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ARMY HISTORICAL SERIES

 

Getting the Message Through

A Branch History of the U.S. ArmySignal Corps 

 

*by*           *Rebecca Robbins Raines*

CENTER OF MILITARY HISTORY          UNITED STATES ARMY          WASHINGTON, D.C., 1996

**Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data**

Raines, Rebecca Robbins, 1952 - ......Getting the message through:                 a branch history of the U.S. Army Signal Corps/ by Rebecca Robbins                 Raines............ p. cm. - (Army history                 series)......Includes bibliographical references                 and index.......1. United States. Army-Communication                 systems-History              I. Title II. Series.              UG573.R35 1996
358'.24'0973-dc20
95-2393                CIP

CMH Pub 30-17-1

Army Historical SeriesJeffrey J. Clarke, General Editor

***Advisory Committee***          (As of October 1995)

**John W. Shy**                  University of Michigan

**Ira D. Gruber**                  Rice University

 

**Col. Evertt L. Roper, Jr.**                  U.S. Army War College

 

**D. Clayton James**                  Virginia Military Institute

 

**Carlo W. D'Este**                  New Seabury, Mass.

 

**Michael J. Kurtz**                  National Archives and Records Administration

 

**Brig. Gen. Fletcher M. Lankin, Jr.**                  U.S. Military Academy

 

**Carol A. Reardon**                  Pennsylvania State University

 

**Joseph T. Glatthaar**                  University of Houston

 

**Brig. Gen. David H. Ohle**                  U.S. Army Command and General Staff College

 

**Rose L. Greaves**                  University of Kansas

 

**Maj. Gen. Joe N. Ballard**                  U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command

 

**Darlene Fuller-Farrell**                  Office of the Director of Information Systems for Command, Control,                   Communications, and Computers

 

*U.S. Army Center of Military History*          Brig. Gen. John W. Mountcastle, Chief of Military History
Chief HistorianJeffrey J. ClarkeChief, Field Programs and Historical Services                 Division John T. GreenwoodEditor in ChiefJohn W. Elsberg
**v**

Contents

 
...**FOREWORD****vii**...**THE AUTHOR****viii**...**PREFACE****ix*****Chapter******Page***..**.****I. THE               BIRTH OF THE SIGNAL CORPS****3**..........*Early               Military Signaling*3..........*Albert               J. Myer-The Father of the Signal Corps*5..........*The               Civil War-Organization and Training*8..........*Signal               Equipment and Methods*13..........*Wartime               Operations*23..........*The               Confederate Signal Corps*29..........*The               Signal Corps Survives Its Baptism of Fire*30.....**.****II. WEATHERING               THE POSTWAR YEARS****41**..........*The               War Clouds Lift*41..........*The               Signal Corps Becomes the Weather Service***44..........*The               Stormy Years*55..........*Military               Signals Weather the Storm*64..........*A               Change in the Weather*69......**III. FROM               THE TROPICS TO THE ARCTIC****81**..........*Organization,               Training, and Operations, 1891-1898*81..........*The               War with Spain*88..........*Postwar               Operations*98..........*Organization               and Training, 1899-1903*103..........*New               Frontiers: Alaska and the Dawn of the Electrical Age*105..........*The               Roots of Change*109......**IV. THE               SIGNAL CORPS TAKES TO THE AIR****119**..........*Organization,               Operations, and Training, 1904-1907*119..........*Upheavals               at Home and Abroad*124..........*The               Signal Corps Gets the Wright Stuff*127..........*Radio-The               Wave of the Future*136..........*Organization,               Operations, and Training, 1908-1914*140..........*The               Signal Corps Spreads Its Wings*145..........*Bordering               on War*146......**V. WORLD               WAR I****165**..........*Trouble               in the Air*165..........*"Over               Here": Mobilization and Training*168.........*"Over               There": Organization and Training*175.........*"Over               the Top": Signalmen in Battle*179.........*The               Signal Corps Loses Its Wings*191.........*The               Signal Corps Comes of Age*200......**VI. BETWEEN THE WORLD               WARS****217**..........*Organization,               Operations, and Training, 1919-1928*217..........*Research               and Development*229..........*Organization,               Operations, and Training, 1929-1939*233..........*The Road               to War*240......**VII. WORLD WAR II:               ESTABLISHING THE CIRCUITS OF VICTORY****255**..........*The Search               for Manpower and Brainpower*255..........*Marshall               Reshapes the War Department*260..........*The Worldwide               Network*262..........*Signal Security               and Intelligence*263..........*Photography:               Shooting the War*267..........*Equipment:               Research, Development, and Supply*273..........*The Signal               Corps' Contribution*280......**VIII. WORLD WAR II:               THEATERS OF WAR****287**..........*Defending               the Hemisphere, December 1941-June 1943*287..........*Signal Support               for the Pacific Theater, 1941-1943*289..........*Passing               the Test in North Africa and Italy*292..........*Signal Soldiers               in Europe: D-Day and After*297..........*The Asiatic               and Pacific Theaters, 1943-1945*304......**IX. THE COLD WAR,               KOREA, AND THE COSMOS****317**..........*Organization,               Training, and Operations, 1946-1950*317..........*The Korean               War*321..........*Signals               in Space*329..........*From Signals               to Communications-Electronics*333..........*Force Reductions,               Readiness, and the Red Scare*341..........*Organization,               Training, and Operations, 1960-1964***345..........*From Cold               War to Hot*348......**X. THE VIETNAM CONFLICT****359**..........*The Origins               of American Involvement*359..........*Signal Operations               in an Expanding Conflict, 1965-1967*363..........*The Tet               Offensive and the Quest for Peace*376..........*Signal Operations               in a Contracting Conflict, 1969-1975*380..........*The Communicators'               War*383......**XI. SIGNALING AHEAD****391**..........*Post-Vietnam               Reorganization*391..........*The Signal               Corps and the AirLand Battle*393..........*The Information               Mission Area*398..........*New Waves               in Communications Technology*400..........*Signals               in the Sand: The Desert War with Iraq*402..........*Looking               Back to the Future*408
Appendixes
*A. Chief Signal Officers and               Their Successors*415*B. Chiefs of Signal*419
 
**BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE****421****GLOSSARY****435**
Figures
1. Flag Positions of Myer's Original               Two-Element Code72. Regulation Signal Equipment15
Table
1. General Service Code14
Maps
1. Korea, 19533232. Indochina, 1968364
Illustrations
Signal Corps Regimental Insignia.........................................................................*Frontispiece*Albert J. Myer in 18545Signal Corps Camp of Instruction10Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton12Beardslee Telegraph19The Signal Telegraph Train21Col. William J. L. Nicodemus22Col. Benjamin J. Fisher22Chief Signal Officer Myer during               the Peninsula Campaign24General Gouverneur K. Warren               at the Signal Station on Little Round Top26Brig. Gen. Edward Porter Alexander28Maj. William Norris28Brig. Gen. Albert J. Myer43War Department Weather Map,               187548Cleveland Abbe50Map of U.S. Military Telegraph               Lines, 188553Brig. Gen. William B. Hazen57Members of the Greely Arctic               Expedition59Signal Station at Barrow Point,               Alaska60Brig. Gen. Adolphus W. Greely62U.S. Signal Service Heliograph67Signal Corps Balloon at the               World's Columbian Exposition, 189385Field Telephone Station No.               4 Near San Juan Hill91White House Communications Center               During the War With Spain92Signal Corps Balloon at San               Juan Ford94Signal Corps at Work During               the Battle of Manila97Signal Party on the Way to               Malolos, Philippines101Signal Corps Soldiers in China               During the Boxer Rebellion102Capt. William ("Billy")               Mitchell in Alaska107Telegraph Repair Work at Fort               Gibbon, Alaska109Interior of Fort Gibbon Telegraph               Office109Brig. Gen. James Allen123Signal Corps Telegraph Office,               San Francisco, 1906125Dirigible at Fort Myer, Virginia,               1908129Orville Wright Flies Over Fort               Myer, 1908130Brig. Ben. George P. Scriven134Colonel Squier Inspects Radio               Equipment137Col. Samuel Reber146Signal Corps Airplane at Dublán,               Mexico148Radio Tractor in Mexico, 1916150Signal Corps Camp Telephone               Office in Dublán151Capt. Henry H. ("Hap")               Arnold167Maj. Gen. George O. Squier169"Hello Girls" in               France171Brig. Gen. Edgar Russel176Telegraph Operating Room at               Chaumont, France177Signal Communications at the               Front181Testing a Telephone Line Left               Behind by the Germans183Black Signal Soldiers String               Wire in No Man's Land185Signal corps Photographer Operates               a Camouflaged Camera189Brig. Gen Benjamin D. Foulois               and General John J. Pershing192De Haviland Airplanes With               Liberty Engines195Col. Edward A. Deeds198Code Class at Camp Alfred Vail, New Jersey220Signal Students Take a Break From Their Classes221Signal Corps Soldier Demonstrates the Employment of               Pigeons223Mobile Pigeon Loft223Maj. Gen. Charles McK. Saltzman228Maj. Gen. George S. Gibbs228SCR-268234SCR-270-B234SCR-271 Radar Station in Panama234Maj. Gen. Irving J. Carr237Maj. Gen. James B. Allison237Maj. Gen. Joseph O. Mauborgne238William F. Friedman and the Staff of the Signal Intelligence               Service in the 1930s239Maj. Gen. Dawson Olmstead242David Sarnoff of RCA and Capt. Frank E. Stoner Inspect               Radio Transmitters at Station WAR243Officer Candidates at Fort Monmouth March to Class257WACs Operate a Radio-Telephoto Transmitter259Maj. Gen. Harry C. Ingles261German Troops Use the Enigma in the Field265Comanche Code-Talkers267The Signal Corps Photographic Center269Making a Signal Corps Training Film270Signal Corps Photographic Technician in Full Regalia272Signal Corps Cameramen During the Invasion of New               Guinea273The Walkie-Talkie278Radioman with Handie-Talkie278A Typical Problem Along the Alaska Highway Telephone               Line289Inside the Malinta Tunnel291Repairing Telephone Lines in Tunisia294SCR-584 in Italy296Operating the SCR-584297Photograph Taken by Capt. Herman V. Wall During D-Day               Invasion on OMAHA Beach300*Message Center, 101st Airborne Division*303Signal Soldiers Carry Wire Reels Into the Jungle of               New Georgia307GI Checks Dials in the Power Room Aboard the *Apache*308293d Joint Assault Signal Company on Luzon309Signal Corps Lineman String Wire in Postwar Japan319Maj. Gen. Spencer B. Akin320Signalmen in Korea Use a Water Buffalo To Stretch               Wire Between Poles325Securing Field Wire Near the Naktong River326Signal Soldier Washes Negatives in an Icy Korean Mountain               Stream328Maj. Gen. George I. Back329SCR-271 Radar Set Used During Project Diana331Signal Corps Engineering Laboratory's Astrophysics               Observatory332The Hexagon Research and Development Center335Comparison of the SCR-300 and AN/PRC-6 Radios336Cameras and Transmitting Van of the Signal Corps Mobile               Television Section340Students Receive Television Instruction340Maj. Gen. Kirke B. Lawton Greets Secretary of the               Army Robert T. Stevens343Lt. Gen. James D. O'Connell344Maj. Gen. Ralph T. Nelson344Maj. Gen. Earle F. Cook347Maj. Gen. David P. Gibbs347Billboard Antennas of the BACKPORCH System361AN/PRC-25 Radio366Heliborne Command Post367Aerial View of the Communications Complex at Phu Lam369Laying Cable on Vung Chau Mountain372Technician Checks Equipment at the Long Binh IWCS site374Signal Site on Black Virgin Mountain 379Vietnamization-American Soldier Listens in to a Class in Radio Code381Signal Towers at Fort Gordon, Georgia392Interior View of Shelter Housing Mobile Subscriber Equipment395Lt. Gen. Emmett Paige, Jr.399Fort Huachuca, Arizona403Soldier Operates Tactical Facsimile Machine404Mobile Subscriber Equipment in the Desert405Satellite Antenna Dish and Camouflaged Vans405
Illustrations courtesy of the following sources: *Frontispiece,*pp.           5, 392, U.S. Army Signal Center and Fort Gordon; pp. 10, 12, 24, 28           *(left),*43, 57, 60, 62, 94, 97, 101, 102, 107, 109 *(top/bottom),*123, 125, 129, 130, 134, 146, 148, 151, 167, 169, 171, 176, 177,           181, 183, 185, 189, 192, 195, 221, 223 *(bottom),*228 *(left),*234 *(top),*237 *(left/right),*238, 242, 243, 257, 259,           261, 267, 269, 270, 272, 273, 278*(top/bottom)*, 291, 294, 296,           297, 300, 307, 309, 319, 320, 325, 326, 328, 329, 331, 336, 340 *(top/bottom)*,           343, 344 *(left/right),*347*(left/right),*361, 369, 372*(top left/top right/bottom)*, 374, 379 *(top/bottom),*381*,*National Archives; p. 19, U.S. Army Signal Corps Museum; pp. 21,           22*(left),*Brown, *The Signal Corps in the War of the Rebellion*;           p. 22 *(right), Photographic History of the Civil War*, vol. 8;           p. 26, *Battles and Leaders of the Civil War,*vol. 3*,*pt.           1; p. 28*(right),*Valentine Museum; p. 48*, Annual Report of           the Chief Signal Officer*, 1875; p. 50, National Oceanic and Atmospheric           Administration; p. 53, *Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer*,           1885; pp. 59, 137, 150, U.S.**Army Military History Institute;           p. 67,*Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer*, 1888; p. 85,**Chicago Public Library; pp. 92, 198, 228 *(right),*Library           of Congress; p. 91,*Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer*,           1899; pp. 220, 223*(top)*, 332, 335, 366, U.S. Army Communications-Electronics           Command; pp. 234 *(bottom left/bottom right)*, 289, U.S.**Army           Center of Military History; pp. 239, 265, U.S. Army Intelligence and           Security Command; p. 303, Army Art Collection; pp. 308, 403, U.S. Army           Information Systems Command; p. 367, U.S. Army Aviation Museum; pp.           395, 405 *(top),*GTE; p. 399, U.S. Army Visual Information Center;           and pp. 404, 405 *(bottom),*XVIII Airborne Corps.

Foreword

This book traces the history of the U.S. Army Signal Corps from its           beginnings on the eve of the American Civil War through its participation           in the Persian Gulf conflict during the early 1990s. Over the course           of its 135 years of existence, the Signal Corps has often been at the           forefront of the revolutionary changes that have taken place in communications           technology. It contributed significantly, for example, to the development           of radar and the transistor. In today's information age, the Signal           Corps continues its tradition of leadership and innovation on the digitized           battlefields of the twenty-first century.

While accounts of the branch's service during the Civil War, World           War II, and Vietnam have been published, little has been written about           the rest of the Signal Corps' accomplishments. This book fills out the           picture. It shows today's signal soldiers where their branch has been           and points the way to where it is going. The reader, whether military           or civilian, can follow the growth and development of one of the Army's           most sophisticated technical branches. By telling the Signal Corps'           story in a comprehensive manner, this volume makes a significant contribution           to the history of the Army.

 

DOUGLAS D. BUCHHOLZ                Major General, USA                Chief of Signal

JOHN W. MOUNTCASTLE                  Brigadier General, USA                  Chief of Military History

Washington, D.C.                13 November 1995

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**vii**

The Author

Rebecca Robbins Raines was born in Belfast, Maine, and grew up in nearby           Searsport. She graduated from the University of Maine with a B.A. degree           in history in 1974. From 1974 to 1977 she was employed by the Maine           State Archives. She joined the Center of Military History in 1977 as           a historian in the Organizational History Branch. In 1981 she received           her M.A. degree in American history from Georgetown University. Mrs.           Raines is the author of several articles on the history of the U.S.           Army Signal Corps.

 

 

 

 

 

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**viii**

Preface

This volume was originally conceived as part of a larger series of           popular histories about each branch of the Army. To produce this study           in a relatively short time, I confined the research largely to published           primary and secondary sources. The focus is upon an institutional, rather           than an operational or organizational, history of the Signal Corps.           While the coverage is by no means comprehensive, it is designed to provide           an overview of the many and varied aspects of the Signal Corps' work           during its first 130 years. These range from operating a national weather           service from 1870 to 1891 to becoming responsible in the 1980s for the           Army's automation program. I emphasized the branch's history up to approximately           1985 and have not dealt with more recent events at length. Because much           of the material on contemporary operations, such as URGENT FURY in Grenada           and JUST CAUSE in Panama, remains classified, published accounts provide           only a cursory overview Operations DESERT SHIELD and DESERT STORM took           place just as the manuscript was being finished, and I included some           coverage of the Signal Corps' participation in the Persian Gulf conflict.           Only the passage of time and the declassification of records will enable           historians to analyze fully these most recent episodes in the Corps'           history and place them in proper perspective.

The intended audience for this volume is the men and women serving           in the Signal Corps, particularly students attending the Signal School           at Fort Gordon, Georgia. I trust that it will help to instill in them           an appreciation of the Signal Corps' rich heritage. I also hope that           individuals interested in military history in general and military communications           in particular will find the volume useful. The preparation of this volume           would not have been possible without the support of the successive chiefs           of military history, Maj. Gen. William A. Stofft, Brig. Gen. Harold           W. Nelson, and Brig. Gen. John W. Mountcastle. The Center's chief historians,           Morris J. MacGregor and his successor, Dr. Jeffrey J. Clarke, helped           guide the manuscript to its completion. Lt. Col. Charles R. Shrader,           while serving as chief of the Historical Services Division, originally           proposed the branch history series and launched this volume.

Writing is a solitary task, but a writer never works alone. Any volume           is a cooperative effort, and I owe many thanks to the people who have           assisted me in preparing this book. From its inception, generous assistance           for this project has been provided by the U.S. Army Signal Center and           Fort Gordon, Georgia. My sincere thanks are owed to the following chiefs           of signal who served during the course of this undertaking: Maj. Gen.           Thurman D. Rodgers, Maj. Gen. Bruce R. Harris, Maj. Gen. Leo M. Childs,           Maj. Gen. Peter A. Kind, Maj. Gen. Robert E. Gray, and Maj. Gen. Douglas           D. Buchholz. The command historian at Fort Gordon, Dr. Carol

**ix**

E. Stokes, and her former assistant, Dr. Kathy R. Coker, helped me           tremendously. Working with them was a pleasure.

A historian's job would be impossible without librarians, archivists,           reference persons, and other invaluable colleagues. Over the years the           Center's librarians and their aides have performed yeoman service under           often less than ideal conditions. These dedicated individuals include           Carol I. Anderson, Esther Howard, James B. Knight, and Mary L. Sawyer.           I particularly appreciate their patience with me regarding overdue interlibrary           loan books. Hannah M. Zeidlik and the members of the Historical Resources           Branch-especially Geraldine K. Harcarik-graciously provided copies of           material from the Center's archival collections. The following individuals           who reviewed the manuscript at various stages provided valuable guidance           and many helpful comments: Dr. Graham A. Cosmas, Dr. Albert E. Cowdrey,           Romana Danysh, Col. C. Reid Franks, Dr. Mary C. Gillett, Dr. Vincent           C. Jones, Morris J. MacGregor, Janice E. McKenney, Lt. Col. Robert E.           Morris, Col. Robert H. Sholly, and John B. Wilson. In addition, many           of my colleagues at the Center, past and present, provided advice and           encouragement along the way as well as the benefits of their own extensive           knowledge. In particularly wish to mention Walter H. Bradford, Dr. Norman           M. Cary, Terrence J. Gough, Dr. William M. Hammond, Mary L. Haynes,           Dr. Charles E. Kirkpatrick, Dr. Edgar F. Raines, Jr., and Dr. Robert K.           Wright, Jr.

I also wish to acknowledge the following individuals outside the Center           who generously donated their time to read the manuscript and furnish           excellent commentary: Col. Alexander W Cameron, Lt. Gen. Thomas M. Rienzi,           U.S. Army (Ret.), and Dr. John Y. Simon.

While writing about information systems, I was also learning how to           use them as the Center made the transition to the computer age. I want           to thank Sherell Fersner who typed the initial drafts of the first chapter           in the days before each historian received a personal computer. I also           extend a hearty round of applause to Lt. Col. Adrian G. Traas, U.S.           Army (Ret.), for his technical assistance in directing the electrons           along the correct paths.

I owe a huge debt of gratitude to the many individuals at other agencies           and institutions for their assistance-Margaret Novinger and the staff           of the Conrad Technical Library, Fort Gordon, Georgia; Theodore F. Wise           of the U.S. Army Signal Corps and Fort Gordon Museum; Glenn Swan and           colleagues in the Office, Chief of Signal; Linda Means in the Public           Affairs Office, Fort Gordon; John Slonaker, Dennis Vetock, and Louise           Amold-Friend of the Historical Reference Branch, U.S. Army Military           History Institute (MHI), who kindly let me borrow most of their library,           or so it seemed; Dr. Richard Sommers of the Archives Branch, MHI; and           Michael Winey and Randy Hackenburg of the Special Collections Branch,           MHI. Richard L. Boylan and Wilbert B. Mahoney of the National Archives           and Records Administration provided much-needed guidance in locating           Signal Corps records, and the staff of the Still Picture Branch assisted           geatly in securing illustrations for the volume. Thanks are also due           Dr. Richard B. Bingham, command historian of the U.S. Army Communications-Electronics           Command at Fort

**x**

Monmouth, New Jersey; Dr. John P. Finnegan of the U.S. Army Intelligence           and Security Command; David W. Gaddy of the National Security Agency;           Don E. MacLeod, Elaine Pospishil, and Danny M. Johnson, who have served           successively as command historian of the U.S. Army Information Systems           Command at Fort Huachuca, Arizona; and the staffs of the Prints and           Photographs Division of the Library of Congress and the Special Collections           Division of the United States Military Academy Library.

My thanks are also extended to the following individuals who assisted           me in my search for illustrations: Regina Burns of the U.S. Army Aviation           Museum at Fort Rucker, Alabama; Mark Dunn of the history office at Fort           Gordon; Robert Hansen of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric           Administration, Department of Commerce; Cynthia Hayden, Command Historian,           XVIII Airborne Corps and Fort Bragg; Earle M. Levine of GTE; and Barbara           Tuttle of the Fort Huachuca Museum.

I reserve a very special and heartfelt thank-you to Dr. Paul J. Scheips,           formerly of the Signal Corps Historical Division and for many years           a treasured colleague at the Center. Without his guidance, support,           and generosity, I could never have attempted to write this volume. From           my earliest days at the Center he helped me learn about the Signal Corps           and spurred my interest in its history. The Signal Corps owes an enormous           debt to this gentleman and scholar, whose dissertation on the first           chief signal officer, Albert J. Myer, is an indispensable resource.           His many published works relating to Signal Corps history make him the           dean of Signal Corps historians.

I am especially grateful for the expert assistance provided by my editor,           Susan Carroll. Her patience, professionalism, and good humor were geatly           appreciated. I am also indebted to the Center's production staff for           its skill and expertise: John W Elsberg Catherine A. Heerin, Diane Sedore           Arms, Diane Donovan, Arthur S. Hardyman, Beth MacKenzie, Sherry L. Dowdy,           and Howell C. Brewer, Jr.

Words alone cannot convey the thanks I owe to my family. First, my           parents, Carl and Evelyn Robbins, who encouraged my interest in history           from an early age. Throughout the course of this project, my husband           Ed and son Eddie showed enormous patience and provided much-needed support.           Ed's love and enthusiasm for military history, not to mention his voluminous           library, helped me over many rough spots.

If I have overlooked anyone, it was not intentional. I am not organized           enough to have kept all the notes I needed to write this essay, as anyone           who has ever seen my desk can testify. Finally, despite the best efforts           of the individuals cited above, any errors that remain in the text are           my sole responsibility.

 

Washington, D.C.
REBECCA ROBBINS RAINES13 November 1995 
 

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