A111D2

j iiiii li II I III NBSIR 84-2908 A111D7 3TDfllE

Interim Design Guidelines for

Automated Offices

August 1984

100

.056

84-2908

1934

Center for Building Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

4ational Bureau of Standards

Baithersburg, Maryland 20899

Public Buildings Service

General Services Administration

Washington, DC 20405

N3SIR 84-2908

INTERIM DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR

AUTOMATED OFFICES

Arthur Rubin

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Engineering Laboratory

Center for Building Technology

Building Physics Division

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

August 1984

Prepared for: Public Building Service

General Services Administration

Washington, DC 20405

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express thanks to Erma Striner of the Public Building Service

of the General Services Administration for her support and advice during the course of the project. John Murray of the General Office of Information Resource

Management, General Services Administration provided valuable technical assistance during all phases of this research effort. I am also grateful to the

following people who participated in an Office Automation Roundtable conducted

in March 1983 which produced information incorporated into the present report:

Michael Hooker, Saul Goldin, George Winzer, Herbert Rosenheck, Maresh Khosla,

John Holton and Paul Ritch. I am also indebted to the following people who

reviewed and critiqued the present document in draft form; Belinda Collins,

Steve Treado, Roger Rensberger and Tom Kusuda from the National Bureau of

Standards; Robertson Ward and Herbert Rosenheck. Finally, I want to express my

appreciation for the typing support provided by CBT’s Word Processing Center.

iii
ABSTRACT

This report presents Interim guidelines for design of offices using automated

technologies* It Is based upon findings obtained by an extensive literature

search, a questionnaire survey of design firms, an office automation roundtable,

and Interviews with design and other office automation professionals. The

guidelines should be considered tentative, since the information is based

primarily on judgment, rather than on formal investigations or on broad consensus from the design community. Furthermore, many important design issues have not

been dealt with, because they have not yet been appropriately considered,

and/or it is unclear what the design implications of automation are - e.g. will

overall space needs be greater or less? The introduction of automated systems

into offices has changed the office setting as a place to work. Architects and

other design professionals have responded to this technology by formulating a variety of design strategies. This report identifies design issues which merit

consideration in automated offices, tentative criteria for environments and

systems based on an overview of all resources used to develop this document,

and typical approaches used accomplish design goals. Technological, ergonomic

and organizational factors are considered from the standpoint of design

implications.

Key words; acoustics; design criteria; electrical systems; ergonomics; lighting;

noise; office automation; office design criteria; office furnishings;

safety systems; workstation.

iv
PREFACE

This report is the third of a series of documents prepared by NBS as part of

a Memorandum of Understanding and Agreement between the National Bureau of

Standards and the General Services Administration, Public Building Service,

No. PBS-80-1, dated January 16, 1981, It was developed for a research project

to determine the impact of office automation technologies on interior environments. The earlier reports are as follows:

1. The Automated Office - An Environment for Productive Work, or an Information Factor?: A Report on the State-of-the-Art , NBSIR 83-2784-1,

November 1983.

2. The Automated Office - An Environment for Productive Work, or an Information Factor?: Executive Summary, NBSIR 83-2784-2, December 1983.

This interim guideline is intended to assist in developing functional, aesthetically pleasing, economical and humane environments for federal office buildings

which house automated information technologies. It is meant to serve as an informational resource for personnel charged with the control, administration

and maintenance of office environments with varying degrees of automation.

The document is a compilation and evaluation of design practices, approaches,

tentative criteria, and factors to be considered in the development of designs

that are intended to serve individual and organizational needs. The information available on this topic is quite limited and should not be considered

definitive since few formal studies have dealt with this subject area, and

limited consensus exists among architects regarding appropriate practices.

The report is intended to be updated as better information is obtained.

In developing the present publication, a number of basic assumptions were made.

They provide the overall context for the following:

• Office automation is a continuing process, not a discrete event,

• The office environment will consist of electronic and paper-based tasks

for the indefinitive future.

• Office work will continue to be performed in spaces and buildings designed

for this purpose.

• The "typical office" is as meaningless a concept as the "average"

worker, and the "prototype" organization,

• Energy conservation will be of continuing importance.

• Consideration of long-term costs are more important than first costs.

• Office design influences worker productivity; high quality environments

are essential for automated offices.

• Better information is needed to formulate performance criteria for

automated offices.

V
This report contains a variety of checklists and other Information In summarized

form for ready references Following Is a listing of this material and their

location In this reports

PARAGRAPH PAGE

Islsl DESIGN ISSUES for office workers 4

Is Is 2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 3

lsls3 "HIGH QUALITY" design features 6

2,2 PLANNING criteria 8

2o3 OFFICE AUTOMATION DESIGN checklist 10

2.4 FACILITY EVALUATION checklist 15

3s 2 WORKSTATION criteria 16

3.3.1 WORKSTATION flexibility checklist 20

3.4.1 WORKSTATION design components 20

3.4.2 WORKSTATION environmental considerations 21

3. 4. 3. 2 WORKSTATION panel criteria 22

3. 4. 3. 3 WORKSTATION panel component checklist 22

3.5 WORKSTATION VDT/Keyboard checklist 26

4.3 ACOUSTICS criteria 27

4.7 ACOUSTICS design checklist 34

5.3 LIGHTING criteria 38

5.6. 1.4.1 LIGHTING - task/amblent design checklist 45

5.7.1 LIGHTING - glare control checklist 47

6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONING criteria 48

6.4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONING checklist/new buildings 51

6.5.3 AIR QUALITY control measures 52

7.2 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS criteria 56

7.5 MINIMIZING ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCE checklist 59

8.3 WIRING SYSTEMS criteria 60

8.4.6. 1 FLAT CONDUCTOR CABLE checklist 65

8.8 WIRING SYSTEMS DESIGN checklist 67

9.3 COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS criteria 68

9.4.1 NETWORK FEATURES checklist 69

9.4.1 NETWORK PROTOCOLS (ISO) 70

9.4.2 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS DESIGN checklist 71

9.5.2 COMMUNICATIONS ACCESSORIES criteria 72

9.5.2 COMMUNICATIONS ACCESSORIES checklist 72

10.2 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS criteria 73

10.3.1.4 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS CONFIGURATIONS ~ tradeoffs 77

10.4.5 LINKAGES FOR LOCAL AREA NETWORKS - tradeoffs 79

10.5.1 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS ~ design considerations 80

11.2 LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS criteria 82

11.4 LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS checklist 84

11.5 LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS central control checklist 85

12. SYSTEIiS INTEGRATION considerations 87

12.1 SYSTEMS INTEGRATION checklist 88

13.1.2 FABRICS criteria 90

13.2 CARPET TILE criteria 92

Vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1. Introduction 1

1 . 1 Background 2

1.1.1 General 2

1.1.2 Technology and Design 5

1.1.3 Organizations and Design 6

1.1.4 Ergonomics and Design 7

1.1.5 Planning 7

2. Planning and Programming the Automated Office 8

2.1 Function 8

2.2 Criteria 8

2.3 Information Development 8

2.4 Planning Approaches ^ Programming 11

3. Workstation Systems 16

3 . 1 Function 16

3.2 Criteria 16

3.3 Furnishings - Flexibility Requirements 20

3.3.1 Checklist - Workstation Flexibility 20

3.4 Environmental Context 20

3.4.1 Checklist - Workstation Design Components 20

3.4.2 Checklist - Workstation Environment/Design 21

3.4.3 System Panels 21

3.4.3. 1 Function 21

3. 4. 3. 2 Criteria 22

3. 4. 3. 3 Checklist - Panel Components 22

3. 4. 3.4 Interactions with Other Systems 23

3. 4. 3. 4.1 Wiring 25

3. 4. 3. 4. 2 Simple Raceway 25

3. 4. 3. 4. 3 Power Pack 25

3.5 VDT/Keyboard Systems 26

3.5.1 Checklist - VDT/Keyboard 26

3.6 Possible Problem Area - VDT Screen Glare 26

3.6.1 Potential Solution - Filters 26

4. Acoustics Environment Systems 27

4.1 Function 27

4.2 Background 27

4.3 Criteria 27

4.4 Overview of Basic Issues 29

4.4.1 Privacy 30

4.4.2 Sound 31

4.4.3 Sound Transmission 31

4.4.4 Noise Criteria Curves 32

4.5 Possible Problem Areas 33

vii
Page

4.6 Typical Approaches 33

4.6.1 Barriers 33

4.6.2 Isolation of Surfaces 33

4.6.3 Sound Absorption 34

4.6.4 Vibration Damping 34

4.6.5 Isolation of Noise Source 34

4.6.6 Masking Sound 34

4.7 Checklist -* Acoustical Design 34

4.8 Acoustical Design Process 35

5. Lighting Systems 37

5.1 Function 37

5.2 Background 37

5.3 Criteria 38

5.4 Overview of Basic Issues 40

5.4.1 Artificial Light Sources 40

5.4. lol Incandescent Lamps 40

5.4. 1.2 Fluorescent Lamps 41

5.4. 1.3 High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps 41

5.4.2 Ballasts 41

5.4.3 Fixtures 41

5.4.4 Lighting Fixture Rating Schemes 43

5.4.4. 1 Visual Comfort Probability (VCP) 43

5. 4. 4. 2 Coefficient of Utilization (CU) 43

5.5 Possible Problem Areas 43

5.6 Typical Approaches 44

5.6.1 Types of Illumination 44

5. 6. 1.1 Ambient (General) Lighting 44

5.6. 1.2 Task Lighting 45

5.6. 1.3 Task/Ambient Lighting 45

5.6. 1.3.1 Checklist for Evaluating Task/Ambient Systems 45

5.6. 1.4 Indirect Lighting 45

5.6. 1.4.1 Checklist for Evaluating Task/Ambient Systems (29) 45

5.6.2 Controls 46

5.6.3 Maintenance 46

5.7 Environmental Context 47

5.7.1 Checklist for Glare Control 47

6. Environmental Conditioning (HVAC) 48

6.1 Function 48

6.2 Criteria 48

6.3 Office Automation Design Implications 48

6.4 Typical Approaches 50

6.4.1 Existing Buildings 50

6.4.2 New Construction 50

6.5 Interaction with Other Systems 51

6.5.1 Lighting 31

6.5.2 Acoustics 51

6.5.3 Air Quality 51

vili
Page

6 . 6 Environmental Context 53

6.6.1 Interior Design 53

6.6.2 Design Process Issues 53

6.6.3 Potential Problem Area - Static Electricity (45) 53

6.6.3. 1 Common Sources of Static Electricity 54

6. 6. 3. 2 Possible Approaches to Overcome Problem 55

7. Electrical Power 56

7 . 1 Function 56

7.2 Criteria 56

7.3 Possible Problem Areas 57

7.4 Typical Approaches 57

7.4.1 Emergency Standby Power * 57

7.4.2 Unlnterruptable Power Systems 58

7.5 Checklist for Minimizing Electrical Disturbances 59

7.6 Environmental Context 59

7.6.1 Specialized Space Needs 59

8. Power and Communications Wiring Systems 60

8.1 Function 60

8.2 Background 60

8.3 Criteria 60

8.4 Typical Approaches 61

8.4.1 Poke-through System 62

8.4.2 Electrical Cellular Deck 62

8.4.3 Underfloor Duct System 63

8.4.4 Raised Access Flooring 63

8.4.5 Ceiling Based Systems/Power Poles 64

8.4.6 Flat Conductor Cable 64

8. 4. 6.1 Checklist - Flat Conductor Cable 65

8.4.7 Workstation Distribution 65

8.5 Tradeoffs Among Alternative Systems 66

8.6 Additional Design Considerations 66

8.6.1 Retrofits 66

8.6.2 Upgrading of Cabling Systems 66

8.7 Environmental Context 67

8.8 Checklist - Wiring System Design 67

9. Communications Systems 68

9.1 Function 68

9.2 Background 68

9.3 Criteria 68

9.4 Typical Approaches 69

9.4.1 Checklist of Network Features 69

9.4.2 Checklist - Design for Communications Systems 71

9.5 Telecommunications Accessories 71

9.5.1 Functions 71

9.5.2 Criteria 72

9.5.3 Checklist of System Requirements 72

ix
10. Local Area Networks 73

10.1 Function 73

10.2 Criteria 73

10.2.1 System Performance 73

10.2.2 Design Issues 74

10.3 Typical Approaches 74

10.3.1 Network Configurations 74

10.3.1.1 The Star 75

10.3.1.2 The Ring 75

10.3.1.3 A Bus Network 76

10.3.1.4 Tradeoffs Among Network Configurations 77

10.4 Electrlcal/Communlcatlons Linkages 78

10.4.1 Twisted Fair 78

10.4.2 Baseband 78

10.4.3 Broadband 78

10.4.4 Fiber Optics 78

10.4.5 Tradeoffs Among Alternative Linkages of LAN's 79

10. 5 Environmental Context 80

10.5.1 Space Considerations 80

11. Life Safety Systems 81

11.1 Function 81

11.2 Criteria 82

11.3 Typical Approaches 82

11.4 Checklist of Life Safety Systems 84

11.5 Checklist - Central Control of Life Safety Systems 85

11.6 Environmental Context 85

12. Integration of Communications and Automation Systems 87

12.1 Checklist for Systems Integration ^88

13. Office Materials 90

13.1 Natural and Synthetic Fabrics 90

13.1.1 Function 90

13.1.2 Criteria - Checklist (Fabrics) 90

13.1.3 Selected Carpet Characteristics 91

13.2 Carpet Tile 92

13.2.1 Criteria 92

14. Overview - Specialized Spaces 93

14.1 Teleconference Facilities 94

14.1.1 Function 94

14.1.2 Criteria 94

14.1.3 Environmental Context 95

14.1.4 Support System Considerations 95

14.1.4.1 Acoustics 95

14.1.4.2 HVAC Equipment 95

14.1.4.3 Lighting and Color 95

X
Page

13. Summary and Recommendations 96

Bibliography 98

Glossary 101

xi
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1. INTRODUCTION

Office design has a major role to play in the work performance of the individual,

and thereby in the functioning of an organization as a whole. While the physical

setting of an office provides the direct support for conducting activities in a space, the environment also serves a catalytic function in that it can promote

or inhibit discussions, meetings, and formal or informal interactions among

people. Space characteristics, lighting, temperature levels, indoor air quality

and other design features can have positive or negative influences on task

performance and/or satisfaction of the worker (1).

Questionnaire surveys consistently have shown the work environment to be an important contributor to the satisfaction and morale of the office worker,

thereby influencing productivity. The automation of office functions has

further increased its significance for several reasons. The characteristics of

the office workforce are rapidly changing, as is the nature of the jobs being

performed. Technology has influenced the way that organizations are structured,

and how decisions are made.

The fastest growing segment of the office population, and the key to increased

productivity are knowledge workers- (prof esionals and managers) who differ in

many respects from their clerical counterparts. Knowledge workers are highly

educated, have experienced high quality work environments and expect such

settings. They also do not hesitate to express dissatisfaction with environmental distractions and intrusions on their privacy. Since their skills are readily tranferable from one organization to another, they are a highly mobile

group. Under these circumstances, the work setting is important in recmiiting

and retaining qualified people, because other aspects of their jobs are often

comparable in terms of salary and other features (2).

Figure 1. Environment as support and catalyst

1
The work performed by knowledge workers using automated equipment Is mentally

demanding and requires freedom from distractions such as glare, noise, and the

activities of their colleagues. The tasks are often Intrinsically difficult,

as In the case of planning and problem solving. Personal Interactions, which

characterize many management functions, require auditory and visual privacy.

The process required to perform VDT**based activities Imposes a further burden

on employees with limited training and/or skills In using keyboard devices or

the specialized programming languages required to communicate with office

automation devices such as microprocessors. Employees, often working at VDT

terminals for eight hours a day, are quite sensitized to their surrounds, and

require a respite from high technology, and an opportunity for social contact

In pleasant settings.

Management style Is an important determinant of the overall appearance and

layout of the traditional office and particularly the automated one. Decisions

concerning the balance between design uniformity and diversity, within an organization as a whole, among working groups, for the management hierarchy,

and for individuals, all reflect the organizational culture. A centralized

management approach is characterized by considerable uniformity and little room for personal expression by the individual. Decentralization provides the

opportunities for working units and individuals to participate in the design

of their environments, and encourage differentiation among groups and individuals. In this way, a sense of group cohesiveness can be expressed, as well

as a means of countering the institutionalization of the office. In many

Instances, tradeoffs must be made between uniformity and the possibility of

expressing diversity.

1 . 1 BACKGROUND

1.1.1 General

Productivity in the office has been virtually stagnant for almost a decade, at

a time when white collar work has begun to dominate our economy. For example,

by 1983, 53 percent of the workforce was engaged in information development

and processing activities. The trend toward more office-based activities,

the productivity figures, the information explosion, technological advances

accompanied by decreased costs, have all combined to create an intense demand

to automate office functions. As a result, millions of new devices and systems

are now in offices, and countless others are being introduced daily at an ever increasing rate. Yet the experience with office automation has been mixed.

While technology is seen by some observers as the answer to office productivity

problems, considerable evidence exists that many office workers are less than

satisfied with the quality of the environment in the automated office (3).

All too often, office automation has resulted from the piecemeal acquisition of new devices and systems which have been placed on available desks and other

work surfaces in an environment designed to accommodate the processing of

information in paper form. Systematic design planning has been a rarity. This

process has resulted in a considerable number of complaints by workers about the

unsuitability of their offices for performing VDT-based work. Noise and glare

produced by inappropriate lighting systems, lead the list of expressed concerns.

2
with the design of workstations and furnishings also receiving considerable

attention. (Table 1 indicates major concerns expressed in a questionnaire

survey (4)).

The increased popularity of open-office designs has contributed to the problems

of office automation because many devices such as printers, produce considerable

noise, thereby disturbing many people in the vicinity of the noise source. The

fact that automation typically occurs incrementally in small steps, contributes

to the design challenge. Changes are so gradual that there is little anticipation of the final result, and its environmental consequences. For example, the

addition of a limited number of electronic devices add to the heat load of the

building, but existing HVAC systems can usually cope with only minor increases

in heat. However, at some point the presence of a large number of such systems

seriously degrades the quality of the thermal environment, and may require a major HVAC retrofit for the work setting to be acceptable by users.

The first automated systems introduced into offices were word processors,

designed to increase the efficiency of typing by converting information into

an electronically accessible form; this forms the basis for all of the other

systems. The results from the word processing experience pointed out both

advantages and disadvantages of this approach. While there was some evidence

of increased typing productivity, this was accompanied by a variety of complaints, which portended many of those later expressed about the automated

office. Word processing activities were organized into a "pool" of workers

performing a centralized function. A given typist had little or no contact

with the author of the copy being worked on, and limited opportunity to carry

through many jobs from beginning to end. This process, derived from the factory

assembly-line system where work was analyzed, standardized, and simplified as a means of reducing the unit cost of products, resulted in complaints which echoed

those of the production-line worker. Workers felt that they were being subordinated to machines and had little control over their jobs and little opportunity

to interact cooperatively with colleagues. Finally, working eight hours a day

at a VDT has been a source of concern because of the attention demands of such

activities on workers (6).

If the assembly-line system for information processing is inappropriate for

performing clerical functions such as word processing, it is even less applicable for automating the activities of knowledge workers. Their tasks are not

readily amenable to analytic and standardized treatment, but instead are characterized by dealing with problems of ever-increasing complexity and a proliferation of information which must be assimilated and acted upon. Their

work depends on using highly individualized knowledge and experience, limited

and uncertain data in a rather unstructured informational environment. A

manager, for example, is given a set of broad responsibilities and considerable

freedom to formulate the means of carrying them out. The degree of autonomy

associated with this work is one of its principal attractions, and plays a major role in the satisfaction derived in pursuing these careers. To the

extent that they are required to adapt to work methods , technologies and

environmental conditions selected by others, they are likely to be less productive, and less satisfied with the quality of their working life (7).

3
fable 1» Summafy o£ Findings of Questionnaire Survey (5)

Issue Bottom-Line Measures

Environment

Satisfaction

Job

Satisfaction

Job

Performance

(Self)

Job

Performance

(Supervisor)

FURNITURE

Layout X

Comfort X X

Furniture Quality X X

AMBIENT CONDITIONS

Temperature/Air Quality

Lighting X

Noise X

PRIVACY

Control Over Access X X

Intrusions /Distractions X

Speech Privacy X

Visual Access X

COMMUNICATIONS

Ease of Communication X X

Support for Communication X

FLEXIBILITY X X

4
1.1.2 Technology and Design

Developments in telecommunications, computers, and office automation systems

are changing the face of the office, and the manner in which office functions

are performed. Information, which traditionally was developed, processed and

stored in paper form, now is being processed electronically, while microfiche,

magnetic and paper-based systems are all being employed as storage media. New

systems are available to conduct activities in ways that were not possible

before. For example, the advent of teleconferencing has provided an alternative

to face-to-face meetings among geographically dispersed people in the same organization, or among different ones.

The informational resources available to the individual at a workstation are equivalent to those possessed only by large organizations not many years ago.

This has made the workstation the focal point of the office, and the modular

design unit, requiring considerable attention by designers. The linking of

these workstations into networks is receiving considerable attention today.

This approach enables individuals to share information and major hardware

systems, such as high quality printers.

Since office and communications technologies are changing at such a rapid rate,

it is virtually impossible to predict how they will evolve in the future. As a result, a major design challenge is to provide sufficient flexibility for

changes to be made, at a minimum cost and limited disruption or ongoing activities. Among the systems meriting attention are:

• Network connections to all required systems and services.

• "Clean" vs. utility power.

• Power and localized cooling to accommodate heat loads from electrical

equipment.

• Mechanical, electrical distribution, lighting, and communications systems.

• Workstation design - to accommodate a range of tasks, and individuals.

• Standardization of components for workstations - work surfaces, task

lighting, panels, furniture.

• Changes in space use.

• Air supply and return.

• Floor plenum system for air and electrical distribution

• Storage of informational media - paper, disks.

At the macro level of design, available systems can be automated and pre-wired

into new buildings to accommodate operational, service, energy conservation,

fire safety, communication, and other systems. However, just because the

technology exists to automate functions doesn't mean that this is the most

effective approach, from the standpoints of the organization or the individual.

Automation is typically based upon uniform requirements, while individuals and

activities often differ from one another in important ways, and thereby have

distinctive needs.

5
The design approach to the automated office today Is directed toward meeting

the needs of the average office worker performing typical tasks In a characteristic organization. This depiction of the automated office Is both widespread

and meaningless. There Is no such thing as a typical:

• Person

• Organization

• Task

• Office

• Office Automation System

• Workstation

• Office Procedure(s)

Organizations and individuals have unique characteristics which merit attention

in design, and it is the function of the design process to develop the information required to respond to the particular of requirements of both of them.

1.1.3 Organizations and Design

Architects have an important contribution to make in furthering organizational

and group cohesiveness. Microcomputer-based workstations have enabled many jobs

to be performed autonomously, thereby isolating the individual from a working

group and from the organization as a whole. Design elements such as furnishings

and panels can serve to distinguish one group from another one, and the layout

of workstation groupings can be integrated to further organizational functions.

Common spaces can provide the opportunity for members of diverse groups to

exchange ideas, thereby furthering the sense of organizational Identity. Above

all, there is a need to provide a high quality environment for the staff.

Table 2 suggests several features which might contribute to "high quality"

design.

• Humane and pleasant setting to offset technological emphasis.

• Places for visual relief, inside and outside.

• Spaces arranged to make locations and circulation patterns comprehensible.

• Places for casual interchange of ideas and unplanned social contact.

• Centers of interest to serve as guideposts and informal meeting places,

e.g. works of art, planters.

• Quiet, restful areas, with expanded recreational and physical exercise

spaces.

• Workstations grouped in functional clusters.

• Personalization and individual control of workspace furnishings and

environmental systems.

• Attractively designed public areas.

• Privacy - visual and auditory.

Table 2. Checklist - Design Considerations for ’High Quality' Offices (Criteria)

6
Organizational issues are closely linked to technological, ergonomic, and design

factors. Technological changes in office systems have been too rapid for them

to be properly assimilated into most organizations. This has resulted in a gap

between what is technically feasible, and what is needed to further organizational

objectives

.

1.1.4 Ergonomics and Design

Automated technology is neutral with respect to its influences on the quality

of the workplace. It can be used as a means of standardizing and controlling

job characteristics and environmental features, thereby minimizing the autonomy

of the individual worker and the freedom to make on-the-job decisions. Many of

the problems with the early automation word processing have been attributed to

this approach. On the other hand, automation offers the potential for the individual worker to exercise considerable control over job functions and environmental systems, thereby enhancing the quality and quantity of work performed.

Individual control can take many forms:

• Environment - lighting, heating

• Information

• Work Procedures

• Task Decisions

• Workspace

• Social Settings

• Furniture - selection, modification

• Personalization of Space

• Planning of Individual Work

1.1.5 Planning

Productivity in offices results from the appropriate integration of people,

tools, and places. This integration should be accomplished by proper planning,

including organizational representatives from human resources, technology,

information processing, and design - who often find themselves in competition

with one another in productivity improvement programs. The planning should be

under the direction of top management and include extensive involvement by

end-users at all stages of the process (8). The automation of office functions

is a continuous process, not a discrete event, and must be directed to organizational effectiveness and not the introduction of new technologies because of

their advertised effectiveness. An essential element in such planning is the

preparation and training of the staff to ensure that automation is viewed as a tool to assist work activities, not a threat to jobs, or a means to subjugate

people to technology. It is self-evident that the greatest single determinant

of office productivity is the performance of the workforce, and technology as well as design should contribute positively to the office work setting (9).

7
2.1 2. PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING THE AUTOMATED OFFICE

FUNCTION

To promote the orderly transition of office work from primarily paper-based

activities to electronic systems while maintaining (or improving) the overall

quality of the workplace. This goal can be accomplished by acquiring detailed

information concerning organizational, individual and technological requirements

and then devising appropriate design solutions. The planning should be

accomplished by the close cooperation of a multi-desciplinary design team with

the client (10).

Designers and office automation experts are in general agreement that detailed

planning is an essential prerequisite for the automation of office activities.

The piecemeal acquisition equipment has resulted in many complaints by office

workers in the past, because of such factors as the inappropriateness of

furniture and environmental systems (e.g. lighting) for performing VDT-based

activities (11).

2.2 CRITERIA

• Planning should be under the auspices and commitment of top management.

• End-users should be an Important source of information.

• Flexibility should be a major consideration.

• The integration of information and communication systems is important.

• The analysis of present and proposed office activities as they meet

organizational objectives should precede any decision about automated

equipment and systems.

• Long-term costs should be considered - especially those associated with

the salaries of workers.

2.3 INFORMATION DEVELOPMENT

Following (tables 3 and 4) are two methods which can be used to develop planning

information;

8
Analytic Approach for Relating Technology Issues to Design (Rubin and Murray (12))

Table 3.

PRESENT OFFICE AUTOMATED OFFICE POSSIBLE DESIGN IMPACT

INFORMATION/MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS

Record Storage & Management

Paper files Limited paper. Electronic files

- Less space for file cabinets,

changed layout

- Added electronics, added

cooling load

Internal mall generation

& Distribution

Paper Electronic - Smaller mall room, more electronics

Document distribution Typed copy Optical Character

Recognition devices

(Hard copy readied for electronic distribution)

- Need for physical separation of system (Noisy), special

acoustic design

Document preparation Separated functions;

Manual typing, artwork,

graphics

Centralized and electronic - Large work station for preparing

documents, less space needs for visual arts

Organization of activities Specialized and decentralized

Work stations - clerical,

managerial, professional

- Change In adjacency locations - e.g., management-secretarial

- More electronics and capability

to access Information from various sources (wiring, cooling)

Expansion of capabilities Space set aside More power, wiring to accomodate future needs

- Added capacity for electronics

power; plan for "local" cooling

Planning activities for organizational needs Minimal necessary Detailed planning of systems essential,

building, mgmt,

communication. Info.

- Much greater need for detailed

architectural programming

activity

POWER SYSTEMS

Emergency Power None Batteries, Generator -

Support for electrical

equipment during outage

- Additional space, special

venting systems, fuel storage,

special flooring for acid, fuel runoff; fire protection, security

Wire Distribution

Techniques

Conduits

Under floor systems

In-wall outlets

Flat wire cables under

carpet

Raised floors

- New floor systems - carpets

- Increased size of floor/celling

systems

- Changed power loading factorsless load per local circuit, mors

runs

- Changed needs for wire closet space

- Special protection for cables

OFFICE TECHNOLOGY

BASED ACTIVITIES

Typing Electronic typewriter WP system Glare free lighting, additional

workspace

CommunicationIndividual

Telephone, mall, memos Electronic mall CRT terminal, wiring

Filing Paper files. Individual Centralized data base Specialized computer facility - raised floor, clean, emergency

power, less paper storage space

Facsimile

production

Hands-on duplicating Duplication at a distance - FAX machine

Specialized facility to accomodate a variety of devices

acoustic treatment, cooling

Reading Paper copy CRT's, microfiche Special lighting, addlt!- il desktop area for more equipment
Table 4 Checklist for Office Autoaetlon Design (13)

Not Not

Yes sppll cable Aware No

1. Are private offices available for personnel who conduct

professional or supervisory councellng or confidential

discussions on a regular basis?

2. Have conference spaces been provided for those times

when employees need to work together?

3. In circumstances where several employees share equipment, are those employees co-located?

4. Are the employees separated from noisy equipment such

as CPUs, copiers, etc?

3. Have office locations been chosen with regard to expected

Interactions?

6. Are partitions used to screen traffic?

7. Are all commonly used facilities centrally located?

8. Are frequently Interacting functions located on the same

floor?

9. Are the pathways to and from offices straight? (That is, are confusing spirals, curves, or dead-ends avoided)?

10. Where an open office concept has been used. Is some amount

of pathway continuity present?

11. Are the dimensions of all private offices at least 7.5 x

7.5 ft (2.3 m X 2.3 m)?

12. Are the private offices designated so no one faces a window

while working?

13. Does each private office have a good source of illumination?

14. Does each office have Independent control of its ventilating

system?

15. Is there adequate space at the workstation for the equipment

and data (printouts, microfiche, manuals, etc.) that the user needs?

16. Is the work area adjustable so that It can accommodate

comfortably the 5th to the 95th percentile of the adult

population?

17. If the CRTs, the microfiche readers, etc., are not at the

Immediate workstation, are they as close as possible to that station?

18. Is the workstation adjustable so that the home typing keys

are 2 Inches (55 mm) below the elbow height?

19. Are all employees trained to adjust their furniture, or Is adjustment provided as requested?

20. Are office noise levels below 45 dB(A), 37 dB PSIL-4, or

38 dB PSIL?

10
2.4 PLANNING APPROACHES - PROGRAMMING

The information developed during the planning phase will serve as the basis of

the architectural program. Following (table 5 and figures 2, 3 and 4) are approaches that have been used to develop and organize programming activities,

including post occupancy evaluation (POE).

Essential Programming Information (14)

® Objectives and Philosophy . A clear statement of goals is the first step.

These are based on the history and background of the organization and its

attitudes and expectations towards its client and staff.

® Functional Relationships . An analysis of the interactions and transactions of individuals and organizational units is needed to understand

traffic flow, communication, information flow and access. It is also

necessary to determine the appropriate placement of support services such

as word processing, mail reproduction, data storage and communication,

etc., with relation to the location of administrative and organizational

units. The proper location of conference and meeting rooms, libraries,

internal waiting areas, lunchrooms, lounges, all merit particular attention.

° Facility Spatial Requirements . Spatial needs for individual and organizational units are based upon a complex of interfacing factors such as ergonomics, communication requirements, status, and needs for privacy.

® Development of the Program and Program Criteria . The program should be

written in performance language, describing the functional requirements

of a system for example, not the hardware specifications.

® Post Occupancy Evaluation . To prepare for future evaluations, a log of

projects should be kept and preserved, including all plans, the program,

decisions and changes made. Evaluation should be made on the basis of

general staff satisfaction, staff use of space and facilities, environmental and communications systems, task performance, and the value and use of staff amenities.

11
Table 5. Introduction of automation into offices - critical factors:

1. Collect your facts, so that your method of Installing equipment can

be supported^ with numbers.

2. Start early to announce and explain the new systems, answer questions,

share your plans, and generate enthusiasm.

3. Share information with both the management staff and the support

staff-preferably , the same information.

4. Take it slowly. Allow time to pilot-test a few systems. Allow time

for people to get used to the new idea. Again, communicate test

results as they come in. The slow, careful approach always works

best.

5. Notice whether, and what "grapevine" information is leaking out, and

try to make the informal network positive and working for you.

6. Collect Information as systems are installed, to assess effectiveness

and pinpoint problem areas. Share the results with all involved.

7 . Admit and face up to problems ; find solutions to them immediately

(call in experts if needed) so that the spirit and support are maintained

.

8. Think of ways to generate enthusiasm and motivate the user groups,

from the inception of the plan through to the refresher training and

the documentation of the system procedures. Involve managers and

support staff together.

9. Know when to turn each operation over to its manager (with documented

procedures and with available assistance when needed)

.

12
PROGRAMMING - PHASE t PLANNING • PHASE 2

• TATEMKMT OF OROAMIZATIONAL BFACf

FLANNIHO AMD DCtlON GOAL! AND OMJECTIVIt,

IM TIRHS OF FUNCTIONAL, ORaAMIZATIOHAL, AND AISTMITIC IlFBCTATIOMt.

IDENTIFICATION OF RILATIONENIFS AMD

TRANEACTIOME BBTWIBM AND WITNIN AOMINISTNATITE, OFBNATIONAL AMD MRDOMHEL

DEFANTMBMTE. ALSO. TMi DETENMIMATIOM DD FATTERND OF ACTIVITIES At WELL AS

INFODMATIOM AMD MATSSIAL FLOW.

AttiaMMENT OF SFATIAL ADBA AND

COMFIOUNATIOM DBOUINBMEHTt FON: WORE STATIONS, RRIVATS OFFICBS, DERARTMBMTS, SURROST SBRVICSS AND

AMBMITIBSi BASBD OH TASS RUMCTION, RACS

TS RACS TSAMSACTIMS, AMS MMSASCMT.

III DIRECTIVE FOR BRACE RLAMMIMS AMD I TBRMS OF CRITERIA, SUIDELIMSS. AMS RSSFOSMAMCS SSOIWSSMSMTS.

IN

TECHNICAL - PHASE 3 EVALUATION - PHASE 4

Figure 2. Office design process (14)

13
14

Figure

3,

Conceptual

model

for

evaluating

work

environments

(15)
OCCUPANT

REQUIREMENT FACILITY RATING COMMENTS

IMPORTANT

UNIMPORTANT

m

> o

o u

K < U

H •

* U m 9

PRIVACY - Auditory and

Visual

SOCIABILITY > Accomodate

Conversations

FORMALITY - Restricted

Activities

CHOICE > Control of Environment

COMFORT * Appropriate

Environmental Features

-

IMAGERY - Space Depicts

Purpose

EFFICIENCY - Easy to Arrange Workspace

ACTIVITY - Selection of

Furnishings, Colors

FLEXIBILITY - Ability to Modify

TASK PERFORMANCE - Space Accomodates Job

TERRITORIALITY - Personalization

LACK OF CROWDING - Not Overoccupied

Figure 4, Checklist for Facility Evaluation (16)

15
3, WORKSTATION SYSTEMS

3.1 FUNCTION

The workstation Is the basic operating unit of the automated office, where

Information and communication technologies are merged Into a powerful system

used by the Individual office worker. While Initially confined to secretarial

and data processing tasks, It Is being used Increasingly for managerial activities.

The workstation Is the place where organizational, design, and personal factors

are Integrated. Since It Is the domain of the Individual, It must be designed

to meet a variety of requirements which differ from person to person — physical,

sensory, and cognitive. This can be accomplished by providing suitable flexibility for the furnishings and equipment associated with the workstation. For

example, the selection and placement of equipment and furnishings requires a consideration of factors such as physical comfort, how the body moves. Individual preferences and requirements. As office workers spend more and more time

at workstations. It becomes Increasingly Important for them to have access to

the tools and materials needed for their jobs, without causing undue stress or discomfort. The size of components, clearances between them, and allowances

for free movement of the body, are all Integral to the proper fit of the person

to the workstation. Figures 5 and 6 and table 6 are examples of recommended

designs and dimensions of workstation components.

3.2 CRITERIA

The workstation should have:

• Sufficient flexibility to accommodate the range of tasks performed and

the Individuals performing them.

• Sufficient vertical and horizontal surfaces for materials and

equipment use and storage.

• Power and communications capabilities consistent with performing required

activities.

• Ready access to work materials.

• Layout of workstation to facilitate performing activities.

• Individual controls for equipment and selected environmental features,

e.g., task lighting, thermal comfort conditions.

• Capability to personalize workspace.

• Easily reached controls; easily read displays.

• Sufficient space to facilitate movement, e.g., legs should have enough

room to move freely.

16
Table

6.

Kecommended

Workstation

Dimensions

for

VDTs

(mm)

(74)

JZu o O

X

Ou o X

X

0)

X 'O pH

Q A| £ oo o o o a u cs X pH o o “O m m X o

aei 3 A|

0>

0)c X

X 2 0) 01

1-1 1.4

u 1-1

u £ .* 01 • * 01 bO O 4-1 o 44 o o

•H

X 01 in 01 ON -o sO 1-1 X 1-1 X X

X

a

A /N A|

*o o

ON ON X X C 44

•H o X o o O iJ o a o C 3 ON X

0) ON 0 >»

X

Q A| o U 01 44 X • in C0Xu X 3

01

a

ub

a> • «k

u o u o o 01 4H

CQ

X o o 44

O 3

i-i cs CM 01

XX

u *o

u pH. 3 •H a

A|

X

CO /\ /N 3 o 3 M o O u X •pH o 4.J 3 •pH XX o 3

CM o o t4 vl

CM CM o

r-* 4H

X 'O

X

X bO 01 01 3 >p\ >H O X O X O X O ^4

0)

m «H

X •H in •pH ON

X

X r- CM 44 r- 44 pH, o ON 1 1 CM O 44 O 44 o 44 o rn

in -H

X •H in -H •o * X X X n- V 3383

44

CM 3 X Q

ON

44

pH 0 * 3

/—N > X

a yP"\ 3 4J

r** • c 0 X 3

CO r»* 01 3 •iH r- 3 c ON 4J 4J ON pH. a 3 X 3 3 ON ij U e X a pH u o • 3 3 c 3

Cd i 01

O •rH bO «» O. o 0) u > o pH 3 3 3 X (0 >1 o iH o 1-i tH 3 Q ON 0) 0) z pH O 3 X 3 X vT 3 X 44 >*-s X 3 3 • u cn fcj 44 ON /-s 0 ON 3 44 X u * U *3 CM 3 CO c X 44 X 3 3 • 3 3 C X 4-1 X X On 0 w Q pH X O «-H CO CO X 1.1 «k ON u —4 3

CO 0)V CO k4 c •M 3 s— 3 4H 3 u 0) >% -o <-» X 3 -H O u X 0 0 •H o o u X 0) U 3 c X N X X •H r- X X CM o u X CO CO •H X iJ 3 ON 3 M c ON pH o u Sm/ X -H u 3 X o pH pH U 0 3 3 -o

0)C 4^X pH (UX 3 3 3 X 3 H

X c (0 CO ^ a

X

C 3 > • a • X u o 4-1 C 3 3 3 0 X •H pH 44 X u pH

Q

Q <u •HX

M

u 4J

U

X •H

C 3 0 CM

u 3 3 H

M

X

u 01 3 -H 4J

X

X pH. 3 X

X

u CO Z 01 4-4 pH 01

X 3 c 4J

a

a 4J

0) CO i-t

X 3 3 X 3 Z 3 pH 3 M 3 3 3 X c •H Q U X l4 U 3 3 •H a •H M 3 CO X < X 5S U V4 3 Q Q U £ •H V V e u c iJ 1-t 3 4J •H •pH 1-t H • •H T1 & 3 CO 3 3 c X 3 3 C 3 X X O 3

CO 3 00 S 01

a 3 e X

X 44

X 3 > • 3 3 3 C 0 Ui o u CM 3 >s 3 3 u O •pH X X X O X CO M > 01 w 01 Sm^ c » X 3 N_/ 3 M N_/ 4H

C-?

O o o X

X

HX

X > 3

17
E^gonomle Grl,£@rli fer Workipae@e ( 17 )

Figure

i 40in MAX

ISinMINSTO LINE Of SIGHT* 0*

>i»m betaken

MM RESTS KEEP LIGHTS ABOVE

TO AVOID GLARE

UPPER VISUAL eastheadmovemT T

OPTIMUM

CONTROL ZONE BETWEEN ELBOW

AND shoulder

HEIGHT

,t<-MIN to avoid seeing TOP’SAin

STDHORIZ SIGHT LINE -0* •^^X TO SEE OVER TOP * 47 m

normal sight line -IS*

A- TYPING- TYPEWRITER KEYBOftRD lowest level should be zem

2Cr-50* UPPER ROW NO HIGHER THAN 31 in b-oisplay-control

C-WSPLAY, SET-UP CONTROL

0-EMERGENCY DISPLAY, SET-UP CONTROL

E -REF DISPLAY. ADJ CONTROL

WRITING DESK

HEIGHT- 26 -SOin

NOTE -Slh -95lh % OPERATORS

5. Suggested parameters for mockup of a seated operator console (17)

18
Adjustment Features of an Ergonomic Work Seat

Adjustment Features of an Ergonomic VDU Work Station

Figure 6. Workstation and seat design (19)

19
3.3 FURNISHINGS “ FLEXIBILITY REQUIREMENTS

Th§ eoneapt of £h@ avorago parson has baan dlsoardad by aqulpmant aanufaeturars

and daslgnars. It Is now racognlzad that individuals coma in a wida variaty

of sizas and shapas. and hava diffarant prafarancas for aquipmant and furnishings. Just as tha dasign emphasis for the office is on the need for flexibility, a similar requirement exists for furniture to be adjustable. The seat,

keyboard, display, and foot support are interacting system components in the

design of a workstation. The chair should be supported on four legs (or

a pedestal with a five caster base) and should have an adjustable seat pan;

the backrest height should also be adjustable. The angles of the seat pan and

the backrest should be adjustable relative to one another. The backrest should

also be adjustable front and back, with respect to the seat pan. The footrest

may also need to be adjustable In height, angulation, and front and back

distance (18).

3.3.1 Checklist — Workstation Flexibility

• Changes should be accommodated with minimum disruption to staff or ongoing activities.

• Adjustments should be easy to make; not requiring a high degree of

skill or special tools.

• Systems should be simple and made of standardized components.

• Dimensions and heights of work surfaces should be adjustable and/or

cover a range of activity and individual requirements.

• New configurations of components should be possible to accommodate

changing requirements.

• Furnishings should accommodate Individual differences, e.g., left

and right handed people.

• Seating should be adjustable; firm back and neck support are important.

3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

3.4.1 Checklist for Workstations Environment /Design Components

• Can components be adjusted to fit Individual differences in physical

height, size, and work habits? Can the same products be used in a right and left handed configuration?

• Does the hardware allow adaptability? Can the system be moved, shifted,

moved on a carpeted floor, and adjusted readily with minimum expertise

and simple tools?

• Can the equipment be used in angular configurations?

20
• Does the system permit optimum use of vertical space?

• Do acoustical panels perform their intended function?

• Does the product provide a method to control, modify, and conceal

electrical and communications systems?

• Can the product serve a range of visual privacy needs?

• What controls does the worker have over the mini-environment?

• Is the product durable, safe, and easy to maintain?

• Is the product a standard one, likely to be available if additional

components are needed in the future?

• Do components relate visually to one another and the rest of the

system?

• Is a "family" of products available, if variety is to be an important

design feature, e.g., different but compatible colors?

3.4.2 Checklist Workstation Environment /Design

• Acoustic privacy.

• Freedom from auditory and visual distractions.

• Glare-free lighting.

• Physical separation of unrelated activities.

• Ease of power and communication changes and additions.

• Nondisruptive traffic patterns.

• Clearly defined personal boundaries.

3.4.3 System Panels

3.4.3. 1 Function

The systems panel plays a major role in open-office design. It is used for

acoustical and visual privacy, the articulation of the office layout and as a means of facilitating the distribution of wire systems. It is a basic element

used in implementing changes in the office environment.

Panel heights vary from 30 inches for clerical workstations, to 80 inches,

where acoustical and visual privacy requirements predominate, such as in

executive workstations. With lower partition heights, improved commumlcation

21
Is accomplished at the expense of privacy* Higher partitions helps acoustical

performance, but might create difficulties for the HVAC and lighting systems*

Panels are constructed with metal or wood frames, with or without exposed or Integrated support posts. Connector systems vary widely* The composition of

the panel material Is fairly standardized. Non-acoustlcal panels are often

made of hardboard or honeycomb cores sandwiched between layers of laminate,

wood veneer or metal. Acoustical panels often have a hardboard core with layers

of fiberglass or other sound absorbent material on both sides, under a layer of

acoustically transparent fabric.

3. 4. 3. 2 Criteria

The following are desirable features of panel systems:

• Acoustical performance consistent with required activities.

• Facilitate wiring distribution.

• Readily disassembled and reconfigured with unskilled labor.

• Sufficiently durable to be reused repeatedly.

. Components standardized to ensure availability of replacement and

expansion requirements.

• Appropriate range of sizes, colors, etc. to meet organizational demand

for alternative configurations and specific needs, e.g. privacy,

groupings of organizational units by "color coding".

• Adequate stability and impact resistance.

3. 4.3. 3 Checklist for Panel Components

• Can components be adjusted to fit individual differences in physical

height, size and work habits? Can the same products be used in a right and left handed configuration?

» Does the hardware allow adaptability? Can the system be moved,

shifted, moved on a carpeted floor and adjusted readily with minimum

expertise and simple tools?

• Can the equipment be used in angular configurations?

• Does the system permit optimum use of vertical space?

• Do acoustical panels perform their intended function?

• Does the product provide a method to control, modify, and conceal

electrical and communications systems?

22
Can the product serve a range of visual privacy needs?

What controls does the worker have over the mini-environment?

Is the product durable, safe and easy to maintain?

Is the product a standardized one, likely to be available if additional

components are needed in the future?

Do components relate visually to one another and the rest of the system?

Is a "family" of products available, if variety is to be an important

design feature, e.g. diffferent but compatible colors?

Are there light and/or sound leaks between connected panels?

Do the panels have slotted rails along their face edges for hanging

storage and worksurface components?

23
The following table describes minimal federal performance requirements for

panels

MINIMAL FEDERAL

ATTRIBUTE TESTS PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS

FLAMMABILITY

FLAME SPREAD ASTM E-84 FLAME SPREAD<25 UNSPRINKLERED

FLAME SPREAD<200 SPRINKLERED

SMOKE NBS 708 SPECIFIC OPTICAL DENSITY<150

POTENTIAL HEAT BASED ON ASTM

PROCEEDINGS VOL. 61

1961, PP 1337-47

<40,000 BTU

ACOUSTICS

AIRBORNE SOUND PBS-Cl

(SUBJECTIVE)

SPP<60 IN OPEN PLAN AREAS

SPP<70 IN ROOMS WITHOUT DOORS

PBS-C2

(OBJECTIVE TEST)

NIC + (NC<40)<60 IN OPEN PLAN

IMPACT SOUND FOOTFALL TEST

lBl-1 1-1965

MASK VERTICAL FOOTFALL SOUNDS

W/NC<40

STABILITY

RESIST HORIZONTAL

LOAD

ASIM 72-74 RESIST LOAD OF 50 LB

SUPPORT 40 LB PER LINEAR FT OF

SHELVING

RESIST TIPPING

RESIST IMPACT ASTM 72-74 RESIST 30-LB IMPACT HORIZONTAL FORCE

OF 100 LB APPLIED 5" ABOVE FLOOR

DURABILITY

ABRASION ASTM 72-74 RESIST ABRASION

COLORFASTNESS FADEOMETER NO COLOR CHANGE AFTER 50 HOURS AT

150°F

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE FTM 141 A

METHOD 6081

RESIST STAINING AND DAMAGE

SOURCE: Specifications for Commercial Interiors, by S.C. Reznlkoff, New York,

WHITNEY LIBRARY OF DESIGN, 1979.

Table 16. Panel Requirements - Federal Standards

24
3. 4, 3. 4 Interactions with Other Systems

3.4. 3.4.1 Wiring

The system panel plays a particularly important role with respect to electrical

distribution systems in the open-planned office. Three basic approaches are employed in wire distribution:

• The panel with a raceway that accomodates electrical wires and communication cables.

• The panel which can be equipped with an optional manufacturer-supplied

power pack, with panel-to-panel connectors, and hooks up to the building's

electrical grid.

• The prewired panel, already assembled and plugged into the electrical

grid - the most expensive option.

3. 4. 3. 4. 2 Simple Raceway

This system is assembled before the panels are; it adds a few inches to the

height of the total panel system. Among the specific issues to be considered

in using this approach are:

• How accessible are the wires and cables?

• How durable are the base plates and covers that conceal the wires?

• Are there separate channels for electrical and communication wiring?

• Does the panel accept power feeds from the floor and/or ceiling? How

accessible are these entries?

• Does the panel have optional convenience outlet strips?

3. 4. 3. 4. 3 Power Pack

The availability of power where needed is of major concern for all of the wiring

systems. Among the factors to be considered are:

• Can the wiring system be retrofitted to non-elect rifled panels in the system?

• Are there integrated convenience outlets at work surface heights?

• If the system has Integrated ambient lighting, can the lighting circuit be

turned off while the task lighting and convenience lighting remain live?

• Does the system have pass-through panels for areas not requiring

electrified outlets?

• How many outlets are permitted in each circuit?

25
3,5 VDT/KEYBOARD SYSTEMS

The primary working tools at the electronic workstation are the VDT and the keyboard* associated * The system should be selected on the basis of ease of use and adapatablllty to Individual requirements, e*g., Its ergonomic features,

3,5,1 Checklist — VDT/Keyboard

• The keyboard should be detachable from the VDT for Individual convenience

and/or preference,

• The VDT screen should be readily adjustable — the capability to tilt, move vertically, swivel toward or away from the operator.

• The keyboard should enable the operator to keep hands and elbows In

comfortable positions.

• Work surfaces should be located at preferred height and distance for

the Individual for ease of manipulation, support or forearms, palm and

wrist, and convenience for seeing the task.

3.6 POSSIBLE PROBLEM AREA -- VDT SCREEN GLARE

A major complaint by VDT operators has been the difficulty In reading material

on the screen because of the glare. The lighting and design Issues related

to this problem are covered In another part of this report (Chap. 5). A study

by the National Academy of Sciences (18) suggests another approach to enhance

the quality of the visual Image on the VDT screen, the use of filters. It

describes four systems available for this purpose.

3.6.1 Potential Solution - Filters (18)

• Circular polarizer with antireflective coating. It is used to reduce

both specular and diffuse reflections. The outside surface is coated

with several layers of optically transparent materials to form an antireflective coating to reduce specular reflections from the surface of the

filter. The remainder of the filter package is a polarizer to eliminate

reflections from the underlying VDT screen.

• Neutral density filter. This is the simplest filter, consisting of a neutrally tinted plastic allowing a small percentage of the light falling

on it to be visible. It is effective in reducing diffuse reflection of

light from ambient sources.

• Notch or color filter. It allows transmission of a high percentage of lights

from certain wavelengths (usually green), and absorption at other wavelengths.

It is designed to be "tuned" to the color of the VDT screen, permitting the

desired light to penetrate, while absorbing the undesirable ambient light.

• Directional filter. It employs geometrical means to prevent ambient light

from reaching the screen, thereby preventing reflections from reaching the user.

26
4. ACOUSTICS ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

4.1 FUNCTION

To provide an acoustical environment appropriate for the activities being

performed in automated offices.

The auditory needs of workers depend upon the characteristics of the work being

performed. For example, many managerial and professional functions have rather

stringent acoustical demands and are performed by people accustomed to a quiet

workplace. A manager is often required to conduct private conversations with

staff members and visitors. Professionals spend considerable time performing

and planning creative thinking and report writing activities, which are susceptible to distraction from noise intrusions. On the other hand, many office

tasks require using office machines and systems that are inherently noisy,

such as copiers and most printers. One design challenge is to physically

separate and/or otherwise isolate activities with conflicting acoustical

properties.

4.2

BACKGROUND

Survey findings have consistently demonstrated that the acoustical features of

the office are extremely important to most employees, especially for those

working in open-space design offices. These same studies indicate that major

sources of complaints have been the presence of intrusive noises that disrupt

ongoing activities, and the lack of acoustical privacy.

The acoustical properties of spaces are influenced by such factors as the

thickness and density of enclosing structures, the porosity of wall and floor

covers, insulation, drapes and furnishings. Sound is affected by room shape,

volume, and the characteristics of the interior surfaces.

4.3

CRITERIA

A proper acoustical environment consists of

• Adequate acoustical privacy; consistent with the activity performed.

• Freedom from intrusive noise sources.

• Freedom from distracting vibrations.

• Ability to conduct conversations at normal speech levels.

• Isolation of major noise sources from general working environment.

• Special acoustical treatment for sensitive activities/spaces, e.g.

conference, audio-visual rooms.

Tables 5 and 6 provide recommendations for acoustical performance of selected

office activities.

27
Table 5. Types of Offices Applicable to Articulation Index Ranges (21)

1 00.00- Confidential Privacy. a) Closed offices with

0.05 Speech cannot be followed

with understanding.

STC of 40-45.

b) Open plan, or office

landscape environment.

II 0.05- Normal Privacy. a) Closed offices with STC

0.20 Speech may be understood with

careful listening attention

but should not interfere with

the ability to concentrate on other work.

of 35-40.

b) Open-plan environmental

III 0.20- Marginal Privacy.

Provides a relatively quiet

office environment when privacy

is not of supreme Importance.

Open-plan environment

IV 0.35-

0.50

Fair communication, no privacy

typical, relatively noisy

environment. Does not promote

maximum productivity.

V 0.50- Good to excellent

communication, no privacy.

Not normally an office

feature. Usually found

only in conference rooms and auditoriums.

Table 6. Speech Interference Levels (SIL) and Noise Criteria (NC)

Recommended for Rooms (22)

Maximum permissible level (measured in vacant rooms)

Type of room siL NC

Secretarial offices, typing 60 50-55

Coliseum for sports only (amplification) 55 50

Small private office 45 30-35

Conference room for 20 35 30

Movie theater 35 30

Conference room for SO 30 20-30

Theaters for drama, 500 seats (no amplification)

Homes, sleeping areas 30 20-25

30 20-25

Assembly halls (no amplification) 30

Schoolrooms 30 25

Concert halls (no amplification) 25 15-20

Source: SIL data from Beranek and Newman as modified by Peterson and

Gross to reflect current practice of using octave bands with centers at 500,

1000, and 2000 Hz; NC data from Beranek.

28
4.4 OVERVIEW OF BASIC ISSUES

Before discussing design approaches to achieve adequate acoustical performance

several basic issues and concepts will be mentioned. Table 7 indicates background sound levels of familiar activities and places.

Apparcfi] LoudncH Examples Decibek

DEAFENING Jet aircraft MO

Threshold of feeling 130 VERY LOUD Elevated train Thunder

120

Subway train

Nearby riveter

no

Noisy industrial plant 100

Office with tab machines Loud street noise

90

Noisy office Vacuum cleaner

ao

LOUD Average street noise 70

Average office Congested department store

60

MODERATE Moderate restaurant clatter Average 2-person conversation

so

School classroom

Private office

40

FAINT Bedroom 30

Rustling leaves 20 VERY FAI?^ Normal breathing K) Threshold of audibility 0

Table 7. Familiar Background Sound Levels

29
4.4tl Privacy

Two kinds of privacy have been Identified! Normal privacy Is a condition

where speech from adjacent locations can be understood If one listened Intently,

but the speech Is not loud enough to cause a disturbance. Confidential privacy

would preclude the understanding of phrases and/or sentences In adjoining

locations.

The preferred method of assessing speech privacy Is the Articulation Index (AI).

The AI is a measure of the percentage of sentences that can be understood from

a person speaking In a normal conversational tone. The Index Is based upon

the signal-tc-noise differences in decibels, weighted in terms of the relative

contribution of each one-third octave band, to speech intelligibility. As

the speech level drops toward the noise level, the AI value approaches zero;

as the speech level arises above the noise, the AI nears 1.0. (See following

figure.)

Figure 6. Approximate relation between AI and speech intelligibility (21)

30
Another means of evaluating environmental noise, is the Speech Interference

Level (SIL). These levels constitute the arithmetic average of the sound

pressure levels of noise in the three octave bands centered on the frequencies

of 500, 1000 and 2000 hertz, and are based upon complaints of office workers

in conducting speech communication. Table 8 demonstrates the relationship

between sound level and distance in conducting conversations.

4.4.2 Sound

it is a form of energy produced by minute pressure fluctuations in the air,

generated by vibrating surfaces and aerodynamic turbulence. Most solid objects

have the potential for producing sound, as does the air, when it interacts

with structures which change its path, e.g. HVAC ducts. Sound waves are transmitted directly and indirectly. In direct sound, waves are neither deflected

by reflective surfaces, nor absorbed by porous ones. The sound pressure levels

of direct sound decreases proportionally with increased distance from the

sound source. Indirect sound occurs when the sound from the source is reflected

from hard surfaces such as walls, ceilings or floors. Furnishings, equipment

and room features such as light fixtures, can also create sound reflections.

4.4.3 Sound Transmission

There are two types of sound transmission: airborne and structure-borne.

Airborne sound originates and is transmitted directly to the person, e.g.

conversation, machine noise. Structure-borne sound is produced when an object impacts against a structural element of a building, e.g. footsteps.

The sound energy is transmitted in proportion to the mass and rigidity of the

structure. A major acoustical problem in many buildings is the presence of

flanking (indirect) paths, which permit sound to travel throughout many areas

of a building. Interior elements such as HVAC ducts, continuous walls between

floors, uncaulked junctures of ceilings and partitions can all produce such

sound paths.

Speech-interference Levels that

Barely Permit Reliable Conversation

Speech-Inteilerenc* >«v«l (dB)

Distance between

talker and listener (ft) Normal Raised Very Lov»d Shouting

0.5 71 77 63 89

1.0 65 71 77 83

2.0 59 65 71 77

3.0 55 61 67 73

4.0 53 59 65 71 5.0 51 57 63 69

6.0 49 55 61 67

12.0 43 49 55 61

Table 8. Conversations and Speech Interference Levels (SIL)

31
4.4.4 Noise Criteria (NC) Curves

These curves were also developed from "complaint data" obtained In questionnaire

surveys. They are Intended to specify the maximum noise levels which can be

present In an environment without elcltlng too many complaints, which were considered to be an Indicator of the ability to perform assigned work. The

survey responses are then correlated with physical acoustical measurements to

specify the acoustical properties of spaces required to perform given activities.

Figure 8 illustrates the NC curves.

Old OctdVe-Band Umstin9

eeloM 75- 150- 500- UOO- 1200- 4«6D75 150 300 (fOO 1200 2400 4900 9^00

32

30

>

c o K zo

1-0

1 70

. 125 250 600 1000 2000 4000 0000

Ntw Octa^/e-te^dCenfM'F^^. (Hz)

Hearing Thraahold -for Con+inuoua Moiec

Figure 8. Noise Criteria (NC) Curves

32
4.5 POSSIBLE PROBLEM AREAS

The solutions being employed to cope with several of the design problems posed

by office automation have important implications for acoustical design. For

example:

• As a means of providing flexibility in the electrical distribution system,

new and expanded utility chases are placed above a lowered ceiling or beneath a raised floor. These chases can provide excellent passages

for noise, and flanking paths for conversations meant to be private.

• Supplementary air conditioning units are sometimes placed above lowered

ceilings. Introducing still another undesirable noise source into the

office.

• Elevated lightweight floors provide excellent sound and vibration

radiating diaphragms (i.e. sounding boards) for equipment, machinery

and footsteps noises.

• The mechanization of office tasks has resulted in a proliferation of

noisy equipment such as copiers and printers.

• The continuing trend toward open-office planning has exposed the office

workforce to more noise.

• The automation of the activities of the knowledge workers (managers and

professionals) has exposed noise sensitive tasks such as planning to

noise intrusions; these workers have been more prone to complain about

environmental conditions than clerical workers.

4.6 TYPICAL APPROACHES

4.6.1 Barriers

Sound barriers are used to reduce or eliminate noise by reflecting it or resisting its transmission. The mass of the material used as a barrier determines

its effectiveness, the greater the mass, the better the performance. The

performance of a wall, for example, is measured in decibels (dB), and the

measurement is referred to as the sound transmission loss (STL). The sound

transmission loss class (STC) is a rating scheme using a single number to rate

its performance. Typical fixed barrier materials in buildings are sheet rock,

gypsum board, concrete, brick or wood, while partitions are used in open-office

settings as moveable barriers.

4.6.2 Isolation of Surfaces

This is a means of preventing vibrations from one space being transmitted to an adjoining one. One method of achieving this result is the placement of

rubber, compressed fiberglass or springs between surfaces. The isolation of a surface receiving impact, such as a floor or ceiling, from the structure, will

restrict the transmission of sound.

33
A. 6. 3 Sound Absorption

The surface treatment of a space Is often considered to be the single most

Important determinant of the acoustical properties of a space. Sound absorption Is accomplished by using porous materials to dissipate or absorb acoustical

energy, e.g. fiberglass, cloth. The sound absorption coefficient is a measure

of the sound absorbed by a surface; hard materials such as concrete and steel

have low values, while carpeting has a relatively high value (the scale ranges

from 0 to 1.0). Materials used for sound absorption purposes have a low mass,

and therefore are not effective in preventing the sound from being transmitted

to adjoining spaces.

4.6.4 Vibration Damping

This approach is used to prevent a material or object from resonating to a primary source, thereby acting as a secondary noise source, e.g. an air conditioning unit mounted in a window frame. Windows, walls, and machine components

are potential problem areas. Rubber or vinyl is typically laminated to the

surface of the noise producing element to avoid this problem.

4.6.3 Isolation of Noise Source

An effective means of controlling unwanted sound is to isolate and/or "sound

treat" the source of noise. For example, place duplicating and printing equipment in a location remote from activities requiring quiet, and provide acoustical treatment to the room.

4.6.6 Masking Sound

Background noise is frequently used in open-space designs as a means of securing

speech privacy. This "white noise" is generally introduced by means of ceiling

speakers. This approach is not recommended because unwanted sound (noise) is

not an optimum design solution.

4.7 CHECKLIST ACOUSTICAL DESIGN (23)

NOISE CONTROL

• The outer shell of the building should provide adequate protection from

outdoor noise sources; control of fenestration is particularly important.

• HVAC and plumbing equipment should be selected, installed and operated

to minimize noise; ancillary equipment should not be noisy.

• Automated equipment should be as quiet as feasible; vibration isolation

from floor and furnishings should be considered.

• Sound absorption properties of ceilings, floors, and panels are a major

design concern.

34
ACOUSTICAL PRIVACY

• Spaces for confidential meetings should be available in open offices.

• Adequate separation is required between workstations to ensure proper

acoustical comfort.

• Partitions should be selected and placed in accordance with noise

reduction needs.

• Flanking paths should be avoided between private spaces and the general

workfloor; special attention should be given to lowered ceilings, raised

floors, and utility chases.

• Consider using natural sound from HVAC to substitute for masking noise.

VIBRATION CONTROL

• Plumbing, HVAC and other mechanical equipment should be vibration

isolated.

• Noisy automation equipment should be vibration isolated.

• Raised floors should be designed with high vibration damping features.

• Emergency power generators should be located, installed and used in a manner that avoids vibration and noise problems.

SPACE DESIGN

• Individuals and working groups should be clustered in accordance with

acoustical requirements, e.g. privacy, freedom from noise intrusions.

• Noise producing equipment should be grouped and separated from general

office activities when feasible.

• Panels and screens should be used to intercept horizontal sound paths.

• Ceilings with a high percentage of light fixture area can result in

noise reflection problems.

4.8 ACOUSTICAL DESIGN PROCESS

A system has been developed which employs a computer program for the acoustical

design of open-plan offices; it is called OPLAN. It is intended to provide an estimate of the degree of speech privacy anticipated for a given workstation.

The program takes into account all paths by which sound travels from one location to another. Data are collected on the following: "anticipated speech

effort, source/receiver distance, screen locations and dimensions, materials,

background noise levels, and the degree of privacy required." Figure 9 summarizes the approach developed.

35
a

«

Ke

o

LOCATION A aiMENSIONA

/rrptour/

Figure 9. Simplified block diagram of OPLAN program (24)

36

4

RETURN

TO

Al

CALCULATION
5. LIGHTING SYSTEMS

5.1 FUNCTIONS

The primary purpose of lighting is to facilitate the performance of visual

office tasks. It also serves other pragmatic and aesthetic purposes. It

provides directional and locational information and is an integral component

of security and safety systems. Finally, lighting can be used to create an environment which has variety, visual interest and pleasing contrasts, thereby

offsetting the institutional appearance of offices.

Since most office tasks are predominantly visual ones, it is not surprising

that lighting conditions are prominently mentioned in all surveys of office

workers (25). The advent of the VDT in offices has further increased the

importance of office lighting because most existing lighting systems are designed for desktop paper-based activities, with different visual requirements

than VDT activities. To complicate matters further, for the forseeable future

most workstations will have to accommodate a combination of both types of these

activities.

Effective lighting requires a consideration of the entire environment. A

balance of contrasts is needed to prevent visual discomfort and fatigue. The

light generated by the VDT, the task area adjacent to the screen, the keyboard

area and the surround lighting is also important. Visual problems can occur when the eye must continually adjust to markedly different lighting characteristics, and a variety of contrasts associated with a given activity such as reading paper copy while monitoring a VDT screen.

5.2 BACKGROUND

The quality and quantity of light are both critical features in the design of

the automated office. Proper lighting also depends upon a consideration of the

acitivities being performed, the people doing the work, and organizational

requirements. It must take into account traditional building elements such as ceiling heights, wall and floor materials and treatments, room area, adjacent

spaces, columns and various equipment and systems. Factors such integration

of lighting with other systems, and flexibility are of special importance in

the automated office. Since lighting systems are a major energy user in

offices, this feature also merits detailed attention - uniform lighting levels

to accommodate the most visually demanding task are no longer considered to be an acceptable approach to lighting design.

37
5.3 CRITERIA

• Lighting should reinforce the architectural Intent of the building, e.g.

connection with the outside and between spaces; provide a sense of

Intimacy and the delineation of activity spaces.

• The quality and quantity of lighting should support the visual needs of

those performing VDT and/or paper-based tasks.

• Lighting levels should be consistent with activities performed.

• Color rendition should be aesthetically acceptable, and appropriate for

the activities performed.

• Lighting should not produce glare.

• Extreme brightness contrasts should be avoided.

• Individual control of task and area lighting should be available.

• Lighting systems should provide flexibility appropriate for organizational

needs and plans for expansion.

• Lighting systems should not be wasteful of energy.

• Lighting systems should be properly Integrated with other building

systems - e.g. celling, wiring, automation, safety.

• Lighting should provide proper margins for safety and security activities.

• Lighting systems should be designed for ready maintenance.

• Daylight should be appropriately Integrated Into the overall lighting

system.

38
Lighting Recommendations - Illuminating Engineering Society (lES) (26)

Type of Activity Illuminance

Ranges of Illuminances Reference

Work-Plane

Category

Lux Footcandles

Public spaces with

dark surroundings A 20-30-50 2-3-5

Simple orientation for

short temporary visits

B 50-75-100 5-7.5-10

General

lighting

throughout

spaces

Working space where

visual tasks are only

occasionally performed

C 100-150-200 10-15-20

Performance of visual

tasks of high contrast

or large size

D 200-300-500 20-30-50

Performance of visual

casks of medium

contrast or small size

E 500-750-1000 50-75-100 Illuminance

on task

Performance of visual

tasks of low contrast

or small size

F 1000-1500-2000 100-150-200

Performance of visual

tasks of low contrast

and very small size over

a prolonged period

G 2000-3000-5000 200-300-500

Illuminance

on task.

Performance of very prolonged and exacting

visual Casks

H 5000-7500-10000 500-750-1000

obtained by

a combination

of general

and local

Performance of very special visual tasks of extremely low contrast

and small size

I 10000-15000-20000 1000-1500-2000

(supplementary

lighting)

Table 9 Illuminance Categories and Illuminance Values for

Generic Types of Activities In Interiors (lES)
5. A OVERVIEW OF BASIC ISSUES

Office lighting Is achieved by a combination of natural and artificial lighting.

Daylight Is a varied, changing source of color and Intensity, Influenced by

atmospheric conditions such as cloud cover and pollution, the position of the sun (e.g. time of day, and the reflection of building materials, trees and

grass) (27).

5.4.1 Artificial Light Sources

The most common sources are Incandescent and tungsten halogen lamps; gaseous

discharge lamps such as fluorescent, and high Intensity discharge (HID) lamps.

5.4. 1.1 Incandescent Lamps

Light is produced when a wire of tungsten filament is heated to Intense brightness by the flow of electric current. Although all spectrum colors are present,

the light tends to be strong In the red, orange and yellow wavelengths. Colors

In the "warm" spectral range are therefore strenghthened when Illuminated by

Incandescent sources, while "cool" colors such as blue and green are weakened.

The efficiency of these lamps Is low -l.e. the amount of light produced by a given amount of energy. Efficiency Is directly ^related to filament temperature

and, for Incandescent lamps, the most efficient ones have the shortest lives.

Figure 10 below depicts several types of Incandescent lamps.

Figure 10. Common Types of Incandescent Lamps

A- General service lamp, G- Decorative lamp, S- Decorative lamp, PAR- Lamp used

for directional purposes, e.g. downllght, used with reflective or baffled

fixtures In recessed, surface or track lighting. R- A type of PAR downllght

with a wide beam spread. T- A tungsten-halogen lamp, designed for long life

and high Intensity output; used for general lighting In medlum-to-hlgh celling

areas.

40
5,4.

1.2

Fluorescent Lamps

Fluorescent lighting occurs when a phospher powder lining along the inner tube

wall of the lamp, fluoresces or glows. The powder is activated by ultraviolet

radiation emitted from low pressure mercury vapor in the tube. They are higher

in efficiency than incandescent lamps and produce much less heat. Furthermore

they last from 20 to 25 times longer than incandes cents , and therefore require

less maintenance. Lamp performance can be overestimated if measured immediately

after Installation, because they produce more light during the first 100 hours

of operation. The lamps should therefore be "seasoned" for this length of time

before occupancy. This procedure has an added advantage of identifying faulty

ballasts and lamps because when these components are defective, early problems

with them are likely. The particular color rendition properties of fluorescent

lamps depend upon the particular coatings and gases used in their designs.

5.4.

1.3

High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps

They produce light through the gaseous discharge or vaporization of atoms of

metallic elements contained in arc tubes. Vaporization causes the atoms to

emit large amounts of electromagnetic energy within the visible range. An arc

of electricity generates heat and pressure much higher than in the ordinary

fluorescent lamp. Mercury, sodium and metal halide lamps are characterized by

wide light distribution, wattage efficiency and low energy consumption and

maintenance costs. Color rendering properties are often not as good as those

of incandescent and fluorescent sources.

5.4.2 Ballasts

A ballast is needed to operate fluorescent and HID lamps. It is used to limit

the flow of current through the lamp. Without it, the current will increase to

a level which will quickly destroy the lamp. The ballast provides a voltage

that is sufficiently high to start and maintain the arc discharge in the lamps.

Special ballasts are now available which conserve energy and permit the dimming

of the lamps. Ballast hum can be a distracting side effect of HID and fluorescent

lamps.

5.4.3 Fixtures

For incandescent housings, they are sometimes moveable (e.g. table, pole track

or floor lamp), or fixed (recessed, surface-mounted, ceiling hung). The quality

of light and its distribution depend on the type of bulb used, the diameter of

the fixture aperture, the interior shape and surface finish of the fixture,

the distance of the lamp from the aperture, and the distance of the fixture

from the surface to be illuminated. Interior fixture surfaces are often coated

with a color and/or a special finish to produce given lighting effects.

Offices today are predominantly lighted by fluorescent lighting systems.

Housings for these systems are ceiling recessed, surface-mounted, or ceilinghung pendant. The quantity of light produced is primarily dependent on the

number and wattage of lamps used in each fixture. The quality of lighting is

41
/. o

Table

10,

Lamp

Selection

Guide

(28)
largely influenced by the lens and/or louver system employed to distribute the

light. A major determinant of lighting quality is the "glare producing"

potential of a given system. This is discussed below.

5.4.4 Lighting Fixture Rating Schemes

5.4.4. 1 Visual Comfort Probability (VCP)

This is a rating of the likelihood that people using a given system would not

be bothered by direct glare from a given fixture design. For example, a VCP of

70 means that 70% of those workers seated in the worst location in a space

would not be bothered by direct glare from a lighting system composed of the

type of fixture whose VCP is under evaluation.

5. 4. 4. 2 Coefficient of Utilization (CU)

This is a measure of the efficiency of a fixture in a specified space, i.e.

the percentage of the light produced by a lamp which ultimately reaches the

work area. For example, a fixture with a rating of .70 delivers 70 percent of

the lamp's output to the work plane.

The VCP and CU of any given fixture depend upon such factors as room configuration, reflectivity of surfaces, distance from the floor, and the spacing between

fixtures.

5.5 POSSIBLE PROBLEM AREAS

• Lighting systems at workstation should accommodate VDT and paper-based

tasks

.

• The line-of-sight of the VDT screen is near the horizontal, resulting in

a greater likelihood of glare from a fixture in direct view.

• Reflected glare can occur from reflections on the surface of the VDT,

from windows, fixtures, people, and other VDT's.

• Extreme visual contrasts in the visual field, created from VDT, the

workspace, general surrounds, windows, etc.

• The placement of fixtures may be inappropriate for the tasks being

performed - e.g. shadows, glare.

• Indirect HID lighting can produce "hot spots" on the ceiling.

• Color rendition of HID sources can result in aesthetic problems, especially if the materials and furnishings aren't carefully selected with

regard to their color characteristics.

• Color stability and uniformity are sometimes a problem with HID sources.

• Highly reflective materials can be sources of reflected glare.

43
• Black and white "eolots" can contribute to undesirable visual contrasts

In the work setting

t

• Dirt and dust on fixtures and lamps can substantially reduce light

output; scheduled maintenance is Important*

5.6 TYPICAL APPROACHES USED IN LIGHTING DESIGN

5.6.1 Types of Illumination

Three general approaches are available for providing office lighting * general

(ambient), direct, and indirect. Ambient lighting refers to a uniform pattern

of lighting throughout a space. This approach is being supplanted in many

offices by task/amblent systems which are upon a relatively low level for

movement and circulation purposes (l.e. less demanding visual tasks) and direct

lighting on the task to be performed. Direct lighting has the advantage of

efficiently using the available light to accomplish a given purpose, but glare

and veiling reflections must be avoided. Indirect lighting uses wall and/or

celling surfaces to reflect light into the workspace, e.g. for ambient lighting,

architectural definition.

5. 6. 1*1 Ambient (General) Lighting

Celling fluorescent systems are usually employed for this purpose. The first

consideration is to avoid any lamp reflection on the face of the VDT. This can

Direct Lighting Task Lighting

Figure 11. Types of Illumination

44
be accomplished by using a specular parabolic wedge louver; it has a typical

cutoff of 45“ , with any images from the lamp being reflected below the viewing

angle.

5.6. 1.2 Task Lighting

Lighting is directed to a specific surface or area to provide illumination for

visual tasks. Typically, light sources are placed on top of a desk, hung from

a panel, placed above a worksurface, or under an overhead bookcase.

5.6. 1.3 Task/Ambient Lighting

This system is one which combines general and task lighting. In this approach

the task lighting is placed as above (5.6. 1.2) while the ambient illumination

can be ceiling mounted, on top of bookcases, attached to the top of panels, or housed on top of a kiosk.

5.6. 1.4 Indirect Lighting

The light is mounted beneath the ceiling, placed in a free-standing or partition

mounted kiosk, with the light being directed toward the ceiling, which serves

as a reflector. The luminaire should be designed to direct light rays laterally

to provide the greatest spread of lighting.

5.6. 1.4.1 Checklist for Evaluating Task/Ambient Systems (29)

1. Lighting should be evenly distributed over the task area.

2. Veiling reflections should be minimized.

3. A proper brightness relationship between task and surround is essential.

(No more than 3:1 in the immediate seeing zone, no more than 10:1 in the

total zone.)

4. Luminaires should be glare free. The light source should not be visible.

5. Ballast noise should be minimized by the use of a properly mounted, high

quality ballast.

6. The ballast and housing should not radiate excessive heat.

7. Fixtures should be easy to clean and maintain. Replacement of lamps and

ballasts should be easy.

8. Fixture should be properly mounted to prevent vibration.

9. Upward light distribution should minimize shadows, while avoiding "hot

spots" on the ceiling.

10.

Downlights should light the back part of a workstation uniformly.

45
Lighting prevldt th@ with thi m%m§ to adjuet tht lighting to

auit th@ activity to ba parforaad* Thay alao sarva an important anargy-saving

function* Local lighting controla can activata a small numbar of fixtures

which permit the lights to be readily turned off when not needed* Dimmers also

provide the opportunity to adjust the lighting conditions as visual requirements

change*

A variety of automated control systems are now available; they frequently are dependent on a combination of manual and automated features* For example, time

switches are employed In areas that are often not used. In some configurations,

lighting is activated manually and deactivated after a given time Interval,

unless manual Intervention occurs first. Some centralized lighting controls can send signals to fixtures over existing circuitry, while others use radio

frequencies or require new wiring.

Another system Is manually activated and then deactivated after a given time

period, when people are no longer detected In a space. The controls work on the principles of motion detection (ultrasonics), body heat (passive Infra-red),

noise In the human activity range (acoustics), or the Interruption of beams

given off and returned by a detector (active Infrared). Carbon dioxide (C02)

is also used as an occupant sensor.

Window lighting should be controlled by curtains and blinds which can also serve to filter and direct sunlight at reasonable cost. Vertical blinds can be

turned and pivoted to redirect sunlight. A fabric finish Is preferable to a hard one because It diffuses the light thereby reducing glare. There are also

mylar and plastic filters and screens which can be positioned In front of

windows like a sunshade.

5.6.3 Maintenance

Lamps should be replaced before they fall because the light output declines

with use. Replacing lamps early therefore maintains a greater average light

output of the entire system. Another advantage of relamping before failure is

that It tends to lengthen the life of the ballasts, which fail prematurely with

the failure of lamps. Group relamping is best accomplished by changing all of

the lamps at the same time. When personnel, equipment and lamps are assembled

simultaneously, a lamp change can be made in few minutes for many lamps. In

contrast, replacement of a single lamp when it fails can take as long as 30

minutes. A further savings can be made if fixtures are cleaned when group

relamping is scheduled. A periodic cleaning schedule for fixtures and lamps

is a requirement if designed lighting levels are to be maintained over the

lifetime of the building. Dust and dirt accumulations can severely limit the

efficiency of lighting systems (30).

46
5.7 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

When a person is operating a VDT, he or she looks not only on the work materials,

but peripherally at the work surface, distant furniture and walls, windows and

the general office area. Sharp contrasts in color and reflective surfaces

should be avoided because they may result in visual distractions and/or difficulty in performing required tasks.

Brightnesses within the office space should be controlled. Walls and other

surfaces should be diffuse and have a light reflectance value of less than 50

percent. Carpeting colors should be muted rather than saturated in color.

Desks and work surfaces should be matte, or low-glare non-reflective. The

tops of tables and desks should be made of non-specularly^ reflective material.

Neutral color tones are preferred for all furnishings,

5.7.1 Checklist for Glare Control (31)

Direct and reflected glare can be limited by means of one or more of the

following methods:

• Drapes, shades, and/or blinds over windows should be closed or directionally adjusted, especially during sunlight conditions.

• Terminals should be properly positioned with respect to windows and

lighting fixtures, e.g. screens facing away from bright sources.

• Direct lighting fixtures may need to be recessed; baffles or special

covers are used to direct light source downward.

• Indirect lighting fixtures should have appropriate lens/louver systems

to minimize glare potential.

• Specular surfaces on furnishings and equipment should be avoided.

47
6.1 6. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

FUNCTION

HVAC systems provide for human comfort and the well-being of office occupants

and help maintain the proper environment for the operation of support systems

to operate effectively by regulating (32):

• the temperature of the air

• the temperature of surrounding surface

• the relative humidity and motion of the air

• the quality of the air - e.g. freedom from unwanted odors and particulate

matter

6.2

CRITERIA (33)

• Air temperatures must accommodate equipment and people.

• Flexible air supply and return systems should be designed mechanically

and architecturallly to facilitate change and/or expansion.

• Humidity control must accommodate the nee4s of people and equipment.

• Thermal comfort conditions should be in accordance with ASHRAE recommendations.

• Energy usage Is of major importance.

• Control systems should enable area zoning to accommodate equipment and

activities.

• Static electricity should be minimized.

• Air distribution system should permit change In workstation locations

without loss of thermal comfort.

• Do not exceed maximum humidity conditions; wet equipment, corrosion.

6.3

OFFICE AUTOMATION DESIGN IMPLICATIONS

The automated off IcJ has more electronic devices and systems than the traditional

one. This technology produces considerable heat which substantially increases

the cooling load of the building resulting in equipment outages and occupant

complaints. Many of these devices are humidity sensitive and proper humidity

control is essential for the proper operation of equipment, and for minimizing

the detrimental effects of static electricity on the office staff as well as on

the electrical equipment. A combination of tight building designs to save energy, and the use of chemicals in many office activities, e.g. ink for

duplicating machines, tends to degrade the quality of the air in many office

buildings.

48
Thermal Comfort Recommendations - American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) (34)

with low air movement, where the MRT equals air temperature.

W4»0*

tM I

• »-

•.»- >>00

I 0-

a»-

ot07 —

0«-

os-

-ISO

e>-

ot

OIFigure 12. New effective temperature scale (ET*) (ASHRAE)

49
e.4 TYPICAL AFPROACHES

Meeting envlronmentel requirements In offices Is not an easy task. Conditions

In a given space served by the same central system may vary markedly, depending

on the location and grouping of people and electronic equipment.

The conventional system of celling air distribution consists of a main trunk

and a grid of auxiliary feeder ducts, which can be either flexible or rigid.

Adequate clearance Is needed between the celling and the structure above the

ductwork as well as access to the mechanical equipment In the plenum space.

Supply and return air grills In the ceilings must conform to the module of the

celling system. Newer and proposed systems employ floor distribution, some delivery through workstation units with local control, others achieve local

control by local "modifying” systems.

6.4.1 Existing Buildings

For spaces having clusters of computer equipment, modular celling mounted HVAC

units can be used to supplement the central system. Localized controls should

be available for this equipment so that they can be turned off when not being

used. The use of heat-recovery systems from clustered workspaces should be

considered. Packaged air conditioning and humidity control systems can be

used to supplement the central building system.

6.4.2 New Construction

• Variable air volume systems should be considered to maintain desired

temperature levels; if air movement Is insufficient, fan-powered should

also be used. (Some problems have occurred with regard to air motion

and ventilation In occupied spaces with these systems.)

• Thermostats must be carefully positioned in the open space; not near the

return air supply, and at a height representative of office activities.

Figure 13. Conventional celling air distribution

50
• Consider the use of floor plenums for HVAC/electrical distribution.

• Zoning can be accomplished by means of individual HVAC systems. Localized

areas of the building are likely to be subject to concentrated heat loads.

• Portions of the building might have to be occupied on a 24 hour per day

basis and merit separate treatment.

• Localized air conditioning units should be used for computer rooms.

• Ceiling-mounted modular cooling systems which operate independently of

the central system are available, but the cost of installation and the

difficulty in moving them are shortcomings.

6.5 INTERACTION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS

6.5.1 Lighting

Heat removal and air handling lighting fixtures extract heat before it enters a space, thereby reducing the overall heating load. However, furniture-integrated

lighting systems emit their heat directly into the air. Lighting and HVAC

system design should be integrated to optimize lighting efficacy and useful

heat generation.

6.5.2 Acoustics

Air distribution systems can be designed to produce a relatively uniform sound,

thereby sometimes eliminating the need for the introduction of white noise into

the office as an aid to privacy.

6.5.3 Indoor Air Quality

Energy conserving design, characterized by unopenable windows, increased insulation, tighter buildings and reduced ventilation, has resulted in a concern for

the air quality in buildings. The reduced outdoor air supply has increased

the potential for accumulating noxious agents in the air of offices, e.g. smoke.

New construction materials and chemicals used in office systems such as duplicating machines are also potential sources of air contaminants. These conditions

have resulted in complaints by office workers concerning the quality of the

Indoor air environment. The discomfort of office workers might be attributable

to the synergistic effect of environmental contaminants and environmental

conditions. This issue, and an approach for effective control is suggested in

table 11. Proper ventilation is a key to the control of indoor air quality.

Air supply and return should be designed so that local contaminants and odors

can be removed locally, instead of diluting them into the room air.

51
Table 11. Control Measures for Indoor Air Pollutants; Responsibilities (35)

Control Measure Description Pollutant Example

Ventilation: dilution of indoor air

with fresh outdoor air or, recirculated

filtered air, using mechanical or natural methods to promote localized,

zonal, or general ventilation

Radon and radon progeny;

combustion by-products; tobacco

smoke; biological agents

(particles)

Local exhaust of gas stove emissions; air-toair heat exchangers; building ventilation

codes

Source removal or substitution: removal

of indoor emission sources of substitution of less hazardous materials or products

Organic substances; asbestlform

minerals; tobacco smoke

Restrictions on smoking in public places;

removal of asbestos

Some modification: reduction of emission rates through changes in

design or processes; containment of emissions by barriers or sealants

Radon and radon progeny;

organic substances; asbestlform

minerals; combustion by-products

Plastic barriers to reduce radon levels; containment of asbestos; design of buildings

without basements to avoid radon; catalytic

oxidation of CO to CO 2 in kerosene burners

Air cleaning: purification of Indoor

air by gas adsorbers, air filters,

and electrostatic precipitators

Particulate matter; combustion

by-products; biological agents

(particles)

Residential air cleaners to control tobacco

smoke or wood smoke; ultraviolet irradiation

to decontaminate ventilation air; formaldehyde sorbant filters

j Behavioral adjustments: reduction in

human exposure through modification of behavior patterns; facilitated by consumer education, product labeling,

building design, warning devices, and legal liability

Organic substances; combustion

by-products; tobacco smoke

Smoke-free zones; architectural design of Interior space; certification of formaldehyde concentrations for home products

i

i

1 Responsibilities for Healthful Indoor Environments

Individuals

Maintain and properly use products and appliances

Exercise direct discretionary control of ventilation in most residential and some occupational circumstances

Building Owners or Managers

Operate and maintain a balanced ventilation system in compliance with building

ventilation codes Use zone ventilation or local exhaust for Indoor contaminant sources Properly use cleaning solvents, paints, varnishes, herbicides, insecticides,

furnishings, and insulation

Architects, Developers, Contractors

Adopt protection of Indoor air quality as a design objective

Design ventilation systems to comply with new ASHRAE standard 62-1981

Provide for separation of occupants and Indoor pollutant sources Elimination or containment of potential sources

3
6.6 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

6.6.1 Interior Design

• Window coverings, wall fabrics, floor coverings and adjustment of air

flow patterns all influence the thermal comfort of a space. The proper

placement and adjustment of diffusers and radiators also contribute to

environmental satisfaction.

• Window exposures can also contribute to the thermal environment in

significant ways. For example, in the winter months, southern exposure

can contribute to the heat needed, and northern exposure, if shaded,

will prevent undesirable heat loss.

• Functions that require similar environmental conditions can be grouped

together, focusing mechanical demands appropriately.

6.6.2 Design Process Issues

Better planning and coordination is needed for implementing office automation

systems. Improved coordination is required among the user, the A/E, and the

consultants involved in designing the office systems. Among the issues that

require detailed architectural programming attention are:

• Means of achieving flexible air distribution.

• Determining tradeoffs among automation, energy conservation, and thermal

comfort requirements.

• Responsiveness to a strategic automation plan by the building user.

• Integrating HVAC effectively with other building systems.

• Providing control systems which are responsive to particular needs of

equipment and people, e.g. the older worker often requires warmer

temperatures than the younger one; requirements differ in accordance

with the physical demands of tasks.

6.6.3 Potential Problem Area - Static Electricity (45)

Electrostatic discharge can be a major problem in an automated office. Static

electricity occurs in two ways, induction charging and contact charging. In

induction charging, electrical fields radiate from the surfaces of materials

such as styrofoam and cloth. For example, a shirtsleeve can generate enough

of a charge to destroy the read only memory (RCM) of a computer. In contact

charging, two materials make contact with one another and then separate. This

action causes one material to strip electrons from the other. This is what occurs when one walks across a carpet and is shocked when touching a doorknob.

The size of a particular charge depends on the speed, degree of friction, and

the characteristics of the materials coming into contact with each other. The

higher the electron density of the material, the greater its charge. While

53
voltages of 3,000 ate sometimes sufficient to dlstrub computer circuits, It Is

not until voltages are In the 10,000 to 15,000 range that people become aware

of unpleasant or painful sensations.

6«6i3*l Cotmflon Sources of Static Electricity

• Waxed, painted or varnished surfaces

• Vinyl tile flooring

• Polystyrene (Styrofoam)

• Finished wood or plastic covered desks, chairs

• Electrostatic copiers

• Insufficient humidification

ACTIVITY

VOLTAGE

10-20% 65-90% Humidities

• Walking on carpet 35,000 1,500

• Walking on vinyl floor 12,000 250

• Picking up polyethelene bag 20,000 1,200

• Sliding on foam padded chair 18,000 1,500

ENDANGERED COMPONENTS

• Precision voltage regulator circuits (1-1,000 v)

• Transistor logic devices (1,000 - 4, 000 v)

• Silicon power transistors (4,000 - 15 ,000 v)

• Small signal diodes It •I

Table 18. Static Electricity Issues

54
6. 6. 3. 2 Possible Approaches to Overcome Problem

• Power grounding.

• Humidity control. Humidity In the 40 - 60 percent range Is recommended

by manufactures of office automation equipment.

• Carpeting materials should be carefully selected for low static electricity properties.

• Chairs and movable furnishings should have metal, conducting rubber

or plastic wheels.

• Conductive anti-static floor mats can be used to bleed static

charges to ground, through a wire. The mat must be kept free of dirt

and wax; operators must wear conductive footwear.

• Anti-static agents can be sprayed directly on carpet or tile. These

agents increase the rate at which air ions recombine with surface

charges by maintaining a thin moisture layer over the area applied.

• An ionizer can be used; it emits both positive and negative electrons

which combine with opposite charges on the surfaces of non-conductlve

materials such as cloth and plastics.

55
7. ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS (36)

7 . 1 FUNCTION

To provide an electrical environment for the safe, reliable operation of office

automation equipment and other electrical systems In federal office buildings*

It Is the most critical system for office automation.

The electrical environment for computers Includes their power sources, grounding and electrical Interfaces with communications lines, air conditioning, and

life-safety systems. It also Includes lighting and other electrically operated

equipment. The electrical environment In which office equipment operates must

also be considered, since electrical disturbances propogate through conductors,

pipes, metal ducts and conductive structural members, or by radiation as radio

waves. External sources of electrical fluctuations range from lighting to

electrical loads which generate electrical noise when operated or switched on and off* Internal sources of electrical changes can be caused by the office

automation equipment Itself.

No equipment Is Immune to electrical disturbances but sensitivity to such

changes varies from device to device and from one type of disturbance to

another. Disturbances of high energy content can result In catastrophic

failure of Impairment of circuit components. Smaller disruptions may not

damage components but may disturb the logic signals and cause Intermittent

errors In data or control functions.

Significant Improvements In logic design and the Integration of circuits

Ironically has made office systems more susceptible to disruption by electronic

noise, because these circuits need less power than many of their predecessors,

and the quality of commercial power hasn't kept pace with these requirements.

The faster response times of newer, high performance logic circuits makes tham

susceptible to fast noise pulses which have always existed, but which failed to

disturb the older, slower logic circuits. This Implies that electrical environments which were suitable for older generation office machines may need to be

Improved to accommodate some of the newer systems. Power and electrical system

requirements should therefore be carefully reviewed prior to installing new

systems.

7.2 CRITERIA

• A power source Is needed that is relatively free of major fluctuations.

• The means to reduce or eliminate sources of electrical disturbances is

needed.

• Circuits should be designed to reduce the coupling of electrical noise

and transients from all sources into low power level circuits.

• The office equipment selected should not be readily disturbed by power

abnormalities.

56
• Software and operating procedures should be available to readily detect,

correct and recover from errors and power outages.

• Additional capacity is needed in electrical bus risers to handle future

needs, e.g. to main and distribution panels.

• Power panels are required for statlon-to-station distribution.

. Use power distribution modules for isolation.

• Segregate power usage ("clean" vs. "dirty" power), e.g. coffee maker

should not be on same circuit as an OA device.

• The use of unlnterruptable power systems should be considered for

critical operations.

• Proper grounding is essential for safety and operational purposes, e.g.

lighting protection.

7.3 POSSIBLE PROBLEM AREAS

Power surges and spikes are major sources of difficulty in the electrical

environment of an office. A power surge is an increase of voltage levels from

10 to 20 percent (or more) above normal, usually lasting from one half cycle

to several seconds. A surge can be induced by static discharges, lightning, or inductive switching produced by the starting or stopping of a major electrical

motor on another circuit, e.g. an elevator or air conditioner motor. A third,

less frequent cause for a surge is when power is restored after an outage.

Surges do not generally affect the performance of traditional motor driven

machines, but computers and microprocessors have critical threshold operating

voltages, and power fluctuations can seriously impair their performance.

Spikes, which are sudden but brief disturbances reaching thousands of volts

with frequencies reaching to the megaherz level, are also a danger to the

operations of electronic office equipment.

7.4 POSSIBLE APPROACHES (36)

7.4.1 Emergency Standby Power

This power is normally off and does not start manually or automatically) until

the public utility power fails. The power is provided by a bank of batteries

and/or diesel generators, which can be started within ten to thirty seconds,

if their condition for rapid starting has been continuously maintained. However,

this length of interruption would shut down electronic office equipment not

served by an unlnterruptable power system. Power surges should be controlled

when this source is activated.

57
7»4t2 Unlnterruptable Power Systems (UPS)

They have become a virtual necessity for powering electronic systems where the

application serves a critical need, e*g* a life safety system. These systems,

unlike the emergency standby power systems, are always In operation (except for

planned maintenance, or outages). UPS systems are typically supplied with

sufficient battery capacity to carry a data processing load for periods ranging

from five minutes or less, to several hours. The success of a UPS system Is

dependent on Its ability to permit operations to continue without interruption;

requiring power switching to be performed in less than one haf cycle and without

substantial transient noise during the switching, A variety of approaches can

be used to provide no-break power; for details see reference (35).

Condition %

ProbaMIHy Causes Effect Treatment

Line voltages too high

or low 11-12% Neighboring Increases In demand, loading down

supply.

Improper equipment

operation. Possible damage If sustained. Overheating.

Constant Voltage

Regulator (CVR)

Severe power drops or outages of short dura*

tion (20 mllleseconds

(thousandths] to a few

seconds)

.5-1% Electrical storms, power

equipment fault. Addition

of heavy equipment to

load.

Total disruption of computer operations.

Damage to equip- ment when power Is restored abruptly.

Uninterruptible Power Sources. Reserve supply

equipment,

Invertera Motor

Generatora Power surges and sags

of short durations (typi- cally a few milliseconds

or a single power cycle)

40-47% Abruptly adding or removing loads to the power line by users. Faulty or arcing

switchea

False computer output, misregistration

of logic circuita possible hardware damaga

Surge suppression

devices or isolation transformera optionally with surge sup- pression devicea High voltage impulses

of extremely short duration (a few microseconds

to a short nanosecond)

35-40% inductive load switching, contact area start/stop equipment operation,

static discharge, electri- cal storma

Premature component failura misregistration of logic

circuitry, equipment

down tima

Surge suppression devicea

High frequency RFI /EMI HIA

^ %

Other computera radio and communication

devicea small motora

and commutatora

Little effect on

digital equipment.

Low pass filtera

Table 12, Basic cause, effect and treatment of power-line problems, and the

approximate cost of devices to remedy each situation

58
7.5 CHECKLIST FOR MINIMIZING ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES (36)

• Use separate feeders and branch circuits for office automation (OA)

systems so that no sudden common voltage drop will be created by

noncomputer equipment sharing the same circuits ("clean" power).

• Large motors which drive air conditioning compressors, which are regularly started and stopped should not be powered from the same

feeders or isolating transformers which supply the OA power.

• The operation of OA equipment from high impedence power sources such as diesel or gas turbine driven engines can result in large transient

voltage variations; low internal impedance and/or larger kVA sizes can minimize this risk.

• Avoid apparatus with regulators susceptible to overheating or to

oscillatory interaction with loads containing their own regulators.

• The input power to OA equipment should be filtered to ensure proper

performance.

7.6 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

7.6.1 Specialized Space Needs

UPS systems and barriers should be in protected utility areas. Batteries

represent potential shock hazards, danger from acid spills, flash heat and sparks

from high-energy short circuits, or even explosions. They should be Installed

in dedicated battery rooms with controlled access. Temperature should be

maintained at between 70° to 80°F, to ensure long life and capacity. The UPS

hardware should be placed close to the batteries to avoid unnecessary loss in

the dc bus and excessive electrical noise as well as a possible shock hazard.

Typically, the UPS is placed in a basement utility room or utility corridor

area where the equipment can be properly ventilated and kept at the appropriate

temperatures. The space should be secured and locked to prevent unauthorized

entry. Appropriate warning signs should be strategically located. A shower is

needed if batteries are of the lead-acid type. Finally, rooms should be shielded

from potential sources of electromagnetic and/or radio interference.

59
8. POWER AND COMMUNICATIONS WIRING SYSTEMS

8.1 FUNCTION

To provide power and communications services wherever needed to facilitate

organizational performance In offices. To provide the flexibility required to

cope with changing requirements.

8.2 BACKGROUND

Wiring systems in offices have remained basically the same for many years, but

within the past decade this situation has undergone profound changes. Office

automation, telecommunication, and other technologies, energy conservation

requirements, and the Increasing use of open-plan designs have all fostered the

design and application of new systems to delivery power and communications to

work areas. The central role being assumed by Individual workstations In automated offices has accelerated the demand for Improvements which have ranged In

complexity and sophistication from "Intelligent buildings" to flat conductor

cable.

8.3

CRITERIA

. Optimized flexibility Is needed to accommodate future changes; tradeoffs

made between frequency of changes. Initial and long-term costs.

• Wiring and communications systems should be Integrated when feasible,

e.g. Information and energy management; proper shielding Is required also.

• Systems should be aesthetically acceptable.

• Wiring changes should not cause major disruptions In ongoing activities.

• Dedicated circuits should be considered for maintaining critical operations such as security, safety, and highly critical Information services.

• When laying cable, future needs for communications and office automation

systems should be considered.

• Complete wiring diagrams should be available, and updated to reflect all

changes

.

• Cabling should be identified at every location where it enters or exits

a room.

60
8.4 TYPICAL APPROACHES

Many designers consider wire management to be the most important factor in

effectively coping with the needs of the automated office. Equipment types,

densities, and locations are all likely to change frequently within the useful

lifetime of a building, so power and communications systems must be designed to move and adapt. The options for distributing power, lighting, electronics and

communications services consist of five basic approaches, often used in combination:

1. Raised access floor.

2. Flat cable distribution.

3. Integrated floor ducts.

4. Floor distribution and poke-through.

5. Ceiling distribution and power poles or flex conductors.

6. Modular removable connectors.

7. Ceiling and workstation distribution.

Providing power and communications requires a wire or fiber conductor within a conduit (e.g. sheath, raceway, raised floor) connected to a terminal within a room and/or above the ceiling. The degree of flexibility provided varies from

system to system, as do the initial and long term costs. However, power and

communications signal lines should have sufficient separation to prevent

Interference, e.g. magnetic coupling.

The major features of the open office system has led to the popularity of the

underfloor system for electrical distribution and communication. The replacement of permanent walls with partitions and dividers and the movement of desks

away from exterior walls have had the effect of decreasing the potential use

of walls for power distribution purposes. The work support system exists

underfloor in one of five different horizontal planes. It can run along the

underside of the slab (as in a poke-through system) , within the body of the

slab (in a concrete underfloor system), just under the top surface of the slab

(fill and finish), or above the structural slab and below the walking surface

(raised or access floor). All underfloor systems result in a penetration of

the actual floor surface. The penetration can be as simple as raising a hatch

lid, or as complicated as drilling through the concrete slab. The location

and appearance of the service fitting is an important design consideration, as is the appearance of the floor after relocation. Some designs treat service

fittings as a necessary functioning element which should be clearly exposed

and detailed, while others attempt to conceal the service fittings.

61
8t4.1 F@ki-‘Th]feugh Syi^sei

In this systsffi tht floor slab Is oortd lo ordar to pull tleetrleal wiring froa

the floor belowt The resulting holes must be flre-treeted* The conduit runs from Its connection to the service fittings of the slab to the currently spaced

Junction box. A sleeve may be preset during construction or after. After the

hole is drilled, a sleeve is forced into place and the service fittings are then

installed from above. The system does not require an underfloor raceway.

Figure 14. Poke-Through System

8.4.2 Electrical Cellular Deck

It consists of closely-spaced cellular raceways that connect at regular intervals to a main and header duct. A matrix of preset service fittings is spaced

just below the surface floor in a trench. The required service is obtained by

punching a hole through a thin panel and bringing the appropriate cables through

the opening. Physically, the wiring must penetrate the floor, and in the case

of carpet tiles, the carpet might have to be cut out or peeled back.

Raceway for Electrical Wiring

Figure 15. Cellular Floor System

62
8.4.3 Underfloor Duct System

It consists of ducts spaced at regular intervals, between five to eight feet on centers, connecting to a main or header duct. This system has preset access

points which allow for minimal floor slab disruption, thus eliminating the need

for fire safety precautions.

Figure 16. Underfloor Duct System

8.4.4 Raised Access Flooring

Total access flooring is a system of interconnecting floor panels that are raised sufficiently above the structural slab to allow for installation of

electrical, mechanical, and air distribution systems. This approach is frequently used for the design of major computer facilities. Cabling may have to

be plenum-rated if underfloor area is a plenum.

63
8.4.5 Celling“Based Sys£ems/Power Poles

These systems offet an alternative to underfloor systems. Power poles are used

as a direct means of distribution by means of vertical poles or flexible hoses

located at workstations.

Figure 18. Power Pole

8.4.6 Flat Conductor Cable

This is a rather new approach which is receiving considerable attention today.

It offers an option for wiring design in buildings where underfloor ducting

cannot be used and conduit combined with exposed ceilings is not desired. Flat

cable delivers power and communications services to floor pedestals (power

outlets) that serve electric appliances and telephones. Experience has shown

that these pedestals should not be placed until workstations have been assembled

and last minute adjustments have been made in their location and orientation.

(Good coaxial flat conductor cables might be difficult to find.)

Cables can be mounted directly on the floor (with a protective metal shield)

under existing carpet tiles. Locational changes and/or new systems are Installed

by raising carpet tiles in the desired path, and redirecting existing flat

cable runs or by tapping into a run. Connections between flat and round cables

are made at transition boxes, usually located in walls or columns (37).

64
8.4.6. 1 Flat Conductor Cable Checklist

• Expect to see cable-caused ridges in the carpet tile initially; the

problem is often a temporary one.

• The cable cover should not be reused; it will be distorted when pulled

up, causing an uneven carpet tile.

• Consider keeping excess material for replacement purposes.

• Plan beyond the pedestal itself:

• Determine the kinds of wire management needed between the pedestal

and the using appliance.

• Determine the number of outlets needed for each particular workstation.

• Close coordination is required among the following systems: electrical,

communications, floor (carpet tiles), and workstations.

• Use undercarpet telephone cable where appropriate.

• Breaks in the wire are difficult to locate.

8.4.7 Workstation Distribution

This consists of pre-wired interconnecting panels in which the need for individual wiring is eliminated. Many furniture systems have power in raceways, but

power must be clustered at some point from floor, wall or column; planning of

clusters for future expansion is important. (Also see section 13.1).

65
8.5 TRADEOFFS AMONG ALTERNATIVE WIRING SYSTEMS

SYSTEM POSITIVE NEGATIVE

POKE-THROUGH ®Low first cost

°No raceway

“Expensive to make changes

“Disruptive of activities

“Fire safety precaution needed

ELECTRICAL “Relative flexible “Expensive

CELLULAR DECK “Easy to make changes “Service fittings sometimes

protrude; unsightly, tripping

hazard

UNDERFLOOR DUCT “Accessible

“No fire safety problem

“Expensive

“Difficulty planning for needed

flexibility

RAISED ACCESS

FLOOR

“Integration of electrical,

communications, HVAC

“Flexible

“Expensive to install

“When frequent changes made,

disruptive, hazardous

“Many spaces need conventional

floors - ramps, stairs needed

CEILING-BASED “Easty to integrate with

SYSTEMS furniture systems

“Flexible

“High first cost

“Careful planning needed - Intrusive

FLAT CONDUCTOR

CABLE

“Short installation time

“Structural integrity of

the floor system kept

“Changes can be made readily

O Can be used under carpets

“Cable must be shielded from

punctures

“Careful installation needed to

avoid unsightly cable ridges

8.6 ADDITIONAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

8.6.1 Retrofits

Providing adequate methods for concealing and running cables from mainframe

computers to peripheral equipment is often difficult in existing facilities.

Standard solutions include running cables up inside walls and over ceilings,

flat conductor cable systems, power poles, or raised flooring systems.

8.6.2 Upgrading of Cabling Systems

The ability to substitute new technologies for old ones depends on the ability

to remove the obsolete systems because of the limited capacity of horizontal

and riser space. Cable runs should therefore be visible and accessible over their entire run, and must meet fire safety requirements.

66
8.7 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

• Hung ceilings with greater than average depth below the structural

member, for coaxial cable, fiber optics, and future air conditioning

ductwork. This can sometimes result in aesthetic problems because of

ceiling tiles being repositioned incorrectly or chipped from repeated

access for maintenance and/or changes.

• Floor to ceiling utility chases can be placed on a regular module. It

is readily accessible, but reduces flexibility and limits room dimension

and total space arrangement options available.

• Movable walls, floors and/or ceilings are available, with vertical and

horizontal chases to accommodate future wiring needs.

• Plug-in cables can be used to connect above ceiling runways to power

poles; these systems have traditionally been used for the ready installation of lighting fixtures. For enclosed offices, the plug-in cables

can be nested in floor/ceiling assemblies.

• Underfloor soft wiring systems are available with plug-in boxes and

harnesses of various lengths to connect with pre-slotted outlets in

raised floors.

8.8 CHECKLIST WIRING SYSTEM DESIGN

With cellular flooring and underfloor ducts, system flexibility is

governed by the spacing of electrical cells, but flexibility can be

augmented by undercarpet systems.

Service areas must be designed with sufficient space for distribution

boxes and panels to accommodate changes and planned expansion.

Expansion space is needed in the building core for installing additional

bus risers for communications and power.

Extra sleeves are required for future power and communication cables.

Additional riser space might be needed on each floor for office automation

systems and networking, including mainframe and minicomputer linkages.

Ceiling heights of rooms must be sufficient to accommodate raised floors;

plenums must be deep enough to accommodate present and future needs when

these approaches are used.

Sufficient capacity is needed for feed conduit, vertical risers, telephone

closets, and conduit to individual tenants.

Specific needs of building users should be considered.

Plenum space needs plenum rated cable approved by local fire regulation

agency.

67
9. GObfllUNIGATION SYST134S

9.1 FUNGTION

It provides the means to transmit Information In the form of voice and data,

within an office, and to the "outside world."

9.2 BACKGROUND

Several types of communications and/or computer applications are likely in an

office. It is anticipated that all workstations will contain a terminal and at

least one telephone. The computer service may be provided by dedicated hard-wired

connections to desktop terminals, or by using the same wires that serve the telephone, possibly in a local area network configuration. Other possible workstation

services are electronic and/or voice mail, electronic filing, and facsimile

transmission. The telecommunication system can have a major impact on the level

of service provided to office personnel. This system will have Important implications for the design of the building and its systems, e.g. cable distribution,

wiring closets, riser systems, main telephone room and service entrance. The

need to plan for likely future expansion of these services is another requirement.

9.3 CRITERIA

• Voice and data information should be readily transmitted at an acceptable

rate of speed.

. Error rates of systems should conform to organizational requirements.

• Systems should have sufficient flexibility to facilitate future changes

and/or expansion.

• System features, e.g. capacity, flexibility should meet needs of office

activities.

• Sufficient power is needed to meet emergency conditions.

• Systems should have the capability to handle analog and digital information.

• Adequate protection is needed from electromagnetic interference.

• Systems should provide the means to integrate building support (e.g.

energy management) and operational data.

• Systems should be designed to facilitate maintenance.

• There should be a single organization responsible for system operation,

and problem reporting.

• A diagnostic capability is needed to locate problem - what and where.

• Voice and data communications channels should be separated, unless digitized.

68
9.4 TYPICAL APPROACHES

The telephone lines or cables cross the property line at the telephone service

entrance, where they also enter the building. These lines interconnect with

the building cable system at the main telephone terminal equipment room, the

"heart" of the building’s communication system. (In multi-storied buildings,

more than one main terminal room may be needed.) From the main terminal room(s),

riser systems are used to distribute the lines to each floor of the building.

The particular riser system design used depends on the type and layout of the

building and the particular systems being installed. There are two basic types

of systems - closed shaft and open shaft. The closed system consists of

vertically aligned closets on each floor, connected by pipe sleeves, slots, or conduit through floors. In the open shaft design, the riser cables pass from

floor to floor, without being enclosed in closets. Coordination with local

exchange company early in the planning process is essential.

9.4.1 Checklist of Network Features (38)

NETWORK CHARACTERISTICS

NETWORK

APPLICATIONS

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Figure 19. Network Applications and Features

69
Tht friffitwork for dtflning a eemmunleatieni nttwork is bastd ©n a highly layared

strias of protocols dtvilopad by tht Intarnational Standards Organization (ISO),

calltd th@ Open System Interconnection (OSX) protocols , . The OSI

architecture defines seven layers of comnunications:

"1. The Physical layer. This defines the electrical and mechanical

interfaces to the network. The physical layer specifies the par-

- ticular signaling means (baseband vs RF for example), the modulation technique adopted, station identification addresses, etc.

2. The Data-Link Level. This is where the actual packet formats are established, along with the particular access control mechanism

used to regulate use of the physical network. Data are encapsulated in packets that contain physical addressing information,

error detection, etc.

3. The Network Layer. This level determines how to get a message from

one network to another one, since many paths may exist. It may use several intermediate steps to get information to its ultimate

destination.

4. The Transport Layer. This provides another level of connections

between network entities. It manages the connections and segments

messages into smaller pieces that the network can support. It may

also be Involved in error and flow control.

5. The Session Layer. This is used to set up and break communications

paths across the network and manage the exchange of data. It is

responsible for multiplexing and demultiplexing messages, managing

the sequencing and priority of these messages, and providing the

needed buffers.

6. The Presentation Layer. It is primarily responsible for making

data available to the Application layer in a meaningful fashion.

It takes care of protocol conversion, data unpacking, translation,

or encryption.

7. The Application Layer. It provides for the identification of users

and services, and is responsible for initiation and reliability of

data transfers, as well as general network access, flow control and

recovery. Utility programs may perform network file-transfers,

terminal to network support, etc."

70
9.4.2 Checklist - Design for Communications Systems

• Telephone Service Entrance

• Size is determined by the number of lines needed, present and future.

• Main Telephone Terminal Room

• Location should be close to the center of the riser cable distribution

network.

• It should be convenient to the service entrance.

• Environmental conditions should be appropriate for the equipment being

supported.

• The size should be sufficient to house existing equipment, accommodate

necessary activities and planned expansion.

• If a non-sealed battery powered or battery backup for non-sealed PBX

is installed, separate space should be available for the batteries.

• Wiring Closets

• Walk-in and shallow types are both used.

• They should be at least three feet deep unless they open into a circulation area.

• Access is needed without disrupting normal office operations.

• Adequate power is required.

• Environmental conditions should be appropriate for the equipment being

supported.

• Closets for data systems should contain patch panels to cross connect

data devices.

• Sufficient easy access to risers is needed.

• They should be separated and/or shielded from sources of electromagnetic

interference.

• Lighting should be from incandescent sources.

• Cabling

• It must be housed in conduits where required, and riser ducts separate

from power conductors.

• It should be separated and/or shielded from sources of electromagnetic

interference.

• Networking (See following section)

• Internal systems should be linked with external ones, e.g. telephone,

microwave, satellite.

9.5 TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACCESSORIES (39)

9.5.1 Functions

There are self-contained, plug-compatible devices for word processors, small

computers, terminals, and other types of office automation equipment. Once

connected they provide direct and automatic access to one or more domestic and

International networks.

71
9«3.2 Criteria

Desirable features are as follows;

• Capability to support multiple private and public networks.

• Access to a text editor.

• Call dialing, connect, disconnect, and reentry features.

. Capability to address commonly called locations.

. Communications port options allowing for selection of one, two, or all

business networks.

• Compatibility with dissimilar types of equipment through standard

accessory ports.

9.5.3 Checklist of System Requirements

• Appropriate protocols, speed conversions and signaling must be perfectly

matched with those of the networks being accessed.

• A national maintenance capability should exist.

• An integral battery back-up system to protect the memory from momentary

power outages.

• User-friendly programming features, with instructions in jargon free

language

.

• Multiple user capability, connecting dissimilar systems.

• Low power requirements.

• The system should be modular, expandable and capable of upgrading

• Capability to perform simultaneous operations - e.g. receiving and sending

messages, information status, etc.

. Good record of customer service, preferably through local dealers and

users.

72
10. LOCAL AREA NETWORKS

10.1 FUNCTION

A local area network (LAN) is an electronic communication linkage which may not

require public communications facilities to operate. It is typically used by

an organization within a building or among a small set of buildings, to facilitate communications and information processing. The LAN is designed to provide

the "highway" to optimize network traffic and often trouble shooting capabilities for linking different machines, languages, and operating techniques into

a coherent system. Such networks can provide the capabilities of advanced

technologies to every worker at every location. They can also provide the means of coordinating diverse activities consistent with overall organizational

objectives, e.g. management information systems, security and safety requirements, energy management, and centralized data bases (40).

10.2 CRITERIA

Two types of criteria are important for LAN, those associated with system

performance, and those which address design issues.

10.2.1 System Performance

Table 14. Requirements for a LAN (40)

• Relatively high data rates (typically 1 to 10 or higher megabits per

second)

.

• Geographic distance spanning at 1 kilometer or more (typically within a building or a small set of buildings).

• Ability to support at least several hundred independent devices.

• Simplicity, or the ability to provide the simplest possible mechanisms

that have the required functionality and performance.

• Good error characteristics, good reliability, and minimal dependence

upon any centralized components or control.

• Efficient use of shared resources, particularly the communications

network itself.

• Stability under high load.

• Fair access to the system by all devices.

• Easy installation of a small system, with gradual growth as the system

evolves

.

• Ability to optimize and report status of system elements.

• Ease of re-configuration and maintenance.

• High reliability of devices on network.

• Low cost.

• Easy maintainability.

73
10t2*2 Deilgn I§eua§

• should ba able to oparata under typical anvlronaental conditions of

the buildings In which they are located, with normal exposure to dust,

humidity and temperature change*

• Equipment may be required to operate within given electrical constraints,

e*g* power, voltage, phase, and/or frequency characteristics.

• Sufficient space is needed to accommodate specialized equipment and

cabling requirements.

• Sufficient flexibility Is needed to readily accommodate planned and

unplanned changes and additions with minimal disruption to ongoing

activities.

10.3 TYPICAL APPROACHES

10.3.1 Network Configurations

Most local networks are designed to accommodate several hundred stations (nodes),

separated from one another by various distances, sometimes as much as a mile.

Each node operates as a device (terminal, computer port, printer, etc.) and a communication system, enabling data from diverse organizational elements to

be used by an Individual working on a given problem or office function. Three

types of configurations exemplify the structure of most networks. Table 15

Indicates some Important positive and negative features of each approach.

74
10.3.1.1 The Star

This is the oldest arrangement, with a multiplexing device serving at the head

of the network. Devices connect directly to the hub by coaxial cable, or a voice/data telephone, or by using some type of modem.

Figure 20. Star network topology

10.3.1.2 The Ring

This configuration eliminates the need for a central hub switcher. A signal

repeater is located at each node of the network, enabling signals to travel

great distances.

75
10.3.1.3 A Bus Network

This is the most common form of network, consisting of a length of coaxial

cable (bus), to which microcomputer stations are attached by means of simple

cable taps. There is no centralized control hub and signals from one station

move along the bus in both directions to all stations tapped into the cable.

Figure 22. Bus network topology

76
10.3.1.4 Tradeoffs Among Alternative Configurations of LAN

POSITIVE FEATURES NEGATIVE FEATURES

STAR

RING

BUS

® Multiple access possible

® Memory may reside in both central

and peripheral locations

° Ideal for continuous monitoring

of individual and full system

performance

° Accommodates fiber optics

° High overall performance

“ Each terminal communicates with

every other terminal

° Supports distributed decision

making

° Repeaters boost signal for large

terminal separation distances

° Fault detection and diagnosis

from any terminal

° Every terminal communicates with

every other terminal

° Control may be decentralized

® Widely used with good results

° Few maintenance problems, use

of common bus for data linking

° Easy to add peripheral equipment

° Central processing unit (CPU)

malfunction affects entire

system

° CPU operational limitations

influence system capability

° High load operation calls for

careful planned access strategy

® Polling of station is required

° Relatively easy to access (security problems)

® Bandwidth of ring limits data

transmission capability

° On-line access control strategy

is needed

“ If one node goes down, the

system cannot operate; redundancy and logic interface unit

needed to overcome problem

° A broken bus cripples all

down-line communication

° Relatively easy to access (security problems)

° Bus bandwidth limits data

transmission capability

° Strategy needed to control

user access; tailored software

necessary

“ Cannot cheaply accommodate

optical cables

Table 15. Positive and Negative Features of LAN Configurations

77
10.4 ELECTRICAL/COMMUNICATIONS LINKAGES

Four network types are available - twisted pair, baseband, fiber optics.

Considerations for their selection depend upon a number of factors:

• The capacity required

• The distances between proposed stations

• The importance of data speed

• The requirements to interfere with other systems

• Acceptable error rates

• Proposed expansion requirements

• Maintenance requirements and constraints

• Cost considerations - first and long-term

» Availability

10.4.1 Twisted Pair

This is the oldest technology and consists of two or more wires connecting

devices to one another, sometimes employing a PBX for central switching.

10.4.2 Baseband

Communications are placed on one channel of a coaxial cable or a TWX cable. It

doesn't require the dedicated wires associated with twisted pairs. It can connect computers, word processors and other office automation devices on a single floor or limited area.

10.4.3 Broadband

Information is carried up to distances of more than 40 miles by several hundred

channels on a cable television type of coaxial cable. The channel bandwidth

can accommodate voice, video and data channels at high transmission speeds.

10.4.4 Fiber Optics

Uses light beams traveling through glass threads. Each fiber can carry many

channels, and many channels can be packed into a relatively slender cable. The

bandwidth is considerable, as is the capacity to accommodate network system

terminals.

78
10.4,5 Tradeoffs Among Alternative Linkages of LAN (42)

TWISTED

PAIR

BASEBAND

BROADBAND

FIBER

OPTICS

POSITIVE FEATURES NEGATIVE FEATURES

° System compatibility through the

telephone system

^ High speed of data transmission

Relatively trouble free

° High speeds of data transmission

® Doesn't require conduit or protective ductwork when using special

cable

® Can be fastened directly to walls

or ceilings; must be done with car<

° High speeds of transmission

“ Bandwidth is very high

® Secure

° Limited capacity

° Slow transmission speed

° Lack of shielding make it

susceptible to interference

® Large ducts needed for

dedicated wires

° Trouble-shooting difficult

because of large number of

wires

° Connecting with other networks

requires interfaces

° Requires ducting, conduit or fireproof coating to meet

building code requirements

° Limited range; repeaters needed

for more than one mile

° Cable must be "pulled through"

the building in most instances

“ Connecting with other networks

requires interfaces

° Requires ducting, conduit or fireproof coating to meet

building code requirements

° Taps must be made at specified

points to make connections

° Relatively expensive

“ Limited to point-to-point

applications today

° Maintenance is difficult;

splicing tiny and similar

cables

® Technology is relatively

new; limited operational

data available

Table 16. Positive and Negative Features of Wiring Systems

79
10.5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

10.5.1 Space Considerations. Among the considerations are:

• Room for the interconnection of units colocated with support units.

• Available wall and floor space for taps/transceivers.

• Areas within or outside of walls, ceilings, and floors for cabling, and

repeaters/amplifiers

.

• Dedicated rooms or floor space for network control units placed centrally

or distributed appropriately.

• Floor loading.

• Adequate space for working on equipment; maintenance and service support.

• Availability of proper power.

80
11. LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS

11.1 FUNCTION

To prevent life and property from harm or loss caused by accidents and natural

or man-made events.

Life safety systems include fire protection equipment and systems such as sensors

and alarms, extinguishing systems, exit lights, control of emergency exits,

emergency lighting, control of fire dampers, smoke exhaust and ventilating

fans, and some aspects of site security.

CWarrwi LMMi

Figure 23 Life-safety interface elements
!

11.2 CRITERIA

• Ensure the safety of building occupants.

• Minimize the loss of equipment and data in the event of emergency.

• Minimize "downtime" of operations after emergency conditions.

• Establish adequate safeguards against activation of systems when not

required.

• Systems should be easy to operate and monitor.

>• Systems should be powered independently of main power system

- Systems should be designed to facilitate future expansion and/or changes.

11.3 TYPICAL APPROACH

The design of a life safety system can be accomplished by the following steps:

> Develop a list of all of the life-safety subsystems and individual

devices and controls, then list the operating modes of each one.

' Develop a philosophy for linking and prioritizing the operations,

showing which systems trigger other systems, or prevent other systems

from operating.

' Resolve the time delays, inhibitions, and sequences necessary to

eliminate logical conflicts and establish priorities.

If these systems can be placed in a single, readily accessible cabinet, and the

circuits properly and clearly documented for installation, maintenance and

future additions, many potential problems can be avoided. A possible configuration of such a system appears on the next page:

82
Special "Console"

to Monitor/ Alarm

Various Electrical Power Parameters

/

oogT

• •

' • •

• •

• • ••

>

: s 4

—1

Unknown Voltage. Frequertcy artd/or Load Current Requirement.

Problems Arise in Custom Wiring Interconnections Which ¥«re Designed Without Full Details on Working Voltages ertd Current Requirements of Sensors and Interface Connectiorts. If Wired at the Discretion of Installers, a True Diagram May

Never be Created. Documentation of Devices and

all Interconnection is Important.

To 'Smoke' Detactor(s)

To Sprinklers

To Misc. /Power

©Warren Lewis

Figure 24. ADP site basic life-safety elements to be coordinated include:

A-the halon fire suppression control system cabinet; B —the smoke,

fire and sprinkler alarm and arming system cabinet, C—a "console"

to monitor other parameters of the environment such as room temperature, humidity, water under the floor, status of power sources,

HVAC equipment, etc.

83
11.4 CHECKLIST - LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS

Systems should have the following features;

• Smoke detectors based on optical or ionization designs.

• Temperature and rate of heat rise detectors.

• Flame detectors.

• Halon discharge control units which accept inputs from sensing alarms.

They supervise the systems, produce audible alarms, provide manual

activation and manual override, time delays and equipment shutdown;

finally, they suppress fires using halogen gas.

• "Panic" button for turning off power.

• Automatic shutdown of; central computer, HVAC system.

• Automatic startup of smoke removal fans.

• Automatic control of fire dampers, blocking air ventilation passages.

• Controlled personal access to central computer and life safety control

system.

• Manual and automatic initiation of alarm systems.

• Fire related circuits should run separately in conduit containing only

those conductors.

• A data logging system identifying significant changes in systems; the

ability to access information concerning status of system components.

• A schedule for testing primary and backup life safety power systems.

84
11.5 CHECKLIST - CENTRAL CONTROL OF LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS

• Location should be convenient to personnel expected to respond to them.

• Controls and displays should be grouped in accordance with major functions,

e.g. fire, HVAC, power.

• The grouping of system elements should be consistent, e.g. locations

of displays, controls.

• All indicators and controls should be clearly labeled.

• Schematic diagram should be available, including "as wired" and

"as installed" corrections for all devices and interconnections.

• Formal acceptance tests should be conducted; scheduled maintenance

and testing to verify system performance - typically anually or semiannually

11.6 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

The design of the life safety system must be integrated with the other power,

electrical and information systems in a building. For example in a building

containing energy management and advanced telecommunications systems, the

monitoring activities and the associated controls might be centralized with

those of the life safety systems.

85
I

Following is an illustration of a life safety system control configuration:

Figure 25. A well-organized, convenient, and coordinated arrangement of lifesafety indicators and controls: An emergency telephone with separate

line (not via PBX or switchboard) is needed near the exit and the

life-safety indicators and controls. The audible alarm should not

be so close to the telephone as to defeat attempts to communicate.

86
12. INTEGRATION OF COMMUNICATIONS AND AUTOMATION SYSTEMS (43)

A key requirement in OA design is the effective integration of the various

systems comprising the modern office environment. The capability of integrating

communication, monitoring and control systems reflects newly emerging technology

which has only been tested in a few applications. Each major function is

likely to have its own stand-alone processor with individual function multiplexers connected to them. Subsystems which should be considered for inclusion

in an integrated network include:

• Voice and data communications.

• Office automation (and networking).

• HVAC, security, fire safety.

• Elevators.

• Lighting.

Features of the integrated system should be:

• Integration of energy management, HVAC system operations and maintenance,

data acquisition and management, fire and smoke management, and system

alarms.

• Air handling system, fans, duct smoke dampers, outside air, and exhaust

dampers integrated with fire and smoke controls.

• State-of-the-art sensors.

• Distributed building automation system with stand-alone field interface

devices.

• Direct digital controls.

• Conventional/adaptive algorithms for HVAC system controls.

• Fire system overrides other systems when necessary; it is operational

at all times and secure from interference.

There are various levels of system integration:

• Non-integrated. Each system has stand alone processor and dedicated

cabling.

• Shared cabling. The minimum level of integration Involves separate

processors and sensors or terminals with shared conduit and/or cable.

• Interfaced sub-systems. Separate, stand alone processors, actively

interfaced to share data and communicate with one another. Cabling

may or may not be shared.

• Total integration. Shared processor(s) and cable highways.

87
12.1 CHECKLIST FOR SYSTEMS INTEGRATION

• Which functions are integrated/controlled?

• Which functions can or must be controlled separately?

• For each major integrated function, what operations are controllable,

and what features of control, programmability, input/output , display,

etc. are available?

• What is the "architecture" of the system, i.e. central/distributed;

redundancy, sensor types, conductor media?

• How does the system assure reliability?

• What is done to protect functions, zones, the entire system?

• What manual backup systems are available?

• Who provides emergency repairs; how long will it take?

• What are the initial and operating costs of the system (including

maintenance and repairs)?

• Does the system require dedicated staff to monitor and operate it? If

so, what training and experience is needed?

• What special physical requirements does the system have, e.g. size of

central and distributed processors and control panels, HVAC and power,

cable runs?

88
ISSUES PRESENT OFFICE AUTCMATED OFFICE POSSIBLE IMPACT

INTEGRATION SYSTEMS

° Voice/data interface

“ Security

' Electrical

° Fire-safety

Environmental

® Telecommunications

- Telephone Systems

- Local area networks

- Point-to-point

and external

communications

systems

- Facsimile (FAX)

Systems

- Types of Cable

Table

Separated

Stand-alone

Decentralized

Separate system

Separate heating and

A/C systems

Integrated using

state-of-the-art

equipment

Integrated

Centralized and

integrated

Integrated with

"Central nervous

Systems

Energy management

system

- Less space

- Power cables

- Raised flooring

- overhead ceilings

with plenum

Patch panels

- Distribution systems

- Data highways

- Electronic sensors

- Fewer personnel

- Less space

- Maintaining devices

- Automated

- Cabling

- Lighting control

- Monitoring system

- Sensors

- Automated

- Alarms

- Wiring

- Automatic control

- Wiring

- Less space

- Central control

Stand-alone voice Combine voice/data - Different cabling requirement

(Digital PBX's) - Less equipment room space

- Less equipment

- Network Implications

Decentralized, standalone

Centralized, Integrated - Combined with other equipment

systems

- Cabling requirements

- Interface

- Interoperability

- Equipment definition

- Structure requirements

Dedicated Telephone Hybrid (satellite,

lines microwave fiberoptic, and telephone

lines)

- Roof antennas

- Cabling

- Site surveys

- Space for concentrators

- multiplexors, etc.

Stand-alone A network Integrated

with other systems

- Interfaces

- Cabling

- Environment consideration

Multipair (3+) twisted Large capacity fiber

copper, coaxial cable trlaxial

Radio and/or Infrared

Multimedia in single

jacket

Twisted fiber; coax replacement

- Increased size, protection

of equipment In closet

- More space needed for closets, vertical

cable distribution

17 . Integration and Telecommunications systems - Possible design Impact (<>3

89
I

13. OFFICE MATERIALS (44)

13.1 NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC FABRICS (27)

13.1.1 Function

Aside from its other practical and aesthetic features, a major purpose for the use of fabrics is to contribute to the desired acoustical performance of the

automated office. Fabrics are used extensively for floor coverings, furniture

and panel systems, as a means ^f controlling noise and enhancing auditory

privacy.

13.1.2

Criteria - Checklist (Fabrics)

• Permanency. Will the fiber content fade in the sunlight or disintegrate

with age?

• Moisture and mildew resistance. Does the weave allow dimensional

stability for dry and humid conditions? Will dampness promote mildew?

• Maintenance. Is is resistant to abrasion? Can it be washed, dry-cleaned

or refinished?

• Fire resistance. Is it flameproof? Will it melt and produce dangerous

flames and/or fumes?

• Installation. Is it easy to work with? Can it be easily replaced?

• Thermal resistance. Will it expand or contract with thermal absorption?

Material Code

1. Regular Nylon

2. Com'l Anti static Nylon

3. Vinyl Asbestos Tile 4 High-Pressure Laminate

Acrylic and Polyester Computer Grade Caipet 8

a 6

2 4

2 - mU

50% R.H.

Very

Poor

Marginal

Safe

Equipment

Reliability ¥

20% R.H.

Figure 2b. Typical static voltages generated by walking on common floor covering

materials (18)

90
• Weight. How heavy is the material? Can it be easily handled?

• Sound absorption. What are its characteristics with respect to absorbing,

dampening, reflecting sound?

• Appropriateness. Is it consistent with the uses of the space?

• Availability. Can the material be obtained for replacement and expansion

purposes; for how long?

• Decorative palette. How varied are the colors and textures?

• Price. Is it cost effective?

13.1.3 Carpet Material Characteristics (27)

MATERIAL TYPE POSITIVE FEATURES NEGATIVE FEATURES

Wool

1^

• Warm, soft and resilient • Supports static

• Fire and mildew resistent • Expensive

• Doesn't attract dirt

• Resistant to aging and

abrasions

• Good color fastness to

sunlight

Nylon • Very tough fiber • Melts on contact

• Good static control with flame

• Resistant to mildew • Attracts dirt

• Resistant to aging and

abrasions

• Blends well with other

fibers

Polyester • Water resistant, soft • Loses strength with

• Resistant to mildew exposure to sun

• Resistant to wear and

abrasions

Acrylic • Good wearing properties • Poor soiling and

• Resistant to sunlight cleaning properties

• Resistant to abrasions

• Low static electricity

Polypropylene • Resistant to acid, chemicals • Low heat resistance

(Olefin) • Resistant to mildew, water

Indoor /Out door exposure

Table 18. Carpet Materials - Positive and Negative Features

91
13.2 CARPET TITLE

Office automation has led to the increased use of carpet tiles for floor

coverings. Their modular design provides underfloor accessibility, easy

maintenance and replacement consistent with the need for flexibility.

13.2.1 Criteria

The following performance features are important when carpet tiles are employed;

• Abrasion resistance and wearability.

> Appearance retention; the ability to withstand crushing, fading, soiling

and maintenance.

• Proper maintenance.

• Appropriate combustion and smoke performance characteristics.

• Inhibiting the accumulation of static electricity through built-in

special fibers, wires or coatings.

• Cost-effectiveness as compared with the materials and maintenance

cost of alternative choices.

• Maintenancy of critical performance features after initial

installation, e.g. loss of adhesion.

92
14. OVERVIEW - SPECIALIZED SPACES

A comprehensive literature search combined with a questionnaire survey and a roundtable meeting formed the basis for the information contained in the

present document. These activities, augmented by interviews with architects

and other professionals, resulted in the identification of specialized spaces

which merit consideration in designing for office automation (46).

• An atrium. This can be used as a means of offsetting the technological

emphasis of the automated office, by providing a connection with the

outside, a change in scale, and a place for social contact.

• Training and media presentation rooms. Organizational and technological

changes occur at such a rapid rate that a continuing need exists to

upgrade personal skills and transmit information to staff members.

• Meeting rooms. With the popularity of open-space design, fewer spaces

are available for private meetings of small groups of people. Such spaces

and those which can accomodate larger numbers of people are required to

facilitate staff interactions, and offset the isolation inherent in many

VDT-based activities.

• Centralized reproduction facilities. New and sophisticated systems

provide the capability to produce documents with the quality formerly

available only from printers. The cost of such systems can only be

justified by organization-wide use. These systems are usually quite

noisy and should be acoustically isolated from the general workfloor.

• Centralized information storage. For the forseeable future, paper

will continue to be an important media for storing information. In

addition, microfiche, magnetic tape and disks must be stored. The

latter two types of storage require careful environmental control.

• Centralized communications and information processing. More offices

are likely to contain CPUs and systems such as telex and facsimile

reproduction. Such equipment require specialized spaces and facilities

for occasional users.

• Equipment areas. As more technology is moved into the office, an increased need exists for spare parts and replacement systems as well

as facilities for simple maintenance and checking. The demand for these

resources is likely to accelerate as office activities are more dependent

on automation, since equipment outages will be very costly in productivity

• Clusters of offices, grouped on the basis of similarity of activities.

• Furnishing storage. With the popularity of open-office design, the

increased acceptance of ergonomically responsive furnishings (tailored

to individual needs), and the need to respond rapidly to change, there

is likely to be a substantial need to maintain an inventory of furniture,

panels, etc.

93
• Magnetic media storage. Careful environmental control is required to ensure that information is preserved. Warping and stretching occurs in

hot environments. Low humidity can cause problems due to static buildup,

allowing dust and dirt to accumulate. Variable environmental conditions

can affect the longevity and reliability of media performance. Among

other potential problems are;

- Magnetic fields. Media should be kept away from transformers or large motors that generate magnetic fields.

- Shock and vibration. These conditions can cause discs to lose

information.

- Chemical solvents. Volatile chemicals can degrade media, and should

not be stored nearby.

14.1

TELECONFERENCE FACILITIES

14.1.1 Function

The high cost of travel and the proliferation of organizational meetings has

increased the demand for the capability to conduct meetings remotely. The

technology required to accomplish this has been available for some time, with

costs being the major obstacle. Technological advances have resulted in

substantial economies and increased communications capabilities, and it is

anticipated that teleconferencing facilities will become more commonplace in

the near future.

A teleconference is a meeting involving two or more people at two or more different locations, with discussions being transmitted through audio, digital,

and/or video techniques. Video teleconferencing offers the greatest potential

for substituting for meetings because of the availability of powerful technologies

to simulate a live meeting.

14.1.2 Criteria

• The room should facilitate the communication of verbal and visual

information and reflect the design needs of the system vendor.

• The space should be free from visual and noise distractions.

• Required support equipment should be readily accomodated without

imparing communications.

• The decor of the room should be consistent with the normal work area of

the major users.

94
14.1.3 Environmental Context

• The location of the room should be suitable for those expected to use it.

It should not be part of an executive suite, unless top management are its

primary users. In most instances middle managers can make most effective

use of these facilities.

• The room should be located away from mechanical devices such as elevators,

central air conditioning and heating, and from street and office sounds.

14.1.4.1 Support System Considerations

Acoustics

• Existing rooms are often converted to teleconference facilities,

creating acoustical problems in some instances. Most such rooms

are constructed of standard building materials that are 4 feet by

8 feet rectangles. These dimensions often lead to a room designed

with a ratio of length of width to height of 3:3:1, which reinforces many negative acoustic properties such as reverberation.

A ratio of 5:3:2 is more preferable. A still more effective way

of reducing acoustical problems is to use non-parallel walls and/or

having large pieces of furniture in the space to scatter sound.

• Careful acoustical treatment of all surfaces, walls, ceiling, and

floors is required in such facilities.

• The noise from the support equipment can be minimized by locating

HVAC equipment required for teleconferencing in acoustically isolated

adjacent spaces.

14.1.4.2 HVAC Equipment

• In a fully equipped room containing facsimile systems and VDT equipment,

provisions must be made for proper ventilation and for the air

conditioning equipment.

14.1.4.3 Lighting and Color

• Because of the need to see people and visual displays clearly,

lighting and color selection for the room are of critical importance.

• Room surfaces should be non-specularly-ref lective. The colors selected,

including those of carpets and furnishings should have neutral tones.

(47)

• The system vendor should participate in the decision process for making

lighting and color selections.

95
I

15. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Developing appropriate designs for new office technologies poses a major

challenge to the design and engineering professions. Since office automation

is a relatively recent phenomenon, and one not yet subject to much systematic

study, it would be premature to formulate performance criteria for office

settings. However, designers have had to cope with these new technologies for more than a decade using a variety of design practices devised on the basis of

their experience and professional judgement. These practices, together with

published material in design and research publications, form the basis for the

present report. Since this document is based upon limited findings, it is

designated as an 'interim' guideline, with the anticipation that it will be

periodically updated as better information becomes available. One method that

might be used to upgrade the guideline is to have roundtable meetings of users

and designers on a regular basis, perhaps annually.

As noted in the Introduction of this report, the automation of office activities

has profoundly affected the office as a place to work in ways that are not yet

well understood. General agreement exists among office automation experts

however that a broad range of interdependent issues should be considered when

planning to automate office functions. These Issues include: management,

information processing, human resources (ergonomics), telecommunications,

technological, and design.

The differences between the traditional office and the automated one has

greatly increased the importance of office design as a contributing factor to

organizational effectiveness. In the traditional office there is considerable

opportunity for personal interaction among employees. For example, since most

information exists in paper form, it must be physically handled and transmitted

manually from person to person. Exchanging information and the drafting of

documents therefore provides the opportunity for conversation and social

exchanges. There is also a one-on-one relationship between the person initiating a document and the one responsible for putting it in final form, e.g.

typing it. With the advent of electronic based information systems, a person

at a workstation often communicates only with a VDT-based terminal during an eight hour workday. Little need exists in many activities to work personally

with office colleagues. As a result, office workers have complained about a sense of isolation, and being subservient to technology (1). Office design

can be used to alleviate these problems by providing places for informal conversations and a general appearance which provides visual relief from technology.

Technology has influenced the composition of the office workforce. It has had

the effect of Increasing the numbers of professionals and managers in the

workforce, as a greater percentage of people are engaged in white collar work.

These knowledge workers have demonstrated that they want a "high quality" work

setting which is responsive to the mental and physical demands of their jobs.

Questionnaire surveys have identified a desire for visual and auditory privacy,

glare-free lighting, and control of the immediate environment as being important

design issues for knowledge workers (4).

96
Unfortunately, at a time when the quality of the work environment has become

more important, the introduction of technologies into offices has frequently

resulted in a loss of environment quality, e.g. machines producing noise and

heat being placed on desks designed to suport paper-based activities. This has

occurred because office automation to date has been largely hardware-driven.

It has resulted from the purchase of individual machines and components purported

to increase office productivity. There has been insufficient planning for

office automation in too many instances, especially with respect to design

consequences (9).

Looking toward the future development of design criteria for office automation,

improved information is needed in the following areas:

• Determining the effectiveness of the design practices that have been

used to date. Considerable experience has been gained by the federal

government and the private sector, but few systematic findings are available in the public domain. Evaluations of approaches that "work"

or don't "work" would result in considerable dollar savings.

• In recent years, office design has followed a trend to open-space

planning for traditional and automated office functions. Yet, surveys

of office workers have indicated many problems with such designs. Post

occupancy evaluations of these designs for automated offices should be

conducted.

• Technological advancements have permitted the automation of many building

systems, operational, service and environmental. However, the tradeoffs

associated with such automation are not well understood and require

investigation. For example, studies have shown that workers want more,

not less control of their workspaces and environments (5).

• The integration of operational systems with other building service

systems is receiving considerable attention by designers, but little

consensus exists as to how to achieve this result. Field studies are required to develop the data needed for design criteria to accomplish

this important function.

• In response to the need for better office automation planning, an improved architectural programming process should be developed. It should facilitate the incorportation of needed technologies into the

office in a way that minimizes the disruption of ongoing activities,

and do so in a cost effective manner.

97
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Becker, F. Workspace; Creating Environments In Organizations , Praeger

Pub., N.Y., 1981.

2. Downs, A. "The Future of Office Buildings", Buildings, September, 1981.

3. Harris, L. & Assoc. "The Steelcase Study of Office Environments: Do

They Work?", Steelcase, Grand Rapids, Mich., 1979.

4. "The Office Building as a Tool to Increase Productivity and the Quality

of Working Life", BOSTI, Buffalo, N.Y. , 1982.

5. Quinan, M. , et. at., "FSA Systems Furniture Evaluation - Final Report",

BOSTI, Buffalo, N.Y. , May, 1982.

6. Martin, A. "The Human Connection: A Strategy for Making Automation

Work", Admin. Mgmt. , Feb., 1982.

7. Zuboff, S. "Psychological and Organizational Implications of ComputerMediated Work", CISR #71, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., June, 1981.

8. Stout, E. "The Human Factor in Productivity: The Next Frontier in the

Office", Journal of Micrographics, April, 1981.

9. Driscoll, J. "Office Automation: The Dynamics of a Technological

Boondoggle" in Emerging Office Systems , ed. R. Landau, J. Bair, and

J. Siegman, Ablex Pub. Co., Northwood, N.J., 1982.

10. Damodaran, L. "Human Choices in the Office of the Future", lERE Conf.

Proc. #45, London, England, April, 1980.

11. Brown, B., Dismukes , K. and Rinalducci, E. "Video Display Terminals

and Vision of Workers", Behaviour and Information Technology, Vol. 1,

No. 2, 1982.

12. Rubin, A. and Murray, J. "Office Design and Implementation: Case

Studies", Unpublished Trip Report, Feb., 1983.

13. Hendricks, D. , et. al. "Human Engineering Guidelines for Management

Information Systems", Human Engineering Laboratory, Aberdeen, Md.

,

Nov., 1982.

14. Kaplan, A. "The Ergonomics of Office Automation", Modern Office

Procedures, May, 1982.

15. Marans, R. and Spreckelmeyer , K. "Evaluating Open and Conventional

Office Design", Environment and Behavior, Vol. 14, No. 3, May, 1982.

16. Veneklasen, W. "The Role of Habitability Information in Post-Occupancy

Evaluation", CERL Interim Report E-46, March, 1979.

98
17. Van Cott, H. and Kindade, R. Human Engineering Guide to Equipment

Design , U. S. Gov't Printing Office, Wash., D.C., 1972.

18. Video Displays, Work and Vision, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.,

1983.

19. Kroemer, K. , and Price, D. "Ergonomics in the Office; Comfortable

Workstations Allow Maximum Productivity", Ind. Eng., July, 1982.

20. Galitz, W. Human Factors in Office Automation , Life Office Mgmt. Assn.,

Atlanta, Ga. , 1980.

21. Walker, K. "Open-Plan Acoustics: Part 1", The Construction Specifier,

Vol. 32, No. 2, Feb., 1979.

22. Rubin, A. and Elder, J. Building for People , NBS Special Publication

474, U.S. Gov't Printing Office, Wash., D.C., June 1980.

23. Winzer, G. , Unpublished paper. Office Automation Design Roundtable,

March, 1984.

24. Hirtle, P. and Powers, N. "The OPLAN system; Interactive Computer

Program for Acoustical Design of Open Plan Offices", Third Int'l.

S3nnposium on the Use of Computers for Environmental Engineering in

Buildings, Banff, Canada, 1978.

25. Hedge, A. "The Open-Plan Office; A systematic Investigation of

Employee Reactions to their Work Environment", Environment and

Behavior, Vol. 14, No. 3, May, 1982.

26. lES Lighting Handbook - Reference Volume , Illuminating Engineering

Society, New York, 1981.

27. "Air Force Interior Design Pamphlet", AF Pamphlet 88-41, Dep't of

the Air Force, Washington, D.C., October, 1980.

28. Wotton, E. "Lighting for Education", Canadian Ministry of Education,

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (Undated).

29. Shemitz, S. "Evaluating the Quality of Task/Ambient Lighting", Lighting

Design and Applications, Vol. 9, No. 1, Jan., 1979.

30. Hooker, M. Unpublished paper. Office Automation Design Roundtable,

March, 1984.

31. Murray, W. et. al. "Potential Health Hazards of Video Display Terminals",

NIOSH Reasearch Report 81-129, June, 1981.

32. Fanger, P.O. Thermal Comfort, Danish Technical Press, Copenhagen, Denmark,

1970.

99
33. Khosla, N. Unpublished paper, Office Automation Design Roundtable,

March, 1984.

34. ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals , ASHRAE, New York, 1977.

35. Spengler, J. and Sexton, K. "Indoor Air Pollution: A Public Health

Perspective", Science, Vol. 221, No. 4605, 1 July, 1983.

36. "Guideline on Electrical Power for ADP Installations", FIPS Pub. 94,

National Bureau of Standards, Sept., 1983.

37. Pearce, P. "Streamlining Interiors with Flat Conductor Cable", Constr.

Specifier, Nov., 1982.

38. Licklider, J. and Vezza, A. "Applications of Information Networks",

Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 66, No. 11, Nov., 1978.

39. Dudley, R. "Checklist of Key Questions to Ask When Buying Automated

Telecom Accessories", Comm. News, Dec., 1982.

40. Shoch, J. et. al. "Evolution of Ethernet Local Computer Network",

Xerox, Palo Alto, Cal., Sept., 1981.

41. "Wiring Systems: An Innovative and Maturing Technology", Arch. Record,

Oct., 1982.

42. Geisler, C. "Some Ideas to Consider in Seeking a Local-Area Network"

The Office, Feb., 1984.

43. GSA/PBS memorandum on planning High Technology Office Buildings.

44. Viladas, P. "Interior Technics: Open-Office Partition Systems",

Prog. Arch., May, 1982.

45. McCraty, R. "Don't Put up with any Static!", Modern Office Technology,

Feb., 1984.

46. Rubin, A. "The Automated Office - An Environment for Productive Work,

or an Information Factory?: A Report on the State-of-Art" , NBSIR

83-2784-1, National Bureau of Standards, Nov., 1983.

47. Gold, E. "The Importance of Design in a Teleconference Room", The

Office, Nov., 1982.

100
GLOSSARY

AMBIENT LIGHTING - Lighting throughout an area that produces general

illumination.

ANTHROPOMETRY - The study of human body measurements, especially

on a comparative basis.

AI - Articulation Index.

ARTICULATION

INDEX

- A numerically calculated measure of the intelligibility of transmitted or processed speech. It

takes into account the limitation of the transmission path and the background noise.

ASHRAE - American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and

Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc.

BASEBAND - The band of frequencies occupied by all transmitted signals used to modulate the radio wave

that is produced by the transmitter in the

absence of a signal.

BROADBAND - A band with a wide range of frequencies.

BUS - A length of coaxial cable, to which microcomputer

stations are attached.

CENTRAL PROCESSING

UNIT

- The computer at the center of an on-line system

which performs the processing according to an applications package.

COAXIAL CABLE - A transmission line in which one conductor is

contained inside and insulated from an outer

metal tube that serves as a second conductor.

COEFFICIENT OF

UTILIZATION

- The ratio of luminous flux (lumens) from a luminaire calculated as received on the workplane to the luminous flux emitted by the

luminaire ' s lamp alone

.

CONTRAST

RENDITION FACTOR

- The ratio of visual task contrast with a given

lighting environment to the contrast with sphere

(uniform) lighting.

CPU - Central Processing Unit.

CU - Coefficient of Utilization.

dB - Decibel.

101
DECIBEL - The unit of sound intensity.

DIFFUSER - A device to redirect or scatter the light from a source, primarily by the process of diffuse

transmission.

DISABILITY

GLARE

- Glare resulting in reduced visual performance and

visibility.

DISCOMFORT

GLARE

- Glare producing discomfort; not necessarily interfering with performance.

DP - Data Processing.

EFFECTIVE

TEMPERATURE

- A combination of air temperature, air velocity,

and relative humidity, used to define a comfort

zone for people in buildings.

ERGONOMICS - A subject area which deals with the interaction

of person/machine and person/environment issues.

ET - Effective Temperature.

FIBER OPTICS - Very thin strands of glass, used to transmit

information by means of light pulses.

FLANKING PATH - Noise transmission by an indirect path, e.g.

structural element.

HID - High Intensity Discharge.

HIGH INTENSITY

DISCHARGE

- A general group of lamps consisting of mercury,

metal halide, and high pressure sodium sources.

IE SNA - Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.

ISO - International Standards Organization.

KNOWLEDGE

WORKER

- A person with major responsibilities for developing, analyzing and/or acquiring information, e.g.

manager, professional.

LAMP LUMEN

DEPRECIATION

FACTOR

- The multiplier to be used in lighting calculations

to relate the initial rated output of light sources to the anticipated minimum output based

on the relamping program to be used.

LAN - Local Area Network.

LOCAL AREA

NETWORK

- Systems of computers and peripheral devices

linked together in adjacent offices or buildings.

102
LUMINANCE

CONTRAST

- The relationship between the luminance of an object and that of its immediate background.

MICROCOMPUTER - A term used to describe the small physical size

of a computer.

MULTIPLEX - To interleave or simultaneously transmit two or more messages on a single channel.

NC CURVES - Noise Criteria Curves.

NOISE CRITERIA

CURVES

- Criteria used to rate the acceptability of

continuous noise levels for performing given

activities.

OA - Office Automation

OCR - Optical Character Reader.

OPTICAL

CHARACTER

READER

- The reading and identification of characters

optically, under computer control.

PBX - Private Branch Exchange.

POWER SURGE - An increase of voltage levels 10% or more above

normal, lasting from one half cycle to several

seconds.

REFLECTED

GLARE

- Glare resulting from specular reflections of

high luminances on polished or glossy surfaces

in the field of view.

SIGNAL TO NOISE

RATO

- The ratio of signal Intensity to noise Intensity,

usually expressed as the decibel difference

between the signal and noise levels.

SIL - Speech Interference Level.

SOUND ABSORPTION - The change of sound energy into another form,

usually heat, in passing through a medium or striking a surface.

SOUND

TRANSMISSION

CLASS

- The preferred single figure rating scheme designed

to give an estimate of the sound insulation proper

ties of a partition. Used when speech and office

noise constitutes a major problem.

SOUND

TRANSMISSION

LOSS

- A measure of sound insulation. The amount

of incident sound passing through a partition.

103
SPEECH

INTERFERENCE

LEVEL

- The arithmetic average of the sound pressure

levels of noise in the three octave bands

centered at 500, 1000, and 2000 herz.

SPIKE - A sudden but brief electrical disturbance, reaching thousands of volts, with frequencies up to

the megaherz level.

STC - Sound Transmission Class.

STL - Sound Transmission Loss.

TASK/AMBIENT

LIGHTING

- A combination of task and ambient lighting in a given area, with the ambient lighting being lower

in intensity and complimentary to the task lighting

TWISTED PAIR - A cable comprised of two small insulated conductors twisted together without a common covering.

TWX - A network of telegraph-grade communications

lines and terminals used to transmit messages.

UPS - Unlnterruptable power systems.

USER

FRIENDLY

- A system requiring only a limited amount of

experience, knowledge, or training to operate.

VCP - Visual Comfort Probability

VDT - Video Display Terminal.

VEILING

REFLECTIONS

- Regular reflections superimposed upon diffuse

reflections from an object that partially or totally obscures the details to be seen, by

reducing the contrast.

VISUAL COMFORT

PROBABILITY

- The rating of a lighting system expressed as a percent of people who, when viewing from a specified location and in a specified direction, will

be expected to find it to be acceptable in terms

of discomfort glare.

WHITE NOISE - An acoustical stimulus composed of all audible

frequencies at the same intensity with random phase

relations between them; it sounds like "shhhh”.

WORKSTATION - The general physical environment in which the user works. It includes computer terminals, source documents, desks, chairs and lighting.

WP - Word Processing.

104
(.<EV. 2-8C) U.S. DEPT. OF COMM.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET (See instructions)

1. PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO.

2. Performing Organ. Report No. 3. Publication Date

NBSIR 84-2908 August 1984

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

INTERIM DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR AUTOMATED OFFICES

5. AUTHOR(S)

Arthur I. Rubin

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than MBS. see instructions)

national bureau of STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

7. Contract/Grant No.

8 . Type of Report & Period Covered

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street, City, State, ZIP)

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

I I Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, Is attached.

11. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here)

This report presents interim guidelines for the design of offices using automated

technologies. It is based upon findings obtained by an extensive literature search,

a questionnaire survey of design firms, an office automation roundtable, and interviews with design and other office automation professionals. The guidelines should

be considered tentative, since the information is based primarily on judgement, rather

than on formal investigations or on broad concensus from the design community.

Furthermore, many important design issues have not been dealt with, because they have

not yet been appropriately considered, and/or it is unclear what the design implication:;

of automation are - e.g. will overall space needs be greater or less?

The introducation of automated systems into offices has changed the office setting as

a place to work. Architects and other design professionals have responded to this

technology by formulating a variety of design strategies. This report identifies

design issues which merit consideration in automated offices, tentative criteria for

environments and systems based on an overview of all resources used to develope this

document, and typical approaches used accomplish design goals. Technological,

ergonomic and organizational factors are considered from the standpoint of design

implications.

12. KEY WORDS (S/x to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only proper names; and separate key words by semicolon t) acoustics; design criteria; electrical systems; ergonomics; lighting , noise ; office

automation; office design criteria y^ffice furnishings; safety systems; workstation.

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