U.S. Department of Education

NCES 2007–045

Trends in the Use 

of School Choice

1993 to 2003

Statistical Analysis Report

Trends in the Use 

of School Choice: 

1993 to 2003 

Statistical Analysis Report 

November 2006 

Peter Tice 

Christopher Chapman 

National Center for Education Statistics 

Daniel Princiotta 

formerly of Education Statistics Services Institute – American Institutes for 

Research 

Stacey Bielick 

Education Statistics Services Institute – American Institutes for Research 

U.S. Department of Education 

NCES 2007-045 
U.S. Department of Education

Margaret Spellings 

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences 

Grover J. Whitehurst 

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Mark Schneider 

Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing, and 

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November 2006 

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Suggested Citation 

Tice, P., Princiotta, D., Chapman, C., and Bielick, S. (2006). Trends in the Use of School Choice: 1993 to 2003, 

(NCES 2007-045) U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC. 

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Content Contact:

Christopher Chapman 

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Chris.Chapman@ed.gov
iii

Executive Summary 

Opportunities for school choice in the United States have expanded since the 1990s. Parents now 

can select from a range of public and private school choice options. In the public system there are 

interdistrict or intradistrict public school choice plans, charter schools, magnet schools, and publicly 

funded vouchers to attend private schools. Outside the public school system parents can elect to enroll 

their children in private schools (religious based or secular) or decide to homeschool them. 

The National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES) collects data that can provide 

estimates on the use of school choice in the United States. This report updates a previous report based on 

NHES data: Trends in the Use of School Choice: 1993–1999 (Bielick and Chapman 2003). This report 

presents trend data from four administrations of the NHES (1993, 1996, 1999, and 2003) in which parents 

were asked if they enrolled their children in an assigned public school, in a chosen public school, in a 

church or non church-related private school, or elected to homeschool them. This report presents trends in 

the use of school choice and in the populations of students attending public schools (assigned and 

chosen), private schools (church- and non church-related), and being homeschooled between 1993 and 

2003.1

 In addition, this report presents data on parental perceptions of public school choice availability 

and associations between the types of public and private schools children were enrolled in and parental 

satisfaction with and involvement in the schools.2

 Each NHES survey was based on telephone interviews 

of U.S. households with full samples ranging from 45,000 to 60,000 households. 

 Figure 1 shows the percentage of children enrolled in their assigned public schools decreased 

from 80 percent to 74 percent between 1993 and 2003.3

 The decrease in assigned public school 

enrollment was nearly offset by an increase in chosen public school enrollment from 11 to 15 percent 

between 1993 and 2003. During this same time period, enrollment in church-related private schools 

remained stable at 8 percent and enrollment in non church-related private schools increased from 1.6 to 

2.4 percent (table 1). 

Overall school type enrollment trends from 1993 to 2003 

The trend away from assigned public schools between 1993 and 2003 generally held for students 

across sex, grade levels, poverty categories, parent education levels, family types, regions, and 

community types (table 1). This trend also held for both White and Black students, but was not significant 

 

1

 Comprehensive data on homeschooled students are not available prior to 1999. 

2

 The NHES provides data on perceptions parents have with the availability of school choice in their district. 

However, the NHES does not collect administrative data about the specific choice programs that districts offer. 3

 All differences cited in this report are significant at the .05 level using the Student’s t statistic. 
iv

for Hispanic students. While the trend away from assigned public schools was apparent for most groups, 

there were differences across groups with respect to the percentage of students enrolled in different school 

types. For example, in 2003, Black students were more likely than White students to be enrolled in 

chosen public schools, and non-poor students were more likely than poor or near-poor students to be 

enrolled in non-church-related private schools.4

Demographic characteristics of students enrolled in different school types

From 1999 to 2003, there were changes in the student populations attending different types of 

schools. In chosen public schools, for example, the percentage of students in poverty decreased from 30 

to 21 percent, the percentage of students living in two-parent households increased from 55 to 65 percent, 

and the percentage of students living in the Northeast decreased from 19 to 14 percent. In both 1999 and 

2003, there were differences by school type, including homeschooling, in terms of student and household 

demographic characteristics. In 2003, for example, students in chosen public schools were the least likely 

to be White and the least likely to live in two-parent families, compared with students in other school 

types, including homeschooling. Also in 2003, students in church-related and non-sectarian private 

schools were less likely to be in poverty or near poverty and more likely to be at or above 200 percent of 

the poverty line than were students in assigned public schools, in chosen public schools, or being 

homeschooled. 

Parental perceptions and considerations of public school choice availability 

About one-half of all students have parents who reported that public school choice was available 

in their community (table 3). Black students were more likely than White students to have had parents 

who reported this. One quarter of students (25 percent) attending assigned public schools has parents who 

considered enrolling them in a school other than the one they were currently attending. This statistic was 

higher for students in chosen public schools (45 percent), church-related private schools (49 percent), and 

other private schools (57 percent). Seventeen percent of all students and 27 percent of Black students 

attended a school other than their parent’s first-choice school. Finally, Black students were least likely to 

have had parents who moved residences in order to secure their child’s placement in a particular school. 

 

4

 Poor students are defined as those with household incomes below 100 percent of the poverty threshold. Near-poor 

students are defined as those with household incomes from 100 through 199 percent of the poverty threshold. Nonpoor students are defined as those with household incomes at or above 200 percent of the poverty threshold. 
v

Parental satisfaction and involvement in children’s schools 

Choice appeared to be associated with the satisfaction level parents had with their children’s 

schools (table 4). Students enrolled in assigned public schools tended to have parents who were less 

satisfied with the schools than students enrolled in either a chosen public school or private schools. 

Similar differences are not evident when considering parental involvement (table 5a and 5b). Generally, 

there were no parental involvement differences detected between students enrolled in assigned and chosen 

public schools.5

 Parents of students in private schools reported more direct involvement in their children’s 

schools than parents of students enrolled in other types of schools. 

 

5

 Measures of parental involvement were whether or not parents attended a general school meeting, went to a parentteacher conference, attended a school event, and volunteered or served on a committee. 

vii

Acknowledgements 

The authors wish to thank Val Plisko, Marilyn Seastrom, and Shelley Burns at the National 

Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Zeyu XU, Nina Emerson, and Rob Stillwell from the American 

Institutes for Research (AIR), Duc-Le To from the Institute of Education Sciences (IES), and two 

anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful and thorough reviews. We also appreciate comments provided 

by the program offices within the U.S. Department of Education. Staff at the Education Statistics 

Services Institute (ESSI) provided valuable assistance in all aspects of the National Household Education 

Surveys Program (NHES), including the development of this report. Westat Incorporated collected and 

documented the NHES data. We would also like to thank the approximately 60,000 parents who 

completed interviews upon which this report is based. 

ix

Contents 

Page 

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................................vii

List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................................xi

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... xiii

Introduction...................................................................................................................................................1

Background ...................................................................................................................................................5

Findings.........................................................................................................................................................9

Overall school type student enrollment trends from 1993 to 2003...........................................................9

Demographic characteristics of students enrolled in different school types...........................................10

Parental perceptions and considerations of public school choice availability........................................26

Parental satisfaction and involvement in children’s schools ..................................................................32

Summary and Conclusions..........................................................................................................................39

References...................................................................................................................................................41

Appendix A: Technical Notes.....................................................................................................................45

Appendix B: Supplemental Tables..............................................................................................................53

xi

List of Tables 

Table Page 

1. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type and 

student and household characteristics: 1993, 1996, 1999, and 2003................................ 17 

2. Percentage of students ages 5–17 enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private 

school type, homeschool, and student and household characteristics: 1999 and 2003..... 24 

3. Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public school 

choice, considered other schools, reported that the current school was their first 

choice, or moved to their current neighborhood for the school, by student and 

household characteristics: 2003........................................................................................ 30 

4. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 3–12 whose parents were very satisfied 

with various aspects of their children’s schools, by public and private school type: 

1993, 1999, and 2003 ....................................................................................................... 33 

5a. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 3–12 whose parents were involved in 

various ways with their children’s schools, by public school type: 1993, 1996, 1999, 

and 2003 ........................................................................................................................... 35 

5b. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 3–12 whose parents were involved in 

various ways with their children’s schools, by private school type: 1993, 1996, 1999, 

and 2003 ........................................................................................................................... 35 

6. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12 whose parents reported involvement 

in school decision-making, by public and private school type: 1996, 1999, and 2003 .... 37 

A-1. Poverty and 200 percent poverty thresholds used in this report, by year and 

household size .................................................................................................................. 49 

B-1. Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public school 

choice who considered other schools, reported that the current school was their first 

choice, or moved to their current neighborhood for the school, by student and 

household characteristics: 2003........................................................................................ 53 

xiii

List of Figures 

Figure Page 

 1. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type: 

1993–2003 ........................................................................................................................ 10 

2.1. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type and 

race/ethnicity: 1993 and 2003........................................................................................... 14 

2.2. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type and 

family poverty status: 1993 and 2003............................................................................... 15 

2.3. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type and 

parental education level: 1993 and 2003 .......................................................................... 16 

2.4. Percentage of students ages 5–17 enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private 

school type, homeschool, and race/ethnicity: 2003.......................................................... 20 

2.5. Percentage of students ages 5–17 enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private 

school type, homeschool, and family poverty status: 2003 .............................................. 21 

2.6. Percentage of students ages 5–17 enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private 

school type, homeschool, and parental education level: 2003.......................................... 22 

3.1. Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public school 

choice, considered other schools, reported that the current school was their first 

choice, or moved to their current neighborhood for the school, by public and private 

school type: 2003.............................................................................................................. 27 

3.2. Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public school 

choice, considered other schools, reported that the current school was their first 

choice, or moved to their current neighborhood for the school, by race/ethnicity: 

2003 .................................................................................................................................. 27 

3.3. Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public school 

choice, considered other schools, reported that the current school was their first 

choice, or moved to their current neighborhood for the school, by family poverty 

status: 2003....................................................................................................................... 28 

3.4. Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public school 

choice, considered other schools, reported that the current school was their first 

choice, or moved to their current neighborhood for the school, by parental education 

level: 2003 ........................................................................................................................ 29 

4. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 3–12 whose parents were very satisfied 

with various aspects of their children's schools, by public and private school type: 

2003 .................................................................................................................................. 33 
xiv

5. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 3–12 whose parents were very involved in 

various ways with their children's schools, by public and private school type: 2003 ...... 34 

6. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12 whose parents reported involvement 

in school decision-making, by public and private school type: 2003............................... 36 
1

Introduction 

School choice in American education has long been available to some parents who can send their 

children to private schools. Public school choice did not become readily available until the 1960s with the 

advent of alternative schools (Schneider, Teske, and Marschall 2000). Since then the range of school 

choice options has expanded to include interdistrict choice plans (i.e., the option for students to attend a 

public school outside their district without cost to their parents), intradistrict choice plans (i.e., open 

enrollment or limited choice where students can enroll in any school within the district), publicly funded 

vouchers to attend private schools, charter schools, private school tuition tax credits, magnet schools, and 

homeschooling. However, not all these options are available in every state or local community across the 

United States. States and communities vary in the types of school choice programs they provide. 

 With the range of school choice options now available to parents, it is useful to track how the rate 

of student enrollment in various types of schools, both public and private, has changed over time. This 

report examines the enrollment trends in public schools (assigned and chosen), private schools (churchrelated and non church-related), and homeschooling from 1993 to 2003.6

 Additionally, this report 

examines associations between school choice and parental satisfaction with and involvement in their 

children’s schools. Specifically the report addresses the following four research questions: 

• What are the trends in the distribution of enrollment in public schools (assigned and chosen) 

and private schools (church-related and non church-related) between 1993 and 2003? 

• What are the demographic characteristics of students enrolled in public schools (both 

assigned and chosen) and private schools (both church-related and non church-related) 

between 1993 and 2003? And have these demographic characteristics changed between 1993 

and 2003? 

• What are the demographic characteristics of students whose parents perceive there are public 

school choice options available in their district? 

• Is there an association between the kind of school a student attends and parental satisfaction 

with and involvement in that school? 

 

6

 The NHES data used for this report do not provide estimates on the actual availability of choice options, but only 

report on the use of school choice. Parent responses for children enrolled in the public school system are coded 

either assigned or chosen. Information about the types of public choice options is not collected. In some cases the 

assigned public school can also be the school the parent chose, and the public school of choice can also be the 

assigned public school. With regards to private school enrollment the question wording used in the 1996, 1999, and 

2003 NHES, “Is the school church-related or not church-related?” was changed from the 1993 NHES question “Is 

the school affiliated with a religion?” to reflect the wording used in the October 1997 supplement to the Current 

Population Survey. 
2

The results presented in this report are based on four administrations (1993, 1996, 1999, and 2003) 

of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES).7

 In each survey year parents are asked 

whether their children attend a public or private school. If the child attends a public school, parents are 

asked if it is the assigned public school or a public school of their personal choosing. If the child attends a 

private school, parents are asked whether the school is church-related or not. Starting in 1999 NHES 

began asking parents if they homeschool their children and if the child is homeschooled full or part-time.8

NHES also asks parents questions about the degree of satisfaction they have with their children’s schools 

and the types of involvement they have in the schools. 

The NHES surveys used for the analyses are the School Readiness Survey of 1993 combined with 

the School Safety & Discipline Survey of 1993, the Parent & Family Involvement Survey of 1996, the 

Parent Survey of 1999, and the Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of 2003. Each NHES 

survey was based on telephone interviews of U.S. household with full samples ranging from 45,000 to 

60,000 households.9

 When appropriate weights were used, each survey was a nationally representative 

sample of all civilian, non-institutionalized persons in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The 

samples were selected using random-digit-dialing (RDD) methods and the data were collected using 

computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) technology. 

 This report used data reported by parents regarding children sampled in 1st through 12th grade. 

Data were collected for 16,957 children in 1993, 16,145 children in 1996, 15,939 children in 1999, and 

11,273 children in 2003. The unit of analysis in the NHES parent interview was the child and not the 

parent or guardian. All percentages referenced in this report were the percentage of children whose 

parents or guardians reported particular information about them. The overall unit response rates were 74 

percent for 1993 School Readiness and School Safety and Discipline Surveys, 63 percent for 1996, 67 

percent for 1999, and 54 percent for 2003.10 For all four surveys, item nonresponse (the failure to 

 

7

 The results cover students in 1st through 12th grade. Kindergarten students were excluded because not all states 

have mandatory kindergarten attendance policies. Furthermore, the parent satisfaction and involvement data from 

the 1993 NHES only cover students in grades 3 through 12. 

8

 The 1996 NHES collected information on homeschooling, but did not collect precise data on students who were 

homeschooled part time. 

9

 For more information about the specific survey years, see the Survey Methodology and Technical Notes section of 

the report or the Data File Users manual for the five surveys used for this report (Brick et al. 1994a; Brick et al. 

1994b; Collins et al. 1997; Nolin et al. 2000b; Hagedorn et al. 2004). 10 The estimated overall unit response rate is computed by multiplying the Screener unit response rate by the 

appropriate extended interview response rate. The 1993 School Readiness Survey interviewed parents of children 

between the ages of 3 and 8, with an overall response rate of 74 percent. The 1993 School Safety and Discipline 

Survey interviewed parents with children in 3rd through 5th grade and 6th through 12th grade, with overall response 

rates of 73 percent and 74 percent, respectively. For information on non-response bias analysis for these data, please 

see Non-response Analysis of the 2003 National Household Education Survey (forthcoming, U.S. Department of 

Education). 
3

complete some items in an otherwise completed interview) was very low. The item nonresponse rates for 

most variables in this report were less than 2 percent. All differences cited in this report are significant at 

the .05 level using Student’s t statistic. 

5

Background 

The foundation for the school choice movement can be traced back to the alternative schools 

reform models from the 1960s (Schenider, Teskse, and Marschall 2000). Since then other forms of public 

school choice have emerged that potentially increase the number of options parents have to select from.11

For instance, magnet schools blossomed in the 1970s and 1980s as a mechanism to help reduce racial and 

ethnic segregation in school districts. Estimates from the 1999-2000 school year suggest there were 3,026 

magnet schools with explicit desegregation objectives enrolling 2.5 million students. However, if one also 

counts magnet (or specialty) schools without explicit desegregation objectives, the estimate increases to 

5,576 schools and 4.5 million children (U.S. Department of Education 2003). Independent charter schools 

are public schools that are exempt from significant state or local regulations that normally govern the 

operation and management of public schools. According to the Common Core of Data, during the 2003-

04 school year there were approximately 3,200 charter schools serving about 1.7 percent of all public 

school students across 36 states and the District of Columbia (Hoffman and Sable 2006). A small number 

of states offer publicly funded voucher programs for students to attend private schools. Currently Florida, 

Maine, Vermont, Wisconsin (Milwaukee), Ohio (Cleveland), and the District of Columbia have voucher 

programs. Additionally, there are interdistrict and intradistrict school choice plans. Estimates from the 

1999-2000 school year suggest these kinds of plans were available in 71 percent of school districts in the 

West, 63 percent in the Midwest, 44 percent in the South, and 19 percent in the Northeast.12 

Besides the expanded range of choices in the public school systems parents also have the option 

to send their children to private schools or homeschool their children. Since 1900, the percentage of 

elementary and secondary students enrolled in private schools has ranged from 7 to 14 percent, and over 

the past decade 10 to 11 percent of students have been enrolled in private schools (U.S. Department of 

Education 2006). The contemporary homeschooling movement began in the 1950s, and grew 

substantially in the 1980s and 1990s (Lines 1999). Estimates from 1999 to 2003 suggest that the number 

of students’ homeschooled in the United States increased from approximately 850,000 to 1,096,000, 

while the percentage of students’ homeschooled increased from 1.7 to 2.2 percent (Bielick, Chandler, and 

Broughman 2001; Princiotta, Bielick, and Chapman 2004). 

 

11 As school choice continues to expand in type and volume, not all states and governments offer parents the same 

set of alternatives to choose from. State and local education agencies vary in the choice plans they decide to 

implement. 

12 Unpublished estimates from the 1999-2000 Schools and Staffing Survey, “School District Survey.” 
6

 Despite the expansion of choice options in the public school system over the past few decades, 

coupled with the availability of private schooling and homeschooling, very little is known about student 

enrollment trends across these different types of schools. 

Demographic characteristics of public and private schools 

In addition to knowing little about the trends in student enrollment during the recent expansion of 

school choice options, little is also known about the trends in the demographic composition of students in 

public (assigned and chosen) and private schools. Traditionally there has been a divide in sources of 

funding for public and private schools, with state and local governments supporting public schools and 

with tuition, fees, private endowments, and donations supporting private schools. The dependence of 

private schools on tuition tends to limit private school enrollment to families who can afford it. Families 

who can afford sending their children to private schools are usually ones who are highly educated and 

earning incomes much higher than the median family income (U.S. Department of Education 1999). The 

children from educated and wealthy families are more likely than other children to attend private schools 

(U.S. Department of Education 1996). Other data from the 1993 to 2002 October supplement to the 

Current Population Survey (CPS) show that students who attend publicly controlled schools are more 

racially and ethnically diverse than students who attend privately controlled schools.13 The data show that 

in both years, 33 to 38 percent of students enrolled in public schools for elementary and high school 

grades were non-White compared to 20 to 24 percent of students enrolled in private schools.14 

Parental satisfaction with schools 

Parents of children who attend private schools are typically more satisfied with their children’s 

schools than are parents whose children attend public schools (Hausman and Goldring 2000; Algozzine et 

al. 1999). Given the expanded choice opportunities in the public school system little is known if this is 

associated with parental satisfaction with public schools of choice. 

Parental involvement in schools 

Parent involvement in a child’s education has been shown to be a key factor associated with high 

academic achievement (Nord, Brimhall, and West 1997). Parents with children attending private schools 

 

13 The October supplements to the CPS are used to estimate school enrollment figures in the United States. To 

assure that CPS estimates were as comparable as possible to the 1993 and 2003 end points used in this report, the 

1993 and 2002 CPS data were used. Estimates from the 2003 CPS collection were not available when this report 

was written. 

14 U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (Janaury 9, 2004 Internet release date) Historical Tables, Table 

A-1. School Enrollment of the Population 3 Years Old and Over, by Level and Control of School, Race, and 

Hispanic Origin: October 1955 to 2002. 
7

are typically more involved in their children’s education than parents with children attending public 

schools (Hausman and Goldring 2000; Algozzine et al 1999; Nord, Brimhall, and West 1997; VadenKiernan and Chandler 1996). Likewise research suggests that parents are more involved when their 

children attend religious schools (Coleman and Hoffer, 1987). Finally, research has shown that parents 

with more choices are also likely to be more involved in their children’s education (Hoxby 1999).

Measuring school choice 

This report defined school choice in general terms as student enrollment in a chosen public school 

(i.e., parental choice of a particular public school), student enrollment in a private school (church-related 

or non church-related), and homeschooling. In this report these three types of school choice were 

compared against a measure of assigned public school enrollment.15 Information about specific types of 

public school choice options, such as charter schools and magnet schools, was not collected so enrollment 

in chosen public schools was not broken down by type. 

 Because NHES is a household survey, it does not include data from administrative records kept 

by schools and school districts. Information about school choice availability can be determined from other 

school-based surveys such as the 1993-1994 or 1999-2000 Schools and Staffing Survey (U.S. Department 

of Education, National Center for Education Statistics). 

Measuring parental school choice decision making 

In 2003 NHES asked parents with children in 1st through 12th grade four questions that measure: 

(1) whether parents thought public school choice was available in their own district or another district, (2) 

whether they had looked into other school options for their children, (3) if the school their children were 

attending was their first choice, and (4) if they moved to their current neighborhood in order to send their 

children to a particular school. Each question has a yes/no response category format and in this report 

each question was analyzed separately. 

 

15 Although the assigned public school could also be a school of choice, NHES surveys do not consistently ask 

parents to make such a distinction. However, in the NHES: 1993 less than 2 percent of parents of students 

volunteered that their assigned school was their school of choice. In the analyses these cases are considered 

“chosen” because the parents may have had other options but decided to enroll their children in the assigned school. 

The discrepancy between the survey years likely has little effect on the results since assigning the 1993 cases 

elsewhere or excluding them from the analyses would only increase the differences found in the data. 
8

Measuring parental satisfaction and involvement 

The parental satisfaction and involvement analyses were based on 3rd through 12th grade students. 

These analyses were limited to grades 3 though 12 because the 1993 NHES did not ask parents of first or 

second grade children the school satisfaction or involvement questions. 

 The NHES surveys used in this report measure parent satisfaction by asking parents how satisfied 

(very satisfied, somewhat satisfied, somewhat dissatisfied, or very dissatisfied) they were with four 

aspects of their children’s schools: (1) the school, (2) the teachers, (3) the academic standards, and (4) the 

order and discipline the school maintains. The cross-tabular analysis of parent satisfaction in this report 

looks at parents in each school type who were very satisfied with the students’ schools. Parent 

involvement was measured with a series of questions asking parents about their attendance at various 

parent/school activities since the beginning of the school year. These activities included: (1) general 

meetings – such as a PTA meeting, (2) parent/teacher conferences, (3) school events – such as sports, and 

(4) volunteer events – such as chaperoning a school dance. Each activity was scored as a binary variable 

(“yes, attended” or “no, did not attend”) and cross-tabular analyses were performed on each individually. 
9

Findings 

 The findings for this report are organized in four sections that correspond with the research 

questions listed in the introduction. The first section presents the overall student enrollment trend data by 

school type over a 10 year period from 1993 to 2003. The second section focuses on the demographic 

characteristics associated with student enrollment in different school types. These data are presented both 

across and within school types, and include the changes in the demographic composition of students 

attending different school types over time. The third section presents data on parent perceptions of school 

choice availability in 2003 (first time NHES asked parents about availability of school choice) by the type 

of school students were attending and their demographic characteristics, while the final section of the 

report present data on parent satisfaction with and involvement in their children’s schools in 2003. 

Overall school type student enrollment trends from 1993 to 2003 

The NHES data show that the percentage of 1st through 12th grade children enrolled in assigned 

public schools decreased from 80 percent to 74 percent between 1993 and 2003 (figure 1).16 Two-thirds of 

this decrease took place between 1993 and 1996. At the same time this decrease was almost completely 

offset by an increase in the percentage of 1st through 12th grade children enrolled in chosen public schools, 

as enrollment rose from 11 percent to 15 percent between 1993 and 2003, with three-fourths of the 

increase occurring between 1993 and 1996. Meanwhile during this same 10 year period student 

enrollment in church-related private schools remained stable at 8 percent (with the exception of a small 

decrease in 1999) and enrollment in non-church-related private schools increased from 1.6 (1993) to 2.4 

percent (2003). 

 

16 All differences cited in this report are significant at the .05 level using the Student’s t statistic. 
10

Figure 1 

Figure 1. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school 

type: 1993–2003

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools 

for 9 or more hours per week.

NHES, 1993, Parent & Family Involvement in Education Survey of the NHES, 1996, Parent Survey of the NHES, 1999, and 

Parent & Family Involvement in Education Survey of the NHES, 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, School Readiness Survey of the National 

Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 1993, School Safety and Discipline Survey of the

11 8

2

14

8

2

76

14

7 2

74

15

8

2

80 76

0

20

40

60

80

100

Public, assigned Public, chosen Private, church-related Private, not church-related

School type

Percent

1993 1996 1999 2003

Demographic characteristics of students enrolled in different school types 

To unpack the overall trends in student enrollment in different types of schools between 1993 and 

2003, the demographic composition of student enrollment can be presented both across and within the 

different school types. Beginning with across school types, table 1 presents the distributions of students 

across the different school types between 1993 and 2003 by several student and household characteristics. 

Public, assigned schools 

With few exceptions, the overall trend away from enrollment in assigned public schools between 

1993 and 2003 remained apparent when breaking out results by student and household characteristics. 

Subpopulations in which this trend was demonstrated included: elementary school students, middle 

school students, White students, Black students, male students, female students, near-poor students, nonpoor students, students whose parents’ highest level of education was less than a high school diploma, 

students whose parents’ highest level of education was a bachelor’s degree, students whose parents’ 

highest level of education was graduate or professional school, students in two-parent families, students in 

non-parent guardian families, students living in the South, students living in the Midwest, students living 

in the West, students living in urban areas, and students living in rural areas. The only groups within 
11

which a statistically significant decrease in the percentage of students enrolled in assigned public schools 

from 1993 to 2003 was not detected were students of Hispanic origin and non-Hispanic students who 

were not categorized as White or Black.17

 Despite the often-similar trends in assigned public school enrollment described above, the 

percentage of students enrolled in assigned public schools in 2003 varied by race and ethnicity, poverty 

status, highest level of parent education, and urbanicity. Black students were less likely to be enrolled in 

assigned public schools than were White or Hispanic students. Sixty-eight percent of Black students were 

enrolled in assigned public schools, compared with 75 percent of White students, and 78 percent of 

Hispanic students (figure 2.1). Seventy-eight percent of poor students and 77 percent of near-poor 

students attended an assigned public school in 2003, whereas a smaller percentage (71 percent) of 

nonpoor students did so (figure 2.2). With respect to parents’ highest level of education, those in the two 

highest categories (bachelor’s degree and master’s or professional degree or higher) were the least likely 

to be enrolled in assigned public schools (figure 2.3). Students living in rural areas were more likely to 

attend assigned public schools than were students living in urban areas. Some 82 percent of students 

living in rural areas attended assigned public schools, compared with 72 percent of students living in 

urban areas.

 Public, chosen schools 

Also with few exceptions, the overall trend toward enrollment in chosen public schools between 

1993 and 2003 remained apparent when breaking out results by student and household characteristics. 

Subpopulations in which increases were also demonstrated included: elementary school students, Black 

students, near-poor students, students whose parents’ highest level of education was less than a high 

school diploma, students in non-parent guardian families, students living in the West, and students living 

in rural areas. The only groups that did not demonstrate a statistically significant increase in the 

percentage of students enrolled in assigned public schools from 1993 to 2003 were students of Hispanic 

origin, non-Hispanic students who were not categorized as White or Black, and students living in the 

Northeast.18

 

17 Students of Hispanic origin and non-Hispanic students who were not categorized as White or Black were the only 

two groups not demonstrating a statistically significant decrease from 1993 to 2003 in the percentage of students 

enrolled in assigned public schools. 

18 Students of Hispanic origin, non-Hispanic students who were not categorized as White or Black, and students 

living in the Northeast were the only three groups within which no statistically significant change was detected from 

1993 to 2003 in the percentage of students enrolled in chosen public schools. Information on student disability was 

not collected by NHES in 1993 or 1996. There was no change detected in the percentage of disabled students 

enrolled in chosen public schools from 1999 to 2003. 
12

 The percentage of students enrolled in chosen public schools in 2003 varied by race and ethnicity, 

highest level of parent education, family structure, and region. Black students were more likely to be 

enrolled in chosen public schools than were White or Hispanic students. Some 24 percent of Black 

students were enrolled in assigned public schools, compared with 13 percent of White students, and 15 

percent of Hispanic students (figure 2.1). With respect to parents’ highest level of education, those in the 

two highest categories (bachelor’s degree and master’s or professional degree or higher) were less likely 

to be enrolled in chosen public schools than were students whose parents highest level of education was 

less than high school (14 percent for students in both of the two highest parent education categories, 

compared with 20 percent for students whose parents highest level of education was less than high 

school) (figure 2.3). Fourteen percent of students living in two-parent families attended chosen public 

schools, less than the 20 percent of students living in non-parent guardian families who did so. Students 

living in the Northeast were less likely to attend chosen public schools than were students living in the 

West. Twelve percent of students living in the Northeast attended chosen public schools, compared with 

19 percent of students living in the West. 

 Private, church-related schools 

As described above, overall enrollment in church-related private schools was 8 percent in 1993 

and 2003. In general, findings regarding enrollment in church-related private schools were similar when 

breaking results out by student and household characteristics. The black student subpopulation was the 

only subpopulation in which there was a substantial change in the percentage of students enrolled in 

church-related private schools from 1993 to 2003. The percentage of Black students that were enrolled in 

church-related private schools increased from 3 percent in 1993 to 6 percent in 2003. 

 In 2003, the percentage of students who were enrolled in church-related private schools varied 

according to poverty status, parents’ highest level of education, family structure, region, and urbanicity. 

With respect to poverty status, nonpoor students were the most likely to enroll in church-related private 

schools (figure 2.2). Twelve percent of nonpoor students attended church-related private schools in 2003, 

followed by near-poor students at 5 percent, and then by poor students at 3 percent. With respect to 

parents’ highest level of education, students in the two highest parent education categories (bachelor’s 

degree and master’s or professional degree or higher) were the most likely to enroll in church-related 

private schools (14 percent of students in each of these categories), whereas students in the two lowest 

parent education categories (less than high school and high school diploma or equivalent) were the least 

likely to enroll in church-related private schools (2 percent and 4 percent, respectively) (figure 2.3). A 

greater percentage of students living in two-parent families (10 percent) enrolled in church-related private 

schools in 2003, compared with the percentage of students living in non-parent guardian families who did 
13

so (4 percent). With respect to region, enrollment in church-related private schools was greater among 

students living in the Northeast and Midwest than in was among students living in the West (11 percent 

and 12 percent, compared with 6 percent, respectively). A greater percentage of urban students (10 

percent) enrolled in church-related private schools in 2003, compared with the percentage of rural 

students who did so (4 percent). 

 Private, non-church-related schools 

In 2003, the overall percentage of students enrolled in non-church-related private schools (2.4 

percent) was lower than the percentage of students enrolled in church-related private schools (8 percent). 

From 1993 to 2003, however, there was an increase in the percentage of students enrolled in non-churchrelated private schools from 1.6 percent to 2.4 percent. Similar increases were apparent within a number 

of the subpopulations investigated in table 1, namely, among elementary and high school students, White 

and Black students, male and female students, near-poor students, students whose parents’ highest level 

of education was a high school diploma or equivalent, students living in two- and one-parent families, 

students living in the Northeast and the Midwest, and students living in urban areas. 

 As with the other types of schools presented in table 1, there were different patterns of enrollment 

in non-church-related schools in 2003, depending on student and household characteristics. One percent 

of Hispanic students attended nonsectarian private schools in 2003, a smaller percentage than that for 

White students (3 percent), Black students (2 percent), and other non-Hispanic students (3 percent). Three 

percent of nonpoor students attended nonsectarian private schools, a larger percentage than that for nearpoor students (2 percent) or poor students (1 percent). With respect to parents’ highest level of education, 

students whose parents had a graduate degree were the most likely to attend nonsectarian private schools 

(6 percent), followed by students whose parents had a bachelor’s degree (3 percent). Four percent of 

students living in the Northeast attended nonsectarian private school in 2003, more than the 2 percent of 

students who attended nonsectarian private school in each of the other regions. Students living in urban 

areas were more likely to attend nonsectarian private school than students living in rural areas (3 percent 

versus 1 percent). 
14

Figure 2 

Figure 2.1

Surveys Program (NHES), 1993, School Safety and Discipline Survey of the NHES, 1993, and Parent & Family Involvement in Education

Survey of the NHES, 2003.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools for 9 or more hours per week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, School Readiness Survey of the National Household Education

Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type and race/ethnicity: 1993 

and 2003

White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic Other, non-Hispanic

2

9

9

81

3

10

13

75

0 20 40 60 80 100

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003

1

3

19

77

2

6

24

68

0 20 40 60 80 100

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003

1

6

14

79

1

6

15

78

0 20 40 60 80 100

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003

3

9

15

73

3

7

19

70

0 20 40 60 80 100

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003
15

Figure 3 

Figure 2.2

# Rounds to zero.

Surveys Program (NHES), 1993, School Safety and Discipline Survey of the NHES, 1993, and Parent & Family Involvement in Education

Survey of the NHES, 2003.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools for 9 or more hours per week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, School Readiness Survey of the National Household Education

Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type and family poverty status: 

1993 and 2003

Below poverty Between poverty and 200% of poverty

p

At or above 200% of poverty

3

14

83

1

3

18

78

#

0 20 40 60 80 100

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003

1

6

11

83

2

5

17

77

0 20 40 60 80 100

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003

3

11

10

77

3

12

14

71

0 20 40 60 80 100

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003
16

Figure 4 

Figure 2.3

# Rounds to zero.

Surveys Program (NHES), 1993, School Safety and Discipline Survey of the NHES, 1993, and Parent & Family Involvement in Education

Survey of the NHES, 2003.

 Bachelor's degree Graduate/professional school

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools for 9 or more hours per week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, School Readiness Survey of the National Household Education

 Less than high school diploma High school diploma or GED

Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type and parental education 

level: 1993 and 2003

2

14

84

1

2

20

78

#

0 20 40 60 80 100

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003

1

5

11

84

1

4

16

79

0 20 40 60 80 100

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003

3

13

9

76

3

14

14

69

0 20 40 60 80

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003

4

13

10

73

6

14

14

66

0 20 40 60 80 100

Private, not

church-related

Private, churchrelated

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

1993 2003
17

Table 1 

Table 1.

Student and household 1993 1996 1993 1996 1996 199characteristics % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. %  Total 80 0.4 76 0.5 76 0.4 74 0.6 11 0.4 14 0.4 14 0.4 15 0.4 8 0.3 8 0.3 7 0.3 8 0.3 2 Grade level  Grades 1–5 79 0.6 74 0.7 74 0.6 72 0.7 12 0.4 15 0.5 15 0.5 17 0.6 8 0.4 9 0.4 9 0.4 10 0.5 2  Grades 6–8 81 1.2 79 0.9 79 0.8 75 1.0 10 1.3 11 0.6 12 0.7 15 0.8 7 0.5 7 0.5 7 0.4 8 0.6 2  Grades 9–12 81 0.8 76 0.7 77 0.7 76 0.8 11 0.5 14 0.6 16 0.6 14 0.7 7 0.5 7 0.4 5 0.4 7 0.5 2 Race/ethnicity1 White, non-Hispanic 81 0.5 77 0.6 77 0.5 75 0.6 9 0.4 11 0.4 11 0.4 13 0.5 9 0.4 9 0.4 9 0.4 10 0.5 2  Black, non-Hispanic 77 1.0 73 1.4 71 1.2 68 1.5 19 0.8 22 1.3 23 1.2 24 1.5 3 0.4 4 0.4 4 0.5 6 0.6 1  Hispanic 79 1.1 76 1.1 77 1.0 78 1.2 14 1.0 16 0.9 18 1.0 15 1.0 6 0.5 6 0.7 4 0.4 6 0.7 1  Other, non-Hispanic 73 2.8 69 1.8 73 2.2 70 2.6 15 2.9 19 1.8 17 2.0 19 2.1 9 1.4 10 1.2 7 1.1 7 1.4 3 Sex Male 81 0.5 77 0.6 76 0.6 74 0.7 11 0.4 13 0.5 14 0.5 15 0.6 7 0.4 8 0.4 7 0.3 8 0.4 2  Female 79 0.6 76 0.7 75 0.6 74 0.8 11 0.5 14 0.6 15 0.5 15 0.6 8 0.4 8 0.3 8 0.4 9 0.5 2 Disability status Has a disability — — — — 76 0.9 74 1.1 — — — — 16 0.8 17 0.8 — — — — 6 0.4 6 0.5 —  Does not have a disability — — — — 76 0.5 74 0.7 — — — — 14 0.4 15 0.6 — — — — 8 0.3 9 0.4 — Poverty status Below poverty 83 1.1 78 1.1 77 1.1 78 1.2 14 1.1 18 1.0 19 1.1 18 1.1 3 0.4 3 0.4 3 0.4 3 0.6 #  Between poverty and 200% of poverty 83 0.6 79 0.9 78 0.8 77 1.1 11 0.7 14 0.7 16 0.7 17 1.0 6 0.4 6 0.4 5 0.5 5 0.6 1  At or above 200% of poverty 77 0.5 74 0.5 75 0.5 71 0.7 10 0.3 12 0.4 12 0.3 14 0.6 11 0.4 11 0.4 10 0.5 12 0.5 3 See notes at end of table

1999

Public, chosen

2003 2003

Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type and student and household characteristics: 

1999

Private, church-related

2003 

1999

School type

Public, assigned

1993
18

Table 1.

Student and household characteristics % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s Total 80 0.4 76 0.5 76 0.4 74 0.6 11 0.4 14 0.4 14 0.4 15 0.4 8 0.3 8 0.3 7 0.3 8 0.3 2 Parent's highest level of education Less than high school diploma 84 1.1 79 1.7 80 1.4 78 1.9 14 1.1 17 1.5 18 1.5 20 1.8 2 0.5 2 0.5 2 0.4 2 0.9 #  High school diploma or GED 84 0.6 82 0.8 80 0.8 79 1.0 11 0.6 12 0.8 14 0.7 16 0.9 5 0.3 5 0.4 4 0.4 4 0.4 1  Some college/vocational/ technical 80 0.7 76 0.9 77 0.7 76 0.9 11 0.7 15 0.7 15 0.7 16 0.8 8 0.5 7 0.5 6 0.4 7 0.5 1  Bachelor's degree 76 1.4 71 1.2 72 1.1 69 1.1 9 0.7 13 1.0 13 0.8 14 0.9 13 1.0 13 0.9 13 0.8 14 1.0 3  Graduate/professional school 73 1.1 66 1.2 68 1.1 66 1.4 10 0.7 13 0.9 13 0.7 14 1.1 13 0.9 15 1.0 13 0.8 14 1.1 4 Family structure Two parents 80 0.5 76 0.5 77 0.5 74 0.7 9 0.5 12 0.4 12 0.4 14 0.5 9 0.3 10 0.4 8 0.4 10 0.5 2  One parent 79 0.8 75 0.9 74 0.7 74 1.1 15 0.6 18 0.9 18 0.6 18 0.9 5 0.5 5 0.4 5 0.4 5 0.5 1  Non-parent guardians 84 2.3 80 2.9 73 2.6 75 2.9 14 2.0 15 2.1 22 2.7 20 2.5 2 0.5 2 0.7 4 0.8 4 1.2 1 Region Northeast 78 0.8 74 1.0 74 1.1 74 1.5 9 0.6 13 0.9 14 0.8 12 1.0 11 0.7 9 0.9 9 0.6 11 1.0 2  South 82 0.6 79 0.6 78 0.6 76 0.9 11 0.4 13 0.5 14 0.5 16 0.7 5 0.3 6 0.4 6 0.4 6 0.5 2  Midwest 80 0.8 75 0.9 76 0.8 72 1.3 10 0.6 12 0.8 13 0.8 14 0.9 9 0.5 11 0.7 9 0.6 12 1.1 1  West 79 1.1 74 1.0 75 0.9 74 1.2 13 1.0 18 0.8 18 0.7 19 1.1 7 0.5 6 0.5 5 0.4 6 0.5 2 Urbanicity Urban 77 0.5 73 0.6 73 0.5 72 0.6 12 0.3 15 0.5 16 0.4 16 0.5 9 0.3 9 0.3 8 0.3 10 0.4 2  Rural 88 1.1 85 0.8 85 0.8 82 1.2 7 1.1 9 0.6 11 0.6 13 1.2 4 0.5 4 0.4 4 0.4 4 0.7 1 

1 The "other" race category includes individuals of more than one race.

Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type and student and household characteristics: 2003—Continued

2003

School type

2003 2003 

Public, chosen

1993 1996

Public, assigned

1996

Private, church-related

1993 1999 1993 1996 1999

# Rounds to zero.NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools for 9 or more hours per week. and Discipline Survey of the NHES, 1993, Parent & Family Involvement in Education Survey of the NHES, 1996, Parent Survey of the NHES,1999 and Parent & Family Involvement in E2003.

1999 199

— Not available.SOURCE: U.S Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, School Readiness Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 1993, Sch
19

Another way to examine how student and household characteristics are associated with 

enrollment in different types of schools is to compare the characteristics of students within each type of 

school. Table 2 shows the distributions of students with different characteristics in assigned public 

schools, chosen public schools, church-related private schools, and non-church-related private schools, 

and students who were homeschooled.19 NHES collected data on homeschooling in 1999 and 2003. 

 Grade level 

From 1999 to 2003, the distribution of nonsectarian private school students shifted such that a 

relatively smaller percentage of these students were enrolled in elementary school. In 2003, nonsectarian 

private school students, along with assigned public school students and homeschooled students, were less 

likely to be enrolled in elementary school than were students in chosen public schools or church-related 

private schools. In chosen public schools and church-related private schools, 48 percent and 51 percent of 

students, respectively, were enrolled in grades 1-5, compared with 43 percent among students in assigned 

public schools, 39 percent among students in nonsectarian private schools, and 37 percent among 

homeschooled students. Students in church-related private schools were less likely to be enrolled in high 

school (25 percent) than were students in assigned public schools (31 percent) or students in nonsectarian 

private schools (34 percent). 

 Race and ethnicity 

In 2003, the distribution of students in assigned public schools according to race and ethnicity 

was such that 63 percent of students were White, 15 percent were Black, 17 percent were Hispanic, and 6 

percent were non-Hispanic and some other race or multiracial (figure 2.4). In comparison, students in 

chosen public schools were less likely to be White (52 percent) and more likely to be Black (25 percent). 

In 2003, compared with students in both assigned and chosen public schools, students in church-related 

and nonsectarian private schools and students being homeschooled were more likely to be White. From 

1999 to 2003, however, the percentage of students in church-related private schools who were White 

decreased from 78 percent to 72 percent. In 2003, students in church-related private schools were more 

likely to be Hispanic (12 percent) than were those in nonsectarian private schools (5 percent) or those 

being homeschooled (6 percent). 

 

19 In this analysis homeschooled students are defined as students who were homeschooled and were not also enrolled 

in a public or private school for more than 8 hours per week. If students were homeschooled but were also enrolled 

in a public or private school for 9 or more hours they are defined as being enrolled in a public or private school. 

Furthermore, this analysis is restricted to 1st through 12th grade children between the ages of 5 and 17. 
20

Figure 5 

Figure 2.4 Percentage of students ages 5–17 enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private 

school type, homeschool, and race/ethnicity: 2003

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Homeschooled students are students who are homeschooled and not 

enrolled in school for 9 or more hours per week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education 

Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

74

71

72

52

63

10

15

11

25

15

6

5

12

16

17

9

9

5

8

6

Homeschool

Private, not church- related

Private, church-related

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

School type

Percent

 White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic Other, non-Hispanic

0 40 20 100 60 80

 Sex 

From 1999 to 2003, there were no significant changes in the distribution of students by sex in 

each of the different school types, including homeschooling. In 2003, about half of the students were male 

and about half of the students were female in each of the school types, including homeschooling. 

 Disability status 

In both 1999 and 2003, a smaller percentage of students in church-related private schools were 

reported as having a disability, compared with students in assigned public schools, chosen public schools, 

and non-church-related private schools.20 In 2003, 19 percent of students in church-related private schools 

had a disability, compared with 26 percent of students in assigned public schools, 28 percent in chosen 

public schools, and 32 percent in nonsectarian private schools. 

 Poverty status 

In 1999, students in chosen public schools were more likely to be in poverty (30 percent) than 

were students in assigned public schools (23 percent). From 1999 to 2003, the percentage of students in 

chosen public schools who were in poverty decreased from 30 percent to 21 percent, such that there were 

no significant differences between chosen and assigned public schools with respect to the distribution of 

 

20 See appendix A for definition of how student disability is counted. 
21

their students according to poverty status in 2003. From 1999 to 2003, poverty levels also decreased in 

nonsectarian private schools. In general in both 1999 and 2003, students in church-related and nonsectarian private schools were less likely to be in poverty or near poverty and more likely to be at or 

above 200 percent of the poverty line (i.e., nonpoor) than were students in assigned or chosen public 

schools or homeschooled students.21 In 2003, for example, 82 percent of students in church-related private 

schools and 76 percent of students in nonsectarian private schools lived in nonpoor households, compared 

with 57 percent of students in assigned public schools, 54 percent of students in chosen public schools, 

and 45 percent of homeschooled students. In 2003, homeschooled students were less likely to be nonpoor 

than assigned public school students, and more likely to be near-poor (figure 2.5). 

Figure 6 

Figure 2.5 Percentage of students ages 5–17 enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private 

school type, homeschool, and family poverty status: 2003

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Homeschooled students are students who are homeschooled and not 

enrolled in school for 9 or more hours per week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education 

Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

19

7

6

21

19

36

17

13

25

24

45

76

82

54

57

Homeschool

Private, not church- related

Private, church-related

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

School type

Percent

Below poverty Between poverty and 200% of poverty At or above 200% of poverty

0 40 20 100 60 80

 Parent’s highest level of education 

From 1999 to 2003, there were no substantial changes in the distribution of students within school 

type according to the highest level of education reached by their parents. In both years, however, the 

distributions looked different in different types of schools. In 2003, a plurality of students in both 

assigned and chosen public schools had some college or vocational or technical school as their highest 

 

21 The one exception to this general statement was the difference between the percentage of nonsectarian private 

school students and the percentage of homeschooled students in poverty in 1999. This apparent difference was not 

statistically significant, possibly because of the large standard errors associated with the estimate for homeschooled 

students. 
22

level of parent education (33 percent of students in both of these school types). In comparison and also in 

2003, a plurality of students in nonsectarian private schools (41 percent) had graduate or professional 

school as their highest level of parent education. In 2003, students in nonsectarian private schools were 

the most likely to have graduate or professional school as their highest level of parent education (41 

percent), followed by students in church-related private schools (29 percent). In comparison, 15 percent 

of students in assigned public schools, 16 percent of students in chosen public schools, and 19 percent of 

students being homeschooled had graduate or professional school as their highest level of parent 

education in 2003 (figure 2.6). 

Figure 7 

Figure 2.6

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Homeschooled students are students who are homeschooled and not 

enrolled in school for 9 or more hours per week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education 

Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

Percentage of students ages 5–17 enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private 

school type, homeschool, and parental education level: 2003

5

2

2

9

7

20

13

11

26

27

33

22

25

33

33

24

22

33

17

18

19

41

29

16

15

Homeschool

Private, not church- related

Private, church-related

Public, chosen

Public, assigned

School type

Percent

 Less than high school diploma High school diploma or GED Some college/ vocational/ technical

 Bachelor's degree Graduate/ professional school

0 40 20 100 60 80

 Family structure 

From 1999 to 2003 the percentage of chosen public school students who were living in twoparent families increased from 55 percent to 65 percent. Despite this increase to 65 percent, chosen public 

school students were the least likely to live in two-parent families in 2003. In comparison, 70 percent of 

assigned public school students, 81 percent of church-related private school students, 76 percent of 

nonsectarian private school students, and 79 percent of homeschooled students lived in two-parent 

families in 2003. 
23

 Region 

From 1999 to 2003, the percentage of chosen public school students who were living in the 

Northeast decreased from 19 percent to 14 percent, and the percentage of church-related private school 

students who were living in the South decreased from 31 percent to 25 percent.22 As of 2003, there were 

differences across school type, including homeschooling, in the distribution of students according to 

region. For example, 30 percent of nonsectarian private school students lived in the Northeast, a greater 

percentage than that for assigned public schools (18 percent), chosen public schools (14 percent), and 

homeschooled students (14 percent). Compared with students in other types of schools, including 

homeschooled students, students in church-related private schools were the most likely to be living in the 

Midwest in 2003 (34 percent). 

 Urbanicity 

In both 1999 and 2003, assigned public school students, along with homeschooled students, were 

more likely to live in rural areas than were students in other school types. Twenty-three percent of 

assigned public school students and 30 percent of homeschooled students lived in rural areas in 2003, 

compared with 18 percent of chosen public school students, 9 percent of church-related private school 

students, and 10 percent of nonsectarian private school students. In both 1999 and 2003, students in 

chosen public schools were more likely to live in rural areas than were students in church-related or nonchurch-related private schools.

 

22 See appendix A for definition of how regions are defined. 
24

Table 2 

Table 2. 

School type and homeschool

Student and householdcharacteristics % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e.  Total 100 † 100 † 100 † 100 † 100 † 100 † 100 † 100 † Grade level  Grades 1–5 43 0.3 43 0.4 47 1.2 48 1.4 52 1.6 51 1.7 47 2.5 39 3.2  Grades 6–8 26 0.2 27 0.3 21 0.9 25 1.1 26 1.1 25 1.4 24 2.2 28 3.3  Grades 9–12 30 0.3 31 0.4 32 1.1 27 1.3 22 1.4 25 1.6 29 2.3 34 3.3 Race/ethnicity2

 White, non-Hispanic 65 0.5 63 0.5 51 1.4 52 1.5 78 1.3 72 1.7 75 2.3 71 3.7  Black, non-Hispanic 15 0.3 15 0.3 25 1.3 25 1.5 10 1.0 11 1.3 11 1.8 15 3.3  Hispanic 14 0.3 17 0.2 17 0.9 16 1.0 7 0.8 12 1.2 7 1.2 5 1.4  Other, non-Hispanic 5 0.3 6 0.4 6 0.7 8 0.9 5 0.9 5 1.0 7 1.4 9 2.2 Sex Male 51 0.6 51 0.6 50 1.1 51 1.4 48 1.8 50 1.8 53 3.5 52 3.2  Female 49 0.6 49 0.6 50 1.1 49 1.4 52 1.8 50 1.8 47 3.5 48 3.2 Disability status Has a disability 21 0.6 26 0.6 22 1.3 28 1.4 16 1.3 19 1.3 23 2.3 32 4.0  Does not have a disability 79 0.6 74 0.6 78 1.3 72 1.4 84 1.3 81 1.3 77 2.3 68 4.0 Poverty status Below poverty 23 0.5 19 0.5 30 1.3 21 1.2 8 1.3 6 1.2 16 2.6 7 2.3  Between poverty and 200% of poverty 25 0.6 24 0.7 26 1.2 25 1.4 16 1.5 13 1.5 10 2.1 17 2.9  At or above 200% of poverty 52 0.6 57 0.7 44 1.2 54 1.6 76 1.8 82 1.9 74 3.2 76 3.2 See notes at end of table

Percentage of students ages 5–17 enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type, homeschool, and student and 

characteristics: 1999 and 2003 

1999 2003 2003 2003 1999 1999 2003 

1999

Public, assigned Public, chosen 

Private, church-related

Private, not churchrelated
25

Table 2. 

Student and householdcharacteristics % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e.  Total 100 † 100 † 100 † 100 † 100 † 100 † 100 † 100 † Parent's highest level of education Less than high school diploma 9 0.4 7 0.5 11 1.0 9 0.9 2 0.5 2 0.8 4 1.3 2 1.5  High school diploma or GED 29 0.5 27 0.7 28 1.4 26 1.4 15 1.3 11 1.1 15 2.5 13 3.1  Some college/vocational/ technical 31 0.5 33 0.8 31 1.4 33 1.6 25 1.6 25 1.7 17 2.5 22 2.9  Bachelor's degree 15 0.4 18 0.6 15 0.9 17 1.1 29 1.7 33 2.0 21 2.5 22 2.7  Graduate/professional school 15 0.4 15 0.6 15 0.9 16 1.2 29 1.7 29 2.0 43 3.1 41 3.4 Family structure Two parents 66 0.5 70 0.8 55 1.1 65 1.6 76 1.7 81 1.7 71 3.1 76 3.2  One parent 31 0.5 27 0.8 39 1.0 31 1.6 22 1.6 17 1.7 27 3.1 22 3.2  Non-parent guardians 3 0.2 3 0.3 6 0.7 4 0.6 2 0.4 1 0.5 2 0.7 2 1.1 Region Northeast 20 0.3 18 0.4 19 1.1 14 1.3 24 1.3 24 2.1 31 3.1 30 3.6 

 South 35 0.4 35 0.4 32 1.2 34 1.4 31 1.4 25 1.8 36 3.2 30 3.3 

 Midwest 24 0.4 23 0.4 23 1.1 23 1.4 31 1.6 34 2.4 13 1.8 20 3.1 

 West 21 0.3 24 0.4 26 1.1 29 1.4 14 1.2 17 1.4 21 2.2 21 3.3 

Urbanicity Urban 72 0.4 77 0.4 81 1.0 82 1.5 87 1.3 91 1.5 88 2.1 90 2.5 

 Rural 28 0.4 23 0.4 19 1.0 18 1.5 13 1.3 9 1.5 12 2.1 10 2.5 

† Not applicable.

2 The "other" race category includes individuals of more than one race.

Percentage of students ages 5–17 enrolled in grades 1–12, by public and private school type, homeschool, and student and 

characteristics: 1999 and 2003—Continued 

1 Students who are homeschooled and not enrolled in school for 9 or more hours per week.

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 1999, and Pare

Education Survey of the NHES, 2003.

2003 2003 2003 1999 1999 1999

School type and homeschool

2003

1999 

Public, chosen Private, church-related

Private, not churchPublic, assigned related
26

Parental perceptions and considerations of public school choice availability 

In 2003, for the first time, NHES asked parents questions about their perceptions of the 

availability of public school choice, whether they considered other schools than the one their children 

were currently enrolled in, if the school their children were enrolled in was their first choice, and if they 

had moved to a neighborhood so their children could attend a particular school.23 Table 3 presents results 

showing that about one-half of all students had parents who thought that public school choice was 

available in their community, with some differences by the school type students were enrolled in, 

race/ethnicity, and region. Specifically, 44 percent of students enrolled in assigned public schools had 

parents who thought that public school choice was available in their community compared to 38 percent 

of those enrolled in church-related private schools and 35 percent of those in non church-related private 

schools. Fifty-five percent of Black students had parents who thought that public school choice was 

available compared to 50 percent of White students. Regionally, students from the West (61 percent) and 

Midwest (58 percent) were more likely to have had parents who thought that public school choice was 

available than students in either the South (47 percent) or Northeast (39 percent). 

 

Overall, about 3 in 10 students (31 percent) had parents who considered enrolling them in a 

school other than the one they were attending at the time of the interview (figure 3.1). Only 25 percent of 

students enrolled in assigned public schools had parents who had considered enrolling them in other 

schools. This was substantially lower than students enrolled in chosen public schools (45 percent), 

church-related private (49 percent), and non church-related private schools (57 percent). Forty percent of 

Black students had parents who considered enrolling them in other schools, which was higher than the 29 

percent for White students, 28 percent for Hispanic students, and 32 percent for other, non-Hispanic 

students (figure 3.2). Parental education was also an important marker of whether parents considered 

sending their children to other schools. Students with parents who had less than a high school education 

were least likely to consider other schools (21 percent), while students with parents who had a graduate or 

professional degree were most likely to do so (39 percent). Finally, 33 percent of urban students had 

parents who considered sending them to other schools compared to 23 percent of rural students. 

 

23 The results presented below represent the estimates for all parents who were asked about whether public school 

choice was available, whether they considered other schools than the one their children were currently enrolled in, if 

the school their children were enrolled in was their first choice, and if they had moved to a neighborhood so that 

their children could attend a particular school. Table B-1 in appendix B presents the estimates for the latter three 

questions for students whose parents reported that they perceived that public school choice was available in their 

community. 
27

Figure 8 

Figure 3.1 Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public 

school choice, considered other schools, reported that the current school was 

their first choice, or moved to their current neighborhood for 

the school, by public and private school type: 2003

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools 

for 9 or more hours per week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education 

Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

44

25

82

28

45

83

19

38

49

92

9

35

57

85

8

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Public choice available Considered other schools School was parent's first

choice

Moved to neighborhood for

school

Percent

Public, assigned Public, chosen Private, church-related Private, not church-related

 

Figure 9 

Figure 3.2 Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public 

school choice, considered other schools, reported that the current school was 

their first choice, or moved to their current neighborhood for 

the school, by race/ethnicity: 2003

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools 

for 9 or more hours per week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education 

Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

50

29

87

25

40

73

18

51

28

80

26

55

32

81

24

55

0

20

40

60

80

100

Public choice available Considered other schools School was parent's first

choice

Moved to neighborhood for

school

Percent

White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic Other, non-Hispanic
28

On the question if parents enrolled their children in the school of their first choice, again not all 

students had parents who did. Ninety-two percent of students enrolled in church-related private schools 

had parents who indicated that this was their school of first choice, compared to 82 percent of students in 

assigned public schools, 83 percent of students in chosen public schools, and 85 percent of students in 

non church-related private schools. Compared to other students, Black students were least likely (73 

percent) and White students were most likely (87 percent) to have had parents who reported that their 

children were enrolled in a school that was their first choice. Students in families who had incomes above 

200 percent of the poverty line were more likely (86 percent) to be enrolled in a school that was their 

parents’ first choice compared to students in families whose incomes were near or below the poverty line 

(figure 3.3).24 Similarly, students with parents who had a graduate or professional degree were most likely 

(88 percent) to enroll in a school of their parents’ first choice compared to students with parents who were 

less educated (figure 3.4).25 Finally, students living in urban areas were less likely (82 percent) to be 

enrolled in a school of their parents’ first choice compared to students living in rural areas (88 percent). 

Figure 10 

Figure 3.3

the school, by family poverty status: 2003

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools 

for 9 or more hours per week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education 

Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public 

school choice, considered other schools, reported that the current school was 

their first choice, or moved to their current neighborhood for 

53

28

77

22

29

81

21

51

32

86

27

52

0

20

40

60

80

100

Public choice available Considered other schools School was parent's first

choice

Moved to neighborhood for

school

Percent

Below poverty Between poverty and 200% of poverty At or above 200% of poverty

 

24 Poor students are defined as those with household incomes below 100 percent of the poverty threshold. Near-poor 

students are defined as those with household incomes from 100 to 199 percent of the poverty threshold. Non-poor 

students are defined as those with household incomes at or above 200 percent of the poverty threshold. 

25 The difference between students with parents who had graduate or professional degrees and those with parents 

who had bachelor’s degrees was only 4 percentage points, but it was statistically significant. 
29

Figure 11 

Figure 3.4

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education 

Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public 

school choice, considered other schools, reported that the current school was 

their first choice, or moved to their current neighborhood 

for the school, by parental education level: 2003

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools 

for 9 or more hours per week.

54

21

81

21 26

81

23

54

30

82

23

49

33

85

25

49

39

88

29

51

0

20

40

60

80

100

Public choice available Considered other schools School was parent's first

choice

Moved to neighborhood for

school

Percent

Less than high school diploma High school diploma or GED Some college/ vocational/technical

Bachelor's degree Graduate/ professional school

Moving residences to a different neighborhood is an option parents can use to secure their child’s 

placement in a particular school. Students enrolled in the public school system were more likely to have 

had parents who moved residences compared to private school students so the student could attend a 

particular school. Twenty-eight percent of students enrolled in assigned public schools had parents who 

moved residences for school purposes and 19 percent of students enrolled in chosen public schools had 

parents who moved residences. In contrast only 8 to 9 percent of students enrolled in private schools had 

parents who moved residences for school purposes. Black students were less likely (18 percent) than 

Whites or Hispanics to have had parents who moved residences for purposes of sending them to a 

particular school. Likewise, students whose families were living in poverty (22 percent) or with incomes 

below 200 percent of the poverty line (21 percent) were less likely to have moved residences for a 

particular school. 
30

Table 3 

Table 3.

Student and household

characteristics % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e.

 Total 51 0.6 31 0.6 83 0.4 24 0.6

School type

 Public, assigned 44 0.8 25 0.6 82 0.5 28 0.7

 Public, chosen 100 0.0 45 1.7 83 1.2 19 1.3

 Private, church-related 38 1.6 49 1.8 92 0.9 9 1.2

 Private, not church-related 35 3.6 57 3.5 85 3.0 8 2.1

Grade level 

 Grades 1–5 50 1.0 30 0.9 85 0.7 24 0.8

 Grades 6–8 51 1.0 32 1.1 81 0.9 25 1.1

 Grades 9–12 54 1.0 30 0.8 83 0.7 24 1.0

Race/ethnicity2

 White, non-Hispanic 50 0.8 29 0.7 87 0.5 25 0.9

 Black, non-Hispanic 55 2.0 40 1.6 73 1.6 18 1.4

 Hispanic 51 1.3 28 1.2 80 1.1 26 1.1

 Other, non-Hispanic 55 2.8 32 2.4 81 2.1 24 2.5

Sex

 Male 52 0.8 31 0.8 83 0.6 24 0.8

 Female 51 0.9 30 0.9 84 0.6 24 0.9

Disability status

 Has a disability 51 1.0 34 1.2 79 0.9 23 1.0

 Does not have a disability 52 0.8 29 0.6 85 0.5 25 0.6

Poverty status

 Below poverty 53 1.6 28 1.3 77 1.3 22 1.5

 Between poverty and 

 200% of poverty 52 1.4 29 1.1 81 1.1 21 1.2

 At or above 200% of poverty 51 0.9 32 0.7 86 0.5 27 0.7

See notes at end of table

Public choice available1

Considered other 

schools

School was parent's 

first choice

Moved to 

neighborhood for 

school

Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public school choice, 

considered other schools, reported that the current school was their first choice, or moved to

their current neighborhood for the school, by student and household characteristics: 2003
31

Table 3.

Student and household

characteristics % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e.

 Total 51 0.6 31 0.6 83 0.4 24 0.6

Parent's highest level of education

 Less than high school diploma 54 2.5 21 2.0 81 1.9 21 2.2

 High school diploma or GED 51 1.5 26 1.2 81 1.1 23 1.5

 Some college/vocational/technical 54 1.3 30 0.9 82 0.8 23 1.0

 Bachelor's degree 49 1.4 33 1.3 85 1.1 25 1.2

 Graduate/professional school 49 1.6 39 1.2 88 0.9 29 1.4

Family structure

 Two parents 51 0.8 31 0.7 86 0.5 25 0.7

 One parent 52 1.2 31 1.0 78 1.0 23 0.9

 Non-parent guardians 52 3.2 24 2.4 79 2.7 17 3.0

Region

 Northeast 39 1.6 30 1.2 84 1.0 27 1.5

 South 47 1.1 31 1.0 82 0.7 24 1.0

 Midwest 58 1.3 29 1.1 85 0.9 26 1.2

 West 61 1.2 32 1.1 82 1.0 20 1.0

Urbanicity

 Urban 51 0.7 33 0.6 82 0.5 25 0.6

 Rural 54 1.5 23 1.3 88 1.1 21 1.4

2

 The "other" race category includes individuals of more than one race.

Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public school choice, 

considered other schools, reported that the current school was their first choice, or moved to

their current neighborhood for the school, by student and household characteristics: 

2003—Continued

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education Survey of the National 

Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

Public choice available1

Considered other 

schools

School was parent's 

first choice

Moved to 

neighborhood for 

school

1 There were 188 cases (where parents reported that their child's assigned school was their chosen school) that were missing and thus excluded from 

the analysis.

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools 

for 9 or more hours per week. 
32

Parental satisfaction and involvement in children’s schools 

Tables 4, 5a, 5b, and 6 present results on the associations between the types of schools students 

were enrolled in and their parents’ satisfaction with and involvement in the schools they attended. The 

population used for the following analyses were based on students in grades 3 through 12 because the 

NHES did not ask parents of 1st and 2nd grade students the school satisfaction with and involvement 

questions in 1993.26 

 In 1993, 1999, and 2003, compared with students attending assigned public schools, students 

attending chosen schools, regardless of whether they were public or private schools, were more likely to 

have parents that were very satisfied with the schools (table 4 and figure 4). Also in each of these years, 

students attending church-related private schools were more likely to have parents who were very 

satisfied with the schools than were students attending chosen public schools. In 2003, 54 percent of 

students enrolled in assigned public schools had parents who were very satisfied with the schools, 

compared with 64 percent of students in chosen public schools, 77 percent of students in church-related 

private schools, and 72 percent of students in other private schools. Findings were similar for parent 

satisfaction with teachers, academic standards, and order and discipline. 

 Although these findings were generally consistent across the three years, there have been changes 

over time. From 1999 to 2003, the percentage of students in assigned public schools whose parents were 

very satisfied with their child's school increased from 48 to 54 percent. From 1999 to 2003, the 

percentage of students in church-related schools whose parents were very satisfied with their child's 

school decreased from 83 to 77 percent. 

 

26 Parents of homeschoolers were not asked about their satisfaction or level of involvement in schools unless the 

students also attended a public or private school for 9 or more hours per week. This report considered students who 

were homeschooled but also attended a public or private school for 9 or more hours per week to be students in a 

public or private school in 1999 and 2003. Data about part-time homeschoolers were not available in 1993 or 1996. 
33

Figure 12 

Figure 4. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 3–12 whose parents were very 

satisfied with various aspects of their children's schools, by public and private 

school type: 2003

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Excludes homeschooled students.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education 

Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

54 56 55 56

65 64 65

77 72

80 81

72 70

77 80

64

0

20

40

60

80

100

School Teachers Academic standards Order and discipline

Very satisfied with

Percent

Public, assigned Public, chosen Private, church-related Private, not church-related

Table 4 

Table 4.

Parent very

satisfied with % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e.

School 52 0.7 48 0.7 54 0.8 61 2.6 62 1.0 64 1.7 83 1.5 80 1.7 77 2.0 80 3.3 76 2.4 72 3.6

Teachers 56 0.8 54 0.6 56 0.7 62 1.8 62 1.0 65 1.6 75 1.6 76 1.9 72 1.9 77 3.2 75 2.9 70 3.7

Academic standards 55 0.6 53 0.8 55 0.8 63 3.0 63 1.3 64 1.7 84 1.4 81 1.7 80 1.8 81 3.3 79 2.6 77 3.3

Order and discipline 55 0.8 54 0.6 56 0.8 63 1.7 63 1.2 65 1.8 87 1.1 87 1.3 81 1.8 74 3.5 80 2.8 80 3.2

Percentage of students enrolled in grades 3–12 whose parents were very satisfied with various aspects of 

their children’s schools, by public and private school type: 1993, 1999, and 2003

1999 1993 1993

School type

1993 1999 1993

Public, assigned Public, chosen Private, church-related Private, not church-related

1999 1999 2003

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, School Readiness Survey of the National Household Education Surveys 

Program (NHES), 1993, School Safety and Discipline Survey of the NHES, 1993, Parent Survey of the NHES, 19

2003 2003 2003

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Excludes homeschooled students.

 Private school students had parents who were more involved in their children’s schools than students 

enrolled in public schools (assigned or by choice). The 2003 estimates (table 5a and 5b and figure 5) 

indicated that students in private schools (both church-related and non church-related) had parents who 

were more likely to attend a general school meeting, attend a school event, and volunteer or serve on a 

committee than public school students. Also in 2003, students in church-related private schools were 
34

more likely to have parents who had participated in a parent-teacher conference than were students in 

assigned or chosen public schools. There have been increases in certain types of parent involvement over 

time, however, for students attending assigned and chosen public schools. For example, from 1993 to 

2003, the percentage of students whose parents attended a general school meeting increased from 75 

percent to 85 percent for students attending assigned public schools and from 73 percent to 83 percent for 

students attending chosen public schools. 

Figure 13 

Figure 5. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 3–12 whose parents were very 

involved in various ways with their children's schools, by public and private 

school type: 2003

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Excludes homeschooled students.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education 

Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

85

70 68

34

77

65

37

95

85 87

68

95

82 77

60

83

0

20

40

60

80

100

Attended a general meeting Went to a parent-teacher

conference

Attended a school event Volunteered or served on a

committee

Percent

Public, assigned Public, chosen Private, church-related Private, not church-related
35

Table 5 

Table 5a.

Ways parents

were involved % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e.

Attended a general meeting 75 0.7 73 0.6 75 0.6 85 0.6 73 2.1 73 1.3 75 1.3 83 1.1

Went to a parent-teacher

conference — — 65 0.6 66 0.6 70 0.7 — — 70 1.3 67 1.4 77 1.4

Attended a school event 66 0.8 65 0.6 63 0.7 68 0.7 61 1.8 62 1.5 59 1.4 65 1.6

Volunteered/served

on a committee 33 1.1 32 0.5 30 0.5 34 0.8 31 2.8 31 1.3 31 1.2 37 1.8

— Not available.

1999

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Excludes homeschooled students.

Family Involvement in Education Survey of the NHES, 1996, Parent Survey of the NHES, 1999, and Parent & Family Involvement in 

Education Survey of the NHES, 2003.

1996 1993

Public school type

Percentage of students enrolled in grades 3–12 whose parents were involved in various 

ways with their children's schools, by public school type: 1993, 1996, 1999, and 2003

1996

Public, assigned Public, chosen

1993 1999 2003 2003

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, School Readiness Survey of the National Household 

Education Surveys Program (NHES), 1993, School Safety and Discipline Survey of the NHES, 1993, Parent &

Table 6 

Table 5b.

Ways parents

were involved % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e.

Attended a general meeting 93 1.0 92 1.4 93 1.0 95 0.9 89 3.1 82 2.8 87 2.5 95 1.6

Went to a parent-teacher

conference — — 82 1.5 86 1.1 85 1.4 — — 75 2.9 74 3.0 82 2.9

Attended a school event 87 1.3 84 1.3 84 1.4 87 1.3 85 3.5 75 3.0 76 2.7 77 3.7

Volunteered/served

on a committee 66 1.9 68 1.7 65 2.1 68 2.1 59 4.3 47 3.7 53 3.6 60 4.1

— Not available.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, School Readiness Survey of the National Household 

Education Surveys Program (NHES), 1993, School Safety and Discipline Survey of the NHES, 1993, Parent &

Family Involvement in Education Survey of the NHES, 1996, Parent Survey of the NHES, 1999, and Parent & Family Involvement in 

Education Survey of the NHES, 2003.

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Excludes homeschooled students.

Private, church-related Private, not church-related

Private school type

Percentage of students enrolled in grades 3–12 whose parents were involved in various 

ways with their children's schools, by private school type: 1993, 1996, 1999, and 2003

1993 1996 1999 2003 2003 1993 1996 1999

 NHES also asked parents about their involvement in school decision-making procedures directly 

related to their children’s academic future. Specifically, NHES asked parents if the schools involved them 
36

in decision-making groups, let them have a say in their children’s placement in classes, and allowed 

parents to request a particular teacher or course. Generally, students were more likely to have had parents 

who were involved in a school decision-making group or had a voice in their children’s placement in 

classes than to have been able to request a specific teacher or course (see table 6 and figure 6). The 

percentage of students who attended a school that involved parents in decision-making groups was lower 

among students in non-church-related private schools than among those in chosen public or churchrelated private schools. Also, from 1999 to 2003 there was a decrease from 77 to 66 percent in the 

percentage of non-church-related private school students whose schools involved parents in decisionmaking groups. Public school students (both assigned and chosen) were more likely to have had parents 

who had a say in their child’s placement in classes compared to church- and non-church related private 

school students. Students in private church-related schools were less likely than students in assigned or 

chosen public schools to have had parents who had made a request for a particular teacher or course, and 

students in non-church-related private schools were less likely than students in assigned public schools to 

have had parents make such a request. 

Figure 14 

Figure 6. Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12 whose parents reported 

involvement in school decision-making, by public and private school type: 2003

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Excludes homeschooled students.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education 

Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

72 68

32

70

31

76

63

22

66

60

25

75

0

20

40

60

80

100

School involves parents in decisionmaking groupsParent has a say in child's placement

in classes

Parent has requested particular

teacher or course

Percent

Public, assigned Public, chosen Private, church-related Private, not church-related
37

Table 7 

Table 6.

Parent involvement

in school 1996 1996 1996 1996 1999

decision-making % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e.

School involves parents

in decision-making

groups 70 0.6 73 0.6 72 0.6 72 1.2 75 1.3 75 1.5 81 1.3 80 1.6 76 1.8 75 3.0 77 2.5 66 3.4

Parent has say in

child's placement

in classes — — — — 68 0.7 — — — — 70 1.5 — — — — 63 2.0 — — — — 60 3.7

Parent has requested

particular teacher

or course — — — — 32 0.6 — — — — 31 1.4 — — — — 22 1.6 — — — — 25 2.8

— Not available.

Percentage of students enrolled in grades 1–12 whose parents reported involvement in school decisionmaking, by public and private school type: 1996, 1999, and 2003

1999 2003 2003

Private, not church-related

1999

Public, assigned

1999

Private, church-related

2003 2003

Public, chosen

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Excludes homeschooled students.

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 1996, Parent Survey of the NHES, 1999, and Parent & Family Involvement in Education Survey 

of the NHES, 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education Survey of the

39

Summary and Conclusions 

The NHES has asked parents since 1993 about the general types of public or private schools their 

children are enrolled in (and asked parents since 1999 if they homeschool their children). This data 

collection effort enables NCES to produce reports on the trends in the use of school choice across the 

United States, with the current report focused on the trends between 1993 and 2003. The NHES data does 

not provide information on the availability of school choice programs across the United States or in what 

specific types of school choice programs (e.g., charter schools, magnet schools, inter or intradistrict 

choice) students enrolled. Thus, this report’s analyses focused on demographic trends in enrollment in 

public schools (assigned and chosen), private schools (church-related and non church-related), and 

homeschooling. Additionally, this report included analyses examining associations between the types of 

schools students were enrolled in, and how satisfied parents were with the schools and how involved they 

were in them. 

 NHES data revealed that the proportion of students enrolled in assigned public schools decreased 

between 1993 and 2003, as more students were enrolling in chosen public schools. The proportion of 

students enrolled in private schools was relatively stable between 1993 and 2003. The rise in the 

proportion of students enrolled in chosen public schools appears to have corresponded with the expanded 

school choice programs many states and local districts began implementing in the 1990s (Schneider, 

Teske, and Marschall 2000). 

In 2003, about 3 in 20 students (15 percent) were enrolled in chosen public schools, but some 

groups of students were more likely to be enrolled in them than were others. NHES data suggest that 

elementary school and middle school students were more likely to be enrolled in chosen public schools 

than high school students. Students living in families with incomes above the poverty line or with parents 

who did not graduate high school or had a bachelor’s or professional degree were more likely to be 

enrolled in chosen public schools in 2003 than in 1993. Finally, students living in the West, South, or 

Midwest were more likely to be enrolled in chosen public schools than other students. 

 From 1999 to 2003, there were changes in the student population attending different types of 

schools. In chosen public schools, for instance, the percentage of students in poverty decreased, and the 

percentage of students living in two-parent households increased, although in 2003, students attending 

chosen public schools were still the least likely to live in two-parent families. White students were less 

likely than Black students or other, non-Hispanic students to be attending chosen public schools in 2003. 

Students in assigned public schools, in chosen public schools, and being homeschooled were more likely 
40

to be poor or near-poor and less likely to be nonpoor than were students attending church-related or 

nonsectarian private schools in 2003. 

 In 2003, students enrolled in chosen public schools and private schools had parents who were 

more satisfied with the schools than students enrolled in the assigned public schools. Also, private school 

students were more likely to have had parents who were involved in a range of school activities (e.g., 

attending general school meetings, parent-teacher conferences, attending school events, or volunteering 

for school committees) than public school students. 
41

References 

Algozzine, B., Yon, M., Nesbit, C., and Nesbit, J. (1999). Parent Perceptions of a Magnet School 

Program. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 32 (3): 178-183. 

Bielick, S., Chandler, K., and Broughman, S.P. (2001). Homeschooling in the United States: 1999 (NCES 

2001-033). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Bielick, S., and Chapman, C. (2003). Trends in the Use of School Choice: 1993–1999 (NCES 2003–031). 

U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 

Brick, J.M. et al. (1997). Unit and Item Response, Weighting, and Imputation Procedures in the 1993 

National Household Education Survey (NHES:93) Working Paper (NCES 97-05). U.S. 

Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC. 

Brick, J. M., Collins, M., Nolin, M. J., Ha, P. C., Levinsohn, M., and Chandler, K. (1994a). National 

Household Education Survey of 1993: School Readiness Data File User’s Manual (NCES 94-

193). U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC. 

Brick, J. M., Collins, M., Nolin, M. J., Ha, P. C., Levinsohn, M., and Chandler, K. (1994b). National 

Household Education Survey of 1993: School Safety and Discipline Data File User’s Manual

(NCES 94-218). U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. 

Washington, DC. 

Coleman, J., and Hoffer, T. (1987). Schools, Families, and Communites. In Arum, Richard & Beattie, 

Irene (Eds.) 2000, The Structure of Schooling: Readings in the Sociology of Education (pp.69-

77). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company. 

Collins, M. Brick, J.M., Nolin, M.J., Vaden-Kiernan, N., Gilmore, S., Chandler, K., and Chapman, C. 

(1997). National Household Education Survey of 1996: Data File User’s Manual, Volume I and 

Volume III: Parent and Family Involvement in Education and Civic Involvement-Parent Data 

File (NCES 97-423). U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. 

Washington, DC. 

Hagedorn, M., Montaqulia, J., Vaden-Kiernan, K., Kim, K., and Chapman, C. (2004). National 

Household Education Survey of 2003: Data File and User’s Manual, Volume I and Volume II: 

Parent and Family Involvement in Education Surveys (NCES 04-101/102). U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 

Hausman, C. S., and Goldring, E. (2000). Parent Involvement, Influence, and Satisfaction in Magnet 

Schools: Do Reasons for Choice Matter? The Urban Review, 32 (2): 105-121. 

Hoffman, L., and Sable, J. (2006). Public Elementary and Secondary Students, Staff, Schools, and School 

Districts: School Year 2003-04 (NCES 2006-307). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: 

National Center for Education Statistics. 

Hoxby, C. M. (1999). The Effects of School Choice on Curriculum and Atmosphere. In Mayer S., and 

Peterson, P. (Eds.), Earning and Learning: How Schools Matter, Washington, DC: The Brookings 

Institution Press: 281-316. 
42

Kalton, G., and Kasprzyk, D. (1986). The Treatment of Missing Data. Survey Methodology, 12: 1-16. 

Lines, P. (1999). Homeschoolers: Estimating Numbers and Growth. Web Edition. U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC. Retrieved November 3, 2006, from 

http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/SAI/homeschool/homeschoolers.pdf 

Montaquila, J., and Brick, J.M. (1997). Unit and Item Response, Weighting, and Imputation Procedures 

in the 1996 National Household Education Survey (NCES 97-40). U.S. Department of Education. 

Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics Working Paper. 

Nolin, M. J., Montaquila, J., Nicchitta, P., Kim, K., Kleiner, B., Lennon, J., Chapman, C., Creighton, S., 

and Bielick, S. (2000a). National Household Education Survey of 1999: Methodology Report 

(NCES 2000-078). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for 

Education Statistics. 

Nolin, M. J., Montaquila, J. Lennon, J., Kliener, B., Kim, K, Chapman, C., Chandler, K., Creighton, S., 

and Bielick, S. (2000b). National Household Education Survey of 1999: Data File User’s 

Manual, Volume I and Volume II: Parent Interview Data File (NCES 2000-081). U.S. 

Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 

Nord, C. W., Brimhall, D., and West, J. (1997). Father’s Involvement in Their Children’s Schools (NCES 

98-091). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education 

Statistics. 

Princiotta, D., Bielick, S., and Chapman, C. (2004). 1.1 Million Homeschooled Students in the United 

States in 2003 (NCES 2004-115). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National 

Center for Education Statistics. 

Schneider, M., Teske, P., and Marschall, M. (2000). Choosing Schools: Consumer Choice and the Quality 

of American Schools. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2006). Digest of Education 

Statistics 2005 (NCES 2006-030). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2004). Table A-1. School Enrollment of the Population 3 Years Old and Over, by 

Level and Control of School, Race, and Hispanic Origin: October 1955 to 2002. Retrieved 

October 28, 2005, from http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/school/tabA-1.pdf. 

U.S. Department of Education. (forthcoming). Non-response Bias Analysis of the 2003 National 

Household Education Survey. Washington, DC. 

U.S. Department of Education, Policy and Program Studies Service. (2003). Evaluation of the Magnet 

Schools Assistance Program, 1998 Grantees. Office of the Under Secretary 2003-15. 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). The Condition of 

Education 1999 (NCES 1999-022). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1996). Public School Choice 

Programs, 1993-94: Availability and Student Participation (NCES 97-909). Washington, DC. 
43

Vaden-Kiernan, N., and Chandler, K. (1996). Parents’ Reports of School Practices to Involve Families 

(NCES 97-327). U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC: National Center for Education 

Statistics. 

45

Appendix A: Technical Notes 

The National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES) is a telephone survey conducted for 

the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Data collections have 

taken place from January through early May in 1991 and January through April in 1993, 1995, 1996, 1999, 

and 2003. When appropriately weighted, each sample is nationally representative of all civilian, noninstitutionalized persons in the 50 states and District of Columbia. The samples were selected using randomdigit-dialing (RDD) methods, and the data were collected using computer-assisted telephone interviewing 

(CATI) technology. 

Data from four administrations of the NHES were used in this report—the School Readiness and 

School Safety and Discipline Surveys from the NHES, 1993, the Parent and Family Involvement Survey of 

the NHES, 1996, the Parent Survey of the NHES, 1999, and the Parent and Family Involvement in 

Education Survey of 2003. A screening questionnaire administered to a member of the household age 18 or 

older was used to determine whether any children of the appropriate age lived in the household, to collect 

information on each child, and to identify the appropriate parent or guardian to respond for the sampled 

child. If one or two eligible children resided in the household, more detailed extended interviews were 

conducted about each child. If more than two eligible children resided in the household, generally two were 

sampled as interview subjects. Each interview was conducted with the parent or guardian most 

knowledgeable about the care and education of each sampled child. This report was based on subsets of the 

total sample collected in each of the survey years, specifically, children in 1st through 12th grades unless 

otherwise noted. The 1993 data was collected in two separate extended interviews—one for children aged 

three to 2nd grade and one for children in 3rd grade through 12th grade. Data from these two files were 

merged to provide information on children in 1st through 12th grades. 

 Response rates 

Screening interviews were completed with 63,844 households in 1993, 55,838 households in 

1996, 57,278 households in 1999, and 32,049 in 2003. The unit response rate for the Screener varied 

somewhat between these four survey years: 82 percent in 1993, 70 percent in 1996, 74 percent in 1999, 

and 65 percent in 2003. The second stage response rate, or the percentage of eligible sampled children for 

whom interviews were completed, was at or near 85 percent for the parent extended interviews in the four 

survey years. The overall unit response rates were 74 percent for 1993 School Readiness and School 

Safety and Discipline Surveys, 63 percent for 1996, 67 percent for 1999, and 54 percent for 2003. 

Response bias analyses conducted on the NHES:1999 Parent Survey, which covers a similar population, 

showed no evidence of bias in estimates. Statistical adjustments used in weighting correct at least partially 
46

for any biases resulting from differential nonresponse (Nolin et al. 2000a). Similar statistical adjustments 

were used in weighting the NHES:2003 data. Nonresponse bias analyses of NHES:2003 data will be 

included in the forthcoming National Household Education Surveys of 2003: Methodology Report. 

For all four surveys, item nonresponse (the failure to complete some items in an otherwise 

completed interview) was very low. The item nonresponse rates for most variables in this report were less 

than 2 percent. For information about specific item response rates see the Data File User’s Manual for each 

survey year. All items with missing responses (i.e., don’t know where appropriate, refused, or not 

ascertained) were imputed using a hot-deck imputation procedure (Kalton and Kasprzyk 1986). As a result, 

no missing values remain.27

 Data reliability 

Estimates produced using data from the NHES are subject to two types of errors, sampling and 

nonsampling errors. Nonsampling errors are errors made in the collection and processing of data. Sampling 

errors occur because the data are collected from a sample, rather than a census of the population. 

 Nonsampling errors 

Nonsampling error is the term used to describe variations in the estimates that may be caused by 

population coverage limitations and data collection, processing, and reporting procedures. The sources of 

nonsampling errors are typically problems like unit and item nonresponse, the differences in respondents’ 

interpretations of the meaning of the questions, response differences related to the particular time the survey 

was conducted, the tendency for respondents to give socially desirable responses, and mistakes in data 

preparation. 

In general, it is difficult to identify and estimate either the amount of nonsampling error or the bias 

caused by this error. For each NHES survey, efforts were made to prevent such errors from occurring and to 

compensate for them where possible. For instance, during the survey design phase, cognitive interviews 

were conducted for the purpose of assessing respondent knowledge of the topics, comprehension of 

questions and terms, and the sensitivity of items. The design phase also entailed extensive staff testing of 

the computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) instrument and a pretest in which several hundred 

interviews were conducted to identify problems with the initial questionnaire. 

 

27 For more information on the imputation procedures used in the NHES:1993, NHES:1996, NHES:1999, and 

NHES:2003, see the following: Brick et al. 1997; Montaquila and Brick 1997; Nolin et al. 2000a; and Hagedorn et 

al. 2004. 
47

An important nonsampling error for a telephone survey is failure to include persons who do not live 

in households with telephones. Weighting adjustments using characteristics related to telephone coverage 

were used to reduce the bias in the estimates associated with children who do not live in households with 

telephones. 

 Sampling errors 

The sample of households with telephones selected for each NHES survey is just one of many 

possible samples that could have been selected from all households with telephones. Therefore, estimates 

produced from each NHES survey may differ from estimates that would have been produced from other 

samples. This type of variability is called sampling error because it arises from using a sample of 

households with telephones rather than all households with telephones. 

The standard error is a measure of the variability due to sampling when estimating a statistic; 

standard errors for estimates presented in this report were computed using a jackknife replication method. 

Standard errors can be used as a measure of the precision expected from a particular sample. The 

probability that a complete census count would differ from the sample estimate by less than 1 standard error 

is about 68 percent. The chance that the difference would be less than 1.65 standard errors is about 90 

percent; and that the difference would be less than 1.96 standard errors, about 95 percent. 

Standard errors for all of the estimates are presented in the tables. These standard errors can be 

used to produce confidence intervals. For example, an estimated 76 percent of students were reported to 

have attended a public, assigned school in 1999. This figure has an estimated standard error of 0.4. 

Therefore, the estimated 95 percent confidence interval for this statistic is approximately 75 to 77 percent 

[76 percent +/– (1.96*0.4)]. That is, in 95 out of 100 samples from the same population, the estimated 

enrollment rate in public, assigned schools should fall between 75 and 77 percent. 

Definitions of variables 

Most of the variables in this report were taken directly from the data files without manipulation. 

Some variables, such as urbanicity, were collapsed into fewer categories for the analysis. The definitions 

of important and unique variables are explained below. 

School type 

The school type variable is a derived variable on the data files. In each year it was derived from 

the same series of the following questions: 
48

Does (child) go to a public or a private school?

 1 = Public 

 2 = Private 

Is it (his/her) regularly assigned school or a school that you chose

1 = Assigned 

2 = Chosen 

3 = Assigned school is school of choice 

(This response category was voluntary in 1993, 1996, 1999, and 2003. It is coded as a chosen 

school in the school type derived variable). 

Is the school affiliated with a religion? (1993) 

1 = Yes 

2 = No 

Is the school church-related or not church-related? (1996, 1999) 

1 = Church-related 

2 = Not church-related 

If the school was classified as public, it was further classified as either assigned or chosen. If the 

school was classified as private, it was further classified as either affiliated or not affiliated with a religion 

(1993) or church (1996, 1999). The response category, “assigned is chosen” that appeared in 1993 was 

coded as a chosen school. 

Poverty status 

The poverty measures used in this report were developed by combining information about 

household composition and household income. Information on exact incomes was not collected in every 

administration of the NHES, but categorical household income information was. To keep the 

measurement of poverty comparable across years, only categorical income information was used in this 

report. The poverty status measures used in this report were based on poverty thresholds published by the 

Bureau of the Census.28 Census poverty thresholds were rounded to the nearest upper bound of an NHES 

income category to create the poverty thresholds used in this report. Thus, the poverty measures in this 

report are approximations of poverty. For example, in 2003, the Census poverty threshold for a 4-person 

family was $18,810; this number was rounded to the nearest upper bound of an NHES income category, 

 

28 For exact details on the poverty thresholds for the 1993, 1996, 1999, and 2003 NHES, please see the Census 

Bureau, Current Population Survey (http://www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/threshld.html). 
49

which was $20,000 (for the income category $15,001 to $20,000). So a 4-person family making less than 

$20,000 a year would be counted as “poor” in this report. Similar calculations were performed to 

determine whether households were “near-poor,” (with an income at or above the upper bound of the 

NHES income category closest to 100 percent of the Census poverty threshold, but below the upper 

bound of the NHES income category closest to 200 percent of the Census poverty threshold) or 

“nonpoor” (with an income at or above the upper bound of the NHES income category closest to 200 

percent of the Census poverty threshold). For example, in 2003, 200 percent of the Census poverty 

threshold for a 4-person family was $37,620; this number was rounded to the nearest upper bound of an 

NHES income category, which was $40,000 (for the income category $35,001 to $40,000). So a 4-person 

family making $20,000 to $39,999 in 2003 was considered near-poor in this report. A 4-person family 

making $40,000 or more in 2003 was considered non-poor in this report. The definitions of poor, nearpoor, and non-poor differ across years because Census-defined weighted average poverty thresholds 

change somewhat from year to year to account for inflation, among other things. Poverty and 200 percent 

poverty thresholds used in this report are shown in table A-1 below. 

Table 8 

Household size 1993 1996 1999 2003 1993 1996 1999 2003

1 person $5,000 $10,000 $10,000 $10,000 $15,000 $15,000 $15,000 $20,000

2 people 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 25,000

3 people 10,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 25,000 25,000 25,000 30,000

4 people 15,000 15,000 15,000 20,000 30,000 30,000 35,000 40,000

5 people 15,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 35,000 40,000 40,000 45,000

6 people 20,000 20,000 25,000 25,000 40,000 40,000 50,000 50,000

7 people 20,000 25,000 25,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 50,000 60,000

8 people 25,000 25,000 30,000 30,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 60,000

9 people or more 30,000 30,000 35,000 35,000 50,000 75,000 75,000 75,000

Poverty threshold 200 percent poverty threshold

NOTE: The poverty thresholds were determined by rounding Census poverty thresholds to the nearest upper 

bound of an NHES income category. The 200 percent poverty thresholds were determined by multiplying Census 

poverty thresholds by 2 and then rounding to the nearest upper bound of an NHES income category.

Table A-1. Poverty and 200 percent poverty thresholds used in this report, by year and household size

Region 

 Region is determined by the Census definition of regions. The following states and the District of 

Columbia are in each Census region as follows: 

Northeast: Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, 

Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine 

South: Oklahoma, Texas, Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, 

Deleware, District of Columbia, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, 

Louisiana, Arkansas 
50

Midwest: North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, 

Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio 

West: Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, 

Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, Alaska, Hawaii 

Urbanicity 

This variable categorizes the household ZIP Code as urban or rural. The definitions for these 

categories are taken directly from the 2000 Census of Population. Urban is a recoded variable that 

includes both urban, inside of urbanized areas (i.e., place and the adjacent densely settled surrounding 

territory that have a minimum population of 50,000) and urban, outside of urbanized area (i.e., an 

incorporated or unincorporated place outside of urbanized areas with a minimum population of 2,500, 

with the exception of rural portions of extended cities). Rural is an area that is not classified as urban, 

either inside or outside of urbanized areas. 

Disability status 

Data on disability status are based on parent reports. Parents were asked whether or not a doctor 

ever told the parent that the sampled child had several types of disabilities. Each disability was asked 

about in a yes/no format. If the parent reported that the child had one or more of the disabilities asked 

about, the child was coded as having a disability. 

Number of parents living in the household 

Parents include birth, adoptive, step, or foster parents in the household. If two such parents were 

in the household, the number of parents living in the household was two. If one such parent was in the 

household, the number of parents living in the household was one. If there were no such parents in the 

household, then the number of parents was none and was referred to as nonparental guardians. 

Parent satisfaction with various aspects of the school 

The NHES measures parent satisfaction by asking parents how satisfied they are with four aspects 

of the students’ school: the school; the teachers; the academic standards; and order and discipline. 

Parents are asked to rate their satisfaction as very satisfied, somewhat satisfied, somewhat dissatisfied or 

very dissatisfied. The cross tabular analysis of parent satisfaction in this report looks at parents in each 

school type who were very satisfied with the students’ school. 
51

Parent involvement at the school 

Parent involvement is measured by a series of questions about parents’ attendance at different 

parent/school activities since the beginning of the school year: A general meeting, such as a PTA 

meeting; a parent-teacher conference; a school event, such as a sports game; and a parent volunteer event, 

such as chaperoning a school dance. The analysis considers each activity individually and measures 

attendance as a binary variable, “yes, attended” or “no, did not attend.” 

 Statistical tests 

The tests of significance used in this analysis are based on Student’s t statistics. For comparisons of 

proportions, as the number of comparisons at the same significance level increases, it becomes more likely 

that at least one of the estimated differences will be significant merely by chance, that is, will be erroneously 

identified as different from zero. Even when there is no true difference between the means or percentages 

being compared, there is a 5 percent chance of getting a significant t value of at least 1.96 from sampling 

error alone. 

53

Appendix B: Supplemental Tables 

Table 9 

Table B-1.

Student and household

characteristics % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e.

 Total 100 † 31 0.9 86 0.6 22 0.9

School type

 Public, assigned 100 † 23 0.9 87 0.8 27 1.1

 Public, chosen 100 † 46 1.8 82 1.3 16 1.4

 Private, church-related 100 † 45 3.3 92 1.6 10 2.3

 Private, not church-related 100 † 52 5.4 78 6.3 14 4.8

Grade level 

 Grades 1–5 100 † 31 1.5 87 0.9 22 1.2

 Grades 6–8 100 † 33 1.5 85 1.3 24 1.4

 Grades 9–12 100 † 30 1.1 84 1.1 22 1.2

Race/ethnicity2

 White, non-Hispanic 100 † 29 1.2 89 0.8 23 1.1

 Black, non-Hispanic 100 † 40 2.1 76 2.0 18 1.8

 Hispanic 100 † 28 1.6 84 1.4 27 1.9

 Other, non-Hispanic 100 † 29 2.9 85 2.3 20 3.0

Sex

 Male 100 † 31 1.1 86 0.8 22 1.1

 Female 100 † 31 1.3 86 0.8 23 1.2

Disability status

 Has a disability 100 † 35 1.5 82 1.1 23 1.5

 Does not have a disability 100 † 30 0.9 87 0.7 22 0.9

Poverty status

 Below poverty 100 † 27 1.9 82 1.9 20 2.1

 Between poverty and 

 200% of poverty 100 † 31 1.7 85 1.3 20 1.7

 At or above 200% of poverty 100 † 32 1.2 87 0.7 24 0.9

See notes at end of table

Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public school choice who 

considered other schools, reported that the current school was their first choice, or moved to

their current neighborhood for the school, by student and household characteristics: 2003

Public choice available1

Considered other 

schools

School was parent's 

first choice

Moved to 

neighborhood for 

school
54

Table B-1.

Student and household

characteristics % s.e. % s.e. % s.e. % s.e.

 Total 100 † 31 0.9 86 0.6 22 0.9

Parent's highest level of education

 Less than high school diploma 100 † 21 3.0 82 2.6 22 3.1

 High school diploma or GED 100 † 27 1.5 84 1.4 23 2.1

 Some college/vocational/technical 100 † 30 1.3 85 1.0 21 1.4

 Bachelor's degree 100 † 33 1.9 86 1.4 24 1.7

 Graduate/professional school 100 † 41 1.8 90 1.0 24 1.9

Family structure

 Two parents 100 † 31 1.1 88 0.7 23 1.0

 One parent 100 † 32 1.6 80 1.5 22 1.5

 Non-parent guardians 100 † 27 3.9 81 3.3 16 2.8

Region

 Northeast 100 † 34 2.1 85 1.6 22 2.4

 South 100 † 32 1.5 86 1.1 23 1.3

 Midwest 100 † 28 1.5 87 1.3 25 1.7

 West 100 † 32 1.6 85 1.1 20 1.5

Urbanicity

 Urban 100 † 34 0.9 84 0.7 23 0.9

 Rural 100 † 22 1.8 90 1.4 19 1.6

† Not applicable.

2

 The "other" race category includes individuals of more than one race.

Percentage of students in grades 1–12 whose parents reported having public school choice who 

considered other schools, reported that the current school was their first choice, or moved to

their current neighborhood for the school, by student and household characteristics: 

2003—Continued

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent & Family Involvement in Education Survey of the National 

Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2003.

Public choice available1

Considered other 

schools

School was parent's 

first choice

Moved to 

neighborhood for 

school

1 There were 188 cases (where parents reported that their child's assigned school was their chosen school) that were missing and thus excluded from 

the analysis.

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Includes homeschooled students enrolled in public or private schools 

for 9 or more hours per week. 

U.S. Department of Education

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