Assessment of Undiscovered Technically Recoverable 

Conventional Petroleum Resources of Northern Afghanistan 

By T.R. Klett, G.F. Ulmishek, C.J. Wandrey, Warren F. Agena, and the U.S. Geological 

Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industry Joint Oil and Gas Resource 

Assessment Team 

Geographic Information Systems, spatial data management, and petroleum-generation 

modeling by Douglas Steinshouer

The U.S. Geological Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industry Joint Oil and Gas Resource 

Assessment Team includes T.R. Klett1 (Team Leader; tklett@usgs.gov), Abdulla Amirzada2, Amir Selab2, 

Salam Abdul Muty2, Haidari Gulam Nakshband2, Moeen Gul Wardak2, Abdul Hosine2, Aminulah2, Abdul 

Wahab2

, Gregory F. Ulmishek1, C.J. Wandrey1 (Project Chief, cwandrey@usgs.gov), Warren F. Agena1, David 

J. Taylor1, Ronald Hill1, Michael Pribil1, J. David King1, Mark J. Pawlewicz1, Charles E. Barker1, Thomas S. 

Ahlbrandt1

, Ronald R. Charpentier1, Richard M. Pollastro1, Christopher J. Schenk1

1. U.S. Geological Survey, Box 25046, Denver Federal Center, MS 939, Denver, CO 80225 U.S.A. 

2. Oil and Gas Affairs, Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industry, Great Masaoud Road, Kabul, Afghanistan. 

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006-1253 

U. S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey 

i
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

P. Patrick Leahy, Acting Director 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for 

descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government. 

Published in the Central Region, Denver, Colorado 

Manuscript approved for publication 

ii
Contents 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY - USGS Fact Sheet 2006-3031

ASSESSMENT UNIT MAP (Figure 11.)

ASSESSMENT RESULT (Table1.) 

Contents ........................................................................................................................................iii 

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................... vii 

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 1 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.................................................................................................................... 2 

TRANSLITERATION ......................................................................................................................... 2 

REGIONAL GEOLOGY....................................................................................................................... 3 

Basin History ............................................................................................................................... 5 

Principal Present-Day Structural Elements ................................................................................. 9 

Amu Darya Basin................................................................................................................... 10 

North Afghan High................................................................................................................. 12 

Repetek zone......................................................................................................................... 13 

Kushka depression and Kushka zone .................................................................................... 14 

Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan range....................................................................................... 14 

Harrirud fault zone................................................................................................................. 15 

Southwest Gissar Meganticline and Spur............................................................................. 15 

Alburz-Marmul fault............................................................................................................... 16 

Afghan-Tajik Basin ................................................................................................................ 16 

Tectonic Development............................................................................................................... 21 

Paleozoic............................................................................................................................... 22 

Triassic.................................................................................................................................. 23 

iii
Jurassic................................................................................................................................. 24 

Cretaceous ............................................................................................................................ 40 

Paleogene ............................................................................................................................. 45 

Neogene................................................................................................................................ 53 

Quaternary............................................................................................................................. 58 

Stratigraphy............................................................................................................................... 59 

TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEMS...................................................................................................... 93 

Geochemistry ........................................................................................................................ 96 

AMU DARYA BASIN................................................................................................................ 108 

Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous Total Petroleum System (115401)........................................ 108 

Discovery History:............................................................................................................................108

Petroleum Occurrence: ..................................................................................................................112 

Source Rocks: ..................................................................................................................................118 

Maturation: .......................................................................................................................................122 

Reservoir Rocks: ..............................................................................................................................124 

Traps: .................................................................................................................................................126 

Seals: .................................................................................................................................................128 

Assessment Units: ...........................................................................................................................129 

KALAIMOR-KAISAR BASIN..................................................................................................... 133 

Kalaimor-Kaisar Jurassic Total Petroleum System (115402) ................................................... 133 

Discovery History:............................................................................................................................133

Petroleum Occurrence: ..................................................................................................................134 

iv
Source Rocks: ..................................................................................................................................134 

Maturation: .......................................................................................................................................135 

Reservoir Rocks: ..............................................................................................................................135 

Traps: .................................................................................................................................................136 

Seals: .................................................................................................................................................136 

Assessment Units: ...........................................................................................................................136 

NORTH AFGHAN HIGH ............................................................................................................ 137 

AFGHAN-TAJIK BASIN ........................................................................................................... 138 

Afghan-Tajik Jurassic Total Petroleum System (115601)......................................................... 140 

Discovery History:............................................................................................................................140

Petroleum Occurrence: ..................................................................................................................140 

Source Rocks: ..................................................................................................................................141 

Maturation: .......................................................................................................................................142 

Reservoir Rocks: ..............................................................................................................................143 

Traps: .................................................................................................................................................144 

Seals: .................................................................................................................................................144 

Assessment Units: ...........................................................................................................................144 

Afghan-Tajik Paleogene Total Petroleum System (115602) ..................................................... 147 

Discovery History:............................................................................................................................147

Petroleum Occurrence: ..................................................................................................................147 

Source Rocks: ..................................................................................................................................147 

Maturation: .......................................................................................................................................149 

v
Reservoir Rocks: ..............................................................................................................................150 

Traps: .................................................................................................................................................151 

Seals: .................................................................................................................................................152 

Assessment Units: ...........................................................................................................................152 

Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 157 

References Cited......................................................................................................................... 158 

List of tables ................................................................................................................................ 189 

List of figures ............................................................................................................................... 190 

Appendices 

 1. Assessment input forms 

 2. Assessment results reports 

 3. Description of assessment methodology.....................................................203 

 4. One page geologic summaries.................................................................212 

 5. Seismic survey report...........................................................................235 

vi
ABSTRACT 

Using a geology-based assessment methodology, the U.S. Geological Survey–Afghanistan 

Ministry of Mines and Industry Joint Oil and Gas Resource Assessment Team estimated mean 

volumes of undiscovered petroleum in northern Afghanistan; the resulting estimates are 1.6 billion 

barrels (0.2 billion metric tons) of crude oil, 16 trillion cubic feet (0.4 trillion cubic meters) of 

natural gas, and 0.5 billion barrels (0.8 billion metric tons) of natural gas liquids. Most of the 

undiscovered crude oil is in the Afghan-Tajik Basin and most of the undiscovered natural gas is in 

the Amu Darya Basin. 

Four total petroleum systems were identified, and these were subdivided into eight assessment 

units for the purpose of this resource assessment. The area with the greatest potential for 

undiscovered natural gas accumulations is in Upper Jurassic carbonate and reef reservoirs 

beneath an impermeable salt layer in relatively unexplored parts of northern Afghanistan. The 

Afghan-Tajik Basin has the greatest potential for undiscovered crude oil accumulations, and 

these are potentially in Cretaceous to Paleogene carbonate reservoir rocks associated with 

thrust faulting and folding. 

vii
INTRODUCTION 

Crude oil, natural gas, and natural gas liquids/condensate (collectively called 

“petroleum”) resources are important for the redevelopment of Afghanistan’s 

infrastructure. One of the results of more than two decades of strife in Afghanistan is a 

shortage or absence of energy required to improve living conditions. Food, clothing, 

shelter, heat, sanitation, and industry, in general, depend on the availability of energy. 

The presence of petroleum resources has long been known in Afghanistan but these 

resources were exploited only to a limited extent. Improved living and economic 

conditions in Afghanistan require increasing the availability of energy, particularly by 

exploitation of Afghanistan’s petroleum resources. 

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) cooperated with the Afghanistan Ministry of Mines 

and Industry to assess the potentially undiscovered technically recoverable conventional 

petroleum resources of Afghanistan. Funding for this effort was provided by the U.S. 

Trade and Development Agency. 

The assessment is based on the geologic elements of a total petroleum system, which 

include (1) source-rock presence, maturation, petroleum generation, and migration; (2) 

distribution and quality of reservoir rocks; and (3) character of traps and time of formation 

with respect to petroleum migration. Data from detailed studies of geochemistry, 

petroleum geology, geophysics, and tectonics combined with historical exploration and 

1
production analyses were used to aid in the estimation of the number and sizes of 

undiscovered petroleum accumulations. 

Much of the petroleum resource potential of Afghanistan and all of the known crude oil 

and natural gas reserves are in northern Afghanistan, located in parts of two petroliferous 

geologic basins — the Amu Darya Basin to the west and the Afghan-Tajik Basin to the 

east (fig. 1). In addition to previous exploration, this study shows that potential still exists 

for additional crude oil and natural gas discoveries in northern Afghanistan. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The authors wish to acknowledge the constructive technical reviews by Christopher 

Schenk and Vito Nuccio, editorial reviews by Lorna Carter, and graphical assistance by 

Phuong Le, L. Steve Cazenave, and Christa Lopez. The authors are grateful to all of the 

employees at the Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industry for their advice, information, 

data, rock and petroleum samples, logistical support, laboratory and facility tours, and 

sharing Afghan culture. 

TRANSLITERATION 

Most geographical and geological names for northern Afghanistan were transliterated 

directly from Dari to English by geologists with the Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and 

2
Industry and used in this report. Geographical and geological names for neighboring 

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan used in this report are transliterations from 

Russian. Some obvious discrepancies in the spelling of names among countries are 

observed in this report. For example, the word for pilgrim is spelled “Khoja” for 

Afghanistan, but spelled “Khodzha” for Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. 

REGIONAL GEOLOGY 

The Amu Darya and the Afghan-Tajik Basins are located in desert and semi-desert areas 

of Turkmenistan, southwest Uzbekistan, southeastern Tajikistan, and northern 

Afghanistan (fig. 1) (Ulmishek, 2004). The two basins encompass approximately 87,000 

square kilometers (34,000 square miles) in those portions that lie within Afghanistan. The 

Amu Darya Basin is west of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, and they are separated from one 

another by the southern subsurface extension of the Southwestern Gissar meganticline 

and spur. The Amu Darya and the Afghan-Tajik Basins occupy a narrow zone between 

the Amu Darya River to the north and west, the Alburz-Marmul fault, North Afghan High, 

and Bande Turkestan Range to the south. The east boundary is the Hindu Kush and 

Badakhshan. 

Northern Afghanistan has pre-Jurassic basement unconformably overlain by Jurassic to 

Paleogene oil- and gas-bearing terrigenous and carbonate rocks, which in turn are 

unconformably overlain by Neogene orogenic continental clastics (Kulakov, 1979; 

3
Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001). Many minor unconformities represent erosion during 

orogenies in adjacent folded regions (Kulakov, 1979). 

The Afghan-Tajik Basin and the Amu Darya Basin formed a single Mesozoic to Paleogene 

sedimentary basin that existed until Neogene time (Ulmishek, 2004). Collision of the Indian 

plate with the Eurasian plate at that time uplifted the southern portion of the basin and 

divided the northern portion into the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins. Pre-Neogene 

basin history and stratigraphy of the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins are similar, 

consisting of (1) Paleozoic to Triassic basement complex, (2) Jurassic to Paleogene 

sedimentary cover, and (3) Neogene to Holocene orogenic clastics (Orudzheva and 

Kornenko, 1991; Dastyar and others, 1990; VNIGNI, 2005a) (fig. 2). 

The basement in both basins comprises peneplaned fold structures composed of 

continental and oceanic blocks accreted during Late Paleozoic tectonism (Dastyar and 

others, 1990) and consist of intensely deformed and partially metamorphosed sedimentary 

rocks at depths of 4 to 16 kilometers (Kulakov, 1979; Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991). A 

Permian to Triassic transitional complex, up to 2,500 meters thick, overlies the prePermian section (Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991). Undifferentiated Permian and Triassic 

marine carbonate and clastic rocks that pass into redbeds fill grabens in the basement 

(Kulakov, 1979; Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991). 

4
The Jurassic to Paleogene sedimentary cover is divided into four intervals: (1) Lower to 

Middle Jurassic continental to paralic clastic rocks, (2) upper Middle to Upper Jurassic 

marine carbonate and evaporite rocks, (3) continental Neocomian clastic rocks and 

redbeds, and (4) Aptian to Paleogene marine carbonate and clastic rocks (Orudzheva and 

Kornenko, 1991). Clastic sediments become increasingly more continental derived during 

late Paleogene time (Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991). 

Neogene to Holocene orogenic clastics were deposited as a result of tectonic 

deformation related to the collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate, which 

began in latest Oligocene time (Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991; Ulmishek, 2004). 

Basin History 

The Afghan part of the Amu Darya and the Afghan-Tajik Basins is located on the extreme 

southeastern part of the Turan platform of the Eurasian plate, and is bounded on the south 

and southeast by the Harrirud fault system (Kulakov, 1979; Dastyar and others, 1990; VZG, 

2004). 

The evolution of the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins involved the movement of the 

Eurasia, Africa, and Indian continental plates (VNIGNI, 2005a). Rocks in these two basins 

record the tectonic history of the Tethys region (VNIGNI, 2005a). The major tectonic 

events are (1) late Carboniferous to Early Permian compression with the closing of the 

5
Paleotethys Ocean, (2) Late Permian to Triassic continental breakup with extensional 

rifting, (3) Late Triassic collision of Cimmerian blocks with Eurasia and associated 

deformation of the southern Eurasian margin, (4) Early Jurassic to beginning of the Middle 

Jurassic extension, (5) Late Jurassic(?) to Early Cretaceous formation of island arcs, 

passive margins, and post-rift sags resulting in marine transgression, (6) Late 

Cretaceous(?) to early Paleogene movement of micro continents in the Neotethys Ocean, 

and (7) Cenozoic compression resulting from the closing of the Neotethys Ocean and 

collision of continents and micro continents (VNIGNI, 2005a). Most of sedimentary basins 

along the Eurasian plate were formed over aulacogens, grabens, and triple junctions 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). The main basin-fill deposits include syn-rift, post-rift sag, and passive 

margin (VNIGNI, 2005a). The structural and stratigraphic development of the Amu Darya 

and the Afghan-Tajik Basins is summarized in Figure 2. 

Two major structures that influenced crude oil and natural gas occurrence developed in 

northern Afghanistan during Mesozoic and Cenozoic time; the Parapamiz-Bande 

Turkestan Range (a mountainous foldbelt), located in the southern and central parts of the 

northern Afghanistan; and the Murgab depression of the Amu Darya Basin, located in the 

northern part of the area (fig. 3) (Dastyar and others, 1990; VZG, 2004). The ParapamizBande Turkestan may have been a rift basin formed on the Eurasian plate behind a 

magmatic arc of the Hindu Kush and Parapamiz (Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001; Ulmishek, 

2004). A thick section of Permian and Triassic clastic, carbonate, and volcanic rocks, up 

to several kilometers thick, filled the rift basin, but was uplifted and deformed in Late 

6
Triassic time by Cimmerian orogenesis (Dastyar and others, 1990; Ulmishek, 2004). A 

stable passive margin developed over the area and the fold belt was subsequently 

peneplaned, subsided, and overlain by Jurassic to Paleogene rocks (Dastyar and others, 

1990; Ulmishek, 2004). 

The Murgab depression is part of the Amu Darya Basin and is presently subsiding as 

indicated by Neogene and Quaternary rocks unconformably overlying, with a sharp 

contact, older rocks with thicknesses are up to 2,000 meters (Kulakov, 1979). The Murgab 

depression subsided more than the Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan Range (Dastyar and 

others, 1990). The block structure of the Amu Darya Basin consists of a series of diagonal 

and east to west faults along which some parts of the basin have been uplifted and others 

subsided, including the Kalaimor-Kaisar Depression, Badkhyz-Karabil Uplift, North 

Karabil-Dauletabad Depression (northern Badkhyz depression), Maimana Step, and 

Uchadzhi High (Kulakov, 1979). Neogene to Holocene tectonism deformed much of the 

area, but with a pattern that generally follows pre-Jurassic structural grain (Ulmishek, 

2004). 

Almost all of the deformation in northern Afghanistan began in the Miocene with the 

collision of the Indian plate into the Eurasian plate (Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001). The 

collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate occurred in three phases, based on 

tectonic, structural, magmatic, and geochronologic data (Treloar and Izatt, 1993). The first 

phase involved suturing of the Kohistan-Ladakh-East Nuristan island arc to south Eurasia 

7
about 100 million years ago (Cretaceous) (Treloar and Izatt, 1993). The second phase 

involved the collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate about 55 million years ago 

(Paleogene) (Treloar and Izatt, 1993). The third phase was the collision of the Indian plate 

with the Turan plate (Afghan Block) during the Pliocene (Treloar and Izatt, 1993). 

The Afghan-Tajik Basin was deformed by the northward protrusion of the Pamir block 

beginning in late Oligocene time and continuing to present (Orudzheva and Kornenko, 

1991; Ulmishek, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005a). The Pamir block was translated northward by at 

least 100 kilometers relative to the Turan platform and rotated by at least 30 degrees as a 

result of rotation of the Indian Plate (Thomas and others, 1996). Compression and 

subhorizontal or gently plunging east to west shortening occurred and a series of 

anticlinoria and synclinoria, trending generally north to south, were produced that are 

underlain by thrust faults with the principal detachment surface along Upper Jurassic salt 

(Loziyev and others, 1984; Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991; Leith and Alvarez, 1985; Thomas 

and others, 1996; Ulmishek, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005a). Fault heaves increase in magnitude 

from south to north indicating counter-clockwise rotation (Thomas and others, 1996). 

Rotations increase in magnitude from west to east (Thomas and others, 1996). Crustal 

shortening ranges from 50 to 90 kilometers; 20 to 60 percent (fig. 4) (Thomas and others, 

1996; VNIGNI, 2005a). The thrusts flatten with the depth and continue into but not through 

the evaporite interval (VNIGNI, 2005a). The allochthonous slabs moved relative to the 

autochthon base on one or multiple surfaces (which converge to a common fault surface) 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). Subsalt Jurassic deposits do not participate in the thrusting and likely 

8
have platform-type structure similar to that of the southwestern Gissar spur (VNIGNI, 

2005a). Synclinoria were filled with thick orogenic sediments during upper Neogene and 

Quaternary time; up to 5,000 meters in the Afghan-Tajik Basin with decreasing thickness 

westward into the Amu Darya Basin (Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991; Ulmishek, 2004; 

VNIGNI, 2005a). The Alburz-Marmul strike-slip fault separates the Afghan-Tajik Basin 

from the North Afghan High to the south. Elongate north to south trending structures of 

the Afghan-Tajik Basin are truncated by the Alburz-Marmul fault, having vertical 

displacement of approximately 4 kilometers (Bratash and others, 1970; Ulmishek, 2004). 

The Alburz-Marmul fault has a Neogene to Holocene oblique strike-slip component 

(Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001) and elongate structures of the Afghan-Tajik Basin might 

have been deformed by dragging along the fault. 

The thrusting does not extend across the Southwest Gissar spur and meganticline into the 

Amu Darya Basin (Ulmishek, 2004). Only local uplift of blocks occurred in the Amu Darya 

Basin as a result of the collision (Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991). 

Principal Present-Day Structural Elements 

Only the southern margins of the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins occupy northern 

Afghanistan. The Amu Darya Basin deepens to the northwest into Turkmenistan, 

becoming a large structural depression surrounded by mountain ranges to the south and 

basement highs to the north (Ulmishek, 2004). The Afghan-Tajik Basin deepens northward 

9
into Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, becoming a structural depression having a north to 

south trending depocenter, surrounded by mountain ranges to the north and east, and by 

basement highs to the south. 

Most present-day structures and faults were developed by Neogene to Holocene tectonic 

events, which formed new structures and reactivated and modified older structures 

(Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001; Ulmishek, 2004). The present-day structural elements are 

shown on Figure 3. Older Mesozoic to Paleogene structures were influenced by Triassic 

to Jurassic rifting and include inversion uplifts in rifts, such as the Maimana step; and 

over-rift sag depressions, such as the Amu Darya Basin (Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001; 

VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Amu Darya Basin 

The basement of the Amu Darya Basin has a fault-block structure (Ulmishek, 2004). A 

large number of the faults border main structural units of the basin, separating smaller 

uplifted and subsided blocks (Ulmishek, 2004). “The faults either extend upward into the 

sedimentary cover or are expressed as flexures” (Ulmishek, 2004). “Many of the 

structures are arranged into linear anticlinal zones along the faults” (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Little information is available on the existence of pre-Neogene structures (Ulmishek, 

2004). Some structures in adjacent areas experienced continuous uplift in Neogene time 

whereas others were buried under younger rocks (Ulmishek, 2004). 

10
The Amu Darya Basin consists of subordinate depressions and uplifts of varying degrees 

of expression. Structures in northern Afghanistan and adjacent areas include the Murgab 

depression, Obruchev depression, North Karabil-Dauletabad depression, Andkhoy uplift, 

Akhchin step, Sheberghan block, Maimana step, Badkhyz-Karabil uplift, and Repetek 

zone. 

Murgab depression 

The Murgab depression is a large depression located mostly in Turkmenistan and 

includes several smaller structural elements (VZG, 2004). The structural elements of this 

depression that are in Afghanistan include the Obruchev and Dauletabad depressions; 

Andkhoy uplift and its extensions the Yashlar-Andkhoy and Shakhmolla arches, which 

divide the Obruchev and North Karabil-Dauletabad depressions; Maimana step and its 

extension, the Badkyz-Karabil uplift (VZG, 2004). These structures are expressed as 

regional gravity anomalies in geophysical surveys (VZG, 2004). 

Obruchev depression is bounded on the south by the Andkhoy uplift and Akhchin step, 

and bounded on the north by the Repetek zone (VZG, 2004). On the gravity map, the 

depression is expressed as a large negative anomaly (VZG, 2004). The depth of burial to 

the top of Kimmeridgian to Tithonian evaporites approaches 4 to 5 kilometers (VZG, 2004). 

North Karabil-Dauletabad depression is bounded on the south by the Maimana step and 

on the north by the Andkhoy uplift (Seradzhi, 1988, 1993; VZG, 2004). The top of the 

11
Kimmeridgian to Tithonian evaporites has not been penetrated, but is supposed to occur 

beneath the base of the Neocomian, which is at a depth of 3 to 3.6 kilometers (VZG, 2004). 

The thickness of the sedimentary section decreases eastward (VZG, 2004). 

Badkhyz-Karabil uplift is an elongate basement high with a thin sedimentary cover that 

extends westward from the Maimana step in Afghanistan to the Kopet Dag area of 

Turkmenistan and Iran. Triassic, Jurassic, and lowermost Cretaceous rocks are absent 

on top of the uplift and on the Maimana step, and the Paleozoic basement is overlain by 

Hauterivian or Barremian clastic rocks. The Badkhyz-Karabil uplift bounds the southern 

margin of the Murgab depression. 

North Afghan High 

The North Afghan High is a highland with elevations locally exceeding 2,500 meters 

(Ulmishek, 2004). Triassic and Jurassic rocks are absent on the crest of the high but are 

present on the slopes (Ulmishek, 2004). The basement is exposed in the southeastern part 

and is overlain by Cretaceous to Paleogene rocks at depths of 1,200 to 1,500 meters in 

western parts (Bratash and others, 1970; Ulmishek, 2004). On the north, the North Afghan 

High is bounded by the Alburz-Marmul sinistral strike-slip fault. Along this fault, the 

basement of the North Afghan High is downthrown into the Afghan-Tajik Basin to the 

north (Bratash and others, 1970; Ulmishek, 2004). 

12
Andkhoy uplift is a buried western protrusion of the North Afghan High. The Andkhoy 

uplift is expressed as a positive gravity anomaly 65 kilometers long and 20 to 30 kilometers 

wide on the gravity map (VZG, 2004). The uplift is orientated west-to-east and includes 

several simple subordinate structures (VZG, 2004). 

Akhchin step is a basement high along the northern margins of the Andkhoy uplift and 

North Afghan High. 

Maimana step is a basement high with a thin sedimentary cover that includes a group of 

anticlinal folds that divide smaller depressions (VZG, 2004). The strike of the arch is 

generally east to west and is expressed as relatively elevated values of gravity on the 

gravity map (VZG, 2004). The Maimana step is along the flank of the North Afghan High 

and is the updip continuation the Badkhyz-Karabil uplift. 

Repetek zone 

The Repetek zone is the largest intrabasinal fault zone of the Amu Darya Basin, extending 

west to east from Turkmenistan into northern Afghanistan south of the Uzbekistan border 

(Ulmishek, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). The zone marks the northern boundary of the Murgab 

depression and consists of a series of faults apparently with a dextral strike-slip 

component that caused salt diapirism, the intensity of which decreases from east to west 

(Ulmishek, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). Salt domes are of Upper Jurassic salt and have 

amplitudes as high as 1,000 meters along the eastern part of the Repetek zone (Ulmishek, 

13
2004). Subsalt Jurassic rocks in this zone are not as deformed as the complex steeply 

folded suprasalt rocks (VNIGNI, 2005b). Vertical offset is approximately 1,500 meters on 

the eastern portion of the zone and decreases westward (VNIGNI, 2005b). 

Kushka depression and Kushka zone 

The Kushka zone of folds is an anticlinal zone in southernmost Amu Darya Basin that lies 

on the western plunge of the Parapamiz-Bande-Turkistan range (Ulmishek, 2004; VNIGNI, 

2005b). The zone is separated from the Badkhyz-Karabil uplift and Maimana step by the 

east to west trending Kalaimor/Kaisar depression, which is filled with Cretaceous and 

Paleogene rocks (Ulmishek, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). Upper Jurassic rocks are absent in 

both the anticlinal zone and the depression, and Lower Cretaceous rocks unconformably 

overlie Lower to Middle Jurassic coal-bearing clastic rocks. 

Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan range 

The present-day Parapamiz range is a Triassic volcanic arc. The Bande Turkestan is most 

probably a back-arc rift. Both were closed, inverted, and deformed by collision of the 

Central Afghanistan (Helmend) block (microcontinent) at the end of Triassic time. 

The strong but relatively short-lived downwarping of the Harrirud fault system in the 

Triassic led to accumulation of thick, extensively developed terrigenous-volcanic deposits 

(north of the fault system), which were intensely folded at the end of the Triassic 

(Sborshchikov and others, 1974). Triassic clastic sediments were deposited in a narrow 

14
inland sea (Safdari, 1991). Slavin (1970) interprets the Bande Turkestan section as a 

northern part of a single trough that includes the Parapamiz section. A very thick, up to 

9,000 meter, Triassic section of volcanic rocks (three volcanic intervals, 600 to 6,500 

meters) is present in the Parapamiz mountains (Slavin, 1970). The Triassic section in the 

Bande Turkestan mountains is thinner, with Middle and Upper Triassic flysch-like rocks or 

black mudstone about 3,000 meters thick (Slavin, 1970). At the end of the Late Triassic, 

terrigenous coals and thin coal interbeds were deposited in a littoral marine plain with 

lagoons and swamps (Safdari, 1991). Early Cimmerian deformation was most intensive in 

the Bande Turkistan area (Safdari, 1991). 

Harrirud fault zone 

The Harrirud fault zone is a Triassic sutural structure that separates the Turanian block of 

the Eurasian plate to the north from continental blocks of Gondwanian origin and related 

structures to the south (fig. 5) (Sborshchikov and others, 1974; Safdari, 1991). In Neogene 

time, the structure was reactivated and became a dextral strike-slip fault in a general 

pattern of escape tectonics related to compression from the collision of the Indian plate. 

Southwest Gissar Meganticline and Spur 

The Southwest Gissar Meganticline and Spur separate the Afghan-Tajik Basin from the 

Amu Darya Basin. Only the extreme southern limb of the meganticline is located in 

Afghanistan, which includes limbs of the Khamyab, Khan Tepe, and Kleft anticlines 

(Dastyar and others, 1990). Southwest Gissar spur is structurally different from the rest of 

15
the Afghan-Tajik Basin and might have formed by mixed thrust and block tectonics 

(Kravchenko and others, 1990). The spur is a tectonic (Neogene) uplift that is thrust on 

margins of both the Afghan-Tajik and Amu Darya Basins. The southwest Gissar spur is 

delineated by the outcrops of Cretaceous rocks beneath Quaternary sediments in the 

extreme western part of the Afghan bank of the Amu Darya River (Dastyar and others, 

1990). The Hercynian basement and Jurassic rocks are exposed in the highest part of the 

uplift. 

Alburz-Marmul fault 

The Alburz-Marmul fault lies between the Afghan-Tajik Basin to the north and the North 

Afghan High to the south. The Alburz-Marmul fault may be left-lateral transpression zone 

(Thomas and others, 1996). 

Afghan-Tajik Basin 

The Afghan-Tajik depression is located on a zone of intense negative gravity anomalies 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). The thickness of the earth’s crust in the Afghan-Tajik depression 

changes from 45 kilometers in the most of the depression to 55 to 60 kilometers along the 

eastern margin (VNIGNI, 2005a). The Afghan-Tajik depression is an area of deep 

downwarping, whereby the basement is at a depth of 10 to 15 kilometers or more as 

determined by geophysical methods (VNIGNI, 2005a). The basement cannot be mapped 

because of poor resolution of the geophysical methods employed (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Marginal structural steps, uplifted as much as 3 to 8 kilometers, surround the Afghan-Tajik 

16
depression (VNIGNI, 2005a). The major steps include the Dushanbe and Baysun steps, 

and the North Afghan High (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Suprasalt post-Jurassic sedimentary cover of the basin was detached along Jurassic salt 

in Neogene time and deformed into a series of thrust anticlinoria and synclinoria. In 

anticlinoria, Paleogene rocks are commonly exposed on the surface whereas synclinoria 

are filled with several kilometers of Neogene to Quaternary continental clastic deposits. 

Complex fold-thrust structures are present in the sedimentary cover within the depression 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). These structures are typically ridge-like anticlinal folds with thrust faultcut cores (VNIGNI, 2005a). The structure of allochthonous plates in the depression is not 

well understood (VNIGNI, 2005a). Thrust fault surfaces and allochthonous plates were 

folded in some places (VNIGNI, 2005a). Parts of these folds can be traced into the 

allochthonous plates at different levels, and the frontal parts of the plates in anticlines are 

commonly accompanied by buried underthrust anticline uplifts (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Autochthonous subsalt plates were subthrust under the southwest Gissar spur and under 

the Pamir range (Kravchenko and others, 1990). The internal structure of the 

autochthonous plate is virtually unknown. 

In the center of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, thick allochthonous slabs bury Jurassic subsalt 

deposits to depths inaccessible to drilling, 8 to 12 kilometers (VNIGNI, 2005a). Subsalt 

Jurassic deposits are much shallower, 2 to 3.5 kilometers only on the uplifted steps where 

either the thickness of allochthonous slabs decreases (such as at Gadzhak field on the 

17
Baysun step) or the structural style changes from thrusting to block-folding (such as at 

Komsomolsk field on the Dushanbe step) (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Only 5 wells drilled in the Afghan-Tajik Basin reached depths of 4.5 to 5 kilometers, 

(Krylov, 1980). Two wells encountered Neogene rocks of subthrust sheets (Krylov, 1980; 

Kravchenko and others, 1990; VNIGNI, 2005a). On Aktau and North Kurgancha structures 

of Tajikistan, Upper Jurassic salt was penetrated (Krylov, 1980). 

The sedimentary cover within the inner part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin consists of three 

allochthonous synclinal zones: (1) the Surkhan megasyncline and Mazar i Sharif basin, (2) 

the Vakhsh megasyncline, and (3) the Kulyab megasyncline (or Badakhshan Foredeep) 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). These synclinal zones are divided by (1) the Kafirnigan meganticline, and 

(2) the Obigarm meganticline (VNIGNI, 2005a). The anticlinal zones are breached and 

cores of salt and suprasalt intervals of Late Jurassic to Paleogene age crop out (VNIGNI, 

2005a). The northeastern extremity of anticlinoria is complex and contains mainly 

imbricate allochthonous-sheet structures, where anticlinal folds are most closely spaced 

(Loziyev, 1976). Synclinoria contain synclinal folds and compressed anticlines with sharp 

crests (Loziyev, 1976). 

In synclinoria of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, anticlines in the northern parts have regularly 

oriented dip of axial planes with the steep limbs broken by reverse faults with throws of 

2.5 to 3.5 kilometers; folds become imbricate where throws are large. Structures in the 

18
southern parts of synclinoria of the Afghan-Tajik Basin have differing axial dips, crests 

commonly contain grabens, and limbs have symmetrical, sharp folds (Loziyev, 1976). 

In anticlinoria of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, Neogene rocks unconformably overlie eroded 

anticlinal crests down to the Cretaceous section (Loziyev, 1976). The depth of erosion 

decreases southward to the Paleogene section (Loziyev, 1976). The unconformity is 

absent in synclines and in the Surkhan Darya megasyncline, where the Neogene section 

is in normal stratigraphic succession (Oligocene and early Miocene) and early folding 

was synsedimentary (Loziyev, 1976). Folding might have been noncontemperaneous over 

the Afghan-Tajik Basin; proceeding from northwest to southeast (Loziyev, 1976). Folding is 

less pronounced in the synclinoria, where it lagged somewhat and did not develop 

unconformities in the cores of local anticlines (Loziyev, 1976). A pronounced unconformity 

is present at the base of the Holocene section in the Afghan-Tajik Basin as indicated by 

the eroded crests of anticlines in synclinoria (Loziyev, 1976). 

Imbricate structures are best developed in the northeastern parts of the anticlinoria in the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin and originated at the beginning of Neogene time as indicated by preNeogene unconformity truncating the crests of anticlinal folds (Loziyev, 1976). Structures 

in the southern parts of synclinoria of the Afghan-Tajik Basin developed at the beginning 

of Holocene time, where pre-Holocene unconformity exists on anticlinal folds, but does 

not exist in synclinoria (Loziyev, 1976). 

19
Loziyev (1976) recognized two main structural styles in the Afghan-Tajik Basin: (1) 

Isombay folds, which involve a thick salt bed as a detachment surface but the bed has no 

independent structure-making significance and (2) Kulyab folds, which incorporate salt in 

the structures as diapirs and flows. 

Surkhan megasyncline and Mazar i Sharif basin contains Mesozoic to Cenozoic rocks 

approximately 7 or 8 kilometers thick in northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

Gravimetry indicates that the megasyncline is divided into two parts by a fault boundary 

running longitudinally through Mazar i Sharif. The eastern part contains gravity highs and 

lows that trend north to south, representing long, narrow, intensely faulted anticlines with 

steep limbs. The anticlines include the Gunj, Mohammad Jandagar, and Aita Tepa 

structures. Anticlinal structures to the west are broader, less elongate, less intensely 

faulted, and have gentler dipping limbs. An extension of the Repetek zone is expressed by 

the Sanduqli anticlinal structure to the west (Dastyar and others, 1990). Salt diapirism is 

observed along the Repetek zone farther west in Turkmenistan (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Kafirnigan meganticline is situated east of the Surkhan megasyncline and is divided into 

two parts by the Mir Ali trough (Dastyar and others, 1990). The eastern part of the 

Kafirnigan meganticline is topographically more elevated than the western part (Dastyar 

and others, 1990). 

20
Vakhsh megasyncline is deepest south of Qunduz, where the top of the folded basement 

is buried under 7.5 to 8 kilometers of Neogene and Quaternary deposits (Dastyar and 

others, 1990). Kukushkin and Ramazanova (1989) show that thrust sheets cover older preKulyab structures on the west side of the Vakhsh depression in Tajikistan. 

Obigarm meganticline is the easternmost anticlinorium of the Afghan-Tajik Basin and 

situated between the Vakhsh and Kulyab synclinoria. 

Kulyab megasyncline (or Badakhshan foredeep) is the easternmost major present-day 

structural element in the Afghan-Tajik depression of northern Afghanistan. The Kulyab 

megasyncline is a foredeep basin filled with thick Neogene to Quaternary orogenic clastic 

sediments (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

Kokchin graben is an orthorhombic depression on the eastern edge of the Afghan-Tajik 

Basin along the Badakhshan, containing up to 17 kilometers of Neogene and Quaternary 

molasse (Dastyar and others, 1990). The origin of the graben is not well understood. 

Tectonic Development 

The basement of the Afghan-Tajik and Amu Darya Basins is known from outcrops in the 

Tian Shan in the north and the Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan range in the south. The 

northern Tian Shan is the uplifted part of the Caledonian basement of central Kazakhstan. 

21
The southen Tian Shan, called the Gissar range, includes the Hercynian ophiolite suture, 

Carboniferous volcanic arc, and large massifs of post-collisional granitoids. In the 

Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan range, pre-Jurassic rocks are composed of four tectonostratigraphic intervals: (1) Ordovician? to Lower Devonian passive margin interval 

developed on oceanic crust, (2) Upper Devonian to lower Carboniferous magmatic arc 

and ophiolites developed on the passive margin, (3) lower Carboniferous to Permian rift 

and passive margin intervals, (4) Triassic continental magmatic arc (Brookfield and 

Hashmat, 2001). 

In the basins, the basement is overlain by Upper Triassic to Cenozoic sedimentary rocks, 

which are more than 16 kilometers thick in the Afghan-Tajik Basin as evidenced by 

geophysical data (VNIGNI, 2005a). A significant part of the section, up to 7 kilometers of 

continental rocks, was deposited from the Oligocene to Holocene (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Paleozoic 

The basement of the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins was probably formed by the 

accretion of various tectonic terranes during the Hercynian tectonic event (late 

Carboniferous to Permian) based on extrapolation of the basement composition of the 

basin margins into the deeper parts of the basins (Ulmishek, 2004). The closing of oceanic 

basins and concomitant tectonic activity involving the collision of microplates during the 

late Carboniferous to Early Permian time most likely occurred along the southern edge of 

Eurasian plate at the modern southern Tian Sh n and northern Pamir ranges (Ulmishek, 

22
2004; VNIGNI, 2005a). The Hercynian tectonic event involved two Precambrian 

continental microplates. The Karakum microplate is northernmost and extends eastward 

into the Tian Shan north of the Gissar range. The Karakum microplate may have included 

the Tarim block in northwest China (Zonenshayn and others, 1990; Ulmishek, 2004). The 

southern microplate is the Tajik. Gravity and magnetic geophysical surveys indicate that 

the Tajik microplate underlies the Afghan-Tajik Basin and extends into the Amu Darya 

Basin (Maksimov, 1992; Ulmishek, 2004). Ophiolites in the central part of the Gissar range 

are located along the collision zone between the Karakum and Tajik microplates 

(Ulmishek, 2004). The Amu Darya Basin basement farther west includes various oceanic 

blocks containing basic volcanic rocks of Carboniferous age (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Triassic 

Subduction of Paleo-Tethyan lithosphere under the southern margin of Eurasia began in 

Triassic time. In Afghanistan, this subduction resulted in formation of the Parapamiz 

continental volcanic arc and back-arc rifting of the Turanian plate. The largest rift was 

formed in Bande Turkestan, but the presence of other rifts under thick post-Triassic rocks 

is probable. At the end of the Triassic or earliest Jurassic, the Paleo-Tethys was closed 

and the Helmend block of Gondwanian origin (Leven, 1997) collided with the Eurasian 

margin. The collision resulted in intense but short-lived early Cimmerian deformation of 

the margin and inversion of Bande Turkestan. Uplift of marginal highs (North Afghan High, 

Maimana step, and Badkhyz-Karabil uplift) is most likely related to this collision. The 

23
collision and deformation completed the formation of the economic basement for 

petroleum exploration of the Afghan-Tajik and Amu Darya Basins. 

Jurassic 

Jurassic rocks unconformably overlie Triassic and older rocks in the Amu Darya and 

Afghan-Tajik Basin (Dzhalilov and others, 1982; Dastyar and others, 1990; Ulmishek, 2004; 

VNIGNI, 2005a). During the Early to Middle Jurassic in northern Afghanistan, a crust 

containing kaolinite formed by weathering of Triassic volcanic rocks under hot and humid 

climatic conditions (Dastyar and others, 1990). Most of the Lower Jurassic interval older 

than Toaracian is not recognized in the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basin (Dzhalilov and 

others, 1982). 

Jurassic rocks are buried 6 to 7 kilometers below upper Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks in 

the Afghan-Tajik Basin (Bebeshev and Makarov, 1989). Although the Jurassic section 

was not penetrated by drilling in the Afghan-Tajik Basin, lithologic descriptions were 

made from outcrops in the surrounding mountains (Dzhalilov and others, 1982; Polyansky, 

1989). The most complete Jurassic section is exposed in the western part of the AfghanTajik Basin and consists of marine and continental deposits (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Five depositional stages are identified. (1) During late Early Jurassic to early Middle 

Jurassic time, high relief surrounded the Afghan-Tajik Basin and fluvial, lacustrine, and 

swamp depositional environments existed that resulted in the deposition of commercial 

coal deposits (Bebeshev and Makarov, 1989; Dzhalilov and others, 1982). (2) A sea-level 

24
rise occurred during the Aalenian to Bajocian time whereby paralic sediments were 

deposited consisting of alternating marine and continental sandstone, siltstone, and 

mudstone up to 300 meters thick (Bebeshev and Makarov, 1989; Dzhalilov and others, 

1982). (3) Marine transgression continued during the Bajocian to Bathonian time and 

deltaic sediments were deposited in the northern part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin grading 

southward into more argillaceous shallow-marine deposits (Egamberdyev, 1981; 

Bebeshev and Makarov, 1989). Marine rocks include marine mudstone, marl, and 

limestone, up to 150 meters thick and the deltaic rocks are potential petroleum reservoirs 

(Bebeshev and Makarov, 1989; Dzhalilov and others, 1982). (4) Maximum marine 

transgression occurred during Callovian to Oxfordian time resulting in a carbonate system 

with the deposition of carbonates up to 650 meters thick (Bebeshev and Makarov, 1989; 

Dzhalilov and others, 1982). (5) The final stage occurred during Kimmeridgian to Tithonian 

time with the deposition of anhydrite, halite, and mudstone, up to 1,000 meters thick 

(Bebeshev and Makarov, 1989; Dzhalilov and others, 1982). In the eastern part of the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Jurassic section consists mainly of continental deposits up to 

2,200 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

The Early to Middle Jurassic was a time of intercontinental rifting, accompanied by 

development of horst and graben and inter-graben zones (early stage) and above-rift 

downwarpings or sags with flooding to create shallow marine basins, interior seas, and 

embayments (later stage). The region can be divided into the Turan, Karakum, Afghan, 

Amu Darya, and Pamir blocks, based on the locations of the horst and graben zones 

25
(VNIGNI, 2005a). An Early Jurassic graben exists in northern Afghanistan on the BadkhyzKarabil uplift and Maimana step (Ulmishek, 2004). Other such Early Jurassic grabens may 

also exist (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Boundaries of the blocks are marked by changes in sediment thickness and by presence 

of volcanogenic deposits (VNIGNI, 2005a). During Early Jurassic time, rifting resumed 

along the earlier-formed rift system (VNIGNI, 2005a). During the Triassic, rifting was most 

active in the western part of the region (VNIGNI, 2005a). From Early to Middle Jurassic 

time, however, rifting was most active in eastern parts of the region, involving the Turan 

and Karakum blocks (VNIGNI, 2005a). The formation of Early to Middle Jurassic rifts in 

central Asia was initiated by rapid spreading of the Eurasia and Africa continents, with 

the spreading center in the Neotethys Ocean (VNIGNI, 2005a). The rift system extended 

hundreds of kilometers through the Caucasus, the south of Kopet Dag, and northern 

Afghanistan (VNIGNI, 2005a). Parts of the rift system are probably buried under 

allochthonous plates (VNIGNI, 2005a). Separate fragments of the rift system are marked 

by flysch deposits and have been identified in northern Afghanistan (VNIGNI, 2005a). The 

Early to Middle Jurassic rift system, having a northwest strike, is clearly traced along the 

northern flank of the Amu Darya depression (VNIGNI, 2005a). In central parts of the Amu 

Darya depression, similar structures were identified by seismic data (VNIGNI, 2005a). The 

increase of the salt thickness along the Repetek fault serves as an indirect indicator of the 

possible presence of a rift system (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

26
During the Early Jurassic, the topography of the Afghan-Tajik Basin was dissected, hilly, 

and in some places, mountainous (Timofeev and Polyansky, 1985; Polyansky, 1989). This 

topography existed at the Darvaz-Alay and south Tian Shan mountains, and was the 

provenance for alluvial deposits and peat bogs (Timofeev and Polyansky, 1985). A band of 

alluvial-deltaic, in places, lagoonal coastal environments covered northern Afghanistan 

and part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Kugitang, southern Darvaz, and the Gissar Range 

(Polyansky, 1985; Egamberdyev, 1987). 

The Lower Jurassic section in northern Afghanistan consists of mainly continental 

deposits, which include conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, and carbonate 

rocks, with coals and detrital bauxite (Egamberdyev, 1987; Dastyar and others, 1990; 

VNIGNI, 2005a). Thick fine- to coarse-grained terrigenous rocks with coal overlie 

weathered Triassic rocks in northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and others, 1990). Tuffs and 

volcanic rocks are present in the Lower Jurassic section near Pul i Khumri in the eastern 

part of northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and others, 1990). The Lower Jurassic section 

crops out on slopes of Gissar and Darvaz ranges, where it is coarse grained and includes 

conglomerate and sandstone (VNIGNI, 2005a). In the northern part of the Afghan-Tajik 

Basin, the Jurassic section consists of Lower Jurassic coal-bearing deposits overlapped 

by banded sandstone (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). Younger Jurassic deposits are not 

observed (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

27
Starting in Bajocian time, above-rift depressions, or sags, formed, becoming 

intercontinental marine basins connected to the Neotethys Ocean (VNIGNI, 2005a). By 

the end of Bajocian time, rifting began to cease along the Karakum and Turan plates 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). Dissected by rifts, the edges of blocks started to subside under the 

weight of the sedimentary cover (VNIGNI, 2005a). In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, sediment 

provenance is the Gissar range and local uplifts (Egamberdyev, 1987). Bajocian-age rocks 

directly overlay basement rocks on one of the local uplifts (Egamberdyev, 1987). A 

Jurassic paleoarch may have existed in the present-day Vakhsh and Kafirnigan area 

(Volos and others, 1982). 

Alluvial, lacustrine, swamp, and deltaic terrigenous peat-bearing and coastal marine 

carbonate-terrigenous sediments were deposited in northern Afghanistan during the 

Middle Jurassic. Sediment source was from early Jurassic dissected uplands along the 

northern borders (Polyansky, 1985; Timofeev and Polyansky, 1985). The Middle Jurassic 

section in northern Afghanistan contains conglomerate, sandstone, carbonaceous 

mudstone, and coal (Dastyar and others, 1990; VNIGNI, 2005a). Sediments become more 

marine upward (Egamberdyev, 1987) and become more carbonaceous toward the west 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The Lower and Middle Jurassic section laps onto basement highs (Ulmishek, 2004). Beds 

in the lower part of the section pinch out on the slopes of the highs (Ulmishek, 2004). The 

Lower and Middle Jurassic section is absent on the Badkyz-Karabil uplift and Maimana 

28
step (Ulmishek, 2004). Lower and Middle Jurassic rocks are present in both north and 

south of these uplifts in Afghanistan, but the thickness is known only along the margins 

and does not exceed several hundred meters (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Tectonic events during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous include: (1) marine 

transgression and broadening of the marine embayment along the periphery of the 

Neotethys Ocean into a sea that occupied the Amu Darya Basin; (2) collision of island 

arcs with microcontinents at the northern edge of the Neotethys Ocean, particularly along 

the Turan and Karakum plates resulting in uplift and alternating marine and continental 

sedimentary sections; (3) changing depositional environments and bioherm development 

along margins of plates and blocks; (4) connection of deep marine water between the 

Amu Darya and Kopet Dag areas; (5) marine transgression and regression in the Amu 

Darya Basin resulted from longitudinal and transverse tectonic movement of blocks 

(VNIGNI, 2005a).

The Neotethys Ocean reached maximum size at the end of Late Jurassic time (VNIGNI, 

2005a). A marine transgression advancing from the north and northwest, from the Turan 

sea basin, flooded the single pre-Neogene combined Amu Darya-Afghan-Tajik Basin at 

the end of Bathonian time (Dastyar and others, 1990). The Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan 

area of northern Afghanistan remained above sea level (Dastyar and others, 1990; 

VNIGNI, 2005a). The deepest part of the sea was in the center of the depression and 

seemingly corresponded to the Repetek fault, Obruchev depression, and the southern part 

29
of the Afghan-Tajik Basin (VNIGNI, 2005a). The Amu Darya sea deepened from the 

northwest to the southeast (VNIGNI, 2005a). A broad shelf was located to the north and 

south of sea along the Badkhyz-Karabil uplift, Maimana step, Andkhoy uplift, Akhchin 

step, and Afghan-Tajik Basin (VNIGNI, 2005a). Reefs developed on the margins of the 

relatively deep-water basin. Reef development is expected in the northern part of the 

Kafirnigan and Obigarm zones, and in the Baysun zone of the Afghan-Tajik Basin 

(Kravchenko and others, 1990). 

In the northern part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, such as at the Dushanbe step, Oxfordian 

through Tithonian sediments may not have been deposited (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Upper Jurassic deltaic sediments were observed along the Darvaz range, indicating that 

the coastline might have existed along the Gissar range, central Tian Shan, and Darvaz 

range (Timofeev and Polyansky, 1985). 

At the northern edge of Neotethys Ocean, in present-day Afghanistan and Iran, a 

northward dipping subduction zone with associated island arcs was formed in Late 

Jurassic time (Boulin, 1988; VNIGNI, 2005a), as indicated by the presence of calci-alkalic 

extrusive rocks (VNIGNI, 2005a). Interaction of island arcs with margins of continental 

plates probably occurred on the southern edge of the Kabul and North Pamir blocks 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). he northern edge of Tethys was bordered by island arcs, which collided 

one-by-one with the Iran, Central Afghanistan, and North Pamir blocks, resulting in the 

inversion of rifts and undeveloped passive margins, and uplift of eastern regions of central 

30
Asia (VNIGNI, 2005a). The collisions only weakly affected the Turan and Karakum plates 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). Tectonic movements continued during Kimmeridgian to Hauterivian 

time, forming inversion uplifts in synclines and depressions, such as the Uchadzhi high 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). The Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous embayment, which occupied the 

Amu Darya Basin, and the Karakum and adjacent microplates, was dissected by uplifts 

and became shallow or completely retreated, as in the North Pamir area (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Marine transgression began in latest Bathonian or early Callovian time (Ulmishek, 2004). 

A basal mudstone unit was deposited followed by deposition of carbonate rocks of the 

Kugitang suite (Ulmishek, 2004). During Callovian and Oxfordian time, a complex of barrier 

reefs, pinnacle reefs, and atolls formed along the shelf edge and in marginal areas of the 

deep-water basin (Ulmishek, 2004). The sedimentary section decreases in thickness from 

the shelf margin toward the nearshore zone, and the section pinches out at the basin 

margin (Ulmishek, 2004). The Callovian to Oxfordian shelf sequence is composed of 

various shallow-water facies; including oolitic, detrital, and algal limestones and dolomitic 

limestones; small nearshore Callovian carbonate buildups; argillaceous limestones and 

marls; and local beds of anhydrite in the middle to upper Oxfordian section (Ulmishek, 

2004). Siliciclastic material is present and is locally dominant along the basin margins 

(Ulmishek, 2004). 

The thickest and most hydrocarbon-productive rocks in the Amu Darya Basin part of 

northern Afghanistan are middle and upper Oxfordian limestones associated with reefs 

31
(Ulmishek, 2004). The reef complex contains much of the discovered natural gas reserves 

and most of the estimated undiscovered natural gas resources (Ulmishek, 2004). 

The deep-water basinal facies is poorly known because it is deeply buried and has been 

penetrated in only a few wells in Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (Ulmishek, 2004). The 

lower and middle Oxfordian section is composed of dark-gray, thin- to medium-bedded, 

bituminous, argillaceous limestone (Ulmishek, 2004). The upper Oxfordian section 

consists of black, thinly laminated, highly organic-rich argillaceous limestone and 

calcareous mudstone and siltstone with an admixture of volcanic ash (Fortunatova, 1985; 

Ulmishek, 2004). These rocks, which contain ammonites and other planktonic fossils, are 

characterized by high readings on gamma-ray logs and are known collectively as the 

radioactive bed (Ulmishek, 2004). Where drilled, the total thickness of the Upper Jurassic 

carbonate sequence in the basinal facies is about 200 to 250 meters (Ulmishek, 2004). 

The reefs and associated rocks observed on the northeast margin of the Amu-Darya 

Basin and at outcrops along the southwest Gissar spur provide stratigraphic information 

that can be used to infer the structure and distribution of reefs and carbonate shelf 

elsewhere in the basin (Ulmishek, 2004). Reefs and associated rocks provide important 

hydrocarbon reservoirs on the Chardzhou step in Uzbekistan (Ulmishek, 2004). The 

section consists of middle Callovian thin- to medium-bedded, dark-gray, argillaceous 

limestones, which were deposited before reef growth (Ulmishek, 2004). Upper Callovian 

to middle Oxfordian reefs, up to 50 meters high and including coral and algal-bryozoan 

32
reefs, and associated detrital limestone overlie the argillaceous section (Abdullaev, 1999; 

Ulmishek, 2004). Both the reefs and underlying argillaceous carbonate section on the 

Chardzhou step produce crude oil and natural gas (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Major reef development took place during late Oxfordian and probably early Kimmeridgian 

time when the sea was deepest (Ulmishek, 2004). Semicircular barrier reefs developed 

that separated the shelf from the deep-water basin (Ulmishek, 2004). Three linear zones 

of barrier reefs developed through time (Mirzoev, 1985; Khudaykuliev and others, 1989). A 

main upper Oxfordian barrier reef and shelfal reefs are present in the Gaurdak-Kugitang 

area of the Chardzhou step (Khudaykuliev and others, 1989). The barrier reef zone 

extends westward and southwestward from the Chardzhou step where it separates the 

extensive northern shelf from the deep-water basin (Ulmishek, 2004). The exact location 

of the reef zone is not well known because few wells have penetrated below the Upper 

Jurassic salt in that area (Ulmishek, 2004). Additionally, pinnacle reefs inside basinal 

facies have not been reliably identified, probably because of great depths, but their 

presence is inferred on the basis of limited drilling and seismic data (Maksimov and 

others, 1986; Abdyllaev and others, 1991; Ulmishek, 2004). Farther southwest, the barrier 

reef plunges to depths exceeding 5 kilometers, and its location is not known (Ulmishek, 

2004). 

The location and morphology of the reef zone along the south margin of the Amu Darya 

Basin are poorly known (Ulmishek, 2004). Upper Jurassic carbonates are at depths 

33
exceeding 4 kilometers, and the quality of seismic data available in the former Soviet 

Union was inadequate to map the reef bodies below the thick evaporites (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Oxfordian limestone and dolomitic limestone of probable reef origin were penetrated by a 

few wells between the Dauletabad and Shatlyk fields in Turkmenistan (Amanniyazov and 

Nevmirich, 1985; Ulmishek, 2004). Wells in the Dauletabad field penetrated back-reef 

facies (Allanov and others, 1985; Ulmishek, 2004). Reefs in this area were also inferred 

from seismic data, but the morphology of the reef bodies is unclear (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Seismic data indicate that the Upper Jurassic structure of the southern slope of the 

Murgab depression consists of two linear uplifted blocks trending west to east, merging 

with the Andkhoy uplift in northern Afghanistan, and separated by a structural low 

(O’Connor and Sonnenberg, 1991; Ulmishek, 2004). The uplifted blocks, the YashlarAndkhoy and Shakhmolla arches, are apparently covered by carbonate bank deposits that 

contain reefs (Kleshchev and others, 1991; Ulmishek, 2004). Barrier reefs may be located 

along the block margins and basinal facies probably fill the low areas (Ulmishek, 2004). 

The barrier reef extends eastward into northern Afghanistan (Ulmishek, 2004). The reef is 

located northwest and north of the North Afghan High along the Andkhoy uplift, but its 

exact position farther east is not known (Ulmishek, 2004). On the crest of the North 

Afghan High, the entire Upper Jurassic section is absent due to nondeposition, and 

Cretaceous rocks unconformably overlie the Paleozoic basement or thin Lower to Middle 

Jurassic and (or) Triassic rocks (Bratash and others, 1970; Ulmishek, 2004). 

34
The barrier reef of the Chardzhou step was dissected into segments 4 to 8 kilometers long 

by tidal channels 50 to 100 meters deep and from a few hundred meters to 1.5 kilometers 

wide (Goryunov and Ilyin, 1994; Ulmishek, 2004). The channels are filled with, and overlain 

by, younger evaporites that provide seals for the trapping of hydrocarbons in the barrier 

reef complex (Ulmishek, 2004). A number of solitary pinnacle reefs and atolls formed in 

deeper water (Ulmishek, 2004). The reefs are commonly surrounded by carbonate 

forereef talus deposits (Ulmishek, 2004). A transition from the barrier reef to basinal 

facies is observed (Ulmishek, 2004). The reef-carbonate section grades basinward into 

highly organic-rich, thinly bedded black mudstone with ammonites, which covers the 

basin floor and overlaps some of the reefs (Khudaykuliev and others, 1989; Ulmishek, 

2004). Some reefs most likely drowned during the sea-level maxima (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Back-reef deposits developed landward from the reef zone and consist of various 

shallow-water carbonates interbedded with anhydrite (Ulmishek, 2004). Farther landward, 

the carbonate section includes siliciclastic material derived from adjacent land (Ulmishek, 

2004). 

The Kugitang suite is one of the major petroleum reservoirs in northern Afghanistan and 

has been relatively well explored in the Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan portions of the Amu 

Darya Basin (VNIGNI, 2005b). Most discovered pools have been in barrier and solitary 

reefs (VNIGNI, 2005b). Local reef knolls may have existed (VZG, 2004). To the north and 

west, clay-carbonate deposits of the same age were most likely deposited in relatively 

deeper water (VZG, 2004). The thicknesses of the reef rocks are up to 400-500 m (600 

35
meters in Uzbekistan) and sharply decrease down to 100 to 150 meters for the deep water 

sediments (VZG, 2004). The reef zone is hypothetically located at northern slopes of the 

Andkhoy uplift and to the east of Etym Tag and Kohi Alburz (VZG, 2004). Back-reef 

deposits are observed in Jer Koduq, Assk, Bashi Kurd, Juma, Zigdali, Khuja Bulan, and Gul 

Tepe wells (VZG, 2004). Reefal (lagoonal and apron) are observed in Etym Tag and Khuja 

Goger Dak wells (VZG, 2004). Fore-reef deposits are observed in some crude oil and 

natural gas wells (VZG, 2004). 

During Kimmeridgian to Tithonian time in northern Afghanistan, the sea became shallower 

and more saline, resulting in deposition of red to variegated terrigenous deposits and 

evaporite rocks under hot and dry climatic conditions (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

Evaporites of the Kimmeridgian to Tithonian Gaurdak Formation overlie older Upper 

Jurassic carbonate rocks in the central part of the Amu Darya Basin where the formation 

is more than 900 meters thick in deeper parts of the basin (Ulmishek, 2004). The Gaurdak 

Formation extends into the Afghan-Tajik Basin, where it is poorly known because of its 

deep burial in synclinoria and complex structure in anticlinoria (Ulmishek, 2004). The 

formation is absent on the North Afghan High (Ulmishek, 2004). 

The Upper Jurassicsalt basin was an evaporite lagoon separated from the Tethys Ocean 

by the barrier of the Karabil-Badkhyz uplift and its eastern continuation (Mirzoev, 1985). 

The southern boundary of the salt basin is sharp and follows large faults, including those 

along the Karabil-Badkhyz uplift and Alburz-Marmul fault (Mirzoev, 1985). In the Kopet 

36
Dag foldbelt, Upper Jurassic evaporites and red beds of the Amu-Darya basin grade into 

bedded marine limestones in the Kimmeridgian part of the section and into massive 

limestones and dolomites with inclusions of anhydrite in the Tithonian part (Amanniyazov, 

1989; Ulmishek, 2004). These shallow-water carbonate rocks, probably partly of reef 

origin, separated open Tethyan Ocean to the south from the Amu Darya salt basin to the 

north (Ulmishek, 2004). The salt basin was limited on the west by the Serakh sill, along the 

Ural-Oman lineament, separating open sea on the west from saline lagoon on the east 

(Mirzoev, 1985). The Karabil-Badkhyz uplift was structurally raised in the late Oxfordian 

and eroded while sedimentation continued to the north of the uplift (Mirzoev, 1985). 

Generally, the Gaurdak Formation consists of two salt (halite) layers that are underlain, 

and also separated, by anhydrite strata (Ulmishek, 2004). A thinner (15 meters or less) 

anhydrite bed lies at the top of the formation (Ulmishek, 2004). Both lower and middle 

anhydrites include carbonate beds that are mostly limited to the marginal parts of the 

basin (Ulmishek, 2004). Thickness of the lower anhydrite is commonly less on top of the 

reefs, but increases on the reef slopes (Goryunov and Ilyin, 1994; Ilyin and Fortunatova, 

1988; Ulmishek, 2004). Thicknesses of the anhydrite bed, which adjoins the reefs, are used 

as an exploration tool for identifying the location of reef bodies in Turkmenistan and 

Uzbekistan (Vakhabov, 1986; Goryunov and Ilyin, 1994; Ulmishek, 2004). However, zones of 

thick anhydrite have seismic characteristics similar to that of underlying carbonates and 

hinder interpretation of seismic data (Ulmishek, 2004). 

37
The lower salt layer fills the topographic irregularities inherited from Oxfordian time; it is 

thin or absent on top of the reefs and on the back-reef shelf and thickens abruptly over 

Oxfordian deep-water deposits (Ulmishek, 2004). The upper salt layer is less variable, 

being several hundred meters thick in the central basin area and thins gradually toward 

the basin margins (Ulmishek, 2004). Both salt layers locally contain anhydrite beds and 

potassium salt beds (Ulmishek, 2004). In the marginal zone of the Gaurdak Formation, the 

salt completely pinches out, and the formation is composed of alternating carbonate and 

anhydrite beds with a variable amount of clastic material (Khudaykuliev, 1986; Ulmishek, 

2004). 

The thickness of the upper salt and anhydrite layers along the Andkhoy uplift generally 

increases from the east to the west (VZG, 2004). The thickness of the lower salt, the 

middle anhydrite, and the blanket anhydrite are uniform (VZG, 2004). Variation in the 

thickness probably resulted from the growth of local structures during Kimmeridgian to 

Tithonian time as evidenced by the thinning and pinching out of all units of this section in 

wells on crests of the structures (VZG, 2004). Such variations are observed at Juma, Etym 

Tag and Khuja Goger Dak (VZG, 2004). At Etym Tag and Khuja Goger Dak, the upper salt 

pinches out and the section is represented by anhydrite with interlayers of red-brown 

clays (VZG, 2004). In the Obruchev depression, the thickness of the section varies 

considerably from full pinch out at Chekh Che to 256 meters at Jangali Kalan (VZG, 2004). 

38
Over almost the entire area of its distribution, salt of the Gaurdak Formation is not 

deformed by halokinesis (Ulmishek, 2004). The only exception is a narrow linear zone, 

which extends along the Repetek fault, having a strike-slip component, where the salt is 

deformed into domes (Ulmishek, 2004). Halokinetic deformation along the Repetek zone in 

northern Afghanistan may provide migration pathways and traps for hydrocarbon 

accumulations. Salt stocks are observed in the northern part of the Hindu Kush sector of 

faults, south of the USSR boundary (Nikonov, 1975). 

Evaporites of the Gaurdak Formation are conformably overlain by the Karabil Formation, 

which is composed of red clastic rocks (VZG, 2004). The boundary between the Jurassic 

and Cretaceous remains speculative; different geologists place it at the base or at the top 

of the Karabil suite. Fossil ostracods in the red beds indicate these rocks were probably 

deposited in a lagoonal to alluvial environment (Ulmishek, 2004). The formation, commonly 

believed to be late Tithonian or late Tithonian to earliest Berriasian in age (Beznosov and 

others, 1987), is absent in marginal parts of the basin (Ulmishek, 2004). 

The Upper Jurassic interval is similar to deposits of the same age in the Amu Darya Basin 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). In the Amu Darya Basin, carbonate rocks are distinguished and traced 

from those deposited on shallow marine shelf to those deposited on the continental slope 

and basin (VNIGNI, 2005a). The Upper Jurassic interval in the Afghan-Tajik Basin is 

poorly studied (VNIGNI, 2005a). Rocks of the interval are penetrated by wells only in the 

Southwest Gissar spur, Surkhan-Darya syncline and Dushanbe depression (VNIGNI, 

39
2005a). Several fields were discovered and produce from this interval, including 

Adamtash, Gumbulak, and Gadzhak (VNIGNI, 2005a). In the center of the Afghan-Tajik 

Basin, carbonates of the upper part of the interval have not been penetrated by wells 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). Based on regional reconstructions, the depth of burial of the interval in 

the Afghan-Tajik Basin is 4.5 to 7 kilometers (VNIGNI, 2005a). Limestone is likely the 

predominant rock type in the central part of the basin but becomes more clastic along the 

eastern edge of the basin at the southwestern Darvaz, where the rocks are predominantly 

calcareous sandstone, mudstone, and siltstone (VNIGNI, 2005a). The clastic sediments 

were deposited in marine conditions above reefal depressions (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Cretaceous 

The tectonic activity that occurred along the Turan platform during Kimmeridgian to 

Hauterivian time slowed during Barremian to Coniacian time (VNIGNI, 2005a). Orogens 

that were created by island arc accretion onto the microcontinents were intensively 

eroded (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Presence of Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous limestone within the Karakum, Turan, 

Caucasus, North Caucasus, and Iran areas indicate that they were located in an 

equatorial climatic zone (VNIGNI, 2005a). Redbeds deposited during Early Cretaceous 

time, such as the Karabil suite, indicate arid conditions (VNIGNI, 2005a). The main source 

of sediment was from unroofing of structural highs in eastern regions of central Asia, 

northern Afghanistan, and North Pamir (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

40
Most of the Lower Cretaceous section in eastern central Asia was deposited under arid 

continental conditions with some shallow marine and lacustrine deposition (Ulmishek, 

2004; VNIGNI, 2005a). Lakes occupied large depressions and marine transgressions are 

identified. 

The Lower Cretaceous interval conformably overlies the Jurassic interval in the central 

parts of the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins (Dzhalilov and others, 1982; Pashaev and 

others, 1993; Ulmishek, 2004). Lower Cretaceous rocks unconformably overlie Paleozoic 

to Upper Jurassic rocks on the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basin margins (Dzhalilov and 

others, 1982; Ulmishek, 2004). In the Amu Darya Basin, the Lower Cretaceous section is 

composed of continental clastic rocks with interbeds of lagoonal and marine clastic rocks 

higher in the section (VNIGNI, 2005b). In the Pul i Khumri region of northern Afghanistan, 

Lower Cretaceous rocks unconformably overlie Middle Jurassic rocks (Dastyar and 

others, 1990). In the foothills of the western Hindu Kush range, Lower Cretaceous-age red 

coarse sandstone and conglomerate directly overlie Triassic and older rocks (Dastyar and 

others, 1990). The thickness of Lower Cretaceous rocks decreases toward the periphery 

of the Amu Darya Basin as lower stratigraphic units consecutively pinch out (VNIGNI, 

2005b). 

The thickness of Lower Cretaceous rocks in northern Afghanistan ranges up to 300 meters 

on the east and up to 850 meters on the west (VZG, 2004). Maximum thickness of the 

41
Lower Cretaceous section is in an east-to-west depression along Amu Darya River before 

it turns to the north. The depression has an abrupt south slope and a gentle north slope. 

In the Kushka area, the Lower Cretaceous section is 345 meters thick at Karachop Field 

and 290 meters thick at Islim Field. 

In the eastern part of the Amu Darya Basin, the section consists of lagoonal to continental 

red and variegated clastics with beds of dolomite, anhydrite, and salt (halite) (Ulmishek, 

2004). Fine to coarse terrigenous rocks from several to 1,000 meters thick were deposited 

under hot and dry climatic conditions in northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

A prominent sandstone interval in the Neocomian section is the Hauterivian Qezeltash 

sandstone, also called Shatlyk sandstone, which contains the largest gas reserves in 

Turkmenistan (Ulmishek, 2004). Qezeltash (Shatlyk) sandstone is of deltaic origin and is 

present in the western and central areas of the Murgab depression and slopes (Tashliev 

and others, 1985; Ulmishek, 2004). The bed is composed of red and brown sandstones 

with interbedded mudstone layers (Ulmishek, 2004). In the eastern part of the Murgab 

depression and northwestern Afghanistan, sandstone of the Qezeltash bed grades 

laterally into a 20 to 60 meter thick salt mixed with sand grains (Bratash and others, 1970; 

Pashaev and others, 1993; Kryuchkov, 1996; Ulmishek, 2004). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Lower Cretaceous interval contains variegated clastic 

rocks, including sandstone and mudstone with subordinate limestone and anhydrite 

42
interbeds (VNIGNI, 2005a). Red beds increase to the east, with thicknesses ranging from 

800 to 1,200 meters (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Along the southwestern slope of the Gissar Range, basal red-colored sandstone has a 

thickness of up to 220 meters (VNIGNI, 2005a). The Hauterivian section is sandy and has a 

thickness of 120 meters (VNIGNI, 2005a). The Barremian to Aptian section consists of 

gypsum-bearing mudstones with rare layers of dolostone, having a total thickness up to 

270 meters (VNIGNI, 2005a). The Albian section contains more marine sediments, 

including gray and red-colored marine limestone and arkosic sandstone, with large 

concretions. The thickness ranges from 160 to 400 meters (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

To the east, in the direction of Darvaz range, sediments of the Lower Cretaceous section 

were deposited in continental environment (VNIGNI, 2005a). The clastic rocks are 

coarser grained and some conglomerate is present. Toward the Pamir range, the Lower 

Cretaceous clastic rocks appear to be orogenically derived. 

The sea transgressed into the Amu Darya Basin during late Barremian time, depositing 

limestone in the basin center and red marl and mudstone eastward (Ulmishek, 2004; 

VNIGNI, 2005b). Barremian rocks provide a seal for crude oil and natural gas 

accumulations in Lower Cretaceous reservoirs (VNIGNI, 2005b). Upper Barremian to 

middle Aptian section consists of lagoonal to marine deposits (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Aptian- to Albian-age rocks include marine mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone with some 

43
middle Aptian carbonate beds (Kariev, 1978; Dzhalilov and others, 1982; Ulmishek, 2004; 

VNIGNI, 2005b). 

In Late Cretaceous time, the Turan Sea covered most of northern Afghanistan except for 

some small areas of the Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

Upper Cretaceous rocks consist mainly of clastic terrigenous sediments deposited in a 

marine basin (VZG, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). Some geologists believe that the Kafirnigan 

anticlinorium of the Afghan-Tajik Basin was formed over a pre-Tertiary high similar to the 

Central Karakum arch (Egamberdyev and Mayvandi, 1992). In the late Albian to Santonian, 

a sea was to the west of this high and a lagoon was to the east (Egamberdyev and 

Mayvandi, 1992). 

The Upper Cretaceous interval conformably overlies Lower Cretaceous rocks in the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin part of northern Afghanistan (Dzhalilov and others, 1982).Upper 

Cretaceous sediments were deposited in more marine conditions (VNIGNI, 2005a) and 

consist of marine, lagoonal, and continental deposits (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The 

deposits include gray-colored sandstone and mudstone. Limestone and marl become 

more abundant in the upper part of the section (VNIGNI, 2005a). Short marine regressions 

occurred as indicated by the presence of variegated lagoonal and continental interbeds 

(Dzhalilov and others, 1982). Maximum thickness of the interval is at the basin center and 

to the east, thinning northward (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The thickness ranges from 

800 to 1,100 meters (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

44
Upper Cretaceous rocks in the Amu Darya Basin are dominantly marine and grade 

eastward from carbonate into clastic rocks consisting of mostly mudstone and siltstone in 

the central basin and coarser clastic rocks on the basin margins (Tashliev and others, 

1985; Ulmishek, 2004). Minor limestone and marl beds are present in the Campanian and 

Maastrichtian strata (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Maximum marine transgression occurred during Maastrichtian to Paleocene time in 

northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and others, 1990). Carbonate reef-associated rocks were 

deposited at the Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan area and northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and 

others, 1990). Clastic rocks up to 600 meters thick were deposited farther west in the Amu 

Darya Basin-Murgab depression of Afghanistan (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

In the Amu Darya Basin of eastern Turkmenistan, on the Karabil uplift, the top of the Upper 

Cretaceous, including Campanian rocks, was deeply eroded before Paleogene time. In 

eastern Turkmenistan, the Upper Cretaceous is 1,000 to 1,200 meters thick with few 

carbonate beds. However, Upper Cretaceous carbonate beds are present in the Badkhyz 

area and in the preserved part of the section on the Karabil high (anonymous). 

Paleogene 

Marine conditions continued through most of the Paleogene in the then combined Amu 

Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basin. Approach and collision of the Arabian, Iranian, and 

45
Hindustan continental plates into the Eurasian plate that closed the Neotethys Ocean 

occurred 25 to 30 million years ago in the late Paleogene. Uplift, marine regression, and 

deposition of continental sediments by the close of the Paleogene resulted from these 

collisions (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

In the southeastern part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, in southwest Darvaz and Pul i Khomri, 

and in more eastern areas of Afghanistan, a full transition from marine to nearshore to 

continental rocks in the Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene interval is observed (Melamed 

and others, 1988). Along the rest of the eastern margin, such a transition is not observed, 

and marine Paleogene borders older rocks along reverse faults (Melamed and others, 

1988). Nearshore Paleogene deposits are observed 50 to 70 kilometers north of the basin 

boundary, on the Turkestan Range (Melamed and others, 1988). 

Paleogene (Paleocene to middle Oligocene) rocks are at the top of the sedimentary fill of 

the Amu Darya basin. Lower Paleocene (Danian) clastics and carbonates are preserved 

only in the southern areas of the Amu Darya Basin and in the Afghan-Tajik Basin. Lower 

Paleogene rocks were removed by pre-middle Paleocene erosion elsewhere. Paleogene 

rocks conformably overlie Cretaceous rocks in northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and others, 

1990). In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, evaporites are predominant in the lowermost Paleocene 

interval (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

46
The middle and upper Paleocene rocks (Ghory or Bukhara Formation) are predominantly 

shallow-water carbonates, although some beds of clastic rocks and anhydrite are present 

(Ulmishek, 2004). The proportion of clastic rocks increases northward and 

northwestward, whereas anhydrite beds and anhydrite inclusions in other rock types are 

present mainly in the southern areas of the Amu Darya Basin (Ulmishek, 2004). 

The Eocene to middle Oligocene section is composed mainly of gray and variegated 

mudstone and siltstone, with sandstone commonly present in the southern part of the 

basin (Ulmishek, 2004). Carbonate rocks and marl are present throughout the section, 

being more abundant in the western areas (Ulmishek, 2004). Beds of basalt, andesite, and 

tuff have been penetrated by wells in the upper Eocene section of the Badkhyz-Karabil 

uplift and Maimana step (Ulmishek, 2004). Paleogene rocks are more than 2 kilometers 

thick in the Kopet Dag foredeep, 500 to 800 meters thick in the Murgab depression, and 

only tens to a few hundred meters thick in the basin marginal areas (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Eocene rocks conformably overlie Paleocene rocks over most of northern Afghanistan 

and represent the last marine conditions (Dastyar and others, 1990). An erosional 

unconformity is observed only at the Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan range (Dastyar and 

others, 1990). The Eocene section of northern Afghanistan is up to 850 meters thick and 

contains fine-grained terrigenous rocks deposited in slightly differentiated shallow normal 

marine conditions (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

47
The lower Eocene Suzak section is widely distributed across central Asia (VZG, 2004). 

The Suzak section consists of mudstone containing abundant organic material, from 100 

to 150 meters thick (VZG, 2004). In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Suzak section consists of 

homogenous gray, greenish-gray mudstone with bituminous mudstone beds, 50 to 200 

meters thick (Minakova and others, 1975; Dastyar and others, 1990; VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Organic-rich Suzak beds are most likely source rocks for crude oil accumulations in the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin. 

The lower part of the Givar horizon of the Suzak section, the Kaptar beds, is gray and 

dark-gray non calcareous to slightly calcareous mudstone (Buzurukov and others, 1978; 

Davidzon and others, 1982). The mudstone commonly becomes calcareous in the central 

and southern parts of the basin (Babkov and others, 1972) and sandy to the northeast and 

east (Davidzon and others, 1982). Combustible bituminous mudstone or oil shale 0.2 to 1.6 

meters thick, commonly about 0.5 meters thick, and containing phosphorites and pyrite 

(and marcasite?) concretions is present in the lower half, particularly to the south (Babkov 

and others, 1972; Buzurukov and others, 1978; Davidzon and others, 1982). Phosphorite 

concretions range in size from 2 to 5 centimeters and pyrite crystals are as large as 2 to 3 

centimeters (Babkov and others, 1972; Pokryshkin, 1981). Ferruginous nodules have also 

been observed (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). Kaptar beds contain fossils of the Istymtau 

fauna, which indicate lack of oxygen (Davidzon and others, 1982). The sea is assumed to 

have been deep, especially on the south where bathyal conditions probably occurred 

(Babkov and others, 1972). Some corals and mollusks are present eastward and 

48
nummulites and discocyclines fossils are found only at the top of the bed (Davidzon and 

others, 1982). At the type section, the Kaptar beds are approximately 20 meters thick 

(Davidzon and others, 1982). Lenses with numerous large pelecypods have also been 

observed (Babkov and others, 1972). 

Baymin beds, in the upper part of the Givar horizon of the Suzak section, are greenishgray calcareous mudstone (Buzurukov and others, 1978; Davidzon and others, 1982). Marl 

beds up to 2 to 2.5 meters thick are present in the middle and upper parts of the section 

(Babkov and others, 1972). At the western part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, Baymin beds 

are bluish-gray calcareous mudstone with fossil foraminifera and mollusks (Davidzon and 

others, 1982). The Baymin beds are approximately 46 meters thick (Davidzon and others, 

1982). The Baymin beds become a monotonous greenish-gray, calcareous mudstone 

eastward (Davidzon and others, 1982). Farther east, at the Kafirnigan megaanticline and 

Vakhsh megasyncline, division of the Givar horizon into the Kaptar and Baymin beds is 

difficult (Davidzon and others, 1982). The section consists of gray and bluish-gray 

mudstone, but grades to siltstone to the northeast (Davidzon and others, 1982). An oil 

shale bed 0.5 meters thick is present in the type section at Vakhsh Ridge (Davidzon and 

others, 1982). 

At the easternmost part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Darvaz area, the Givar horizon is 6 

to 13 meters thick (Davidzon and others, 1982). The section consists of greenish-gray, 

calcareous mudstone and sandstone with phosphorite concretions and glauconite grains 

49
(Davidzon and others, 1982). Although this is a proximal area of Givar deposition, thin oil 

shales are present (Davidzon and others, 1982). A 0.6 meter thick bed of oil shale and 1.2 

meter thick conglomerate bed are present at the type section (Davidzon and others, 1982). 

Sandy, fissile (called “paper”) mudstone 0.7 meters thick is exposed at the bottom of the 

section (Davidzon and others, 1982). 

At the Kortau structure in northern Afghanistan, the bottom of the Suzak section is a 

bituminous mudstone bed consisting of 10 meters of brownish-green mudstone with lightgray marl layers and Gryphea fossils (Ivanov and others, 1963). Higher, five meters of 

gypsum with layers of thin-bedded marl with bitumen smell is present (Ivanov and others, 

1963). Above is 4.5 meters of light-gray marl with bitumen (Ivanov and others, 1963). In 

cores from Konduz(?) well #1, at 815 to 837 meters from the subthrust, gray thin-bedded 

bituminous marls with chips of gypsum are present (Ivanov and others, 1963). The 

overlying mudstone bed is composed of dark-gray to greenish mudstone with pyrite 

crystals to several centimeters and concretions of marl (Ivanov and others, 1963). The 

thickness of this bed is 113 meters (Ivanov and others, 1963). The uppermost bed in the 

Suzak section is sandstone, 81 meters thick (Ivanov and others, 1963). 

At the Khanabad structure in northern Afghanistan, the basal Suzak bituminous bed is 

composed of white gypsum with numerous thin, up to 1 meter thick layers of bituminous 

marl with oil stains (Ivanov and others, 1963). The overlying bed consists of gray 

mudstone 59 meters thick that is sandier than those at the Kortau structure (Ivanov and 

50
others, 1963). A two meter thick bed of brown to black paper oil shale is present in the 

upper part of the gray mudstone bed (Ivanov and others, 1963). The upper sandstone bed 

consists of massive, fine-grained, greenish-gray sandstone (Ivanov and others, 1963). The 

uppermost bed in the Suzak section is sandstone, 30 meters thick (Ivanov and others, 

1963). The presence of sandstone and gypsum in the Suzak section of both the Kortau and 

Khanabad structures indicates that the eastern part of northern Afghanistan was a 

proximal area of the Suzak basin. 

Bituminous marl and marly limestone of middle Eocene (Lutetian) age are observed in 

northern Afghanistan, near Madar on the North Afghan High (Schmitz and Weippert, 

1966). The rocks are 8 to 15 meters thick and contain up to 0.7 percent oil-like bitumen 

(Schmitz and Weippert, 1966). Bituminous rocks having similar ages and depositional 

facies are observed near Kala i Kurchi (Maimana Province) and Tashkurgan in northern 

Afghanistan (Schmitz and Weippert, 1966). 

Eocene flammable mudstone covers all Uzbekistan and Tajikistan except for the Gissar 

and Darvaz Ridges where it is limited to small areas (Khaimov, 1986). Everywhere, the 

flammable mudstone is in the lower part of the Suzak unit, 1.5 to 5 meters from the bottom 

(Khaimov, 1986). The bed is generally 0.5 to 1.35 meters thick, but can reach 1.8 meters 

(Khaimov, 1986). The mudstone covers an area of 36,200 square kilometers (Khaimov, 

1986). The mudstone consists of clay, carbonate, and organic matter in an average 

proportion of 5:3:2 (Khaimov, 1986). The same bed covers the Kyzylkum basin, where its 

51
thickness is 0.75 to 1.4 meters (Khaimov, 1986). The beds crop out in three areas: (1) 

Uchkyr-Kulbeskak, south of Bukhara, (2) Baysun step near the southwest Gissar spur, 

where the bed is 0.4 to 0.9 meters thick and having 28 percent organic matter and 4.5 

percent sulfur; and (3) Urtabulak, where the organic matter contains 7.65 to 8.08 percent 

hydrogen (Khaimov, 1986). A chart of stratigraphy of Paleogene rocks in the atlas 

“Geology of the USSR” (Tulyaganov, 1972) shows two sections of Suzak beds in 

Uzbekistan, one at the town of Guliob where 0.3 meters of flammable bituminous 

mudstone is exposed and another at Baysun Mountain, where 0.8 meters are exposed. 

Black mudstone interbeds were penetrated by wells northeast and east of Tamdytau and 

in the Bukhara depression near Karaulbazar town and north of Kassan town in the Amu 

Darya Basin. A full Paleogene section is exposed in the Chil-Darya anticline along the 

southwest Gissar spur in Uzbekistan, where the Bukhara beds are a black bituminous 

limestone 140 meters thick and the Suzak beds are black, bituminous, bedded marl 17 

meters thick (Popov and others, 1962). Paleogene black shales and marls also present in 

Turkestan and the Isfarin-Khanbad area (Popov and others, 1962). 

The Turan Sea regressed northward at the end of the Paleogene resulting in the 

emergence of a dissected continental landscape and deposition of terrigenous rocks over 

most of northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and others, 1990). The Parapamiz-Bande 

Turkestan range continued to rise and the Amu Darya Basin-Murgab Depression 

continued to subside. The Amu Darya Basin-Murgab depression remained submerged 

until the end of the Paleogene, possibly under fresh water lacustrine conditions (Dastyar 

52
and others, 1990). Volcanism occurred at the Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan area resulting 

in the deposition of intermediate to basic porphyry volcanics (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, a slight tilt of the Kafirnigan meganticline to the east and only 

gentle platform structures were present during Paleogene time through the Oligocene, 

until the end of Sumsar deposition (Volos and Makhkamov, 1969). In Sumsar time, the 

area west of Kafirnigan River was uplifted, as indicated by the absence of the Sumsar 

Formation (Volos and Makhkamov, 1969). 

Structural movements of the Amu-Darya Basin and presumably the Afghan-Tajik Basin 

during the basinal stage of development (Jurassic through Paleogene) are characteristic 

of block-type platform tectonics (Ulmishek, 2004). Structural highs, such as the BadkhyzKarabil uplift, Maimana step, North Afghan High, and smaller uplifts experienced slower 

subsidence and occasional positive movements that resulted in local disconformities and 

the absence of parts of the sedimentary sequence (Ulmishek, 2004). Maximum 

subsidence took place in the central parts of the basins (Ulmishek, 2004). 

Neogene 

Tectonic events of Neogene time were responsible for much of the present-day 

geological structure and traps for oil and gas accumulations in the Amu Darya and 

Afghan-Tajik Basins (Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001; VNIGNI, 2005a). During this time, the 

Neotethys Ocean closed by the convergence of the Eurasia and India plates. Accretion of 

53
the Arabian, Iranian and Hindustan plates onto Eurasia deformed and reactivated the 

boundaries between adjacent microplates. The creation of an orogenic epiplatform in 

eastern central Asia resulted, forming fold belts and overthrust nappes of the Kopet Dag 

and thrust faults in the Afghan-Tajik Basin (VNIGNI, 2005a). Block boundaries, such as at 

the Repetek zone were reactivated, resulting in flowage, thickening, and diapirism of 

Jurassic evaporites, erosion, inversion of aulacogens and grabens, and transform 

movements along Alburz-Marmul and Amu Darya faults. Northwestwardly movement of 

the Pamir block at the end of the Neogene resulted in thrust faulting of the suprasalt 

section of the Afghan-Tajik Basin (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Orogenic movements in mountain ranges bordering the Amu Darya Basin began in late 

Oligocene time, and tectonism progressively increased through the Pliocene and into the 

Holocene (Ulmishek, 2004). Although Neogene thrusting from the east did not extend into 

the Amu Darya Basin, the compression led to active tectonic movements (Ulmishek, 2004). 

East-west-trending faults, mainly with dextral slip, were formed in northern Afghanistan 

(Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001; Ulmishek, 2004). The Repetek zone strike-slip fault, which 

inherited a Jurassic or older fault zone in the Murgab depression was formed at this time 

(Ulmishek, 2004). All local structural uplifts along the eastern and southern basin margins 

were produced during this stage of tectonic deformation (Ulmishek, 2004). Anomalously 

high formation pressure in southeastern Amu Darya Basin is associated with this 

movement (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

54
The collision of a protusion on the Pamir block of Hindustan into the Turan block during 

Miocene to Quaternary time tectonically reactivated and split the Eurasian plate into 

several blocks, including the Pamir, Afghan, and Tajik (Ulmishek, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The Upper Jurassic to Cenozoic suprasalt sedimentary section in the Afghan-Tajik Basin 

was uplifted, thrusted, and folded forming anticlinoria and synclinoria (Ulmishek, 2004; 

VNIGNI, 2005a). The most intense deformation of the allochthon happened in the east 

where, the basement was most likely subject to uplift and overthrusting (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The Afghan-Tajik Basin was bounded on the north and south by strike-slip faults, 

including the Ilyak, Alburz-Marmul, and Mirzavalan faults, which were rift zones in the 

Early to Middle Jurassic (VNIGNI, 2005a). Strike-slip faults were accompanied by thrust 

faulting in the Afghan-Tajik Basin (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The main stage of collision between the Indian plate and the Afghan Block occurred 

during Pliocene time (Treloar and Izatt, 1993). Sedimentation occurred during intense 

tectonic movements resulting in great variability of composition, thickness, and 

stratigraphic completeness of the sections (VNIGNI, 2005a). Orogenic movements 

became intensive during Neogene time in northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and others, 

1990). The Amu Darya Basin-Murgab Depression of northern Afghanistan rapidly 

subsided relative to the Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan Uplift and was filled initially with fine 

terrigenous sediments that became progessively coarser through time (Dastyar and 

others, 1990). 

55
Neogene deformation in the Amu Darya Basin is marked by a widespread pre-late 

Oligocene unconformity (Ulmishek, 2004). Upper Oligocene to lower Miocene deposits 

are marine to lagoonal, mostly fine-grained clastic rocks with beds of gypsum and 

coquina (Ulmishek, 2004). Clastic material was derived primarily from platform 

provenances rather than from orogenic uplifts (Ulmishek, 2004). The middle Miocene and 

the lower part of the upper Miocene section on the eastern part of the Amu Darya Basin 

consist of coarse continental clastic deposits derived from the rising mountains to the 

south and southeast (Ulmishek, 2004). The upper Miocene to Quaternary section over the 

entire Amu Darya Basin is composed of lacustrine and alluvial orogenic clastic deposits 

(Ulmishek, 2004). The upper Oligocene to Quaternary section is 1 to 1.5 km thick in the 

Murgab depression and adjoining areas (Ulmishek, 2004). 

The thickness of the Neogene to Quaternary section in the Afghan-Tajik Basin, and 

northern Afghanistan is 2 to 7 kilometers (Dzhalilov and others, 1982; Egamberdyev and 

Mayvandi, 1992; VNIGNI, 2005a). In the Darvaz area of Tajikistan, the Neogene section is 

most complete with a thickness of approximately 5 kilometers (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Neogene rocks unconformably overlie older rocks in northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and 

others, 1990). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, a very thick Oligocene to Miocene continental molasse overlies 

the marine Paleogene (Nosov, 1972). The total thickness of the Neogene interval ranges 

from 1.2 to 3 kilometers (VNIGNI, 2005a). The section contains reddish mudstone with 

56
sandstone at the base that grade upward to sandstone and conglomerate (VNIGNI, 

2005a). The grain size and thickness of the deposits increase to the east and north-east 

(Nosov, 1972). On the east side of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, gypsum appears in the base of 

the Neogene (VNIGNI, 2005a). In central parts of synclines and at flanks of 

megasynclines, Neogene and upper Oligocene deposits overlap Paleogene, Cretaceous 

and Paleozoic rocks transgressively and uncomformably at different horizons (VNIGNI, 

2005a). 

Maximum thickness of the Miocene section is on the east along Darvaz (Nikolayev, 1990). 

In northern Afghanistan, the Pliocene section covers a large area and overlies, with 

sharply expressed unconformity, the Miocene down to Upper Jurassic rocks (VZG, 2004). 

Neogene unconformities vary in number from 1 to 2 and possibily 3 and their age varies 

from pre-Neogene (Oligocene) to pre-Pleistocene in southern Tajikistan (Kukhtikov and 

Vinnicheuko, 1994; VNIGNI, 2005a). Older unconformities are observed in the Peter I 

Range (Kukhtikov and Vinnicheuko, 1994). The upper Miocene Tavildarin Formation 

transgressively overlies Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Paleogene, and lower Miocene rocks 

(Nikolayev, 1990). The pre-Pliocene (pre-Karanak Formation) unconformity is less 

expressed than the pre-upper Miocene unconformity and is not present everywhere as 

determined by seismic profiles (Nikolayev, 1990). Another unconformity is at the base of 

upper Pliocene Polizak Formation, which is well expressed on the eastern margin (up to 90 

degrees) but only a few degrees to horizontal at the basin center (Nikolayev, 1990). Above 

is another unconformity below the upper Pliocene to Pleistocene (to 0.75 million years 

57
ago) and younger Kulyab Formation, which lies near horizontally and deformed only near 

faults (Nikolayev, 1990). The pre-Kulyab unconformity is well seen on seismic profiles 

(Nikolayev, 1990). Interpretation of a seismic section shows orogenic clastic sediments 

onlapping and overlapping a fold in Paleogene rocks in the southern part of the Kafirnigan 

meganticline (Nikolayev, 1990). 

Quaternary 

The Vakhsh thrust fault is an important feature in the tectonic history of the Afghan-Tajik 

Basin because it cuts a number of northwestern-oriented structural zones (Kleshchev and 

others, 1993). The estimated total approximately north to south movement along the cisPamir system of thrusts is 180 to 300 kilometers (Kleshchev and others, 1993). Along the 

slopes of Darvaz range, Hindu Kush, and Zaalay mountains, depositional facies change 

from marine, gray-colored rocks, to red beds, mudstone, and carbonate, to sandstones 

and conglomerates (Kleshchev and others, 1993). This change indicates that no 

significant overthrust of the Afghan-Tajik Basin by the Pamir block occurred (Kleshchev 

and others, 1993). 

The Amu Darya Basin-Murgab depression of northern Afghanistan continued to subside 

relative to the Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan range during Quaternary time (Dastyar and 

others, 1990). River terraces were formed at different levels throughout northern 

Afghanistan during Quaternary time (Dastyar and others, 1990). In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, 

terraces are locally deformed (Loziyev, 1976). 

58
The maximum thickness and most fully developed Pliocene to Quaternary sections are in 

the central part of Afghan-Tajik Basin (Nikolayev, 1990). The Yavan-1 well drilled through 

over 5 kilometers of molasse and the age at total depth was only lower Miocene 

Baldzhuan Formation (Nikolayev, 1990). 

Stratigraphy 

A lithostratigraphic column on Figure 6 summarizes the stratigraphy of the Amu Darya and 

Afghan-Tajik Basins. 

Basement 

Basement rocks are a folded complex of the Paleozoic and Triassic rocks, which are 

exposed in the Tian Shan and Pamir range (VNIGNI, 2005a). The rocks include crystalline 

schists, quartzites, marls of the middle Paleozoic, and volcanogenic argillaceous rocks of 

the upper Paleozoic (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The taphrogenic Triassic section is commonly deformed and partially metemorphosed in 

outcrops around the Afghan-Taji and Amu Darya Basins. Although undeformed rocks of 

this age may be present beneath the Jurasic to Cenozoic sediments in the inner parts of 

the basins, the rocks are over mature with respect to petroleum generation and 

considered here as an economic basement for petroleum production. 

59
Kanonin Formation 

Upper Permian to Triassic rift-fill deposits comprise the base of sedimentary cover and 

consist of marine clastics and carbonates, and volcanic rocks, grading to red-colored 

orogenic clastic sediments and redbeds in some areas (Loziyev, 1976; VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The Lower Triassic section in northern Afghanistan is approximately 1,000 meters thick 

and consists of conglomerate overlain by dolostone, siltstone, sandstone, volcanic rocks, 

and tuff (Dastyar and others, 1990). Near Doab, Lower Triassic rocks are over 400 meters 

thick and include thin limestone beds unconformably overlain by conglomerate, dark 

mudstone, siltstone, sandstone, volcanic rocks, and tuff (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

The Middle Triassic section in northern Afghanistan is approximately 1,000 meters thick 

and consists of mudstone, limestone, and sandstone (Dastyar and others, 1990). Near the 

Hindu Kush range, Middle Triassic rocks are thicker (4,700 meters) and include thick beds 

of intermediate and acidic volcanic rocks and tuff (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

The Upper Triassic section in northern Afghanistan consists of sandstone, conglomerate, 

mudstone, and siltstone, with some volcanic rocks (Dastyar and others, 1990). The 

Triassic section is deformed, metamorphosed, and cut by Early Jurassic granitic 

intrusions along the foothills of the western Hindu Kush and Parapamiz ranges (Dastyar 

and others, 1990). 

60
The Rhaetian sequence is recognized in the eastern part of the Maimana step where it is 

from 350 to 1,400 meters thick (Sarwary, 1990). The sequence consists of intermediate 

and acid volcanic rocks with a small amount of terrigenous sedimentary rocks (Sarwary, 

1990). The volcanic rocks include andesite porphyry, rhyolite, and dacite (Sarwary, 1990). 

The Triassic section is known in two areas of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, one in the South 

Tian Shan area and the other in the western piedmont of the Pamir range (Dzhalilov and 

others, 1982). The south Tian Shan section contains weathered Upper Triassic rocks 

unconformably overlying Paleozoic rocks (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). Farther south, the 

section contains 2 kilometers of presumed Lower Triassic coarse continental redbeds of 

the Khanakin suite (Kanonin Formation) (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The Khanakin suite 

probably continues southward and underlies younger rocks throughout the Kafirnigan 

meganticline and Vakhsh megasyncline areas (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The Lower 

Triassic section along the Pamir range is similar to those of northern Afghanistan 

(Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The section is up to 1.5 kilometers thick and includes 

sandstone and conglomerate of the Vasmikukh suite, marine clays of the Alikagar suite, 

and continental conglomerate of the overlying presumed Middle Triassic Iokundj suite

(Dzhalilov and others, 1982). Upper Triassic rocks are not recognized in this area 

(Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Lower to Middle Jurassic 

61
The Triassic to Lower Jurassic interval in the northeastern Afghan-Tajik Basin contains a 

thick Upper (?) Triassic to Lower Jurassic volcanic section, which is similar to that of the 

southern Bande Turkestan (Polyansky, 1973). Both volcanic sections were probably 

deposited along the southern basin boundary before deformation. 

Lower to Middle Jurassic rocks contain continental clastic rocks with coal. Thick fine- to 

coarse-grained continental rocks with coal (Sayghan Series) overlay a kaolinitic crust 

that developed on older Triassic volcanic rocks in northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and 

others, 1990). 

Subdivisions of the Jurassic interval in the Afghan-Tajik Basin of Tajikistan include the 

upper Toarcian to lower Bajocian Gurud coal-bearing continental section, 20 to 200 

meters thick; (2) Bajocian Gring coal-bearing continental section; (3) Bajocian 

Degibadam-Tangiduvalia alternating marine and continental sandstone, siltstone, and 

mudstone, up to 300 meters thick; and (4) Shkeldarin varigated mudstone (Dzhalilov and 

others, 1982). A regional unconformity exists at the base of the transgressive deposits of 

the upper Bajocian Baysun suite (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

The Baysun suite (Bathonian to Callovian) unconformably overlies formations of the 

Upper Triassic to older Jurassic(?), and is onlapped by an argillaceous-carbonate 

member of the Kugitang suite (VZG, 2004). The Baysun suite in the Amu Darya Basin is 

composed of dark gray mudstone, marl, and clayey limestone up to 200 meters thick 

62
(Dzhalilov and others, 1982; VNIGNI, 2005b). The section contains sandstone and the 

thickness decreases and pinches out toward the Amu Darya Basin edges (VNIGNI, 

2005b). Variegated and red clays with sandstone interlayers representing lagoonal and 

continental deposits overlay the Baysun suite to the south (VZG, 2004). Thickness ranges 

from about 60 to 140 meters, thickening southward (VZG, 2004). The distribution of the 

lithologic composition and the thickness of the Baysun suite rocks indicate deposition in 

shoal open shelf conditions with fluctuations in water depth (VZG, 2004). The presence of 

sandstone and conglomerate containing poorly rounded dolostone fragments indicate 

that the provenance was apparently located within the limits of the modern North Afghan 

High (VZG, 2004). Lagoonal conditions existed behind a barrier-reef or bar-reef system as 

evidenced by about 100 meters (by thickness of the lagoonal member) of sulphate 

mineral-bearing, variegated terrigenous deposits, presumably of early Callovian age, that 

overlie the Baysun suite in some wells (VZG, 2004). The reef system (lower Callovian) is 

assumed to be north and north-west of Khuja Bulan Field, in the area of Khuja Goger Dak 

and Etym Tag Fields and the Andkhoy uplift (figs. 3 and 7) (VZG, 2004). Reef and reef-apron 

sediments are represented by sandy, oolitic, and detrital-carbonate bearing limestone and 

dolostone (VZG, 2004). 

In the southwest Gissar meganticline and spur and Surkhan megasyncline (fig. 3), 

sediments in the upper Bathonian to lower Callovian section (Baysun Formation) are 

marine, thin-bedded mudstone with some carbonates containing ammonites and other 

63
fauna (Egamberdyev, 1987). The section is 20 to 50 meters thick and could serve as a seal 

for petroleum accumulations (Egamberdyev, 1987). 

From late Bathonian through Oxfordian time, a uniform carbonate section deposited in a 

slightly differentiated shallow-water sea of normal salinity was deposited is present in 

northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

Kugitang suite (Callovian-Oxfordian) is represented by mainly carbonate deposits of an 

Upper Jurassic barrier-reef system, which extends west-to-east (Dastyar and others, 

1990; VZG, 2004). The section is composed of thick limestone deposited in deep basin, 

reef, and shelf environments (VNIGNI, 2005b). In northern Afghanistan, the lithologic 

distribution indicates deposition in lagoonal and tidal-flat environments to the south, 

shelfal bioherms and barrier reefs farther to the north (Etym Tag Field and Kohi Alburz 

wells), and basinal deposition is presumed beyond (forereef deposits observed in 

Barbulaq 1) (fig. 7) (VZG, 2004). Two members are identified in the Kugitang suite, a lower 

terrigenous-carbonate member and an upper carbonate member (VZG, 2004). 

The terrigenous-carbonate member represents a transition of depositional 

environments from lagoonal/back reef to the south and west (Jer Koduq Field), a 

presumed barrier reef system (Khuja Goger Dak and Etym Taq Fields), and basinal to the 

north (fig. 7) (VZG, 2004). Thickness of the member increases from about 60 meters along 

the Andkhoy uplift to up to 139 meters northward toward deeper parts of the basin (VZG, 

64
2004). Rocks representing the lagoonal/back reef depositional environment include gray 

to dark-gray limestones and brown-gray, fine-grained dolostones with mudstone layers, 

having cavernous porosity (VZG, 2004). Closer to the presumed barrier reef, the member 

consists of partially dolomitized limestone with interlayers of gray and dark-gray 

mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone (VZG, 2004). Northward of the barrier reef, the 

member consists of dark-gray to black marl, containing beds of breccia-like sediments 

and dolostone. These rocks represent deposition in a relatively deeper part of a 

paleobasin, probably in a zone of the lower slope basinward of the presumed barrier reef 

(VZG, 2004). 

Carbonate member is composed of dark-gray dense, reefal limestone and dolostone 

(VZG, 2004). The upper portion consists of mostly microcrystalline to fine-grained 

dolostone, with partings and inclusions of anhydrite (VZG, 2004). The member becomes 

thicker northward, from about 70 meters in the south to up to about 440 meters (Kohi 

Alburz wells 2 and 3) (VZG, 2004). In the south (Faiz Abad, Zamarud Sai, Bazar Kami, Qash 

Qari, Aq Sai, Gul Tepe, and Angut structures, fig. 7), the carbonate member is thin or 

absent due to erosion during pre-Valanginian time and nondeposition on uplifted 

basement of the North-Afghan High and Maimana step, which were positive structural 

elements during the Kugitang time (VZG, 2004). 

The upper Oxfordian Khodzhaipak Formation of western and southern Uzbekistan was 

deposited as a basinal facies of the main reef complex, but overlaps some reefs 

65
(Akramkhodzhaev and Egamberdyev, 1981). The formation is a very thinly bedded 

alternation of mudstone, marl, limestone, and rare siltstone of gray to black color 

(Akramkhodzhaev and Egamberdyev, 1981). These rocks are most likely a source for 

petroleum (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

In drilled areas of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Upper Jurassic Callovian to Oxfordian 

interval consists of light- and dark-gray limestone (VNIGNI, 2005a). The thickness of this 

interval ranges from 200 to 700 meters, averaging 400 meters (VNIGNI, 2005a). The Gissar 

layers comprise the lower part of the interval and consist of massive bituminous 

limestone, about 700 meters thick, with thick beds of mudstone and sandstone (VNIGNI, 

2005a). In the northern and western parts of the basin (Baysun step and the junction of 

the Dushanbe step with Kafirnigan and Obigarm meganticlines), the interval probably has 

a reefal origin, but to the south, the limestone may have been deposited in relatively deep 

water (VNIGNI, 2005a). In the east, limestone is replaced by calcareous sandstone of the 

Zarbuz suite (Dzhalilov and others, 1982; VNIGNI, 2005a). The age of the Zabuz Formation 

is probably Callovian to Oxfordian as indicated by spores and pollen (Luchnikov, 1973). In 

the Darvaz area, the Zarbuz Formation consists of well sorted calcareous sandstone 

ranging in thickness from 165 to 220 meters in the lower part of the section and of 

alternating sandstone and mudstone in the upper part (Luchnikov, 1973). The sediments 

were deposited in a submarine delta and on a shallow shelf to the south (Luchnikov, 1973). 

The total thickness ranges from 450 meters on the south thinning to 210 meters in the 

north (Luchnikov, 1973). 

66
In the northern part of the Dushanbe step (fig. 3), the Upper Jurassic is thin, ranging from 

5 to 15 meters thick (VNIGNI, 2005a). The section consists of terrigenous clastic rocks, 

sandy limestone, and anhydrite. In the Darvaz area, the Upper Jurassic section is 150 to 

300 meters thick and is composed of mudstone, marl, and sandstone with salt beds 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Gaurdak suite (Kimmeridgian-Tithonian) in northern Afghanistan consists of a lower 

anhydrite unit and an upper salt and anhydrite unit (Dastyar and others, 1990; VZG, 2004). 

The age of the Gaurdak suite southwest of the Gissar spur is determined as Kimmeridgian 

by fauna of marine pelecypods and gastropods for the lower part and Tithonian for the 

upper part (VZG, 2004). The distribution of evaporites of the Gaurdak suite is controlled by 

the North Afghan and Maimana arches and the northwestern edges of the basin (fig. 3)

(VZG, 2004). Salt pinches out north of Jer Koduq and Etym Tag Fields (VZG, 2004). The 

pinch out can be traced eastward to the north of Kohi Alburz (VZG, 2004). The salt is 

absent in the Chekh Che area, apparently because of the presence of reefal buildup in this 

region (VZG, 2004). The thickness generally increases from the south to the north, 

exceeding 1,000 meters in the Obruchev depression (VZG, 2004). Later, in the 

Kimmeridgian to Tithonian time, the depression was filled by evaporites (VZG, 2004). 

Thickness of non-eroded deposits of the Gaurdak suite where they are covered by the 

Karabil suite argillaceous rocks, in the Sheberghan oil-and-gas-bearing region, abruptly 

changes from 159 meters at Etym Tag Field to 671 meters at Kortamash Field (VZG, 2004). 

67
At Jer Koduq Field, a Valaginian sandstone transgressively onlaps an eroded surface 

(pre-Valanginian of the lower anhydrite unit (VZG, 2004). 

To the east of the Sheberghan area, in the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the lateral equivalent of the 

Gaurdak suite consists of about 250 meters of variegated gray and brown mudstone and 

siltstone with layers of gypsum and anhydrite (VZG, 2004). The upper part contains a layer 

of white and rose gypsum 34 m thick, which is overlain by red mudstone ranging in 

thickness from several meters to 70 meters (VZG, 2004). A basal conglomerate of 

Neocomian age unconformably overlies the Gaurdak suite (VZG, 2004). Southeast of the 

city of Talikan, gypsum, anhydrite and halite of the Gaurdak suite crops out as diapirs (fig. 

7) (VZG, 2004). The thickness of the suite in this region is more than 150 meters but can 

reach 400 meters and more in the diapirs (VZG, 2004). 

The Gaurdak suite provides a regional seal for crude oil and natural gas accumulations in 

the Amu Darya Basin (VNIGNI, 2005b). 

Anhydrite member (lower anhydrite) consists of anhydrite and gypsum, with some 

limestone and dolostone beds (VZG, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). The anhydrite is dense, firm, 

and fractured (VZG, 2004). The dolostone is fine-grained to microcrystalline (VZG, 2004). 

The thickness of the anhydrite member decreases on the apex and crests of presumed 

reef buildups, such as the barrier reef at Etym Tag and local pinnacle reefs at Jangali 

68
Kalan and Chekh Che (VZG, 2004). The thickness increases sharply along the reef slopes 

into deeper parts of the basin (VZG, 2004). 

Salt-anhydrite member consists of anhydrite, gypsum, halite, and sylvite (in the central 

part of the Amu Darya Basin) containing various amounts of carbonate and terrigenous 

material (VZG, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). The most complete sections of the salt-anhydrite 

member are known on the Andkhoy uplift, where four distinct beds were identified by 

borehole logging data (VZG, 2004). These beds are, from the bottom to the top, lower salt, 

middle anhydrite, upper salt and blanket anhydrite (VZG, 2004). Similar beds are observed 

in the south part of the Chardzhou step of Uzbekistan (VZG, 2004). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian section comprises the upper part 

of the Jurassic interval and consists of dolomitic limestone, gypsum, and anhydrite at the 

base and evaporite deposits, which are covered by mudstone at the top (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Where drilled on the basin margins, the section consists of a lower salt interval, a middle 

anhydrite interval, and an upper red-colored mudstone interval. The thickness ranges 

from 100 to 900 meters, with an average thickness of 600 meters. 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Kimmeridgian to Tithonian evaporite-bearing mudstone is 

called the Sarymak (Sarynamak) Formation (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). In the Darvaz 

foothills of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Kimmerdgian to Tithonian Sarynamak Formation 

consists of red mudstone, siltstone, thin sandstone beds, and gypsum beds with rare 

69
lenses of salt (Luchnikov, 1973). To the south, the formation consists of pure gypsum 635 

to 675 meters thick with andesite and tuffs 70 to 90 meters thick. To the north, the 

formation consists of mudstone with two gypsum beds 7 and 13 meters thick with salt 

lenses 1.5 to 17 meters thick and up to 17 meters long observed in outcrops. The total 

thickness of the formation ranges from 150 to 800 meters or more. 

Karabil suite (Berriasian (or upper Tithonian)-Valanginian) is composed of lagoonal 

and continental sediments (VZG, 2004). The formation is divided into a lower red-colored 

argillaceous member and an upper member consisting of cross-bedded red-colored 

sandstone with conglomerate containing cobble-sized rock fragments (Dastyar and 

others, 1990; VZG, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). The age of the Karabil suite is Berriasian to 

Valanginian (VZG, 2004) or late Tithonian to Berriasian (VNIGNI, 2005b). The thickness of 

the lower member increases west and northwest from 17 meters at Khuja Goger Dak Field 

to 140 meters at Kortamash to a maximum of 485 meters at Jangali Kalan Field (fig. 7) 

(VZG, 2004). On structures of the Andkhoy uplift, the thickness ranges from 70 to 120 

meters. Lateral thickness changes are most likely associated with halokinesis and basin 

accommodation (deepening) during Karabil and subsequent times. In the Afghan-Tajik 

Basin, the Karabil suite consists of red mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone with sparse 

freshwater fauna, up to 300 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The Karabil suite is 

conglomeratic in the northern part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin and pinches out in the 

southern Gissar (Tian Shan) range (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). In the Darvaz area of the 

70
Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Tithonian(?) Karabil Fm consists of purple and red well sorted 

sandstone (Luchnikov, 1973). 

Almurad suite (Valanginian-Hauterivian) overlies the Karabil suite and consists of 

continental, lagoonal and, to a lesser degree, marine sediments (Kariev, 1978; VZG, 2004). 

A minor marine transgression occurred at this time, during which limestone was 

deposited in the western part of the Amu Darya Basin and dolostone and anhydrite in the 

eastern part (VNIGNI, 2005b). The Almurad suite is composed of red mudstone, siltstone, 

sandstone, gypsum, anhydrite, limestone, and dolostone (Dastyar and others, 1990). Three 

members are observed in a complete stratigraphic section (VZG, 2004). The lower twothirds of the suite are made up of red-colored silty mudstone (VZG, 2004). An interlayer of 

dolostone with marine fauna of Hauterivian age is the middle member (VZG, 2004). The 

upper part is brownish-red mudstone interbedded with gypsum (VZG, 2004). In the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Almurad suite consists of red mudstone, gypsum, dolostone, and 

siltstone up to 120 meters thick and thins northward (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Qezeltash suite (Hauterivian-Barremian) overlies the Almurad suite and is laterally 

extensive (VZG, 2004). In northern Afghanistan, as well as in neighboring territories of 

Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, the Qezeltash suite consists of continental deposits having two 

red-colored, variegated and green-colored siltstone and mudstone, with beds of 

conglomerate (Egamberdyev and Mayvandi, 1992; VZG, 2004). The lower unit is finer 

grained, whereas the upper unit is coarser grained and thicker (VZG, 2004). The thickness 

71
of the entire suite reaches 200 meters (VZG, 2004). In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the 

Qezeltash suite consists of red sandstone and siltstone with sparse freshwater fauna 

(Dzhalilov and others, 1982; Dastyar and others, 1990). 

The Qezeltash suite is assigned to the Hauterivian and Barremian Stages based on the 

stratigraphic position between underlying Hauterivian rocks and overlying rocks 

containing early Aptian ammonites, as well as the correlation of it with Barremian 

deposits of the Shekhitlin suite in more western parts of the Amu Darya Basin (VZG, 2004). 

Nearshore marine and paralic conditions with development of sand bars occurred 

throughout the Amu Darya Basin in Hauterivian time (Mirzoev, 1985). Well sorted 

quartzose sandstone of the Qezeltash suite, called the Shatlyk sandstone, was deposited 

in central and southeast parts of the Amu Darya Basin (VNIGNI, 2005b). 

In Turkmenistan, provenances of the lower Hauterivian sandstones, including the Shatlyk 

sandstone, are from the southeast and north (Balkuliev, 1991). Here, the Shatlyk 

sandstone was deposited in a brackish- water basin (Balkuliev, 1991). Shatlyk sand 

(Bayramali Formation) is of deltaic origin in southeast Turkmenistan and contain the 

principal gas reserves of the country (Tovbina and Tashliev, 1983). 

The Shatlyk section in the Afghan-Tajik Basin contains a sandy to argillaceous salt bed 40 

to 50 meters thick (Pashaev and others, 1993). Pashaev and others (1993) suggest that the 

72
source for the salt was to the northeast, where the Hauterivian directly overlies the saltbearing Jurassic section. The salt basin opened to the southeast where the salt is clean 

(Pashaev and others, 1993). 

Okuzbulak suite (Lower Aptian) The Qezeltash suite grades upward into the Okuzbulak 

suite (VZG, 2004). This suite consists of limestone and marl with poorly preserved 

ammonites. Upper beds of the suite comprise argillaceous evaporites. The thickness of 

the suite ranges from 170 to 200 meters. The age was established recently as lower 

Aptian. 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Okuzbulak suite consists of lagoonal to marine mudstone, 

gypsum, and coquina in the lower part grading upward to lagoonal gypsum and red 

mudstone (Dzhalilov and others, 1982; Dastyar and others, 1990). The marine section thins 

eastward and is replaced by more proximal deposits consisting of massive sandstone 

overlying red mudstone and siltstone up to 250 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Kaligrek suite (Aptian) In northern Afghanistan, the Kaligrek suite is an alternating 

multi-colored sandy argillaceous unit with interbedded marl and limestone (Dastyar and 

others, 1990; VZG, 2004). The thickness ranges from 50 to 100 meters. 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Kaligrek suite consists of marine sandstone, limestone, and 

mudstone up to 60 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The marine section is 

73
replaced to the east and northeast by more proximal deposits consisting of red and gray 

massive sandstone and siltstone (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Karakuz suite (Aptian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Karakuz suite consists of marine 

sandstone, mudstone, and conglomerate from 15 to 120 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 

1982). The marine section is replaced to the east by more proximal deposits consisting of 

continental sandstone and mudstone (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

The Albian Stage has three units in northern Afghanistan: (1) a lower sandy to silty unit 

up to 150 m thick assigned to the lower Albian, (2) a middle sandy calcareous unit about 70 

meters thick assigned to the middle Albian, and (3) an upper calcareous argillaceous unit 

assigned to the upper Albian (VZG, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). Sandstone in the middle unit 

(middle Albian) is a good reservoir rock (VZG, 2004). The sandstone is gas bearing at Etym 

Tag and Khuja Goger Dak Fields and oil bearing at Angut Field (fig. 7). Albian reservoir 

rocks pinch out and laterally grade into clays, argillaceous siltstone, and marl on the 

Akhchin step, Andkhoy uplift and Maimana step (fig. 3). 

The Aulat Formation is the name given to the Albian section of the Afghan-Tajik Basin 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). The Albian section is composed of limestone, mudstone, siltstone, and 

sandstone. The upper portion of the upper Aptian to lower Albian interval in northern 

Afghanistan consists of calcareous sandstone and mudstone overlain by dark gray to 

black mudstone (Dastyar and others, 1990). 

74
Derbent suite (lower Albian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Derbent suite consists of 

mudstone up to 75 meters thick passing into continental sandstone and mudstone of the 

Mingbatman suite containing a freshwater fauna (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Luchak suite (middle Albian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Luchak suite consists of 

organogenic limestone, mudstone, and marl from 100 to 150 meters thick (Dzhalilov and 

others, 1982; Dastyar and others, 1990). The section is transgressive across the 

Mingbatman suite and reached the Darvaz area (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Akkapchigai suite (upper Albian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Akkapchigai suite 

consists of mudstone and sandstone from 40 to 110 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 

1982). The section grades eastward into variegated gypsum-bearing sandy mudstone 

with brackish water fauna of the Dzhetymtaus suite (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Shirabad suite (upper Albian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Shirabad suite consists of 

green sandstone and gypsum up to 50 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982; Dastyar 

and others, 1990). Eastward, at southwest Darvaz, the section is replaced by up to 110 

meters of red sandstone of the Khozretish suite (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Rocks of the Cenomanian Stage are divided into a lower sandy siltstone unit and an 

upper limestone unit, with a combined thickness of 50 to 300 meters (VZG, 2004). 

75
In the Amu Darya Basin, the lower Cenomanian section contains sandstone and limestone 

overlain by mudstone and siltstone. The middle Cenomanian section is composed of 

sandstone and limestone and the upper Cenomanian section is composed of dark gray to 

black mudstone (VNIGNI, 2005b). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Cenomanian section becomes thicker from west to east. 

The section consists of mudstone, sandstone, argillaceous limestone, and gypsum to the 

west, with thickness ranging from 65 to 100 meters. To the east, the section consists of 

evaporite, limestone, sandstone, and conglomerate, with thickness ranging from 180 to 

220 meters (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Three Cenomanian sequences are identified in the central part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin 

(Mamadzhanov, 1968). In the lower sequence, limestone and dolomite are in the eastern 

areas, calcareous siltstones are in the central basin, and coarser clastic deposits are in 

northern areas. The nearshore part of the marine basin was in the northwestern part of 

the basin where limestones with beds of siltstone and shale are present. Limestone with 

some mudstone is present to the southeast. To the south of the basin, near Tuyuntau and 

Aryktau, a thick (up to 80 meters) limestone without clastic material is present (fig. 7). The 

second sequence consists of gypsum in the northeast part of the basin and gypsiferous 

mudstone with limestone beds in the northwestern and southeastern parts. The overlying 

76
Turonian section consists of thick marine mudstone with a rich fauna. Four Cenomanian 

suites in the Afghan-Tajik Basin are recognized by Dzhalilov and others (1982). 

Tjubegatan suite (Cenomanian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Tjubegatan suite consists 

of nearshore and shelf mudstone, coquina, and sandstone 50 to 80 meters thick, becoming 

slope and basinal sediments eastward (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Karikansai suite (Cenomanian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Karikansai suite consists 

of mostly of 70 to 130 meters of mudstone to the west, becoming coarser and red in places 

eastward, consisting of siltstone and sandstone with gypsum (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Tagara suite (Cenomanian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Tagara suite consists of 

sandstone, detrital and oolitic limestone 30 to 50 meters thick with rudistids in western 

areas (Dzhalilov and others, 1982; Dastyar and others, 1990). 

Gazdahana suite (Cenomanian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Gazdahana suite consists 

of dark gray mudstone with coquina interbeds 25 to 95 meters thick with limestone of the 

Idzhudarin suite replacing mudstone in eastern areas (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

The Turonian Stage section consists of fossiliferous argillaceous rocks, predominantly 

mudstone, with marl and limestone beds (VZG, 2004). These rocks are assigned to lower 

77
and upper Turonian based on fossils. The maximum thickness is about 430 meters on the 

Andkhoy uplift. 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the lower Turonian section is calcareous with marl, sandstone, 

green mudstone, and limestone (Dastyar and others, 1990; VNIGNI, 2005a). The thickness 

is 30 to 200 meters on the west and 15 to 45 meters on the east (Darvaz). The Upper 

Turonian section is similar to the lower Turonian section but with increasing limestone to 

the east. Reddish mudstone and gypsum are present in the upper part of the section. The 

thickness varies from 15 to 45 meters on the east to 50 to 80 meters on the west. 

Talhab suite (lower Turonian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Talhab suite consists of 

dark gray mudstone with marl interbeds near the base 10 to 120 meters thick (Dzhalilov 

and others, 1982). 

Dazgiriak suite (upper Turonian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Dazgiriak suite is 10 to 

55 meters thick and consists of green mudstone with marl and coquina interbeds 

(Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Muzrabat suite (upper Turonian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Muzrabat suite consists 

of gray mudstone with limestone and gypsum interbeds 34 to 45 meters thick in western 

areas and red siltstone and sandstone with thicker gypsum and brackish water fauna to 

the east (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

78
Rocks of the Coniacian Stage consist of dark-gray mudstone containing gypsum with 

interlayers of fossiliferous limestones (VZG, 2004). Rich fauna in these rocks allows the 

section to be divided into lower and upper sub-stages. Fossils at the base of the section 

belong to the lower Coniacian sub-stage. The maximum thickness is up to 110 meters. A 

marly and calcareous argillaceous member assigned to the upper Coniacian sub-stage is 

a regional marker bed. A gas pool with condensate is found in this unit on the Etym Tag 

structure. The thickness of this unit ranges from several meters to 65 meters. 

Modun suite (Coniacian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Modun suite consists of 

mudstone with coquina interbeds 50 to 1,000 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Carbonate interbeds become thicker eastward. 

Akrabat suite (Coniacian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Akrabat suite consists of gray 

mudstone with pale gray marl and limestone interbeds 50 to 70 meters thick (Dzhalilov and 

others, 1982). Carbonate interbeds become thicker eastward. 

The Santonian Stage section is eroded over a significant part of the area. The rocks are 

predominantly argillaceous of variable thickness, ranging from 50 to 186 meters (VZG, 

2004). 

79
In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the lower part of the Santonian section contains marine 

sediments, including limestone, mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone at the base (Dastyar 

and others, 1990; VNIGNI, 2005a). The upper part was deposited in a lagoonal 

environment and consists of mudstone, gypsum, and sandstone. The thickness, from west 

to east, is 90 to 220 meters in southern Gissar, 50 to160 meters at the Vakhsh 

megasyncline and Kafirnigan meganticline, and 50 to 180 meters in the Darvaz foothills. 

Kattakamysh suite (Santonian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Kattakamysh suite 

consists of gray ferruginous mudstone 110 to 200 meters thick in southwestern areas 

(Dzhalilov and others, 1982). To the north and east, the suite consists of a lower mudstone 

with limestone and siltstone interbeds 40 to 75 meters thick overlain by variegated 

siltstone and sandstone with gypsum interbeds 50 to 100 meters thick. The lower part is 

mostly limestone in far eastern areas. 

Campanian Stage Sedimentation was relatively continuous throughout the Upper 

Cretaceous until the end of the Upper Campanian (VZG, 2004). At this time, a significant 

part of the North Afghanistan region was uplifted and previously deposited Upper 

Cretaceous sediments were eroded. Preserved sections of the lower Campanian consist 

of interbedded mudstone, sandstone, and coquinoid limestone, with thickness ranging 

from 40 to 80 meters (Dastyar and others, 1990; VZG, 2004). 

80
In northern Afghanistan, upper Campanian rocks are divided into two members, a sandy 

argillaceous member up to 580 meters thick and a carbonate member (Dastyar and others, 

1990; VZG, 2004). 

Upper Campanian rocks in northern Afghanistan transgressively overlie rocks of various 

Cretaceous and Jurassic ages and have a clastic-rich (transgressive lag?) base (Bratash, 

1969; Dastyar and others, 1990). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Campanian interval is composed of limestone and 

mudstone (VNIGNI, 2005a). The thickness is up to 130 meters in the Dushanbe step, 5 to 

220 meters in Vakhsh-Kafirnigan region, and 50 to 300 meters in the Darvaz zone. The 

Campanian is composed of organogenic limestone 30 to 110 meters thick east of the 

Vaksh River (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Sarykamish suite (Campanian) The Sarykamish suite consists of gray mudstone and 

siltstone with coquina interbeds 15 to 140 meters thick in the Afghan-Tajik Basin (Dzhalilov 

and others, 1982). 

Daralitau suite (Campanian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Daralitau suite consists of 

gray-blue mudstone and siltstone with coquina interbeds 90 to 200 meters thick west of 

the basin center, and mudstone with coquina interbeds and bluish-gray marl 10 to 25 

meters thick in eastern areas (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

81
Ghory suite (Campanian to Paleogene) The Ghory suite represents a continuous series 

of rocks from the upper Campanian to the Thanetian Stage of the Paleocene (VZG, 2004). 

The thickness of the Ghory limestone ranges from 150 to 170 meters on the Maimana step 

to 640 meters on the Shiram structure (fig. 7). The carbonate member of the upper 

Campanian together with limestone of the Maastrichtian constitute the lower part of a 

thick carbonate series of the Ghory suite. In the Amu Darya Basin, upper Maastrichtian 

section contains limestone with rudists (VNIGNI, 2005b). 

The Ghory Formation (Maastrichtian to Paleocene) in northern Afghanistan is 150 meters 

thick on the Maimana step and at Jangali Kalan Field, 640 meters thick at Sheram 

structure, 500 to 600 meters thick at the Qunduz area, and 920 meters thick at the eastern 

margin of the Afghan-Tajik Basin (at Dakhanitor or Dahanishor) (Bratash, 1969). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Maastrichtian consists of mainly limestone (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Sandstone is present in the southwestern Gissar spur. The thickness changes from west 

to east, from 15 to 30 meters in foothills of the Gissar range, to 10 to 60 meters in the 

Kafirnigan meganticline, to 50 to 170 meters in the Vakhsh megasyncline. In the Dushanbe 

step, the Maastrichtian is not identified (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Udantau suite (Maastrichtian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Udantau suite consists of 

gray and variegated sandstone and siltstone 60 to 90 meters thick in western parts of the 

82
basin, and bluish-gray limestone and organogenic limestone 25 to 90 meters thick in the 

central and eastern parts of the basin (Dzhalilov and others, 1982; Dastyar and others, 

1990). 

Bulgary suite (Maastrichtian) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Bulgary suite consists of 

limestone, arenaceous limestone, and coquina 10 to 50 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 

1982; Dastyar and others, 1990). 

Bukhara series (Paleocene) Paleogene deposits are more complete in the northeastern 

and northwestern regions of Afghanistan (VZG, 2004). Paleogene sediments were 

deposited in lagoonal and marine conditions. The thickness of the Paleocene deposits 

increase from northwest to southeast from 150 to 650 meters. The section increases in 

thickness from 40 meters at the basin edge to 350 meters toward the central part of the 

basin. In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Bukhara member consists of light- and dark-gray 

limestone with anhydrite from 150 to 200 meters thick (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The Bukhara series to some extent corresponds to upper massive limestone of the Ghory 

suite (VZG, 2004). Three members are identified in the Bukhara series of the Amu Darya 

and Afghan-Tajik Basins, the lower Tabakchin or Akdzhar,(carbonates), the middle 

Aruktau or Shiram (anhydrite), and the upper Karatag (carbonates and clastics) 

(Kreydenkov and Ashurov, 1971; VZG, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005a). 

83
The Akdzhar member is a section in the middle of the Ghory suite consisting of laminated 

limestone (VZG, 2004). In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the member consists of white and red 

anhydrite with interlayers of mudstone and dolostone from 100 to 200 meters thick 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Akdzhar member consists of gypsum, 

dolostone, and red mudstone, with interbeds of red sandstone and siltstone in some 

areas, from 10 to 250 meters thick, which conformably overlies Maastrichtian limestone 

throughout much of the area with some exceptions (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The 

Tabakchin member of the Afghan-Tajik Basin consists of limestone, rare dolostone, and 

gypsum (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The Tabakchin in the south-central part of the basin 

contains normal marine fossils and many nummulites, which compose most of the rock in 

the upper part of the section (Kreydenkov and Ashurov, 1971). To the west (southwest 

Gissar spur), east, and north (Kaplaukyr complex), the fauna are not as abundant because 

of abnormal salinity conditions (Kreydenkov and Ashurov, 1971). 

The Aruktau member of the Afghan-Tajik Basin consists of gray calcareous mudstone and 

marl, in places grading into limestone and is overlain by gypsum with rare interbeds of 

dolostone (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

The Karatag member of the Afghan-Tajik Basin consists of gray marl and argillaceous 

limestone and calcareous mudstone (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

84
Eocene The Eocene stratigraphic interval is divided into four sections, the Suzak, Alay, 

Turkestan, and Talikan (includes Rishtan, Isfarin, and Khanabad beds) (Dastyar and 

others, 1990; VZG, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). 

The Suzak section is early Eocene in age and includes the Givar horizon, which is 

divided into the Kaptar beds in the lower part and Baymin beds in the upper part. The 

Suzak section is most complete in the Afghan-Tajik Basin. In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, 

distal Suzak beds are grayish green mudstone and proximal beds are composed of sand 

and silt material (Babkov and others, 1972; Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The Suzak 

mudstone is rich in illite and montmorillonite and ranges in thickness from 10 to 180 

meters, thinning to the east and northeast (Pokryshkin, 1981). To the east and northeast, 

the mudstone becomes more calcareous, and beds of sandstone and carbonate rocks 

appear (Buzurukov and others, 1978). The mudstone beds pass into sandstone toward the 

south (Babkov and others, 1972). The change from Bukhara sediments to Suzak mudstone 

was caused by a general deepening of the basin and not any paleogeographic event 

(Kreydenkov and Ashurov, 1971). 

The Alay section is middle Eocene in age and consists of interbedded limestone, marl, 

green mudstone and sandstone (Dastyar and others, 1990; VZG, 2004). The thickness 

ranges up to 130 meters. The Alay section in the Afghan-Tajik Basin consists of gray and 

dark-gray limestone and reddish mudstone 30 to 200 meters thick (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Lagoonal limestone (with some concentrations of shells), mudstone, sandstone, and 

85
gypsum are present in the central part of the basin (VNIGNI, 2005a). The section becomes 

more terrigenous toward the west and northwest, closer to mountains (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The total thickness ranges from 30 to 120 meters (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Dzhalilov and others (1982) divide the lower Eocene stratigraphic interval of the AfghanTajik Basin into the Jukar and Beshkent horizons. The Jukar horizon consists of 

variegated calcareous mudstone, marl, limestone, coquina, and sandstone, with interbeds 

of dolostone and gypsum to the west and interbeds of red mudstone, siltstone, and 

sandstone eastward (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). This horizon is assumed to be 

equivalent to the Alay section. The Beshkent horizon is composed of the Gandzhin layers

and the overlying Turkestan section (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The Gandzhin layers 

consist of gray calcareous mudstone with interbeds of marl, coquina, limestone, and 

sandstone up to 60 meters thick and are probably laterally equivalent to the Alay section. 

Commercial phosphate deposits are present in upper Alay beds of the Afghan-Tajik Basin 

(Pokryshkin, 1981). Upper Alay phosphorites are clasts in sandstone (grain size to 3 

millimeters) and phosphatized fossils (Pokryshkin, 1981). 

The Galachagar Series of the Parapamiz-Bande Turkestan range consists of 

intermediate to basic porphyry volcanic rocks that are from 210 to 1,410 meters thick 

(Dastyar and others, 1990). 

86
The Turkestan section is lowermost upper Eocene in age (VZG, 2004). The Turkestan 

section is eroded over much of northern Afghanistan, but is preserved in the Afghan-Tajik 

Basin near the towns of Konduz and Kholm, and at the Maimana step (Badkhyz-Karabil 

uplift of northwestern Afghanistan) (VZG, 2004). In the Afghan-Tajik Basin of northern 

Afghanistan, the section consists of interbedded variegated sandstone, siltstone, and 

mudstone 80 to 120 meters thick (Dastyar and others, 1990; VZG, 2004). The section at the 

Maimana step is significantly different, consisting of sandstone interbedded with 

mudstone, marl, and beds of basalt and tuff with a thickness of about 160 meters (Dastyar 

and others, 1990; VZG, 2004). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Turkestan section consists of greenish-gray mudstone and 

mudstone, 50 to 140 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982; VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Talikan suite The overlying Talikan suite is uppermost upper Eocene in age and consists 

of variegated mudstone with sandstone and limestone interlayers (VZG, 2004). Over a 

significant portion of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Talikan suite is divided into the Rishtan, 

Isfarin and, Khanabad members (VZG, 2004). In northern Afghanistan, these members 

are identified only in outcrops along the Amu Darya River (VZG, 2004). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Rishtan, Isfarin and, Khanabad members are present only in 

the central part of the region and are mainly mudstone with some sandstone and minor 

limestone (VNIGNI, 2005a). The Rishtan member is 80 to 200 meters thick and consists of 

87
red mudstone and white anhydrite (VNIGNI, 2005a). The Isfarin and Khanabad members 

consist of greenish- and bluish-gray mudstone up to 100 meters thick (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The Tochar horizon in the Afghan-Tajik Basin consists of a lower sandstone member with 

mudstone, coarse-grained sandstone, and white gypsum up to 40 meters thick (Dzhalilov 

and others, 1982). The upper member consists of mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone with 

coarse-grained sandstone lenses up to 175 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The 

amount of detrital material and red beds decrease westward (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

The Kushan horizon of the Afghan-Tajik Basin consists of gray mudstone up to 175 

meters thick with rare interbeds of limestone, coquina and, near the top, reddish-brown 

mudstone (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

The top of the Eocene interval is eroded in the Afghan-Tajik Basin, with the brown and red 

mudstone and sandstone of the Sanglak horizon preserved only in the eastern part of the 

basin (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

The Oligocene is largely absent (eroded) in southern Uzbekistan and northern Afghanistan 

(Egamberdyev and Mayvandi, 1992). 

Sumsar section The Sumsar section is Oligocene in age and unconformably overlies the 

Turkestan section over much of the southeastern Amu Darya Basin (VZG, 2004). The 

88
Sumsar section is composed of marine and continental sandstone and silty argillaceous 

rocks, ranging from 30 to 74 meters thick (VZG, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Oligocene interval is called the Bol’dzhua suite and has 

two members (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The lowermost member is the Sumsar 

member and consists of red-colored marine mudstone 150 meters thick (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The Sumsar member is overlain by the Shurysay member, which consists of red-colored 

gypsiferous mudstone, sandstone, and siltstone, ranging from 200 to 250 meters thick 

(VNIGNI, 2005a). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the lowermost member, called the Hissarak member, 

unconformably overlies older Paleogene rocks and consists of alternating bluish and 

greenish-gray sandstone and reddish-brown mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone up to 130 

meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). Stromatolitic limestone and gypsum 

intercalations are present in some areas (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

The Shurysay member in the Afghan-Tajik Basin unconformably overlies the Hissarak and 

Sanglak horizons (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The Shurysay member consists of 

alternating brown and red mudstone, sandstone, and siltstone with gypsum and less 

common limestone up to 190 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

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Neogene rocks overlying the Sumsar section include continental lacustrine, fluvial, 

deltaic, and lacustrine-marine sediments (in the west) (VZG, 2004; VNIGNI, 2005b). The 

formation of the Neogene red-colored and gray-colored continental ororgenic clastic 

rocks took place under the conditions of intense downwarping of the earth crust and of 

active mountain building (VZG, 2004). Rare fossil fauna and flora allow this interval to be 

divided into the Shefai and Koshtangin suites (VZG, 2004). Neogene deposits are part of 

an orogenic complex represented by continental sediments in the Afghan-Tajik Basin 

(Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Shefai suite The Shefai suite is composed of interbedded conglomerate with bright-red 

calcareous mudstone, sandstone and siltstone up to 660 meters thick (Dastyar and others, 

1990; VZG, 2004). 

Balzuan suite The lower Miocene Balzuan suite in the Afghan-Tajik Basin is subdivided 

into the Kamoli and Childara members (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Kamoli member unconformably overlies Shurysay and 

Hissarak rocks and consists of massive and coarse laminated sandstone with rare 

interbeds of mudstone, siltstone, and conglomerate ranging from 180 to 310 meters thick 

(Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The overlying Childara member consists of red sandstone 

and siltstone from 175 to 800 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

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Koshtangin suite The most complete sections of the overlying Koshtangin suite are in 

northeastern Afghanistan (VZG, 2004). The Koshtangin suite is quite similar in lithologic 

composition to the Shefai suite, but the Koshtangin suite differs in the presence of more 

conglomerate, with orange-brown color in the bottom part of the section (Dastyar and 

others, 1990; VZG, 2004). The thickness ranges greatly, from 600 to 2,800 meters (VZG, 

2004). Limestone interbeds are present between Sheberghan and Kholm (fig. 7) (Dastyar 

and others, 1990). In northern Afghanistan, the Koshtangin conformably overlies the 

Shefai suite to the east, but unconformably overlies it to the west (Dastyar and others, 

1990). 

Kingou and Tavildara suites In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the upper Miocene interval is 

divided into the Kingou and Tavildara suites (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

The Kingou suite is present only in the eastern part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin and consists 

of gray and red-brown sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone with lenses of coarse-grained 

sandstone and conglomerate ranging from 230 to 1,500 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 

1982). The Tavildara suite consists of coarse and massive laminated gray and “lilac” 

sandstone and conglomerate up to 2,500 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). Fossil 

flora indicates desert conditions at the time of deposition (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Rustak suite The Rustak suite occurs at the base of the Pliocene section and occupies 

vast areas in the eastern part of the Amu Darya Basin (VZG, 2004). Basal layers of the 

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suite are composed of conglomerate (VZG, 2004). Above the basal layers, the section 

consists of uneven alternating siltstone, gray-colored poorly sorted sandstone, 

conglomerate (VZG, 2004). The thickness ranges from 2,000 to 3,000 meters (VZG, 2004). 

Kokchin suite The Kokchin suite is a thick clastic section consisting of alternating gray 

sandstone, sandy siltstone and mudstone (Dastyar and others, 1990; VZG, 2004). The suite 

has extreme variations in thickness, from several hundreds of meters to 7,000 meters 

(VZG, 2004). The Kokchin suite grades unconformably into conglomerate-sandstone rocks 

of the Keshm suite (VZG, 2004). 

Keshm suite The Keshm suite consists of coarse-grained, cross-bedded sandstone and 

conglomerate (VZG, 2004). Mudstone is rare (VZG, 2004). The thickness may reach 4,000 

meters (VZG, 2004). 

Karanak suite (Pliocene) the Karanak suite of the Afghan-Tajik Basin consists of redbrown and pale brown siltstone and clay-rich sandstone with interbeds of conglomerate 

and some gypsum, ranging from 30 to 1,130 meters thick (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Conglomerate content increases towards the basin margins (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Polizak suite (Pliocene) In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, the Polizak suite consists of gray 

sandstone, intercalations of gray, red-brownish-gray, and red-brown mudstone and 

siltstone, and interbeds and lenses, ranging from 190 to 490 meters thick (Dzhalilov and 

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others, 1982). The upper Pliocene Kuruksay suite overlies the Polizak suite (Dzhalilov and 

others, 1982). In the Amu Darya Basin, mostly gray- and brown-colored rocks occur in the 

upper part of the Pliocene section (VZG, 2004). 

Kulyab suite (Quaternary) Quaternary deposits are present at the top of the sedimentary 

cover, ranging in thickness from 1,000 to 1,700 meters (VZG, 2004). In the Afghan-Tajik 

Basin, the oldest Quaternary deposits are sand, mud, and conglomerate (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

The lower Quaternary Kulyab section is 600 to 1,000 meters thick and is probably of 

lacustrine origin. The Kulyab section is slightly deformed and unconformably overlies 

older rocks (VNIGNI, 2005a). Younger Quaternary sediments consist of alluvial sand, mud, 

loess, and massive debris flows. Quaternary eolian deposits are widely present in the 

Amu Darya Basin (VNIGNI, 2005b). 

TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEMS 

Afghanistan has five major sedimentary basins with petroleum exploration potential, the 

Amu Darya, Afghan-Tajik, and Herat (Tirpul) Basins (fig. 3); and and on the Helmund 

(Gelmend or Sistan) and Katawaz (Kundar-Urgan) blocks (fig. 5). The Amu Darya Basin in 

the northwest of Afghanistan contains known petroleum reserves and the Afghan-Tajik 

Basin to the northeast has undrilled structures in prospective areas (fig. 7). Natural gas is 

Afghanistan’s major known petroleum resource and is found in Mesozoic and Cenozoic 

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sediments (Nathan Associates Inc., and Louis Berger International, Inc., 1992; Economic 

and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). 

Four total petroleum systems were identified in this study; eight assessment units were 

defined within these total petroleum systems for the purpose of resource assessment 

(table 1, figs. 8 through 11). Three of these total petroleum systems are parts of a precursor single pre-Neogene total petroleum system that was located mainly in the Amu 

Darya Basin but extended into the Afghan-Tajik Basin. The total petroleum systems are 

(1) Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous, (2) Kalaimor-Kaisar Jurassic, (3) Afghan-Tajik 

Jurassic, and (4) Afghan-Tajik Paleogene. 

Thermally mature source rocks of Jurassic age charged predominantly carbonate 

reservoirs with natural gas below a thick (up to 800 meters) salt seal. Clastic reservoirs of 

Cretaceous age (above the Jurassic section) are charged with natural gas and crude oil 

where the salt is absent. A younger Paleogene total petroleum system overlies the 

Jurassic System in the Afghan-Tajik Basin. Here, the Jurassic and Paleogene total 

petroleum systems are separated by thick Jurassic salt in thrust-fault sheets. The 

Paleogene total petroleum system is oil-prone whereas the Jurassic total petroleum 

systems are gas-prone. 

Elements of the Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous Total Petroleum System and the AfghanTajik Jurassic Total Petroleum System include Lower to Middle Jurassic carbonaceous 

94
mudstone and coal and Upper Jurassic basinal marine mudstone source rocks; Upper 

Jurassic carbonate and Lower Cretaceous clastic reservoirs; Upper Jurassic evaporites 

and Lower Cretaceous mudstones seals; and Mesozoic and Cenozoic structures and reefrelated traps. The third, Kalaimor-Kaisar Jurassic Total Petroleum System includes only 

Lower to Middle Jurassic carbonaceous mudstone and coal source rocks; Lower to 

Middle Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous clastic reservoirs and Upper Cretaceous 

carbonate reservoirs; intraformational Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Paleogene mudstones 

seals; and Mesozoic- and Cenozoic-age structures as traps. 

The Paleogene Total Petroleum System has not been previously recognized in the AfghanTajik Basin. The source rocks for crude oil in this basin have not been identified by 

previous studies. This system is composed of lower Eocene basinal marine mudstone 

source rocks; Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene reservoirs; lower Eocene and upper 

Paleogene mudstone seals; and Neogene compressional structures associated with 

Himalayan orogenesis as traps. Evaporite-evacuation sites (areas where evaporite is 

absent) might have allowed local mixing of Jurassic-sourced petroleum with Paleogenesourced petroleum. Anticlinal structures in the eastern part of the basin are eroded and 

some are breached, resulting in biodegradation and leakage of petroleum. 

Another unnamed total petroleum system includes Lower to Middle Jurassic 

carbonaceous mudstone and coal on the North Afghan High where coalbed gas 

accumulations may be present. The presence and extent of the Lower to Middle Jurassic 

95
section on the North Afghan High are unknown and consequently the coalbed gas 

resources were not assessed in this total petroleum system. 

The eight assessment units were defined with homogeneous geologic traits and 

exploration efforts that constitute sufficiently homogeneous populations for resource 

assessment. All assessment units are located within Afghanistan. 

Geochemistry 

Petroleum has not been produced from the Afghan-Tajik part of northern Afghanistan but 

petroleum is produced across the border in neighboring Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. The 

source rocks for the crude oil have not been definitively identified. Jurassic source rocks 

of the Amu Darya Basin exist beneath thrust sheets, but are deeply buried and have been 

subjected to gas-generation temperatures. Although these rocks were suspected to be 

the source of petroleum in the Afghan-Tajik Basin, their great burial depth below the 

impervious Upper Jurassic salt precludes the sourcing of suprasalt reservoirs except 

where salt may be absent. Organic-rich Eocene-age Suzak (also called Givar) mudstone 

has been described by geologists for many years. Based on petroleum-generation 

models and geochemical analyses of source rock extracts and crude oils conducted at 

the USGS, the Suzak mudstone may be the source of oil in the Afghan-Tajik Basin. USGS 

data indicate the existence of this previously unrecognized Paleogene oil-prone total 

petroleum system. 

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Basin-subsidence curves and PETROMOD one-dimensional petroleum-generation models 

were constructed for this study based on rock thicknesses derived from two regional 

cross sections. One cross section represents northern Afghanistan and the other 

represents southern Tajikistan. Profiles from cross sections through synclines were used 

for modeling. One interval is immediately west of the Afghanistan Gunj structure and the 

other is between the Tajikistan Aryktau and Khodzha Kazian structures (locations on map 

on fig. 7). Thicknesses of the individual rock-time intervals were measured directly from 

the cross sections and amounts of erosion were estimated by calculating the difference 

between the measured thickness of each profile and the maximum thickness in the same 

or nearby locations along the cross section. Basin-subsidence curves were then 

constructed from these thicknesses (fig. 12). In addition, because late Neogene and 

Quaternary tectonic events greatly influenced the maturation of source rocks and timing 

of petroleum expulsion and accumulation, the deposition and erosion history of 

Quaternary deposits at the nearby mouths of the Vakhsh and Pyandzh Rivers (located 

between the two profiles) was incorporated into the basin-subsidence curves. 

The basin-subsidence curves are reasonably similar to one another and to a curve 

constructed by Yakovets (1976). Some differences in subsidence rates and ages of preQuaternary unconformity result from different rock-unit groups between the two original 

cross sections. The pre-Quaternary uplift event and resulting unconformity, as well as 

three erosional events during the Quaternary, are shown by both curves. The age of the 

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pre-Quaternary and pre-Neogene erosional events are shown to be a few million years 

older on the northern Afghanistan curve. These discrepancies do not significantly change 

the interpretation of the overall basin subsidence and basinal heat-flow histories. 

A postulated basinal heat flow was used in the PETROMOD model, which was determined 

from basin models developed by McCabe (USGS, 2006, personal communication). The 

Afghan-Tajik Basin was an intracratonic rift sag basin throughout most of the Cretaceous 

and Paleogene and a foreland basin since late Neogene (Miocene) time. Typically, heat 

flow in rift sag basins range from 35 to 65 milliwatts per square meter (McCabe, USGS, 

2006 personal communication). A mean heat flow for rift sag basins of 50 milliwatts per 

square meter was used in this study for both basin types. Typically, higher heat flows are 

associated with foreland basins (up to 100 milliwatts per square meter), but because 

subsidence and high sedimentation rates occurred very recently, the lower heat flow was 

assumed to account for non-equilibrated temperatures. 

Geothermal gradients for three depth intervals within the Afghan-Tajik Basin reported by 

Gotgilf and others (1969) were incorporated to calibrate the temperatures used in the 

model. The gradients are 25 degrees C per kilometer for the Neogene interval, 32 degrees 

C per kilometer for the Eocene to Oligocene interval, and 20 degrees C per kilometer for 

the Paleocene interval. These geothermal gradients are consistent with those reported 

by Krylov (1980) for the Afghan-Tajik Basin; 24 to 30 degrees C per kilometer to 4.5 

kilometers depth and 25 to 29 degrees C per kilometer to 6 to 7 kilometers depth. 

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A surface temperature of 20 degrees C was assumed for the entire basin history. The 

gradients provide approximate temperatures of 108 degrees C at 3,531 meters depth, 117 

degrees C at 3,816 meters depth, and 164 degrees C at 6,164 meters depth for the 

Afghanistan section and 150 degrees C at 5,200 meters depth, 163 degrees C at 5,600 

meters depth, and 209 degrees C at 7,900 meters depth for the Tajikistan section. Paleogeothermal gradients were matched to the measured vitrinite reflectance values. Vitrinite 

reflectance was measured by the USGS from two wells in the Afghan-Tajik Basin of 

northern Afghanistan that are located along the cross section used to construct the 

basin-subsidence curve. The vitrinite-reflectance samples are from Upper Cretaceous to 

lower Paleogene rocks (Bukhara beds, 2,658 to 2,667 meters) of the Balkh # 1 well and 

Lower to Upper Cretaceous rocks (Barremian to Campanian, 2,935 to 2,942 meters depth) 

of the Sanduqli #1 well. The mean and standard deviation of the vitrinite reflectance 

values are 0.94 percent and 0.14 (3 samples) for the Balkh well samples and 1.53 percent 

and 0.23 (5 samples) for the Sanduqli samples. 

The PETROMOD model indicates that the Eocene Suzak mudstone was thermally mature 

and in an oil-generation temperature regime (oil window) by early Neogene time, thereby 

supporting the hypothesis of the existence of a Paleogene total petroleum system in the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin (fig. 13). Late Neogene and Quaternary tectonic events uplifted some 

areas to place the Suzak mudstone above the oil-generation conditions. The model 

indicates that the Suzak mudstone becomes mature at depths of 2,470 meters in 

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Afghanistan and 3,200 meters in Tajikistan. A map of the present-day distribution of 

thermal maturation of Suzak mudstone in terms of burial depth was constructed from the 

model (fig. 14). 

Many crude oil, natural gas, and source rock samples have been collected from wells, 

fields, and outcrops in northern Afghanistan and Tajikistan to relate crude oil and natural 

gas to postulated source rocks (fig. 7). Additionally, results of geochemical analyses of 

crude oil and source-rock extracts from the Uzbekistan part of the Amu Darya Basin by 

British Petroleum (BP) as reported by VNIGNI, (2005a) are used for comparative purposes. 

Biomarker and stable carbon isotope analysis of crude oil and source rock extracts 

demonstrate different petroleum systems. A database of the analytical results is provided 

in the appendix, but a summary and interpretations are given in this part of the text. Crude 

oil families, source-rock type, maturity, and relative aerobic/anoxic conditions of the 

water-sediment interface during source-rock deposition interpreted from these data 

indicate that crude oil in the Amu Darya Basin is different from that of the Afghan-Tajik 

Basin. Although geochemical correlation of the proposed Paleogene source rock with 

crude oil in the Afghan-Tajik Basin is inconclusive, at present, the geochemical character 

of the extracts from these rocks more closely resemble that of the Afghan-Tajik crude oils 

than the Amu Darya crude oils. 

Outcrop samples of Suzak mudstone from northern Afghanistan and southern Tajikistan, 

along with core samples from Qunduz #3 well of northern Afghanistan, and Khodzhasartis 

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#18, Kyzylsu #5, and Tanapchi #5 of Tajikistan were analyzed to determine crude oil source 

potential (fig. 7). Samples collected from outcrops in the Afghan-Tajik Basin are poor due 

to extreme weathering (fig. 15). Only a few outcrop samples and core samples of the 

Suzak mudstone contained enough organic matter to be adequately analyzed 

geochemically, although many more samples provided total organic carbon, vitrinite 

reflectance, and pyrolysis information (fig. 16). Most of the samples have mean vitrinite 

reflectance values between 0.9 and 1.5 percent, indicating that the organic matter is 

thermally mature and within the realm of of crude oil generation. Two samples have 

vitrinite reflectance values of approximately 2 percent, capable of natural gas generation. 

One aberrant sample probably contains reworked (recycled) vitrinite with a reflectance 

value of 5.6 percent. 

Total organic carbon content of Suzak mudstone outcrop samples is generally low, 

averaging approximately 0.4 weight percent (fig. 16). Only two outcrop samples contain 

total organic carbon greater than 1 weight percent, both approximately 1.3 weight 

percent. Two Suzak mudstone core samples from the Qunduz #3 well of northern 

Afghanistan (fig. 7) have total organic matter contents of 13.9 and 19.7 weight percent, 

indicating that these rocks are capable of generating petroleum. 

Results from pyrolysis analysis (Rock-Eval) indicate that the two core samples are 

thermally immature (Tmax less than 435 degrees C), never buried deeply enough to be in 

the temperature regime for crude oil generation (fig. 16). Additionally, most of the Suzak 

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mudstone outcrop samples were found to be thermally immature as well. Organic matter 

in two outcrop samples, however, is highly mature to post mature (Tmax greater than 465 

degrees C). 

Pyrolysis analysis of the Suzak mudstone also indicates that most of the outcrop samples 

contain natural gas-prone type III kerogen (fig. 16). The Qunduz #3 well core samples and 

a few outcrop samples contain crude oil-prone type II kerogen. 

Crude oil samples from Tajikistan oil-producing fields of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, Ghory 

reservoir rocks in Kaldar #1 well core (northern Afghanistan), and extracts from Suzak 

mudstone from outcrops and the Qunduz #3 well were analyzed to determine source rock 

potential (figs. 7 and 17A through K). Crude oil samples from the Amu Darya (Angut, Aq 

Darya, and Qash Qari Fields) and Herat Basins (Ahmad Abad well) of northern 

Afghanistan, as well as the results of BP’s geochemical analysis of crude oil and extracts 

from the Uzbekistan part of the Amu Darya Basin (Chardzhou Step) were included for 

comparative purposes (fig. 17A). 

Crude oil and crude oil extract samples tend to cluster when plotted with respect to the 

relative proportions of saturates, aromatics, and polar fractions (fig. 17B). Samples from 

Kaldar #1 and Qunduz #3 wells contain the greatest proportion of polar constituents. All 

but two of the Tajikistan crude oil samples plot together. The Amu Darya and Herat Basin 

samples from Afghanistan have similar proportions of each fraction. One Tajikistan 

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sample has a composition similar to the Afghanistan Amu Darya samples. The Uzbekistan 

Amu Darya samples generally contain greater proportions of aromatic hydrocarbons, but 

one sample is rich in saturate hydrocarbons and is classified by BP as a condensate (from 

the Shurtan #1 well). 

The crude oil and extract samples are differentiated with respect to stable carbon isotope 

data for saturated and aromatic hydrocarbon fractions (fig. 17C). Suzak mudstone 

extracts from the Qunduz #3 well core samples contain saturate and aromatic fractions 

that are isotopically light in terms of carbon 13 to carbon 12 ratios (greater than -30 per mil 

or parts per thousand, delta 13C). Samples from both the Afghanistan and Uzbekistan parts 

of the Amu Darya Basin contain similar isotopic compositions. Most of the Tajikistan 

samples and Kaldar #1 samples contain similar isotopic compositions, heavier than those 

of the Amu Darya Basin samples. The Herat Basin sample is also isotopically similar to 

the Tajikistan samples. Two Tajikistan samples (Shaambari and Khodzhamumyn Fields), 

however, are isotopically lighter than the others. 

Tajikistan crude oil is different from that of the Afghanistan Amu Darya samples with 

respect to sulfur content and crude oil density (as API gravity) (fig. 17D). The Takjikistan 

crude oils generally contain smaller amounts of sulfur and have lighter API gravities than 

the Amu Darya samples (all from Angut Field). Two Tajikistan crude oils, from Kichikbel 

and Akhbashadyr Fields, are different from the other samples having higher percentages 

of sulfur (6 to 7 percent) and heavier (11 to 14 degrees API). These two crude oil samples 

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are interpreted to be water washed and partly biodegraded. The character of 

chromatographs supports this interpretation and evidence exists that perhaps more than 

one episode of migration, remigration, and biodegradation occurred. 

Tajikistan crude oil is different from that of the Afghanistan Amu Darya samples with 

respect to sulfur content and the ratio of pristane to phytane (fig. 17E). As with crude oil 

density, crude oil samples from Kichikbel and Akhbashadyr Fields of Tajikistan are 

different from the other Tajikistan samples having much smaller pristane to phytane ratios 

(because of biodegradation?) as well as greater sulfur content. A crude oil sample from 

Herat Basin is different from the others, having a low pristane to phytane ratio (0.3) 

Based on the relative proportions of the C27, C28, and C29 sterane biomarkers, crude oils 

from the Tajikistan fields are slightly different from the Afghan crude oils of the Amu Darya 

and Herat Basins, having a greater C29 content (fig. 17F, samples from the Uzbekistan part 

of the Amu Darya Basin are not included because data are unavailable). Extracts from the 

Qunduz #3 samples appear to be more similar to the Tajikistan samples than the other 

Afghanistan samples. One Afghanistan crude oil of the Amu Darya Basin, from Aq Darya 

Field, has a composition quite different from the other Amu Darya Basin samples. 

Crude oil samples from the Tajikistan part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, one of the Kaldar #1 

samples, and the Herat Basin sample were most likely sourced from organic-rich clasticrich mudstone, based on the C22/C21 and C29/C30 sterane ratios (fig. 17G). Also based on 

104
these ratios, crude oil samples from the Afghanistan part of the Amu Darya Basin were 

most likely sourced from organic-rich, fine-grained carbonate rocks. Two of the Kaldar #1 

samples most likely had a clastic source rock based on C29/C30, but C22/C21 indicates 

that a carbonate source-rock component may have existed. 

Source rocks for the Tajikistan crude oils and source rocks from cores and outcrops were 

most likely deposited in disoxic conditions based on C35/C34 (fig. 17H). Source rocks for 

the Kaldar #1, Herat Basin, and Afghanistan part of the Amu Darya Basin crude oils were 

most likely deposited in anoxic conditions as indicated by C35/C34. 

Grouping of crude oil samples and extracts are also observed in the relations of 

diasterane and sterane ratios with respect to C29/C30 sterane ratio (fig. 17I) and pristane 

to phytane ratio (fig. 17J). 

The C27 18a trisnorhopane to C27 17a trisnorhopane ratios (Ts/Tm) for the samples 

indicate that extracts from the outcrop and core samples of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, 

Kaldar #1, and the Herat Basin were derived from thermally immature source rocks (Ts/Tm 

less than 0.5) (fig. 17K). The Tajikistan and Afghanistan Amu Darya Basin crude oils were 

derived from thermally mature source rocks. Two Tajikistan crude oils, from Kichikbel and 

Akhbashadyr Fields, have low Ts/Tm probably as a result of water washing and 

biodegradation. 

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Oils in Paleogene reservoirs of the Dushanbe step and Afghan-Tajik Basin have iC19 to iC20

ratios of 0.81 to 1.74 and vanadium to nickel porphyrine ratios of 3.22 to 1.63 (Safranov and 

others, 1986). Non-biodegraded oils in Paleogene reservoirs of the Kulyab megasyncline 

are light, low sulfur, and the gases are wet (heavy hydrocarbon content of 9.75 to 12.64 

percent) with 0.16 to 0.26 percent hydrogen sulfide (Safranov and others, 1986). In the 

Kulyab megasyncline, oils in Eocene reservoirs are not biodegraded and gas is mainly 

methane with high amounts of carbon dioxide and nitrogen (Safranov and others, 1986). 

Paleocene oils are paraffinic, heavy (density of 0.929 to 0.962 grams per cubic centimeter 

or 16 to 21 degrees API gravity), and contain abundant resins but few asphaltenes (1.5 to 

10 percent) (Yakovets and Gotgilf, 1969). Sulfur content ranges from 1.92 to 4.33 percent 

and paraffin content ranges from 3.5 to 18.65 percent in these oils (Yakovets and Gotgilf, 

1969). These oils have a paraffinic-naphthenic base (Yakovets and Gotgilf, 1969). 

Porphyrine content is high with dominant vanadium concentrations (Yakovets and Gotgilf, 

1969). Alay oils (Shaambary and Lyalmikar Fields) are also paraffinic, similar to the 

Paleocene oils, but with a lighter hydrocarbon fraction (Yakovets and Gotgilf, 1969). Sulfur 

content ranges from 0.26 to 2.10 percent (Yakovets and Gotgilf, 1969). Small amounts of 

porphyrines are present, therefore nickel is in greater concentrations than vanadium 

(Yakovets and Gotgilf, 1969). 

A water sample from the Paleogene (Ghory) reservoir flowing from the Gunj #2 well was 

analyzed for traces of hydrocarbons. The water is classified as sodium-calcium-sulfate 

composition, containing 773 parts per million sodium, 758 parts per million calcium, and 

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2,520 milligrams per liter sulfate. Other constituents include 1,590 milligrams per liter 

chloride, 249 parts per million magnesium, 37 parts per million silicon, 34 parts per million 

potassium, 31 milligrams per liter nitrate, 15 parts per million strontium, and minor 

concentrations of bicarbonate, bromine, fluoride, boron, lithium, and barium. The 

composition indicates that this water is a mixture of formation water associated with 

sulfate-rich evaporites and meteoric water. Meteoric water probably invaded from a 

recharge area approximately 75 kilometers to the south along the Alburz-Marmul fault 

where Ghory beds crop out. 

Mineralization of water is not clearly related to depth in the Afghan-Tajik Basin (Safranov 

and others, 1983). At Khaudag Field, Tajikistan, formation water from Paleocene rocks at 

160 meters contains 190 grams per liter of total dissolved solids (Safranov and others, 

1983). At Dzeyrankana Field, Tajikistan, formation water from Paleocene rocks at 2,000 

meters contains 5 to 10 grams per liter of total dissolved solids (Safranov and others, 

1983). Crude oils are found associated with both low salinity waters with sulfates and 

with high salinity waters (Safranov and others, 1983). 

In the Dushanbe step and North Afghan High, mineralization of water in Jurassic 

reservoirs is only 20 to 40 grams per liter compared to 250 to 400 grams per liter elsewhere 

(Safranov and others, 1986). Water in Eocene reservoirs are of different mineralization (20 

to 100 grams per liter) having a complex chemical composition and low gas saturation in 

water (Safranov and others, 1986). 

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In Amu Darya Basin crude oil fields, such as Angut, formation waters have potassium 

carbonate and potassium sulfate compositions indicating meteoric-water invasion 

(Seregin and others, 1982). 

AMU DARYA BASIN 

Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous Total Petroleum System (115401) 

Discovery History: 

Fifteen fields have been discovered in the Amu Darya Basin part of Afghanistan since 

1957, the most recent discovered in 1984; seven are oil fields and eight are gas fields. 

Only about 3 of the gas fields are currently producing. 

As a result of the discovery of petroleum accumulations in neighboring Uzbekistan and 

Turkmenistan, some oil companies began geologic studies of northern Afghanistan 

(particularly in the Amu Darya Basin) beginning in the 1930s (VZG, 2004). Exploration was 

conducted by gravimetric and magnetic mapping, drilling of shallow core holes, and 

reflection seismic surveys (Ulmishek, 2004). An evaluation of high petroleum potential 

resulted from work by England Exploration Company, which was corroborated by studies 

made later by R. Schlumberger in 1948 (VZG, 2004). Petroleum exploration started in 

northern Afghanistan in the middle to late 1950s with the drilling of shallow core wells at 

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the Angut structure by the Swedish company Diamante in 1958 (VZG, 2004). Evidence of 

crude oil and natural gas was observed in Lower Cretaceous rocks (VZG, 2004). Crude oil 

was first discovered at Saripul in 1959. The first major crude oil field, Angut, was 

discovered in 1967, where some oil wells gushered and several thousand barrels per year 

of crude oil were produced (Nathan Associates Inc., and Louis Berger International, Inc., 

1992). Five more oil fields have been discovered since Angut; the most recent field is 

Zamarud Sai, discovered in 1978. Crude oil production increased by about 20 percent per 

year through the 1970s (Nathan Associates Inc., and Louis Berger International, Inc., 

1992). Crude oil is presumed to have been trucked to the USSR during the early 1970s, but 

later, the Soviets built two pipelines from the USSR to supply the needs of their military 

forces during their occupation of Afghanistan, as well as their Afghan government client 

(Nathan Associates Inc., and Louis Berger International, Inc., 1992). Crude oil production 

all but ceased following the Soviet military withdrawal in the 1980s. Starting in 2000, small 

volumes of crude oil were produced from Angut Field and processed in a “primitive” 

refinery in Sheberghan to make fuel. As of 2006, discovered recoverable crude oil in 

northern Afghanistan is reported to be approximately 75 million barrels (10 million metric 

tons) with approximately 0.2 million barrels (0.03 million metric tons) produced (data from 

Gustavson and Associates, 2005, VZG, 2004). 

During exploration for crude oil in the 1960s and 1970s, several large natural gas fields 

were discovered. Etym Tag (1960) and Khuja Goger Dak Fields (1961), both near 

Sheberghan in Jowzjan Province, were among the first to be discovered. Several more 

109
large natural gas fields were discovered during the 1970s and early 1980s in this area 

(Nathan Associates Inc., and Louis Berger International, Inc., 1992). The most recent 

discovery was Bashi Kurd Field in 1984. The annual production of natural gas in 1983 was 

100.6 trillion cubic feet (2,850 million cubic meters) per year (Economic and Social 

Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). As of 2006, discovered recoverable natural 

gas in northern Afghanistan is reported to be approximately 5 trillion cubic feet (142 

million cubic meters) with approximately a little over 2 trillion cubic feet (56 billion cubic 

meters) produced (data from Gustavson and Associates, 2005, VZG, 2004). Natural gas 

production began in 1967 with Khuja Goger Dak Field (Nathan Associates Inc., and Louis 

Berger International, Inc., 1992; VZG, 2004). Approximately 80 percent of the natural gas 

was piped 200 kilometers to the USSR (Nathan Associates Inc., and Louis Berger 

International, Inc., 1992; Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). 

The remaining natural gas was delivered to a 28,000 kilowatt thermal power plant and 

100,000 tonnes-per-year nitrogen fertilizer plant in Mazar i Sharif (Nathan Associates Inc., 

and Louis Berger International, Inc., 1992; Economic and Social Commission for Asia and 

the Pacific, 1995; VZG, 2004). In 1976, construction began on a gas-refining facility to 

remove sulfur from natural gas produced at Jer Koduq Field (the Jardak Desulfurization 

Project) (Nathan Associates Inc., and Louis Berger International, Inc., 1992; VZG, 2004). 

The facility was placed in operation in 1978 (Nathan Associates Inc., and Louis Berger 

International, Inc., 1992). Reports since 1979 indicate that natural gas shipments to the 

USSR reached over 100 billion cubic feet (3.5 billion cubic meters) per year (Nathan 

Associates Inc., and Louis Berger International, Inc., 1992). By 1985, seven natural gas 

110
fields and six oil fields were discovered in Afghanistan (Economic and Social Commission 

for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). Khuja Goger Dak gas field, Jer Koduq gas field, and Qash 

Qari oil field are the largest discoveries to date in this basin. Major producing reservoirs 

are in the Upper Jurassic Kugitang carbonates and Lower Cretaceous terrigenous rocks 

(Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). In the early 1990s, 

natural gas production and shipments to the USSR were terminated (Nathan Associates 

Inc., and Louis Berger International, Inc., 1992; VZG, 2004). In 1999, the Afghan Gas 

Enterprise restored the only remaining pipeline, which runs between Jer Koduq Field and 

Mazar i Sharif (VZG, 2004). 

About 370 wells have been drilled in northern Afghanistan, based on data obtained mainly 

from the Afghanistan government. Although the exact number is not known, over 100 of 

these wells are classified as exploration and over 200 are classified as development. Of 

the 100 or so exploration wells, most are probably outpost and new-pool wildcat wells 

rather than new-field wildcat wells because many fields contain more than one, and up to 

several, of these wells. 

Of the 370 or so wells, most were drilled in the Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous Total 

Petroleum System; 270 were drilled in the Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin Margin 

(11540107) Assessment Unit and 48 were drilled in the superimposed Afghanistan Jurassic 

Evaporite Basin Subsalt Carbonates (11540105) and Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin 

Suprasalt Anticlines (11540106) Assessment Units. Twenty-seven wells were drilled on 

111
the North Afghan High along the edge of the Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin Margin 

(11540107) Assessment Unit. These wells tested dry (petroleum absent) and were used to 

delineate the assessment unit boundaries. 

Estimates of recoverable crude oil and natural gas in discovered fields made through time 

by various organizations generally are not significantly different from one another (fig. 18). 

Estimates of the recoverable crude oil and natural gas (field sizes) with respect to 

discovery year are shown in Figure 19 to provide insight into the discovery history. 

Improvements in current recovery efficiency will most certainly result in re-estimation of 

volumes of petroleum that might be produced from those fields. 

Petroleum Occurrence: 

Most of the discovered petroleum in Afghanistan is in the Amu Darya Basin. The 

accumulations are in structures, some expressed in topographic relief (fig. 20), on and 

along the Akhchin step (Jangali Kalan, Etym Tag, and Khuja Goger Dak natural gas fields), 

Andkhoy uplift (Juma, Bashi Kurd, and Jer Koduq natural gas fields), the western flank of 

the North Afghan High (Khuja Bulan natural gas field; Angut, Aq Darya, Qash Qari, Bazar 

Kami, and Zamarud Sai crude oil fields), and Maimana step (Alli Gul crude oil field). One 

accumulation on the Akhchin step (Chekh Che natural gas) and two along the flank of the 

North Afghan High (Saripul crude oil and Sha Karak natural gas) may also be fields, but 

are not formally recognized as such to date (AMMI, 2002, Gustavson and Associates, 

2005). All of these accumulations exist either below Upper Jurassic salt or where salt is 

112
absent. Large petroleum accumulations have not yet been found above Upper Jurassic 

salt (Kingston, 1990; Kingston and Clarke, 1995). 

The main trapping configurations for petroleum are associated with compressional 

structures and include (1) Upper Jurassic carbonate rocks sealed by evaporites (Khuja 

Goger Dak, Jer Koduq, Juma, Jangali Kalan, Bashi Kurd, Etym Tag Fields); (2) Lower 

Cretaceous fine-grained continental sandstone sealed by Aptian to Albian mudstone 

(Khuja Goger Dak, Jer Koduq, Etym Tag, Khuja Bulan, Qash Qari, Zamarud Sai, Aq Darya, 

Angut, Alli Gul, and Bazar Kami Fields); and (3) potential Upper Cretaceous to Paleocene 

carbonate rocks sealed by Paleogene mudstone (fig. 21) (Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001). 

The latter may be more important for the Afghan-Tajik Basin. 

The Akhchin step and Andkhoy uplift are both westward extensions of the North Afghan 

High. The Andkhoy uplift is structurally higher than the Akhchin step. Upper Jurassic salt 

is thin on the Akhchin step but is absent on parts of the Andkhoy uplift. Natural gas 

accumulations, therefore, exist in Lower Cretaceous reservoirs on the Andkhoy uplift as a 

result of salt absence. These highs were positive features during the Late Jurassic, on 

and along where reef and reef-associated carbonate rocks were deposited. The reef 

trend extends westward into Turkmenistan along the Yashlar-Andkhoy and Shah Mala 

(Shakhmolla) arches, then northward into Uzbekistan and wraps around the southwestern 

Gissar spur. The trend might also extend eastward from the Akhchin step and Andkhoy 

uplift along the northern flank of the North Afghan High into the Afghanistan portion of the 

113
Afghan-Tajik Basin. The possibility exists for pinnacle reefs and fore-reef talus having 

reservoir potential for petroleum accumulations to have been deposited in more basinal 

settings, north of these positive features. Alternatively, reef-associated petroleum 

accumulations might also extend around a possible paleo-embayment south of the 

Andkhoy uplift, wrapping around to follow the northern flank of the Maimana step and 

continuing westward. 

Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous sections thin and pinch out along the western flank of the 

North Afghan High where the Jurassic evaporite basin margin once existed. On the Angut 

and Sheram structures on the western flank of the North Afghan High, crystalline 

basement, Paleozoic, Triassic, and Jurassic rocks were penetrated by well bores 

(Akhmedzyanov and others, 1973). Crystalline basement rocks consist predominantly of 

highly metamorphosed rocks including gneiss with some volcanic rocks, schist and 

quartzite (Akhmedzyanov and others, 1973). The Paleozoic section consists of carbonates 

and terrigenous deposits of Silurian to Devonian age from 500 to 600 meters thick, 

Carboniferous terrigenous deposits of up to 600 to 800 meters thick, and Permian 

carbonates approximately 1,500 meters thick (Akhmedzyanov and others, 1973). Triassic 

rocks unconformably overlie older rocks in the Angut, Aabdan, and Kariz structures 

(Akhmedzyanov and others, 1973). Dark Triassic sandstone and mudstone of less than 100 

meters thick are on the Kariz structure, but red continental clastic deposits, 39 to 88 

meters thick, are on the Angut structure (Akhmedzyanov and others, 1973). Up to 400 

meters of green and dark to black sandstone, mudstone, and coal comprise the Lower to 

114
Middle Jurassic section (Akhmedzyanov and others, 1973). Upper Jurassic rocks consist 

of red terrigenous rocks with rare anhydrite interbeds less than 100 meters thick in the 

San Charak (Sangcharak) area (Akhmedzyanov and others, 1973). 

The Badkhyz-Karabil uplift and Maimana step are important for exploration of sulfur free 

gas in Cretaceous reservoirs in Turkmenistan (Smirnov and others, 1980). The Maimana 

step is structurally higher than the Badkyz-Karabil uplift and the stratigraphic section is 

less complete (fig. 22) (Smirnov and others, 1980). An escarpment about 700 to 1,500 

meters high is located between the Maimana step and Badkyz-Karabil uplift in 

Turkmenistan (Smirnov and others, 1980). Jurassic and Hauterivian rocks are absent on 

Maimana step (Smirnov and others, 1980). The Maimana step contains three parallel 

elongate structures: (1) southwestern, called Kurukbeli arch, Jekda Lak line with the 

Turkmenistan Khwaja Gugert Dag structure; (2) central, Khuja Qul line with the Qara Babi 

structure; and (3) northeastern, Qara Qul line with the Dervezekem structure (Smirnov and 

others, 1980). The base of sedimentary cover has an average dip of 2°

 (Smirnov and 

others, 1980). In most uplifted area at Khwaja Gugert Dag Field, the base is 1 kilometer 

deep but is 5 kilometers deep on the northern slope of the structure (Smirnov and others, 

1980). Significant structural changes took place during pre-Ghory unconformity (Smirnov 

and others, 1980). The eastern part of the area was uplifted and the southwestern slope 

formed (Smirnov and others, 1980). Amplitudes of structures progressively increase at 

unconformities, increasing 1.5- to 1.7-fold from Lower to Upper Cretaceous, indicating that 

structures were developing during Cretaceous time (Kravchenko and Ivanova, 1997). 

115
Callovian to Oxfordian and some Lower Cretaceous intervals pinch out completely under 

the pre-Barremian unconformity and are absent on the North Afghan High and Maimana 

step (Aleshina and Bluket, 1967; Smirnov and others, 1980; Kravchenko and Ivanova, 1997). 

Transgressive sandstone lies at the base of the Barremian where Hauterivian deposits 

are absent and Barremian rocks directly overlay Triassic rocks (Kravchenko and Ivanova, 

1997). The sedimentary section substantially decreases from west to east (Kravchenko 

and Ivanova, 1997). The section becomes thinner mostly because of pre-Neogene, preGhory, and pre-Barremian erosion, and to a lesser degree, syn-sedimentary 

nondeposition (Kravchenko and Ivanova, 1997). The amount of pre-Ghory erosion 

becomes less farther east to Alli Gul Field (Kravchenko and Ivanova, 1997). 

Some reservoirs are present in the Barremian interval and are locally present in other 

Cretaceous sections on the Badkyz-Karabil uplift and Maimana step (Smirnov and others, 

1980). In Turkmenistan, good reservoirs are present in upper Paleocene Bukhara beds, 

which are 180 to 200 meters thick with an average porosity of 22 percent and permeability 

of 44 millidarcies (Smirnov and others, 1980). Eocene mudstone is the seal and the 

mudstone ranges from 400 to 600 meters thick (Smirnov and others, 1980). 

The Kurukbeli arch (fig. 7) forms the southern margin of the Badkyz-Karabil uplift and 

Maimana step. Natural gas reserves (including C1 and C2 reserve categories) along the 

Kurukbeli arch in Turkmenistan exceed 3,531 billion cubic feet (100 billion cubic meters) 

116
(Melikhov and others, 1997). The fields include Kurukbeli, East Kurukbeli, West Kurukbeli, 

and Karabil Fields (Melikhov and others, 1997). In Afghanistan, approximately 3.5 million 

barrels (0.5 million tonnes) of recoverable crude oil was discovered in Alli Gul Field in a 

sandstone bed overlying basal Aptian mudstone (Smirnov and others, 1980; Kravchenko 

and Ivanova, 1997; AMMI, 2002, VZG, 2004). Natural gas production is from clastic and 

carbonate reservoirs of Hauterivian, lower Barremian, lower Aptian, and Paleocene ages 

(Melikhov and others, 1997). Natural gas and presumably the crude oil migrated from the 

Murghab Depression to the north onto the arch (Melikhov and others, 1997). Melikhov 

and others (1997) assessed natural gas resources of the Badkyz-Karabil uplift and 

westernmost structures of the Maimana step in Turkmenistan (fig. 7), such as 

Dervezekem, Lekker, Khwaja Guger Dag, at 7 trillion cubic feet (200 billion cubic meters). 

Two other structures (Khuja Seplan and Jekda Lak) in Afghanistan were drilled but are 

considered nonproductive. Khuja Seplan contained carbon dioxide-rich natural gas. 

Liquid crude oil was observed in cores of Aptian siltstone in the Jekda Lak #1 well 

(Kravchenko and Ivanova, 1997). Crude oil seeps were reported along the fault bounding 

the Maimana step on the south (Kravchenko and Ivanova, 1997). Potential stratigraphic 

traps, primarily in the Shatlyk unit, might be present along the northern slope of the the 

Badkyz-Karabil uplift and Maimana step (Smirnov and others, 1980). Jurassic reefs 

located along the slope of the Badkhyz-Karabil uplift may exist providing potential 

reservoirs (Smirnov and others, 1980). 

117
Source Rocks: 

The principal source rocks in this total petroleum system are Lower to Middle Jurassic 

coaly continental to marine mudstone and coals and Upper Jurassic (primarily Oxfordian) 

anoxic basinal black mudstone (Seregin and others, 1982). The source-rock section is thin 

or absent on marginal highs, but the section thickens to several hundred meters 

basinward. Both source rocks are separated from Cretaceous reservoirs by a regional, 

undeformed salt seal. 

Maximum penetrated thickness of the Lower to Middle Jurassic interval in the 

southeastern part of the Amu Darya Basin is about 200 meters (Seregin and others, 1982). 

The Lower to Middle Jurassic coaly mudstone contain from several tenths (0.7) to as 

much as 4.3 weight percent of total organic carbon (averaging 1.5 weight percent) with 

Type III kerogen and thin coals (Seregin and others, 1982; Seradzhi, 1988; 1993). Ulmishek, 

(2004) reported values as high as 2.5 weight percent. Upper Jurassic basinal black 

mudstone (Khodzhaipak Formation) has not been penetrated by wells in Afghanistan but is 

known from paleogeographically similar areas in adjacent Uzbekistan where it is a few 

tens of meters thick and contains from 6 to 8 weight percent and as much as 15 weight 

percent, total organic carbon and type II kerogen (Akramkhodzhaev and Egamberdyev, 

1981; Ulmishek, 2004). Thickness of the mudstone ranges up to 70 meters and produces a 

high gamma-ray response on well logs (Akramkhodzhaev and Egamberdyev, 1981). In 

northern Afghanistan, Late Jurassic marine sediments contain total organic matter 

contents from 0.22 to 1.2 weight percent (Seradji, 1993). Carbonate rocks deposited in reef 

118
and lagoon environments have total organic matter contents from 0.3 to 0.4 weight 

percent (Seradji, 1993). Petroleum contribution from possible organic-lean Cretaceous 

source rocks is minimal. 

According to a British Petroleum geochemical analyses of crude oil and condensate from 

the Shurtan #1 and North Urtabulak #1 wells of Uzbekistan, and selected Upper Jurassic 

source-rock extracts reported in VNIGNI (2005a), possible major source rocks are Lower 

to Middle Jurassic mudstone. Deposition of these oil-source rocks is possibly associated 

with restriction of the basin prior to or during the deposition of the Kimmeridgian to 

Tithonian evaporite section. These rocks sourced much of the gas and gas-condensate in 

Upper Jurassic carbonate and clastic reservoirs. Other source-rock intervals may also 

exist in the basin, such as Kimmeridgian to Tithonian mudstone deposited before or during 

evaporite deposition. Differing analytical results from the North Urtabulak #1 crude oil 

and the Shurtan #1 condensate indicate at least two different source rocks are present in 

the basin or different depositional facies of the same source rock. 

Before this study, Seradzhi (1988) indicated that no detailed geochemical data existed for 

Lower and Middle Jurassicrocks in Afghanistan. Lower to Middle Jurassic rocks are 

considered the most likely source for natural gas in the Amu Darya Basin, whereas, based 

on carbon isotope analysis, Upper Jurassic rocks are considered the major crude oil 

source (Abduazizov, 1976). 

119
Crude oils in Hauterivian reservoirs of the Angut and Aq Darya Fields are saturated with 

carbon dioxide (82 to 96 percent) and only 1.42 to 17.17 percent of the natural gases are 

hydrocarbons (mostly heavy gas) (Safranov and others, 1986). The vanadium to nickel 

porphyrine ratio is 0.66 in oils in Hauterivian and Aptian reservoirs (Safranov and others, 

1986). Condensate in Lower Cretaceous reservoirs of Etym Tag Field is light (density of 

0.846 grams per cubic centimeter or 36 degrees API gravity), low sulfur content (0.53 

percent), and paraffinic (5.09 percent) (Yakovets and Gotgilf, 1969). No resins or 

asphaltenes are reported (Yakovets and Gotgilf, 1969). The condensate has a paraffinic to 

naphthenic base (Yakovets and Gotgilf, 1969). 

Hauterivian reservoirs produce high-density, high-sulfur oil at Angut, Aq Darya, and Qash 

Qari Fields, with densities up to 0.915 grams per cubic centimeter (23 degrees API gravity) 

and 2.12 to 6.4 percent light hydrocarbon fractions at 200 degrees C (Economic and Social 

Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). Lower Albian reservoirs contain lighter, lower 

sulfur oil, with densities from 0.822 to 0.843 grams per cubic centimeter, 11.3 to 31 percent 

light hydrocarbon fractions at 200 degrees C, and 2 to 7 percent paraffin (Economic and 

Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). 

Condensates in Upper Jurassic reservoirs of Etym Tag and Khuja Goger Dak Fields are 

heavy, from 0.8 to 0.85 grams per cubic centimeter, because of the low gasoline fractions, 

no more than 7 cubic centimeters per cubic meter (Turanov and others, 2004). Oil from the 

oil leg of Jer Koduq Field is also heavy, from 0.89 to 0.92 grams per cubic centimeter 

120
(Turanov and others, 2004). Oil flows, some with water, were obtained in Jer Koduq Field 

and from the bottom part of gas pools in the Sha Karak and Juma Fields (Turanov and 

others, 2004). 

Natural gas in most Afghanistan fields of the Amu Darya Basin consists of dry methane 

containing 0.005 to 6 percent hydrogen sulfide (Economic and Social Commission for Asia 

and the Pacific, 1995; this study). Natural gas samples were collected from Khuja Goger 

Dak (well #15) and Jer Koduq (wells #21 and #62) Fields. The natural gases are 

thermogenic and the Khuja Goger Dak samples are interpreted to be of higher maturity 

than the Jer Koduq samples based on molecular and isotopic compositions. Natural gas 

from Khuja Goger Dak Field contains approximately 86 percent methane having a δ

13C 

value of -27.6 per mil whereas gas from Jer Koduq contains 90 to 93 percent methane 

having a δ

13C value of -31.1 per mil. The 1

H/2H ratios for these two samples are between -

157 and -160 per mil. Natural gas of 92.4 percent methane is reported from a Hauterivian 

pool in Khuja Bulan Field and 98.6 percent from an Aptian pool at Khuja Goger Dak Field 

(Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). Natural gas in 

Hauterivian reservoirs of the southeastern Amu Darya Basin is drier than natural gas in 

Upper Jurassic reservoirs (Seregin and others, 1982). 

Unlike the northern Amu Darya Basin, natural gas with greater than 1 percent sulfur is 

ubiquitous in southern areas (Solovyev and others, 1996). Sulfur is widespread in free gas 

and in waters along the pinch-out of Jurassic evaporates (Solovyev and others, 1996). 

121
Natural gas resources with variable hydrogen sulfide concentrations are identified in 

Upper Jurassic carbonates at Juma, Bashi Kurd, Jangali Kalan, and Jer Koduq fields 

(Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). Hydrogen sulfide 

content in the Khuja Goger Dak and Jer Koduq gases is low, from 0.07 to 0.18 percent. 

Hydrogen sulfide content in Hauterivian gases increases toward faults (Seregin and 

others, 1982). 

Maturation: 

Both Lower to Middle and Upper Jurassic source-rock suites are deeply buried and are 

within the gas-generation window and are at high stages of maturity. The source rocks 

were buried to the upper limit of petroleum generation at 2 kilometers, with a temperature 

of 90 degrees C and a geothermal gradient of 45 degrees C per kilometer at the close of 

the Early Cretaceous (Seradzhi, 1988; Seradji, 1993). This paleogeothermal gradient was 

also assigned for the backarc pull-apart basin at this same time (Brookfield and Hashmat, 

2001). In the Late Cretaceous and Paleogene, the Lower to Middle Jurassic rocks were 

buried to 3,500 meters and heated to 120 degrees C, well within the zone of oil generation 

(Seradji, 1993). The geothermal gradient of 34 degrees C per kilometer calculated from the 

data given in Seradji (1993) is consistent with present-day geothermal gradient of 

approximately 34.6 degrees C per kilometer in producing wells of northern Afghanistan 

(Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001). An initial stage of crude oil generation was followed by a 

later stage of catagenic natural gas generation, which displaced oil (Turanov and others, 

2004). Oil fields along the Jurassic evaporite basin margin were preserved because late 

122
Tertiary faulting prevented later-generated natural gas migration to these areas (Turanov 

and others, 2004). 

The generation area for hydrocarbon accumulations in northwestern Afghanistan was in 

the Murgab depression (Turanov and others, 2004). Turanov and others (2004) suggest 

that two stages of expulsion occurred; the first stage expelled oil with little gas and the 

second stage involved high temperature-derived gas. As a result of the two expulsion 

stages, three areal zones of hydrocarbon accumulations formed, a zone of crude oil pools, 

of both natural gas and crude oil (as oil legs) pools, and natural gas pools (Turanov and 

others, 2004). Crude oil pools are only in areas where no natural gas pools are present in 

underlying rocks (Turanov and others, 2004). Natural gas fields in Cretaceous reservoirs 

are only in areas where natural gas pools are also present in Upper Jurassic reservoirs 

(Turanov and others, 2004). 

Based on the geothermal gradients of the Amu Darya Basin, the crude oil generation 

window (mesocatagenesis stage 1, mesocatagenesis stage 2, and probably 

mesocatagenesis stage 3) begins at depths of 2,200 to 2,500 meters with 

paleotemperatures of 90 to 105 degrees C and increases to 140 degrees C at 2,200 to 4,000 

meters and deeper (Seregin and others, 1982). Maximum Neogene erosion on uplifts in 

southeastern Amu Darya Basin is estimated at 300 to 500 meters; resulting in cooling by 5 

to 20 degrees C (Seregin and others, 1982). In fields of the Amu Darya Basin, the presentday geothermal gradient changes stepwise with depth from 24 to 25 meters per degree C 

123
(40 degrees C per kilometer) to a depth of 1,000 meters, 35 meters per degree C at 1,000 to 

2,500 meters (42 degrees C per kilometer; 103 degrees C at 2,500 meters), and to 40 to 45 

meters per degree C deeper than 2,500 to 3,000 meters (12 degrees C per kilometer; 109 

degrees C at 3,000 meters) (Seregin and others, 1982). 

Commercial crude oil and natural gas resources may possibly be found in Jurassic and 

Cretaceous rocks, which are separated by Upper Jurassic salt in the basin center but not 

at the basin margin (Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). The 

precise mechanism of migration from the source to the reservoirs above the salt is not 

clear. A possible model, known from the giant Dauletabad-Donmez field in adjacent 

Turkmenistan, includes vertical migration beyond the pinch-out boundary of the salt 

formation and following lateral migration basinward to traps (Ulmishek, 2004). Shows are 

observed at the surface in Lower Cretaceous rocks on the southeastern margins of the 

Amu Darya Basin (Seregin and others, 1982). The existence of “windows” in salt, which 

provide pathways for vertical migration, in the salt-dome area along the Repetek Zone is 

possible, which would allow vertical charging of Lower Cretaceous suprasalt reservoirs. 

Reservoir Rocks: 

The main reservoir rocks are Upper Jurassic (Callovian to Oxfordian) Kugitang carbonates 

that include probable barrier and pinnacle reef facies, and Gissar sandstone and 

carbonates. 

124
Upper Jurassic carbonate reservoir rocks of the Kugitang and Gissar suites in the Amu 

Darya Basin are natural gas-bearing and range in thickness from 224 meters at Jer Koduq 

to 380 meters and more at Khuja Goger Dak (Seradji, 1993). Reservoir properties are 

variable with total porosity from 5 to 11 percent and effective porosity from 3 to 7 percent 

(Seradji, 1993; VZG, 2004). Microfractures in these rocks are 0.01 to 0.08 millimeters wide. 

Fields that produce from Upper Jurassic reservoirs include Jangali Kalan, Jer Koduq, 

Juma, Etym Tag, Bashi Kurd, and Khuja Goger Dak (Seradji, 1993). Gas shows have been 

observed in anhydrites and limestones of the Gaurdak Formation (Seregin and others, 

1982). 

Cretaceous clastic reservoir rocks in the Amu Darya Basin are also important and include 

those of Hauterivian, Aptian, Albian, Cenomanian, and Turonian to Senonian ages (Seradji, 

1993). The Hauterivian Qezeltash (Shatlyk) Formation is the main oil- and gas-bearing 

reservoir, containing more than 90 percent of the discovered Cretaceous oil and gas, and 

ranges from 150 to 200 meters thick (fig. 23) (Seradji, 1993). Porosity ranges from 10 to 23 

percent, averaging 14 to 20 percent, and permeability from a few tens to 600 millidarcies, 

averaging 100 to 150 millidarcies (Seradzhi, 1988, 1993; VZG, 2004). Fields that produce 

from Hauterivian reservoirs in northern Afghanistan include Khuja Goger Dak (natural 

gas), Etym Tag (natural gas), Jer Koduq (natural gas), Khuja Bulan (crude oil and natural 

gas), Angut (crude oil), Aq Darya (crude oil), Qash Qari (crude oil), Bashi Kurd (crude oil), 

and Zamarud Sai (crude oil) (Seradzhi, 1988, 1993; Economic and Social Commission for 

Asia and the Pacific, 1995). 

125
Other possible reservoir rocks in northern Afghanistan include Lower to Middle Jurassic 

clastic rocks, having effective porosity up to 15 percent and permeability up to 228 

millidarcies (Seradzhi, 1988). Reservoir quality in these rocks decreases with depth and 

basinward because of an increase in clay-mineral content and decrease in grain size 

(Seradzhi, 1988). 

Traps: 

All known fields are in structural traps, particularly broad anticlines, related to the 

Neogene compressional event (Brookfield and Hashmat, 2001). Undiscovered fields are 

expected in structural traps, in reefs, or combination of the two. 

The main tectonic event that affected petroleum accumulation in the Amu Darya Basin 

was the development of Neogene to Quaternary structures whereby depressions 

continued to subside and blocks continued to be uplifted (Seradji, 1993). Local uplift 

decreased pressure that promoted phase separation of water-dissolved natural gas into 

free natural gas to form new natural gas accumulations (Seradji, 1993). 

Almost all of the petroleum traps are anticlinal (Seradzhi, 1988). Petroleum accumulations 

in Hauterivian reservoirs are present only in areas where the Gaurdak evaporite unit is 

absent (Seradzhi, 1988). Pinchout traps are inferred in the zone where Jurassic strata 

pinch out, such as that along the southern edge of the North Karabil-Dauletabad 

126
depression (Seradzhi, 1988). Along the Afghan High, Lower to Middle Jurassic deposits 

pinch out first, followed by the Upper Jurassic deposits (Seradzhi, 1988). Crude oil and 

natural gas accumulations in Upper Jurassic reefal carbonates may exist (Seradzhi, 1988). 

Seradzhi (1988) shows on a map, the salt pinchout line along the margins of the North 

Karabil-Dauletabad depression. Seradzhi (1988) shows in a cross section from the North 

Karabil-Dauletabad depression toward the North Afghan High (from Jangali Kalan to 

Angut Fields) that Middle to Upper Jurassic rocks pinch out first and that overlapping 

Upper Jurassic rocks pinch out farther north, leaving only the potential for the existence 

of stratigraphic traps. 

Horsts in southeastern Turkmenistan, such as at Dauletabad and Kurukbeli, originally 

formed in the Early Jurassic during Aalenian time (Yanena and Mamedov, 1982). Uplift 

and formation of weathering crust on top of the Triassic occurred later during Early 

Jurassic to Middle Jurassic time (Yanena and Mamedov, 1982). The thickness of Upper 

Jurassic rocks is up to 300 meters (Yanena and Mamedov, 1982). General subsidence 

occurred during the Early Cretaceous with onlapped (overlap) sediment thicknesses from 

600 meters in the north to 300 meters in the south (Yanena and Mamedov, 1982). Some 

structures formed during the Late Cretaceous by differential movements, causing a 

general tilt of the Amu Darya Basin to the north and west, with sediment thicknesses 

ranging from 200 to more than 1,000 meters (Yanena and Mamedov, 1982). East to west 

tilting continued into the Paleogene with sediment thicknesses ranging from 200 to 500 

meters in east to 1,200 to 1,300 meters in the west, but no northern tilt occurred during that 

127
time (Yanena and Mamedov, 1982). A reversal in the tilting occurred from the Neogene to 

Quaternary time and as a result, sediments range in thickness from 300 to 500 meters in 

the west to 500 to 1,000 meters in the southeast and to 1,500 to 1,600 meters in the 

northeast (Yanena and Mamedov, 1982). 

Seals: 

The principal regional seal is the Kimmeridgian to Tithonian Gaurdak Formation, 

composed of salt and anhydrite with local carbonate beds (Kingston, 1990; Kingston and 

Clarke, 1995; Ulmishek, 2004). In the Amu Darya Basin of northern Afghanistan, the 

Gaurdak Formation ranges in thickness from 130 to 180 meters (Seradzhi, 1988). Gaurdak 

evaporites are the seals for petroleum accumulations at Khuja Goger Dak, Etym Tag, 

Juma, Jangali Kalan, and Bashi Kurd Fields (Seradzhi, 1988). 

An extensive Barremian to Aptian mudstone is the seal for Qezeltash Formation reservoirs 

and is 130 to 150 meters thick in northern Afghanistan (Seradzhi, 1988; Ulmishek, 2004). 

Barremian mudstone is the seal for accumulations at Khuja Goger Dak, Etym Tag, Khuja 

Bulan, Jer Koduq, Angut, Aq Darya, and Qash Qari Fields (Seradzhi, 1988). Aptian 

mudstone is the seal for accumulations at Khuja Goger Dak, Etym Tag, Alli Gul, and Qash 

Qari Fields and Albian mudstone seals accumulations at Angut, Aq Darya, Khuja Goger 

Dak, and Etym Tag Fields (Seradzhi, 1988). 

128
Intraformational Albian and Cenomanian mudstone seals gas pools in other reservoirs 

(Seradzhi, 1988). The Paleogene Suzak Formation mudstone provides seal for Ghory 

reservoirs. 

Assessment Units: 

Assessment units in the Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous Total Petroleum System of 

Afghanistan are defined by stratigraphic position above or below the Upper Jurassic salt. 

The Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin Subsalt Carbonates Assessment Unit 

(11540105) encompasses Upper Jurassic carbonate and reef reservoirs below the salt 

seal. This assessment unit has higher potential for undiscovered natural gas resources 

than the other assessment units within this total petroleum system. The Afghanistan 

Jurassic Evaporite Basin Suprasalt Anticlines Assessment Unit (11540106) encompasses 

predominantly Cretaceous sandstone reservoirs associated with anticlinal structures 

above the salt seal. This assessment unit has relatively low potential for undiscovered 

petroleum resources. The Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin Margin Assessment Unit 

(11540107) is located where Jurassic salt is absent and extends up the North Afghan High 

where maximum petroleum migration is projected. This assessment unit is the most 

explored and contains the greatest number of known accumulations and volumes of 

discovered crude oil and natural gas. 

Assessment Results: The Amu Darya Basin has the least overall geologic uncertainty 

with respect to petroleum occurrence in northern Afghanistan. Source rocks are known 

129
and the geology and sizes of discovered fields are known in much of the basin. However, 

interpretations of the presence and location of traps, particularly Jurassic reefs, from 

seismic profiles and other geophysical surveys of northern Afghanistan are questionable 

because of poor resolution and older technology. 

Discovery-history graphs of only Afghanistan fields are not sufficient to use for size 

estimates because of the small number of discoveries (eight gas fields and seven oil 

fields). Therefore, the sizes of fields discovered throughout the entire Amu Darya Basin 

rather than just the assessment units were analyzed to provide information on the 

expected sizes of undiscovered fields (fig. 24). Two hundred and thirteen natural gas 

fields have been discovered in the basin. The overall median field size is 134 billion cubic 

feet. Considering reserve growth, the overall median size is 203 billion cubic feet. The 

median field sizes chosen for input to the resource calculations are somewhat smaller, 80 

billion cubic feet, to express the concept that discovered field sizes are well known to 

decrease through time and that the accumulations are smaller in Afghanistan than in 

other parts of the Amu Darya Basin. Without the old large fields of Turkmenistan, which 

do not represent the geology of the Afghanistan accumulations (such as DauletabadDonmez Field), the largest field is approximately 8 trillion cubic feet. 

The Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin Subsalt Carbonates Assessment Unit has the 

greatest potential for undiscovered gas than other assessment units, but it also has the 

greatest uncertainty as indicated by the ranges in number, sizes, and estimated 

130
resources. Both source and reservoir rocks are present below and sealed by the Upper 

Jurassic salt, creating a condition conducive for a significant number of accumulations, 

some being very large, should traps exist. But this is only one possible geologic scenario. 

In another scenario, reservoir rocks and traps may have only limited areal distributions, 

resulting in a smaller number of accumulations. The very skewed distributions of 

estimated number and sizes express the combination of the two scenarios (fig. 25). The 

mean undiscovered natural gas volume is almost 5.5 trillion cubic feet (0.2 trillion cubic 

meters) with a range from an F95 of about 2 to an F5 of over 11 trillion cubic feet. 

A 50 percent chance of an accumulation exceeding the minimum specified size was 

assumed to exist in the suprasalt assessment unit. Should accumulations exist, this 

assessment unit has relatively low potential for undiscovered natural gas because the 

Upper Jurassic salt inhibits migration from the Upper Jurassic source rocks to the Lower 

Cretaceous reservoirs. The lower potential is expressed by the estimated small number of 

undiscovered fields. Should natural gas migrate through salt-evacuation sites or diapirs, 

the sizes of the largest accumulations could be quite large, as expressed by our estimate 

of field sizes going up to 4 trillion cubic feet. 

Without geologic risk, the mean of the undiscovered natural gas volume is a little over 0.5 

trillion cubic feet (14 billion cubic meters) with a range from an F95 of 0.1 to an F5 of 1.7 

trillion cubic feet. With the 50% geologic probability, the mean of the undiscovered 

131
natural gas volume is only a third of a trillion cubic feet (9 billion cubic meters) with a 

range from an F95 of 0 to an F5 of 1.3 trillion cubic feet. 

The Afghanistan Evaporite Jurassic Basin Margin Assessment Unit is the most explored 

and contains the greatest number of known accumulations and volumes of discovered 

crude oil and natural gas. A number of fields greater than the suprasalt assessment unit 

was estimated for the basin margin assessment unit because more reservoirs are 

available for petroleum charge. In addition, more structures for traps may be available 

due to the proximity to reactivated older structures and the presence of a carbonate shelf 

with reef-associated traps surrounding these older structures. The sizes of the 

accumulations are expected to be smaller because the assessment unit represents the 

updip part of the Amu Darya Basin and seals are poorer. The seals are thinner proximal 

mudstone rather than thick basinal mudstone or salt. The mean of the undiscovered 

natural gas volume is about 1.2 trillion cubic feet (34 billion cubic meters) with a range 

from an F95 of 0.3 to an F5 of 2.6 trillion cubic feet. 

Crude oil has been produced from this assessment unit. Parameters estimated for the 

assessment-input variables are shown in Figure 26. A small number (4) of undiscovered 

crude oil fields was estimated as most likely because of the limited area for crude oil 

accumulation and the small number of discoveries in one of the more explored areas of 

northern Afghanistan. However, the distribution is skewed to a maximum of 10 in order to 

express the degree of uncertainty in our geologic understanding of the areal distribution 

132
of crude oil accumulations. The estimated size distribution of undiscovered crude oil 

fields reflects the sizes of discovered fields (compare with fig. 19). The maximum size of 

100 million barrels of oil expresses great uncertainty and the possibility that the largest 

crude oil field may not have yet been discovered. A mean of about 73 million barrels (10 

million metric tons) of crude oil is estimated to be undiscovered. 

KALAIMOR-KAISAR BASIN 

Kalaimor-Kaisar Jurassic Total Petroleum System (115402) 

Discovery History: 

Three wells were drilled in the Afghanistan Kushka Zone (11540201) Assessment Unit. 

Although no discoveries were reported, structures extend into Turkmenistan where 

natural gas fields have been discovered. These fields include Morgunovka, Islim, 

Karachop, and Mangan. 

Recoverable natural gas of Islim, Karachop, and Morgunovka Fields combined are 

approximately 350 billion cubic feet (10 billion cubic meters) (Melikhov and others, 1997; 

IHS Energy, 2005). Flowing natural gas is reported in Karachop Field (Dmitriev and others, 

1990). Undiscovered natural gas resources are not large and are probably concentrated 

in the Kushka area (Melikhov and others, 1997). Potential for natural gas resources may 

133
also be present in the Adylbek area, where Middle Jurassic sandstone pinches out along 

the north slope of the Kalaimor depression (Melikhov and others, 1997). 

Petroleum Occurrence: 

On the south slopes of the Maimana step and North Afghan High, the thickness of the 

Mesozoic to Cenozoic section is small and mainly composed of continental, lagoonal, and 

nearshore coarse clastic rocks (Aleshina and Bluket, 1967). Beds of the Upper Jurassic 

rocks, including Callovian to Oxfordian beds, and a number of Cretaceous and Paleogene 

horizons are absent in the Kushka zone of uplifts and in the Bande Turkestan range 

(Aleshina and Bluket, 1967). Cretaceous sandstone reservoirs directly overlie Lower to 

Middle Jurassic source rocks in the Kushka zone. Petroleum is likely to occur in 

sandstone pinchouts and Cretaceous to Paleogene carbonate rocks on or along structural 

highs, and perhaps along the southern margin of the Maimana step in the Kalaimar-Kaisar 

depression (figs. 7 and 9). 

Source Rocks: 

The principal source rocks are probably Lower to Middle Jurassic continental to marine 

coaly clastics (total organic carbon content as much as 2.5 weight percent) with some 

coal beds in the lower part. The source rocks are estimated to be natural gas-prone. 

134
Maturation: 

Lower to Middle Jurassic source rocks are probably thermally mature with respect to 

petroleum generation. These rocks are buried to depths of about 3 kilometers on the 

anticlinal uplifts and significantly deeper in depressions filled with thick Neogene to 

Quaternary rocks. 

Reservoir Rocks: 

Reservoir rocks in fields of Turkmenistan that are close to the country boundary are 

present in the section from the upper part of the Middle Jurassic to the Maastrichtian 

(Ghory Formation). The Ghory reservoirs are composed of carbonate rocks; other 

reservoir rocks are clastics. Reservoir rocks at Karachop Field include Maastrichtian to 

Danian sandstone and Ghory Formation carbonate rocks, with porosity ranging from 

approximately 6 to 12 percent and permeability from 5 to 150 millidarcies (Bratash and 

others, 1970; Selab, 2006, Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industry, personal 

communication). Reservoir rocks at Islim Field include Middle Jurassic and Lower 

Cretaceous (Neocomian) sandstone with approximately 4 to 8 percent porosity and up to 

50 millidarcies of permeability, and Turonian carbonate rocks with approximately 6 

percent porosity and 10 millidarcies of permeability (Bratash and others, 1970; Selab, 2006, 

personal communication). Dmitriev and others (1990) state that reservoirs in Islim and 

Karachop Fields have porosity from 3 to 6 percent and permeability from 3 to 7 

millidarcies. 

135
Traps: 

All discovered productive traps in Turkmenistan are local anticlinal uplifts. New 

discoveries are expected in undrilled anticlines and, possibly in the pinch-out zone of 

Lower to Middle Jurassic clastics along the boundary of the assessment unit with the 

Maimana step. 

Seals: 

Seal rocks are most likely intraformational mudstone, with Barremian- to Albian-age 

mudstone acting as a regional seal. Suzak beds also provide a regional seal and range 

from 20 to 140 meters thick (Dmitriev and others, 1990). 

Assessment Units: 

The Afghanistan Kushka Zone Assessment Unit (11540201) encompasses the entire 

Kalaimor-Kaisar Jurassic Total Petroleum System within Afghanistan. The assessment 

unit encompasses the Kalaimor-Kaisar, Nurbelek, and Kalarin depressions and bounding 

uplifts forming the western plunge of Bande Turkestan. A fault bounding the Jekda Lak 

anticline on the south marks the boundary with the Maimana step. In the north, the 

assessment unit extends to the country boundary of Afghanistan. The Bandigandao Ridge 

provides the eastern boundary, and the Siakh-Bubak and Siad-Kohe ranges bound the 

southern edge of the assessment unit. 

136
Assessment Results: A small number of undiscovered small fields are estimated for this 

assessment unit, estimated to contain about 436 billion cubic feet (12 billion cubic meters) 

of natural gas (fig. 27). Four undiscovered natural gas fields were estimated as most likely 

because of the small number of mapped structures. However, the distribution is skewed 

to a maximum of 10 in order to express the degree of uncertainty in our geologic 

understanding of the areal distribution of natural gas accumulations. The estimated size 

distribution is based on the sizes of fields in the Kushka Zone of Turkmenistan. 

NORTH AFGHAN HIGH 

The potential for coalbed methane resources in Lower to Middle Jurassic clastics exists 

on the flanks of the North Afghan High. The principal source rocks of the Amu Darya and 

Afghan-Tajik Basins are absent on the North Afghan High except possibly in some yet 

unidentified areas on its slopes where Lower to Middle Jurassic rocks may be present 

(fig. 28). If present, Lower to Middle Jurassic coal (source rock) probably occurs at 

relatively shallow depths, but the coals could have reached thermal maturity earlier in 

geologic history, before late Tertiary uplift of the North Afghan High. Additionally, the 

coals could provide the necessary nutrients for the generation of biogenic gas. Most 

potential reservoir rocks are basal Neocomian clastics that unconformably overlie the 

basement or Triassic rocks. The coals are probably not thick enough to serve as 

producing reservoirs. The traps are local anticlinal uplifts. No regional seals in the 

137
section are known and many structures are eroded down to Upper Cretaceous rocks. No 

assessment units were delineated on the North Afghan High in this study. 

AFGHAN-TAJIK BASIN 

The Afghan-Tajik Basin is located in the northern and northeastern part of Afghanistan 

and consists of more than 10 kilometers of Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata (Economic and 

Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). Commercial petroleum production is 

from Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous reservoirs on marginal structural steps, and 

Paleogene reservoirs in the basin center. Oil production in Tajikistan is from Cenozoic 

reservoirs and natural gas is produced from older reservoirs (Economic and Social 

Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1995). The oil is heavy, with densities from 0.94 to 

0.97 grams per cubic centimeter (Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the 

Pacific, 1995). Petroleum resources in Cretaceous to Paleogene and Upper Jurassic 

subsalt reservoirs appear promising in the Afghanistan part of the basin, including those 

in thrust-fault zones and buried reef complexes, which are difficult to penetrate because 

of depth and presence of thick salt. 

Present-day structures and fields discovered in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan are shown in 

Figure 7 and the geologic model for petroleum occurrence is shown in Figure 9. 

138
The Afghan-Tajik Basin was open to the west during Jurassic, Cretaceous, and 

Paleogene time and no thinning of sedimentary sections is observed along the eastern 

boundary (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). Lower to Middle Jurassic coal-bearing continental 

sediments were deposited in alluvial-lacustrine humid coastal plains and had much the 

same distribution as the present-day basin (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). All marine 

transgressions starting since the Middle Jurassic were from the west (Dzhalilov and 

others, 1982). In the Late Jurassic, the sea flooded the entire western and central parts of 

the basin, but did not extend to the north farther than the southern flank of the Gissar 

range (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). In the Early Cretaceous, the northern boundary of the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin extended to the east and arid deltaic conditions were present. The 

epicontinental sea occupied the basin only five times and extended east of the Vakhsh 

River only in Albian time (Dzhalilov and others, 1982). The basin axis extended east-towest and was located along the present-day Amu Darya and Pyandzh rivers (Dzhalilov 

and others, 1982). A continental depositional regime was established in Oligocene time 

and uplift of basin margins began, ending with mountain building during Pliocene time 

(Dzhalilov and others, 1982). 

Well data from Cretaceous rocks in 4 petroleum fields of the western Kulyab depression in 

southwestern Tajikistan indicate a possibility that the Afghan-Tajik Basin had moved 

relative to the southern Tian-Shan range and that the Darvaz area was the southern, not 

the eastern margin of the pre-Neogene Afghan-Tajik Basin (fig. 4) (Andreyev and Fursov, 

1986). 

139
Afghan-Tajik Jurassic Total Petroleum System (115601) 

Discovery History: 

Only 21 wells have been drilled in the Afghanistan portion of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, none 

of which penetrated Jurassic rocks. Likewise, no wells drilled in the Tajikistan portion of 

the basin penetrated Jurassic rocks, except on Dushanbe step and southwest Gissar 

spur, along the edges of the basin, where Upper Jurassic salt is absent. 

Petroleum Occurrence: 

As a result of Neogene compressional stacking, the favorable Jurassic carbonate play is 

buried to great depths in the Afghan-Tajik Basin and is probably is natural gas-prone 

(Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991). Largest predicted discoveries are expected on Jurassic 

subsalt reef buildups (Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991). Generation of crude oil from 

Jurassic source rocks began in Albian and Cenomanian time (Orudzheva and Kornenko, 

1991), but this crude oil most likely cracked to natural gas because of the great burial 

depths. 

Although no discoveries have been made in the main part of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, 

natural gas produced from the Uzbekistan Gadzhak Field may provide information on 

natural gas in this total petroleum system. The Gadzhak Field produces from Upper 

Jurassic carbonates and Karabil Formation sandstone (Grinenko, 1982). Well 8 tested 

140
natural gas in fractures in the lower Gaurdak anhydrite (Grinenko, 1982). The natural gas 

is wet, contains little sulfur and carbon dioxide, and contains 14.9 percent hydrogen 

(Grinenko, 1982). The natural gas is probably from Lower to Middle Jurassic source rocks, 

not Upper Jurassic rocks (Grinenko, 1982). 

Based on the depth of the Bukhara interval, from 5.5 to 6.5 kilometers in synclines, and 

thickness calculations, subsalt deposits are at depths of 9 to 12 kilometers (VNIGNI, 

2005a). These depths are confirmed by direct seismic reflections from subsalt deposits in 

the Yava zone, at 4.2 to 4.3 seconds (VNIGNI, 2005a). Subsalt deposits are at a depth of 

more than 8 kilometers in the area of the Gardanyushti structure (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Source Rocks: 

The principal source rocks are Lower to Middle Jurassic coaly continental to marine 

clastics and coals, and Upper Jurassic (primarily Oxfordian) anoxic basinal black 

mudstone. 

The Lower to Middle Jurassic section of the Afghan-Tajik Basin center is believed to be 

600 to 700 meters thick (Safranov, 1988). Dominant components of coals known from 

marginal sections within the Lower to Middle Jurassic section of the Afghan-Tajik Basin 

are vitrinite, semifusinite, and leiptinite (1 to 5 percent) and contain type III kerogen 

(Safranov, 1988). The total organic matter content in Lower to Middle Jurassic mudstone 

of the Afghan-Tajik Basin is approximately 2 weight percent (Safranov, 1988). 

141
Several Lower to Middle Jurassic coal-bearing formations were drilled in wells along the 

southwest Gissar spur (Akramkhodzhaev, 1982). Lower to Middle Jurassic rocks were 

drilled at depths of 800 to 1,200 meters (Akramkhodzhaev, 1982). Total organic carbon 

contents range from a few tenths to 4 weight percent (Akramkhodzhaev, 1982). Much 

secondary (migrated) bitumen is present in all of the rocks (Akramkhodzhaev, 1982). 

Akramkhodzhaev (1982) calculated that one million metric tons of natural gas could be 

generated per square kilometer and from up to 10,000 metric tons of crude oil per square 

kilometer from these coal-bearing intervals. 

Upper Jurassic sediments that were deposited under weak reducing conditions in reefal 

depressions are possible source rocks (VNIGNI, 2005a). Oxfordian to Kimmeridgian 

(Khodzhaipak Formation) black, radioactive, bituminous, thinly laminated, ammonitebearing limestones are known in the Gaurdak area of the southwest Gissar spur area 

(Amanniyazov and Nevmirich, 1985; Egamberdyev and Mayvandi, 1992). 

Maturation: 

Both Lower to Middle and Upper Jurassic source rocks are buried within the natural gasgeneration window and have been in this maturity zone since at least Late Cretaceous 

time. The source rocks are buried to 2 to 3.5 kilometers on the uplifted structural steps 

along the basin margins and probably to 12 kilometers in the basin center by 

allochthonous thrust sheets and thick Neogene to Quaternary fill. 

142
Lower to Middle Jurassic rocks today are in the gas window (mesocatagenesis stages 2 

and 3 to apocatagenesis stage 1) (Safranov and others, 1983). Generation of crude oil 

started in Cretaceous time in the central area of the Afghan-Tajik Basin and reached a 

maximum in Eocene time when the rocks were in crude oil-generation window (Safranov, 

1988). The rocks were in crude oil-generation window when deposition of Neogene 

orogenic clastic sediments started to accumulate and this burial resulted in their reaching 

the natural gas-generation window (Safranov, 1988). 

Reservoir Rocks: 

Possible reservoir rocks include Jurassic carbonates near the margin of the basin and 

possibly some Upper Jurassic clastic rocks. Reservoir quality of these carbonates 

deteriorates basinward, as the carbonate rocks become more argillaceous. Based on 

data from adjacent areas, Lower to Middle Jurassic clastics lose their reservoir quality at 

depths greater than 3 to 3.5 kilometers due to compaction and diagenesis. One gas field 

having reservoirs in the Upper Jurassic interval is located at the Surkhan megasyncline 

on the Baysun step (VNIGNI, 2005a). Three small fields in the Dushanbe area of Tajikistan 

produce Jurassic gas from Tithonian reservoirs, but reservoir quality decreases 

basinward because of deep burial (Kingston, 1990; Kingston and Clarke, 1995). 

Permeable horizons are connected to fractured limestones, reef bodies, forereef talus 

slopes, and tidal bars (VNIGNI, 2005a). Lower Jurassic sandstone in the Afghan-Tajik 

143
basin has low porosity ranging from 5 to 10 percent and permeability of a few millidarcies 

(Egamberdyev, 1987). A small possibility of reservoir rocks with adequate reservoir quality 

in the deeper parts of the basin, but would have to include Jurassic carbonates and 

possibly some Upper Jurassic clastic rocks. 

Traps: 

Possible traps include subsalt anticlinal structures and, possibly stratigraphic traps in the 

pinch-out zone of Jurassic clastics along the basin margin. 

Seals: 

Upper Jurassic evaporites might provide a regional seal for petroleum accumulations. 

The regional seal may be present only on the western part of the basin, whereas 

argillaceous limestone and mudstone would provide local seals in the eastern part of the 

basin (VNIGNI, 2005a). 

Assessment Units: 

Two assessment units are defined, both below thrust sheets and the Jurassic salt. The 

Afghanistan Subsalt Oxfordian Shelf Assessment Unit (11560101) encompasses potential 

reservoirs of carbonate and clastic rocks deposited on a shelf along the southern margin 

of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, and structures that developed before Neogene thrust faulting 

and folding. Reservoir rocks of the Afghanistan Subsalt Basinal Facies Assessment Unit 

144
(11560102) are more argillaceous than those deposited on the shelf, are buried to greater 

depths, and have low potential for petroleum accumulations. 

The Afghanistan Subsalt Oxfordian Shelf Assessment Unit encompasses an area in the 

Afghanistan portion of the Afghan-Tajik Basin and covers an undelineated Late Jurassic 

(Oxfordian) shelf. This assessment unit is defined to separate reservoir rocks deposited 

on the shelf having a high probability of hydrocarbon accumulations from basin rocks 

having a lower probability. The assessment unit includes subsalt Jurassic rocks, which 

occur in the autochthon below detached and folded Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks. 

The Afghanistan Subsalt Basinal Assessment Unit encompasses an area in the 

Afghanistan portion of the Afghan-Tajik Basin that is part of an as-yet undelineated Late 

Jurassic basin. The assessment unit is defined to separate reservoir rocks deposited on 

the shelf having a high probability of hydrocarbon accumulations from basin rocks having 

a lower probability. The assessment unit includes subsalt Jurassic rocks, which occur in 

the autochthon below detached and folded Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks. 

Assessment Results: 

Parameters estimated for the input variables are shown in Figure 29. The estimated 

number of undiscovered natural gas fields is based on the density and areas of mapped 

structures. The area of the Afghanistan Subsalt Oxfordian Shelf Assessment Unit is onefourth that of the Afghanistan Subsalt Basinal Facies Assessment Unit where potential 

145
reservoirs are deeper and presumably of poorer quality. One-fourth of the structures of 

the Afghanistan Subsalt Basinal Facies Assessment Unit were assumed to have potential 

accumulations, thereby resulting in the same estimated number of undiscovered fields. A 

very skewed undiscovered size distribution was estimated based on natural gas field 

sizes of Jurassic accumulations in the Amu Darya Basin. A wide range of undiscovered 

field sizes was chosen because many different structural and stratigraphic traps may 

exist in each assessment unit. 

Despite the same estimated number and sizes of undiscovered fields, different 

probabilities of geologic occurrence were assigned. The Afghanistan Subsalt Oxfordian 

Shelf Assessment Unit was given an 80 percent geologic probability whereas the 

Afghanistan Subsalt Basinal Facies Assessment Unit was given only 50 percent for the 

assessment unit. Without risk, the mean of the undiscovered gas volume is a little over 1.5 

trillion cubic feet (42 billion cubic meters) with a range from an F95 of 0.3 to an F5 of 3.7 

trillion cubic feet. With the 80% geologic probability, the mean of the undiscovered 

natural gas volume in the Afghanistan Subsalt Oxfordian Shelf Assessment Unit is 1.2 

trillion cubic feet (34 billion cubic meters) with a range from an F95 of 0 to an F5 of 3.5 

trillion cubic feet. With the 50% geologic probability, the mean of the undiscovered 

natural gas volume in the Afghanistan Subsalt Basinal Facies Assessment Unit is 0.8 

trillion cubic feet (23 billion cubic meters) with a range from an F95 of 0 to an F5 of 3 trillion 

cubic feet. 

146
Afghan-Tajik Paleogene Total Petroleum System (115602) 

Discovery History: 

Crude oil has been discovered and is produced in the Afghan-Tajik Basin in Tajikistan. 

Although no discoveries have been made in Afghanistan to date, crude oil shows were 

observed in some wells on Gunj and Qunduz (Kortau) structures. Twenty-one wells were 

drilled in the Afghan-Tajik Basin part of northern Afghanistan. Because of technical 

problems mostly related to overpressure, many of these wells did not penetrate the 

objectives or were not tested and completed. 

 

Petroleum Occurrence: 

The Afghan-Tajik Paleogene Total Petroleum System is crude oil-prone (Orudzheva and 

Kornenko, 1991). Few wells have penetrated Cretaceous rocks of the Surkhan 

megasyncline; most wells terminate just below the Paleocene section (Egamberdev and 

Abdullaev, 1993). 

Source Rocks: 

The principal source rock is organic-rich mudstone beds of the Eocene Suzak interval 

(Knodur and others, 1992). Total organic carbon content in thin (0.5 to 2 meters) organicrich beds in neighboring Tajikistan is typically 11 to 19 weight percent, but up to 48 weight 

percent, and have high gamma ray well-log responses (Buzurukov and others, 1978; 

Ergashev, 1983; Khaimov, 1986; Egamberdyev and Mayvandi, 1992). In other lower Suzak 

147
rocks of both Afghanistan and Tajikistan, the total organic carbon contents range from 0.5 

to 3.5 weight percent (Ergashev, 1983; Egamberdyev and Mayvandi, 1992). The organic 

matter is type II (marine) kerogen. The organic-rich mudstone has a hydrogen content of 

7.65 to 8.08 percent (Khaimov, 1986). No terrestrial organic matter is observed (Khaimov, 

1986). Resin content is 10 percent and sulfur content is 4.5 percent (Khaimov, 1986). 

Thick green to dark gray Suzak mudstone, up to 130 meters thick, was deposited in a deep 

marine basin (Egamberdyev and Mayvandi, 1992). Suzak organic-rich mudstone beds are 

commonly 1.5 to 5 meters above the base of the Suzak interval (Khaimov, 1986). The 

organic-rich mudstone beds are present throughout the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik 

Basins, but are present only in small areas in the Gissar and Darvaz ranges (Khaimov, 

1986). 

In the Baysun and southwest Gissar areas, Paleogene black mudstones (Suzak Formation) 

were drilled in two synclines (Ergashev, 1983). Black mudstones in the two wells were 

323 and 107 meters deep having thicknesses of 1.2 to 1.5 meters, respectively (Ergashev, 

1983). In southern Uzbekistan, Suzak beds include mudstone with organic-rich beds to the 

south and mudstone and sandstone to the north (Atkhamor and Kasymov, 1967). In the 

Khaudag Field, crude oil shows are observed in Suzak beds along fractures and are 

syngenetic (high resin and asphaltene content, only 34% oil fraction) (Atkhamor and 

Kasymov, 1967). 

148
Total organic carbon content in intervals other than Suzak is typically low, but the Aptian 

to Albian section has total organic carbon content up to 18 weight percent (Egamberdyev 

and Mayvandi, 1992). Organic matter in this section is mainly of terrestrial origin 

(Egamberdyev and Mayvandi, 1992). Other mudstones in the section has total organic 

carbon contents from 0.3 to 3.46 weight percent and type III (terrestrial) kerogen 

(Egamberdyev and Mayvandi, 1992). 

Maturation: 

In the deepest area of the Afghan-Tajik Basin, Paleogene rocks are at the onset of crude 

oil generation (catagenic zones between protocatagensis stage 3 and mesocatagenesis 

stage 1) (Knodur and others, 1992). In synclines, the Suzak source rock reached the 

crude-oil generation window during Neogene time. The source rocks are buried by thick 

Neogene to Quaternary clastics and by thrust sheets of Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks. 

Based on elemental composition of kerogen, Paleogene rocks in the Surkhan and Vakhsh 

megasynclines are in the oil window (middle grades of catagenesis) at depths of 4 to 5 

kilometers, and the principal potential is in subthrust zones, in synclines (Volos and 

others, 1982). 

In the Vakhsh megasyncline and Kafirnigan meganticline, on the Kichikbel and 

Akbashadyr structures, the average geothermal gradients are, for the Neogene interval, 

2.5 degrees C per 100 meters; for the Oligocene to Eocene interval, 3.2 degrees C per 100 

149
meters; and for the Paleocene interval, 2 degrees C per 100 meters (Gotfilf and others, 

1969). The average geothermal gradient is slightly higher for the Gissar meganticline and 

Vakhsh megasyncline at 3 degrees C per 100 meters (Gotfilf and others, 1969). At 4.5 

kilometers, bottom-hole temperatures vary from 110 degrees C at South Aktau to 135 

degrees C at Aktau and North Kurgancha (Krylov, 1980). A temperature of 175 degrees C 

is calculated for depths of 6 to 7 kilometers (Krylov, 1980). 

Anomalously high formation pressure (overpressure) is present in some structures, such 

as the Karadum Anticline, which extends into Afghanistan. Overpressure is local rather 

than regional (Bratash and others, 1970). 

In the Afghan-Tajik Basin, only the Paleogene and Upper Cretaceous rocks are in the oilwindow zone (Yakovets, 1976). Underlying rocks are in the gas window (Yakovets, 1976). 

Reservoir Rocks: 

The primary potential reservoir rocks are the Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene Ghory suite 

carbonates (fig. 30). Paleogene and Neogene clastic reservoirs are probably of 

secondary importance. Cretaceous reservoir rocks may have potential only in structural 

positions where they could be charged by Eocene Suzak source rocks. Migration of gas 

from the underlying subsalt Jurassic petroleum system is possible locally, although no 

signs of migration of fluids from Jurassic source rocks have been observed (Safranov, 

1988). 

150
Reservoir properties of Paleogene carbonate rocks in Tajikistan improve from east to 

west mainly because of increasing amounts of dolomite (Knodur and others, 1992). 

In Beshtentyak Field, carbonate reservoir rocks have porosities from 0.5 to 16.2 percent; 

low porosity (less than 3 percent) rocks account for 75 percent. Higher porosity rocks in 

the Ghory suite (Bukhara member) are poorly characterized. Matrix permeability is very 

low even in high porosity rocks. 

Traps: 

Possible primary traps are anticlines and faults associated with anticlines (fig. 31). Most 

of the crude oil and natural gas accumulations have been discovered in “blanket-crest 

traps” (Orudzheva and Kornenko, 1991). Many anticlines in the upper thrust sheets are 

deeply eroded, and conditions for preservation of hydrocarbons are poor. Structural traps 

in synclines and lower thrust sheets have better potential. The youngest tectonically 

sealed traps in the Afghan-Tajik Basin were formed by the end of the Pliocene and the 

beginning of the Quaternary (Knodur and others, 1992). Traps are present in synclinal 

zones (tectonically sealed), among anticlinoria, but the best traps are in overthrust zones 

of the Vakhsh zone (Knodur and others, 1992). 

Stratigraphic traps may exist in the Afghan-Tajik Basin based on the discovery of 

stratigraphic and fault traps in Beshtentyak and North Kurgancha Fields (Makhkamov and 

151
others, 1985). The most favorable traps are those sealed by salt diapirs in the Cretaceous 

and Paleogene intervals of the Obigarm and Kulyab meganticlines in eastern parts of the 

basin (Makhkamov and others, 1985). Structures produced by salt tectonics are observed 

in the Afghan-Tajik Basin near the town of Taloqan in northern Afghanistan (Dastyar and 

others, 1990) and salt diapirs in southern Tajikistan (Loziyev, 1976). 

Seals: 

Seal rocks include Suzak mudstone and intraformational Paleogene and Neogene 

mudstone (Safranov and others, 1983). 

Assessment Units: 

 The Afghanistan Western Suprasalt Gentle Folds Assessment Unit (11560201) and the 

Afghanistan Eastern Suprasalt Thrusts and Folds Assessment Unit (11560202) are both 

stratigraphically above the Upper Jurassic salt but differentiated with respect to the 

intensity of deformation within potential structural traps. The Afghanistan Western 

Suprasalt Gentle Folds Assessment Unit is located on a basement structural step that 

inhibited intense Neogene deformation thereby having larger, unbroken structures with a 

high potential for petroleum resources. 

The Afghanistan Western Suprasalt Gentle Folds Assessment Unit encompasses 

Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks of the area where Neogene to Quaternary deformation 

was not as intense as in areas farther east. The area coincides with a structural step as 

152
indicated by gravimetric surveys. The area extends from the eastern edge of the 

southwest Gissar spur meganticline to the western edge of intensive Neogene to 

Quaternary folding within the Surkhan synclinorium. The southern boundary of the 

assessment unit is along the Alburz-Marmul fault zone. 

Afghanistan Eastern Suprasalt Thrusts and Folds Assessment Unit comprises Cretaceous 

and Cenozoic rocks in an area of intensive Neogene to Quaternary folding from anticlinal 

ridges of the eastern Surkhan synclinorium to the Hindu Kush and Badakhshan ranges in 

the east. The southern boundary is along the Alburz-Marmul fault zone. 

Fifteen wells were drilled in the Afghanistan Eastern Suprasalt Thrusts and Folds 

Assessment Unit and six in the Afghanistan Western Suprasalt Gentle Folds Assessment 

Unit. 

Assessment Results: The Afghan-Tajik Basin has the greatest geologic uncertainty in 

this study. No seismic surveys have been conducted in northern Afghanistan and only 

surveys using old technology having poor resolution were made in Tajikistan. The 

geology is known primarily from surface mapping. The geologic model of petroleum 

occurrence used in this study was constructed using analogues. 

Although oil and source-rock samples were collected throughout the basin and analyzed 

for this study, no definitive oil-source rock correlations have yet been made. Source 

153
rocks for the oil are inferred and the petroleum system is poorly defined. In addition, the 

geology and sizes of discovered fields are poorly known. The elements of Jurassic total 

petroleum system, as well as subthrust structures below the salt are poorly known. 

Despite discoveries in Tajikistan, random success throughout exploration history and 

poorly known field sizes make exploration and discovery history analysis inadequate to 

use for assessment of northern Afghanistan. Therefore analogs were used in addition to 

structure/prospect maps to aid in the estimation of the number and sizes of undiscovered 

accumulations. 

An assessment unit in the North Caucasus was chosen as an analog because it has 

similar but well understood geology and is mature with respect to exploration. As with the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin, this analogue has an allochthonous section above a salt detachment 

surface; compressional anticlines, folds, and thrusts; and salt-induced structures. In 

addition, the source rock age, reservoir rock age, and structural timing are similar. 

Figure 32 shows cross sections through this analogue assessment unit. The TerekSunzha thrust belt (fig. 32A) is in the western part of the assessment unit, has a salt 

detachment surface, and is where most of the oil accumulations exist. Both the source 

rock (Oligocene to Miocene Maykop Formation) and reservoir rocks (Upper Cretaceous to 

Miocene) are above the Jurassic salt detachment surface, as in the Afghan-Tajik Basin. 

The Dagestan thrust belt (fig. 32B) has a mudstone detachment surface and is in the 

154
eastern part of the North Caucasus assessment unit. These cross sections show that 

where salt is present, only a small number of thrust sheets are expected to be stacked; 

typically two (A) whereas multiple imbricate thrust sheets are stacked where salt is 

absent (B). 

Analysis of the discovery history of the North Caucasus assessment unit analog (fig. 33) 

indicates that about 30 oil discoveries were made and decreasing in size through time of 

discovery as expected. The largest field sizes are roughly 500 to 800 million barrels. Most 

of the sizes are below 100 million barrels. The median field size is between 10 and 20 

million barrels. 

Structures and prospects on maps in the Afghan-Tajik Basin were counted to aid in our 

estimation of the number of undiscovered accumulations. Only about 40 percent of the 

structures are assumed to be mapped, some undrilled structures may not be prospects, 

and some drilled “dry” structures may actually be fields. Traps are expected in both 

allochthons and subthrusts. 

The Afghanistan Western Suprasalt Gentle Folds Assessment Unit is postulated to have a 

smaller number of larger fields, whereas the Afghanistan Eastern Suprasalt Thrusts and 

Folds Assessment Unit should have a larger number of smaller fields because of the 

larger area and a greater degree of deformation (figs. 34 and 35).

155
The largest accumulation in the Afghanistan Western Suprasalt Gentle Folds Assessment 

Unit was assumed to not yet have been discovered and a size larger than the analog was 

estimated to express uncertainty (3 billion barrels). Despite the large maximum estimated 

size, the expected largest crude oil accumulation is only about 300 million barrels because 

of the small number of fields estimated. 

The estimated sizes for the Afghanistan Eastern Suprasalt Thrusts and Folds Assessment 

Unit are more like the Middle Caspian Foldbelt-Foothills Assessment Unit analog. 

The mean of the undiscovered crude oil volume in the Afghanistan Western Suprasalt 

Gentle Folds Assessment Unit is over 600 million barrels (over 80 million metric tons) with 

a range from an F5 of 90 to an F95 of 1,800 million barrels. Although larger accumulations 

may be discovered in this assessment unit, most of the undiscovered crude oil is 

estimated to be in the Afghanistan Eastern Suprasalt Thrusts and Folds Assessment Unit. 

The mean of the undiscovered crude oil volume in the Afghanistan Eastern Suprasalt 

Thrusts and Folds Assessment Unit is almost 900 million barrels (123 million metric tons) 

with a range from an F5 of 280 to an F95 of 1,600 million barrels. The distribution is 

considerably less skewed and the range is narrower than for the Afghanistan Western 

Suprasalt Gentle Folds Assessment Unit, reflecting the wider range of numbers and larger 

numbers of accumulations with a narrower size distribution. 

156
A small number of natural gas fields was estimated for the Afghanistan Western Suprasalt 

Gentle Folds Assessment Unit because of the small areal extent of the assessment unit 

and few mapped structures. Should a natural gas field exist the size could be quite large, 

which is expressed by a maximum of 1,500 billion cubic feet of natural gas in the 

estimated undiscovered field-size distribution. Although an undiscovered field-size 

distribution that is the same as for the Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin Margin 

Assessment Unit of the Amu Darya Basin was estimated, this distribution was chosen to 

express trap volume without a salt seal in allochthons, as well as natural gas generation 

from a marginally mature source rock. 

In comparison with the Afghanistan Western Suprasalt Gentle Folds Assessment Unit, a 

larger number of smaller natural gas fields was estimated for the Afghanistan Eastern 

Suprasalt Thrusts and Folds Assessment Unit. Natural gas accumulations are postulated 

to exist in highly compartmentalized subthrust structures. Smaller field sizes were 

estimated to reflect smaller compartments and the possibility of leakage through faults 

and fractures in these intensely deformed structures. 

Conclusions 

Using a geology-based assessment methodology, the U.S. Geological Survey–Afghanistan 

Ministry of Mines and Industry Joint Oil and Gas Resource Assessment Team estimated 

mean volumes of undiscovered petroleum in northern Afghanistan. Units for assessment 

157
were delineated, and geologic risk was assigned to these assessment units. Number and 

sizes of undiscovered petroleum accumulations were estimated and given ranges of 

uncertainty. The results of the assessment are probability distributions of the volumes of 

undiscovered crude oil, natural gas, and natural gas liquids/condensates. 

The resulting estimated mean volumes of the probability distributions are 1,596 million 

barrels or 219 million metric tons of crude oil, 15,687 billion cubic feet or 444 billion cubic 

meters of natural gas, and 562 million barrels or 77 million metric tons of natural gas 

liquids (table 1). The greatest volume of undiscovered crude oil is estimated to be in the 

Afghanistan Eastern Suprasalt Thrusts and Folds Assessment Unit (11560202). The 

greatest volume of undiscovered natural gas is estimated to be in the Afghanistan 

Jurassic Evaporite Basin Subsalt Carbonates Assessment Unit (11540105). 

Development of Afghanistan’s petroleum resources is needed for the continued economic 

recovery of the country. This development will likely take several forms starting with 

verification of reserves through recompletion or twinning of existing wells in producing 

fields to increase production and collect data. The viability of petroleum resources in the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin should be demonstrated with regional seismic surveys followed up by 

appropriate exploratory wells. 

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List of tables 

1. Northern Afghanistan assessment results (reserves not included). 

189
List of figures 

Figure 1. Map of Afghanistan showing location of Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins, 

and approximate locations of fields and discoveries that contain primarily crude oil 

(green), natural gas (red), and both (orange). Field and discovery locations from IHS 

Energy (2005). 

Figure 2. Chart showing the structural and stratigraphic development of the Amu Darya 

Basin (ADB) and Afghan-Tajik Basin (ATB) in northern Afghanistan. 

Figure 3. Map showing principal present-day structural elements of northern Afghanistan. 

Figure 4. Diagram showing Neogene deformation of the Afghan-Tajik Basin. Modified 

from Kleshchev and others (1993). A. Present-day configuration. B. Pre-deformation 

configuration. 

Figure 5. Sketch map of Afghanistan showing major tectonic blocks and associated 

structural features. Red lines are fault zones. Modified from Boulin (1981) and Kingston 

and Clarke (1995). 

Figure 6. Lithostratigraphic columnar section for the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins. 

190
Figure 7. Map of northern Afghanistan and surrounding areas showing present-day 

structural elements; structures mapped by geophysical methods; boundaries of 

assessment units; and locations of crude oil and natural gas fields, cross sections, 

collected samples, and profiles used for petroleum-generation models. Data from VNIGNI 

(2005a; b), Bratash and others (1964), Clarke and Kleshchev (1992), Gustavson Associates 

(2004), Ivanov and Didura (1978), Ivanov and others (1978), Klochko and Slobodyanyuk 

(1984), Les'kiv (1991), Melekhin (1973), Melikhov and others (1997), Tulyaganov (1972), 

Ulmishek (2004), VZG (2004). 

Figure 8. Satellite image of northern Afghanistan showing locations of the Amu Darya and 

Afghan-Tajik Basins, as well as the Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous Total Petroleum 

System (115401, within blue line), Kalaimor-Kaisar Jurassic Total Petroleum System 

(115401, within red line), Afghan-Tajik Jurassic Total Petroleum System (115601, within 

yellow line), and Afghan-Tajik Paleogene Total Petroleum System (115602, within yellow 

line). Some total petroleum system boundaries extend west and north beyond the view of 

the image. Image from National Geospatial Intelligence Agency, unclassified, 12 July 

2004. 

Figure 9. Geologic models of petroleum occurrence used as basis for assessing 

assessment units of total petroleum systems of the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins, 

northern Afghanistan. See figure 6 for unit index and age. TPS is total petroleum system.

191
Figure 10. Events charts for total petroleum systems of the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik 

Basins. A. Events chart for the Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous Total Petroleum System. 

This total petroleum system is charcterized by Lower to Middle and Upper Jurassic 

source rocks, Jurassic to Cretaceous reservoir rocks, and Jurassic to Cretaceous 

mudstone seals. Petroleum generation and migration started in Late Cretaceous time, and 

trap development occurred in Paleogene to Neogene time.B. Events chart for the 

Kalaimor-Kaisar Total Petroleum System. This total petroleum system is charcterized by 

Lower to Middle Jurassic source rocks, Jurassic to Cretaceous reservoir rocks, and 

Jurassic to Cretaceous mudstone seals. Petroleum generation, migration, and 

accumulation, and trap development occurred in Paleogene to Neogene time. C. Events 

chart for the Afghan-Tajik Jurassic Total Petroleum System. This total petroleum system 

is charcterized by Lower to Middle and Upper Jurassic source rocks, Jurassic to 

Cretaceous reservoir rocks, and Upper Jurassic salt and Jurassic to Cretaceous 

mudstone seals. Petroleum generation and migration started in Late Cretaceous time. 

Traps developed in Paleogene and Neogene time. D. Events chart for the Afghan-Tajik 

Paleogene Total Petroleum System. This total petroleum system is charcterized by 

Eocene source rocks, Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene reservoir rocks, and Paleogene 

mudstone seals. Petroleum generation, migration, and accumulation occurred in 

Neogene time. Traps developed in Neogene time. 

Figure 11. Sketch map showing locations of assessment units and estimated 

undiscovered petroleum volumes. The means of the estimates are given next to the 

192
assessment unit name and the ranges are given within the assessment unit boundaries of 

the map. BCFG is billion cubic feet of natural gas and MMBO is million barrels of crude 

oil. The greatest volume of undiscovered crude oil is estimated to be in the Afghanistan 

Eastern Suprasalt Thrusts and Folds Assessment Unit (11560202) and the greatest volume 

of undiscovered natural gas is estimated to be in the Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite 

Basin Subsalt Carbonates Assessment Unit (11540105). A. Subsalt assessment units. B. 

Suprasalt assessment units. The Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin Margin 

Assessment Unit (11540107) and the Afghanistan Kushka Zone Assessment Unit (11540201) 

encompasses both subsalt and suprasalt intervals. 

Figure 12. Subsidence curves for the Afghan-Tajik Basin. The locations of the profiles 

used to construct these curves are shown on Figure 7. A. Subsidence curve for a profile 

located near Gunj structure, northern Afghanistan B. Subsidence curve for a profile 

located between Aryktau and Khoja Kazian structures, southern Tajikistan. C. 

Subsidence curve for Quaternary deposits at the mouths of the Vakhsh and Pyandzh 

Rivers (located between the southern Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan profiles). This 

curve was incorporated into curves shown in A and B. 

Figure 13. Burial-history curves for the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins constructed 

using the Petromod petroleum-generation model. The thermal window for crude oil 

generation, catagenesis stage, is where vitrinite reflectance values are between 0.5 or 0.7

193
and 1.3 percent. Main zone for natural gas and natural gas liquids/condensate generation 

is where vitrinite reflectance values are between 1.3 and 2.0 percent. 

Figure 14. Map showing areal distribution of mature organic-rich Suzak mudstone beds in 

overriding thrust sheets and location of outcrop samples with measured vitrinite 

reflectance values. Mature Suzak beds appear to be absent in some areas, but beds are 

most likely present and mature below thrust sheets. 

Figure 15. Photographs of Suzak mudstone outcrops; locations are shown on map in 

Figure 7. Note that the mudstone is extremely weathered. A. and B. Northern 

Afghanistan near the town of Kholm. C. Southern Tajikistan between South Aruktau and 

Khoja Kazian structures, 15 kilometers south of the town of Garavoty. 

Figure 16. Graphs showing the results of organic matter analysis in Suzak mudstone 

outcrop samples. A. Frequency distribution of total organic matter content in weight 

percent. B. Modified van Krevelen diagram showing pyrolysis results. C. Frequency 

distribution of mean vitrinite reflectance values. D. Graph of hydrogen index with respect 

to maximum temperature (Tmax) showing that most outcrop samples are immature with 

respect to crude oil generation. 

Figure 17. Graphs showing the results of geochemical analyses of crude oils and extracts. 

A. Legend. B. Ternary diagram of the relative amounts of saturate, aromatic, and polar 

194
molecules. C. Graph showing carbon isotope ratios of aromatic molecules with respect 

to carbon isotope ratios of saturate molecules. D. Graph showing sulfur content with 

respect to oil gravity. E. Graph showing sulfur content with respect to pristane to phytane 

ratio. F. Ternary diagram of C27, C28, and C29 steranes. G. Graph showing C29 to C30 

sterane ratio with respect to C22 to C21 sterane ratio indicating type of source rock. H. 

Graph showing C35 to C34 sterane ratio with respect to C29 to C30 sterane ratio indicating 

type and the depositional environment of source rock. I. Graph showing diasterane to 

sterane ratio with respect to C29 to C30 sterane ratio indicating type of source rock. J. 

Graph showing diasterane to sterane ratio with respect to pristane to phytane ratio. K. 

Graph showing C27 18a trisnorhopane to C27 17a trisnorhopane ratio with respect to C29 

to C30 sterane ratio indicating type and maturity of source rock. 

Figure 18. Estimates of recoverable crude oil and natural gas in discovered fields (field 

sizes) of northern Afghanistan. A. Crude oil fields. B. Natural gas fields. 

Figure 19. Recoverable crude oil and natural gas in discovered fields (field sizes) with 

respect to year of field discovery of northern Afghanistan. A. Recoverable crude oil with 

respect to year of field discovery. B. Recoverable natural gas with respect to year of field 

discovery. C. Cumulative recoverable crude oil with respect to year of field discovery. D. 

Cumulative recoverable natural gas with respect to year of field discovery. 

RETURN TO PREVIOUS VIEW 

195
Figure 20. Photograph of two structures in the Amu Darya Basin part of northern 

Afghanistan. Major gas-producing fields are located on each of these structures, Khuja 

Goger Dak (left) and Etym Tag (right). See Figure 7 for location. 

Figure 21. Geologic cross section from Andkhoy step to the North Afghan High. Modified 

from unpublished cross section provided by the Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and 

Industry. See Figure 7 for location (I-I’). 

Figure 22. Geologic cross section from Uchazhi high in Turkmenistan (northwest) to 

Maimana step in Afghanistan (southeast) through the Murghab depression. Modified 

from Bratash and others (1970) and Aleshina and Bluket (1967). See Figure 7 for location 

(II-II’). 

Figure 23. Isopach map of Lower Cretaceous sediments. Modified from VNIGNI (2005b). 

Figure 24. Recoverable natural gas in discovered fields (field sizes) with respect to year of 

field discovery of the entire Amu Darya Basin. A. Recoverable natural gas with respect to 

year of field discovery. B. Cumulative recoverable natural gas with respect to year of 

field discovery. 

Figure 25. Graphs of the distributions of number and sizes as assessment input variables, 

and calculated resources for natural gas in natural gas fields for each assessment unit in

196
the Amu Darya part of northern Afghanistan. The mean values of the forecast 

distributions are given in the upper right corners of the graphs. 

Figure 26. Graphs of the distributions of number and sizes input variables, and calculated 

resources for crude oil in crude oil fields for the Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin 

Margin Assessment Unit in the Amu Darya part of northern Afghanistan. The mean value 

of the forecast distribution is given in the upper right corner of the graph. 

Figure 27. Graphs of the distributions of number and sizes input variables, and calculated 

resources for natural gas in natural gas fields for the Afghanistan Kushka Zone 

Assessment Unit in the Amu Darya part of northern Afghanistan. The mean value of the 

forecast distribution is given in the upper right corner of the graph. 

Figure 28. Geologic cross section from the North Afghan High (south, left) to the Amu 

Darya River in the Afghan-Tajik Basin. Modified from Bratash and others (1970). See 

Figure 7 for location (III-III’). 

Figure 29. Graphs of the distributions of number and sizes input variables, and calculated 

resources for natural gas in natural gas fields for each of the subsalt assessment units in 

the Afghan-Tajik part of northern Afghanistan. The mean values of the forecast 

distributions are given in the upper right corners of the graphs. 

197
Figure 30. Structure contour map of the top of the Ghory suite (Bukhara series) in 

northern Afghanistan. Modifed from Ivanov and Didura (1978). 

Figure 31. Photograph of Mohammed Jandager or Bardakh structure in the Afghan-Tajik 

Basin part of northern Afghanistan. 

Figure 32. Geologic cross sections through the analog Middle Caspian, Foldbelt-Foothill 

Assessment Unit. A. The Terek-Sunzha thrust belt is in the western part of the 

assessment unit, has a salt detachment surface, and is where most of the oil 

accumulations exist. B. The Dagestan thrust belt has a mudstone detachment surface 

and is in the eastern part of the North Caucasus assessment unit. From Ulmishek (2001). 

Figure 33. Recoverable crude oil in discovered fields (field sizes) with respect to year of 

field discovery of the Middle Caspian, Foldbelt-Foothill Assessment Unit. A. Recoverable 

crude oil with respect to year of field discovery. B. Cumulative recoverable crude oil with 

respect to year of field discovery. 

Figure 34. Graphs of the distributions of number and sizes input variables, and calculated 

resources for crude oil in crude oil fields for each of the suprasalt assessment units in the 

Afghan-Tajik part of northern Afghanistan. The mean values of the forecast distributions 

are given in the upper right corners of the graphs.

198
Figure 35. Graphs of the distributions of number and sizes input variables, and calculated 

resources for natural gas in natural gas fields for each of the suprasalt assessment units 

in the Afghan-Tajik part of northern Afghanistan. The mean values of the forecast 

distributions are given in the upper right corners of the graphs. 

199
Appendicies 

1. Assessment input forms 

2. Assessment results reports 

3. Description of assessment methodology 

4. One page geologic summaries 

5. Seismic survey report 

200
APPENDIX 1 

Assessment input forms 

201
APPENDIX 2 

Assessment results reports 

202
APPENDIX 3 

Description of assessment methodology 

203
UNDISCOVERED PETROLEUM RESOURCES 

USGS Methodology for the Assessment of Undiscovered Technically Recoverable 

Conventional Petroleum Resources (modified from Schmoker and Klett, 2003) 

Conventional accumulations, as recognized by the USGS for purposes of resource 

assessment, are defined by two key geologic characteristics: (1) they occupy limited, 

discrete volumes of rock bounded by traps, seals, and down-dip water contacts, and (2) 

they depend upon the buoyancy of crude oil or natural gas in water for their existence; 

floating bubble-like in water. Because of these properties, conventional accumulations 

are commonly assessed in terms of the sizes and numbers of discrete accumulations (for 

example, individual crude oil and natural gas fields). This section describes the 

fundamental concepts supporting the U.S. Geological Survey “Seventh Approximation” 

model for resource assessments of conventional accumulations. 

The Seventh Approximation model provides a strategy for estimating volumes of 

undiscovered petroleum (crude oil, natural gas, and coproducts) having the potential to be 

added to reserves in some (specified) foreseeable future time span. For purposes of this 

model, undiscovered petroleum is that which is postulated from geologic knowledge and 

theory to exist outside of known accumulations, and which resides in accumulations 

having sizes equal to or exceeding a stated minimum volume. Undiscovered petroleum 

volumes include initial accumulation sizes as they are perceived at the time of discovery, 

204
as well as any reserves anticipated to be added as these discoveries are developed and 

produced. 

The Seventh Approximation does not attempt to predict volumes of petroleum that will 

actually be discovered in a given future time span. To do so would require full knowledge 

of future petroleum economics and exploration technologies, and the extent of exploration 

effort that will be conducted in the area being assessed. Rather, the Seventh 

Approximation is used to estimate volumes of petroleum having potential, from a geologic 

standpoint, to be discovered in a specified time frame. 

To begin an assessment of undiscovered conventional resources using the Seventh 

Approximation, the volume of rocks to be assessed is apportioned into reasonably 

homogeneous subunits. These subunits are divisions of total petroleum systems, termed 

assessment units. Assessment units are considered and assessed individually. 

The assessment of an area requires (1) choice of a minimum accumulation size, (2) 

assignment of geologic risk, and (3) estimation of the number and sizes of undiscovered 

accumulations in the assessment area. The combination of these variables yields 

probability distributions for potential additions to reserves. Computer programs are used 

in conjunction with the Seventh Approximation to calculate resource estimates. 

However, assessment results are controlled by geology-based input parameters supplied 

by knowledgeable geologists, as opposed to projections of historical trends. 

205
Documentation for the World Petroleum Assessment 2000 (U.S. Geological Survey World 

Energy Assessment Team, 2000) described the Seventh Approximation in considerable 

detail, as well as operational procedures and practical considerations associated with its 

implementation. The reader is referred to that reference for more detail than is provided 

here. 

The uncertainties associated with the variables required for an assessment of 

undiscovered conventional resources are considerable, leading to a substantial range of 

possible input values. Many of the variables that make up the set of input data are 

therefore represented by probability distributions rather than by single (point) values. 

Resource forecasts derived from these input data are also represented by probability 

distributions. 

The probability distributions for some input variables show the uncertainty of a fixed but 

unknown value, whereas other probability distributions represent input variables that 

have a naturally occurring range of values. F100 (minimum), mode, and F0

 (maximum) 

fractiles are the input parameters estimated for all variables, except size whereby the F50

(median) is recorded for the central tendency. These parameters are represented by 

probability distributions. These parameters are not specifically linked to a particular type 

of probability distribution (for example, lognormal). The choice of probability-distribution 

type is an operational decision that is not constrained by the basic Seventh Approximation 

206
assessment model. For this assessment, a truncated, shifted lognormal distribution is 

used for the sizes of undiscovered accumulations, and triangular distributions are used 

for all other input variables represented by probability distributions. 

The essence of the assessment procedure is as follows: 

(1) A minimum accumulation size (field size or pool size), expressed as barrels of oil for oil 

accumulations and barrels of oil equivalent for gas accumulations, is chosen for the 

assessment unit. Petroleum in accumulations expected to be smaller than the minimum 

size is not considered to be a significant resource within the specified forecast span and 

is excluded from the assessment. 

(2) Probabilities for the occurrence of adequate charge, adequate rocks, and adequate 

timing for at least one undiscovered accumulation of minimum size or greater are 

assigned to the assessment unit; this defines the geologic risk. 

(3) The number of undiscovered oil accumulations and the number of undiscovered gas 

accumulations in the assessment unit that are greater than or equal to the minimum size 

are estimated. 

(4) Sizes of these undiscovered crude oil accumulations and undiscovered natural gas 

accumulations are estimated. Size estimates include both the reserves estimated at the 

207
time of discovery and anticipated reserve additions as accumulations are exploited after 

discovery (reserve growth). 

(5) For undiscovered oil accumulations, ratios of natural gas/crude oil and natural gas 

liquids/natural gas are estimated. For undiscovered natural gas accumulations, the ratio 

of total liquids/natural gas is estimated. These ratios are used to assess the coproducts 

associated with crude oil in crude oil accumulations and with natural gas in natural gas 

accumulations. 

The combination of individual geologic probabilities, number of undiscovered 

accumulations, sizes of undiscovered accumulations, and coproduct ratios yields 

probability distributions for potential additions to reserves of crude oil, natural gas, and 

coproducts in the assessment unit. 

An important aspect of this assessment procedure is that historical exploration and 

discovery patterns serve only as a starting point for the assessment forecast, and they are 

not necessarily projected as characteristic of future exploration and development trends. 

With historical data as a point of reference, input parameters can be chosen to reflect 

perceived impacts of future change, such as improved technologies and newly developed 

geologic concepts, as well as the recognition that the larger fields in an assessment unit 

tend to be found first. 

208
Four input-data elements in addition to those discussed in the previous section are 

recorded at the assessment-unit level. 

(1) Identification Information 

Identification information includes the assessor’s name, the date of the assessment 

meeting at which input data were discussed and reviewed, and the names and numerical 

codes of the region, province, total petroleum system, and assessment unit. Brief notes 

relevant to the assessment can also be recorded. 

(2) Characteristics of Assessment Unit 

These input data, although not essential elements of the assessment model, provide 

information that is useful for the resource-assessment process. 

Classification of the assessment unit as crude oil prone or natural gas prone, based on the 

criteria that the overall natural gas/crude oil ratio of an crude oil-prone assessment unit is 

less than 20,000 cubic feet of natural gas/barrel of crude oil, and that of a natural gasprone assessment unit is greater than or equal to 20,000 cubic feet of natural gas/barrel of 

crude oil. 

209
Number of discovered crude oil accumulations and natural gas accumulations of 

minimum size or larger, and the median sizes of three sub-groups of these accumulations 

– the first-third discovered, the second-third discovered, and the third-third discovered (or 

first-half and second-half discovered if the number of fields is small). 

A classification of the exploration maturity of the assessment unit – as established, 

frontier, or hypothetical – is also made, based on the number of discoveries equal to or 

exceeding minimum size. Established (>13 accumulations discovered) and frontier (1-13 

accumulations discovered) assessment units are known to have all the geologic elements 

necessary for at least one petroleum accumulation of minimum size. Additionally, 

established assessment units have a sufficient number of discovered accumulations for 

historic field- or pool-level data to be of help in postulating properties of undiscovered 

accumulations. Hypothetical assessment units have no discovered accumulations, and 

their assessment is therefore more speculative than for established and frontier 

assessment units. 

(3) Selected Ancillary Data for Undiscovered Accumulations 

These data establish a modest set of information useful for economic and environmental 

analyses of assessment results. They do not contribute directly to assessment 

calculations. Ancillary data for undiscovered conventional crude oil accumulations are 

estimates of API gravity of crude oil, sulfur content of crude oil, drilling depth, and water 

210
depth (if applicable). Ancillary data for undiscovered conventional natural gas 

accumulations are estimates of inert-gas content, carbon dioxide content, hydrogen 

sulfide content, drilling depth, and water depth (if applicable). 

(4) Allocations of Assessed Undiscovered Resources 

These input data consist of percentages necessary to allocate assessed undiscovered 

conventional resources to various land entities of interest within the assessment unit, as 

well as to the offshore portion of each entity, if applicable. Such land entities could 

include, for example, surface and mineral ownerships, special use categories of state and 

federal lands, or ecological zones. 

Undiscovered petroleum resources estimated for assessment units can be aggregated to 

total petroleum systems, geologic provinces, and regions. If the assessment units or 

other areas are assumed to be dependent, that is having a +1 correlation coefficient, the 

fractiles of the calculated resources may be added to provide the probabilistic estimates 

of the petroleum resources of northern Afghanistan. In addition, aggregation assuming 

dependency maintains a broader uncertainty range. 

211
APPENDIX 4 

One page geologic summaries 

212
USGS PROVINCE: Amu Darya Basin (1154) 

GEOLOGISTS: T.R. Klett and G.F. Ulmishek 

TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM: Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous (115401) 

ASSESSMENT UNIT: Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin Subsalt Carbonates 

(11540105) 

DESCRIPTION: Assessment unit encompasses Jurassic rocks of the basin area in 

boundaries of the Gaurdak salt formation (Kimmeridgian to Tithonian). Known fields are 

located dominantly in northern areas of the assessment unit; the rest of its area is mostly 

undrilled. The assessment unit is characterized by the presence of the regional salt seal 

that generally prevents vertical migration of hydrocarbons into post-Jurassic rocks. As a 

result, most fields contain pools only in Upper Jurassic (Callovian to Oxfordian) 

carbonates beneath the salt. Several natural gas fields discovered to date in northern 

Afghanistan are in this assessment unit. 

SOURCE ROCKS: The principal source rocks are Lower to Middle Jurassic coaly 

continental to marine clastics and coals and Upper Jurassic (primarily Oxfordian) anoxic 

basinal black mudstone. The source rock section is thin on marginal highs, but thickens 

to several hundred meters basinward. Both source rocks are separated from Cretaceous 

213
reservoirs by a regional, undeformed salt seal. The clastic rocks contain from several 

tenths to as much as 2.5 weight percent of total organic carbon with Type III kerogen and 

thin coals. Upper Jurassic basinal black mudstone (Khodzhaipak Formation) has not been 

penetrated by wells in Afghanistan but is known from paleogeographically similar areas in 

adjacent Uzbekistan where it is a few tens of meters thick and contains as much as 15 

weight percent total organic carbon and type II kerogen. 

MATURATION: Both Jurassic source rock suites are in the gas window and are at high 

stages of maturity. 

RESERVOIR ROCKS: The main reservoir rocks are Upper Jurassic (Callovian to 

Oxfordian) carbonates that probably include barrier and pinnacle reef facies. 

TRAPS: All known fields are in structural traps. Undiscovered fields are expected in 

structural traps, in reefs, or combination of the two. 

SEALS: The principal regional seal is the Kimmeridgian to Tithonian Gaurdak Formation 

composed of salt and anhydrite with local carbonate beds. 

REFERENCES: 

214
Akramkhodzhaev, A.M., and Egamberdyev, M.E., 1981, Main oil- and gas-generative 

 rocks of the Upper Jurassic carbonate formation of western and southern 

 Uzbekistan: Uzbekskiy Geologicheskiy Zhurnal, no. 5, p. 47-56. 

Bratash, V.I, Yegupov, S.V., Pechnikov, V.V., and Shelomentsev, A.I., 1970, Geologiya 

 i neftegazonosnost severa Afganistana (Geology and petroleum potential of 

 northern Afghanistan), Trudy VNIGNI, v. 80, Nedra, Moscow, 288 p. 

Brookfield, M.E., and Hashmat, A., 2001, The geology and petroleum potential of the 

 North Afghan platform and adjacent areas (northern Afghanistan, with parts of 

 southern Turkmenistan, Uzebekistan and Tajikistan): Earth-Science Reviews, v. 

 55, p. 41-71. 

Kingston, J., and Clarke, J.W., 1995, Petroleum geology and resources of Afghanistan: 

 International Geology Review, v. 37, p. 111-127. 

Seradji, R., 1993, Tectonic and thermobarometric conditions of separate generation of oil 

 and gas deposits in North Afghanistan: Moscow University Geology Bulletin, v. 

 48, no. 2, p. 62-65 (Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta). 

Ulmishek, G.F., 2004, Petroleum geology and resources of the Amu-Darya Basin, 

 Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Iran: U.S. Geological Survey 

 Bulletin 2201-H, 84 p. 

215
USGS PROVINCE: Amu Darya Basin (1154) 

GEOLOGISTS: T.R. Klett and G.F. Ulmishek 

TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM: Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous (115401) 

ASSESSMENT UNIT: Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin Suprasalt Anticlines 

(11540106) 

DESCRIPTION: Assessment unit encompasses Cretaceous and younger rocks of the 

basin area in boundaries of the underlying Upper Jurassic evaporite formation. A regional 

salt seal between Jurassic source rocks and potential Cretaceous reservoirs hampers 

vertical migration of hydrocarbons. No hydrocarbon accumulations have been 

discovered in this assessment unit, and potential for finding gas accumulations is related 

to migration through windows in the salt. 

SOURCE ROCKS: The principal source rocks are Lower to Middle Jurassic coaly 

continental to marine clastics and coals and Upper Jurassic (primarily Oxfordian) anoxic 

basinal black mudstone. The contribution from possible organic-lean Cretaceous source 

rocks is minimal, if any. The precise mechanism of migration from the source to the 

reservoirs is not clear. A possible model, known from the giant Dauletabad-Donmez field 

in adjacent Turkmenistan, includes vertical migration beyond the pinch-out boundary of 

216
the salt formation and following lateral migration basinward to traps. The existence of 

windows in salt, which are suitable for vertical migration, in the salt-dome area along the 

Repetek-Kelif fault is also possible. 

MATURATION: Both Jurassic source rocks are in the gas window and have resided in 

the high maturity zone since at least Late Cretaceous time. 

RESERVOIR ROCKS: Principal reservoir rocks are sandstone of the Hauterivian 

Qezeltash Formation (also spelled Kyzyltash; stratigraphically equivalent to the Shatlyk 

Formation of Turkmenistan), but other Cretaceous reservoir rocks are also present. 

TRAPS: Accumulations will most likely be found in structural traps. 

SEALS: The Qezeltash Formation reservoirs are sealed by an extensive Barremian to 

Aptian mudstone. Intraformational mudstone beds may seal gas pools in other reservoirs. 

REFERENCES: 

Bratash, V.I, Yegupov, S.V., Pechnikov, V.V., and Shelomentsev, A.I., 1970, Geologiya 

 i neftegazonosnost severa Afganistana (Geology and petroleum potential of 

 northern Afghanistan), Trudy VNIGNI, v. 80, Nedra, Moscow, 288 p. 

Brookfield, M.E., and Hashmat, A., 2001, The geology and petroleum potential of the 

 North Afghan platform and adjacent areas (northern Afghanistan, with parts of 

217
 southern Turkmenistan, Uzebekistan and Tajikistan): Earth-Science Reviews, v. 

 55, p. 41-71. 

Kingston, J., and Clarke, J.W., 1995, Petroleum geology and resources of Afghanistan: 

 International Geology Review, v. 37, p. 111-127. 

Seradji, R., 1993, Tectonic and thermobarometric conditions of separate generation of oil 

 and gas deposits in North Afghanistan: Moscow University Geology Bulletin, v. 

 48, no. 2, p. 62-65 (Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta. Geologiya, UDC 

 551.761). 

Ulmishek, G.F., 2004, Petroleum geology and resources of the Amu-Darya Basin, 

 Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Iran: U.S. Geological Survey 

 Bulletin 2201-H, 84 p. 

218
USGS PROVINCE: Amu Darya Basin (1154) 

GEOLOGISTS: T.R. Klett and G.F. Ulmishek 

TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM: Amu Darya Jurassic-Cretaceous (115401) 

ASSESSMENT UNIT: Afghanistan Jurassic Evaporite Basin Margin (11540107) 

DESCRIPTION: Assessment unit consists of Jurassic through Cenozoic rocks along 

major structural highs located south and east of the pinch-out zone of Upper Jurassic salt. 

The structural highs include the Akhchin step, Andkhoy high, Maimana step and smaller 

adjacent structures. Many of the gas and all oil fields discovered to date in northern 

Afghanistan are in this assessment unit. 

SOURCE ROCKS: The principal source rocks are Lower to Middle Jurassic coaly 

continental to marine clastics and coals and Upper Jurassic (primarily Oxfordian) anoxic 

basinal black mudstone. The source rock section is thin or absent on marginal highs, but 

thickens to several hundred meters basinward. Hydrocarbon contribution from Lower 

Cretaceous organic-lean mudstones, if any, is minimal. Apparently, hydrocarbon 

accumulations were formed by updip lateral migration to traps from Jurassic source 

rocks that occur in depressions adjacent to this assessment unit. 

219
MATURATION: In the depressions adjacent to this assessment unit, both Jurassic 

source rocks are in the gas window and have resided in the high maturity zone since at 

least Late Cretaceous time. 

RESERVOIR ROCKS: The Hauterivian Qezeltash Formation sandstone (also spelled 

Kyzyltash; stratigraphically equivalent to the Shatlyk Formation of Turkmenistan), several 

tens of meters thick, contains most of the oil and gas reserves. The gas contains little or 

no sulfur. The sandstone has high porosity and permeability. The second important 

reservoir rock interval is Upper Jurassic (Callovian to Oxfordian) shallow-shelf carbonates 

that contain sour gas. Other Cretaceous reservoir rocks are of secondary importance. 

TRAPS AND SEALS: Most of discovered productive traps are anticlinal uplifts. 

Structural traps are expected to contain the majority of resources. Pinch-out zones of 

Jurassic and lower Neocomian clastics and carbonates on the northern slope of the 

Maimana Step may contain stratigraphic and combination traps. 

REFERENCES: 

Bratash, V.I, Yegupov, S.V., Pechnikov, V.V., and Shelomentsev, A.I., 1970, Geologiya 

 i neftegazonosnost severa Afganistana (Geology and petroleum potential of 

 northern Afghanistan), Trudy VNIGNI, v. 80, Nedra, Moscow, 288 p. 

Brookfield, M.E., and Hashmat, A., 2001, The geology and petroleum potential of the 

 North Afghan platform and adjacent areas (northern Afghanistan, with parts of 

220
 southern Turkmenistan, Uzebekistan and Tajikistan): Earth-Science Reviews, v. 

 55, p. 41-71. 

Kingston, J., and Clarke, J.W., 1995, Petroleum geology and resources of Afghanistan: 

 International Geology Review, v. 37, p. 111-127. 

Kravchenko, K.N., and Ivanova, O.V., 1997, Potential of oil and gas exploration in the 

 Khodzhagugirdob field (Maimana step): Oil and gas of Turkmenistan, no.3(7), p. 

 30-58. 

Seradji, R., 1993, Tectonic and thermobarometric conditions of separate generation of oil 

 and gas deposits in North Afghanistan: Moscow University Geology Bulletin, v. 

 48, no. 2, p. 62-65 (Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta. Geologiya, UDC 

 551.761). 

Ulmishek, G.F., 2004, Petroleum geology and resources of the Amu-Darya Basin, 

 Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Iran: U.S. Geological Survey 

 Bulletin 2201-H, 84 p. 

221
USGS PROVINCE: Amu Darya Basin (1154) 

GEOLOGISTS: T.R. Klett and G.F. Ulmishek 

TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM: Kalaimor-Kaisar Jurassic (115402) 

ASSESSMENT UNIT: Afghanistan Kushka Zone (11540201) 

DESCRIPTION: Assessment unit encompasses the Kalaimor-Kaisar, Nurbelek, and 

Kalarin depressions and separating uplifts forming the western plunge of BandiTurkestan. A fault bounding the Dzhikdalek anticline on the south marks the boundary 

with the Maimana High. In the north, the assessment unit extends to the state boundary 

of Afghanistan. The Bandigandao Ridge provides the eastern boundary, and the SiakhBubak and Siad-Koh ranges bound the southern edge of the zone. 

SOURCE ROCKS: The principal source rocks are probably Lower to Middle Jurassic 

continental to marine coaly clastics (total organic carbon content as high as 2.5 weight 

percent) with some coal beds in the lower part. The source rocks are largely gas-prone. 

MATURATION: Lower to Middle Jurassic source rocks are buried to depths of about 3 

kilometers on the anticlinal uplifts and significantly deeper in depressions filled with thick 

Neogene to Quaternary rocks and are considered mature for natural gas generation. 

222
RESERVOIR ROCKS: Reservoir rocks in drilled fields of Turkmenistan that are close to 

the country boundary are present in the section from the upper part of the Middle 

Jurassic to the Maastrichtian (Ghory Formation). The Ghory reservoirs are composed of 

carbonate rocks; other reservoir rocks are clastics. 

TRAPS AND SEALS: All discovered productive traps in Turkmenistan are anticlinal 

uplifts. New discoveries are expected in undrilled anticlines and, possibly in the pinchout zone of Lower to Middle Jurassic clastics along the boundary of the assessment unit 

with the Maimana Step. 

REFERENCES: 

Bratash, V.I, Yegupov, S.V., Pechnikov, V.V., and Shelomentsev, A.I., 1970, Geologiya 

 i neftegazonosnost severa Afganistana (Geology and petroleum potential of 

 northern Afghanistan), Trudy VNIGNI, v. 80, Nedra, Moscow, 288 p. 

Brookfield, M.E., and Hashmat, A., 2001, The geology and petroleum potential of the 

 North Afghan platform and adjacent areas (northern Afghanistan, with parts of 

 southern Turkmenistan, Uzebekistan and Tajikistan): Earth-Science Reviews, v. 

 55, p. 41-71. 

Kingston, J., and Clarke, J.W., 1995, Petroleum geology and resources of Afghanistan: 

 International Geology Review, v. 37, p. 111-127. 

223
Melikhov, V.N., Babaev, K.Kh., Abdyllaev, E.Kh., Sibirev, V.S., and Bliskavka, A.G., 1997, 

Analysis of the present state and directions of exploration for oil and gas in the 

Badkhyz-Karabil region: Oil and gas of Turkmenistan, no. 3(7), p. 2-10. 

Ulmishek, G.F., 2004, Petroleum geology and resources of the Amu-Darya Basin, 

 Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Iran: U.S. Geological Survey 

 Bulletin 2201-H, 84 p. 

224
USGS PROVINCE: Afghan-Tajik Basin (1154) 

GEOLOGISTS: T.R. Klett and G.F. Ulmishek 

TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM: Afghan-Tajik Jurassic (115601) 

ASSESSMENT UNIT: Afghanistan Subsalt Oxfordian Shelf (11560101) 

DESCRIPTION: Assessment unit encompasses an area in the Afghanistan portion of the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin to cover an undelineated Late Jurassic (Oxfordian) shelf. Assessment 

unit is defined to separate reservoir rocks deposited on the shelf having a high probability 

of hydrocarbon accumulations from basin rocks having a low probability. The assessment 

unit includes subsalt Jurassic rocks, which occur in the autochthon below detached and 

folded Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks. 

SOURCE ROCKS: The principal source rocks are Lower to Middle Jurassic coaly 

continental to marine clastics and coals and Upper Jurassic (primarily Oxfordian) anoxic 

basinal black mudstone. 

MATURATION: Both Jurassic source rocks are in the gas window and have resided in 

the high maturity zone since at least Late Cretaceous time. The source rocks are buried 

to depths of 2 to 3.5 kilometers on the uplifted structural steps along the basin margins 

225
and probably as deep as 12 kilometers in the basin center by allochthonous thrust sheets 

and thick Neogene to Quaternary fill. 

RESERVOIR ROCKS: Possible reservoir rocks include Jurassic carbonates near the 

margin of the basin and possibly some Upper Jurassic clastic rocks. Reservoir quality of 

these carbonates deteriorates basinward, the carbonate rocks becoming more 

argillaceous. Based on data from adjacent areas, Lower to Middle Jurassic clastics lose 

the reservoir quality at depths greater than 3 to 3.5 km due to compaction and diagenesis. 

Three small fields in the Dushanbe area of Tajikistan produce Jurassic gas from Tithonian 

reservoirs, but reservoir quality decreases basinward because of increasing burial depth. 

TRAPS AND SEALS: Possible traps include subsalt anticlinal uplifts and the pinch-out 

zone of Jurassic clastics along the basin margin. Upper Jurassic evaporites provide a 

regional seal. 

REFERENCES: 

Bratash, V.I, Yegupov, S.V., Pechnikov, V.V., and Shelomentsev, A.I., 1970, Geologiya 

 i neftegazonosnost severa Afganistana (Geology and petroleum potential of 

 northern Afghanistan), Trudy VNIGNI, v. 80, Nedra, Moscow, 288 p. 

Brookfield, M.E., and Hashmat, A., 2001, The geology and petroleum potential of the 

 North Afghan platform and adjacent areas (northern Afghanistan, with parts of 

226
 southern Turkmenistan, Uzebekistan and Tajikistan): Earth-Science Reviews, v. 

 55, p. 41-71. 

Kingston, J., and Clarke, J.W., 1995, Petroleum geology and resources of Afghanistan: 

 International Geology Review, v. 37, p. 111-127. 

227
USGS PROVINCE: Afghan-Tajik Basin (1154) 

GEOLOGISTS: T.R. Klett and G.F. Ulmishek 

TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM: Afghan-Tajik Jurassic (115601) 

ASSESSMENT UNIT: Afghanistan Subsalt Basinal Facies (11560102) 

DESCRIPTION: Assessment unit encompasses an area in the Afghanistan portion of the 

Afghan-Tajik Basin and covers an undelineated Late Jurassic basin. Assessment unit is 

defined to separate reservoir rocks deposited on the shelf having a high probability of 

hydrocarbon accumulations from basin rocks having a low probability. The assessment 

unit includes subsalt Jurassic rocks, which occur in the autochthon below detached and 

folded Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks. 

SOURCE ROCKS: The principal source rocks are Lower to Middle Jurassic coaly 

continental to marine clastics and coals and Upper Jurassic (primarily Oxfordian) anoxic 

basinal black mudstone. 

MATURATION: Both Jurassic source rocks are in the gas window and have resided in 

the high maturity zone since at least Late Cretaceous time. The source rocks are buried 

to depths of 2 to 3.5 kilometers on the uplifted structural steps along the basin margins 

228
and are probably as deep as 12 kilometers in the basin center covered by allochthonous 

thrust sheets and thick Neogene to Quaternary fill. 

RESERVOIR ROCKS: Low possibility of reservoir rocks with adequate reservoir quality 

exists in this assessment unit, but would include Jurassic carbonates and possibly some 

Upper Jurassic clastic rocks. Reservoir quality of the carbonates deteriorates basinward, 

becoming more argillaceous, and Lower to Middle Jurassic clastics loose the reservoir 

quality at depths greater than 3 to 3.5 km due to compaction and diagenesis. 

TRAPS AND SEALS: Possible traps include subsalt anticlinal uplifts. Upper Jurassic 

evaporites provide a regional seal. 

REFERENCES: 

Bratash, V.I, Yegupov, S.V., Pechnikov, V.V., and Shelomentsev, A.I., 1970, Geologiya 

 i neftegazonosnost severa Afganistana (Geology and petroleum potential of 

 northern Afghanistan), Trudy VNIGNI, v. 80, Nedra, Moscow, 288 p. 

Brookfield, M.E., and Hashmat, A., 2001, The geology and petroleum potential of the 

 North Afghan platform and adjacent areas (northern Afghanistan, with parts of 

 southern Turkmenistan, Uzebekistan and Tajikistan): Earth-Science Reviews, v. 

 55, p. 41-71. 

Kingston, J., and Clarke, J.W., 1995, Petroleum geology and resources of Afghanistan: 

 International Geology Review, v. 37, p. 111-127.

229
USGS PROVINCE: Afghan-Tajik Basin (1154) 

GEOLOGISTS: T.R. Klett and G.F. Ulmishek 

TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM: Afghan-Tajik Paleogene (115602) 

ASSESSMENT UNIT: Afghanistan Western Suprasalt Gentle Folds (11560201) 

DESCRIPTION: Assessment unit encompasses Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks of the 

area where Neogene to Quaternary deformation was not as intense as in areas farther 

east. The area coincides with a structural step indicated by gravimetric surveys. The 

area extends from the eastern edge of the southwest Gissar spur meganticline to the 

western edge of intensive Neogene to Quaternary folding within the Surkhan 

synclinorium. The southern boundary is along the Alburz-Marmul fault zone. 

SOURCE ROCKS: The principal source rock is organic rich mudstone of the Eocene 

Suzak beds. Total organic carbon content in thin (0.5 to 2 meters) bituminous beds of 

neighboring Tajikistan is typically 11 to 19 weight percent, but up to 48 weight percent. In 

other lower Suzak rocks of both Afghanistan and Tajikistan, the total organic carbon 

content ranges from 0.5 to 3.5 weight percent. The organic matter is type II kerogen. 

230
MATURATION: In synclines, the Suzak source rocks were in the oil window during 

Neogene time. The source rocks are buried by a thick fill of Neogene to Quaternary 

orogenic clastics. 

RESERVOIR ROCKS: The primary potential reservoir rock is the Upper Cretaceous to 

Paleogene Ghory carbonates. Paleogene and Neogene clastic reservoirs are probably of 

secondary importance. 

TRAPS AND SEALS: Possible primary traps are anticlines and faults associated with 

anticlines. Seal rocks include Suzak mudstone and intraformational Paleogene and 

Neogene mudstone. 

REFERENCES: 

Bratash, V.I, Yegupov, S.V., Pechnikov, V.V., and Shelomentsev, A.I., 1970, Geologiya 

 i neftegazonosnost severa Afganistana (Geology and petroleum potential of 

 northern Afghanistan), Trudy VNIGNI, v. 80, Nedra, Moscow, 288 p. 

Buzurukov, D.D., Kreydenkov, G.P., Safranov, T.A., Davidzon, R.M., Oleynik, V.V., Gotgilf, 

A.V., Markov, A.B., and Mamadzhanov, Kh.M., 1978, Petroleum potential of Paleogene 

rocks of the Tajik depression (Neftegazonosnost paleogenovykh otlozheniy 

Tadzhikskoy depressii): Dushanbe, Donish, 189 p. 

Minakova, N.E., Sotiriadi, K.A., Egamberdyev, M., Nasretdinov, Z.Z., Khikmatullaev, B.S., 

and Talipov, S., 1974, Lithology, stratigraphy, geochemistry, and petroleum productivity of 

231
Paleogene rocks of the Surkhandarya depression (Litologiya, stratigrafiya, 

geokhimiya i neftegazonosnost paleogenovykh otlozheniy Surkhandarinskoy vpadiny): 

Tashkent, Fan, 153 p. 

232
USGS PROVINCE: Afghan-Tajik Basin (1154) 

GEOLOGISTS: T.R. Klett and G.F. Ulmishek 

TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM: Afghan-Tajik Paleogene (115602) 

ASSESSMENT UNIT: Afghanistan Eastern Suprasalt Thrusts and Folds (11560202) 

DESCRIPTION: Assessment unit encompasses Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks of an 

area of intensive Neogene to Quaternary folding from anticlinal ridges of the eastern 

Surkhan synclinorium to the Hindu Kush and Badakhshan ranges in the east. The 

southern boundary is along the Alburz-Marmul fault zone. 

SOURCE ROCKS: The principal source rock is organic rich mudstone of the Eocene 

Suzak beds. Total organic carbon content in thin (0.5 to 2 meters) bituminous beds of 

neighboring Tajikistan is typically 11 to 19 weight percent, but up to 48 weight percent. In 

other lower Suzak rocks of both Afghanistan and Tajikistan, the total organic carbon 

content ranges from 0.5 to 3.5 weight percent. The organic matter is type II kerogen. 

MATURATION: In synclines, the Suzak source rock was buried to within the oil window 

during Neogene time. The source rocks are buried by thick Neogene to Quaternary 

clastics and by thrust sheets of Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks. 

233
RESERVOIR ROCKS: The primary potential reservoir rock is the Upper Cretaceous to 

Paleogene Ghory carbonates. Paleogene and Neogene clastic reservoirs are probably of 

secondary importance. Cretaceous reservoir rocks may have potential only in structural 

positions where they could be charged by Eocene Suzak source rocks. Migration of gas 

from the underlying subsalt Jurassic petroleum system is locally possible. 

TRAPS AND SEALS: Possible primary traps are anticlines and faults associated with 

anticlines. Seal rocks include Suzak mudstone and intraformational Paleogene and 

Neogene mudstone. Many anticlines in the upper thrust sheets are deeply eroded, and 

conditions for preservation of hydrocarbons are poor. Structural traps in synclines and 

lower thrust sheets have better potential. 

REFERENCES: 

Bratash, V.I, Yegupov, S.V., Pechnikov, V.V., and Shelomentsev, A.I., 1970, Geologiya 

 i neftegazonosnost severa Afganistana (Geology and petroleum potential of 

 northern Afghanistan), Trudy VNIGNI, v. 80, Nedra, Moscow, 288 p. 

Buzurukov, D.D., Kreydenkov, G.P., Safranov, T.A., Davidzon, R.M., Oleynik, V.V., Gotgilf, 

A.V., Markov, A.B., and Mamadzhanov, Kh.M., 1978, Petroleum potential of Paleogene 

rocks of the Tajik depression (Neftegazonosnost paleogenovykh otlozheniy 

Tadzhikskoy depressii): Dushanbe, Donish, 189 p. 

234
APPENDIX 5 

Seismic survey report 

235
Seismic Component – Northern Afghanistan 

A 3-person USGS team visited Sheberghan in Afghanistan with the primary goal to 

recover as much previously recorded digital seismic data as possible for use in the 

assessment. A personal computer and the necessary software was purchased and 

delivered to the seismic processing lab in Sheberghan, Afghanistan for the purpose of 

transcribing 9-track magnetic field and processed tapes onto DVDs. Upon arrival 

however, it quickly became apparent that rescuing data from the magnetic tapes would 

prove to be difficult to impossible. Under proper storage conditions, magnetic tapes can 

have a lifespan of up to 100 years. During the previous decades of war, the tapes were 

not stored under conditions of ideal temperature and humidity. None of the tapes 

examined had data that were recoverable. All magnetic tapes examined had metal oxide 

flaking problems causing the 9-track tape drive to continuously lose tracking position and 

go offline. We therefore decided to scan as many paper seismic sections as possible and 

then later convert the scanned images into the industry standard SEG-Y format, thus 

making the digital data available for possible future use on interpretation workstations. 

Final stacked sections were scanned and recorded on DVD for 19 selected seismic 

profiles during our stay in Sheberghan. 

Figure 1 is a location map showing all the seismic profiles recorded through 1988. Figure 2 

shows a location map of the 19 seismic profiles selected for scanning and later 

conversion to SEG-Y for this study. 

236
Many of the 19 profiles were selected on the basis that they were recorded over major 

geologic structures and existing gas fields (fig. 3). The remaining profiles were selected 

primarily because they were most readily available at the time. Shown in Figures 4 

through 6 are three representative seismic profiles recorded over the Jangali Kalan gas 

field depicted in Figure 3 as profiles A-A’, B-B’, and C-C’. As can be seen from these 

images, the data quality is not sufficient for high-resolution stratigraphic interpretation, 

but the quality suffices to allow delineation of gross geologic structures. Future work in 

northern Afghanistan should entail the acquisition of modern, multi-channel, higher 

resolution seismic data with particular emphasis on the Afghan-Tajik Basin as most if not 

all of the seismic data in northern Afghanistan has been previously recorded in the Amu 

Darya Basin. 

Figure 1. Seismic lines recorded in northern Afghanistan through 1988. 

Figure 2. Highlighted in red seismic profiles scanned and converted to SEG-Y format. 

Figure 3. Selected seismic profiles recorded over geologic structures (pink) and known 

gas fields (orange). 

Figure 4. Profile 88335 recorded over the Jangali Kalan gas field in northern Afghanistan. 

Figure 5. Profile 88329 recorded over the Jangali Kalan gas field in northern Afghanistan. 

Figure 6. Profile 85102 recorded over the Jangali Kalan gas field in northern Afghanistan. 

237