological Temperature Scale

As evidenced from the description of the instrument principles, RST measurements could

be considered measurements on a "physiological scale" and should allow one to determine

which one of several environments would be "warmer" or "cooler" for occupants and by how

many "degrees". This should be so regardless of whether the air motion, air temperature,

or radiant temperature is the predominant determining physical factor. Although humidity

level over a wide range has only a minor effect on preferred thermal conditions, a complete evaluation of the environment would require an additional independent measurement

of the humidity level.

Once environments have been evaluated or rated on the RST scale, predicting how

different individuals would react to those environments is a completely different subject

requiring independent analysis. A great deal of research has been done in determining human

subjects' "preference" for different environmental conditions. References (3-9) have

already been cited and a complete review paper has been devoted to this topic at this

symposium (21). However, it is felt that in conjunction with the use of an RST scale, a significant sample of the population should be subjected to controlled experiments in which

not only their verbal or written responses are recorded and analyzed, but detailed

physiological measurements made as well. This would enable a solid body of knowledge to be

established on optimal environments and zones of comfort as a function of the individuals' own "human thermostat".

In recent decades, sensory physiology has made extraordinary progress due to recordings

of single-unit nerve action potentials. As a result, we now know that more than a single

measured body temperature is needed to characterize the humans' state of thermal equilibrium.

Research has shown (22, 23) that the reaction of an occupant to his thermal environment

is a unique function of the temperature in the anterior portion of the hypothalamus region

of the brain as well as on the skin. When the hypothalamus temperature rises above a sharply

defined set point for the individual (varies from person to person) , warm sensitive neurons

162
Figure 8 Complete Sensor of the RST-Meter

Showing the Resistance Thermometer

(on top) and Heating Element

(underneath)

163

begin to fire and excite sweating such that the rate of sweat production is directly proportional to the deviation beyond the set point. The skin temperature can cause an effect

of inhibition on the sweating (if it is occuring) as well as result in a feeling of cold

by 'the individual if its value is below 33°C.

Partition of Body Heat Loss

The human sensory system has no means to distinguish between radiant and convective

heat loss. Determination of RST will therefore be sufficient in stating the degree of

comfort or discomfort to be expected in a given environment. However, to the thermal

engineer, it is critically important to know why a given environment is inadequate. Are

there sources or sinks of radiant heat, low or high air temperatures, or directional air

currents? To answer these questions, the measurement of RST could be combined with

measurements of the radiant temperature.

As mentioned previously, it is the intent to use the RST sensor in conjunction with

the scanning radiometer of Figure 1. As a result, integrating the results of one complete

scan with both instruments would allow the simultaneous determination of MRT as v/ell as an integrated RST. Recognizing that this value of RST represents the surface temperature of

a heated object or non-sweating human of specified metabolic heat production exchanging

heat with his environment, it is possible to calculate the heat exchange by radiation*:

q = a (T ^ - T ^) (1)

r s e

where

q = rate of heat transfer per unit area by radiation

between the RST sensor and the environment, W/m^

2 a = Stefan-Boltzmann constant , W/ (m * K)

T^ = surface temperature of RST sensor, K

T^ = mean radiant temperature of the environment, K

Since the total rate of heat input to the sensor is known and specified, one simply subtrac

the radiant portion computed above to determine the heat loss by convection.

Prediction of Body Skin Temperature

One can consider heat transfer from the surface of the human body through the clothing

to the environment to be described by the simple steady-state heat transfer equation:

q = sk CO (2)

R

Assuming the RST sensor is small in comparison to the environment it faces and that its

surface emissivity = 1.

165
where

q = total rate of heat loss per unit area from the human body, W/m

t = skin temperature, °C

S K

t^^ = outer surface temperature of the clothing, °C

R = overall resistance of the clothing to heat transfer,

(m2 . oc)/W

It should therefore be possible to use equation (2) to predict the body skin temperature

once the Resultant Surface Temperature has been measured (t ) for a given metabolic heat

CO

production (q) . References (24-27) give detailed data on or methods of predicting the

resistance or insulating value of a variety of clothing ensembles.

Once the skin temperature has been computed, its value could then be used to state the

degree of discomfort due to cold (a skin temperature below 33°C). In addition, using a mathematical model of the human body (11,12), it would be theoretically possible to predict

a central body temperature and hence predict the exact state or condition of the person in

that given environment. It should be noted though that for this prediction to be meaningful,

the central body temperature would have to be correct within very narrow limits. Since the

thermal conductance between the skin and core of the body varies widely due to vasomotor

responses and variable rates of blood flow between these two areas, it is felt that predicting

central body temperature from the measurements could not be done accurately.

Accounting for Evaporative Heat Loss

Man maintains thermal equilibrium with a hot environment partially by evaporative

heat loss or secretion of moisture at the sweat glands. In order to properly account for

this in the measurement of RST and rating of the environment, it is proposed to reduce the

heat input per unit area to the sensor by an amount equal to the evaporative heat loss.

This "negative metabolism" could be based upon studies done on sweat rates of individuals

and could be automatically accounted for in the control and operation of the instrument.

Equivalent Ideal Temperature (EIT)

When exposed in air to an environment and heated at an appropriate rate per unit area,

the value of "temperature" indicated by the RST-Meter will always be higher than the air

temperature and what a conventional room thermostat would indicate. In order for the reading

of the RST-Meter to bear some resemblance to the temperature building occupants are most

familiar with, it is convenient to introduce the concept of equivalent ideal temperature (EIT)

.

While any number of environments of widely varying air temperature, air motion and mean

radiant temperature may yield exactly the same reading of RST, there is in theory one that

is most readily defined; an "ideal" room in which the mean radiant temperature is identical

with the air temperature, and the room is free of any air motion beyond the inevitable

thermal convection occur ing around the instrument. The integrated RST of this room is

designated as its EIT. It is proposed to "calibrate" the RST-Meter in a special "ideal"

chamber so that all rooms in which the RST-Meter is used could be rated on an EIT scale.

166
REFERENCES

1. Fanger, P. 0., Thermal Comfort . Danish Technical Press, Copenhagen, 1970. Republished

by McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1973.

2. ASHRAE Standard 55-74, "Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy", ASHRAE,

345 East 47th Street, New York, New York 10017, 1974.

3. Houghten, F. C. , and C. P. Yaglou, "Determination of the Comfort Zone", ASHVE

Transactions , Vol. 29, p. 361, 1923.

4. Koch, N. , Jennings, B. H. , and C. M. Humphreys, "Sensation Responses to Temperature and

Humidity Under Still Air Conditions in the Comfort Range", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 66, p. 264, 1960.

5. Nevins, R. G. , Rohles, F. H. , Springer, W. E. , and A. M. Feyerherm, "A Temperature

Humidity Chart for Thermal Comfort of Seated Persons", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 72,

Part 1, 1966.

6. Nevins, R. G. , and F. H. Rohles, "The Nature of Thermal Comfort for Sedentary Man",

ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 77, Part 1, 1971.

7. Olesen, S. , Bassing, J. J., and P. 0. Fanger, "Physiological Comfort Conditions at

Sixteen Combinations of Activity, Clothing, Air Velocity, and Ambient Temperature",

ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 78, Part 2, 1972.

8. Rohles, F. H. , Woods, J. E. , and R. G. Nevins, "The Influence of Clothing and Temperature

on Sedentary Comfort", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 79, Part 2, 1973.

9. Rohles, F. H. , Woods, J. E. , and R. G. Nevins, "The Effect of Air Movement and

Temperature on the Thermal Sensation of Sedentary Man", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 80,

Part 1, 1974.

10. Fanger, P. 0., "Calculation of Thermal Comfort: Introduction of a Basic Comfort

Equation", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 73, Part 2, 1967.

11. Gagge, A. P., Stolwijk, J. A. J., and Y. Nishi, "An Effective Temperature Scale Based on

a Simple Model of Human Physiological Regulatory Response", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 77,

Part 1, 1971.

12. Stolwijk, J. A. J., "A Mathematical Model of Physiological Temperature Regulations in

Man", NASA Report CR-1855, August 1971.

13. Berglund, L. G. , "Radiation Measurement for Thermal Comfort Assessment in the Built

Environment", presented at the Symposium on Thermal Analysis-Human Comfort-Indoor

Environments, National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, Maryland, February 11, 1977.

14. Madsen, Th. , "A New Instrument for Measuring Thermal Comfort," Proceedings of the 5th

International Congress for Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning , Copenhagen

,

Vol. 1, pp. 109-127, 1971.

15. Madsen, Th. , "Thermal Environmental Parameters and Their Measurement," Proceedings of

the CIB Commission W45 (Human Requirements) Symposium: Thermal Comfort and Moderate

Heat Stress , pp. 167-181, Building Research Station, London, September 13-15, 1972.

16. "Comfy-Test EQ-21, Instruction Manual," Ingeiorf irmaet RECI A/S, Glosemosevej 24,

2600 Glostrup, (01) 455599, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1972.

167
17. Gagge, A. P., Graichen, H. , Stolwijk, J. A. J., Rapp, G. M. , and J. D. Hardy, "ASHRAESponsored Research Project RP-41 Produces R-Meters", ASHRAE Journal , pp . 71-88,

June 1968.

18. Gagge, A. P., Rapp, G. M. , and J. D. Hardy, "Mean Radiant and Operative Temperature for

High-Temperature Sources of Radiant Heat", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 70, p. 149, 1964.

19. Gagge, A. P., Rapp, G. M, , and J. D. Hardy, "The Effective Radiant Field and Operating

Temperature Necessary for Comfort", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 73, Part 1, p. 1.2.1,

1967.

20. Benzinger, T. H. , Mangum, B. M. , and J. E. Hill, "The Design, Construction, and Operation

of a Scanning Radiometer for Measuring Mean Radiant Temperature," ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 82, Part II, 1976.

21. Fanger, P. 0., "Thermal Comfort in Indoor Environments," presented at the Symposium on Thermal Analysis - Human Comfort - Indoor Environments, National Bureau of Standards,

Gaithersburg, Maryland, February 11, 1977.

22. Benzinger, T. H. , "Clinical Temperature, New Physiological Basis", Journal of The

American Medical Association , Vol. 209, pp. 1200-1206, 1969.

23. Benzinger, T. H. , "Peripheral Cold Reception and Central Warm Reception, Sensory

Mechanisms of Behavioral and Autonomic Thermostatis" , Physiological and Behavioral

Temperature Regulation , Chapter 56, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, 1970.

24. Seppanen, 0., McNall, P. E. , Munson, 0. M. , and C. H. Sprague, "Thermal Insulating Values

for Typical Clothing Ensembles", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 78, Part I, pp. 120-130,

1972.

25. Sprague, C. H. , and D. M. Munson, "A Composite Ensemble Method for Estimating Thermal

Insulation Values of Clothing", ASHRAE Transactions . Vol. 80, Part 1, pp. 120-129, 1974.

26. Azer, N. Z. , "The Prediction of Thermal Insulation Values of Garments from the Physical

Data of Their Fabrics", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 81, 1975.

27. Nishi, Y. , Gonzalez, R. , Nevins, R. G. , and A. P. Gagge, "Field Measurement of Clothing

Thermal Insulation", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 82, 1976.

168
ASPECTS OF INDOOR ENVIRONMENTS:

TOLERABLE VS COMFORTABLE THERMAL ENVIRONMENTS

E. R. Buskirk and J. L. Loomis

Laboratory for Human Performance Research

Intercollege Research Programs

119 Noll Laboratory

The Pennsylvania State University

University Park, Pennylvania 16802

ABSTRACT

Thermal comfort depends on a variety of factors including the level of physical

activity, clothing worn and how the occupied space is heated, cooled or ventilated.

Sufficient attention has not been paid to the importance of physical activity or the types

of jobs workers need to perform in a given environment. Their metabolic heat production

and modes of heat loss are important modifiable components in the energy balance equation.

Both relatively cool and warm environments can be tolerated by the physically active

worker. Similarly, modification of clothing ensembles can extend the tolerable range

depending on the type of task performed. Comfort and tolerable conditions can be quite

different, but when energy must be conserved maintenance of tolerable conditions will, of

necessity, take precedence over "comfort." The limits of tolerable conditions for various

tasks remain ill-defined and largely a happening of the work place. Use of tolerable

conditions may provide themal stress and result in physiological and psychological strain.

Thus, research is needed to provide guidance regarding tolerable conditions and their

periodicity, physical activity, clothing worn, work-rest cycles and productivity. The

cumulative effects of prolonged thermal stress and the resultant strain need to be assessed.

KEY WORDS

Thermal comfort, thermal sensation, thermal tolerance, work conditions, temperature

control, environmental control, temperature and performance.

The concept to be treated in this hopefully provocative paper is that there are important aspects of the thermal environment of consequence to workers and their employers

other than comfort or thermal sensation considerations. Acceptable work can be performed

within environments encompassing a relatively wide range of environmental conditions.

Thermal comfort has been defined as "that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment" (ASHRAE Standard 55-74) (1) or more recently in terms of

thermal sensation, "A sensation that is neither slightly warm or slightly cool" (ASHRAE

Handbook of Fundamentals, 1972) (2) . As the more recent version suggests, a thermal evaluation scale and a comfort scale should probably not be combined as has been the traditional

practice, but the scales should be separated to better utilize their independent contributions. A thermal sensation rating is a function of the surrounding environmental conditions

described by: dry bulb temperature (Tjj^) , wet bulb temperature (T^^) . water vapor pressure, mean radiant temperature, and air velocity, plus such behavioral modifications as the

wearing of different types of clothing, utilization of protective strategies or the modification of physical activity so as to change the heat generated by metabolism within the

body. All of these relatively discreet yet interdependent variables affect the body with

respect to comfort and thermal sensation. In terms of traditional usage, the temperature

and humidity range which provides high probability of comfort has been set forth as the

"comfort envelope." Research, primarily on college students, has provided definitive data

on the "comfort" of interior environments for subjects wearing approximately one "clo"

uniforms and who are either resting or working at very low metabolic rates.

169
The point is that comfort and thermal sensation scales while providing useful information, omit important inputs from the complex environments that are probably acceptable

to those in the occupational world. People must work within the environment but they can perform well in uncomfortably hot or cold environments. A partial list of some of the

important factors to consider in an analysis of performance in relation to thermal tolerance

is presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Some Factors of Importance in Establishing the Range of Environmental Conditions Acceptable in a Given Occupation Area

Personal

Age

Sex

Body Composition

Body Build

Diurnal Variation

Metabolic Rate

State of Acclimation

Behavioral

Meal Pattern

Clothing Wom

Thermal Antecedents

Physical Activity Antecedents

Mental Concentration

Environmental

Distractions:

Noise, vibration, odors

Lighting

Decor

Synergistic as well as inhibitory interactions are not only possible but probable.

Because of the spectre of a long-term energy shortage, one must assume that energy

for heating and cooling will be available in the future only at a premium and, therefore,

must be conserved. Thus, the concept of tolerance in relation to acceptable productivity

assumes added importance. To accommodate the tolerance/productivity concept the intrapersonal, behavioral, occupational and environmental complex should be assessed in some detail in order to provide an acceptable compromise for buildings and their environmental

control systems.

Thermal limits within the range of physiological temperature regulation for man have

been defined as the extreme environmental conditions which induce physiological responses

that reach "steady state" values and which are reversible once the thermal stress has been

removed (3) . Other less severe criteria for thermal strain limits include those used to

establish safe working conditions for a wide range of occupational activities (4). The

variables described which affect comfort are also the ones used to establish thermal

limits, i.e., T^jb, T^i,, radiation and air movement. "Physiological" thermal limits have

generally been defined utilizing laboratory or occupational environments. Emphasis has

usually been placed on the limits of thermal regulation, principally body heat storage and core temperature rise.

Tolerable thermal limits or tolerance limits are somewhat difficult to define,

partially due to the wide variability in individual thermal tolerance in relation to

specific environmental conditions and work practices. For purposes of discussion, tolerance

limits may be defined as those extreme environmental conditions which produce no significant

degradation of performance within an allowable period of time. The performance may be

measured in physical, mental, physiological, or other appropriate quantifiable terms and

evaluated with respect to environmental conditions. Thus, the environmental limits are "tolerable" both with respect to the workers demonstrated physiological strain and an acceptable level of performance or productivity. Of concern, of course, is the political

necessity to recognize worker acceptability as a modifying variable. Hopefully, however,

scientific guidance as to possible solutions will remain unbiased by political considerations, at least initially.

170
Some of the problems related to utilization of comfort scales are illustrated by the

following examples. It is interesting that the temperature which man rates as comfortable

has risen about 5.5 °C (10 "F) in the last 60 years of doctimented comfort research (5)^

This trend has been associated with increased body size, reduction in "standard" clothing worn in indoor environments as well as to differences in comfort assessment techniques.

It is also possible that adaptive trends have played a role, i.e., brought about by changed

living patterns and better heating and cooling systems, including control systems. It has

been demonstrated that subjects at rest who were studied during a one hour exposure at

23.3 "C (74 ''F)ef f ective temperature following an environmental antecedent exposure at 60 or 90 FET gave similar comfort scale ratings within the first hour following exposure (6)

.

Thus, short term antecedent temperature history was deemed of no consequence. Antecedent

exposures of longer duration or in hotter or colder environments were not utilized nor were the effects of a 25 yard walk or a toilet stop evaluated. The latter occurred between

the antecedent exposure and the exposure of record and, of course, involved undocumented

thermal transients.

An evaluation of student performance in three air-conditioned schools compared with

student performance in three non-alrconditioned schools provided unexpected results. The

students within the climate controlled schools showed a significant reduction in classroom

performance with lower temperatures (p<0.01). The range in conditions studied was only

2-3 °F and in the vicinity of 74 °F. The students at the non-climate controlled schools

showed no significant correlation between performance, even within an 8-10 °F range in

environmental conditions, and environmental temperature. Further, the students in the

non-climate controlled schools gave predominantly "neutral" thermal comfort ratings over a wider temperature range than students in the climate controlled schools (7). The implication

is that the students in the schools with no temperature control did as well as those with

relatively precise temperature control within the temperature ranges studied. Perhaps

prior thermal acclimation was responsible for the rating of neutral to the wider range of

environments

.

When the metabolic rate is high and mental involvement intense, ready acceptance of

cool environmental conditions is possible, e.g., a lightly clothed basketball player

(approximately 0.13 clo) will tolerate a cool environment 15 °C (60 "F) whether on the

court or on the bench even with a tenfold difference in metabolism. The mental involvement^

with the contest overwhelms the comfort or thermal sensation evaluating mechanisms. The

player may be sweating profusely when he begins to rest and cool rapidly but not notice

because of the competition. It is only with a break in the action that perception of the

thermal conditions of the environment return and protective clothing is donned. Even then an assistant may have to remind him by handing him a sweatshirt or jacket to put on. The examples illustrate that comfort rating or thermal sensation rating is imprecise

at best, particularly when related to perfomance criteria. Thus, it is proposed that the

literature be restudied and that new experiments be designed to utilize the tolerance/

productivity concept with a view toward total design of buildings and facilities to include

major consideration of energy conservation principles.

If it is true that man's range of adaptability to thermal changes may be reduced by

limiting exposure to environmental swings through utilization of modern HVAC systems, such

utilization may be counterproductive. Consideration of the present trends in energy costs

and the requirement for energy savings makes it mandatory to attempt to extend the range

of man's limits rather than shorten them.

The tolerance limits for acceptable human performance and productivity are poorly

understood although some experimentation has been recently performed (8), Comfort at lower

indoor temperatures, 15-20 °C (60-68 °F) , may be enhanced by selection of appropriate

clothing with insulation values in the range of 0.5 to 2.0 clo depending on the quantity

of metabolic heat generation by the requirements of the job. The critical body parts are

the hands if manual dexterity is important to preserve. The acceptable environmental

limits become a function of all the factors that were pointed out In Table 1 plus acclimation, adaptation which includes familiarization, and work rest schedules that favor

maintenance of acceptable performance. It is conceivable that studies of behavioral

modification, such as accommodation to reduce temperatures in the home, may reveal positive

correlations, i.e., in this instance acceptance of cooler conditions in the work place.

The range in tolerance in relation to the ASHRAE thermal comfort envelope is illustrated in Figure 1. The arbitrary tolerance limit at the cool end was established using the

criteria of maintenance of acceptable hand-finger dexterity. The arbitrary tolerance limit

171
at the hot end (see reference 9) was based on the wearing of a minimum of socially acceptable clothing, while performing a job requiring 3 Mets of metabolism and where sweating

would not be objectionable either to the worker or fellow employees. The limits constitute

an example based on cursory perusal of the literature and not specific job-related experimental evidence.

Figure 1.

_1 1 I

1 LJ

10 20 30 40 50

AMBIENT DRY BULB TEMPERATURE, °C

Thus, the purpose for which a building or work space will be used becomes all important

for consideration in the design process. Accurate definition of purpose requires thorough

knowledge of the job and the worker's interactions with his equipment as well as the

environment within which the work will be performed. To gain insight into acceptable

design criteria, it will be necessary to conduct a variety of thermal tolerance/productivity

types of studies in suitable laboratories or acceptable work places that can serve as laboratory substitutes. One needed type of experiment would be study of the hand-finger

dexterity problem in cool environments for a commonplace job such as typing. Conceivably,

one could start these experiments at the cool end of the scale using skilled typists

working on difficult typing projects at temperatures around 10 °C (50 "F) . Various types

of heating or air-conditioning could be employed, clothing could be modified, and the

work-rest schedule altered. Environmental temperature increments of about 2.5 "C could be

utilized to cover the temperature range of interest. The experimental periods should be

long enough to facilitate discrimination between accepted differences in productivity.

Another type of experiment would involve utilization of ramp changes in environmental

conditions, with environmental control modified by the worker. Using the example of the

typist, the environment in which the typist was working could be cooled at a rate of about

5 °C/hour. The typist could warm the environment by changing a convenient control setting.

The typing task would be real and require sustained concentration. Perception of the

environment would be measured by the frequency and extent of environmental control manipulation. Variation of this experiment could include provision of graded clothing layers to

substitute for environmental control, use of a small auxilliary heater, use of a sham

environmental control system, or using ramp changes involving different slopes. The list

of possible experiments could be quite lengthy, but the point is that these types of

experimentation should be performed to complement our knowledge of thermal comfort and

sensation.

Considerable energy savings can be realized if the controlled environment is allowed

to fluctuate within tolerable limits while responding to ambient variations. It is

acknowledged that most present systems are neither designed or capable of sensing ambient

conditions far enough in advance or appropriately to affect accurate control changes,

knowing the heat storage and exchange characteristics of the building or work space.

While designs for heating, and air-conditioning systems should in the future consider

acceptable tolerance/productivity criteria, it would be inadequate and unjust to design

environmental systems to meet near survival limits. Long-range acceptance of more spartan

172
conditions than we are currently accustomed to will undoubtedly require pertinent education

programs for the affected workers that are based on some scientific input. Thus, both

comfort thermal sensation criteria as well as tolerance/productivity criteria may well

have to be considered to develop more realistic environmental designs. The acceptable

interactions among criteria remain to be determined. Thus, we currently disagree with

R. G. Nevins,(10) our departed colleague and one of those who has contributed substantially

to the literature on thermal comfort, that "there is no spartan virtue in being uncomfortable. Indeed, it is believed reasonable, but difficult to prove, that people perform

better, learn better, and accomplish more when comfortable rather than when too cool or

too warm." The definition of "too cool" and "too warm" should be redetermined utilizing

tolerance/productivity criteria. The ASHRAE thermal comfort envelope should be expanded

and a variety of thermal envelopes constructed based on our knowledge of the complex of

personnel, job, and environmental interactions.

REFERENCES

1. ASHRAE, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy. ASHRAE Standard 55-74,

New York: The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning

Engineers, 1974.

2. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, Ch. 7: Physiological Principles, Comfort and Health,

New York: The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning

Engineers, 1972.

3. Dukes-Dobos, F. and A. Henschel: Development of Permissible Heat Exposure Limits for

Occupational Work. ASHRAE J. 15(9) , 57-62 (1973).

4. Dasler, A. R. : Heat Stress Criteria (Letter to the Editor). ASHRAE J. 16(12) , 9-12

(1974).

5. Rohles, F. H. , Jr. and R. G. Nevins: Thermal Comfort: New Directions and Standards.

Aerospace Med. 44(7) , 730-738 (1973).

6. Rohles, R. H. , Jr. and W. V. Wells: The Role of Environmental Antecedents on Subsequent

Thermal Comfort. (Personal Communications)

7. Pepler, R. D. : Variations in Student Test Performances and in Classroom Temperatures

in Climate Controlled and Non-Climate Controlled Schools. ASHRAE Transactions 78 , I 1-7 (1972).

8. Reddy, S. P. and J. D. Ramsey: Thermostat Variations and Sedentary Job Performance.

ASHRAE J. 18(3) , 32-36 (1976).

9. Gagge, A. P. and Y. Nishi: Physical Indices of the Thermal Environment. ASHRAE J.

18(1) , 48-51 (1976).

10. Nevins, R. G. : Criteria for Thermal Comfort. Bldg. Res., pp. 27-30, Jul. -Aug. 1966.

173
ASSESSING PRODUCTIVITY DECRELIENTS IN HEAT AND COLD:

ON-SITE SIMULATION OF INDUSTRIAL WORK IN A MOBILE CLIMATE CHAMBER

D. P. Wyon

National Swedish Institute for Building Research

Environmental Laboratory

Technical University of Lund

Box 725

S-220 07 Lund

Sweden

ABSTRACT

This paper describes the establishment in Africa of a major research project whose

aim is to quantify the effects on productivity of heat and cold stress in factory

buildings. The intention is to provide design criteria for the intermediate levels of

thermal stress - beyond comfort but not involving any risk to health - which are likely

to occur in the industrialization of developing co\intries with warm climates and limited

resources. The background to the project is given, and relevant published work is

summarized. On-site simulation of industrial work in a mobile climate chamber was chosen

in preference to conventional field or laboratory studies . The development and

construction of the mobile climate laboratory, including the performance testing equipment,

is described. The currently proceeding research program is given. It is suggested that the

rationale and methods of this project are appropriate for energy conservation research

elsewhere.

INTRODUCTION

The main function of any building is to transform the outdoor climate to an indoor

climate that promotes the human activities it contains. Criteria derived from these

activities should therefore be used to optimize the design of the building and to justify

the allocation of resotirces for its construction and operation. Where resources are limited, the criteria must be 'hard', not based on preference, but objective,

demonstrably relevant to the stated purpose of the enterprise, and quantitative. Such

criteria are difficult to define for some categories of buildings, notably for dwellings.

It is usually assumed in the case of dwellings that comfort criteria fulfil the above

requirements. Comfort may perhaps be defined as a necessary criterion for the indoor

climate of dwellings, particularly when adequate resources are available, but it is

surely not a sufficient criterion; even in dwellings other criteria can be derived, more

relevant to the purposes of the human activities performed there, and more objective than

those of comfort. In a factory building, whose purpose is to increase production, comfort

criteria are neither necessary nor sufficient. Resource allocation must be guided by

criteria of productivity. This is especially true in developing countries, and in countries

with a stressful climate. It is especially true in Africa.

Africa has embarked upon a course of industrialization. Every African country now

welcomes foreign investment and the establishment of new industries. Countless new factory buildings will be erected in the near future, many of them in harsh climates

where no such building has existed before. Their viability depends upon correct resource

allocation. If environmental standards are set vmrealistically high, the factory building

and its services would use too big a proportion of the available resources, and may be

built elsewhere. If standards are set too low, productivity may be so adversely affected

that the enterprise will fail. This may occur even if minimum standards that safeguard

health are strictly observed. A rational allocation of resources requires that

environmental stajidards should be set between these two extremes. It is not a technical

problem; buildings can easily be designed to provide the required conditions, either

passively, as when a massive building structure is used to reduce the extremes of an arid

climate or actively, when conventional heating or cooling equipment is installed. The

174
protlem lies in determining the returns for providing such design features, and thus

increasing the cost beyond that of a basic shell construction. In most factories the

production machinery is designed to operate well beyond the climatic extremes likely to

be encountered. Only in rather special cases can climatic control be justified for

machine or product. Examples are where computing machinery and food production require

specific temperatures, weaving requires controlled humidity, and electronic assembly requires

a dust-free atmosphere. In most cases the returns to be expected are in terms of the

effects upon human efficiency, and therefore upon productivity. Criteria derived from a study of these effects are therefore urgently required for the industrialization of Africa.

THERMAL CONDITIONS IN FACTORY BUILDINGS

This paper is concerned with the derivation of criteria for optimizing thermal

conditions in factory buildings, i.e., with the comfort and moderate stress region.

It does not deal with limiting criteria for extreme thermal stress. Hazardous expos\ire

to extreme heat or cold occurs only in hot or cold process industries for which special

studies must be made in each case to determine the trade-off available between process and

operator safety and efficiency. The only exception is where heavy manual work is to be

performed under what would otherwise be only moderate heat stress. In this case the work,

itself usually contributes the major heat load, the criteria appropriate are those of

thermal physiology, and a solution is available in increased mechanization of the task.

In the vast majority of factory buildings, thermal conditions for light manual work are no more than moderately stressful; the criteria appropriate are those of comfort and

productivity, and improvements can only be achieved by increasing the cost of the building

and its services.

PUBLISHED WORK

An assessment of published work relevant to the optimization of thermal conditions in

factories was recently made by the present author [l] . In view of its limited

circvilation , a short summary of the conclusions will be given here.

1. Thermal conditions providing optimim comfort may not give rise to maximum

efficiency . In an experiment by Pepler and Warner [2] , normally clothed young

American subjects performed mental work at different temperatures. They were most

comfortable at 27°C , at which temperature they exerted least effort and performed least

work. They performed most work at 20°C, although most of them felt uncomfortably cold

at this temperature.

2. The effects of heat stress on human efficiency are not linear . In the above

experiment, rate of working showed a minimum at 27°C, although naturally it would have

declined below this value in extreme cold or heat. A similar reversal of the effects of

moderate heat stress on performance was demonstrated by Wilkinson, Fox et. al. [3] under

conditions of controlled hyperthermia, and also by Wyon [h] in a simulation experiment

with Swedish school children. No corresponding data are available for cold stress.

Manual dexterity has usually been found to decrease monotonically if not linearly with cold

stress, but Clarke et. al. [5] have shown that muscular strength increases to a maximm

in moderate cold stress before declining at more extreme levels. These non-linear effects

are in marked contrast to the orderly decline of comfort below and above a maximum at some optimum temperature.

3. The above conclusions together invalidate the usual assumption that performance

effects can be deduced from studies of comfort alone . Unfortunately, very few field

studies of performance -under moderate heat and cold stress have been reported, and there

are many unknown factors involved in the application of laboratory results. However, the

following conclusions are drawn from the available evidence.

k. The critical temperatixre for performance lies at about 30°C for normal humidity

levels . This conclusion was reached by Pepler [6] , citing studies made in weaving sheds

and coal mines by the Industrial Fatigue Research Board in England over 50 years ago.
5 . Accident rates are lowest at 20°C, increasing by over 30% belov 12°C and above 2h°C

[7]. This study was carried out in three munitions factories, over periods of 6, 9 and 12

months, by the Industrial Fatigue Research Board (see figure l).

6 . Moderate heat stress has an adverse effect upon the accident rate for men, but a much smaller effect on women . Accident rates were closely similar for men and women at and

below the optimum temperature, suggesting that the difference was not due to differences in

the tasks performed by each sex. This conclusion derives from the above study of m\anitions

factories, and the effect is clearly apparent in figure 1.

T. Moderate heat stress and fatigue interact to increase accidents . This conclusion is

derived from studies by Vernon [T] of l8,U55 English coal miners at work. Figure 2 shows

clearly how accidents increased with the n\imber of hours worked in a shift, but progressively

more rapidly at temperatures of I8, 25 and 28°C.

8. Moderate heat stress increases the dependence of accident frequency upon age . This

conclusion is again derived from the studies by Vernon and his colleagues [7] of coal face

workers over a U-year period. Fig\ire 3 shows that age was barely a factor in accident

causation below 21°C, while increasing the relative accident frequency by up to kO% for

older men above 21°C.

9 . Performance of simulated work is worse at 10°C than at 17°C, and worse at 2U°C than

at 20°C . These conclusions are drawn by Pepler [6], from the Industrial Fatigue Research

Board experiments, and by Wyon [8], from the New York State Commission on Ventilation Report

[9], respectively. Note the excellent correspondence of these performance data with the field

accident data. Both experiments were carried out under realistic working conditions, subjects

working a full eight-hour day for several weeks.

10. Laboratory tests of rapid skilled arm movement indicate performance decrement at

13°C and 29°C, below the level achieved at 21°C . A further and more marked decrement takes

place between 29°C and 38°C, according to the result obtained by Teichner and Wehrkamp [lO],

Again, the correspondence with field accident data is good. Similar results were obtained by

Pepler [ll] with heat-acclimatized Europeans living in Singapore, although the optimum

temperature in this case appeared to be at least 5°C higher than the expected influence of

the reported differences in clothing, humidity and air velocity between the two experiments.

It is possible that this difference represents the effect of heat acclimatization.

11 . Physiological studies imply substantial sex and race group differences in the effects

of moderate cold stress on manual dexterity . Wyndham et. al. [12] found that black males

showed greater peripheral vaso-constriction than white males in moderate, but not in extreme

cold stress. Numerous studies indicate that manual dexterity is a function of hand skin

temperature, but as no direct performance studies are available and the physiological studies were carried out on nude, inactive subjects, not quantitative estimates of group differences

in performance in the cold can be made. Wyndham et. al. [13] found that black males tolerated

heat stress better than white males unless both groups were artificially acclimatized, and

there is similar evidence (Wyndham et . al. [lU], [l5]. Fox et. al. [16]) that female tolerance

of both heat and cold stress is lower than that of males. Only in the case of cold stress,

however, can these group differences be confidently expected to produce differences in

performance.

12 . Heat and noise stress act on performance in similar ways and can be expected to

interact . The main evidence for this conclusion (Bursill [l7]j Hockey [18]) has recently

been criticized by Poulton [19]. However, evidence for such an interaction may also be

derived from Viteles and Smith [20]. Significant effects of heat stress on performance can be shown to have occxirred at 72 and 90 dB, but not at 80 dB, in the data published by these

workers. This suggests a complex, non-linear interaction of noise and heat stress.

The above conclusions are subject to the special conditions imder which each study was carried out - i.e., the field studies must be considered specific to the particular industry,

country and historical period in which they were carried out, and the laboratory studies were of short duration, with an artificially high level of motivation, and subjects who

were highly selected fit young men, usually students or servicemen. Their validity for

factory building design cannot be assumed without verification, but they are indicative of

the operative factors

.

176
150

10 20 30

TEMPERATURE °C

Figure 1. Accident Frequency in Relation to Temperature (Data for English Munitions

Factories from Vernon [TJ).

177
COAL FACE WORKERS

17" 0 I 1 1 1 1 1

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 HOUR OF SHIFT

2. Accident Frequency Underground in Relation to Fatigue and Temperature (Data

English Coal Mines from Vernon [TD178
FigTire 3. Accident Frequency Underground in Relation to Age and Temperature (Data for

English Coal Mines from Vernon [7]).
THE PRETORIA EXPERIMENTS

BACKGROUND

The National Building Research Institute (NBRi) in Pretoria, South Africa, is engaged

in studies of factory building design for African climatic conditions. The influence of

various design features on the resultant indoor thermal conditions is "being studied in a number of different climatic zones (van Straaten and Wenzel [21]). The building physics

involved is relatively well understood (van Straaten [22]). In 197^, the present author

was invited by NBRI to initiate a further aspect of this project to provide criteria for

thermal effects upon productivity, without which cost/benefit analyses of factory building

design alternatives could not be carried out. Research proposals based upon the above

assessment of published work were made and construction of the experimental facilities

begafi in 1975. The work has begun and is scheduled to continue over a period of several

years

.

RESEARCH STRATEGY

The information requirement is for valid and quantitative estimates of the effects of

various attainable levels of heat and cold stress upon productivity, for immediate

application in factory building design. The above assessment of published work indicates

that long-term accident rate studies would probably provide the most valid and reliable

evidence for the existence of undesirable thermal effects at low levels of stress. However,

the time factor and the requirement for quantitative estimates of productivity decrements

eliminate this option. It is true that modern loss-control evaluation studies currently

assime a fixed ratio between disabling injuries, minor injuries and damage incidents

(l : 50 : 500 is not uncommon) and that this, if valid, provides an attractive means of

estimating this aspect of productivity decrement from registered injury statistics. However,

there is no general agreement, and certainly no conclusive evidence, as to the ratio or the

cost of damage incidents. Both must be presumed to vary between industries and may even be factions of thermal stress. To study damage incidents directly requires a very high

degree of co-operation at all levels of factory management, and is difficult to carry out

reliably even within a company. Numerous studies in different industries would be necessary,

and only one aspect of productivity decrement would be accessed.

In view of the numerous operative factors indicated by the assessment of published

work and the impossibility of controlling a sufficient number of them in the field,

straight productivity studies are judged feasible only as point validation of firm,

existing, quantitative hypotheses. Such hypotheses cannot yet be put forward on the basis

of published work. Conventional laboratory experiments serve mainly an exploratory

function, and in view of their short duration and artificial circumstances cannot be said

to supply a sufficiently valid basis for such hypotheses. The above assessment of published

work amply illustrates the complexity of the relationships and the number of factors

involved - there seems little need to perform further exploratory studies. Only realistic

simulation studies, in which the main factors known to be operative are strictly controlled

while the realism of field work is as far as possible maintained, seem able to fulfil the

information requirement. It was therefore proposed that simulation studies shoiald provide

the link between laboratory and field, enabling subsequent point-validation studies to be

made in the field as a final stage.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Groups of four subjects will perform simvilated industrial work for a full working day

mder controlled environmental conditions. Each group will be exposed to only one level of

thermal stress, i.e. thermal effects will be tested between rather than within groups. The

subjects will be volunteer industrial workers, and the exposures will take place on the

factory site where they work. However, the need for a controlled thermal environment

necessitates that they work that day in a mobile climate chamber. They will change into

standard clothing and footwear typical for the industry and time of year. The simulated

work will consist of set tasks performed in rotation during the exposure, each designed

to represent some component skill directly relevant to industrial work. In subsequent

application of the resialts to a specific work situation, the component skills critical for

productivity in heat and cold stress will be identified. The tasks were chosen to provide

180
directly a small number of simple and well-defined measures, usually of work-rate and

percentage error. The registration of these measures is automated where this is feasible.

Some have been used before in the assessment of thermal effects, some have been used in

other connections, and some are new. Complex, multi-skilled tasks have been avoided, and

they are all sufficiently simple to be learned quite quickly. Skin temperatures and heart

rates are monitored. Thermal comfort assessments are recorded continuously from dial voting

equ^ipment. The main factors in the experiments are temperature, sex, ethnic and regional

differences in acclimatization. In a reduced parallel series, the influence of clothing

and activity on heart rate, skin temperature, sweat rate and thermal comfort are to be

assessed under otherwise identical conditions, but in repeated measures (within groups)

design.

THE NBRI MOBILE CLIMATE LABORATORY

CLIMATE CHAMBER

The mobile climate laboratory consists of two double-axle caravans, each 8 m long,

3 m wide and 3 m high. These are parked 0.5 m apart and linked together on site. Figure k

shows the plan and section of these caravans. The climate chamber unit weighs 2500 kg,

and contains a 6.5 x 2.7 m exposure chamber, an air lock (entry lobby) and a toilet/

washroom. The service unit weighs 3500 kg and contains a plant room with the air

conditioning machinery, and a control room for the instrumentation. Within the control room is a darkened observation booth, providing a one-way view through a half-silvered

screen to the climate chamber. The screen is mounted as a window in the middle of the long

side of the climate chamber, immediately opposite the observation booth window. A lighttight bellows is moimted between the caravans to exclude daylight from these windows.

Flexible insulated air ducts are mounted between the caravans at roof level for supply

and return air from the air-conditioning plant. Supply air at controlled temperature and

humidity passes through one flexible duct to a ceiling plenum, entering the climate chamber

through a perforated metal ceiling. This ensures a low entry velocity and even distribution

over the entire floor area. Up to 60 air changes per hour can be supplied by the variable

speed main circulation fan, of which TO-100^ is recirculated. The climate chamber is

maintained at positive pressure, and controlled leakage through the door maintains the airlock at a similar temperature. The toilet is maintained at a negative pressure by a separate

exhaust fan venting to outside air. Return air from the climate chamber is drawn up behind

hollow metal walls to a duct extending right around the chamber above the ceiling, connected

through the other flexible duct to the plant room air intake.

Polystyrene insulation 0.05 m thick is mounted directly inside the external metal skin

of the caravan walls and roof, vapor-sealed on the inside stirface. Local heat loss or gain through this small amount of insulation due to strong sun or wind is removed by the

exhaust air and taken up by the air conditioning plant, while the hollow metal walls eemains

at the intended temperature. Thermal radiation errors are thus effectively eliminated

without either massive walls or prohibitively thick insulation. Two further advantages of

this lightweight 'hypocaust' construction are that the time constant of the climate chamber

is very low, and the acoustics are exceptionally good. There are no rigid connections

between the caravans, and hence no vibration is transmitted from the plant room.

INSTALLATIONS

The air-conditioning system was designed by the National Mechanical Engineering

Institute (NMERl), Pretoria, and supplied by Bronsair (Pty) Ltd. It is simple over-cooled,

over-dehumidified system. Two compressors transfer reject heat to air-cooled condensers

with variable speed fans. The ret\irn air from the climate chamber is mixed with a manuallyset 0-30^ proportion of fresh air, filtered, and drawn over a series/parallel arrangement of

direct expansion cooling coils providing five manually selected levels of cooling effect.

This ensures that the temperature and moisture content are reduced to below the required

levels. It is then blown past thyristor-controlled electrical elements providing 0-15 kVA

of proportionally-controlled heating effect with a rapid response. Steam is subsequently

added at atmospheric pressure from an 8 kVA electrolytic boiler with proportional output.

The temperatiire and humidity sensors for the proportional control units are located in the

exposure chamber. A sample of air from ceiling height is drawn across them by means of a small fan, thus ensviring a rapid response. This was found to work well at high temperatiares

.

181
50mm INSULATION LIOHTINO (both ii<l«i und«r r«turn olr <lutt|

^ 25mmJNSUlAI!ON>

IM.B.RI. MOBILE CLIMATE LABORATORY

iM.B.R.1. MOBILE CLIMATE LABORATORY

Figure \. Plan and Section of the Mobile Climate Laboratory Described in the Text, Housed

in Two Caravans, National Building Research Institute, Pretoria.

182
stability" protlems occurred only when very cold air was to be supplied to the chamber,

as the time constant of the feed-back circuit was slightly increased by the altered air-flow

pattern. In this case a variable proportion of air taken directly from the ceiling plenum

is added to the control sample. This simple 'quickening' of the feed-back circuit has been

found to restore stable operation without introducing measurable bias to the resulting setpoint temperature or humidity. Temperature control stable within + 0.1°C is routinely

achieved over th3 range 6-l+0°C, and variations between different points in the chamber are below 0.5^^0, Humidity control to within 1% relative humidity in the range 20-70$? is

achieved between 15 and 35°C. System limitations reduce the maximiam relative himiidity

attainable to 50^ at Uo°C, and increase the minimum to 30% at 6°C. Air velocity in the

climate chamber is below 0.05 m/s, and globe temperatures are within 1°C of air temperature.

Tyristor-controlled fluorescent tubes recessed into the ceiling provide controlled lighting

intensity from 0-1200 lux at working height. A remote control panel for the air-conditioning

plant is located in the control room.

POWER AUD WATER SUPPLY ON SITE

The mobile climate laboratoiy requires a maximum power supply of 30 kVA. This is

provided by cable from a standard 3-phase, 38O V factory outlet at each site. From this,

single-phase 220 V power supplies are provided in both caravans, together with 1 kVA of

stabilized 220 V for sensitive instrumentation. If the laboratory is to be used where no

380 V supply is available, a standard diesel generating set will be hired by the week. These

are readily available from local builders' plant-hire firms. Water must be supplied by

1-inch hose for the steam generator and washroom.

TOW VEHICLE AND CARAVAM FITTINGS

The caravans are towed, one at a time, by an International V-8 2-ton truck with hard

canopy. This is fitted as a 10-seat bus and equipped with gas rings and refrigerator for

food preparation and storage, and a folding table. This serves as a staff room. Subjects

change in a large tent extending along the whole of the exposed side of the climate-chamber

caravan, enclosing the door and serving also as an entrance lobby. Solar heat gain to the

climate chamber is thereby reduced. A sun canopy is likewise fitted to the exposed side of

the service caravan. An intercom links tow vehicle, changing room, entrance lobby, climate

chamber, plant room and observation room to the control room, and a hand-set pair between

observation room and climate-chamber enables experimenters to communicate confidentially

during an exposure. Up to 12 work siirfaces, 0.9 x O.k m, can be suspended from the walls of

the climate chamber as required, and adjusted individually to the correct height for each

seated or standing subject. Metal cable ducts run along each wall, well separated from the

power supply circuit, taking signal cables from each such work-station to a cable box at one

corner. A canvas cable duct is mounted between the caravans to enclose cable ports in the

cable box and the control room. Signal cables are extended through the duct to the control room on site to connect with instrumentation, and are withdrawn to the cable box in transit.

A motor-driven belt with variable speed and gradient can be installed transversely at one end of the climate chamber for controlled exercise. The control room is fitted with work

surfaces, cupboards and drawers for storage, and a standard 3-5 kVA room air-conditioner.

The observation room is similarly fitted and is positive-pressure ventilated with conditioned

air from the control room. A small work bench for repairs is fitted in the plant room.

INSTRUMENTATION

COMPUTER SYSTEM

Data requisition is based on a I6 kbyte desk computer (Hewlett-Package 9830) in the

control room. This vinit has a hard-wired BASIC compiler and peripheral control unit, and is

thus equivalent to a conventional computer with at least twice the memory and a software

compiler and operating system. It serves 11 peripheral units: printer, two magnetic tape

stations, mark-sense card reader, paper-tape reader, scanner, digital voltmeter, calendar

clock, telemetry receiver control, skin temperature telemetry output and ECG telemetry

output. This system performs most of the data acquisition, processing and storage required

in the industrial experiments. It acquires physical and physiological data on-line, but no attempt has been made to acquire human performance data on-line. This is primarily because

of the quelling problem - two or more subjects may respond at the same time, requiring a

183
computer several orders of magnitude faster, and thus more expensive. However, the diversity

of the performance testing equipment, and the need to retain flexibility of choice and test

sequence, and the inherent unpredictability of working with several subjects at once,

greatly increase the difficulty and expense of on-line data acquisition. Instead, each

performance testing unit is independent.

PHYSICAL DATA LOGGER

Temperature measurement to an accuracy of 0.1°C is achieved using thermocouples with

a heated reference junction at i+U°C. Measurements are initiated by the computer under

program control by selecting one of 30 channels on the scanner. The sequence is paced by the

calendar clock, but the computer has 'random access', i.e. can select channels in any order,

and repeat measurements if t^hey fall outside preset guard values. The measurement is made

by the digital voltmeter with microvolt resolution, and transmitted to the computer.

Conversion to a calibrated temperature value is then perfonned by the program, the

measurement is repeated if necessary, and the value stored on magnetic tape. Measurement

usually takes place at about 2 channels per second, with a scan at 5 minute intervals.

H\miidity is then measured in the same way using a heated lithium chloride sensor.

THERMAL COMFORT DATA

Subjects register their sensations of thermal comfort by adjusting a dial voting

apparatus (Wyon et. al. [23]). Each subject is provided with a 270° dial resembling a thermostat, but hearing a thermal comfort scale with three 90° zones marked 'too cold'

,

'comfortable' and 'too hot'. They are asked to set the pointer repeatedly so that it always

represents their thermal sensation during the exposure. The dial can be connected to

sockets at each work station. Up to six dials can presently be identified by the computer,

which registers the pointer settings at regular intervals as a percentage of full scale,

using a simple bridge circuit and individual calibration equations for each dial. The

computer lights a warning light in the climate chamber if any dial is disconnected during

a measurement sequence. Dial facia bearing the labelling in any of the six most usual

languages of South Africa can quickly be fitted to each dial unit.

COMPUTER CONTROL OF CLIMATE CHAMBER TEMPERATURE

In order to be able to expose subjects to simulated diurnal temperature changes in the

climate chamber, provision has been made for computer control of the climate chamber

temperature. Under steady-state operation, the control circuits are completely independent

of the computer. However, a simple link may be established by switching in a motor-driven

multiturn resistor in place of the normal set-point using the scanner relays. A sequence of

set-point values is entered to the computer memory for execution at set intervals, paced by

the calendar clock. Adjustment at five minute intervals has been found satisfactory, and

an arbitrary temperature curve within the capacity of the plant can be achieved with full

0.1°C accuracy.

PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA LOGGER

ECG and four skin temperatures can be acquired from each of four subjects by telemetry

with a range of 500 m. This is primarily intended for field studies, but greatly simplifies

data acquisition in the climate chamber by ensuring that the data is continuously available

to the computer even when subjects are moving between work stations. Any one of the

20 channels can be accessed by the computer, one at a time. Thermistors with a standard

calibration within the required accuracy of 0.2°C are used for skin temperature measurement.

ECG is acquired by the computer as a sequence of inter-beat intervals with millisecond

accuracy. The system is not yet fully operational. Sweat rate will be meas\ired as a total

body weight change, using a mechanical beam balance with an optical scale and 5 gm accuracy;

readings will be entered on mark-sense cards for computer compilation.

BACK-UP SYSTEMS

Key chamber temperatures and humidity are recorded on a 0-50°C sampling chart recorder

with cold-junction compensation, completely independent of the computer system. This record

also provides a visible review of temperature trends over a period of about an hour. Since

184
duct temperatures and outside air temperature are also included, this provides the operator

with the information needed to run the plant correctly. The telemetry receiver can operate

under manual control, independently of the computer. Should these systems also fail, a hand-held electrical thermometer enables direct measurements of dry and wet-bulb air

temperature, room surface and skin temperatures to be made with an accuracy of 0.1°C.

PERFORMANCE TESTING EQUIPMENT

Performance tests are either scored manually, scored automatically onto counters or registered on paper tape for off-line analysis by the computer. In the first two instances,

the experimenter enters the score onto mark-sense cards pre-punched with session, subject,

time and test identification. After each session the cards are read by the computer and the

scores automatically compiled with the physical and physiological data acquired by the

computer during the relevant test. The link is made by the time reference, as physical and

physiological records are filed against time on the magnetic tape record. The following

brief notes summarize each test and give references to their previous use where appropriate.

Unless otherwise stated, timing is performed manually using a stop-watch.

COLD- SENSITIVE TASKS COLD-SENSITIVE TASKS

1. Tactual discrimination - 2 edges . A development of the V-test introduced by

Mackworth [2U], eliminating the possibility of subject bias. The subject feels the presence

or absence of a gap between two edges U, 3, 2 or 1 mm apart, using the pad of a forefinger.

The test is semi-automated and scored on counters.

2. Tactual discrimination - raised letters and numbers . The subject feels raised

letters or numbers on the surface of a drum and checks against a printed list containing

discrepancies at random. The subjects' responses are entered manually from the list to the

computer for scoring. This test appears not to have been used in the cold.

3. Finger dexterity - rolling movement . The subject rolls a pencil-sized shaft as fast as possible between his fingers, against retardation at two levels of torque. Rotations

are registered on a counter. This is a development of a test found by Hellstryim [25] to be

very sensitive to cold.

^- Finger dexterity - peg test . The subject picks up three small pegs at once and

inserts them one after the other in the same hold, using only one hand. This test is

manually scored. It is described as the O'Connor peg test by Parker and Fleishman [26],

but not as a cold-sensitive test.

5- Manual dexterity - block stringing . The subject strings wooden blocks using a blunt needle. The test is described by Gaydos [2?] and has also been using in the cold by

Lockhart [28].

6. Manual dexterity - knot tying . The subject ties the same knot repeatedly in

lengths of string. The test has been used in the cold by Gaydos [2?], Gaydos and Dusek

[29] and by Clark and Cohen [30], among others.

7. Simulated assembly task-screw plate . The subject transfers small nuts and bolts

between holes in a steel plate. The test was used by Baddeley et. al. [31] to test the

manual dexterity of divers mdejrwater . A similar test was used by Kay [32] in the cold.

8. Simulated assembly line task . The subject inserts small pegs into 3 holes in each

transverse bar of an intermittently advancing assembly line. The speed of the line can be

varied, and the test is scored onto k counters, using microswitches to detect the number of

bars passing with 0, 1, 2 or 3 pegs inserted.

9- Skill diagnosis - track tracing . The subject traces a track in a vertical plate

with a hand-held probe. Once inserted, it cannot be withdrawn until the whole track has

been traced. An electronic counter records the error score as the total time in contact

with the plate or the rear facia for a preset number of repeats. The task has been

described by Fleishman [33] and by Parker and Fleishman [26] as the best predictor for a group of skills characterised by slow exact hand movements, but has apparently not been

used in thermal experiments.

185
10. Skill diagnosis - steadiness precision . The subject slowly inserts and withdraws

a hand-held 0.5 m probe into a narrow tube to touch a target at the end without touching the

sides. The error score is recorded as for the track-tracing task, was described by the same authors as a predictor of a similar group of skills involving slow exact arm movement, and

does not appear to have been used in thermal experiments.

11. Skill diagnosis - rotary pursuit . The subject tries to maintain a hand-held probe

on a small target near the periphery of a rapidly rotating gramophone-type turn-table. Time

on target is recorded on an electronic counter during five 20 sec. periods with 10 sec. rest

periods between. The task was found to be sensitive to heat and cold by Teichner and

Wehrkamp [ 10 ]

.

12. Skill diagnosis - motor judgment . The subject controls the speed of a rotating

pointer to avoid moving obstacles, using a 'joy-stick' control lever. The error score is

recorded on an electronic counter during a pre-set, automatically timed work period. An

early version of this task is described by Parker and Fleishman [26].

13. Grip strength . The subject exerts maximum force for a period of several seconds,

using both hand and finger grips. Performance is recorded on a paper chart, clearly visible

to the subject to provide visual feed-back and encouragement. The dynamometer uses a strain

gauge assembly developed by NMERI to compensate for the mechanical advantage obtained by

applying the force at different points on the handle.

ik. Integrated task simulation - 5 choice serial reaction . The subject holds a metal

probe and touches five small targets in a continuous random sequence given by a 5-lamp

display. Errors and serial reaction times are recorded. This task is described by Poulton

[3^] and has been used extensively to measure the effects of heat, noise, loss of sleep,

alcohol, etc. upon perseverance and concentration. Two further aspects have been added, to measure aiming and vigilance respectively; responses initially missing the target are recorded, and the subject must press a hand-held button to report brief, barely visible

delays introduced at random to the display change. Data relevant to each response are recorded on a paper-tape punch. The test simulates the skills using in typical work-bench

tasks.

Heat-sensitive tasks

(Tasks h, T» 8, 12 and ik will also be used in the heat stress series.)

15. Integrated task simijlation - vigilance . The subject monitors a central display

consisting of a rotating pointer on a dial, and a peripheral display consisting of an array

of lights distributed from one extreme to the other of his visual field. This is a combination of the clock test used by Mackworth [35] and the vigilance aspect of the task

used by Bursill [iTl. Both authors found marked effects due to heat stress. Data relevant

to each response or signal are recorded on a paper-tape punch. The test simulates the work

of monitoring large instrument panels for process control. It is not yet operational.

16. Simulated inspection task - card sorting . The subject inspects a matrix of

numbers printed on each card, rejecting those where any two of the numbers are the same. A paper and pencil version of the test was found to be sensitive to moderate heat stress

by Holmberg and Wyon [36]. In the present version the test is automatically scored onto

counters using magnetic labels on the target cards.

17. Simulated checking task - card sorting . The subject compares two T-digit numbers

on opposite sides of each card, rejecting those where the two numbers differ. The task is

scored as above.

18. Memory Task . Subjects memorize a list of common words and must recognize them in

a larger list containing other words as well.

19. Simulated spot-welding . The subject manipulates a heavy but coimter-balanced

welding caliper to close on five targets in a random sequence given by a 5-lamp display.

Scoring is automatic onto electronic counters. The test measures perseverance in realistic

heavy precision task. It is not yet operational.

186
RESEARCH PROGRAM

The experiments described above will be carried out dioring 19TT and 1978 by R. Kok,

Mary Lewis and Dr. G. Meese. The results will be published in NBRI reports and in appropriate

scientific journals. During 1976 the mobile climate laboratory has been commissioned, and

the performance tests have been validated in extensive pilot studies as they became

operational. A preliminary study of heat and noise interaction is currently being completed,

using 2h0 subjects. It is intended to examine the changes in hand skin temperature occurring

in response to various divirnal temperature changes, using the computer control of the climate

chamber temperature described above. On a long-term basis, the climate laboratory is seen as a valuable resource for examining human response to the indoor environment expected to occur

in proposed buildings of alternative designs.

RELEVANCE TO ENERGY CONSERVATION

The Pretoria unit was established to provide valid and quantitative data on the effects

of alternative factor building designs upon productivity. The information requirement for

energy conservation is the same - the effects of alternative energy conservation strategies

must be quantified in experiments that are sufficiently valid and realistic to be accepted as a basis for important investment policy decisions. No new principles or extreme levels of

stress are involved. Known principles derived from laboratory studies must be applied to

the moderate stress region. Field studies are desirable, but would inevitably take much

longer to perform. If possible, accident, loss control and productivity studies should

proceed in parallel with simxilation studies of the Pretoria type.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my thanks and appreciation to Dr. T. L. Webb, Director of the

National Building Research Institute in Pretoria, South Africa, and his colleagues, in

particular Mr. J. F. van Straaten, who initiated the project and has continuing responsibility

for it, and Mr. S. J. Richards, the chairman of the Steering Committee for Indoor Environment

co-ordinating this and allied research, for affording me the opportunity of leading this

important project in its initial stages and for continuing to contribute to it, and for NBRI's

agreement to publish this paper. I am equally grateful to Messrs. J. M. Gouws, A. R. Dys

and W. Smit for the mechanical and construction work associated with the performance tasks

and the mobile laboratory and to Mr. W. Verhagen for developing and building the electronic

circuitry.

REFERENCES

1. Wyon, D. P., "Assessing the Effects of Moderate Heat and Cold Stress on Human

Efficiency," Proceedings of the Symposi\im 'Factories for Profit-Environmental Design' , September li+-l6, 1976, Pretoria, National Building Research Institute, Paper Number 6,

25 p., 1976.

2. Pepler, R. D. and R. E. Warner, "Temperature and Learning: An Experimental Study."

ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 7^, 1968.

3. Wilkinson, R. T. , Fox, R. H., Goldsmith, R. , Hampton, I.F.G. and H. E. Lewis,

"Psychological and Physiological Responses to Raised Body Temperature," Journal of

Applied Physiology , Vol. 19, pp. 287-291, 196k.

h. Wyon, D. P., "Studies of Children Under Imposed Noise and Heat Stress," Ergonomics , Vol. 13, pp. 598-612, 1970.

5. Clark, R.S.J. , Hellon, R. F. and A. R. Lind, "The Duration of Sustained Constractions

of the Human Forearm at Different Muscle Temperatures," Journal of Physiology , Vol. 1U3,

pp. l+5l+-^73, 1958.

6. Pepler, R. D. , "Psychological Effects of Heat," in, Leithead, C. S. and A. R. Lind

Heat Stress and Heat Disorders , London, Cassell, Chapter 12, 237-271, 196^.

7. Vernon, H. M. , Accidents and Their Prevention . Cambridge University Press, 1936.

187
8. Wyon, D. P., "The Effects of Moderate Heat Stress on Typewriting Performance,"

Ergonomics , Vol. IT, pp. 309-318, 197^.

9. New York State Commission on Ventilation, "Report of the New York State Commission

on Ventilation," New York, Button, 1973.

10. Teichner, W. H. and R. F. Wehrkamp, "Visual-Motor Performance as a Function of ShortDuration Ambient Temperature," Journal of Experimental Psychology , Vol. U7, I+U7-U50,

195i+.

11. Pepler, R. D, , "Warmth and Performance: An Investigation in the Tropics," Ergonomics , Vol. 2, pp. 63-88, 1958.

12. Wyndham, C. H. , Ward, J. S. , Strydom, N. B. , Morrison, J. F. , Williams, C. G.

,

Bredell, G.A.G., Peter, J., Rahden, J. E. Von, Holdsworth, L. D. , Graan, C. H. Van,

Renshurg, A. J. Van and A. Munro, "Physiological Reactions of Caucasian and Bantu

Males in Acute Exposure to Cold," Journal of Applied Physiology , Vol. 19, pp. 583-592,

I96I+.

13. Wyndham, C. H., Strydom, N. B. , Morrison, J. F., Williams, C. G. , Bredell, G.A.G.,

Rahden, M.J.E. Von, Holdsworth, L. D. , Graan, C. H. Van, Renshurg, A. J. Van, and

A. Munro, "Heat Reactions of Caucasians and Bantu in South Africa," Journal of Applied

Physiology , Vol. 19, pp. 598-606, 196k.

ik. Wyndham, C. H. , Morrison, J. F., Williams, C. G. Bredell, G.A.G., Peter, J.,

Rahden, M.J.E. Von, Holdsworth, L. D. , Graan, C. H, Van, Rensburg, A. J. Van, and

A. Munro, "Physiological Reactions to Cold of Caucasian Females," Journal of Applied

Physiolog;vs Vol. 19, pp. 877-880, I96U.

15. Wyndham, C. H. , Morrison, J. F. and C. G. Williams, "Heat Reactions of Male and Female

Caucasians," Journal of Applied Physiology , Vol. 20, pp. 357- 36U, I965.

16. Fox, R. H. , LSfstedt, B. E., Woodward, Patricia M. , Eriksson, E. and B. WerkstrSm,

"Comparison of Thermoregulatoiy Function in Men and Women," Journal of Applied

Physiology , Vol. 26, pp. kkh-k^3, I969.

17. Bursill, A. E., "The Restriction of Peripheral Vision During Exposure to Hot and Humid

Conditions," Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , Vol. 10, pp. 113-129, 1958.

18. Hockey, G.R.J. , "Effect of Loud Noise on Attentional Selectivity," Quarterly Journal of

Experimental Psychology , Vol. 22, pp. 28-36, 1970.

19. Poulton, E. C, "Continuous Noise Interferes with Work by Masking Auditory Feedback and

Inner Speech," Applied Ergonomics , Vol. 7 (2), pp. 79-8U, 1976.

20. Viteles, M. S. and K. R. Smith, "An Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Change

of Atmospheric Conditions and Noise Upon Performance," Heating, Piping and Air

Conditioning , Vol. I8, pp. 107-112, 19k6.

21. Van Straaten, J. F. and J. D. Wentzel, "Thermal and Ventilation Design of Industrial

Buildings," Proceedings of the Symposium 'Factories for Profit-Environmental Design' , September IU-I6, 1976, Pretoria, National Building Research Institute, Paper N\mber 11,

30 p., 1976.

22. Van Straaten, J. F., Thermal Performance of Buildings , Amsterdam/London/New York,

Elsevier, I967.

23. Wyon, D. P., Andersen, I. and G. R. Lundqvist, "Spontaneous Magnitude Estimation of

Thermal Discomfort During Changes in the Ambient Temperature," Journal of Hygiene , Vol. 70, pp. 203-221, 1972.

2h. Mackworth, N. H. , "Finger Numbness is Very Cold Winds," Journal of Applied Physiology , Vol. 5, pp. 533-5U3, 1953.

188
25. Hellstr(Z$m, B. , "Local Effects on Acclimatization to Cold in Man," Norwegian Monographs

on Medical Science , Olso: Universitets-forlaget , 1965-

26. Parker, J. F. and E. A. Fleishman, "Ability Factors and Component Performance Measures

as Predictors of Complex Tracking Behavioiir," Psychological Monographs , Vol. 7^

(16. Whole No, 503), i960.

27. Gaydos, H. F. , "The Effect on Complex Manual Performance of Cooling the Body While

Maintaining the Hands at Normal Temperature," Journal of Applied Physiology , Vol. 12,

pp. 373-376, 1958.

28. Lockhart, J. M. , "Extreme Body Cooling and Psychomotor Performance," Ergonomics , Vol. 11, pp. 2U9-26O, 1968.

29. Gaydos, H. F. and E. R. Dusek, "Effects of Localized Hand Cooling Versus Total Body

Cooling on Manual Performance," Journal of Applied Physiology , Vol. 12, pp. 377-380,

1958.

30. Clark, R. E.^and A. Cohen, "Manual Performance as a Function of Rate of Change in

Hand Skin Temperature," Joixrnal of Applied Physiology , Vol. 15, pp. ^96-^98, 196O.

31. Baddeley, A. D. , Figueredo, J. W. de, Hawkswell Curtis, J. W. and A. N. Williams,

"Nitrogen Narcosis and Performance Under Water," Ergonomics , Vol. 11, pp. 157-l6^, 1968.

32. Kay, H. , "Report on Arctic Trials on Board H.M.S. Vengeance February-March I9I+9,"

Royal Naval Personnel Research Committee, Report Number 53^. London, Medical Research

Council (Results summarized in [3^] below), 19^9-

33. Fleishman, E. A., "Dimensional Analysis of Movement Reactions," Journal of Experimental

Psychology , Vol. 55, pp. ^+38-^^53, 1958.

3^. Poulton, E. C, Environment and Human Efficiency , Springfield, Thomas, 1970.

35- Mackworth, W. H, , "Researches on the Measurement of Human Performance," in,

Sinaiko, H. W. (Ed.), Selected Papers on Human Factors in the Design and Use of

Control Systems , New York, Dover, pp. 17^-331, I961.

36. Holmberg, Ingrid and D. P. Wyon, "The Dependence of Performance in School on Classroom

Temperature," Educational and Psychological Interactions , Vol. 31, 20 p.. School of

Education, 200 1+5 Malmo 23, Sweden, 19 69.

189
SUMMARY AND CLOSING REMARKS

P. E. McNaXX

Building Environment Division

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 2023^+

In these few remarks I shall attempt to summarize the apparent needs for further re- search on human response to the thermal environment which have been suggested by this

symposium. In addition, comments will be made concerning the priorities of future research.

Those of high energy savings potential will be suggested as high priority items and will be

treated in that order.

1. Time-temperature relations of excursions outside the presently accepted comfort

limits . The use of building mass as a "thermal flywheel" can save considerable

energy, as well as shift energy use periods. The effects on comfort and performance need quantification as conditions deviate beyond "comfort" limits, and

then are restored at some later time.

2. Clothing research . The immediate need is to identify and specify proper available

clothing ensembles as functions of performance and comfort and to educate the

public as to their availability. More long-range objectives would be to provide

a technical base for thermal "labeling" of clothing articles for the public, as well as research into practical methods of adjusting the clo values of ensembles

when worn in various environments, i.e., opening and closing vent flaps. A study

of the life cycle cost of utilizing clothing would also be appropriate. Is it more economical of capital and energy to wear more clothing and save heating

energy? An additional area of study would involve examining finger dexterity

limits. Lowering temperatures and adding clothing might not be acceptable beyond

a certain point because of this factor.

3. Spot heating and cooling limits . The use of localized heating and cooling in

building environments, particularly for industrial applications, has potential for

large savings in energy. The acceptability of such environments for comfort and

performance should be examined.

k. Heated and cooled furniture . Comfort and performance limits when using heated or cooled chairs should be determined. Energy would be saved for example by using

heated furniture and maintaining the surroundings at a lower than usual temperature. Increased activity when the person would leave the heated chair to move

around might offset the additional cooling. Many interesting possibilities for

this concept exists.

5. Energy efficiency of controlling the thermal variables independently . At present,

air temperature appears to be the most practical of the four environmental variables to control; however the conditions under which it is more energy efficient

to control mean radiant temperature, air velocity, or humidity and still maintain

the same degree of "comfort" should be identified.

6. Cold sleep conditions . Research is needed to establish limits of acceptable

sleepware and bedcovering for comfort and health consistent with lower temperatures for night-time energy savings.

7. Instrumentat ion . A cheap and simple comfort instrument still remains as a need.

All of the above research areas need special attention for children, the aged, and

the infirmed for obvious reasons

.

It does appear that the several human comfort mathematical models now being employed

are accurate enough to be practically employed in many of the research areas. Better

190
models per se do not seem to "be high priority needs.

The specialized use of color, design, sound, and music do not seem to have great potential for energy saving, with one interesting long-range exception. Can the visual and

acoustical environment be designed so that people can live and work comfortably in smaller

spaces? The resulting energy savings would then be great.

, r

191
JBS-114A (REV. 7-73)

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4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Thermal Analysis - Human Comfort - Indoor Environments

5. Publication Date September 1977

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

Mangum, B. W. . and J. E. Hill

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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 77-12602

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary ol most sigpiiicant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)

These are the proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the National Bureau of Standards

and held in Gaithersburg, Maryland on February 11, 1977» The symposium was held for

the purpose of exploring new aspects of indoor thermal environments, caused primarily

by the impact of energy conservation in new and existing buildings. Included in these

proceedings are eleven formal papers which were presented by leading researchers in the

field of thermal comfort and heat stress. The contributed papers were from Denmark,

Sweden, and several research institutions within the United States including the

John B. Pierce Foundation at Yale University, Kansas State University, and Pennsylvania

State University. Information was presented on a variety of approaches to determining

human response to thermal environments. These included laboratory studies in envirortmental chambers utilizing instrumented human subjects, field studies involving surveys

and questionnaires, mathematical modelling of humans, an analysis of some types of

instruments used in assessing the quality of the environments, and a discussion of the

relationships between j. oductivity and the thermal environment.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons)

Energy conservation in buildings; heat stress.; human comfort; indoor environment;

mean radiant temperature; thermal comfort

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