287

Chapter 18

Communication Voids

The inability of government offi cials and fi rst responders to communicate during a 

response to an emergency – whether terrorist attacks, natural disasters, or everyday 

operations – results in the loss of lives. Problems with communications operability and interoperability constituted one of the main reasons for governments’ failures in 

response to Katrina. Operability refers to the basic functionality of any device (“Is it working?”). Interoperability refers to the device’s ability to connect with other devices and share 

voice or data communications (“Can the police talk to fi remen?” or “Can hospitals electronically share patient medical records with emergency health-care providers?”)

While there can be no interoperable communications where no communications exists at 

all – the situation confronting many fi rst responders in Louisiana and across the Gulf Coast 

immediately aft er Katrina – an interoperable communications system may be more resilient than “stove- piped” systems. For example, systems can be built with tower sites that 

have overlapping coverage so that if a single tower goes down, total coverage is not lost in a 

particular area.1

Katrina infl icted widespread destruction on communications and electrical infrastructure. 

With cellular towers down, land lines submerged, and no power, telephone and wireless 

communications were largely impossible in the areas most heavily aff ected by the hurricane. 

Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour summed up the lack of communications: “My head 

of the National Guard might as well have been a Civil War general for the fi rst two or three 

days because he could only fi nd out what is going on by sending somebody. He did have helicopters instead of horses, so it was a little faster, but the same sort of thing.”2

 Emergency 

personnel from across the Gulf Coast have described how the communications breakdown 

complicated the coordination of federal, state, and local response. For example: 

• In New Orleans, Mayor Nagin’s command center at the Hyatt Regency Hotel 

lost all communications.3

 Aft er landfall – though before fl ooding – Mayor Nagin had to walk across the street to City Hall in order to speak to city emergency 

managers.4

 One phone line in the Mayor’s room in the Hyatt would sometimes 

connect a call out, but could not receive incoming calls.5

 It was not until Th ursday, September 1, three days aft er landfall, that the Mayor’s command center 

began to receive e-mails. On Friday, September 2, the White House provided 

the Mayor with a mobile phone but he had to lean out of storm-damaged 

rooms at the hotel to get a signal.6

• Larry Ingargiola, Director of the Offi ce of Emergency Preparedness for St. 

Bernard Parish, Louisiana, lost phone and cellular communications on Monday aft ernoon following landfall. Later that night, the emergency radio system 

went down; he was left without any communications until August 31. Ingargiola, who went up to the roof of his building with his family when the water 

started to rise, received word of the levees’ breaching from Louisiana Wildlife 

and Fisheries (W&F) offi cials who rode by in boats.7

• Th e Louisiana offi cials in charge of evacuating the Tulane Medical Center received oral authorization from the State Emergency Operations Center (EOC) 

to use buses in the possession of the National Guard to evacuate the patients. 

When the National Guard asked for proof of authorization, the head of the 

rescue team could not get through to the State EOC on his cell phone. Without 

(Left Page) 

Ruins in Gulfport, MS

(U.S. Coast Guard photo)
288

Chapter 18

the use of the buses, the rescue team resorted to evacuating the patients in the 

backs of pick-up trucks, with wheelchairs, stretchers, and other equipment 

loaded into boats pulled behind the trucks.8

• Phil Parr, who was part of the Federal Emergency Management Agency 

(FEMA) Advance Emergency Response Team at the Superdome, estimated 

that the lack of eff ective communications at the Superdome reduced FEMA’s 

eff ectiveness by 90 percent.9

• With the loss of phone and computer capabilities, the only way FEMA offi cials in Harrison County, Mississippi could track water, food, and other 

requested relief supplies was to send a police car to the distribution center at 

Stennis Space Center, located in Hancock County, near Louisiana, so that they 

could communicate using the police car’s radio.10

• Scott Wells, the Federal Coordinating Offi cer at the State EOC in Baton 

Rouge, said that communication with both New Orleans and the FEMA regional offi ce in Denton, Texas, aft er landfall was so poor that it was like being 

in a “black hole.”11

• Health-care providers’ inability to share data complicated the task of caring for 

thousands of patients and others injured during the storm. Injured citizens from 

the Gulf Coast were being treated at many diff erent locations, oft en far from 

their homes, sometimes in other states. Th e lack of an interoperable data system 

oft en prevented medical personnel from obtaining information about patients, 

even if their facility had suff ered no hurricane damage. To complicate matters 

further, no continuous records were kept to identify and track patients or the 

treatment they received. Oft en the identifi cation-and-tracking system consisted 

of paper stapled to victims’ bed sheets or taped to their bodies.12 One hospital offi cial found that the only reliable way to confi rm that planeloads of new evacuee 

patients were en route was to check with local air-traffi c controllers.13

Some private-sector entities, however, were much more successful in dealing with communications problems. Th e Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs Committee’s 

private-sector hearing featured testimony from companies about the communications 

challenges they faced, how they overcame them, and how any success they achieved aft er 

landfall depended on successful communications, including communications between the 

fi eld and the company’s headquarters, within headquarters, and with state and local emergency operations centers. 

In its testimony before the Committee, the Starwood hotel company discussed how it managed events on the ground in New Orleans, backed up by its corporate headquarters, which 

enabled the company to help approximately 2,100 guests, employees, and their families 

weather the storm in safety at two hotels.14 Th rough eff ective planning and pre-positioning of phones, Starwood never lost contact with areas outside the aff ected region. Satellite 

phones were deployed to the hotels, and Starwood maintained its Internet connection, 

which permitted employees and guests to communicate with the outside world.15 (One of its 

New Orleans hotels had two information-technology employees on-site and battery backups for their computer systems, which enabled the Internet connection.) Th rough media 

reports received via the Internet, managers on the ground knew what was going on around 

them when all other forms of communications had failed. Local responders and journalists 

sometimes relied on Starwood’s communications capabilities since the city’s communications system was largely lost.16
Communication Voids

289

Th e Wal-Mart retail-merchandise chain stressed the importance of “effi cient” communication, and described it as “absolutely the key to success at a higher level.”17 Wal-Mart 

developed situational awareness at the local level and passed it quickly to its emergency 

operations center, which compiled a big picture for the company. Th e business-unit representatives in the emergency operations center made decisions on tactics and strategies based 

upon the “big picture” information and then moved aggressively to disseminate objectives 

back to company response teams and fi eld teams for further dissemination.18 Wal-Mart determined that the “face-to-face communication at the Emergency Operations Center level, 

where the decision makers congregate, is the most effi cient method of communication.”19

Th e Mississippi Power public utility recognized the importance of communications to an 

eff ective response, particularly the ability to communicate with thousands of additional 

workers brought in from outside the region to help with restoration and repairs. Mississippi 

Power relied on its only viable form of communication – its internal system Southern Linc 

Wireless.20 Th is system was designed with considerable redundancy and proved reliable despite suff ering catastrophic damage. Within three days, the system was functioning at nearly 

100 percent. Mississippi Power told the Committee that it “also installed its own microwave 

capability to 12 remote staging areas in order to transmit material inventory data into our 

automated procurement process.”21 Th e company said, “When communication circuits 

of another company were down, our information technology group would fi nd a way to 

bypass those circuits and restore critical communications.”22

Th e storm and fl ooding severely damaged both the commercial and public safety communications infrastructure.23 Th is created chaos for every aspect of governments’ response 

– search and rescue, medical care, law enforcement, and provision of commodities. Th is 

section addresses each type of infrastructure and then considers the local, state, and federal 

governments’ eff orts to provide emergency and interoperable communications capabilities. 

Commercial Communications Infrastructure

BellSouth, the largest local phone company in the region, lost service at 33 of the central 

offi ces that route calls.24 Th is was the fi rst time that water damage had put switching centers 

out of service on their network.25 Almost 3 million customers were without phone service 

in the days aft er landfall and over 20 million calls attempted on Tuesday, August 30, the day 

aft er landfall, could not be completed.26 Of the 545 central offi ces that remained in service, 

over 180 had to run on generators due to the loss of commercial power.27

Commercial wireless communications also suff ered. Over 1,000 of some 7,000 cellular towers in the aff ected area were knocked out of service.28 Some of the switching centers that 

connected to cellular towers were fl ooded, while others were damaged by high winds.29 To 

restore cellular coverage, cellular providers brought in over 100 portable cellular towers, 

called cellular on wheels or cellular on light truck, to the Gulf Coast. Each portable tower 

provided cellular coverage over a limited area on a temporary basis.30

Th e generators supplying power to the central offi ces had limited fuel supply,31 and needed 

to be replenished about every three days. BellSouth obtained fuel trucks to top off its generators, proceeding into New Orleans with an armed convoy.32 Other companies had problems obtaining fuel for their generators. For example, Cox Louisiana Telecom LLC, which 

serves 85,000 customers, had fuel trucks that were destined for switch facilities intercepted 

by FEMA and turned away. FEMA also took fuel away from technicians with service trucks 

in the fi eld.33 In addition, FEMA commandeered a fuel tanker from BellSouth in order to 

refuel helicopters.34
Chapter 18

290

Th e commercial sector also had to negotiate security concerns. At BellSouth’s main central offi ce on Poydras Street in New Orleans, which serves as a regional hub for multiple 

telecommunications carriers, reports of violence and looting caused the New Orleans Police 

Department (NOPD) and Louisiana State Police (LSP) to advise employees to evacuate the 

building.35 Two days aft er the evacuation, the FBI and the U.S. Marshals Service provided 

security so that BellSouth workers could return to the Poydras Street building to fuel the 

generators, which were running low but never went out of service.36 In an eff ort to obtain security for all telecommunications providers, the National Communications System 

(NCS), the federal government’s lead agency for the response to communications problems, 

sought assistance from the Department of Defense (DOD), which forwarded the request to 

the Louisiana National Guard.37 In the end, however, security arrangements with the Louisiana National Guard fell through.38 Ultimately, telecommunications providers hired private 

security to protect their workers and supplies.39

Repair workers also had diffi culty gaining access to their equipment and facilities in the 

fi eld because police and National Guard in some cases refused to let them enter the disaster 

area. MCI sought a letter from Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco to access parts of New 

Orleans based on a requirement from the LSP, and Verizon Wireless wanted access and 

security for technicians restoring cellular service in New Orleans.40 Industry representatives 

said that their technicians would benefi t from having uniform credentialing that is recognized by the multiple law-enforcement agencies operating in a disaster area.41

Damage to First Responders’ Communications Infrastructure

Besides destroying commercial lines, Katrina decimated the towers and electronic equipment that support land mobile-radio systems, the primary means of communication for 

fi rst responders. Th is made it diffi cult for offi cials at all levels of government to communicate. Offi cials from NOPD, the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, and 

the Louisiana National Guard testifi ed that their law-enforcement and search-and-rescue 

eff orts were hindered by the lack of communications.42

Government offi cials at the Louisiana State EOC in Baton Rouge had trouble communicating with those in the disaster area.43 State and local emergency operations centers were 

left in a “communications void,” oft en unable to communicate with fi rst responders or to 

relay requests for assistance up the chain of command.44 Part of the problem was serious 

call congestion on surviving land lines.45 BellSouth said that it tried to reroute calls around 

damaged infrastructure, and the State EOC eventually had more lines installed to provide 

additional capacity. 

In New Orleans, only one tower that was at the airport remained operational: One tower 

was inundated by the storm surge, while two others had equipment damaged or lost power 

because of fl ood waters.46 Many police, fi re, EMS dispatch centers, and 911 centers were 

rendered unusable by fl ood waters.47 Th e ACU-1000 interoperability devices, which provided limited interoperability by patching together diff erent radio systems and were located 

within the Rosedale Fire Station, had to be abandoned because of fl ood waters.48 Katrina’s 

devastating impact on communications infrastructure around New Orleans forced fi rst responders to rely on fi ve or fewer mutual-aid channels – recognized by multiple agencies as 

channels to use when the coordinating electronics of the radio system fails – for voice-radio 

communications.49 But around 4,000 people were competing to use that constricted capacity.50 Th e heavy congestion resulted in delays before communications could be established.51

In St. Bernard Parish, extreme winds damaged communications towers and antennas, while 

fl ood waters inundated the 911 call center and forced the evacuation of buildings housing 
Communication Voids

291

communications for the Fire and Sheriff ’s Departments. All voice-radio communications 

were lost except for very limited radio-to-radio communications.52 Plaquemines Parish lost the parish government communications tower and communications center. Th e 

Plaquemines Sheriff lost the 911 communications and dispatch center, and all towers. It 

would be three weeks before Plaquemines Parish had any means of communications. Th e 

Jeff erson Parish Sheriff ’s Offi ce lost the main tower supporting its communications system. 

As a result of this destruction, antennas supporting its communications center were relocated to the boom of a 400-foot crane for months.53

Th e Louisiana State Police Department worked with FEMA to provide support to local 

departments whose communications capacity had been devastated by the storm. FEMA 

agreed to pay $15.9 million to Motorola to repair and augment the regional system and to 

purchase 600 portable radios. Th e contract for these repairs was signed approximately two 

weeks aft er landfall.54

911 Communications

Along with fi rst responder communications, Katrina wreaked havoc on the 911 systems on 

which the public relies to contact fi rst responders. During the Katrina crisis, 911 was unavailable for untold numbers of victims. At least 38 of the 911 centers in the region lost their 

ability to function during Katrina.55

When 911 systems go down, some call centers still re-route calls to other centers. However, 

telecommunicators on the receiving end did not have access to maps, data, and other information necessary to direct fi rst responders to callers in need of help.56 Also, only the voice 

is rerouted, while critical data (e.g., electronic information about a call’s point of origin) is 

not. However, in many cases, due to the widespread destruction in Louisiana, even voice 

signals could not be rerouted. As a result, when citizens dialed 911, they got a busy signal. 57

Broken utility poles, Mandeville, LA

Photo © 2005 The Times-Picayune Publishing Co., 

all rights reserved. Used with permission of the 

Times-Picayune
Chapter 18

292

Meanwhile, the infl ux of thousands of fi rst responders into the region greatly increased the 

workload for 911 call-center operators who were victims of the storm themselves. Some 

left when their families evacuated. Th ose remaining operated under tremendous stress.58 A 

North Carolina 911 offi cial helping the response eff ort in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, 

observed that no plan existed to bring additional, credentialed telecommunicators into the 

region, and that early Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) requests for 

inter-state assistance did not include 911 operators.59

Role of the National Communications System

Under the National Response Plan (NRP), Emergency Support Function-2 (ESF-2, Communications) ensures the provision of federal communications support to federal, state, 

local, tribal, and private-sector response eff orts during an Incident of National Signifi cance. 

Th e coordinator for ESF-2 activities is the National Communications System (NCS), an 

interagency consortium managed within the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).60

Th e Deputy Manager and Director of NCS is Peter Fonash, Ph.D. 61

Before Hurricane Katrina, NCS never had to repair the land mobile radio (LMR) systems 

that are operated by local governments and used by fi rst responders.62 In fact, the organization did not have an operational plan to systematically assess an incident’s impact on the 

LMR systems and respond to local governments’ communications needs for operability, or 

interoperability, during emergencies.63 Fonash did not know what communications assets 

were available across the federal government, nor what communications assets DHS, DOD, 

or other agencies may have been deploying. “Even the federal agencies themselves, DOD, 

for example ... didn’t even have the control within DOD of all the assets being deployed by 

DOD because diff erent parts of DOD were deploying assets and there was no central control,” he said.64 Without knowledge of what communications assets federal agencies were 

bringing into the area, NCS could not eff ectively prioritize the use of those assets.65

Fonash acknowledged that NCS had inadequate information about the communication situation in the New Orleans area. According to NCS protocol, its headquarters receives such 

information only when its personnel on the ground have run into “problems [they] can’t 

fi x.”66 Th e magnitude of the damage in Louisiana proved this system inadequate. Fonash 

said that NCS staff was “so busy handling the crisis that they were probably not giving us 

the situational awareness that we should have been getting. . . . We just didn’t have enough 

people down there.”67 Eventually, Fonash sent additional staff to the region and placed a 

contact at the Louisiana state EOC.

Several communications assets were not deployed at all, or could have been deployed sooner:

• Th e U.S. Forest Service maintains over 5,000 radios, the largest civilian cache 

of radios in the United States, but many remained unused.68

• FEMA Mobile Emergency Response Support (MERS) units, which include 

trucks with satellite capabilities, were at Barksdale Air Force Base in Shreveport, LA, outside the disaster area, during landfall, and did not travel to the 

State EOC in Baton Rouge until the day aft er landfall.69

• DOD had communications assets, including radio systems, which could have 

been deployed sooner.70

• DHS’s Prepositioned Equipment Program (PEP) pods containing communications equipment did not start deploying until a week aft er landfall.71
Communication Voids

293

Th e NCS did identify and provide satellite communications vans to New Orleans City Hall, 

LSP in Baton Rouge, the Mobile Army Surgical Hospital at the New Orleans Airport, and 

to the National Guard in Jeff erson Parish.72 NCS also provided a cellular unit on a truck 

to the Louisiana State EOC.73 In addition, NCS identifi ed the need to provide a temporary 

LMR communications solution to the eight-parish area around New Orleans, working with 

FEMA to initiate the contract.74 But most of these NCS assets were not provided until days 

aft er the storm struck or were only provided to select locations. Indeed, satellite vans were 

not en route to the LSP in Baton Rouge until September 1, and high water kept one satellite 

van from reaching New Orleans City Hall until three days aft er landfall.75

It appears that some requests for the NCS to provide communications capabilities to local 

governments were not made until a few days aft er landfall. For example, Colonel Jeff Smith, 

Louisiana’s Acting Deputy Director for Emergency Preparedness, did not submit a form 

requesting “communications with the aff ected parish EOCs” until 5 p.m. on September 1 

– more than three days aft er landfall.76 Fonash said that he wasn’t aware that the state EOC 

had communications problems until the state made its request on September 1.77 An e-mail 

indicates that Governor Blanco did not ask for assistance with communications until the 

evening of August 31, two days aft er landfall; in that case, the federal ESF-2 representative 

in Baton Rouge met with a state offi cial the next day.78 Under the NRP, though, the NCS 

could have off ered assistance even before the state made an offi cial request for help. 

Mobile Emergency Response Systems

FEMA’s Mobile Emergency Response Support (MERS) division maintains roughly 300 mobile vehicles, most of which provide logistics support to FEMA. MERS units are dispersed 

throughout the country at fi ve MERS stations. Th e MERS vehicles range from small sportutility vehicles to large tractor trailers with expandable conference room space. Th e deployments are self-sustaining and include fuel, water, and power.79 

Th e primary responsibility of MERS is to provide communications capabilities to FEMA, 

including the Joint Field Offi ce (JFO), the Emergency Response Team A (ERTA), and the 

Rapid Needs Assessment Team. During a disaster, MERS units may provide some communications support to the state EOC, if requested by the state.80 However, MERS does not 

view this type of assistance to fi rst responders as part of its mission.81

Th e MERS Th omasville, GA, detachment (serving FEMA Region IV) and Denton, TX, 

detachment (serving FEMA Region VI) deployed the weekend before landfall.82 Recognizing the power of the storm, over the weekend MERS sent personnel, vehicles, and assets to 

the disaster area from its other detachments across the country as well as from the MERS 

National Capital Region team.83 Aft er landfall, MERS equipment also was used to support 

National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) and Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) eff orts 

and, approximately one week aft er landfall, helped to build the offi ce for Coast Guard Admiral Th ad Allen’s command center.84

Despite the level of MERS equipment deployed to the Gulf Coast, MERS was overwhelmed 

by the extent of communications needs, and experienced diffi culties in supporting FEMA 

personnel.

Th e MERS team assigned to the JFO in Baton Rouge on Saturday, August 27, was in place 

on Sunday, August 28, although not at the level needed to support the JFO, which eventually grew to more than 2,000 people. Aft er landfall, MERS had to provide additional communications support, including a high-capacity T-1 cable capable of providing hundreds 

of phone lines.85 FEMA employees experienced diffi culties calling out of the JFO because 
Chapter 18

294

MERS relies largely on local landlines and cellular systems that had failed or were heavily 

congested.86 One MERS technician estimated that eight of every 10 calls failed, noting that 

FEMA employees relying on landlines “have no higher priority than anybody else, [such 

as] the guy using the pay phone down at the corner of the street trying to make an outgoing 

call, and most of the facilities are dead or down or under water.”87 MERS therefore had to 

bring in satellite capabilities to provide a reliable means of getting calls in and out.88

Before landfall, FEMA Region IV requested that MERS deploy a detachment to the state 

EOC in Jackson, MS.89 In FEMA Region IV, the MERS unit from Denton, TX, sent support 

to Baton Rouge pre-landfall for FEMA’s Rapid Needs Assessment teams and the FEMA 

JFO, but otherwise staged its vehicles and equipment at Barksdale Air Force Base in Louisiana.90 Th ese vehicles included the so-called “Red October,” a large tractor-trailer vehicle.91

Post-landfall, the vehicles staged at Barksdale could not move until the high winds had 

subsided along the coast. On Tuesday, August 30, the day aft er landfall, the Barksdale 

equipment mobilized. A communications vehicle was sent to the Louisiana state EOC.92

Red October started out for New Orleans but had to be held in Lafayette, Louisiana on the 

night of August 30 due to diffi culties navigating around debris.93 In the end, Red October 

did not go to New Orleans because fl ood levels were too high for it to reach the Superdome.94 It eventually went to Baton Rouge, where it served as FEMA Director Michael 

Brown’s command center.95

No MERS vehicles ever reached the Superdome because of fl ooding, exacerbating problems 

there. Sandy Coachman, who was part of the FEMA team at the Superdome, said that at one 

point she could see a MERS vehicle on an overpass on I-10. She could see the driver, and 

they waved their phones in the air to signal each other, but that was the extent of their ability to communicate.96 Th e failure of a MERS communications vehicle to reach the Superdome cut off any meaningful communications with the EOC in Baton Rouge. Coachman said 

her satellite phone, cell phone, and Blackberry handheld wireless device all failed to work.97

Th e only way the FEMA team could communicate was by using National Guard phones, 

which oft en could not get through to the EOC because of congestion on the system.98 It is 

unclear why FEMA did not instruct MERS to deploy a smaller communications vehicle to 

the Superdome when the Red October experienced diffi culties moving there, or why FEMA 

did not attempt to airlift smaller MERS equipment (satellite phones in particular) into the 

Superdome once New Orleans fl ooded.

Th e response to Katrina stretched MERS’s resources and exposed the diffi culty that MERS 

would encounter in responding to simultaneous catastrophes in diff erent parts of the country. When Hurricane Rita hit, MERS Chief William Milani had to negotiate with the Federal 

Coordinating Offi cers directing the federal response in the Katrina region to get MERS 

assets released from areas devastated by Katrina, and also had to contract out for additional 

assets. Given that the response to Katrina essentially stripped bare all fi ve MERS detachments, Chief Milani was uncertain how MERS could have responded if another major disaster occurred during the response to Katrina.99

Satellite Communications

Satellite phones don’t rely on the ground-based infrastructure necessary for land mobile 

radio, land-line, and cellular communications. But there is anecdotal evidence that satellite 

communications experienced their own problems: New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin said that 

he had “a huge box of satellite phones that did not work.”100 In Mississippi, a FEMA employee, Mike Beeman, said that satellite phone connections were “sporadic.”101 And while 
Communication Voids

295

wireless Blackberry devices worked, batteries were hard to recharge because of the lack of 

commercial electricity.102

Th e problems with satellite phones do not appear to have been caused by the phones themselves or the satellite networks; rather, a combination of user error and buildings or other 

objects obstructing satellite signals are the more likely culprits. In fact, NCS was not aware 

of any problems with the satellite phone networks.103 And Walt Gorman, a vice-president 

at Globalstar, which supplied many satellite phones to the federal government, Louisiana, 

and Mississippi, said that users with diffi culty operating satellite phones probably did not 

know how to use them properly because they had not received training. Th erefore, users 

may have had problems putting them in the correct mode, directing the antennae, or dialing the correct numbers.104

Louisiana supplied satellite phones to New Orleans parishes a few years ago, but aft er the 

state stopped paying for the satellite monthly service fee, all but three parishes discontinued 

the service and returned the phones to the state.105 Th ese satellite phones might have been 

useful if they had been available during Katrina. To fi ll the communications gap, Louisiana 

tried to bring in communications trailers with transmitters to restore cellular communications, but those eff orts were hampered by the fl ooding.106

In Mississippi, all Mississippi Emergency Management Agency (MEMA) personnel had 

mobile satellite radios for communications; satellite radios permanently mounted in the 

three coastal counties were available as well. Aft er Katrina struck, this was oft en the only 

functional form of communications in the state.107 Satellite worked so well that MEMA 

purchased additional portable satellite phones for state emergency response teams.108 Even 

though coastal county EOCs had satellite capability, the strong winds of Katrina shift ed 

their antennas, resulting in failed communications.109 In addition, MEMA deployed a mobile communications unit and Pearl River County had a mobile communications trailer that 

it purchased with DHS grants, which allowed it to communicate aft er Katrina.110

Pre-Landfall Attempts to Improve Louisiana’s Public-Safety 

Communications Infrastructure

Th e problem of interoperable communications was brought to the nation’s attention on 

September 11, 2001, when police and fi refi ghters at the World Trade Center had diffi culty 

communicating with each other. However, it is a long-standing problem. According to David Boyd, head of project SAFECOM, an “umbrella” DHS program designed to coordinate 

federal eff orts to promote interoperability, the inability to communicate eff ectively across 

jurisdictions and disciplines was a problem in the Air Florida crash in Washington, D.C., in 

1982; in New York City when the World Trade Center was fi rst attacked in 1993 and again 

on September 11, 2001; and when the Murrah Federal Building was destroyed in Okalahoma City in 1995. Sixty thousand individual local jurisdictions – including police, fi re, and 

emergency medical services – fi nance, own, operate, and maintain over 90 percent of the 

nation’s public safety wireless infrastructure.111

As in most states, parishes in the New Orleans area and state agencies maintain diff erent 

communication systems, which make it diffi cult for public safety agencies to communicate 

during everyday emergencies, let alone disasters on the scale of Katrina. 

Th e State of Louisiana operates on a statewide analog wireless system installed in 1996. It supports voice communication only. Th is system is presently used by approximately 70 agencies 

with 10,000 subscribers. Th is system consists of 46 tower sites and 28 dispatch consoles. Th e 

LSP operate an aging data network that cannot support additional users. Th e Louisiana Total-
Chapter 18

296

ly Interoperable Environmental (LATIE) Strategic Plan says that while “this system was quite 

sophisticated for its time, advances in technology have rendered it virtually obsolete.”112

Large parts of the communications systems in southeastern Louisiana are outdated and 

have been in various stages of disrepair for several years. In Orleans Parish the communications system is an 800 MHz system, which supports police, fi re, EMS and the Offi ce of 

Emergency Preparedness. (MHz (Megahertz) denotes the frequency on which the equipment operates and public safety radio equipment oft en can only operate on a specifi c frequency.) Th e age of the equipment created problems in getting technical support.113

In St. Bernard Parish, the 400 MHz communications system is so old that it must be maintained by purchasing repair parts through the eBay auction site on the Internet.114 Various 

volunteer fi re departments have other types of communications systems. Jeff erson Parish 

has an 800 MHz “Motorola Digital Smart Zone System” for the Sheriff ’s Offi ce, but the rest 

of the parish agencies use an analog system, which makes it nearly impossible to communicate with the Sheriff ’s Offi ce. In Plaquemines Parish, the Sheriff ’s Department uses an 800 

MHz analog system that cannot communicate with digital systems.115

According to FG Dowden, who works on interoperable communications and other issues 

for the New Orleans Offi ce of Homeland Security, the only interoperable system in use in 

southeastern Louisiana prior to the storm was between the NOPD and the Jeff erson Parish Sheriff ’s Offi ce; it used “console patches” to connect their 800 MHz controllers, which 

provided a degree of interoperability.116

ACU-1000 units also provided limited interoperability. Th e ACU-1000, which is manufactured by JPS Raytheon, acts as a converter between radios from each system. But it can 

support only a limited number of channels for communications, and it requires a person to 

manually confi gure the connections with the radios.117

Well before Katrina struck, Louisiana agencies encountered funding problems as they sought 

to enhance communications interoperability. In 2004 and again in January 2005, the Louisiana State Police attempted to secure $105 million to upgrade its communications infrastructure from an outdated, 800 MHz analog system which is no longer supported by the 

vendor to a modern 700 MHz digital interoperable network. Th at amount was considered an 

“inexpensive” way to connect existing operating systems in the state to a common, statewide 

network. Th e State Police sought funding from Congress, via earmark requests to Louisiana’s 

Congressional delegation, as well as through Louisiana’s state budget process and grant opportunities with DHS’ Offi ce of Domestic Preparedness, but was not successful.118

Th e greater New Orleans area also analyzed options for creating a region-wide, modern 800 

MHz system, well before Katrina struck. However, estimates ranged as high as $45 million, 

which local offi cials considered “cost prohibitive.”119 Just buying compatible radios for New 

Orleans Parish alone would cost almost $20 million.120 Th erefore, the region developed a 

plan for a region-wide system involving all four parishes in the region, which would be 

phased in over time.121

According to Dowden, New Orleans applied for and received a grant through the Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) program at the Department of Justice (DOJ) that 

would have provided interoperability for the four-parish region by upgrading St. Bernard 

Parish and Plaquemines Parish to 800 MHz trunk radio systems and providing bridging 

technology between two or more of the 800 MHz systems (which Orleans and Jeff erson Parishes already had).122 Th is grant also would have allowed some of the systems to have P-25 

compliant technology (an interoperability standard designed by the government and private 

industry). However, the project was 18 months from completion when Katrina struck.123 If 
Communication Voids

297

the project had been completed by the initial time table, the loss of communication towers 

might not have been quite as signifi cant because there probably would have been at least 

two towers fully operational from the new system.124

New Orleans has a “tactical interoperability plan” developed pursuant to DHS grant guidance, but this plan was developed around an improvised-explosive-device scenario, not 

for an event of widespread destruction like that caused by a hurricane. According to Col. 

Dowden, a catastrophic hurricane plan “takes into account all of the assets within the region, and then pre-scripts what you would do in the event you lose specifi c towers or capabilities.”125 Even though the risk of major hurricanes striking New Orleans was well known, 

that kind of communications plan had never been developed.

In addition to funding, interoperability also always raises technical and policy issues. As 

Colonel Joseph Booth of the LSP put it, “there’s always issues about who’s going to control 

it, who’s making decisions, what technology to go with, what capabilities, what kind of local 

control there is.”126 

1 Committee staff interview of FG Dowden, U.S. Marine Corps (Ret.), Regional Liaison, New Orleans Department of 

Homeland Security and Public Safety, LA, conducted on Nov. 11, 2005, transcript p. 50.

2 Testimony of Gov. Haley Barbour, Mississippi, before the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs, hearing on Th e Role of the Governors in Managing the Catastrophe, Feb. 2, 2006.

3 Committee staff interview of Sally Forman, Communications Director, City of New Orleans, LA, conducted on Jan. 10, 

2006, transcript pp.120-121.

4 Forman interview, Jan. 10, 2006, p. 68.

5 Forman interview, Jan. 10, 2006, p. 101.

6 Forman interview, Jan. 10, 2006, p. 121.

7 Committee staff interview of Larry Ingargiola, Director, Homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness, St. Bernard 

Parish, LA, Oct. 26, 2005, transcript pp. 91-93, 103-104.

8 Testimony of Lt. Col. Keith LaCaze, Assistant Administrator, Law Enforcement Division, Louisiana Department of 

Wildlife and Fisheries, before the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs, hearing on 

Hurricane Katrina: Urban Search and Rescue in a Catastrophe, Jan. 30, 2006.

9 Committee staff interview of Phil Parr, Federal Coordinating Offi cer, Region I, Federal Emergency Management Association (FEMA), conducted on Nov. 15, 2005, transcript p. 28.

10 Committee staff interview of Michael Beeman, Director, Preparedness Division, Region II, FEMA, conducted on Jan. 

20, 2006, transcript p. 71.

11 Committee staff interview of Scott Wells, Deputy Federal Coordinating Offi cer for Hurricane Katrina in Louisiana, 

FEMA, conducted on Nov. 14, 2005, transcript p. 116.

12 Committee staff interview of Knox Andress, RN, Christus Schumpert Health System, Shreveport, LA, conducted on, 

Mar. 10, 2006 (untranscribed).

13 Andress interview, Mar. 10, 2006.

14 Written Statement of Kevin T. Regan, Regional Vice President of Operations, Starwood Hotels & Resorts Worldwide, 

Inc., for the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs, hearing on Hurricane Katrina: 

What Can Government Learn From Private Sector’s Response?, Nov. 16, 2005, p. 5.

15 Written Statement of Regan, Senate Committee hearing, Nov. 16, 2006, p. 6.

16 Committee staff interview of Kevin Regan, Regional Vice President of Operations, Starwood Hotels & Resorts Worldwide, Inc., conducted on Nov. 3, 2006 (untranscribed).

17 Written Statement of Jason Jackson, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., for the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security 

and Governmental Aff airs, hearing on Hurricane Katrina: What Can Government Learn From Private Sector’s Response?, 

Nov. 16, 2005.

18 Written Statement of Jackson, Senate Committee hearing, Nov. 16, 2005.

19 Written Statement of David Ratcliff e, Southern Company, for the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and 
Chapter 18

298

Governmental Aff airs, hearing on Hurricane Katrina: What Can Government Learn From the Private Sector’s Response?, 

Nov. 16, 2005.

20 Written Statement of Radcliff e, Senate Committee hearing, Nov. 16, 2005, pp. 4-5.

21 Written Statement of Radcliff e, Senate Committee hearing, Nov. 16, 2005, p. 5.

22 Written Statement of Radcliff e, Senate Committee hearing, Nov. 16, 2005, p. 5.

23 Th e White House report on Katrina aptly concluded, “Th e complete devastation of the communications infrastructure left emergency responders and citizens without a reliable network across which they could coordinate.” U.S. Assistant to the President for Homeland Security and Counterterrorism, Th e Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina Lessons 

Learned. Washington: Government Printing Offi ce, Feb. 2006, p. 55.

24 Written Statement of William Smith, Chief Technology Offi cer, BellSouth, for the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs, hearing on Managing Law Enforcement and Communications in a Catastrophe, 

Feb. 6, 2006, p. 4. 

25 Written Statement of Peter M. Fonash, Ph.D., Deputy Manager, National Communications System, U.S. Department 

of Homeland Security, for the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs, hearing on 

Managing Law Enforcement and Communications in a Catastrophe, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 6.

26 Written Statement of Fonash, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 1; Federal Communications Commission, 

Consumers Out of Service. Provided to Committee.

27 Written Statement of Fonash, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p.1; Written statement of Smith, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 4.

28 Committee staff interview of Christopher Guttman-McCabe, Vice President, Regulatory Aff airs, CTIA, conducted on 

Jan. 24, 2006, transcript p. 20.

29 Guttman-McCabe interview, Jan. 24, 2006, p. 21.

30 Guttman-McCabe interview, Jan. 24, 2006, pp. 11-12.

31 Committee staff interview of William Smith, Chief Technology Offi cer, BellSouth, Inc., conducted on Jan. 25, 2006 

(untranscribed).

32 Smith interview, Jan. 25, 2006. 

33 Kay Jackson, e-mail to La Public Service Commission, Sept. 20, 2005, 6:08 p.m. Provided to Committee. 

34 Smith interview, Jan. 25, 2006.

35 Written Statement of Smith, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 8.

36 Written Statement of Smith, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 8; Written statement of Fonash, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 7.

37 Tom Wetherald, e-mail to Peter Fonash, Sept. 3, 2005, 9:37 p.m. Provided to Committee; fi led as Bates nos. DHSINFP-0002-0000737 through 0000738. See also: Committee staff interview of Jeff rey Glick, Chief of Critical Infrastructure Protection, National Communications System, conducted on Feb. 3, 2006, transcript p. 60 (explaining NCS’s eff orts 

to work through the NRCC and ESF-13 process as well as with the National Guard).

38 Glick interview, Feb. 3, 2006, p. 60

39 Guttman-McCabe interview, Jan. 24, 2006, p. 25.

40 Kim Hunter Reed, e-mail to Jeanne Wright and others, Aug. 30, 2005, 1:57 p.m. Provided to Committee; Brian Eddington, e-mail to LA Public Service Commission, Sept. 2, 2005, 7:20 p.m. Provided to Committee; Michael Vitenas, 

e-mail to LA Public Service Commission, Sept. 2, 2005, 5:10 p.m. Provided to Committee.

41 Guttman-McCabe interview, Jan 24, 2006, p. 28.

42 Testimony of Warren Riley, Superintendent, New Orleans Police Department, LA, before the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs, hearing on Managing Law Enforcement and Communications in 

a Catastrophe, Feb. 6, 2006; Testimony of Capt. Timothy Bayard, Commander, Vice and Narcotics Squad, New Orleans 

Police Department, LA, before the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs, hearing on Managing Law Enforcement and Communications in a Catastrophe, Feb. 6, 2006; Testimony of Lt. Col. Keith 

LaCaze, Assistant Administrator, Law Enforcement Division, Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, before 

the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs hearing on Managing Law Enforcement 

and Communications in a Catastrophe, Feb. 6, 2006; Testimony of Brig. Gen. Brod Veillon, Assistant Adjutant General, 

Louisiana National Guard, before the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs, hearing 

on Managing Law Enforcement and Communications in a Catastrophe, Feb. 6, 2006.

43 FEMA’s Federal Coordinating Offi cer for Louisiana, William Lokey, said there were problems making calls in and out 

of the State EOC. Committee staff interview of William Lokey, Federal Coordinating Offi cer for Hurricane Katrina in 

Louisiana, FEMA, conducted on Jan. 20, 2006, transcript p. 6.

44 Wells interview, Nov. 14, 2006, p. 116

45 Glick interview, Feb. 3, 2006, pp. 29-20.
Communication Voids

299

46 Testimony of FG Dowden, Regional Liason, New Orleans Department of Homeland Security, LA, before the U.S. 

Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs, hearing on Managing Law Enforcement and Communications in a Catastrophe, Feb. 6, 2006; Col. Dowden interview, Jan. 26, 2006.

47 Dowden, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006.

48 Dowden, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006; Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, pp. 33-34.

49 Dowden, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006.

50 Dowden interview, Jan. 26, 2006.

51 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, pp. 33-34.

52 Dowden, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006.

53 Dowden, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006.

54 Committee staff interview of Lt. Col. Mark Oxley, Chief of Staff , Louisiana State Police, and Lt. Col. Joseph Booth, 

Deputy Superintendent, Crisis Response and Special Operations, Louisiana State Police, conducted on Dec. 9, 2005, 

transcript pp. 78-79.

55 Written Statement of Kevin J. Martin, Chairman, Federal Communications Commission, for the U.S. House, Committee on Energy and Commerce, Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet, hearing on Public Safety 

Communications from 9/11 to Katrina: Critical Public Policy Lessons, Sept. 29, 2005, p. 2.

56 Committee staff interview of Craig Whittington, 911 Coordinator for Guilford Metro 911, Greensboro, NC, Mar. 13, 

2006 (untranscribed).

57 Whittington interview, Mar. 13, 2006.

58 Whittington interview, Mar. 13, 2006.

59 Whittington interview, Mar. 13, 2006.

60 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, National Response Plan. Washington: Government Printing Offi ce, Dec. 

2004, pp. ESF #2–1 through 2–3.

61 Fonash interview, Jan. 27, 2006, p. 4.

62 Fonash interview, Jan. 27, 2006, p. 37.

63 Fonash interview, Jan. 27, 2006, pp. 50-51.

64 Fonash interview, Jan. 27, 2006, p. 60.

65 Fonash interview, Jan. 27, 2006, p. 62.

66 Fonash interview, Jan. 27, 2006, p. 116. 

67 Fonash interview, Jan. 27, 2006, pp. 118-120. 

68 Written Statement of Mark Rey, Under Secretary, Natural Resources and Environment, U.S. Department of Agriculture, for the U.S. House, Committee on Homeland Security, Subcommittee on Emergency Preparedness, Science, and 

Technology, hearing on Ensuring Operability During Catastrophic Events, Oct. 26, 2005, p. 3.

69 Committee staff interview of William Milani, Chief, Mobile Operations Section, Logistics Branch, FEMA, conducted 

on Jan. 12, 2006, transcript p. 59.

70 U.S. Department of Defense, “DOD Support to Hurricane Katrina,” Executive Summary. Provided to Committee; 

fi led as Bates no. 00614 (“DOD provided 1500 mobile radios . . . ; radios arrived September 6 and given to the 82nd 

Airborne at the New Orleans Airport.”). When the DOD troops returned to their home stations, they provided 1500 of 

their radios to the National Guard troops. Committee staff interview of Col. James Kohlman, U.S. Army, U.S. Northern 

Command, U.S. Department of Defense, conducted on Dec. 6, 2005, transcript pp. 20, 39.

71 Marc Short, e-mail to Matt Mayer, Sept. 5, 2005, 10:51 a.m. Provided to Committee, fi led as Bates no. DHS-FRNT0010-0000386. 

72 Written Statement of Fonash, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 6. 

73 Written Statement of Fonash, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 6.

74 Written Statement of Fonash, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 7.

75 National Communications System, “National Communications System Response to Hurricane Katrina.” Provided to 

Committee; fi led as Bates no. DHS-INFP-0001-0000672.

76 FEMA, Action Request Form, Sept. 1, 2005. Provided to Committee. 

77 Fonash interview, Jan. 27, 2006, p. 114.

78 Th omas Falvey, e-mail to Peter Fonash, Sept. 1, 2005, 2:25 p.m. Provided to Committee; fi led as Bates nos. DHSINFP-0002-0000026 through 0000027.

79 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 7-9, 23-25.

80 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 19-23.
Chapter 18

300

81 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 28, 129.

82 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, p. 49.

83 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 24, 53-54.

84 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 96, 99, 103-04. 

85 Committee staff interview of James Attaway, Telecommunications Specialist, Mobile Emeregency Response System, 

Region VI, FEMA, conducted on Jan. 13, 2006, transcript p. 27; Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 56-57. 

86 Attaway interview, Jan. 13, 2006, pp. 9, 12-13; Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, p. 60. 

87 Attaway interview, Jan. 13, 2006, p. 29. 

88 Attaway interview, Jan. 13, 2006, pp. 28-29.

89 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 52-53.

90 Attaway interview, Jan. 13, 2006, pp. 19, 79; Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 53-54.

91 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, p. 59.

92 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, p. 59. 

93 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 59, 70. 

94 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, p. 70.

95 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 95-96.

96 Committee staff interview of Sandy Coachman, Federal Coordinating Offi cer, Region VI, FEMA, conducted on Nov. 

16, 2005, transcript pp. 16-18.

97 Coachman interview, Nov. 16, 2005, pp. 16-18.

98 Coachman interview, Nov. 16, 2005, p. 18.

99 Milani interview, Jan. 12, 2006, pp. 78-79.

100 Testimony of Mayor C. Ray Nagin, City of New Orleans, LA, before the U.S. Senate, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Aff airs, hearing on Managing the Crisis and Evacuating New Orleans, Feb. 1, 2006.

101 Beeman interview, Jan. 20, 2006, p. 85.

102 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, p. 194.

103 Fonash interview, Jan. 27, 2006, p. 152.

104 Walt Gorman, Vice President, Globalstar, e-mail to Rob Strayer, Senate Committee staff member, Mar. 8, 2006, 

1:23 p.m.

105 U.S. House, Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina, A 

Failure of Initiative. Washington: Government Printing Offi ce, 2006, pp. 172-173 [hereinaft er U.S. House, A Failure of 

Initiative].

106 Col. Dowden Interview, Nov. 11, 2005, p. 195.

107 U.S. House, A Failure of Initiative, p. 172; Testimony of Robert R. Latham, Jr., Executive Director, Mississippi Emergency Management Agency (MEMA), before the U.S. House, Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation 

for and Response to Hurricane Katrina, hearing on Hurricane Katrina: Preparedness and Response by the State of Mississippi, Dec. 7, 2005. 

108 U.S. House, A Failure of Initiative, p. 173; Latham, House Select Committee hearing, Dec. 7, 2005; Committee staff 

interview of William Brown, Operations Chief, MEMA, conducted on Jan. 26, 2006.

109 Written Statement of Robert R. Latham Jr., Executive Director, MEMA, for the U.S. House, Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina, hearing on Hurricane Katrina: Preparedness and Response by the State of Mississippi, Dec. 7, 2005, pp. 3-4.

110 U.S. House, A Failure of Initiative, p. 172; Committee staff interview of Michael Brown, former Director, FEMA, 

conducted on Jan. 26, 2006, pp. 16-17.

111 Testimony of David Boyd, Director, SAFECOM, Offi ce of Interoperability and Compatibility, U.S. Department of 

Homeland Security, before the U.S. House, Committee on Homeland Security, Subcommittee on Emergency Preparedness, Science and Technology, hearing on Ensuring Operability During Catastrophic Events, Oct. 26, 2005.

112 Louisiana Totally Interoperable Environment Strategic Plan (LATIE), Executive Summary, p. 3. Provided to Committee.

113 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, pp. 11-12. 

114 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, p. 15.

115 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, pp. 12-13.

116 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, p. 13 
Communication Voids

301

117 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, pp. 32-34.

118 Lt. Col. Oxley and Lt. Col. Booth interview, Dec. 9, 2005, pp. 48, 51, 54.

119 Written Statement of Dowden, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 3.

120 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, p. 41.

121 Written Statement of Dowden, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 3.

122 Written Statement of Dowden, Senate Committee hearing, Feb. 6, 2006, p. 2.

123 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, p. 211.

124 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, p. 49.

125 Dowden interview, Nov. 11, 2005, p. 201.

126 Booth interview, Dec. 9, 2005, p. 68.