NAT'L INST. OF STAND & TECH R I.

AlllDS 3SS01D NISTSP 838-13

Project Summaries 1997

4k

QC

100

.U57

NO. 838-1

1997

U.S. Department

of Commerce

Technology

^^ministration

National Institute

of Standards and

Technology

Project

Summaries 1997

NISTSP 838-13

NIST

Building &

Fire

Researcli

Laiioratory

Noel J. Raufaste

November 1 997

U.S. Department

of Commerce

William M. Daley, Secretary

Technology

Administration

Gary R. Bachula

Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute

of Standards and

Technology

Raymond G. Kammer, Director
National Institute of Standards U.S. Government Printing Office

and Teclinology Washington: 1997

Special Publication 838-13

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol.

Spec. Publ. 838-13

219 pages (Nov. 1997)

CODEN: NSPUE2

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402
FOREWORD

The National Institute of Standards and

Technology's (NIST), Building and Fire

Research Laboratory (BFRL) is one of

NIST's seven Laboratories. The mission

of BFRL is to enhance the

competitiveness of U.S. industry and

public safety by developing performance

prediction methods, measurement

technologies, and technical advances

needed to assure improvement of the life

cycle quality and economy of constructed

facilities. Constructed facilities include

all buildings and their furnishings and the

public and private utilities and public

works that support business, commerce,

industry, and homes. BFRL's efforts are

closely coordinated with complementary

activities of industry, professional and

trade organizations, academe, and other

agencies of government.

Construction is one of the Nation's

largest industries. In 1996, new

construction amounted to $569 billion;

with renovation added, the total volume

of construction was about $900 billion,

which is 12 percent of U.S. GDP. U.S.

construction accounts for more than six

million jobs. More than 60 percent of

the nation's wealth is invested in

constructed facilities. Since constructed

facilities shelter and support human

activities, their quality and economy is

vital to the competitiveness of all

industry and the quality of life of its

citizens.

BFRL's research is focused and linked

with collaborative private- and publicsector activities to help achieve the

National Construction Goals (NCGs)

developed with industry by President

Clinton's National Science and

Technology Council's Subcommittee on

Construction and Building (CSdB). This

Subcommittee coordinates the federal

construction-related R&D to enhance the

competitiveness of U.S. industry, public

and worker safety, and environmental

quality. BFRL is a co-chair of this 14

Federal agency body. During the past 3

years, C&B has had major interactions

with construction industry leaders;

together they have defined the NCGs.

The goals are to provide cost-effective

technologies and practices by 2003 that

will achieve the following improvements

in the life cycle performance of

constructed facilities over average 1994

practices:

o 50 percent reduction in delivery

time.

o 50 percent reduction in operation,

maintenance, and energy costs.

o 30 percent increase in

productivity and comfort.

o 50 percent fewer occupancyrelated illnesses and injuries.

o 50 percent less waste and

pollution.

o 50 percent more durability and

flexibility.

o 50 percent fewer construction

illnesses and injuries.

In 1996 groups of industry leaders

representing the residential, industrial,

public works, and

commercial/institutional sectors

developed industry strategic plans for

achieving the National Construction

Goals in cooperation with Federal

agencies. These industry plans and direct

discussions with industry leaders have

helped to the direction of BFRL research.

This annual report. Project Summaries

1 997, presents BFRL's research during

1997. BFRL focuses its research in three

principal thrusts:

1 . High Performance Construction

Materials and Systems,

2. Automation in Construction and

Constructed Facilities,

iii
3. Loss Reduction.

In high performance construction

materials and systems, BFRL's projects

include: high performance concrete,

building life cycle cost computer program,

high performance mechanical systems,

finishes, and furnishings, "natural"

alternative refrigerants for heat pumps,

and our search, with industry, for

alternative fire suppressants.

Within the automation thrust, research is addressing development of new

techniques and standards for real-time

construction metrology and a national

standard for kinematic modeling of

construction site machinery and

displaying graphical representations.

With U.S. industry, BFRL is developing

the capability to represent and exchange

information supporting the design and

construction of structural systems using

internationally accepted protocols.

Conformance tests are being developed

for products complying with standards

for the open exchange of information

between equipment from different

control vendors and between different

levels of control in hierarchal and

distributed building management

systems.

In the loss reduction thrust, BFRL

research includes next generation design

standards for wind loads to develop key

elements of an improved wind load

design standard that will use existing

databases and state-of-the-art

computational methods for establishing

site-specific design wind speeds and the

corresponding steady and fluctuating

structural loads. BFRL is constructing a user-friendly version of its CFAST model

(FASTLite) which can be used by fire

protection engineers and fire service

personnel with a minimum of training,

and developing protocols to quantify the

accuracy of computer-based predictive

fire models.

In meeting these thrusts, BFRL's research

addresses structural engineering,

materials engineering, mechanical and

environmental systems, fire safety

engineering, fire science, and applied

economics. Each of the BFRL research

summaries is formatted by project title,

the BFRL point of contact, sponsor,

description of the research, and recent

results.

BFRL's laboratory facilities are an

important resource. Facilities include:

six-degree-of-freedom structural testing

facility; large-scale structural testing

facility with the 53 MN universal

structural testing machine; environmental

chambers; guarded hot-plate; calibrated

hot-box; plumbing tower; building

materials imaging and modeling

laboratory; fire suppression test facilities;

and a fire simulation laboratory. The

large burn facility for conducting

experimental fires in full-scale large

industrial fire test facilities is currently

undergoing renovation.

BFRL works closely with its international

peer organizations to maintain awareness

of foreign research developments, assure that generic research efforts are complementary, and represent U.S.

interests in the preparation of

international standards and practices.

BFRL cooperates closely with other U.S.

and foreign laboratories in the conduct of

its research. More than 90 research

associates from U.S. industry, guest

researchers from foreign laboratories, and

faculty members from universities worked

at BFRL during 1996 for periods

averaging about a year. BFRL has direct

linkages with industry through its 45

Cooperative Research and Development

Agreements (CRADAs).

iv
BFRL participates in more than 130

national and international

standardization activities; provides

leadership in these national and

international standardization

organizations and chairs more than 20

voluntary standardization activities.

Annually BFRL publishes over 220

reports, articles for research journals and

for professional and trade journals, and

computer model software packages.

BFRL staff annually makes hundreds of

presentations at professional and

technical meetings of building

community organizations, is host to more

than 1 700 visitors to its facilities, and

responds to more than 1 9000 requests

for information. BFRL conducts

symposia in cooperation with other

organizations concerned with building

research and practice and hosts biweekly

Fire Research Seminars for NIST staff

and colleagues from the fire community.

These meetings are effective means of

transferring the latest knowledge to

practitioners and peer researchers. The

Fire Research Information Service (FRIS)

consisting of national and international

fire research literature and FIREDOC,

the automated database of fire research

literature, is the only comprehensive

national library resource for the fire

community.

At the beginning of FY1997, BFRL's staff

was about 220 persons of which 129 are professional staff, 71 have Ph.D.s, and 26

are registered engineers. BFRL's budget

for FY 1997 is $31 million. Funding

comes from direct appropriations ($19

million), from other Federal agencies

($10 million) and from the private sector

($2 million).

For further information about BFRL, its

facilities, opportunities for Guest

Researcher assignments, collaborative

programs, and contracted research, may

be reached through BFRL's Home Page

at: http://www.bfrl.nist.gov or contact

BFRL's Office of Cooperative Research

Programs, Building 226, Room B250,

NIST, Gaithersburg, MD 20899.

Persons requesting information may want

to contact BFRL using facsimile number

301-975-4737 or E-mail

noel.raufaste@nist.gov.

V
'i

!

i

i
CONTENTS Fire Resistance of High-Strengtfi

Concrete 22

Foreword iii

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Performance Requirements for Passive

Energy Dissipation Systems for Buildings

and Lifeline 3

Geotechnical Characterization for Lifelines

and Buildings 4

Cyclic Lateral Load Tests and Digital

Database of Reinforced Concrete Bridge

Columns 5

Seismic Performance of Precast Concrete

Connections 7

Seismic Resistance of Partially-Grouted

Masonry Shear Walls 8

Seismic Performance of Cladding

Systems 8

Seismic Strengthening Methodologies for

Existing Lightly RC Frame Buildings .... 9

Guidelines for the Repair/Rehabilitation of

Welded Steel Moment Frames 10

Implementation of National Lifeline

Plan 11

Management of the Interagency Committee

on Seismic Safety in Construction

(ICSSC) 12

Technical Assistance to FEMA Project

Officer (Existing Buildings) 14

Technical Assistance to FEMA Project

Officer (New Buildings) 15

Support Implementation of EO 12699 . . 15

Secretariat U.S. -Side Panel on Wind and

Seismic Effects 16

STRUCTURAL EVALUATION

Construction Automation 19

High-Performance Concrete: Design and

Construction Practices 20

Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites in

Construction 24

Next Generation Design Standard for Wind

Loads 25

COATINGS AND COMPOSITES

Computer-Integrated Knowledge Systems

(CIKS) for High-Performance Construction

Materials and Systems 29

Computer-Integrated Knowledge Systems

(CIKS) for High Performance Coatings . . 30

Coatings Service Life Prediction Consortium

- Task I: Quantification of Photodegradation

Effects of UV-radiation in the Field and

Laboratory 32

Coatings Service Life Prediction Consortium

- Task II: Interactive Research Program With

Industry 33

Coatings Service Life Prediction Consortium

- Task III: User-Friendly Software System

for Experimental Design and Data

Analysis 33

Advanced Models and Measurements of

Optical Reflectance of Materials 34

Spectral Ultra Violet-B Radiation

Database 35

Highway Structures Expert System for the

Selection of Coating Materials 36

Effects of Environmental and Mechanical

Stresses on Fiber-reinforced Polymeric

Composites 37

Interface/lnterphase Characterization of

Polymeric Building Materials 38

Standards for Abatement of Hazards from

Lead in Buildings 39

Method for Evaluation of Performance of

Lead-in-Paint Measuring Devices Under

Simulated Field Conditions 40

VII
Factors Affecting the Leaching of Lead from

Lead-based Paint Films 41

International Standards for Design Life of

Buildings 42

CONCRETE

Three-Dimensional Microstructural/Kinetic

Model of Cement Hydration 47

Microstructure-Property Relationships in Random Porous Materials 48

Microstructure and Moisture-Driven Size

Changes of Cement-Based Materials ... 49

Development of Microstructure and

Transport Properties of Concrete 50

Transport Properties of High-Performance

Concrete 51

Computer-Integrated Knowledge Systems

(CIKS) for High-Performance Concrete . . 52

Processing of High-Performance

Concrete 53

Cementitious Materials Modeling Laboratory

(CMML) 54

Characterization of Clinker, Cement, and

Flaws in Cement Paste and Concrete . . 54

Durability of Highway Concrete

Pavements 55

QUALITY ASSURANCE

Cement and Concrete Reference

Laboratory 59

AASHTO Materials Reference

Laboratory 60

Performance of Tape-Bonded Seams in EPDM Roofing Membranes 61

COMPUTER INTEGRATED

CONSTRUCTION

STEP for the Process Plant Industries . . 65

Object Oriented Implementation of

STEP 66

Protocol Testing for Process Plant

Representations 67

Architecture and Modeling Issues for

Computer Integrated Knowledge Systems

for Materials 68

HEAT TRANSFER

Advanced Thermal Insulation Panel

Testing 71

Low-Temperature and High-Temperature

Thermal Insulation Reference

Materials 72

Development of 2-Dimensional Heat and

Moisture Transfer Model 73

A Photovoltaic Solar Water Heating

System 74

INDOOR AIR QUALITY

Indoor Air Quality Modeling with

Computational Fluid Dynamics 79

Development of lAQ Model for

Designers 80

VOC Emission Measurements in Office

Buildings 81

lAQ Analysis of Residential Ventilation

Systems 82

Infiltration and Ventilation in Large

Buildings 83

Demonstration of Residential Ventilation

Systems 84

Combined Thermal and Airflow Analysis in Multizone Buildings 85

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS AND

CONTROLS

Communication Protocols for Building

Controls 89

Real Time Fault Detection and

Diagnostics 90

Test Procedures for Furnaces, Boilers, and

Integrated Appliances 91

viii
Test Procedures for Commercial

Furnace/Boilers, Central Air Conditioners,

Heat Pumps, and Hot Water

Heaters 92

Test Procedures for Heat Pumps and Air

Conditioners 93

Test Procedures for Compact

Refrigerators 94

Test Procedures for Plumbing Systems . 95

Test Procedures for Lighting Fixtures and

Systems 96

Revised Test Procedures for Ranges and

Ovens 97

Revised Test Procedures for Water

Heaters 97

Revised Test Procedures for Pool

Heaters 98

Revised Test Procedures for Clothes

Washers 99

Revised Test Procedures for Clothes

Dryers 99

Revised Test Procedures for

Dishwashers 100

THERMAL MACHINERY

Calorimetric and Visual Study of Heat

Transfer Enhancements with Alternative

Refrigerants 103

Thermodynamic Performance of Natural

Fluids as Alternative Refrigerants .... 104

Development of MicroElectro Mechanical

Systems (MEMS) Sensors for Refrigeration

Machinery 106

Impact of Air-Side Maldistribution on the

Performance of Finned-Tube

Evaporator 107

Procedure for Determining the Energy

Efficiency Ratio of DOE 95 °C Rating Point

for Mixed Unitary Air Conditioners ... 108

FIRE MODELING AND

APPLICATIONS

Fire Performance Design of HighPerformance Materials Used in Construction Ill

Implementation of Fire on the Web

CD ROM 112

Zone Fire Modeling 113

Enhanced Fire Safety Evaluation

System 114

Manufactured Housing Fire Safety ... 114

Experimental Application of Fire Hazard

Analysis for U.S. Passenger Train

Systems 116

Performance Fire Codes 117

Study of Heat and Smoke Movement and

Their Influence on Detector Response in Enclosed Spaces 117

BACnet Support 118

Fire Research Information Services

(FRIS) 119

Fire Forum 119

RECENT GRANTS - FIRE MODELING

AND APPLICATIONS

Review and Evaluation of Thermal Sensors

for Use in Testing Firefighter Protective

Clothing 120

Enhanced PC-Based Building Fire

Assessment System 121

Evaluation of Alternative Methods for Fire

Rating Structural Elements 1 23

Assessment of the Technological

Requirements for the Realization of

Performance-Based Fire Safety Design in the United States - Phase I: Fundamental

Requirements 124

Interactive Virtual Environments for Fire

Simulation 125

An Analysis of Performance Requirements

ix
for an International Building Code .... 127

Evaluation of the HDR Fire Test Data and

Accompanying Computational Activities

with Conclusions from the Aspects of

Present Code Capabilities 128

LARGE FIRE RESEARCH

In situ Burning of Oil Spills 133

Demonstration of Water Based Fire Fighting

Agents 134

Quantitative Evaluation of Fire Safety

Features 135

Office Building Fire Research Program . 136

Modification of Fire Protection Requirements

for NRC 137

Firefighter Thermal Environments and

Protective Clothing and Equipment

Performance 137

Participation in Non-Project Committees and

Standards 138

Large Fire Research Facility 139

RECENT GRANTS - LARGE FIRE

RESEARCH

Characterization of Sprinkler Sprays and

Their Interaction with Fire Induced

Flows 139

Fire Protection in Large Industrial

Fires 141

A Study of Two Phase High Liquid Loading

Jet Fires 143

Measurements of Heat Release Rates and

Vorticity Distributions in Pool Fires for the

Calculation of Fire Induced Flow

Field 144

Large Fire Analysis 146

FIRE SENSING AND

EXTINGUISHMENT

Advanced Fire Detection 151

Next Generation Fire Suppression

Program 152

Dispersed Liquid Agent Fire Suppression

Screen 1 53

Fire Suppression Chemistry 1 54

Suppression of Engine Nacelle Fires . . 155

Chemical Inhibitor Effects on Diffusion

Flames in Microgravity 156

Payload Specialist on STS-83 157

Low Environmental Impact Fire

Suppression 1 57

Analysis of High Bay Hangar Facilities for

Detector Sensitivity and Placement ... 158

Smoke Movement in High Bays 1 59

Research in Fire Protection Technologies - A

Resource Allocation and Impact

Study 160

High Heat Flux Measurement

Standards 161

RECENT GRANTS - FIRE SENSING

AND EXTINGUISHMENT

Fire Detection Using Reflected Radiation

and Source Temperature

Discrimination 162

Water Mist Penetrations Through Complex

Openings of Compartments 164

A Theoretical and Experimental

Investigation on Physical, Thermal, and

Chemical Effects of Condensed Phase Fire

Suppressants 165

MATERIALS FIRE RESEARCH

Fire Safe Materials 169

Development of Environmentally-Friendly,

New Flame Retardants Consortium ... 1 70

Flammability of Automotive Materials and

Components 171

Vehicle Fire Initiation and Propagation . 171

X
Evaluation of Potential Fire Intervention

Materials and Technologies 172

Quantitative Evaluation of Fire Safety

Features 173

Combustion of Silicone 174

Production and Certification of Cone

Calorimeter SRMs 175

Radiative Ignition and Subsequent Flame

Spread in Microgravity 176

Combustion of a Polymer (PMMA) Sphere in Microgravity 177

RECENT GRANTS - MATERIALS

FIRE RESEARCH

Cross-Linking of Polystyrene by FriedelCrafts Chemistry to Enhance Resistance to

Thermal Degradation 178

A Fire Growth Simulation Model for

Materials 179

The Development of Novel Low

Flammability Siloxane-Based Impact

Modifiers for Cyanate Ester Resins ... 180

ADVANCED FIRE MEASUREMENTS

Improvement and Development of Fire

Diagnostics 183

Particle Measurement in Support of the

Semiconductor Industry 183

Carbon Monoxide Production and

Prediction 184

Lean Flammability Limit as a Fundamental

Refrigerant Property, Phase III 185

Laminar Flame Speeds in Refrigerant/Air

Mixtures 186

A Numerical Model for Combustion of

Bubbling Thermoplastic Materials in Microgravity 187

Flammability of Structural Composites . 188

Fire Safe Aircraft Interior Materials ... 189

RECENT GRANTS - ADVANCED FIRE

MEASUREMENTS

Mixing and Radiation Properties of Buoyant

Luminous Flame Environments 191

Experimental and Modeling Studies of Soot

and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon

Oxidation in Post-Flame Gases 192

Dynamics, Transport and Chemical Kinetics

of Compartment Fire Exhaust Gases . . 193

OFFICE OF APPLIED ECONOMICS

Building for Environmental and Economic

Sustainability (BEES) 197

Purchasing Environmentally Preferable

Products 198

Economics of New-Technology

Materials 199

How to Select Research Projects and

Measure Their Impacts 200

Baseline Measures for National Construction

Goals 201

Life-Cycle Costing Methodology 202

Minimizing Compliance Costs of the Life

Safety Code for Correctional Facilities . 204

Decision Support Software for Hospitals

Financed by HUD-Guaranteed Loans . . 205

Allocating Capital Improvement Budgets

Among Historic Buildings 206

Economic Support to NIST Manufacturing

Extension Partnership 207

Economic Support to NIST Advanced

Technology Program 208

Economic Support for the NIST Office of

Law Enforcement Standards 209

Cost-Effective Decisions for Police Patrol

Vehicle Disposal 210

xi
BFRL Headquarters

Performance Standards System for

Housing 215

Subcommittee on Construction and

Building 216

Computing and Network Resources ... 217

xii
STRUCTURES DIVISION

EARTHQUAKJE

ENGINEERING
Ii
Performance Requirements for

Passive Energy Dissipation

Systems for Buildings and Lifeline

Principal Investigator

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards of

Technology

Objective

To develop and verify guidelines for

pre-qualification, prototype and quality

control testing of seismic isolation systems.

Problem

Seismic isolation has been proven to be an

effective method of reducing the response of

structures during strong earthquakes. In

practice, the components of the isolation

system undergo an extensive series of

prototype and quality control tests before

installation. However, there are no commonly

accepted testing standards for base isolation

devices. Consequently, designers of base

isolated structures do not Icnow how to

specify testing of systems or interpret test

results. Furthermore, without standard

testing procedures, it is nearly impossible to

compare the performance of competing

isolation systems.

Recently BFRL published an extensive set of

guidelines for conducting these tests: Guidelinesfor Pre-Qualification, Prototype and

Quality Control Testing of Seismic Base Isolation

Systems NISTIR 5800, June 1996. The guide

is, for now, the leading available test guidelines for testing base isolation systems.

Presently, ASCE is using the guidelines as the

basis for development of an ANSI national consensus standard. BFRL is supporting this

effort through participation in the ASCE

standards development committee.

To develop further confidence in the

guidelines, and to foster wider adoption of

the proposed testing procedures, the

guidelines must be evaluated by conducting

tests on typical isolation components. These

tests will expose any inconsistencies,

omissions of important data, or other

unforeseen problems with the procedures.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform a two

part experimental program: The project

involves the following taslcs:

1 . Support of Development of a National Consensus Standard. As an ongoing

component of this project, BFRL will provide

the secretariat of the ASCE standards

committee on testing of base isolation

systems. The committee was formed in

August of 1995. Meetings will take place

approximately every 6 months

2. Test Program for Assessing and

Evaluating Guidelines.

- Design and Construction of Lateral Load

Test Frame. The current configuration of

the BFRL's Large Scale Testing Facility

permits concentric axial loads to be

applied to base isolation devices.

However, the most critical design

condition for isolators is when

simultaneous axial load and lateral load

are applied. Several tests in BFRL's

guidelines require such loading. Therefore, a lateral loading frame is needed for the

53 MN capacity universal testing

machine. This frame could make use of

the existing reaction wall and 4.4 MN

long-stroke hydraulic actuator. Two

faculty members of the United States

Military Academy (West Point) are designing the lateral loading frame.

- Test Plan: A detailed plan has been

developed for the experimental program,

through consultations with researchers at

the University of Delaware, the University

of Maryland, Southern Methodist

University, and Dynamic Isolation

Systems, and Furon (two major

manufacturers of elastomeric isolation

bearings). The objectives of the

experimental program is to evaluate

BFRL's testing guidelines, and to study

3
three other issues which affect test methods: the ultimate capacity of seismic

isolators; the effects of bi-lateral loading

on isolator performance; and improved

methods for detecting flaws in elastomeric

bearings.

Recent Results

Shenton III, H.W., Guidelinesfor

Pre-Qualification, Prototype and Quality Control

Testing of Seismic Base Isolation Systems,

NISTIR 5800, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, June 1 996.

Shenton, H.W. and Taylor, A.W., Guidelines

and Benchmarlcs for Analysis of Isolated

Buildings, Proceedings, 1996 ASCE

structures Congress, April 15-18, 1996.

Shenton, H.W., Summary and Results of the

NIST Workshop on Proposed Guidelinesfor

Testing and Evaluation of Seismic Isolation

Systems, July 25, 1 994, San Francisco,

California, NISTIR 5785, National Institute

of Standards and Technology, January 1 996.

Taylor, A.W., Shenton, H.W., and Chung

R.M., Standards for Testing and Evaluation

of Seismic Isolation System, Seismic, Shock,

and Vibration Isolation, 1995 ASME/JSME

PVP Conference, Honolulu, July 23-27,

1995, PVP-Vol 319, pp. 39-43.

Shenton H.W., Taylor A.W., and Lew, H.S.,

"Test Requirements for Base Isolation,"

Proceedings, 27th Joint Meeting on Wind and

Seismic Effects, U.S. -Japan Panel on Wind

and Seismic Effects, UJNR, Tsukuba, Japan,

May 1995.

Geotechnical Characterization for

Lifelines and Buildings

Principal Investigators

Ronald D. Andrus

Structures Division

301-975-6051

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop methodologies for rapidly

assessing liquefaction potential and

characterizing ground deformations of soil

deposits supporting lifelines and buildings.

Problem

A major cause of lifeline and building damage

in past earthquakes is ground deformations

caused by liquefaction. Since lifeline

corridors can be many kilometers in length,

rapid screening of large areas is required.

Screening techniques based on geology,

hydrology, and soil conditions show promise

for identifying areas along lifeline corridors

requiring more rigorous analyses. However,

even these areas requiring further analyses can be quite large.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue the

development of rapid techniques for

evaluating liquefaction resistance based on

small-strain shear wave velocity, VS. The use

of VS as a field index of liquefaction

resistance is justified since both are influenced by void ratio, effective

confinement, stress history, and geologic age.

Its application to liquefaction assessment

before and after ground improvement will

also be examined. In addition, this project

will begin work on refinin^developing

methodologies for predicting magnitude and

spatial extent of liquefaction-induced ground

deformations. The work will be performed in

4
collaboration with academia and industry; it

is divided into four tasks:

1 . Conduct field demonstration of the

Spectral-Analysis-of-Surface-Waves (SASW)

method for rapid determination of layer

thiclaiess and VS.

2. Develop simplified liquefaction

assessment procedures based on VS from

available field performance data.

3. Refine/develop practical approaches to

predicting ground deformations for lifeline

risk assessment through a review of the

physical attributes of lateral spreads in past

earthquakes.

4. Prepare guidelines for using the SASW

method to evaluate liquefaction potential of

soils supporting lifelines from results of Tasks

1 and 2.

Recent Results

VNjidrus, R. D., and Chung, R. M., "CostEffective Ground Improvement Techniques

for Liquefaction Remediation Near Lifelines,"

Wind and Seismic Effects, Proceedings, 27th

Joint Meeting of the U.S. -Japan Cooperative

Program in Natural Resources Panel on Wind

and Seismic Effects, Public Worl« Research

Institute, Japan, 1995.

Andrus, R. D., and Chung, R. M.,

"Liquefaction Remediation Near Existing

Lifeline Structures," Technical Report

NCEER-96-0012, Lifeline Facilities and

Countermeasures Against Soil Liquefaction, 6th

Proceedings, Japan, June 11-13, 1996.

Andrus, R. D., and Stokoe, K. H., II, Preliminary Guidelinesfor Liquefaction Assessment

Using Shear Wave Velocity, NIST SP 904,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, August

1996.

Andrus, R. D., Surface Wave Method - A

Tool for Lifeline Earthquake Engineering,

Proceedings, Earthquake Engineering Site

Characterization Workshop, Viclcsburg, MS,

June 27-28, 1995.

Cyclic Lateral Load Tests and

Digital Database of Reinforced

Concrete Bridge Columns

Principal Investigator

William C. Stone

Structures Division

301-975-6075

Sponsors

National Center for Earthquake Engineering

Research and

California Department of Transportation

Objective

To investigate experimentally the effect of

varying cyclic lateral load paths on damage to

circular reinforced concrete columns and to

develop a comprehensive digital database of

cyclic lateral load tests on rectangular

reinforced concrete columns.

Problem

In earthquake engineering studies of

reinforced concrete columns, a controlled,

cyclic lateral load pattern with gradually

increasing amplitude has traditionally been

applied to columns tested in the laboratory.

However, in an actual earthquake a bridge

column is exposed to a random cyclic lateral

loading pattern, which is much different from

the laboratory loading pattern. Current

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and

Caltrans design provisions are based almost

exclusively on tests in which traditional,

controlled laboratory loading patterns have

been applied to the specimens, rather than

realistic earthquake loading patterns. The

differences between these types of loading

have never been explored systematically.

Furthermore, to develop confidence in

inelastic analysis algorithms for reinforced

concrete structures, the algorithms must be

calibrated against laboratory data from tests

on reinforced concrete members. Without

such a calibration, the inelastic analysis

algorithms are essentially useless. There is currently no comprehensive, world-wide

database of results from cyclic lateral load

5
experiments on rectangular columns.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will test 12 column

specimens. The specimens will be

approximately one-fourth scale versions of

prototype bridge columns designed using

current Caltrans standards. The 12 specimens

will be nominally identical: approximately

300 mm in diameter by 1 800 mm long, with

the same material properties for all specimens. The specimens will be cast

integrally with a reinforced concrete base

block to simulate a bridge column footing.

The main variable in the test program will be

the type of cyclic lateral load pattern applied

to the specimen. The first specimen will be

loaded with a monotonic lateral load to

failure (pushover test) to determine basic

specimen stiffness and strength. The next

four specimens will each be loaded with

cyclic lateral displacements of a constant

amplitude for as many cycles as are necessary

to cause complete failure of the specimen.

The amplitude of displacement applied to

each specimen will be a multiple of the yield

displacement determined from the first test specimen. The fourth specimen will be loaded

with a "standard" laboratory load pattern,

which consists of cyclic lateral displacements

with gradually increasing amplitudes. The

final six specimens will be loaded with

simulated earthquake displacement patterns.

The earthquake displacement patterns will be

selected to simulate a range of earthquake

types. The effects of applying multiple

damaging earthquakes to the same column

will also be investigated.

The data and visual observations obtained

from these tests will be correlated with

several analytical damage models which have

been proposed by other researchers. The

accuracy of the damage models will be

evaluated in light of the test data, and

recommendations will be made regarding the

best methods for analytically modeling

earthquake damage to circular reinforced

concrete bridge columns. Recommendations

will also be made regarding the

appropriateness of using results from

"standard" laboratory tests of columns, rather

than simulated random earthquake motions,

to develop codes and standards for the

seismic design of reinforced concrete bridge

columns.

Recent Results

New project.

6
Seismic Performance of Precast

Concrete Connections

Principal Investigator

Geraldine S. Cheok

Structures Division

301-975-6074

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop technical data and to recommend

rational and consistent seismic design

provisions for moment resistant precast

concrete beam-column connections.

D., Simplified Design Procedurefor Hybrid

Precast Concrete Connections, NISTIR 5765,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, February,

1996.

Stone, W. C, Cheok, G. S, and Stanton, J. F., "Performance of Hybrid

Moment-Resisting Precast Beam-Column

Concrete Connections Subjected to Cyclic

Loading," ylC/ Structural Journal, Vol. 92, No.

2, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI,

March-April, 1995, pp. 229-249.

Problem

Careful attention to connection detail is required to ensure ductility and no premature

yielding of connections. In order to exploit

the benefits that exist in precast construction,

ATC-8, the Proceedings of Workshop on

Design of Prefabricated Concrete Buildings

for Earthquake Loads, identified research on

moment resistant joints between precast

beam and column element as the top priority

item.

Strength and ductility of joints of precast

beam-column connections can be achieved by

post-tensioning the precast elements, special

reinforcing arrangement, and fiber reinforced

grout in the joints. Technical data are needed

to establish provisions for code and

standards, thereby promoting precast

construction in seismically active regions.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will complete

cooperative work wdth Charles Pankow

Builders on the debond tests of reinforcing

bars. BFRL will continue to provide the

necessary input to ACI and SEAOC to aid

them in their consideration of code changes

which would allow the construction of the

hybrid connections in high seismic regions.

Recent Results

Cheok, G. S., Stone, W. C, and Nakaki, S.

7
Seismic Resistance of Partially

Grouted Masonry Shear Walls

Principal Investigator

Geraldine Cheok

Structures Division

301-975-6074

Sponsor

Natiorial Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To define the strength and deformation of

partially grouted masonry shear walls at the

cracldng and ultimate limit states and to

develop semi-empirical, simplified design

expressions for predicting shear strengths and

deformations of partially grouted masonry

shear walls.

Problem

The behavior of masonry shear walls has

been the subject of increased attention during

the past 15 years. However, this effort has

been aimed at fully grouted, reinforced walls.

Due to the lack of physical data on the

response of partially grouted masonry walls

to in-plane lateral loads, no acceptable design

formulas are available for predicting shear

strength of such walls. The limited data

available also suggests that empirical

formulas for shear strength of fully grouted,

reinforced walls have very limited

applicability for determination of the shear

strength of partially grouted, lightly

reinforced shear walls.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will complete the tests of the masonry walls that were started at the

end of FY1996. Data reduction and analyses

also will be conducted.

Recent Results

Chang, P. and Love, A., Finite Element

Modeling ofMasonry Shear Walls, Project No.

43NANB5 12479, University of Maryland,

College Park, 1996.

Seismic Performance of Cladding

Systems

Principal Investigator

Andrew W. Taylor

Structures Division

301-975-6078

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To evaluate seismic performance of exterior

architectural cladding elements during the

Northridge earthquake, and develop energy

dissipating cladding systems for seismic

retrofit and design of new buildings.

Problem

Although many cladding elements are not

specifically designed for seismic forces, they

participate in resisting lateral loads as they

deform with the framing system. Cladding

systems sustained damage during the

Northridge earthquake, particularly those on

steel frame structures. The seismic

performance of buildings could be improved

by effectively using the cladding system to

dissipate energy. Energy-dissipating cladding can be applied to new construction and

seismic retrofit.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will document the

performance of architectural cladding systems

during the Northridge and other earthquakes.

Current design criteria and code

requirements will be critically evaluated

based on observed cladding performance.

The performance of energy dissipating

cladding connector hardware will be studied.

This will be primarily an experimental

investigation, making use of existing test

fixtures at Georgia Institute of Technology.

The goal of this phase will be to determine

how different types of energy dissipating

connectors behave (e.g., elastomeric

connectors, steel clip angles, and other

specially designed steel connectors). The

8
hysteretic properties of the connectors will be

established, and desirable modes of connector

performance will be defined.

The contributions of cladding to the stiffness

and damping of the overall structural system

will be determined. This work follows

naturally on the connector performance

studies described above, since the energy

dissipating properties of connectors have a major influence on the interaction between

the cladding system and the structural frame.

This task will be carried out by comparing

analytical models of buildings with observed

experimental full-scale and scale-model

building performance data.

Based on the results of the steps above,

seismic design guidelines for building

cladding systems will be developed.

Recent Results

Literature review on Seismic Performance of

building Cladding Systems, prepared by

Cladding Research Institute, Emeryville, CA,

NIST GCR 95-681, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, February 1995.

Seismic Strengthening

Methodologies for Existing Lightly

RC Frame Buildings

Principal Investigators

Geraldine S. Cheok

Structures Division

301-975-6074

Long T. Phan

Structures Division

301-975-6077

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop guidelines for strengthening

lightly reinforced concrete (LRC) frames

using concrete infill walls.

Problem

There are some research results available to

give limited guidance in the design of

concrete infill walls to strengthen LRC

frames. However, gaps exist in the database

which need to be filled. Some of these gaps

were identified in a BFRL sponsored

workshop in 1995. One of the issues

identified was the connection of the infill wall to the frame. This is an important issue

as the predicted behavior of a frame could be

made more accurately if the behavior of such

connections were better understood.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform an

experimental program involving the tests of

anchors subjected to tension and shear. The

variables to be examined include anchor type,

different combination of tension and shear

load, embedment depth, anchor

configuration - number of rows, number of

anchors, spacing, and concrete strength. The

results from this test program and other

available test data will serve as the basis for

the development of the load-deformation

relationship for post-installed anchors.

9
Recent Results

Phan, L. T., Cheok, G. S., Todd, D. R. and

Lew, H. S., Strengthening Methodologyfor

Lightly Reinforced Concrete Frames: Recommended

Design Guidelinesfor Strengthening mth Infill Walls, NISTIR 5682, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, July 1995.

Cheok, G. S., Editor, Proceedings, Workshop

on the Seismic Rehabilitation ofLightly Reinforced

Concrete Frames, June 12-13, 1995, NISTIR

5741, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, November 1995.

Guidelines for the

Repair/Rehabilitation of Welded

Steel Moment Frames

Principal Investigator

John L. Gross

Structures Division

301-975-6068

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop guidelines for the repair and/or

rehabilitation of welded steel moment frame

buildings damaged in the Northridge

earthquake.

Problem

On February 12, 1994 Public Law 103-221

was passed authorizing BFRL to conduct

post-earthquake investigations of structural

failures resulting from the January 17, 1994

Northridge earthquake in Los Angeles,

California. The BFRL investigative team, as well as other investigators, found severe and

unexpected damage to welded steel moment

frame structures. While none of the steel

frame structures damaged in the Northridge

earthquake collapsed or caused serious injury

to their occupants, their damaged condition

leaves them vulnerable to future earthquakes

and or aftershocks. Additionally, thousands

of buildings built to the same specifications

as those that suffered severe damage in the

Northridge earthquake are vulnerable to an

earthquake of similar or greater magnitude.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform

experimental investigations of full-scale

beam-to-column connections to evaluate

three different repair/rehabilitation strategies.

These repair/rehabilitation strategies, found

from SAC Phase 1 investigations to hold the

most promise, include: welded haunch,

bolted bracket and section reduction. The

BFRL tests extend previous work conducted

for SAC by considering two-sided

connections and the effect of the floor slab.

10
Results of the BFRL tests, combined with

previous results from tests of one-sided, bare

steel connections, will be used to validate

design procedures for the three

repair/rehabilitation procedures. Design

guidelines will then be prepared with

participation from the American Institute of

Steel Construction.

Recent Results

Gross, }., and ICaufman, E. J., Failure Analysis

of Welded Steel Moment Frames Damaged in the

Northridge Earthquake, NISTIR 5944,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, January 1997.

Gross, J., and Nabih Y., A Survey of Steel

Moment-Resisting Frame Buildings Affected by the

1994 Northridge Earthquake, NISTIR 5625,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, April 1995.

Implementation of National

Lifeline Plan

Principal Investigators

Bijan Mohraz

Structures Division

301-975-6079

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To assess the Lifeline Plan and proceed with

its implementation for developing seismic

safety guidelines for rehabilitation and design

of lifeline systems.

Problem

In September 1995, FEMA submitted to

Congress a "Plan for Developing Seismic

Guidelines and Standards for Lifelines,"

FEMA 271, 5/96, referred to as the "Lifeline

Plan." Among the recommendations was a

cost effective approach that will result in

near-term implementation activities to reduce

the current vulnerability of existing lifelines.

The Plan also recommended establishment of

a Lifeline Seismic Safety Executive Board

(LSSEB) to manage and coordinates the

development of the guidelines.

Approach

The project will support the implementation

of the "Lifehne Plan" and examine how best

the Plan can be implemented through

partnership between the private/public

sectors and the federal government. It will

provide technical and managerial support for

the formation of the LSSEB. The project will

include the following tasks:

1 . Conduct a workshop in collaboration with

ASCE to support the development of seismic

safety guidelines and assess the Lifeline Plan

and its implementation through partnership

between the private/public sectors and

11
Federal Government.

2. Assess the need and proceed with

estabUshing LSSEB based on the

recommendations to be developed by the

workshop participants and provide technical

and managerial support to the Board for the

implementation of the Plan.

3. Formulate development of guidelines for

liquid fuel systems based on the outcome the

two current efforts conducted by others

through NIST's external research program

and begin recommended studies, if needed.

Recent Results

Dildcers, R. D., Chung, R. M. Mohraz, B.,

Lew, H. S., and Wright, R. N., Proceedings of

the 1991 Workshop on Developing and Adopting

Seismic Design and Construction Standardsfor

Lifelines NISTIR 5907, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, October 1 996.

Management of the Interagency

Committee on Seismic Safety in

Construction (ICSSC)

Principal Investigator

Ann Bieniawslci

Structures Division

301-975-6065

Sponsor

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To facilitate and expedite the work of the

Interagency Committee on Seismic Safety in

Construction (ICSSC) by providing the Chair

and Technical Secretariat.

Problem

The National Earthquake Hazard Reduction

Program (NEHRP) established the ICSSC to

assist Federal departments and agencies

develop, improve, and maintain seismic

safety programs for all types of construction.

Thirty-three Federal departments and

agencies currently participate in the ICSSC.

The National Earthquake Hazard Reduction

Act (amended by Public Law 101-614)

designates the director of NIST, or his

deputy, as the chair of the ICSSC. BFRL

provides the Technical Secretariat to the

ICSSC, to facilitate, document, and

disseminate the work of the committee.

The ICSSC has published and distributed

implementation guidance for Executive Order

12941, Seismic Safety of Existing Federally

Owned or Leased Buildings. Section 2 of the

Order requires all building-owning agencies

to develop a seismic inventory and an

estimate of the cost of achieving adequate

seismic safety in their buildings. The

information that is collected on the Federal

Government's half-million owned buildings

will be used to examine potential

rehabilitation programs, and to recommend

to Congress an economically feasible way to

upgrade the seismic safety of the Federal

building population.

12
The ICSSC guidance is aimed at ensuring

that the data collected by the agencies is consistent in content and format, so that an

effective seismic rehabilitation program,

based on reliable and defensible data, will be

proposed to Congress. The ICSSC guidance

was published in two volumes including a "how-to" handbook. Continued efforts are needed on the part of the ICSSC to

encourage consistent data collection,

interpretation, and reporting by the agencies.

The information collected by the agencies

will be submitted to the ICSSC between now

and 1998, for incorporation into a government-wide database, with entries on

all the half-million owned buildings. The

government-wide database will serve as the

primary source of information for the

examination of potential rehabilitation

programs and the report to Congress.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue serving

as the ICSSC Technical Secretariat and will

continue to carry out the basic day-to-day

management of the full committee and the

five subcommittees: organizing and

documenting meetings, maintaining rosters,

disseminating information. The ICSSC will

encourage consistency of implementation of

EO 12941 by:

1 . Developing cost estimating tools and

methodologies. Submitted data will be used

to assess vulnerability of a wide variety of

building types. The Second Edition - Typical

Costs cost estimating methodology will be

adapted for use in sub-dividing cost estimates

into the cost reporting categories called for in

the ICSSC guidance. Other potential tools

and methodologies that could aid the

agencies will be identified and developed.

2. Holding twice-yearly workshops to

provide a forum for agencies to share

successes and difficulties in implementing the

order. Agency personnel will be trained in the use of the ICSSC-developed methodologies.

3. Providing additional agency-specific

technical support upon request, in the form

of explanation, interpretation and/or training

in the use of the ICSSC guidance documents,

distribution of ICSSC documents,

presentations at meetings, review and

comment on proposed methodologies, and

similar efforts.

4. Serving as Database Manager who will

develop the basic framework for the

government-wide database, and begin

worldng with agency personnel to test

protocols for transmitting data.

Recent Results

No recent publications.

13
Technical Assistance to FEMA

Project Officer (Existing Buildings)

Principal Investigator

Ann Bieniawsld

Structures Division

301-975-6065

Recent Results

Bieniawski, A. S., "Executive Order 12941:

Mitigating Seismic Risk in the Federal

Inventory," Proceedings ofEERI New Madrid

Zone regional Seminar on Seismic Engineering

Issues, September 1996.

Sponsor

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Office of Earthquakes and Natural Hazards

Objective

To provide technical review of FEMA-funded

projects aimed at developing design and

construction guidance documents for seismic

rehabilitation of existing buildings.

Problem

FEMA supplements the capabilities of their

ovm staff by using the technical expertise of

BFRL personnel.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will assist FEMA

perform the following:

1 . Implement Section 2 of Executive Order

12941, "Seismic Safety of Existing Federally

Owned or Leased Buildings";

2. Complete "Guidelines for Seismic

Rehabilitation of Buildings," and supporting

documentation, being prepared by

BSSC/ATC/ASCE;

3. Complete "Existing Buildings 2005,"

development of a strategy for improving

seismic rehabilitation tools between now and

2005;

4. Investigation of the seismic rehabilitation

of Federally assisted and regulated buildings;

and

5. Update FEMA 178, the NEHRP

Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of

Existing Buildings.

14
Technical Assistance to FEMA

Project Officer (New Buildings)

Principal Investigator

H. S. Lew

Structures Division

301-975-6061

Sponsor

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To provided technical review of

FEMA-funded projects on development of

improved building codes for seismic design of

new construction.

Problem

FEMA supplements the capabilities of it's

staff by using BFRL's technical expertise.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will participate in

technical subcommittees of the BSSC Update

Project including the NEHRP Recommended

Provisions for the Development of Seismic

Regulations for New Buildings. All ballot

submittals from the Provisions Update

Committee will be reviewed. At the request

of the FEMA Project Officer, BFRL staff will

participate in proposal evaluation panels and

selected technical seminars and meetings.

Recent Results

No published results.

Support Implementation of EO

12699

Principal Investigator

Ann Bieniawski

Structures Division

301-975-6065

Sponsor

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To support implementation of Executive

Order 12699 on seismic safety of new Federal

construction by providing technical assistance

when requested by affected agencies, and by

producing appropriate technical studies.

Problem

Federal Government Agencies may lack

knowledge of seismic design and construction

principles, and content and use of building

codes. As model codes and source documents

are updated, agencies may need guidance on

which codes are appropriate for Federal use.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will upon request of

an affected Federal agency:

1 . Provide a speaker knowledgeable on EO

12699 and implementation issues, for

meetings in the Washington, DC area;

2. Provide multiple copies of existing

literature, published by NIST, supporting

implementation of the EO;

3. Review proposed implementation

procedures or regulations for appropriateness

of technical content; and

4. Duplicate and disseminate materials

produced by affected agencies for purposes of

information-sharing with other agencies (only

at request of the producing agency).

Recent Results

Provided ongoing technical assistance to

Federal agencies.

15
Secretariat U.S.-Side Panel on

Wind and Seismic Effects

Principal Investigator

Noel J. Raufaste

BFRL Headquarters

301-975-5905

Sponsors

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Nine Federal Agency Members

Objective

To provide the U.S. Secretariat of the

U.S. -Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic

Effects.

Problem

Loss of life and property result from

insufficient knowledge to adequately design

and construct buildings and other structures

cost-effectively against high winds and

seismic loads. Improved mitigation practices are in early stages of development. Technical

collaboration between experts in the United

States and Japan continue to produce

findings that improve natural hazard

mitigation practices. Such improvements are possible through joint working relations with

experts from the United States and Japan

through performing joint research projects

and exchanges of research personnel,

technical data and information, and research

equipment. [This Panel is part of the

U.S. -Japan Natural Resources Development

Program under the aegis of the U.S.-Japan

Cooperative Science Program of 1961.]

Approach

During FYI997, BFRL will:

1. Plan U.S. -side activities (19 Agency

membership) for scheduling U.S. -side efforts

in participating in the 29th Joint Panel

Meeting, Japan and hosting two U.S. Panel's

domestic meetings.

2. Manage the U.S. delegation's technical

contributions to Annual Joint Meetings.

3. Plan and coordinate technical activities of

the 1 1 Task Committees.

4. Manage U.S. delegation to Japan-side

hosted Meetings and Workshops and

developing technical programs for U.S.

hosted meetings.

5. Maintain liaison with U.S. and Japan

Panel members and other experts associated

with the Panel's activities.

6. Plan Japan Panel member visits to the

U.S. under the auspices of the Panel, e.g., post disaster investigations, special studies,

data gathering.

7. Maintain administrative and technical

records.

8. Prepare and distribute periodic activities

reports, and other materials as appropriate to

U.S. -side Panel and Task Committee

members.

9. Participate in Joint Panel meetings and

Task Committees.

10. Prepare and publish annual

Proceedings.

Recent Results

Raufaste, N., J., Wind and Seismic Effects,

Proceedings of the 28th Joint Panel Meeting,

NIST SP 904, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, 1 996.

16
STRUGTURES DIVISION

STRUCTURAL

EVALUATION

Construction Automation

Principal Investigators

William C. Stone

Structures Division

301-975-6075

Lawrence E. Pfeffer

Structures Division

301-975-6067

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop new techniques and standards for

real-time construction site metrology and to

develop a national standard for Idnematic

modeling of construction site machinery and

displaying robust graphical representations

which depict the real time state of the

machine to a remote node on the information

superhighway.

Problem

The emergence of high speed computer

communication networlcs (the "information

superhighway") and the rapid advance of

real-time, immersive, computer graphics

(virtual reality) technologies presage the

imminent ability to manage remote

construction sites from central offices; to

automate certain portions of the tasks

performed by common construction

machines; and to provide information on the

state of such machines to operators (on-site or remote) that would greatly enhance their

productivity. Limited demonstrations of this

type of technology, largely relating to the

control of robotic spacecraft and, more

pertinently, to the tele-operation of simple

machines for the handling of nuclear waste,

have been conducted.

In order to achieve acceptance in the

construction industry, a standard means of

rapidly interfacing any piece of machinery to a construction-site database must be

developed. The development of this standard

may not be fully addressed by the

construction industry itself, where corporate

research budgets are limited. Nor will it be

developed by equipment manufacturers who,

develop proprietary systems which inhibit

data exchange with other systems that might

be operational at a construction site. The

underpinning to the above technology is the

ability to know the real-time position of any

piece of equipment and component on the

construction site. Present surveying tools

suffer from many shortcomings; the most

important is they must operate under

line-of-sight (LOS) conditions. The

development of a non-line-of-sight surveying

system, which can in effect "see through

walls," represents the ultimate pinnacle of

construction site metrology and has guided

the focus of BFRL's research in NLS

metrology.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will establish an

initial version of a Construction Automation

Test-bed.

1 . Acquire, develop, characterize, and

integrate sensors (and wireless

communications equipment) into a real-time

computer system for the test-bed. The

information from these sensors should be

sufficient to determine the Idnematic state of

a representative construction vehicle and (if

possible) the state of objects being handled

by the vehicle.

2. Investigate methods for representing

Idnematic data for both rigid bodies and for

simple mechanisms (e.g., construction

vehicles.) Investigate how

functionality/interface aspects will influence

future construction-site database

development. Develop an initial specification,

and implement in the test-bed. Evaluate the

specification, and plan for future extensions.

3. Extend the existing virtual site

simulator toward the functionality of a construction automation test bed. Integrate

wireless communications system from vehicle

to graphical simulator. Incorporate object and

vehicle models into the site model, animated

by real-time sensor data. Improve the 3-D

graphic fidelity; make provisions for

extension from passive monitoring to

19
tele-operation/control.

BFRL will develop a range-error

compensation model based on non-dispersive

ray tracing techniques, which heretofore have

largely been used for computer graphics

rendering. In the proposed research, CAD

models of simulated construction sites will be

developed and material characteristics, based

on the extensive empirical EM material

propagation data acquired in FY96, will be

attached to various entities in the CAD

model - e.g. this panel is concrete; that one is

glass etc. This model will then be used to

estimate range error in calculated position

determined using the NLS system, and will

thus allow conclusions to be drawn

concerning the accuracy achievable through

NLS and its limitations and possibly will

identify avenues for further resolution

enhancement. The more complex

phenomenon of EM wave propagation in

dispersive media will be addressed in FY98.

Recent Results

Stone, W. C, NIST Construction Automation

Program Report No. 3: Electromagnetic Signal

Attenuation in Construction Materials, NISTIR

6055, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, September 1997.

Stone, W. C, NIST Construction Automation

Program Report No. 2: Proceedings of the NIST

Construction Automation Workshop, March 30-

31, 1995, NISTIR 5856, National Institute

of Standards and Technology, June 1996.

Stone, W. C, NIST Construction Automation

Program Report No. 1: Non-Line-of-Sight (NLS)

Construction Metrology, NISTIR 5825,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, April 1996.

High-Performance Concrete:

Design and Construction Practices

Principal Investigators

Nicholas J. Carino

Structures Division

301-975-6063

Dat Duthinh

Structures Division

301-975-4357

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To enhance the application of

high-performance concrete in the

construction of new facilities and the

rehabilitation of existing ones.

Problem

The benefits of high-performance concrete

are given in CERF Report #94-501

"High-Performance Construction Materials

and Systems: An Essential Program for

America and Its Infrastructure." The report,

developed by a cooperative effort of key

individuals from industry, academe, and the

Federal Government, identifies research

related to high-performance concrete to

enhance the competitiveness of the U.S.

construction industry and reduce the

life-cycle costs of constructed facilities. The

report notes that there are impediments

preventing exploitation of the unique

properties and advantages of

high-performance concrete. This multi-year

project aims to remove some of the critical

barriers through research in structural

behavior, testing standards, and construction

practices.

High-strength concrete offers the potential

for cost savings in construction due to

reduced member dimensions, the capability

to accommodate rapid construction

schedules, and enhanced service life. However, from a structural perspective,

high-strength concrete is inherently more

20
brittle than normal strength concrete (NSC).

Therefore, failure mechanisms in structural

members need to be understood before

appropriate design criteria can be developed.

Lacldng the necessary knowledge, design

codes have taken a conservative approach

and limit the concrete strength that can be

used to compute member resistance to tensile

failure modes. For example, current ACI

provisions for shear strength are limited to

concrete with strength less than 70 MPa. For

higher strength concrete, code provisions

require an increase in minimum shear

reinforcement, but otherwise provide no

guidance in dealing with higher strength

concrete. Limitations such as these place

barriers on the exploitation of the potential

properties of high-strength concrete. This

project aims to provide the technical basis for

design criteria applicable to structural

members made with high-strength concrete.

Curing concrete is a critical step in the

construction process. Sufficient curing is needed to ensure that the concrete properties

will develop and that the finished product

serves its intended function. Unnecessary

prolonged curing adds to construction costs. Curing standards are based on information

from normal concrete mixtures. These

concretes contained portland cement as the

only binder and did not have set controlling

admixtures. High-performance concrete

typically contains a blend of cementitious

materials and often includes chemical

admixtures that affect early-age hydration.

Thus current prescriptive curing

requirements, which are over 50 years old,

may not be applicable to high-performance

concrete mixtures. In addition, current

standards make no distinction between

curing to obtain adequate strength and curing

to obtain adequate durability. Because

durability is influenced highly by the

near-surface layer, whereas strength is influenced by the concrete mass, different

curing methods may be needed depending on

the objective. A new look at the subject of

curing is critical to ensure that the potential

benefits of high-performance concrete can be

realized economically. Current research

practice is to study the effects of curing on

small specimens, such as 100 mm x 200 mm

cylinders. However, the properties measured

on such specimens may not be indicative of

those in a structure because of differences in

moisture movement.

Approach

During FY 199 7, BFRL will focus on the shear

friction behavior of high-strength concrete

across cracks. This shear friction contributes

significantly to the shear-carrying mechanism

of reinforced concrete beams. Shear crack

surfaces are smoother in high-strength

concrete than in normal-strength concrete

because craclcs propagate though the

aggregates in HSC as opposed to going

around them as in NSC. Thus a significant

reduction in the shear friction of HSC is expected compared with NSC. "Push-off type

specimens will be used to investigate the

influences of factors such as aggregate size

and shape, aggregate strength, aggregate

volume and compressive strength. The results

of these tests will add to the database on

shear friction behavior of cracked concrete

which is limited for concrete strength above

60 MPa. Results will be made available to

ACI Committee 445 on shear and torsion

and to ACI Committee 3 1 8 on the building

code.

A cooperative study will be performed to

investigate the applicability of unbonded

polymeric caps to testing high-strength

specimens. The use of these caps is increasing

because of the labor reduction compared with

sulfur capping or grinding. However, there

are few data from well-controlled experiments

to show that the unbonded caps do not

reduce the measured strength of the

specimens. Results will be synthesized and

developed into recommendations for ASTM

Committee C9.

BFRL will provide the basis for rational

curing criteria that will ensure the required

strength and durability. An important

question that will be addressed by this

research is the efficacy of moist curing when

mixtures with low water to cementitious

materials ratios are used. When these

mixtures reach a fraction of their ultimate

21
level of hydration, the capillary pores in the

paste become discontinuous and water

movement into and out of the concrete

becomes controlled by diffusion through the

cement gel. Results will be synthesized into a

suitable form for presentation to ACI

Committees 308, 318 and 363 for

incorporation into reports and standards.

Recent Results

Duthinh, D., and Carino, N. J., Shear Design

ofHigh-Strength Concrete Beams: A Review of the

State-of-the-Art, NISTIR 5870, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

August 1996.

Carino, N. J., Guthrie, W. F., Lagergren, E.

S., and MulUngs, G. M., "Effects of Testing

Variables on the Strength of High-Strength

(90 MPa) Concrete Cylinders" Proceedings of

the ACI International Conference on

High-Performance Concrete, Singapore,

November 15-18, 1994, ACI SP- 149, pp.

589-632 .

Carino, N. J., Guthrie, W. F., and Lagergren,

E. S., Effects of Testing Variables on the

Measured Compressive Strength ofHigh-Strength

(90 MPa) Concrete, NISTIR 5405, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

October 1994.

Fire Resistance of High-Strength

Concrete

Principal Investigator

Long T. Phan

Structures Division

301-975-6077

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To understand performance characteristics of

high-strength concrete (HSC) when exposed

to high temperatures, develop analytical tools

for assessing fire performance of HSC, and

implement research results into code

provisions for fire design of HSC.

Problem

For its economic (carry a compression load at

less cost than lower-strength concrete) and

architectural (allow smaller columns to be

used) advantages and its availability, HSC is being used more widely in structural

applications such as columns of high-rise

buildings, prestressed concrete members, and

offshore structures. However, HSC is a

state-of-the-art material and little is Icnown

about its fundamental behavior (damage

mechanism) when subjected to rapid heating

as in the case of fire. To address this issue, in

FY1996 BFRL assessed the body of

knowledge about the fire performance of

HSC.

The review indicates that a limited number of

experimental studies concerning fire

performance of concrete (both normal and

high-strength) have been conducted to date.

Of these studies, only the more recent ones

considered HSC. Furthermore, most of these

recent studies were done in Europe and

involved siliceous aggregates that have

different thermal expansion properties than

those used in the United States Because

these studies are limited in number (relative

to the number of variables that influence the

fire endurance of HSC), they can not be used

to develop a behavioral model of the effect of

22
high temperature on HSC with statistical

confidence. However, they confirm important

behavioral differences between HSC and

normal strength concrete (NSC). These

include:

The tendency of HSC to spall explosively

when subjected to high temperature (above

300 °C).

• The larger decrease in compressive strength

and modulus of elasticity of HSC in the

temperature range of 100 °C to 300 °C

compared with NSC.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform three

phases:

1 . Experiments will consist of materials

testing (elevated temperature tests of

specimens) and element testing (tests of

beams, columns, slabs, walls). This phase is designed to gain an understanding of the

fundamental behavior of HSC at high

temperature and, more importantly, to

develop data necessary for the development

and validation of predictive models which

can account for the moisture transport and

the sudden spalling of HSC when subjected

to fire.

useable form, such as a practical constitutive

relationship for HSC at various temperatures,

suitable for design purposes, and presented to

code writing organizations for

implementation.

Recent Results

Phan, L. T., "Fire Performance ofHigh-Strength

Concrete, A Report of the State-of-the-Art,"

NISTIR 5934, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, December 1996.

2. The experimental data obtained from

this and other studies will be used to develop

a material model to predict damage of HSC

due to high temperature. The basis for the

model may be adopted from the pore

pressure models by Bazant or Ahmed, but

including the measured properties

(permeability, moisture content, rate of

moisture loss, etc.) characteristic of HSC.

Data obtained from element tests in Phase 1

vvdll be used for model validation. The

material model will then be implemented in a computer program (possibly University of

Liege's SAFIR, which has been acquired as part of the work in FY1996) and used in

parametric studies to aid in assessing the fire

performance rating for HSC structural

elements.

3. The experimental and analytical data

will be synthesized and tabulated into a

23
Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Composites in Construction

Principal Investigators

John L. Gross

Structures Division

301-975-6068

Dat Duthinh

Structures Division

301-975-4357

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop guidelines for the use of Fiber

Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites in

repair and rehabilitation of infrastructure

facilities; to develop the technical basis for

the application of FRP to new structural

forms for replacing infrastructure facilities.

Problem

Much of the U.S. infrastructure is in need of

repair or replacement as a result of damage

caused by heavy use and exposure to the

environment. Additionally, some of the

Nation's infrastructure facilities are in need

of rehabilitation to either increase their

capacity or to improve their seismic

performance. Fiber Reinforced Polymer

(FRP) composites have been demonstrated to

provide an economical solution to these

repair and rehabilitation problems. In

addition, FRP composites show promise for

new construction as alternatives to

traditional materials.

The ease of handling and application, the

minimal disruption to the structure's

function, and the versatility of the materials

have all contributed to the widespread use of

FRP in repair and rehabilitation of damaged

and decaying structures. The extent to which

FRP will be used depends on 1 ) the

resolution of outstanding technical issues

such as fire performance and durability, 2)

the extent to which automation in the

manufacturing process can reduce cost, and

3) the availability of validated codes,

standards and guidelines which can be used

as design references and tools by the civil

engineering profession.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform worldwide search of FRP related products, research

results, available test methods, and successful

applications. They will be synthesized to

assess the current state of practice in

applying FRP to repair and rehabilitation of

infrastructure facilities. A workshop will be

convened to determine the specific needs for

standards and to identify areas where the

technical basis for such standards is insufficient. Guided by the workshop

recommendations, analytical and/or

experimental research will be conducted to

provide the technical basis for the

development of guidelines and draft

standards for the repair and rehabilitation of

structures using FRP. The guidelines and

draft standards developed by NI ST will be

proposed to the industry for consideration in

the consensus standards process.

At the same time, applications of FRP in new

construction will be investigated. Possible

areas include innovative systems for

short-span vehicular bridges. An expert panel

will be assembled to establish potential

applications where the unique characteristics

of FRP composites can be used to advantage

to reduce the life-cycle costs of new

construction. At the same time, the technical

barriers to widespread use of FRP composites

will be identified. Based on this information,

a research plan will be formulated to address

these barriers.

Recent Results

New project

24
Next Generation Design Standard

For Wind Loads

Principal Investigator

Emil Simiu

Structures Division

301-975-6076

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop key elements of a knowledge-based improved wind load design

standard that wall make extensive use of site - and building-specific databases and

state-of-the-art computational methods for

establishing site-specific design wind speeds

and the corresponding steady and fluctuating

structural loads.

Problem

There are a number of significant deficiencies

in the wind load design provisions of current

U.S. codes and standards. They include 1)

crude simplifications of loading models due

to the need in traditional standards to

summarize a wide range of information in

one table or even one number; 2) extreme

winds and corresponding load factors derived

from outmoded estimation methods; 3)

exposure coefficients that cannot deal ""Aath complex wind exposures (the normal case); 4)

gross simplifications of extreme pressures and

loads that ignore the directional effects of

wind; and 5) no distinction between design

for safety and design for serviceability.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will 1. develop "peaks over threshold" extreme value estimation

approach to hurricane load estimation, taking

wind directionality into account; 2. develop

aerodynamics databases for a pilot module of

the new type of standard; 3. acquire

information on typical frame design,

development of corresponding influence line

plots for the pilot module, testing of the

conceptual approach to a new standard, and

assessing its benefits; 4. coordinate the BFRL

computational fluid dynamics researchers

group to explore potential of CFD methods

to supplant wind tunnel testing for loads on

wind-force resisting systems; 5. monitor the

incorporation of updates to ASCE 7-95 into

the BFRL develop interactive software; and 6. work with insurance workers and standards

groups on improvement of current design

methodologies for hurricanes and tornadoes.

Recent Results

Simiu, E., Hackert, N. A. And Whalen, T.

M., Estimates ofHurricane Wind Speeds by the

Peaks Over Threshold Method, NIST TN 1416,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, February 1996.

Whalen, T. M., Probabilistic Estimates of Design

Load Factorsfor Wind Sensitive Structures Using

the Peaks Over Threshold Approach, NIST TN

1418, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, April 1996.

25
iI
BUILDING MATERIALS

DIVISION

COATINGS AND

COMPOSITES

Computer-Integrated Knowledge

Systems (CIKS) for HighPerformance Construction

Materials and Systems

Principal Investigator

Lawrence ICaetzel

Building Materials Division

301-975-5912

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and demonstrate ComputerIntegrated Kjiowledge Systems (CIKS) for

High-Performance Construction Materials

and Systems (HPCMS).

Problem

The President's National Science and

Technology Council has developed, with

strong endorsement by the industries of

construction, a set of National Construction

Goals that focus on better constructed

facilities and health and safety of the

construction worlcforce. They include a call

for significant reduction in delivery time;

reduction in operation, maintenance, and

energy costs; increase in productivity and

comfort; reduction in occupant related

illnesses and injuries; reduction in waste and

pollution; increase in durability and

flexibility; and reduction in construction

work illnesses and injuries. At the same time,

the Civil Engineering Research Foundation

(CERF), worldng with the construction

materials industry, has drawn attention to

the need for creating a computer-integrated

knowledge system for HPCMS that is planned, built, and maintained at a national

level and will serve as the corner stone of its technology development strategy. The highly

fragmented nature of the industries of

construction makes it difficult for all stakeholders - owners, architects, designers,

specifiers, construction planners, site

managers, facilities managers, materials

suppliers, equipment suppliers, the labor

force, trade/professional organizations.

standards development organizations,

public^private technology transfer centers,

universities and research institutes, and

government/private laboratories - to access and use the data, information, and

loiowledge necessary for widespread

deployment of HPCMS. Such deployment

will contribute to the realization of the

National Construction goals and the specific

economic and commercial benefits that

derive from them.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will develop a meta

model on Imowledge sources, processes, and

requirements for CIKS. The CIKS testbed

will be used to test the meta model using

NIST HPCMS loiowledge, information, and

data, in addition to that provided by other

construction industry organizations.

Coordination will be necessary among all HPCMS projects that deal with

computerized l<xiowledge bases on

construction materials. Input from CERF

CONMAT Council and the CIKS

Construction Materials Worldng Group

groups will be used in the design and

requirements for CIKS. Efforts by private

industry, academia, and government

organizations will be evaluated for possible use and interfaces for CIKS. Workshops will

be held to determine user needs. User needs

will be compared against new and innovative

enabling information technologies and

standards activities. Opportunities for

establishing consortia and CRADA's between

BFRL and construction industry

organizations will be explored. Collaboration

with leading universities such as Stanford

and Carnegie-Mellon Universities who are engaged in laiowledge management and

information modehng will be sought. An

Internet presence via the World Wide Web

will be available to disseminate information

and application systems related to the

HPCMS program. Examples of information

that will be available via CIKS includes;

material property databases, manuals,

published reports, decision-support systems,

computer-based models (service-life

prediction), and economic analysis software.

29
Recent Results

Kaetzel, L., Kurihara, T. Y., Computer

Integrated Knowledge Systems (CIKS)for

Construction Materials, Components and Systems:

Proposed Framework, NISTIR 6071, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

October 1997. (www.ciks.nist.gov)

Computer-Integrated Knowledge

System, (CIKS) for High

Performance Coatings

Principal Investigators

Lawrence Kaetzel

Building Materials Division

301-975-5912

Thomas Kurihara

Building Materials Division

301-975-3876

Mary McKjiight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop an architecture, information

models and operational computerized

systems for the representation and

dissemination of loiowledge concerning high

performance organic coating used for

protecting steel structures.

Problem

Coatings provide a versatile and cost-effective

means for protecting steel structures against

adverse environmental conditions, but,

because of the large number of factors which

need to be considered, and the inaccessibility

of data, decisions concerning coating systems

having a long service life in their intended

service environment are often difficult to

make. Currently, users of coating systems

must rely on information that is represented

in many different forms and in many diverse

ways. These include manuals, guides,

photographs and drawings, videos, databases,

and other references. In addition, the advice

of the human expert is often needed in

reaching a decision. An integrated loiowledge

system that includes different forms of

loiowledge and is presented in a coherent

format will help to overcome these obstacles

and improve the specification, selection, and

use of coatings systems for protecting steel.

30
thus improving the performance and

extending the service life of structures.

Approach

During FY1997. BFRL will develop a CIICS

based decision-maldng process and

Icnowledge bases on coating materials will be

identified or generated, as necessary. The

research involves identifying the data

elements used in the decision-maldng

process, defining and establishing an

information model or activity model that

describes the loiowledge, information, and

data flows for testing within the CIICS

testbed, and developing computerized

prototypes and operational systems for

distribution. BFRL will work with the CIKS

Coatings Worldng Group setup under the

auspices of the Civil Engineering Research

Foundation CONMAT Council and the Steel

Structures Painting Council Committee

C.4.10 on "Knowledge Based Systems for

Coatings." During the first phase of the

interaction, an activity model will be

developed that describes the information

requirement and processes used by highway

engineers in determining the appropriate

coating system for recoating highway steel

bridge structures. This project contributes to

the development of Kjnowledge Systems for

High Performance Construction Materials

and Systems and will be disseminated by the

HPCMS World Wide Web server and other

networks. The architecture and methods

developed in this project will be applicable to

other construction materials and will have

broad application within the construction

industry.

New methods for improved dissemination

and access to geographically distributed

Icnowledge bases will be investigated,

including the intelligent agents that allow

more efficient commuter-computer and

human-computer interactions. The CIKS

testbed (computerized system and software

development tools) being developed in BFRL

will provide a framework for the development

and testing of the methods. The testbed will

be accessible through high-speed data links to

other organizations including the University

of Kansas, NIST Radiometric Physics

Division, Steel Structures Painting Council,

and the Infrastructure Technology Institute

at Northwestern University. Standards

activities such as STEP, Electronic Data

Exchange, Kjnowledge Query Language will

be evaluated and implemented if they apply.

Recent Results

The COEX (Coatings Expert Advisory

System) was reviewed by coatings industry

personnel. Capabilities to distribute decision

support systems via the Internet, including

COEX were installed at the CIKS testbed.

The coating product data format ballot was

approved in SSPC and a National

Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)

task group was established at NACE to

review the format. Implementation of

databases using the format was performed.

31
Coatings Service Life Prediction

Consortium - Task I: Quantification of

Photodegradation Effects of

UV-radiation in the Field and

Laboratory

Principal Investigator

Jonathan Martin

Building Materials Division

301-975-6717

Sponsors

National Institute of Standards and

Technology and

FHWA and industry partners

Objective

To develop methodologies for mathematically

predicting from the photodegradation

response of the materials exposed to

UV-radiation, the service lives of organic

coatings and other polymer materials.

Problem

UV-radiation, along with the wetness and

temperature of a material, are usually the

prime weathering factors determining the

service lives of organic coatings and other

polymeric systems exposed outdoors in most

non-industrial environments. The inability to

control or adequately characterize temporal

changes in these weathering factors is one of

the major challenges which must be overcome

before establishing a connection between the

degradation response of polymeric materials

exposed in the laboratory and the field. This

project is directed at establishing the linkage

between the degradation effects of

UV-radiation in the field and the laboratory

needed in predicting service life from the

results of laboratory tests.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will refine a mathematical model that mathematically

relates photodegradation results obtained

from field and laboratory exposure

experiments. This model requires knowledge

of a material's spectral UV-absorbency and its spectral quantum yield along with knowledge

of the spectral UV-irradiance to which it is exposed.

Recent Results

Floyd, F.L. and Martin, J.W.

"Forschungsplanung mit Hilfe der

Reliabilitatstheori," Farbe und Lack 102: 28.

Saunders, S.C. and Martin, J.W. "Statistical

Models for Cumulative Damage in Coatings

Due to Photolytic Degradation,"/- of Polymer

Science, 1996.

Frohnsdorff, G. J. and Martin, J.W. "Toward

Prediction of Building Service Life-The

Standards Imperative," Proceedings of the 7th

International Conference on the Durability of

Building Materials and Components, Stocldiolm,

Sweden, May, 1996.

Pommersheim, J. Nguyen, T., and Kotterer,

D., "The Effects of Diffusion Osmosis and

Applied Potential On the Growth of

Cathodic Blisters Beneath Organic Coatings,"

American Chemical Society Symposium

Series, January 1995.

32
Coatings Service Life Prediction

Consortium- Task II: Interactive

Research Program with Industry

Principal Investigator

Jonathan Martin

Building Materials Division

301-975-6717

Sponsor

Industrial Consortium

Objective

To reduce the time required for the

implementation of reliability-based

methodologies into the industrial

community.

Problem

Implementation of reliability-based service

life prediction procedures have led to

improvements in the service hfe of a wide

range of products. Coupled with design of

experiment and data analysis technologies,

these techniques could lead to significant

reductions in test times. A major impediment

to implementing and accepting these

techniques is this method is different from

the current one. This "hands-on"

experimental program is designed to facilitate

the transfer of this methodology to industry,

to identify problems in its implementation,

and establish a dialogue between industrial

and government researchers.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will meet with

representatives from each member company

of the industrial consortium to discuss their

service life prediction problems. A life test

program will be designed and data

requirements specified. The experiments will

be conducted at the representatives facility.

BFRL staff will consult with the company

representative throughout the experiment in

analyzing and interpreting the collected data

and in using software.

Recent Results

New project.

Coating Service Life Prediction

Consortium - Task IILUserFriendly Software System for

Experimental Design and Data

Analysis

Principal Investigators

Jonathan Martin

Building Materials Division

301-975-6717

James J. FiUiben

Information Technology Laboratory

301-975-2855

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a menu-driven, user-friendly

software system for 486/Pentium-cIass PC's

for designing experiments, analyzing resulting

data, fitting assumptions, and modeling data.

Problem

The use of modern experimental design and

data analysis techniques has resulted in

savings of time, materials, and money in

many industries. It is hkely to be at least as useful in the coatings industry, in developing

a good relationship between field and

laboratory testing, which will be useful in

substituting specific, short-term laboratory

experiments for lengthy field tests. Software

is needed to expedite the introduction and

use of these techniques.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will build on NIST's

DATAPLOT engineering data analysis

software system, by incorporating the

appropriate approaches and methods. Work

includes experimental design and data

analysis for lifetime tests and techniques for

distributional model fitting based on

accelerated testing.

Recent Results

New project.

33
Advanced Models and

Measurements of Optical

Reflectance of Materials

Principal Investigator

Mary E. McICnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Objective

To develop improved methods for measuring

and models for predicting the reflectance

properties of materials

Problem

The optical reflectance properties of an object can be of vital importance. They can greatly

influence judgments of the quality of object

through its appearance or affect the visibility

of a warning sign or a camouflaged object.

To provide the physical tools needed in the

development and implementation of new

products in which reflectance properties are

critical, it is essential that the industry have

the physical tools necessary to accurately

quantify the optical reflectance properties

and the modeling capability to predict them.

Current metrology is unable to accurately

quantify some important reflectance

properties. The challenge is to develop

evaluate, demonstrate and implement the use

of new measurement and modeling methods,

filling the knowledge gaps as needed and

coordinate efforts among the experimental,

modeling, and computer rendering activities.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will 1) prepare a set of

materials having a desired range of surface

morphology, 2) collaborate with NIST's

Physics, Manufacturing Engineering, and

Information Technology Laboratories to

characterize their optical reflectance

properties and their surface morphology,

model their reflectance properties and render

their appearance, and 3) initiate activities

with industry, university and other

government researchers to form a group to

address research needed to develop and

implement the use of advanced technologies

(measurement, modeling and computer

rendering). The experimental and modeling

data obtained in FY1997 will contribute to

the long-term goal of improved fundamental

understanding of the relationships between

material properties and reflectance

properties.

Recent Results

New project

34
spectral Ultra Violet-B Radiation

Database

Principal Investigator

Lawrence I<aetzel

Building Materials Division

301-975-5912

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a computerized database system

of solar ultra-violet B radiation data for

dissemination as a 1997 NIST Standard

Reference Data Program product.

Problem

Spectral UV-B radiation (solar) data is important to a wide range of scientific

disciplines including materials (e.g., color

changes in coatings, textiles, fabrics, and

degradation of composites, plastics and

coatings). The data in the database will be

invaluable input into models for predicting

the service life of building material and in

assessing the relative severity of different

exposure environments throughout the

United States Currently, the Smithsonian

Institution, several universities, and NIST's

Physics Laboratory are collecting UV-B

spectral irradiance data at several locations

throughout the United States. The NIST site

BFRL is the largest UV-radiation network in

the United States.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will; 1) characterize

the data, 2) evaluate the quality control

measures for data accuracy (e.g., calibration,

transformations), 3) develop database

formats to use data from different sources,

and 4) build the database representing

outdoor weathering factors, specifically, solar

spectral UY-B radiation data. A geographical

user interface will be developed. The NIST

Optical Physics Division effort on the

calibration of solar spectroradiometers and

generation of inter-comparison data sets will

be used to develop criteria for establishing

guidelines for data set quality. Databases on

the performance of coating materials will be

used to develop the user interface and to test

the use of the computerized database system

for measuring the environmental effects on

materials performance. BFRL's Coatings

Service Life Consortium activities will be

used to obtain feedback for the user interface

and to test prototype systems.

Recent Results

The solar ultra-violet B data network became

fully operational during fiscal year 1997.

Remote sites included in the network are: Phoenix, Arizona, Miami, Florida, Edgewater,

Maryland. Data from Ocean City, New

Jersey and Roclwille, Maryland and the

above referenced sites will constitute the

database produced as a NIST Standard

Reference Data Product.

35
Highway Structures Expert System

for the Selection of Coating

Materials

Principal Investigator

Lawrence Kaetzel

Building Materials Division

301-975-5912

Sponsor

Department of Transportation

Federal Highway Administration

Objective

To develop a computerized expert system on

coatings performance (decision-support

system) that assists FHWA's district staff and

sate DOT engineers by providing easy access

to FHWA research results for the selection of

coatings systems for highway structures.

Problem

Conventional methods (e.g., published

research reports) used to disseminate

Icnowledge about coating system performance

often fail to reach their intended audience of

coating users, and coating system users often

lack systematic ways of interpreting and

applying research results in practice. Also,

obstacles such as incompatible or diverse

loiowledge formats may hinder access to

relevant coating materials l<j:iowledge.

Approach

During FY 1997, BFRL will perform four

tasks in developing an expert system for

coating selection:

1 . Identify and acquire the knowledge

base for the system, FHWA reports and

Technical Summaries will be the primary

source of loiowledge to be incorporated into

the system. Rules will be developed from the

reports and from standards and guides to

accepted practice. The rules will be included

in a framework that will permit users to

obtain recommendations. Other knowledge

in areas such as corrosion control for highway

structural components, and maintenance

coating of weathering steel, will be included

in the system.

2. Interpret knowledge and develop the

reasoning process (question-response

dialogue) that will guide the user while

interacting with the system, coatings domain

experts will define the system scope,

systematic approaches to solutions based

upon the FHWA reports and user

specifications for the computerized system.

3. Computerize the l<jiowledge

developing a prototype for review, then refine

the system to achieve an operational status,

multiple forms of knowledge will be used.

These will include: a) rules developed by the

domain experts, and video clips to

demonstrate proper procedures for

inspection, surface preparation and the

application of coatings systems, b) digitized

photographs of coating failures, and c)

bibliographic references to support the

conclusions and recommendations made by

the system. A group of users will be selected

to evaluate and provide feedback to the

system during its development. This process

will ensure that a useful system is developed.

Upon completion of the operational system it will be delivered to FHWA for distribution.

4. Develop a reference document and

train users. The method for distribution of

the system will depend on the computing

platforms available among the user audience.

While it is probable that a CD-ROM will be

used, other methods such as using the

Internet will also be explored.

Recent Results

A prototype decision support system was

developed for use by Federal Highway

District Engineers and State Transportation

Department Engineers.

36
Effects of Environmental and

Mechanical Stresses on

Fiber-reinforced Polymeric

Composites

Principal Investigator

Joannie W. Chin

Building Materials Division

301-975-6815

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide the technical basis for predicting

changes in the performance of polymer

matrix composites following exposure to UV,

moisture and mechanical loading.

Problem

The polymer matrix in a fiber-reinforced

composite binds and orients reinforcing fibers

to carry the intended loads, protects them

from handling and environment, and

provides all of the interlaminar shear strength

of the composite. However, the matrix is often considered to be the weak link in a

fiber-reinforced composite system, since it may undergo physical damage (in the form of

crazing and cracldng) and chemical

degradation during environmental exposure

and stress application.

The durability of polymer composites in

outdoor environments is the primary concern

limiting the acceptance of these materials in

infrastructural applications. In a June 1996

meeting of Federal Agencies, the performance

of composite materials was cited as a major

concern. Specifically of interest was the

long-term durability of these materials when

subjected to temperature cycling, humidity,

freeze/thaw, ultraviolet (UV) radiation,

alkaline and saline immersion, and both

static and dynamic loading.

At present, few studies have been conducted

on the photodegradation of composite

materials combined with moisture,

temperature and mechanical loading. It is

necessary to understand the mechanisms

which govern polymer degradation, not only

to be able to develop methods for predicting

service life and other aspects of performance,

but also to devise reliable accelerated

degradation tests.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will subject polymer

films, and model composites, to static and

cyclic loads, to moisture, alkahne,

environments, sea water, UV radiation and

combinations of these parameters. A novel

weathering device is being designed to

perform the above exposure conditions.

Chemical changes which take place in

commonly used composite matrix resins, e.g., vinyl ester and isophthalic polyester, will be

characterized with Fourier transform infrared

spectroscopy (FTIR), x-ray photoelectron

spectroscopy (XPS) and differential scanning

calorimetry (DSC). Changes in viscoelastic

response, stiffness and strength will be

evaluated with dynamic mechanical thermal

analysis (DMTA) and tensile testing. Each of

these techniques is critical to material

characterization at the molecular to the

macroscopic scales as a function of

environmental exposure and mechanical

loading. Exposures will be carried out at room

temperature as well as elevated temperature

to assess acceleration of environmental

damage. Scanning electron microscopy

(SEM), atomic force microscopy and image

analysis will be used to quantify

microcracking and other changes in polymer

surface morphology.

Because degradation processes may be

different in a fiber-reinforced polymer

composite versus the neat polymer, model

composite systems will be employed in

assessing physical and chemical properties as

a function of environmental exposure and

mechanical stress. These model systems will

involve well-defined fiber orientations and

architectures, a minimum number of plies

and low fiber volume fractions. Fibers of

interest include carbon, glass, and/or aramid.

This stage of the study will be undertaken

when the matrix resin study is completed, so that polymer-related factors which lead to

37
decreased composite durability can first be

isolated. This study is being coordinated with

a complementary study on the durability of

the interface between composite matrix resins

and reinforcing fibers, so that this important

component of a composite system will also be

included in assessment of overall durability.

Collaboration with potential users of polymer

matrix composites, in industry as well as other federal agencies will be sought.

Planning for a Federal Working Group in

Composite Materials is currently underway.

Interactions with the Polymers Division of

NIST will continue to be actively pursued.

Links to industrial manufacturers and users of composite materials will also be initiated so that relevant areas of research can be

identified and the appropriate technical

assistance provided.

Recent Results

Chin, J. W., Nguyen, T., and Aouadi, K.,

"Effects of Environmental Exposure on FRP

Materials Used in Construction," Journal of

Composites Technology and Research, vol. 19, no.

4, October 1997.

Interface/Interphase

Characterization of Polymeric

Building Materials

Principal Investigator

Tinh Nguyen

Building Materials Division

301-975-6718

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To identify methods for quantitatively

characterizing chemical and physical

properties of interfaces and interphases in

aged and unaged polymeric composite

materials and provide the technical basis for

performance tests and predictions of service

life and other aspects of performance.

Problem

The use of polymeric composite materials in

the construction industry is increasing.

Polymeric composite materials, like paints,

painted plastics, adhesives, and

fiber-reinforced composites, are comprised of

a polymer matrix in which other materials are dispersed causing the existence of an

interface/interphase region; the materials in

this region, have chemical and morphological

properties that are different from the bulk

polymer and, the interphase often includes

impurities, unreacted molecules, or additives.

The interphase is a complex structure which

is not easily analyzed or modeled. The

interface/interphase is believed to control

many of the properties of polymeric

composite materials. It may also be a weak

link in that the interface/interphase region is often the location of failure initiation.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will:

1 . Develop methods to characterize the

interface/interphase and its changes with

external stresses.

2. Develop models for describing

interface/interphase regions.

38
3. Develop models for predicting how

the interface/interface changes under stress.

4. Conduct experiments to provide data

for elucidating interfacial/interphasial

formation and failure mechanisms, and for

validating models.

5. Conduct experiments to determine

the role of interface/interphase properties on

the performance and service life of polymeric

composite systems.

6. Relate interfacial/interphasial failure

data obtained under laboratory conditions to

data from exposures of polymeric composites

under typical service conditions.

Since interface/interphase properties are matrix/substrate specific, three distinct

polymer/substrate systems will be selected

and investigated to demonstrate the

techniques. The techniques developed and

the loiowledge learned should be applicable

to all polymeric composite materials.

Work will focus on identifying and

developing techniques to characterize the

molecular interactions and microstructure

(including defects) in the interface regions,

determine the role of interfacial molecular

interaction and microstructure on the

adhesion of polymeric systems, and assess the

effects of process variables on the interfacial

microstructure and composite performance.

Recent Results

New project.

Standards for Abatement of

Hazards from Lead in Buildings

Principal Investigator

Mary McKjnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor

Department of Housing and Urban

Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and

Poisoning Prevention

Objective

To expedite development of standards

needed for abatement of hazards from lead in

buildings and related structures.

Problem

An estimated 57 million homes in the United

States contain some lead-based paint.

Although there are increasing numbers of

standards for characterizing the lead

concentrations in paint, dust, soil and air

particulates, and for carrying out lead

abatements, additional standard procedures

are still needed. For example, there is a need

for an overall standard practice or guide for

abating hazards from lead in buildings and

related structures that includes assessment

and analysis of the problem, design of an

abatement strategy, abatement procedures,

and post-abatement management procedures.

ASTM Subcommittee, E06.23, chaired by

BFRL, was organized to meet the need for

development of all the needed standards; it has already established 19 standards, but the

most complex ones have yet to be completed.

Approach

During FYI997, BFRL will work with ASTM

E06.23 in developing basic standards to

support an overall practice for abatement of

hazards from lead in buildings and related

structures. To maintain the subcommittee's

vitality, additional knowledgeable members

will be recruited, results of applicable

research will be provided to task groups, and

liaisons with related ASTM committees,

including D22, Dl, E50, El and D18, will be

39
maintained.

Recent Results

Prepared the texts which ASTM is to publish

is a volume containing 1 9 full consensus

standards and one provisional standard.

Method for Evaluation of

Performance of Lead-in-Paint

Measuring Devices Under

Simulated Field Conditions

Principal Investigator

Mary McKjnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development

Office of Lead Based Paint Abatement and

Poisoning Prevention

Objectives

To identify and quantify factors affecting the

field performance of portable x-ray

fluorescence (XRF) devices for measuring of

lead in paint using a range of simulated field

conditions.

Problem

Recent legislation (Housing and Community

Development Act of 1992, PL102-550) will

phase in requirements for lead-based paint

testing for all housing built before 1978.

These requirements are expected to result in

several new x-ray fluorescence (XRF) devices.

Because of both health and financial

liabilities associated with these

measurements, it is essential to have reliable

estimates of the field performance parameters

of the measurements (e.g., detection limit,

precision, bias). For some XRF devices,

research results have shown that estimates of

these performance parameters obtained using

existing laboratory evaluation procedures do

not agree with estimates obtained using

field-acquired data. Currently, field studies

are being used to characterize additional

devices. However, field studies are limited in

several ways — sites having parameters in the

necessary ranges are difficult to find;

systematic variation of the parameters is usually not possible; implementation of new

technologies may be impeded; and

fundamental understanding of the

measurement procedures is complete.

40
Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will characterize and

model the scientific principles controlling the

performance of portable XRF devices, design

and carry out laboratory experiments to

simulate significant field conditions, as determined by modeling and other

information, carry out a limited field study

to determine whether the laboratory results are consistent with field results, and prepare

a standard protocol for laboratory evaluation

of portable XRF devices and present it to

ASTM E06.23 for standardization. Upon

completion of the experimental study, a draft

standard test method for evaluating the

performance of portable XRF equipment will

be written and presented to ASTM E06.23.

Recent Results

No published results.

Factors Affecting the Leaching of

Lead from Lead-based Paint Films

Principal Investigators

Eric Byrd

Building Materials Division

301-975-6701

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and

Poisoning Prevention

Objective

To determine the relative importance of pH,

acid type, acid concentration, surfactant

concentration, lead concentration and

immersion time on the leaching of lead from

lead-based paint films, and to recommend to

ASTM E06.23 encapsulant performance tests and criteria for incorporation in encapsulant

specifications.

Problem

According to a recent U.S. Department of

Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

report to Congress, an estimated 57 million

homes in the United States contain

lead-based paint. The hazards of lead-based

paint may be abated by painting the

lead-based paint with an encapsulant.

However, questions remain as to under what

conditions lead can be leached from a lead-based paint film and transported

through an encapsulant film. Previous

HUD-sponsored BFRL research results

indicated that essentially no lead is leached

from lead-based paint films immersed in

dilute nitric acid (pH 2 or pH 4) or from

paint films immersed in pH 10 or 12 sodium

or ammonium hydroxide solutions. On the

other hand, practically all the lead was

leached from paint films immersed in

20-percent acetic acid, while a much smaller

amount was leached from vinegar (5 percent

acetic acid). These results demonstrate that

41
leaching of lead depends greatly upon the

type and concentration of liquid acid to

which the lead-based paint is exposed.

Therefore, information is needed on the

lead-leaching effects of other acids and

household cleaners.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will conduct a

two-level, fractional, factorial experiment to

determine the relative importance of pH, acid

type, acid concentration, surfactant

concentration, lead concentration and

immersion time on the leaching of lead from

lead-based paint films. The transport of lead

through three encapsulants will be

determined for at least two exposure

conditions that caused lead to be leached

from the lead-based paint films. Exposure

conditions will be selected in consultation

with members of E06.23 and HUD. The

results will be reported and recommended

performance tests and criteria drafted and

presented to ASTM E06.23 for

standardization.

Recent Results

No published results.

International Standards for Design

Life of Buildings

Principal Investigator

Geoffrey Frohnsdorff

Building Materials Division

301-975-6706

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To lead the development of an ISO standard

for assuring that the designed life of a building under anticipated environmental

actions will be achieved and to chair the ISO

Worldng Group on Design Life of Buildings.

Problem

As building technology advances, there is an

increasingly strong desire to minimize the

risks associated with innovation, whether due

to premature deterioration resulting from the

materials and components used, or the way

they are incorporated into the building

design. In a partial response to the need,

standard methodologies for assessing the

service lives of individual materials and

components have been developed in ASTM

Committee E06, Performance of Buildings.

Now, methodologies for assessing the service

lives of individual materials and components

are to e incorporated into a methodology for

assessing whether a building of a given design

will perform satisfactorily over its intended

life, the service life. The standard is needed

to provide guidance to: designers and

planners on methods for assessing the

expected life of a building and assuring that

its design life will be met; construction

engineers on how to construct a building to assure the intended life; materials and

product manufacturers on information they

should provide to assist assessment of the life of a building; maintenance engineers and

building owners on information they will

need to carry out the maintenance required

to achieve the design life; and standards and

code bodies and legislators on the need for

improved standards and codes. To prepare

42
the standard, ISO Technical Committee

TC59, Building Construction, established a Working Group (WG9) on the Design Life of

Buildings, with ASTM Committee E06,

Performance of Buildings as the Convener

(chairman); the WG was established in 1993

in response to a request made by ASTM E06,

through ANSI, to ISO TC59. To advise the

Convener on the U.S. position, ASTM set up

a U.S. TAG (Technical Advisory Group)

which the Convener chairs. An executive

committee has been established in the WG to

plan the WG's work between annual

meetings.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will coordinate, as chair of the ISO Working Group, the

development of Part I, General Principles of

Building - Service Life Planning. The scope of

the guide will be limited to the building

envelope, partitions and surface finishes.

British, Canadian, and Japanese documents

on service life planning of buildings are being

used as worldng documents.

Recent Results

A new draft of Part 1 , prepared in the UK

under contract from the British Standards

Institution, was completed in September

1996.

43

BUILDING MATERIALS

DIVISION

CONCRETE

Three-Dimensional

Microstructural/Kinetic Model of

Cement Hydration

Principal Investigator

Dale P. Bentz

Building Materials Division

301-975-5865

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and validate a comprehensive

model for cement hydration and

microstructure development in three

dimensions.

Problem

Prediction of the properties and performance

of cement-based materials is hindered by a

lack of a basic understanding of

microstructural development and hydration

Idnetics. Progress in this area has been slow

due to the complexity of the starting

materials, water and a multi-size, multi-phase

cement powder, and the number and the

complexity of the reactions which occur during hydration. A comprehensive model

incorporating both microstructural and

Idnetic considerations should allow a priori

prediction of the behavior of these materials

under a variety of processing conditions,

which is of great interest to the concrete

construction community.

In the first 2 years of this 3 year project,

BFRL concentrated on the development of an

integrated computer model and experimental

techniques to be used in model validation.

Computational techniques were developed

for the critical step of generating

representative 3-D starting microstructures of

cement particles in water to be used in the

hydration model. Research considers the

effects of temperature and hydration under

sealed conditions (self-desiccation). In all cases, good agreement between the results of

the computer model and experimental

measurements (degree of hydration, heat

release, chemical shrinkage, and compressive

strength of mortar cubes) has been observed.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will extend the model

to incorporate silica fume, and eventually

other mineral admixtures, by calibrating

against experimental thermogravimetric

measurements to quantify both the normal

hydration and pozzolanic reactions. In

addition, a report detailing the final version

of the model and its usage will be developed,

so other research groups may employ the

model in their hydration studies. Currently,

the model is being used by researchers at the

U.S. Army's Waterways Experiment Station

in Vicl<Lsburg, MS, in a collaborative effort.

Ultimately, the model and its real-time

simulation capabilities will be part of the

Integrated ICnowledge-Based System for High

Performance Construction Materials and

Systems (HPCMS) and will be distributed

electronically to industry and academia

through the HPCMS world-wide-web servers and other means. The incorporation of

mineral admixtures into the model will assist

the cement and concrete industries in their

production and use of blended cements and

the development of a new generic

performance-based cement standard. The

model also should find use in studies of the

effects of processing parameters such as degree of grinding and w/c ratio, and curing

on the resultant microstructure and

properties of cement-based materials.

Recent Results

Bentz, D. P. "Three-Dimensional Computer

Simulation of Portland Cement Hydration

and Microstructure Development," Journal of

the American Ceramic Society, volume 80, No.

1, pp. 3-21, 1997.

47
Microstructure-Property

Relationships in Random Porous

Materials

Principal Investigator

Edward J. Garboczi

Building Materials Division

301-975-6708

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop new, more accurate relationships

between microstructure and properties of

random porous materials, using computer

models and analytical theory as validated by

experiments and make these relationships

available in mathematical form to the

cement-based materials community.

Problem

The degradation of the concrete

infrastructure, worth on the order of $6

trillion, is a national problem. The basic

physical and chemical mechanisms of

degradation processes in concrete need to be

understood in order for scientifically sound,

nonempirical service life predictions to be

made. Most of the degradation processes that

affect cement-based materials involve

microstructure-related properties like

diffusivity, permeability, elastic moduli, and

viscoelastic properties like stress relaxation

and creep. Fundamental computer-based

models are necessary in order to

quantitatively relate such properties to the

complex microstructure of cement-based

materials. Such quantitative relationships will serve to put existing and future standard test measurements of transport and other

properties on a firm scientific foundation,

needed to enable reliable production of

high-performance concrete and other cementbased materials.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will use a digital-image-based approach, along with

Monte Carlo techniques, to simulate the

formation of cement-based and ceramic

materials at the fundamental level. Using

efficient numerical techniques, BFRL will

develop the software necessary to simulate

and compute physical processes and

parameters as needed. These new

microstructure and property simulation

algorithms will feed into the other modeling

projects that are focused on the solution of

specific problems. Experimental

measurements will be made as necessary,

either at BFRL or in collaboration with other

institutions (Northwestern University and

Imperial College) to validate the model

results. Also, BFRL will be 1 ) developing

new capabilities in understanding viscoelastic

properties like stress relaxation and creep,

which couple to many degradation processes

like alkali-silica reaction and sulfate attack,

and 2) completing a monograph summarizing

the last 8 year's modeling work and

incorporating it into the ComputerIntegrated ICnowledge Based System.

Recent Results

Ferraris, C, Clifton, J., Stutzman, P., and

Garboczi, E. ]., "Mechanistic Studies on

Sulfate Attack of Cement-Based Materials,"

Mechanisms of Chemical Degradation of CementBased Systems, London, England, 1997.

Bentz, D. P., Garboczi, E. J., Lagergren, E. S.,

"Multi-scale Microstructural Modeling of

Concrete Diffusivity: Identification of

Significant Variables," yl5TM Cement and

Aggregate, 1997.

Garboczi, E. J., and Bentz, D. P., "Multi-scale

Analytical/Numerical Theory of the

Diffusivity of Concrete," Journal ofAdvanced

Cement-Based Materials, 1997

48
Microstructure and

Moisture-Driven Size Changes of

Cement-Based Materials

Principal Investigator

Edward J. Garboczi

Building Materials Division

301-975-6708

Sponsor

National Science Foundation

Center for Advanced Cement-Based

Materials

Northwestern University

Objective

To predict the moisture-driven size changes

of cement-based materials as a function of

moisture state and microstructure.

Problem

Concrete has often been called a living

material, in that it can shrink or grow in

response to its moisture state and induced

stresses. It is a viscoelastic material, whose

applied stress can reduce itself at a fixed

strain (stress relaxation) or which can

increase its apparent strain for a given

applied stress (creep). This viscoelasticity also

applies at the microstructural level, where

stresses built up from various degradation

reactions (sulfate attack, corrosion of rebars,

alkali-silica reaction, etc.) induce local

viscoelastic movement in the microstructure

that are accompanied by moisture changes.

The macroscopic viscoelastic properties of

concrete have been Icnovm and studied for

many years. However, the local

microstructural basis of this viscoelasticity

have not been well studied. Research at this

level is necessary for correctly modeling

chemo-mechanical degradation reactions, and

interpreting the results of standard tests designed to measure these effects.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will develop

microstructure-based understanding of

viscoelastic processes in cement-based

materials, based on viscoelastic theory and

numerical simulations using viscoelastic finite

elements developed to apply to BFRL

microstructure models. Also, BFRL will

collaborate with an expert at Northwestern

University (NWU), in analyzing strain maps

generated with the Environmental Scanning

Microscope (NWU) for cement paste

undergoing drying shrinkage, by comparing

these with microstructure and modeling

simulations.

Recent Results

Bentz, D. P., "A three-phase model of the

elastic and shrinkage properties of mortar,"

Journal ofAdvanced Cement-Based Materials, 4,

6-20 1996.

Bentz, D. P., Garboczi, E. J., and Duenard, P.

A., "Modeling Drying Shrinkage in

Reconstructed Porous Materials: Application

to Porous Vycor Glass," Materials Science and

Engineering, 1997.

49
Development of Microstructure

and Transport Properties of

Concrete

Principal Investigator

Edward J. Garboczi

Building Materials Division

301-975-6708

Sponsor

National Science Foundation

Center for Advanced Cement-Based

Materials

Northwestern University

Objective

To use multi-scale microstructure models, in

conjunction with transport property

experiments, to predict the transport

properties of concrete.

Problem

Understanding the properties of concrete on

the basis of microstructure means that a multi-scale approach must be taken, as the

microstructure is different at different length

scales, but all length scales contribute to

overall properties. Such a multi-scale

approach also needs to be extended to other

properties like elastic moduli.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will systematically

apply a multi-scale model for concrete

diffusivity to understanding the concrete

conductivity measurements being carried out

at Northwestern University. BFRL will use

finite element techniques, at the micrometer

(cement paste) scale, to study the

relationship between dynamic elastic moduli

and microstructure at this length scale. This

study is one key ingredient of a multi-scale

approach to the elastic moduli of concrete.

Recent Results

Schwartz, L. M., Garboczi, E. J., Bentz, D. P.,

"Interfacial Transport in Porous Media:

Application to D.C. Electrical Conductivity

of Mortars," Journal ofApplied Physics, pp.

5898-5908, 1995.

Garboczi, E. J., Bentz, D. P., Schwartz, L. M.,

"Modeling the Influence of the Interfacial

Zone on the D.C. Electrical Conductivity of

Mortdir" Journal ofAdvanced Cement-Based

Materials, 1995.

Coverdale, R. T., Christensen, B. J., Mason,

T. O., Jennings, H. M., Garboczi, E. J., and

Bentz, D. P., "Interpretation of the

Impedance Spectroscopy of Cement Paste via

Computer Modeling I: Bulk Conductivity

and Offset Resistance," Journal of Materials

Science, pp. 712-719, 1995.

Coverdale, R. T., Christensen, B. J., Mason,

T. O., Jennings, H. M., Garboczi, E. J., "Interpretation of the Impedance

Spectorscopy of Cement Paste via Computer

Modeling II: Dielectric Response," Journal of

Materials Science, pp. 4984-4992, 1994.

Christensen, B. J., Mason, T.O., Coverdale,

R. T., Jennings, H. M., Olsen, R. A., and

Garboczi, E. J., "Impedance Spectroscopy

and the Electrical Properties of Hydrating

Cement-Based Materials: A Review," Journal

of the American Ceramic Society, pp. 2789-2804,

1994.

50
Transport Properties of

High-Performance Concrete

Principal Investigator

Nicos S. Martys

Building Materials Division

301-975-5915

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide the technical basis for standards

for the prediction of the service life of

high-performance concrete (HPC), by

developing analytical and simulation models

that can predict transport properties of HPC

and develop improved test methods for

measuring the important transport properties

that are needed for service life prediction of

HPC.

Problem

Before reliable service life predictions can be

made for HPC structures, a fundamental

understanding of the transport processes

controlling degradation of HPC is needed.

Although diffusion of ionic species and gases

in uncracked concrete has received some

attention, much Icnowledge is needed about

all the important transport properties (e.g.,

permeability, diffusion, and capillarity) that

control the invasion of HPC by aqueous

media. In addition, experimental methods

and standard procedures are needed to form

a basis for reliable characterization of

transport properties.

improved to more reliably and accurately

measure chloride diffusivity in concrete. In

FY 1998, the most promising of these

experimental methods will be submitted to

ASTM for consideration as a standard test

method. The final product of this project will

be an integrated model, to predict ingress of

matter and chemical species in HPC, for use

in developing a service life design

methodology for HPC.

Recent Results

Martys, N. S., and Chen, H., "Simulation of

Multi-Component Fluids in Complex Three

Dimensional Geometries by the Lattice

Boltzman Method," Physical Review E, pp.

743-750, June 1996.

Martys, N. S., and Ferraris, C. F., "Sorption

of Water in Mortars and Concrete,"

Proceedings of the Materials Science of Concrete

ASCE, Washington, DC, October 1996.

Martys, N. S., Survey of Concrete Transport

Properties and Their Measurement, NISTIR

5592, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, February 1995.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will employ parallel

computers for large-scale simulations of the

flow of complex fluids including

multi-component and multi-phase fluids in

porous media such as cements. Results of

these simulations will be compared with

experiments of capillary transport in

partially-saturated concrete. In addition,

BFRL will use these methods to study

diffusion in partially-saturated concrete.

Measurement techniques will be further

51
Computer-Integrated Knowledge

Systems (CIKS) for

High-Performance Concrete

Principal Investigators

James R. Clifton

Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Dale P. Bentz

Building Materials Division

301-975-5865

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and demonstrate an operational

prototype for a national computer integrated

Icnowledge system (CIKS) for

high-performance concrete (HPC).

Problem

A major need for exploiting the benefits of

HPC is maldng reliable information about

these advanced concretes (composition and

mix design, properties, performance, and

economics) quicldy available to the

construction and building community.

Owners, designers, material suppliers, and

contractors will all benefit from access to

information and knowledge about HPC that can be quicldy retrieved. This can be

accomplished by incorporating and

integrating the information and knowledge in a CIKS. The CIKS for HPC will consist of

l<jnowledge bases including databases,

mathematical models, artificial intelligence

systems, standard practices and test methods,

and guidelines. It will assist decision makers

in using the most reliable and advanced

Icnowledge in selecting and using HPC.

When fully developed, this system is likely to

become the leading problem solver for HPC.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform four

tasks:

I. Continue developing the CIKS

prototype, accessible through the Internet,

for designing concrete mixtures to give

specific service lives for reinforced concrete

members and considering corrosion induced

by chloride ions from an external source (e.g.,

de-ionizing salts). BFRL will further develop

the mix design program for HPC in the

CIKS, based on an optimization approach.

Kjnowledge of other major degradation

processes will be incorporated into the CIKS,

including sulfate attack, leaching,

alkali-aggregate reactions, and frost attack.

The proceedings of the CIKS Workshop held

in FY 96 will be published.

2. Development of other HPC

loiowledge bases will be undertaken including

a l<nowledge-base dealing with the processing

of HPC. Also, the electronic monograph on

modeling of cement-based materials,

developed within the HPCMS program, will

be added to the CIKS system.

3. Establish a test bed for CIKS in

collaboration with the construction industry.

BFRL will work wath the concrete and metals

(aluminum, steel, and stainless metals)

CONMAT worldng groups in their

participation in the CIKS test bed

development. By chairing ACI Committee

235, "Kjiowledge Based Systems for

Concrete," and organizing a session on CIKS,

members of the American Concrete Institute

will become exposed to the benefits of CIICS

technology.

4. Continue disseminating information

to the construction industry on the

application of CIICS.

Recent Results

Ferraris, C. F., Guide to a Formatfor Data on Chemical Admixtures in a Material Property

Database, NISTIR 5796, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, March 1996.

Bentz, D. P., Clifton, J. R., and Snyder, K. A,

"A Prototype Computer-Integrated

Knowledge System for Service Life Prediction

of Steel-Reinforced Concrete Exposed to

Chloride Ions," Concrete International, August

1996.

52
Processing of High-Performance

Concrete

Principal Investigator

Chiara F. Ferraris

Building Materials Division

301-975-6711

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop methods for measuring and

predicting the effects of formulation, curing

and processing on the performance of

high-performance concretes.

Problem

After many years of relatively slow advances

in concrete technology, a worldwide

awareness has arisen that the performance of

concrete in areas such as ease of placement,

strength development and durability can be

significantly improved. This is evident from

the program plans of the CEB (Commission

Euro-International de Beton) and the

high-performance concrete research activities

in Japan, Norway, and Canada. In the United

States, programs such as the concrete and

structures program of the Strategic Highway

Research Program(SHRP) and the

establishment of the NSF Center for

Advanced Cement-Based Materials (ACBM)

were in response to the need for improved

concretes and the recognition of the

possibility of the development of

high-performance concrete (HPC). The Civil

Engineering Research Foundation (CERF)

and the American Concrete Institute (ACI)

have been leading the U. S. efforts in

developing a comprehensive program on

HPC and have proposed a program that deals

with high-performance construction materials

(High-Performance Construction Materials

and Systems: An Essential Program for

America and Its Infrastructure, CERF

Technical Report 93-501 1 , April 1993). The

technology of HPC is sufficiently different

from that of conventional concrete that

existing test methods and processing practices

(e.g., mixing, consolidating and curing) may

not be applicable to HPC.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform studies

on the prediction of the rheological

properties of HPC, and the effect of curing

practices on the performance of HPC. In the

study of rheology of concrete, the main

emphasis is on developing methods to

measure and predict the flow parameters of

HPC. The approach includes simulation

modeling and experimental measurements.

The modeling will focus on simulating the

flow of particles (cement) in a fluid (water)

while sheared between two surfaces

(aggregates). This model will be validated by

measurements conducted using a new fluid

rheometer. A methodology will be developed

to predict the rheology of concrete from

measurements on cement paste or\and

mortar. The results will be used in developing

a method for predicting the rheological

properties of HPC based on more rapid tests performed on cement pastes or mortars.

BFRL will examine the influence of silica

fume on the curing of the paste fraction in a high-performance concrete. The knowledge of

the relationship between the curing

conditions and degree of hydration will lead

to the development of guidelines for the field

curing of HPC. The results will provide an

essential input to the development of the

Computer Integrated Knowledge System of

HPCMS through an expert system for the

curing of HPC.

Recent Results

Bentz, D. P., Snyder, K. A, and Stutzman, P.

E., "Hydration of Portland Cement: The

Effects of Curing Conditions," Proceedings of

the 10th International Congress on the Chemistry

of Cement, vol. 2, p. 8, 1997.

Ferraris, C. F., Clifton, J. R., Garboczi, E. J., Davis, F. L., "Stress Due to Alkali-Silica

Reactions in Mortars," Proceedings of the 4th

ASCE Materials Engineering Conference, pp.

1379-1387, 1996.

53
Cementitious Materials Modeling

Laboratory (CMML)

Principal Investigator

Edward J. Garboczi

301-975-6708

Sponsor

National Science Foundation

Center for Advanced Cement-Based

Materials

Northwestern University

Objective

To advance the science of cement-based

materials through the electronic availability

of models and the transfer of modeling

Icnowledge through workshops and

documentation.

Problem

Many cement-based materials models that

have proved themselves in research

applications need to be effectively transferred

to the general materials science of concrete

research public, in order to be of wider use. Many researchers have the sldll to use such

models, but not the time and ability to

develop them. Such models also need to be

documented so others can use them.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will make available a hypertext monograph on cement-based

material modeling. Those who need further

training in the modeling techniques used in

the models can attend the annual Computer

Modeling Workshop. Cooperation is maintained with RILEM Committee

123-MME, ACBM faculty, and other

computer modelers around the nations.

Recent Results

Garboczi, E. J., Finite Element and Finite

Difference Codesfor Computing the Linear Electric

and Elastic Properties of Digital Images ofModem

Materials, NIST TN, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, 1997.

Characterization of Clinlcer,

Cement, and Flaws in Cement

Paste and Concrete

Principal Investigator

Paul Stutzman

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

301-975-6715

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To apply modern computational and imaging

methods to analysis of cementitious

materials, and hydration products, and

provides the technical basis for standards for use in determining their composition at any

stage of their service life.

Problem

The development of standard tests and

application of new analytical methods are necessary to provide measures of quality, and

tools for predicting their performance and for

evaluation of the influences of deleterious

physical and chemical processes. In addition

to Portland cement, supplementary

cementitious materials such as fly ash,

ground granulated blast furnace slag, and

silica fume are becoming increasingly

important in the production of concrete, yet

performance of all these materials in concrete

is difficult to predict. The development of

standard test methods using x-ray powder

diffraction and microscopy addresses these

difficulties. X-ray powder diffraction offers a

rapid, direct means for phase compositional

analysis of portland and blended cements.

Microscopy provides means for a direct

examination of materials, but has

traditionally been subjective. Both of these

methods offer the potential for quantitative

characterization of phase composition and

texture, features important in determining

quality and optimizing materials production.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will model x-ray

diffraction patterns of cementitious materials,

54
pozzolanic materials, and hydration products

and perform analysis of cements through

calculation of the best-fit set of reference

patterns based on a refined structure model.

The compilation of a structure database will

be a key to the success of this method. The

potential of the Rietveld method as a basis of

an ASTM standard test method will be

explored through analysis of the NIST

Reference Material clinkers and

supplementary cementitious materials.

Petrographic analysis by optical and electron

microscopy provides high-resolution,

high-contrast images of microstructures and a means for quantitative image analysis. The

development and application of techniques to

characterize phase abundance and

distribution will enhance the utility of these

methods. X-ray diffraction and microscopy

will facilitate a greater understanding of

cementitious materials by providing a means

to study composition-performance

relationships and through study of the

changes in hydration products upon curing

and degradation.

The improved methods for determining the

compositions of clinker, cements, and

blended cements will form the basis for new

standard test methods in ASTM which will

facilitate the development of

performance-based standards for cement and

concrete.

Recent Results

Stutzman, P. E., Guidefor X-ray Powder

Diffraction Analysis of Portland Cement and

Clinker, NISTIR 5755, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, November 1995.

J

Durability of Highway Concrete

Pavements

Principal Investigators

James R. Clifton

Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Paul E. Stutzman

Building Materials Division

301-975-6715

Sponsor

Iowa State Department of Transportation

Objective

To identify probable processes responsible for

premature deterioration of the concrete

pavement of a major state highway in Iowa.

Problem

A major highway concrete pavement in Iowa

has exhibited premature deterioration. The

Iowa Department of Transportation (DOT)

has responsibility for determining the cause

of the deterioration and implementing

measures for avoiding similar future

problems. The cause (s) of the deterioration

has not been identified definitively

Investigators using different methods to

characterize the processes have arrived at

different conclusions. The deterioration has

been variously attributed to effects of

ettringite formation (including delayed

ettringite formation), alkali-silica expansive

reactions, and to frost attack, or some

combination of them. Evidence for all three

processes has been reported. Thus, there is a need to establish if one or more of these

processes is the prime cause of the

deterioration, or if some other deleterious

process is the cause.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform three

tasks in collaboration with the Iowa State

DOT.

1 . Perform a field inspection of deteriorated

concrete and collect information on the

pavement such as the concrete mixture

55
designs and constituent materials, the mixing,

consolidation and curing of the concretes,

test records, and inspection reports. Also,

samples of the concretes' constituents will be

obtained. Specimens of both deteriorated and

un-distressed pavement, constructed from the

same concrete, will be collected.

2. Subject concrete specimens to

petrographic examination, using visible light

microscopy and scanning electron microscopy

coupled with image analysis, and x-ray

powder diffraction analysis. These

investigations will identify the major

degradation process (es) causing the

premature deterioration of the pavement and,

if more than one major process is identified, assess their relative contributions.

3. Perform microstructure simulation,

hydration simulation, and micro-mechanical

models developed at BFRL. Through a combination of back-scattered electron and

x-ray imaging, the microstructure of the

distressed concretes will be established.

Modeling of deterioration processes will

involve the selective expansion of phases in

accordance with proposed deterioration

mechanisms. Analysis of the stress fields after a series of expansion cycles will form a basis

for predicting the crack patterns associated

with the different modes of deterioration.

Comparison of the predicted stress fields and

resulting crack patterns will provide

additional information regarding the mode(s)

of deterioration.

The products will include the development of

a database, in collaboration with

Northwestern University, in which data from

Tasl<s 1 and 2 are entered. The format will

adhere to the recommendations developed by

ACI Committee 126 on Database Formats for

Concrete Materials Properties. The database,

along with the modeling of Task 3, will

initiate the development of the first step

towards a computer-integrated knowledgebased system (CIKS) for concrete pavements.

BFRL will publish the results of the studies.

Recent Results

New project.

56
BUILDING MATERIALS

DIVISION

QUALITY ASSURANCE

Cement and Concrete Reference

Laboratory

Principal Investigator

James H. Pielert

Building Materials Division

301-975-6704

Sponsor

American Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM) and

Department of the Army

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Objective

To inspect cement and concrete testing

laboratories, distribute proficiency test samples, and support the voluntary standards

development process.

Problem

The infrastructure represents a substantial

portion of the nation's wealth. Construction

of such facilities is one of the nation's largest

industries usually amounting to about 10

percent of the Gross Domestic Product. Over

$4 billion of hydraulic cement is produced in

the United States each year with the value of

the concrete construction estimated to be in

the order of $20 billion. Standardization of

testing to enhance the reliability of quality assurance measurements is of paramount

concern. The productivity of the testing

community in the cement and concrete fields can be increased by the use of correct

procedures and apparatus which reduce

testing errors and provide a sound basis for

the acceptance of cement on mill certificate.

More efficient use of long-established

construction materials are facilitated by

dependable quality assurance programs.

With the support of ASTM Research

Associates worldng under BFRL supervision,

services are provided to both public and

private cement and concrete testing

laboratories on a voluntary basis. These

services include the laboratory inspection

program and the distribution of proficiency

test samples. Equipment and procedures used

in performing conventional quality assurance

tests are evaluated for conformance to

applicable national standards. Related test

apparatus is checked with inspection

equipment calibrated by BFRL personnel.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue to

produce proficiency test samples of portland

cement, pozzolan, concrete, blended cement

and masonry cement and distribute at regular

intervals to obtain information on laboratory

performance. Specific products of this work

include: (1) detailed inspection reports; (2)

report on each round of proficiency sample

testing; (3) input to the work of standards

committees such as draft standards and

precision data; and (4) reports on results of

technical studies. Additionally, technical

studies are conducted in areas related to

these programs; often in conjunction with

other NIST units. NIST technical reports,

papers in outside journals, and oral

presentations are used as appropriate.

Recent Results

Inspected over 290 cement and concrete

laboratories; distributed over 3000

proficiency samples; quality system for

laboratory inspection program in place with

first annual review completed in January

1995; recognition of 29 laboratories who

have participated in all CCRL inspection

tours.

59
AASHTO Materials Reference

Laboratory

Principal Investigator

James H. Pielert

Building Materials Division

301-975-6704

Sponsor

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials

Objective

To inspect soil and bituminous testing

laboratories, distribute proficiency test samples, and support the voluntary standards

development process.

Problem

The quality of testing in construction

materials laboratories is an important

concern when considering the overall

question of quality construction. The

importance of the testing function is demonstrated by The Strategic Highway

Research Program (SHRP), a $150-million

highway and bridge research program, which

was completed in 1994. Standardization of

testing to enhance the reliability of quality assurance measurements is of paramount

concern. The productivity of the testing

community can be increased by the use of

correct procedures and apparatus which

reduce testing errors and provide a sound

basis for the acceptance of materials on

certificate. More efficient use of

long-established construction materials and

broader use of new materials are facilitated

by dependable quality assurance programs.

Approach

With the support of AASHTO Research

Associates worldng under BFRL supervision,

services are provided to public and private

laboratories on a voluntary basis. During

FY1997, BFRL will continue to provide

services such as on-site inspection of the

laboratory and the distribution of proficiency

test samples. The current scope of the

laboratory inspection program includes the

testing of soils, bituminous materials, and

plastic pipe, and the measurement of

roughness and frictional properties of

highways. Equipment and procedures used in

performing conventional quality assurance

tests are evaluated for conformance to

applicable national standards. Proficiency

test samples of asphalt, soils, paint,

aggregates and bituminous concrete are distributed at regular intervals. Additionally,

technical studies are conducted in areas

related to these programs, often in

conjunction with other NIST laboratories.

Specific products of this work include: (1)

detailed inspection reports; (2) report on

each round of proficiency sample testing; (3)

input to the work of standards committees

such as draft standards and precision data;

and (4) reports on the results of technical

studies. The AMRL programs provide the

following benefits to construction materials

testing laboratories and others involved with

the nation's transportation systems: ( 1

improves the quality of laboratory testing; (2)

provides data to quantify standard

measurement techniques; and (3) provides

direct communications between testing

laboratories and standards-writing

committees.

Recent Results

Inspected over 322 bituminous and soil labs;

distributed over 5600 proficiency samples;

SHRP Asphalt binder and Gyratory

Compactor samples distributed; informal

inspection of SHRP equipment provided in

sponsor labs.

Kandhal, P.S., Wu, Y., Parker, F., and

Spellerberg, P. A., "Precision of Marshall

Stability and Flow Test Using 6-in Diameter

Specimens." ASTM Journal of Testing and

Evaluation, April 1 996.

60
Performance of Tape-Bonded

Seams in EPDM Roofing

Membranes

Principal Investigator

Walter J. Rossiter

Building Materials Division

301-975-6719

Sponsors

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Adco Products

Ashland Chemical Company

Carlisle SynTec Systems

Firestone Building Products

GenFlex Roofing Systems

National Roofing Contractors 7\ssociation

Roof Consultants Institute

Objective

To develop a test protocol and recommended

criteria for evaluating the long-term

performance of tape-bonded seams in EPDM

roofing membranes.

Problem

EPDM is a non-polar elastomeric material

with excellent weathering properties, but care must be taken in adhesively bonding EPDM

with itself, as required in the formation of a roofing seam. Liquid-applied butyl adhesives

have been extensively and successfully used

in forming EPDM roofing seams since the

mid-1980's. However, Hquid-appUed

adhesives contain a large volumetric fraction

of volatile solvents, which are increasingly

becoming environmentally unacceptable. An

alternative to these liquid-applied adhesives

is butyl-based tapes. Users of EPDM roofing

such as contractors and consultants have

expressed concern that the rheological

properties of adhesive tapes be properly

evaluated and data be developed to

characterize their long-term performance and

compare it with that of liquid-applied

adhesives.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will conduct

investigations of the rheological properties of

EPDM roofing seams bonded with

butyl-based tapes and their performance will

be compared against seams bonded with

liquid-applied adhesives. The technical

approach has been developed in concert with

the EPDM industry. The outcome is an

industry-government consortium. Eight

collaborators have entered into CRADAs and

are participating in the consortium; they

include three manufacturers of EPDM

roofing, two manufacturers of seam tapes,

and two trade associations.

The research is divided into three sequential

phases in which statistically-designed

laboratory experiments will be complemented

by field investigations. In the field, roofs are inspected and tape-bonded seam samples are obtained. Mechanical properties of the field

seam specimens are determined and

compared with those of

liquid-adhesive-bonded seams. In the

laboratory, the experimentation focuses on

subjecting tape-bonded EPDM seam

specimens to testing of the rheological

performance under a range of application and

environmental conditions. The seam

specimens are prepared using currently

available EPDM membrane material and

tape/primer systems. Additionally, seam

specimens fabricated with a solvent-based

butyl adhesive are prepared as controls and

included in some experiments. The three

laboratory phases are:

Phase 1 (FY1995) Investigation of the

rheological performance of butyl-tape systems

as a function of applied load. The results

were compared against similarly stressed

liquid-applied adhesive systems.

Phase 2 (FY1996) Investigation of the effect

of various application variables and

environmental factors on the rheological

performance of butyl-tape systems. The

61
variables included temperature, pressure,

rubber surface condition, and tape thickness.

Phase 3 (FY1997) Investigation of the effect

of elevated test temperatures and specimen

configuration on rheological performance and

preparation and publication of a final report.

Recent Results

Rossiter, W. }., Vangel, M. G., Embree, E.,

Kjraft, K. M., Seller, J. F., Performance of

Tape-Bonded Seams ofEPDM Membranes:

Comparison of the Peel Creep-Rupture Response of

Tape-Bonded and Liquid-Adhesive-Bonded Seams,

BSS 175, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, 1996.

62
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

COMPUTER

INTEGRATED

CONSTRUCTION

STEP for the Process Plant

Industries

Principal Investigator

Mark E. Palmer

Building Environment Division

301-975-5858

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To assist the U.S. process plant industries in

developing the STEP application protocols

needed for exchanging and sharing

information during the design, construction

and maintenance of process plants.

Problem

The U.S. process plant industries seek to

improve their use of computerized systems

through integration of information systems,

e.g., automation of the exchange and sharing

of information among systems. The many

computerized systems in use can be

integrated only at great cost because of their

incompatible proprietary representations of

information; information exchange today is accomplished largely through manual

methods. Standard, neutral information

representations and exchange methods are needed that allow system vendors to be

innovative and yet allow system users to

exchange and share information about

process plants automatically. The evolving

international standard ISO 10303 -Product

Data Representation and Exchange, Icnown as STEP, is providing the base technology.

STEP application protocols must be

developed that meet the needs of the process

plant industries.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will work with the

industry, standards development

organizations, and international programs to ensure the delivery of a harmonized suite of

STEP APs that meet the requirements of the

process plant industries. In collaboration with

pdXi (Process Data eXchange Institute of

AIChE), BFRL will complete the Committee

Draft of the Process Engineering AP (AP

231). This will include conducting industry

reviews of the AP 23 1 requirements

specification, defining the data structures and

conformance classes for AP 23 1 , and

developing usage scenarios and test cases for

AP 231. In collaboration with PlantSTEP,

Inc., BFRL will update the Plant Spatial

Configuration AP (AP 227) to resolve the

issues from the ISO Committee Draft ballot

on AP 227. NIST will develop the Abstract

Test Suite for AP 227.

BFRL will review, test, and comment on the

Functional Data and Schematic

Representation AP (AP 22 1

) and will define

necessary alignments between AP 221

standard classes and the plant concepts and

process concepts included in AP 227 and AP

231. NIST will co-lead the ISO TC184/SC4

Process Plant AP Planning Project and will

work with PIEBASE (Process Industry

Executive for achieving Business Advantage

using Standards for data Exchange) to

develop a roadmap for delivering needed data

exchange standards and to provide global

coordination of industry programs to

develop, demonstrate, and standardize

needed data exchange standards.

Recent Results

Established PlantSTEP, Inc. and in

collaboration with PlantSTEP developed the

first STEP AP for the process plant

industries. Plant Spatial Configuration (AP

227) which was approved by ISO

TC184/SC4 for Draft International Standard

in August 1996.

65
Object Oriented Implementation

of STEP

Principal Investigator

Kent A. Reed

Building Environment Division

301-975-5852

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To work with U.S. industry to ensure the

proper deployment of STEP in emerging

software scenarios.

Recent Results

Participated in lAI discussions to resolve the

representation of measured quantities.

Developed a software translator for

generating VRML models from 3D models

represented according to STEP Application

Protocol 227 for use in the exploration of

geometry representation issues in the lAI.

Problem

The U.S. construction industry seeks to

improve its use of computerized systems

through integration, e.g., automation of the

exchange and sharing of information among

systems. Some industrial sectors have

pursued the development of ISO 10303,

Product Data Representation and Exchange,

l<nown as STEP, to enable integration at the

information level. Recently the members of

the general building and construction

industry have formed the International

Alliance for Interoperability to pursue the

development of object class libraries, l<Jiown

as IPCs, to enable integration at the

application programming interface level.

Careful liaison is required to ensure these

approaches are compatible.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue to

participate on the Research-Advisory

Committee of the International Alliance for

Interoperability, working to define the

relationship between IPCs and STEP. BFRL

will prepare position papers on STEP

technologies as appropriate to aid the lAJ

deliberations and will bring lAI issues to

appropriate STEP committees for resolution.

BFRL will build experimental object-oriented

implementations of selected portions of STEP

technology to compare ideas evolving in the

lAI. This is the second year of a project

envisioned to take 4 years to complete.

66
Protocol Testing for Process Plant

Representations

Principal Investigator

Kent A. Reed

Building Environment Division

301-975-5852

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To verify and demonstrate the standard

protocols being developed for the

representation and exchange of life-cycle

information supporting the design,

construction, and operation of process plants.

Problem

BFRL is worldng with U.S. industry in

several projects to develop information

exchange standards for the process plant

industries. The need was identified early in

these projects for a neutral, open testbed in

which developers, users, and vendors could

come together to test and demonstrate

software solutions based on these standards.

A principal standard in development is STEP

Application Protocol 227 "Plant Spatial

Configuration." Recently, STEP Application

Protocol 22 1 "Plant Functional Data and

Schematic Representation" has been

advanced by projects in Europe to the point

that it must be considered as well. Validated

test-case data and testing scenarios are needed by the commercial implementers of

these protocols. Verification of the protocols

is needed by the process plant industries.

Harmonization of the various related

protocols needs to be tested and

demonstrated. P

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue to work

in collaboration with the industry members

of the PlantSTEP, Inc., consortium to

develop and verify needed protocol test and

demonstration datasets, introducing a focus

on STEP AP22 1 . BFRL will continue to

develop software programs for the creation of

datasets and the analysis of experimental

STEP exchange files created by

vendor-implementers. This is the third year

of a 5-year project.

Recent Results

Created with the collaboration of PlantSTEP,

Inc., partners, and maintained on-line test- case data files representing elements of a chemical solvent recovery plant. These data

files were verified in the BFRL Testbed and

subsequently used in public demonstrations

by PlantSTEP implementors of STEP AP227,

the most recent occurring at the Daratech

Plant Design/Plant Management Automation

Strategy Workshops '97 in Houston, Texas.

67
Architecture and Modeling Issues

for Computer Integrated

Knowledge Systems for Materials

Principal Investigator

William F. Danner

Building Environment Division

301-975-5855

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To harmonize the development of computer

integrated Imowledge systems for materials

with other information technology

developments in the construction industry.

Problem

BFRL is leading a national effort to develop

multiple Computer Integrated Knowledge

Systems (CIKS) for the capture and

dissemination of information about building

and construction materials. As currently

envisioned, a CIKS would integrate

loiowledge and programs from multiple

sources but function essentially as stand-alone information "warehouses" that

are accessed by humans, albeit via the

Internet. While this approach addresses the

immediate needs of the U.S. construction

industry, it should be harmonized with other

information technology developments if it is to remain as useful in the future environment

of distributed, interoperating information

systems.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will initiate a study of

information technology issues related to

CIKS. BFRL will apply the methods

developed in the ISO/STEP community and

in other major system integration efforts such

as the U.S. DoD/CALS program to the CIKS

program. BFRL will select a specific materials

domain and study the information

requirements identified by industry, for

example, by the appropriate worldng group of

the CONMAT Council and will explore the

applicability of the information structures

contained the ISO Standard 10303-45,

"STEP Integrated Resource: Materials." The

CIKS approach will be compared to the

approach taken in BFRL's: "Electronic

Commerce of Scientific and Engineering

Data" (ECSEA) project. This is the first year

of a project that is envisioned to take 3 years

to complete.

Recent Results

New project.

68
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

HEAT TRANSFER
i
Advanced Thermal Insulation

Panel Testing

Principal Investigator

A. Hunter Fanney

Building Environment Division

301-975-5864

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To evaluate thermal measurement techniques

applicable to advance insulation systems.

Problem

Advanced insulation products are being

developed and introduced into the U. S. market. Examples of these products are

aerogels, powder filled panels, and evacuated

panels. These products offer extremely high

insulating capabilities. For example,

theoretical calculations reveal that an R-value

approaching 100 may be achieved in a 25.4

mm thick evacuated panel. Current test

procedures for measuring thermal

conductivity are applicable to materials that

are homogenous, have planar surfaces, and

have, compared to advanced insulation

materials, relatively poor insulating

capabilities. Appropriate measurement

techniques and measurement apparatus are needed that will allow an accurate

determination of the overall thermal

conductance of advanced insulation

materials.

Approach

During FYI997, BFRL will collaborate the

modified calorimeter apparatus for a range of

mean specimen temperatures. The results will

be compared to measurements made using

the NIST's one-meter guarded hot plate. An

extensive finite element model will be

formulated for the revised calorimeter

facility. This model will include geometric

details that were not previously considered.

The resulting model will be extensively

exercised to pinpoint deficiencies, if any, in

the modified apparatus. A CRADA will be

established and tests will be conducted under

the terms of this Cooperative Research and

Development Agreement (CRADA) to

evaluate the performance of prototype

advanced insulation panels.

Recent Results

Fanney, A. H., Saunders, C. A, Hill, S. D.,

"Test Procedures for Advanced Insulation

Panels." Superinsulations and the Building

Envelope, Symposium Proceedings, Environment

and Thermal Envelop Council and the

National Institute of Buildings Sciences,

November 14, 1995, pp. 149- 161.

Fanney, A. H., Saunders, C. A., and Hill, S. D., Test Proceduresfor Advanced Insulation

Panels, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD. Alliance for

Responsible Atmospheric Policy; U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency;

Environment Canada and United National

Environmental Program. International CFC

and Halon Alternatives Conference, 1994.

Stratospheric Ozone Protection for the 90's.

October 24-26, 1994, Washington, DC

1994.

71
Low-Temperature and

High-Temperature Thermal

Insulation Reference Materials

Principal Investigator

Robert R. Zarr

Building Environment Division

301-975-6436

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To establish a low- and high-temperature

guarded hot plate laboratory for thermal

insulation Standard Reference Materials

(SRMs) over an extended temperature range.

Problem

NIST's Materials Evaluation Division

decommissioned several apparatus for the

measurement of thermal conductivity. Two

apparatus were used to develop and establish

thermal insulation SRMs at low and high

temperatures. For example, one apparatus

provided SRMs 1450b and 1451 with

certified values of thermal resistance from

100 K to 330 K. Recognizing the necessity

for these apparatus, the American Society of

Testing Materials (ASTM) Committee C-16

on Thermal Insulation requested of NIST to

re-establish these measurement capabilities.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will re-assemble the

apparatus to previous configurations. The

apparatus will be extensively evaluated in assess its accuracy. The evaluation will be

based on a series of experiments, as well as theoretical analysis. If required, the primary

individual measurement sensors will be

calibrated. A benchmark at room temperature

will be provided by cross-checking with

BFRL's one-meter guarded hot plate. The

low-temperature guarded hot plate apparatus

will available for development of SRM

1450c. A final report will be prepared

describing the evaluation of the apparatus.

Recent Results

Zarr, R. R., Glass Fiberhoard SRM 1450cfor

Thermal Resistance From 280 K to 340 K, NIST

SP 260-130, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, April 1997.

Zarr, R. R., Insulation Materials Testing and

Applications, Vol. 3 ASTM Committee C-16,

Proceedings. ASTM STP 1320, May 15-17,

1997, Quebec, Canada, ASTM, West

Conshohocken, PA, 1997.

Zarr, R. R., and Hahn, M. H., Line Heat

Source Guarded Hot Plate Apparatus, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

ASTM Designation CI 043; PCN 12-310430-

61; 33 p. 1996.

Zarr, R. R., Expanded Polystyrene Board as a Standard Reference Materialfor Thermal

Resistance Measurement Systems, ASTM STP

1320, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, October 1996.

72
Development of 2-Dimensional

Heat and Moisture Transfer Model

Principal Investigator

Douglas M. Burch

Building Environment Division

301-975-6433

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a 2-dimensional personal

computer model that predicts the combined

transfer of heat and moisture in building

construction.

Problem

BFRL has developed a "one-dimensional"

personal computer model, called MOIST,

that predicts heat and moisture transfer in

building construction. This model inputs

hourly outdoor weather data, and predicts

the moisture content and temperature of the

construction layers as a function of time of

year. The algorithms of the program include

moisture transfer by diffusion and capillary

flow. A user of MOIST is able to investigate

the effect of various parameters on moisture

movement and accumulation within the

building envelope. These parameters include

climate, building materials, the use and

placement of vapor retarders, and the relative

placement of building materials. The

capability of MOIST to predict the moisture

accumulation vvdthin each building material

as a function of time allows the user to select

the most appropriate building materials and

construction for a given climate. BFRL has

released version 2.1 of the MOIST Software

to over 1000 persons. A significant limitation

of the MOIST model is that it is one- dimensional and does not address many

building applications (e.g., rising dampness in

earth-coupled foundation walls, water leakage

into basements, the effect of framing

members on heat and moisture transfer, etc.).

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will develop a

2-dimensional personal computer program

wall run from a Windows 95 operating

system. It will have the following elements:

Input processor. An input processor will be

developed that permits the program user to

draw the building construction on the

computer screen using a calibrated cursor. Boundary conditions along various segments

of the exterior boundary of the construction

will be assigned by dragging the cursor along

that segment of the boundary. It will be

possible to assign hourly ASHRAE Weather

Year for Energy Calculations (WYEC)

weather to one or more segments of the

boundary. The program will come equipped

with a considerable database of heat and

moisture property data. Property data will be

assigned by clicking with the mouse on a

particular region and then selecting the

material type from the material property data

base. The user may create a new material in

the database vvdth unique property values.

The nodal spacing for the finite-difference

solution will be established by clicking the

mouse at various locations within the

construction. All data entry wall be

accomplished in a Windows environment.

The program will solve for the temperature

and moisture content at the specified

finite-difference nodes as a function of time.

Finite-Difference Solution. A set of equations

will be developed that perform a heat balance

at the finite-difference nodes and calculate

the nodal temperatures at each time step of

the analysis. A separate set of equations will

be developed that perform a moisture balance

at the finite-difference nodes and calculate

the nodal moisture contents at each time step

of the analysis. The moisture transport

equations will include both molecular

diffusion and capillary transfer in the

materials. Latent heat (i.e., the effect of water

evaporating from one place and condensing

in another place) will be distributed wdthin

the materials. The above two sets of

finite-difference equations wiW be solved

using an alternating-direction implicit

method.

Output Processor As the program executes, it

73
will display a color-coded image depicting the

moisture content of various parts of the

construction as it changes with time. After

execution, the user will be able to send to the

printer either color-coded or gray-tone

snapshot images showing the moisture

content of the construction at selected time

intervals.

Recent Results

Burch D. M., and Chi, J., MOIST: A PC

Program for Predicting Heat and Moisture

Transfer in Building Envelopes. Version 3.0,

NIST SP 917, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, September 1997.

Burch, D. M., Tsongas, G. A., and Walton,

G. N., Mathematical Analysis of Practices to Control Moisture in the Roof Cavities of

Manufactured Houses, NISTIR 5880, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

September 1996.

TenWolde, A., and Burch, D. M., Ventilation,

Moisture Control, and Indoor Air Quality in Manufactured Houses, A Review of Proposed

Changes in the HUD Standards and a Proposal for Revised Standards. National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Department of Housing and Urban

Development, Interagency Agreement, 1 996.

Tsongas, G. A., Thronton, B. A., Burch, D.

M., and Walton, G. N., Computer Analysis of

the Moisture Perofrmance of Roof Constructions in

the U.S., DOE Moisture Control Handbook,

NISTIR 5919, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, December 1 996.

A Photovoltaic Solar Water

Heating System

Principal Investigator

A. Hunter Fanney

Building Environment Division

301-975-5864

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop computer simulation capabilities

for photovoltaic solar water heating systems

Problem

Photovoltaic simulation models have not

been adequately validated with experimental

data for many of the photovoltaic

technologies. Models do not exist that

characterize the performance of photovoltaic

systems that use direct current at the end

application rather than utilizing a dc to ac

inverter and its associated maximum power

tracldng circuitry. Additionally, the

conversion efficiency of photovoltaic

integrated building products has not been

documented.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will work with the

University of Wisconsin to develop

simulation tools to predict the performance

of photovoltaic solar systems that utilize

direct current. The model will provide

predictions of solar array performance and

displaced electrical energy. Predictions of

electrical demand reductions and the impact

on the environment through the widespread

use of these systems will be modeled.

Detailed experimental data will be collected

for systems at the BFRL, the Florida Solar

Energy Center, and the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park. A single-tank

photovoltaic solar water heating system will

be developed and fabricated to provide data

for single-tank model development and

validation. The system will utilize

components that maximize performance

74
while providing an adequate supply of hot

water during extended periods of poor

weather conditions. The photovoltaic array at

the Florida Solar Energy Center will be

reconfigured to provide additional

experimental data for model verification.

Samples of photovoltaic residential roof

shingles will be obtained. The voltage,

current, and efficiency characteristics of this

amorphous-silicon-based product will be

measured for various ambient temperature

and solar irradiance levels. The resulting data

will be used to determine the validity of a four node lumped parameter model.

Recent Results

Fanney, A. H., Dougherty, B. P.,

"Photovoltaic Solar Water Heating System,"

ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, pp.

126-133, May 1997.

Fanney, A. H., Dougherty, B. P., Photovoltaic

Solar Water Heating System at Great Smokey

Mountains National Park, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Pamphlet, 1997.

Fanney, A. H., Dougherty, B. P., Kjramp, K.

P., "Field Performance of Photovoltaic Solar

Water Heating Systems," Proceedings, Solar

Engineering 1 997, American Society of

Mechanical Engineers, April 27-30, 1997.

75

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

INDOOR AIR QUALITY

Indoor Air Quality Modeling with

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Principal Investigator

Steven J. Emmerich

Building Environment Division

301-975-6459

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To apply the large eddy simulator

computational fluid dynamics (CFP) model

(LES3D) to investigate mixing of air and

contaminants within rooms, and investigate

the application of computational fluid

dynamics in the design process.

Problem

During FY1996, the potential for using a

large eddy simulation computational fluid

dynamics model (LES3D) developed by

BFRL's Fire Science Division to analyze

building indoor air quality and ventilation

problems was investigated. Based on a

literature review of the use of CFD modeling

in indoor air quality and ventilation, the

application of the LES3D model to a test

case, and discussions with a number of

individuals in the private sector, it was

determined that this model offers several

unique capabilities compared to other

available CFD models and could be use to

make a unique contribution in studying

several issues of current interest to the

building indoor air quality and ventilation

field.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform CFD

simulations of air and contaminant mixing in a single room using LES3D. This work will

demonstrate the unique capabilities of

LES3D and to further explore the use of this

model to study contaminant transport in

ventilated spaces. These simulations will

focus on the relative merits of different

turbulence models and the predictive

accuracy of the model.

BFRL will work with industry to develop a

strategy for industry to employ CFD

modeling techniques in the design process. A

series of industry visits to BFRL will be

arranged to demonstrate the LES3D

program, to discuss design problems of

interest that could be analyzed with the

program, and to explore the possibility of

cooperative efforts between BFRL and

industry.

Recent Results

Emmerich, S. J., Use of Computational Fluid

Dynamics to Analyze Indoor Air Quality Issues,

NISTIR 5997, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, April 1997.

79
Development of lAQ Model for

Designers

Principal Investigator

W. Stuart Dols

Building Environment Division

301-975-5860

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop an indoor air quality design tool

in cooperation with the National Research

Council of Canada.

CONTAM will be completed and then

incorporated into the general program

interface being developed at NRCC. Software

will be developed with NRCC to link this

program with the other components of the

NRCC model, specifically the VOC emission

database and the single-zone room airflow

model. A working version of the program will

be developed to enable testing and

refinement during the final year of the

agreement between NIST and NRCC.

Recent Results

Walton, G. N., CONTAM96 User Manual,

NISTIR 6065, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, September 1997.

Problem

Multizone airflow and contaminant models

were developed at BFRL, including AIRNET

and CONTAM86 through CONTAM96.

These models were unique at the time of

their development and have been useful for

the study of airflow and indoor air quality in

multizone building systems. However, most

indoor air quality models, including

CONTAM, have been used primarily by

researchers, consultants and sophisticated

designers. The design community still needs

an indoor air quality analysis program that

meets their needs and is appropriate to their

technical level.

During FYI996, NIST entered into a three-year agreement with the National

Research Council of Canada (NRCC) to

develop an indoor air quality design tool. A

general framework for the model was

developed, and BFRL began the development

of their primary contribution to the effort, a Windows-based multizone airflow and

contaminant dispersal model based on the

latest version of CONTAM. Software was

developed which will enable the use of many

of the approaches currently contained within

CONTAM in the Windows version.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue to work

with NRCC to develop the indoor air quality

design tool. The Windows version of

80
VOC Emission Measurements in

Office Buildings

Principal Investigator

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and demonstrate advanced

methods to measure VOC emission rates in

office buildings.

Problem

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)

emission rates employ a number of

simplifying assumptions and do not consider

all important mass transport mechanisms.

These approaches assume the indoor VOC

concentration is at equilibrium; there is no

loss of indoor VOC other than through

dilution by ventilation air, and there is no

loss of outdoor VOC when they enter the

building. During FY1996, the approaches

that have been used to estimate VOC

emission rates in the field, and the theory

behind these approaches, were examined. An

analysis of the measurement errors that

might be encountered in the field based on

the assumptions used in these approaches

was conducted, and preliminary estimates of

these errors were in the range of 25 percent

to 100 percent.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will develop

alternative approaches to estimate VOC

emission rates in the field and demonstrate

the approaches in a number of office

buildings. These new methods will account

for the transient nature of indoor VOC

concentrations and the potential for

adsorption/desorption interactions with

indoor surfaces. Initially, these methods will

be based on real-time measurements of VOC

concentrations employing a portable gas

chromatograph; ultimately they will employ

more conventional measurement technology

based on integrated air sampling using solid

sorbents and off-site analysis of the samples.

Based on the results of these measurements, a

draft ASTM standard will developed to

provide guidance on the measurement of

VOC emission rates in the field. In addition,

more precise determinations of the

measurement uncertainty associated with

VOC emission rate measurements will be

performed, for both existing approaches and

the new approaches that are developed as part of this project.

Recent Results

Dols, W.S., Persily, A.K., and Nabinger,

S.N., "Indoor Air Quality in Green

Buildings," Proceedings ofASHRAE IAQ96,

1996.

Persily, A.K., Issues in the Field

Measurement of VOC Emission Rates,

Proceedings of Indoor Air '96, pp. 49-54, 1996.

81
lAQAnalysis of Residential

Ventilation Systems

Principal Investigator

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor

Electric Power Research Institute

Objective

To assess the indoor air quality and

ventilation performance of residential

ventilation systems using multizone airflow

and contaminant modeling.

Problem

A variety of approaches to mechanical

ventilation in residential buildings exist,

which are intended to control indoor

contaminant levels while maintaining thermal

comfort and controlling energy consumption.

BFRL recently completed a project for the

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission

where a number of single-family residential

buildings were modeled using the multizone

airflow and indoor air quality program

CONTAM. Simulations were performed to

predict indoor pollutant levels due to a variety of sources and to assess the impact on

these pollutant levels of a limited number of

indoor air quality control technologies. The

technologies considered were modifications of

conventional forced-air distribution systems

and included enhanced particulate filtration,

heat recovery ventilator installed on the

return side of the system, and an outdoor air

intake duct connected to the system return.

The effectiveness of these controls was a function of the source characteristics,

building factors, and the outdoor pollutant

concentrations. In some cases, pollutant

concentrations were reduced by as much as 70 percent. In other cases, the reductions

were lower and even resulted in increased

indoor concentrations. This effort

contributed a significant amount of insight to

issues of residential indoor air quality.

However, a number of indoor air quality

control approaches, including several

promising approaches to residential

ventilation that are currently being used in

the field, were not considered in this project.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will use the multizone

airflow and indoor air quality model

CONTAM to assess the indoor air quality

and energy impacts of a number of

approaches to residential ventilation. The

residential ventilation approaches will

include infiltration balanced mechanical

ventilation, and mechanical exhaust

ventilation with passive air supply inlets. The

indoor air quality analysis will consider

emissions of carbon dioxide, water vapor,

carbon monoxide, particles and volatile

organic compounds from typical indoor

sources. Annual simulations will be

performed for a base building case with a moderate level of envelope airtightness and

for a building with an increased level of

airtightness typical of homes built under

energy efficiency programs. Short-term

simulations will also be performed to examine

other issues of interest including the impacts

of forced-air fan operation, wood stoves as an

indoor pollutant source, closed intake vents

during cold weather, and window opening

during shoulder seasons.

Recent Results

New Project.

82
Infiltration and Ventilation in

Large Buildings

Principal Investigator

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Objective

To analyze energy impacts of large building

infiltration and ventilation system airflows

employing integrated building thermal

analysis and network airflow analysis, and to

participate in industry consensus standards

development activities.

Problem

Previous research and field investigations

have shown that despite current design goals,

the envelopes of modern office buildings

often fall short of design expectations in

terms of airtightness performance. In

addition, field testing has shown that

ventilation system airflows are often quite

different from their design values, leading to over- and under-ventilation as well as increasing the pressure differences that drive

envelope leakage. The existence of such

envelope leakage, as well as ventilation

system airflows that are not in accordance

with design, wiW increase the energy loads of

a building. In addition to the energy

penalties, envelope air leakage can also

negatively impact indoor air quality, envelope

material durability and occupant comfort.

However, the energy implications of envelope

leakage and ventilation system airflows are not known, in part due to a lack of ability of

thermal analysis models to properly account

for the complexities of building airflows in

large, multi-zone buildings. Although

sophisticated network airflow analysis

programs are available, such as AIRNET

developed at BFRL, thermal analysis models

are currently not able to incorporate the

output of such airflow models. Such an

integration of thermal and airflow analysis is

necessary to properly account for the energy

impacts of infiltration and ventilation system

airflows.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform an

analysis of the energy impacts of infiltration

in office buildings and participate in industry consensus standards development to provide

the HVAC industry with the benefits of

DOE-supported research at BFRL. The

former activity involves the development of a

simplified estimate of the energy impacts of

infiltration and the development of a more

rigorous approach based on the TRNSYS

thermal load model. The simplified estimate

of energy impacts will be performed,

including an estimate of energy efficiency

opportunities through air tightening and

improved ventilation system control. Also,

the TRNSYS approach in which the AIRNET

program for calculating building airflow rates

is coupled with the thermal loads analysis

capabilities of TRNSYS will be

demonstrated. For the latter, BFRL will

participate in ASHRAE and ASTM activities,

primarily the ASHRAE committee

responsible for revising ASHRAE Standard

62 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air

Quality. The public review of Standard 62

will be monitored and a draft version of the

carbon dioxide standard will be developed for

full consensus approval. This work is the

second year of a 5 -year project.

Recent Results

ASTM Provisional Standard Guide, PS 40,

Using Indoor Carbon Dioxide Concentrations to Evaluate Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation,

ASTM.

Emmerich S. J., Persily A. IC, Van

Bronkhorst D. A., An Analysis of the Energy

Impacts of Envelope Airtightness in Office

Buildings, NISTIR 5758, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, November 1995.

Van Bronkhorst D. A., Persily A. IC,

Emmerich S. J., "Energy Impacts of Air

Leakage in U.S. Office Buildings," 16thAIVC

Conference, November 1995.

83
i

Demonstration of Residential

Ventilation Systems

Principal Investigator

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor

Synertech Systems Corporation (Contractor

to New York State Energy Research and

Development Administration)

Objective

To evaluate the performance of residential

ventilation systems based on multizone

airflow and contaminant modeling of houses

in a field monitoring program.

Problem

A variety of approaches to mechanical

ventilation in residential buildings exist,

which are intended to control indoor

contaminant levels while maintaining thermal

comfort and controlling energy consumption.

The New York State Energy Research and

Development Administration recently

sponsored a project to identify and analyze

the energy and indoor air quality impacts of

ventilation approaches to residential

construction. This project, performed by the

California Institute for Energy Efficiency and

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, included the

collection of cost and performance data for

ventilation approaches from past studies and

telephone surveys with HVAC contractors.

These data formed the basis for detailed

analyses of the most promising approaches to

evaluate their ventilation characteristics,

energy usage impacts and life cycle costs in

new and existing buildings. The results of

these analyses have identified the most

effective systems in New York State and

California. A Ventilation Guide discussing

the issues associated with ventilation and the

most appropriate system for New York State

homes was developed from the results of

these analyses.

The New York State Energy Research and

Development Administration has moved on

to the second phase of this effort in which

the actual performance of the most promising

ventilation systems will be evaluated in a sample of New York State homes. This

second phase is being conducted by

Synertech Systems Corporation in

conjunction with a number of subcontractors,

including BFRL. The performance evaluation

of this second phase will involve installing

ventilation systems in26 homes and

performing detailed monitoring in eight of

them. The monitoring will include

measurements of airflow rates and selected

indoor air quality parameters.

Approach

During FYI997, BFRL will perform computer

simulations of the homes with detailed

monitoring with the multizone airflow and

indoor air quality model CONTAM,

developed by BFRL. The houses will be

set-up in CONTAM, with input values

determined by site measurements.

Simulations will be performed for the

monitoring period to determine the ability to

predict the measured values. Once this ability

has been established, longer term simulations

will be performed to understand the overall

performance of the ventilation systems, their

impact of several important indoor air quality

parameters, and the existence of interactions

between the ventilation systems and other

building systems. The results obtained from

these simulations will be compared with the

trends predicted during the first phase of the

effort.

Recent Results

New project.

84
Combined Thermal and Airflow

Analysis in Multizone Buildings

equations will be studied and resolved.

Principal Investigator

George Walton

Building Environment Division

Recent Results

Walton, G. N., CONTAM 96 Users Manual,

NISTIR 6065, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, September 1997.

301-975-6421

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop approaches to perform

simultaneous thermal, airflow and

contaminant dispersal analysis within the

framework of the CONTAM model.

Problem

Multizone airflow and contaminant models

have been developed at BFRL, including

AIRNET and CONTAM86 through

CONTAM96. These models were unique at

the time of their development and have been

useful for the study of airflow and indoor air

quality in multizone buildings. However,

these programs have been limited by the zone

air temperatures which are specified as constant values, even for transient

simulations. In reality, the zone air

temperatures are functions of the airflows,

and the airflows are functions of the zone air

temperatures. This limits the potential

accuracy and sensitivity of the CONTAM

simulations, and prevents the use of these

models to analyze some important issues.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will integrate

conductive, convective, and radiative heat

transfer models within the existing airflow

and contaminant analysis capabilities of

CONTAM. These thermal models will be

selected to have accuracy and execution time

performance characteristics comparable to

those of the airflow and contaminant

migration models. Models will be provided

for a sufficient variety of building features to

permit the thermal modeling of most

buildings. Potential computational problems

in the solution of the simultaneous nonlinear

85

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

AND CONTROLS

Communication Protocols for

Building Controls

Principal Investigator

Steven Bushby

Building Environment Division

301-975-5873

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Objective

To expand the acceptance of BACnet

technology into the areas of lighting control,

life safety systems, security, and elevator

control; achieve international standardization

of the BACnet protocol; and establish an

industry-run BACnet certification program

based on recognized testing standards.

Problem

Today's direct digital control (DDC) systems

employ proprietary communication protocols

which prevent systems supplied by different

manufacturers from communicating with

each other. This has resulted in "captive

customers" who, upon buying a control

system, are unable to upgrade or expand it without going back to the same

manufacturer. This lack of communication

capability between control systems made by

different manufacturers also prevents the

building owner from obtaining the most

capable building service by not allowing him

to choose, regardless of the manufacturer, the

best EMCS system, the best digital

controllers, the best security system, the best

fire detection system, or the best

telecommunications system.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will administer and

participate with industry partners in an BACnet Interoperability Testing Consortium.

The objectives of this consortium are to: 1

)

assist control system manufacturers in

verifying the correctness and interoperability

of their proprietary BACnet implementations;

2) verify the technical soundness of the

BACnet protocol; 3) identify errors or omissions in the BACnet protocol

specification; 4) identify ambiguities in the

BACnet protocol which might lead to

implementations which cannot interoperate

and; 5) develop insight into testing

requirements which should be included in the

future version of ASHRAE Standard 135 for

testing conformance to BACnet.

BFRL will develop tools that can be used to

establish an industry-run BACnet

certification program. It will assist GSA

establish and carry out an BACnet test-bed

demonstration project in the Philip Burton

Federal Office building in San Francisco.

Work will begin on developing on

international standard version of BACnet

through ISO TC 205. Also, work will be

performed in conjunction with ASHRAE

SSPC 135 on expanding BACnet to

integrated building services, including life safety, security, and transportation.

Recent Results

Bushby, S. T., "BACnetTM - A Standard

Communication Infratstructure for Intelligent

Buildings," Automation in Construction, July

1997.

Bushby, S. T., "Testing the Conformance and

Interoperability of BACnetTM Systems"

ASHRAE Journal Vol. 38 No. 11, November

1996.

89
Real Time Fault Detection and

Diagnostics

Principal Investigator

John House

Building Environment Division

301-975-5874

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology and

Department of Energy

Objective

To develop and demonstrate methods for

controlling and performing fault detection

and diagnostics (FDD) on mechanical

equipment and systems in real time and to

participate in the International Energy

Agency (lEA) Annex 34 Committee on

Computer-Aided Evaluation of HVAC

System Performance: The Practical

Application of Fault Detection and Diagnosis

Techniques in Real Buildings.

Problem

Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning

(HVAC) systems frequently operate in the

presence of faults. Faults can lead to energy

waste, occupant discomfort, and can shorten

equipment life. Advanced control strategies

and FDD methods are needed to help ensure

that HVAC systems operate properly.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will: 1) workvwth

industry, participants in Annex 34, and

academia to implement and test advanced

control strategies and methods for FDD on

actual building HVAC systems; 2) work with

an industry manufacturer to validate an

advanced control strategy developed in

FY1996 that is expected to be integrated into

new industry controllers; 3) work with an

industry manufacturer and Cornell

University to demonstrate FDD methods on

the Cornell campus; 4) work with Purdue

University to develop a model of the chiller

system for the Temperature Control Module

(TCM) in BFRL's large environmental

chamber, and to use the model and chiller

system to examine various FDD methods;

and 5) explore the possibihty of working with

the Iowa Energy Center (lEC) to develop and

test FDD methods in the lEC Energy

Resource Station.

Recent Results

Seem J. E., House, J. M., and IClaassen, C. J., "Volume Matching Control: Leave the

Outdoor Air Damper Wide Open," ASHRAE

Journal, 1997.

House, J. M., Seem, J. E., and Kelly, G. E.,

"Reverse Airflow Through the Exhaust Air

Damper for Variable-Air-Volume AirHandling Units: Part I - Problem

Description," International Journal of

HVAC&R Research, 1997.

Seem, J. E., House, J. M., and IClaassen, C. J., "Reverse Airflow Through the Exhaust Air

Damper of Variable-Air-Volume AirHandling Units: Part II - Control Solution,"

International Journal of HVAC&R Research,

1997.

Lee, W. Y., House, J. M., and Shin, D. R.,

"Fault Diagnosis and Temperature Sensor

Recovery for an Air-Handling Unit,"

ASHRAE Transactions, Wo\. 103, pt. 1, 1997.

Seem, J. E., and House, J. M., and Monroe,

R. H., "On-Line Monitoring and Fault

Detection of Control System Performance,"

CLIMA 2000, Brussels, 1997.

90
Test Procedures for Furnaces,

Boilers, and Integrated Appliances

Principal Investigator

Stanley Liu

Building Environment Division

301-975-5880

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of furnaces, boilers, and

integrated appliances

Problem

In the DOE test procedure for

furnaces/boilers, procedures are proscribed for

single stage and modulating (multiple firing

rate) furnaces. However, there is an

discrepancy in the calculated value of the

AFUE for gas-fired, two-stage modulating

furnaces. The AFUE value based on the

two-stage calculation procedure was lower

than the AFUE value based on the single

stage calculation under the low firing rate

condition. The discrepancy between the two

AFUE values was from 0.5 to 1 percentage

points with the single stage, low firing rate

calculation giving the higher value. This was

opposite to what was expected. Preliminary

investigation at NI ST showed that under the

average design weather condition assumed in

the test procedure, the two-stage furnace

would have operated in the low firing mode

for over 95 percent of the time. If the furnace

is assumed to operate as a single stage

furnace but at the low firing rate, the

calculated AFUE values of the two cases (two-stage with 95% time at the low firing

rate and single stage v^dth 1 00% time at the

low firing rate) should be near equal. This

discrepancy is believed to be caused by the

difference in the calculation procedures for

single stage furnaces and modulating

furnaces. A study of the calculation

procedures is needed to find the cause of the

problem and to develop possible corrections

to the calculation procedures.

The proposed DOE furnaces/boilers test

procedure references the ANSI/ASHRAE

Standard 103-1993, and a test procedure for

combined space/water heating combination

appliances will reference the ANSI/ASHRAE

Standard 124-1991. In 1996,ASHRAE sent

out notice for its 5-year cycle revision or

reaffirmation ofbothASHRAE 103-1993

and ASHRAE 124-1991.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue to study

and develop corrections to conciliate the

difference in the AFUE values between the

single stage furnace and two-stage

modulating furnace. BFRL will continue to

conduct tests on the outdoor furnace test

unit with different length flue pipe and

configurations to develop the needed tracer

gas test procedure for incorporation in the

DOE furnace/boiler test procedure.

Recent Results

Assisted DOE evaluate public comments

received about proposed revision to test

procedures and on the proposed energy cost

ratio factor on furnaces/boilers, vented home

heating equipment and pool heaters. Final

rule for the revised test procedures have been

published in the Federal Register Notice on

May 12, 1997.

91
Test Procedures for Commercial

Furnace/Boilers, Central Air

Conditioners, Heat Pumps, and

Hot Water Heaters

Principal Investigator

Stanley Liu

Building Environment Division

301-975-5880

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of commercial furnace/boilers,

central air conditioners, heat pumps, and

water heaters.

Problem

The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT)

requires DOE to develop test procedures for

the energy performance of certain class of

commercial heating and cooling equipment

and commercial hot water heaters. The Act

specifies the ANSI/ASHRAE Standard

90.1-1989 as the reference document for the

determination of the energy performance

standard. ASHRAE 90. 1 in turn referenced

several existing industry standards for the

testing of a product. For furnaces and boilers,

there are some distinct and conflicting

differences among these standards (when

applied to the same product) with respect to

test procedure, test conditions and

calculation procedures. For other covered

products, there are unspecified or unclear

procedures. Some of the unspecified or unclear procedures have been addressed by

ASHRAE Standard Project Committee after

ASHRAE Standard 90.1-1989 was published.

At the present time, ASHRAE 90. 1 is being

extensively revised to address all types of

revisions to the existing standard, and Tables

for furnaces, boilers, A/C and heat pump

equipment and service water heaters that

specified the test standards and performance

requirements are all being revised. The

revised draft standard 90.1-1989R has been

published for public review. In the proposed

revision, the ASHRAE Standard 1 18.1-1993

(Method of Testing for Rating Commercial

Gas, Electric, and Oil Water Heaters) has

been referenced as the test standard for

service water heaters. However, the Standard

11 8.1 itself is in the process of being revised

by ASHRAE SPC 1 18.1 R. Also, for space

heating boilers, ASHRAE 90.1-1989R

proposes the adoption of ASHRAE Standard

155P which is itself under development by

ASHRAE SPC 155P. All these issues need to

be addressed in the development of DOE

proposed rules for equitable test and rating

procedures for the EPACT-covered

commercial products.

Approach

During FYI997, BFRL will continue to assist

DOE in its rulemaking process to develop,

revise and finalize the draft DOE test procedures for the EPACT-covered products

as required by DOE's proposed rulemaking

process. As ASHRAE continues its revision of

the ASHRAE 90. 1 - 1 989R and 1 1 8. 1 - 1 993R,

BFRL will participate and provide input to

the revision processes and will participate in

the ASHRAE SPC 155P's effort for the

development of test procedure for all type of

commercial space heating boilers. When the

test methods in ASHRAE 155P are developed, the proposed procedures will

require validation. BFRL will participate in

the validation tests before the methods are adopted as a DOE test procedure.

Recent Results

Provided letter reports on the various tasks to

DOE.

92
Test Procedures for Heat Pumps

and Air Conditioners

Principal Investigators

Brian Dougherty

Building Environment Division

301-975-6396

Piotr Domansld

Building Environment Division

301-975-5877

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of heat pumps and air

conditioners

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PL

94-163) (EPCA), as amended, requires the

Department of Energy (DOE) to prescribe

test and rating procedures and minimum

performance standards for various residential

appliances. In addition, the 1987

amendments to EPCA requires analysis of

any test procedure amendments to determine

their effect on minimum efficiency standards.

DOE has, since 1975, relied on BFRL to

assist in the development of the test and

rating procedures.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will co-sponsor testing

of a Nordyne Powermiser combined heat

pump-water heating appliance at ETL. The

unit will be tested as per the Nordyne waiver,

as the BFRL-proposed test procedure for

combined appliances, and ASHRAE Standard

137. The results will be used to evaluate the

differences between the methods. Based on

these results and input from ETL as to the

associated testing burden of the different

tests, BFRL will generate a generic test procedure that may be based largely on one

method or be a combination of all three. This

generic test procedure, which will only cover combined appliances that are presently being

marketed, will be supplied to DOE for

publishing as part of a proposed rulemaking.

Recent Results

Developed a revised version of DOE's test

procedure that covers central air conditioners

and heat pumps.

93
Test Procedures for Compact

Refrigerators

Principal Investigator

James Kao

Building Environment Division

301-975-5871

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To conduct investigation on compact

refrigerators to determine if the Department

of Energy (DOE) test procedure should be

revised.

Problem

DOE obtained information from some

commercial test laboratories in the past that

the energy test results on compact

refrigerators in volumes of 4 cubic feet or less

indicated repeatability problem. However,

the accuracy of this information is not

certain. Further investigation to confirm or deny its validity is needed.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform three

tasks:

1 . Inquire with manufacturers and test laboratories to determine if repeatability of

energy test is a problem for refrigerators in

volumes of O.llm^ or less.

2. Evaluate the DOE energy test procedure to determine if the test procedure

causes reliability problem in energy tests for

compact refrigerators.

3. If appropriate, develop a plan to

determine the extent of the problem. One

approach is to test the same refrigerators at

different test laboratories, such as the

refrigerator manufacturer, Inchcape, the

Canadian Standards Association, and NIST

(a round robin approach).

Recent Results

Drafted test requirements of energy effects of

vented refrigerators in the curtent

refrigerator/freezer test procedure.

Investigation of repeatability problem for

compact refrigerators indicates that the

problem is not caused by the DOE energy

test procedure

94
Test Procedures for Plumbing

Systems

Principal Investigator

Stephen Treado

Building Environment Division

301-975-6444

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To develop test procedures as required for

plumbing products covered under EPACT.

Problem

EPACT, the Energy Policy and and

Conservation Act, specifies performance

standards for a number of plumbing

products, including toilets, urinals,

showerheads, and faucets. The American

Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) test

procedures for measurement of hydraulic

performance are also specified and are to be

adopted by the DOE. While these test

procedures are in general sufficient for their

intended purpose, the introduction of new

plumbing products and designs, and the

interpretation and application of the specific

testing provisions will require DOE to

continuously monitor these changes and their

effects on the Department's test procedures

for plumbing products.

Approach

In FYI997, BFRL will continue to provide

technical support and liaison with

manufacturers, ASME, and other related

organizations, and attend industry group

meetings as necessary to monitor industry

progress on the test procedures for evaluating

the performance of water consumption for

plumbing products. Specific activities will

include supporting the ongoing DOE

rulemaldng, reviewing and evaluating the

revised ASME All 2 18.1M-1994 and the

upcoming Al 1 2. 1 9.6 standard, when

published, relating to provisions integral to

the measurement of water consumption, and

providing general technical support.

BFRL will evaluate comments on proposed

test procedures , especially those related to

sampling issues, and will participate in public

hearings and meetings on proposed

rulemaldngs. BFRL will participate in the

development and review of the Tri-Lateral

North American Standards 1,2, and 3 to

determine their impact on the DOE

standards program, water consumption and

effect on ASME standards and plumbing

codes.

Recent Results

Provided DOE with a letter report on

evaluation of plumbing products.

95
Test Procedures for Lighting

Fixtures and Systems

Principal Investigator

Stephen Treado

Building Environment Division

301-975-6444

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of lighting fixtures and systems.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (P

94-163) (EPCA), as amended, required the

Department of Energy (DOE) to prescribe

test and rating procedures and minimum

performance standards for various residential

appliances. In addition, the 1987

amendments to EPCA requires analysis of

any test procedure amendments to determine

their effect on minimum efficiency standards.

DOE has, since 1975, relied on BFRL to

assist in the development of the test and

rating procedures. The Energy Policy Act of

1992 (EPACT) contained many provisions

relating to lighting equipment., including

labeling and minimum standards for

incandescent and fluorescent lamps. The

implementation of these provisions required

the development or specification of

appropriate test procedures, and a rigorous

set of definitions for covered products and

exemptions.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will review, evaluate,

and validate industry test procedures for

fluorescent lamp ballasts, including electronic

ballasts, and will conduct laboratory

measurements to convert industry test procedures to DOE test procedures. BFRL

will provide technical support to DOE in

obtaining resolution to outstanding technical

issues, such as the inherent wattage

characteristics of fluorescent lamps and the

definition of vibration service incandescent

reflector lamps, as well as assessing the

coverage status of new lighting products.

BFRL will monitor the Illuminating

Engineering Society and the American

National Standards Institute test procedure

activities, along with the luminaire labeling

program, the National Voluntary Laboratory

Accreditation Program's accreditation

program and voluntary ballast programs.

BFRL also will review the HID lamp

technical report being prepared by the

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

Recent Resuhs

Provided DOE with letter reports on

fluorscent lamps.

96
Revised Test Procedures for

Ranges and Ovens

Principal Investigator

Steven J. Nabinger

Building Environment Division

301-975-6416

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Er\ergy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of ranges and ovens.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PI

94-163) (EPCA), as amended, requires the

Department of Energy (DOE) to prescribe

test and rating procedures and minimum

performance standards for various residential

appliances. In addition, the 1987

amendments to EPCA requires analysis of

any test procedure amendments to determine

their effect on minimum efficiency standards.

DOE has, since 1975, relied on BFRL to

assist in the development of the test and

rating procedures.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue to

review and revise the draft Final Rule on test

procedures for Idtchen appliances until it is published. BFRL will complete reports

summarizing the data and results obtained

from the oven, cooktop and microwave oven

tests performed during FY1996.

Recent Results

Provided the DOE with letter reports on

testing and data analysis for ovens, cooktops,

and microwaves.

Revised Test Procedures for Water

Heaters

Principal Investigator

Stanley Liu

Building Environment Division

301-975-5880

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of residential water heaters.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act

(PL-94-163) (EPCA), as amended, requires

the Department of Energy (DOE) to

prescribe test and rating procedures and

minimum performance standards for various

residential appliances. The 1987

amendments to EPCA requires analysis of

any test procedure amendments to determine

their effect on minimum standards. DOE has,

since 1975, rehed on the BFRL to assist in

the development of the test and rating

procedures.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will provide technical

support to DOE in revising proposed

revisions into a final rule. BFRL will evaluate

test data submitted by GAMA and EPRI on

the effects of draw rate, draw schedule and

total daily draw on heaters with a storage

volume of less than 0 076 m' (20 gallons)

and on heat pump water heaters. BFRJ^ will

participate in DOE workshop on unresolved

issues in the test procedure. BFRL will

review published hot water consumption data

for reference in a future revision of the test

procedure.

Recent Results

Provided letter reports to DOE on water

heaters.

97
Revised Test Procedures for Pool

Heaters

Principal Investigator

Stanley Liu

Building Environment Division

301-975-5880

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To provide testing and rating procedures for

determining energy performance of pool

heaters.

Problem

In FY1993, DOE modified the test procedure

for pool and spa heaters to include a

calculation of energy factor and published the

procedure in the Federal Register as a Proposed Rulemaldng on August 23, 1993. In

1 996 the proposed energy factor was revised

in the draft final rule to delete the energy

cost ratio of electrical to fossil fuel energy

from the formulation and renamed it as the

pool heater heating seasonal efficiency. NIST

will continue to assist DOE in finalizing the

test procedure so it can be published as a

Final Rule.

The current DOE test procedure for pool

heaters covers only gas- and oil-fired pool

heaters. The test procedure references ANSI

Standard Z21 .56 for gas-fired pool heaters

and specifies certain modifications for the

procedure to be applicable to oil-fired pool

heaters. It does not cover electric resistance

type heaters or the heat pump pool heaters

which are recently introduced on the market.

A revision to the existing test procedure is needed to include the installation,

measurements, test methods and calculation

procedures for both the electric resistance

type and the heat pump pool heaters.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue to assist

DOE in the evaluation of public comments

received after the publication in the Federal

Register of proposed revision to the existing

DOE pool heater test procedure.

Recent Results

Final rule on the revised DOE test procedure

for pool heaters was published in the Federal

Register on May 12, 1997.

98
Revised Test Procedures for

Clothes Washers

Principal Investigator

James ICao

Building Environment Division

301-975-5871

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of clothes washers.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PL

94-163) (EPCA), as amended, requires the

Department of Energy (DOE) to prescribe

test and rating procedures and minimum

performance standards for various residential

appliances. The 1987 amendments to EPCA

requires analysis of any test procedure

amendments to determine their effect on

minimum efficiency standards. BFRL, since

1975, has assisted DOE in the development

of the test and rating procedures.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will assist DOE

analyze and revise interim clothes washer test procedure Appendixes J and future clothes

washer test procedure J

1 for the final rule

making. Since microprocessor applications in

clothes washers are expected to advance

rapidly, new consumer washing options

provided by clothes washer manufacturers

may exceed the coverage of the new test procedure. When waiver petitions from

clothes washer manufacturers are requested,

BFRL will perform testing at DOE's request.

Recent Results

Test procedure Appendices J and } 1 were

completed; publication of these Appendices is expected in late FY1997.

Revised Test Procedures for

Clothes Dryers

Principal Investigator

James Kao

Building Environment Division

301-975-5871

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of clothes dryers

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PL

94-163) (EPCA), as amended, requires the

Department of Energy (DOE) to prescribe

test and rating procedures and minimum

performance standards for various residential

appliances. In addition, the 1987

amendments to EPCA requires analysis of

any test procedure amendments to determine

their effect on minimum efficiency standards.

BFRL has, since 1975, assisted DOE in the

development of the test and rating

procedures.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will complete testing a conventional clothes dryer and a condenser

dryer. The purpose of these tests is to

acquire base energy consumption data of

different types of clothes dryers which will

assist BFRL and DOE in future possible

revision of test procedures and in responding

to possible manufacturers' request for

waivers. The tests also provide data on the

effect of energy consumption caused by room

humidity variations.

Recent Results

Provided DOE with letter report on the

analysis of test results.

99
Rexdsed Test Procedures for

Dishwashers

Principal Investigator

Natascha Castro

Building Environment Division

301-975-6420

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Objective

To conduct tests on residential dishwashers

to gather data pertaining to efficiency in

performance and energy consumption using

the International Electrotechnical

Commission (lEC) Standard 436. To collect

and evaluate this information for use in

future revisions of the current dishwasher test procedure to possibly include performance

based testing.

Problem

The current DOE test procedure was

developed over ten years ago and does not

have provisions for testing dishwashers with

adaptive controls. Therefore dishwashers

equipped with these and other recent

innovations cannot be accurately tested. The

main features that contribute to improved

energy performance are better thermal

insulation, improved motor efficiency, better

water distribution, improved food filtering,

and improved fill controls (using float

controls instead of timer controls). Other

items which have energy reducing potential

are improved water heating in water-heating

dishwashers and innovative control schemes.

In light of energy consumption reductions in

dishwashers over the past decade, review of

the current test procedure is in order.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will run performance

based tests on two dishwashers, an adaptive

control model and a conventional model.

These tests shall be conducted using soiled

test loads as specified in the lEC Standard

Publication 436. The principal investigator

will evaluate the benefits of this test to the

current DOE test procedure. In addition, the

principal investigator will evaluate a list of

proposed changes to the DOE test procedure

for dishwashers, prepared by the Association

of Home Appliance Manufacturers. Some

testing will be performed in support of this

evaluation. Work will focus on gathering

information pertinent to future revisions of

the dishwasher test procedure. The long-term

objective of this research will be the

development of new significant performance

based test and rating procedures for

dishwashers and to further encourage

manufacturers to use control features and

designs that reduce energy consumption.

Recent Resuhs

Provided DOE with letter reports on test

procedures for dishwashers.

100
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

THERMAL MACHINERY

Calorimetric and Visual Study of

Heat Transfer Enhancements with

Alternative Refrigerants

Principal Investigator

Mark Kedziersld

Building Environment Division

301-975-5282

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology and

Department of Energy

Building of Equipment Division

Office of Building Technologies

Objective

To determine the thickness and

concentration, of the lubricants and additives

at a pool boiling surface, the influence of

beneficial boiling additives on condensation

performance, and in-tube condensation of

R22 replacements in a micro-fin tube.

Problem

Any increase in the efficiency of a heat

exchanger or reduction in the uncertainty in a heat transfer correlation could be used to

lower manufacturing or operating costs of

refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment.

The practice of over designing a heat

exchanger to ensure it meets the required

duty could be curtailed if more accurate heat

transfer correlations were available. There is over 50 years of experience in the design of

evaporators and condensers for R22

equipment. By contrast, designers have

comparatively little experience in the design

of heat exchangers for equipment that

operate with the ozone-safe replacements for

R22. Accurate condensation heat transfer

correlations for R22 replacements can help

industry to minimize the over sizing of

condensers. Most all refrigeration and

air-conditioning equipment operate with

refrigerant-lubricant mixtures. The lack of a

clear understanding of the effect of lubricant

concentration of the heat transfer

performance of refrigerants contributes to the over sizing of heat exchangers. Correlations

for the prediction of refrigerant /lubricant

mixture boiling can be used to more closely

size heat exchangers. Further reductions in

the size of heat exchangers are possible with

the use of liquid additives that enhance

boiling heat transfer. Although liquid

additives and lubricants interact in similar

ways with refrigerants the phenomenon is not

understood well enough for a comprehensive

correlation to be developed. In general, an

improved understanding of the phase change

phenomena of alterative refrigerants can

contribute to the reduction in manufacturing

and operating costs.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL evaluate two

candidate methods for investigating the

characteristics of the lubricant layer at the

boiling surface. The candidate methods are ellipsometry and fluorescence spectra

measurement. Ellipsometry can be used to

determine optical constants, layer thickness,

and many physical quantities that effect the

optical constants; ellipsometry has not been

applied to boihng. The technique requires a

stable surface. The boiling tests will be

conducted until the lubricant-rich layer has

accumulated at the surface. At this point the

boiling will be quenched and the ellipsometry

measurements taken immediately.

Corrections for the diffusion of lubricant

from the surface to the bulk liquid can be

made to the measurements. The

concentration of the lubricant at the boiling

surface can be measured by examining the

fluorescence spectrum from the surface.

BFRL's new condensing rig will be used to

determine if the boiling additive degrades the

condensation performance. An in-tube

condensation investigation will measure the

local condensation heat transfer coefficient of

R22 replacements. The refrigerant will be

tested under twelve different operating

conditions, which are pertinent to heat pump

and air-conditioning applications. The

heat-transfer coefficient will be reported as average and local values over specified quality

ranges. This study will be a companion study

for BFRL's 1 996 study that investigated the

local flow boiling measurements of R22

103
replacements (R32/134a, R32/125, and

R32/1 25/1 34a) in a micro-fin tube. A

designer of new heat pumps will be able to

size both the evaporator and the condenser

with the results of both studies.

Thermodynamic Performance of

Natural Fluids as Alternative

Refrigerants

Principal Investigators

Peter Rothfleisch

Building Environment Division

301-975-5868

D. A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Recent Results

ICaul, M. P., Kedziersld, M. A., and Didion,

D. A., Horizontal Flow Boiling ofAlternative

Refrigerants within a Fluid Heated Micro-Fin

Tube, Bergles Symposium, Georgia Institute

of Technology in Atlanta, 1996.

Kedzierski, M. A., Enhancement ofR123 Pool

Boiling by the Addition ofN-Hexane, NISTIR

5780, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, 1996.

Kedziersld, M. A., Calorimetric and Visual

Measurements ofR123 Pool Boiling on Four

Enhanced Surfaces, NISTIR 5732, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1995.

Kedzierski, M. A., Effect of Inclination on the

Performance of a Compact Brazed Plate Condenser

and Evaporator, NISTIR 5767, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1995.

P.A. Domanski

Building Environment Division

301-975-5877

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology and

Department of Energy

Building Equipment Division

Office of Building Technologies

Objective

To evaluate the thermodynamic and heat

transfer performance of natural fluids as a worldng medium for refrigeration systems.

Problem

With the ozone crisis ruling out the use of

chlorine in the manufacturing of refrigerants,

the industry is rapidly moving toward the use of hydro fluorocarbon compounds. This

conversion has been and continues to be the

most dramatic change this industry has ever

faced. Virtually all industry resources are focused on meeting the United Nations and

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

schedules. However, on the horizon looms

the global warming crisis, and the

carbon-fluorine bond of the alternative

refrigerants causes them to have a high

Global Warming Potential (GWP). It is the

opinion of many that the ultimate solution is in using of "natural" fluids as refrigerants.

The term "natural fluids" describes carbon

dioxide, hydrocarbons, ammonia, air and

water, which either naturally exists in the

atmosphere or would have insignificant

104
impact on the earth's climate if released to

the atmosphere from a refrigeration system.

In the past, these fluids were used as

refrigerants, but, except for ammonia in

industrial applications, have been disregarded

for safety (including flammability) and

economic reasons.

Approach

During FY 199 7, BFRL will perform three

tasks:

1 . Perform system testing of flammable

refrigerants The evaluation of an alternative

refrigerant, is extensive. It requires system

performance analysis via computer modeling,

laboratory system (breadboard)

measurements and heat transfer, particularly

evaporative and condensing flows, coefficient

determination. The properties of natural

fluids are radically different from halogens

and significant hardware changes are required, as well as fundamental changes to

the thermodynamic cycle and processes.

BFRL will evaluate the concept of a water-to-water heat pump. The refrigerant is confined in the outdoor section, and the

inhabited structure is heated or cooled by a secondary refrigerant. In the early analysis

stage, this concept was evaluated using a modified version of CYCLE-1 1. In FY1996,

we performed tests in a general-purpose heat

pump apparatus and constructed a new

apparatus for system testing with flammable

refrigerants. BFRL will perform tests at

operating conditions typical for cooling and

heating conditions of a ground-source heat

pump. The fluids tested will include: R-22 (as a reference), propane, and propane/butane

mixture. In addition, R-32/152a mixture will

be evaluated because it has a low GWP and

high Coefficient of Performance. The use of a secondary refrigerant will inflict a performance penalty due to the increased

temperature lifts. Based on the first round of

tests and simulations, modifications to the rig

will be performed and an additional test program will be formulated for the modified

test apparatus.

2. Carbon dioxide will be evaluated for use in different refrigeration systems. Based

on this evaluation, a decision will be made

for performing future experimental

evaluations (design, construction of the

experimental rig, and milestones).

3. This work addresses upgrading an

air-to-air heat pump model (HPSIM) so it could cover refrigerant mixtures comprising

up to five components, including those tested

under Task 1. In FY1996, the evaporator

model and condenser model were developed.

During FY1997, the heat pump model will be

completed and made available to the

industry.

Recent Results

D.K. Choi, P.A. Domansld, and D.A. Didion,

"Evaluation of Flammable Refrigerants for

Use in a Water-to-Water Residential Heat

Pump," International Institute of

Refrigeration, Int. Conference on Applicationsfor

Natural Refrigerants, Aarhus, Denmark,

September 3-9, 1996.

Domanski, P., Didion, D., Mulroy, W.,

Parise, J., "A Simulation Model and Study of

Hydrocarbon Refrigerants for Residential

Heat Pump Systems," International Institute

of Refrigeration, Int. Conference on New

Applications of Natural Working Fluids in

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Hannover,

Germany, May 10-13, 1994.

105
Development of MicroElectro

Mechanical Systems (MEMS)

Sensors for Refrigeration

Machinery

Principal Investigator

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To determine the contribution that the

MEMS technology can make to control and

maintenance of U.S. refrigeration machinery.

Problem

MicroElectro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)

are an outgrowth of the "computer chip"

industry and have been under development

as a separate entity since the mid 1970's.

Although they are of similar size and

manufacture they are significantly different

from electronic chips in that they incorporate

miniature mechanical devices such as diaphragms, cantilevers, gears, etc. This

industry has matured sufficiently that MEMS

accelerometers act as "triggers" for most

automotive air bags. MEMS is showing up in a wide variety of products of all levels of

expense and sophistication (e.g., gauges for

checldng air pressure in tires, etc.). However,

to date no such devices are used in the heat

pumping/air conditioning machines.

Heat pump developments of today have

included a continual path towards an

electronic central processor for operation and

control. This digitizing system approach has

been producing a product that has increased

potential for increased efficiency, reliability,

and comfort. These are essential factors

indeed, for competing with foreign

competitors. However, the preoccupation

with system changes required by the new

environmental-safe refrigerants has caused

the MEMS field to be virtually ignored.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform two

tasks:

1. Design, fabricate, and install MEMS

pressure and temperature sensors and related

circuitry.

2. Design and construct a test stand at

BFRL for a manufacturer donated

compressor. It will also involve a selected

compressor manufacturer for consultation on

the sensor design for installation purposes

since it is intended that said manufacturer

will do the installation in their model shop.

MEMS sensor and transducer devices will be

developed by BFRL to measure compressor

gas pressure and temperature in the cylinder

during operation.

The pressure sensor will be a micro-machined

silicon diagram with polysilicon resistive

strain gauges.

The temperature measurement device will be

a micro machined silicon bridge or cantilever

with polysilicon resistive temperature sensors.

Recent Results

New project.

106
i

Impact of Air-Side Maldistribution

on the Performance of

Finned-Tube Evaporator

Principal Investigator

Piotr Domansld

Building Environment Division

301-975-5877

Sponsor

Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration Technology

Institute, Inc. (ARTI)

Objective

To quantify the performance degradation due

to maldistributed air for the evaporator

worldng with R-22 and alternative zeotropic

mixture R-407C.

Problem

The zeotrope R-407C (R-32/1 25/1 34a

(23/25/53)) was identified as a leading

alternative to R-22 for residential application.

Although many aspects of R-407C

performance were explained in recent years,

it is still unlcnown what effect an air-side and

refrigerant-side maldistribution will have on a

coil capacity if this zeotropic mixture is employed.

It is reasonable to expect the performance

degradation of a coil working with a zeotropic mixture to be different from that

found for a single-component refrigerant. The

difference in degradation may be related to

the temperature glide exhibited by a zeotropic mixture during a phase change.

Also, the refrigerant-side maldistribution may

cause a different evaporator capacity penalty

for a zeotropic mixture than for R-22 because

a nonuniform distribution of a zeotrope will

affect temperature of each tube.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will use the upgraded

version of its evaporator model, EVAP5 to

study the impact of air-side and

refrigerant-side maldistribution for an

evaporator charged with R-407C. Two

three-depth-row coils will be studied, one

with a cross-counter flow configuration and

one with a cross-counter cross-parallel flow

configuration.

Recent Results

New project.

107
Procedure for Determining the

Energy Efficiency Ratio of DOE 35

°C Rating Point for Mixed Unitary

Air Conditioners

Principal Investigator

Piotr Domanski

Building Environment Division

301-975-5877

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Building Equipment Division

Office of Building Technologies

Objective

To develop a calculation procedure that

would allow determination of Energy

Efficiency Ratio at the 35 °C (95 °F) rating

point [EER(95)] for a mixed system without

laboratory testing.

Problem

The currently required performance

descriptors, capacity at the 35 °C (95 °F)

rating point [Q(95)] and Seasonal Energy

Efficiency Ration [SEER], are not adequate

for a meaningful rebate program aiming at

reducing peak demand for electricity. For a single-speed system, the SEER value is based

on the system's Energy Efficiency Ratio at

27.8 °C rating point, EER(82), and on the

cyclic degradation coefficient. With SEER

having a limited relevance to the system

efficiency at a higher temperature, the EER at

35 °C (95 °F) rating point would be a more

adequate criterion for a utility rebate

program. For a matched system, EER(95) is Icnown to the manufacturer since the system's

capacity and power input are measured

during a DOE-required Test A; however, for

mixed systems EER(95) is unloiown, and a proper methodology for determining it has to

be developed.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will verify the

developed EER algorithm using laboratory

test data obtained from the Air-Conditioning

and Refrigeration Institute. This verification

will include 22 mixed and matched systems.

Recent Results

New project.

108
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

DIVISION

FIRE MODELING AND

APPLICATIONS

Fire Performance Design of

High-Performance Materials Used

in Construction

Principal Investigator

Leonard Y. Cooper

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6880

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a special-purpose version of

CFAST, BFRL's Consolidated Fire and

Smoke Transport Model, which focuses on

structural analysis applications involving

traditional and High Performance

construction materials.

Problem

The standard method of insuring integrity in

fires of building components is based on the

response of building materials to a

standard-test-method fire exposure. High

performance steel, concrete, organic matrix

composites, and combinations of these, are being considered for use in many types of

modern construction. Such materials have

strength vs temperature and failure

characteristics that can differ substantially

from those of traditional construction

materials. In additions these materials can be

used in ways not considered in the

development of codes which dictate their use and thus acceptability. Fires involving

modern furnishings and work environments

may produce exposure conditions that differ

substantially from those simulated by

standard tests. Further, in maldng the

transition to performance codes for buildings

it is crucial that an evaluation tool be

developed that supports the performance

methodology, and can do this evaluation in

realistic scenarios. Finally, in determining the

integrity of a particular candidate assembly in

the design process itself, it will be

increasingly important for industry to use modern methods of engineering analysis to assure the cost-effective fire resistance of

buildings.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will evaluate the

performance of buildings and other structures

in a fire environment. Three types of

phenomena need to be simulated: 1 ) the fire

environment and its development; 2) the

thermal response of structural elements

exposed to the fire environment, including

loading and nonloading barriers; and 3) the

structural response. The fire model CFAST,

developed by BFRL to simulate the first of

these phenomena, is well recognized as the

leading such model in the world. CFAST

calculates heat transfer through walls,

ceilings, and floors with a 1 -dimension

analysis that assumes constant properties, not

effected by the fire. To use CFAST in the

evaluation of the thermal and structural

response of practical barrier designs it is important to improve the analysis of barrier

thermal response by allowing for

2-dimensionality, where necessary, and for

material properties which change in response

to the fire. We will establish a catalog that

includes a brief list of commonly used barrier

designs and develop and incorporate into

CFAST barrier heat transfer analyses

associated with these designs. The analyses

will use measured material properties and will

be validated experimentally. An advanced

version of the CFAST model will include a thermal response analysis for general barrier

design geometries and other structural

elements, and for comparison of designs

implemented in traditional and High

Performance materials. A major feature of

further advancements will be a capability for

simulations of enclosure-fire scenarios, where

fire growth is predicted from a heretofore

unavailable accounting of: a) radiation

exchanges between relatively detailed fueland wall- surface temperature distributions

(i.e., using an analysis that includes multiple,

uniform-temperature fuel/wall/ceiling^floor

surface elements); b) general combinations of

natural- and forced-ventilation

configurations; and c) fuel or

ventilation-controlled burning. This

capability will allow the model to provide

heretofore unavailable estimates of time- and

111
space-dependent heat flux distributions along

enclosure-fire-exposed structural elements.

Parallel to the CFAST effort will be an effort

to develop a means of coupling the advanced

fire model to general structural response

models. All these advancements will enhance

general acceptance of CFAST in the

international structural design community.

BFRL will explore the use of existing and

advanced versions of the SAFIR computer

code as a reliable model and research tool for

simulating the response of structures to fire

exposures. The calculation-based methods to

be developed will contribute to the Integrated

Knowledge System for HP Construction

Materials and Systems (HPCMS) and will be

distributed electronically to industry and

academia through the HPCMS

world-wide-web server and other means.

Recent Results

Cooper, L. Y., The Thermal Response of

Gypsum-Panel/Steel-Stud Wall Systems Exposed

to Tire Environments - A Simulation for Use in

Zone-Type Fire Models, NISTIR 6027,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, May 1997.

Cooper, L. Y., and Reneke, P. A., A Prototype

Modelfor Simulating Barrier Performance in Real

Fires: CFAST, GYPST - For Evaluating the

Response of Gypsum Panel/Steel-Stud Wall

Systems, NISTIR in review.

Cooper, L. Y., A Basisfor Using Fire Modeling

with 1-D Thermal Analysis of Barriers/Partitions

to Stimulate 2-D and 3-D Barrier/Partition

Structural Performance in Real Fires, NISTIR in

review.

Implementation of Fire on the

Web CD ROM

Principal Investigator

Paul Reneke

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6696

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a platform independent method

of distributing fire test data on a CD ROM.

Problem

A unified method of accessing data is crucial

to both experimental and modeling efforts in

the development of the science of fire. Fire on

the Web CD ROM is a platform independent

way of distributing such data making use of

the technology developed for supporting the

World Wide Web. By storing available fire

test values in a common format, this data is readily available for fire protection

professionals, experimentalist, building code

officials, and others concerned with the

design and construction of "safe" structures.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will provide a CD

ROM of test data in FDMS export format

along with a set of Hypertext Markup

Language(HTML) files that can be used with

a Web browser to search the data. The

FDMS export format provides an open file design to accommodate future test apparatus

formats. Fire on the Web CD ROM provides

access to a set of reviewed test values

generated from a variety of sources within the

fire community.

Recent Results

FASTData CD published for distribution by

NIST's Office Standard Reference Data, June

1997.

112
Zone Fire Modeling

Principal Investigator

Walter W. Jones

Fire Safety Engir\eering Division

301-975-6887

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and verify computational

methods for predicting fire growth and

spread for use by manufacturers, architects,

FPE's, code officials, and practitioners who

evaluate fire safety performance, code

equivalency, and code change proposal issues.

Problem

Traditional approaches to building design,

product evaluation, and alternatives to

prescriptive codes and standards address fire

safety in a piecemeal fashion - for example,

evaluating heat release without considering

product use, toxicity, or ignition propensity.

Quantitative evaluation of the effects of an

unwanted fire have the potential of providing

significant cost savings and reducing the time

it takes to obtain approval for a building

design and to receive an occupancy permit.

In addition, measures can be evaluated as an

interacting system, including the impact of

both structure and contents, vytemative

protection strategies can be studied to give

the benefit-cost relation for each. Providing

these alternatives promotes the design

flexibility which reduces redundancies and

cost without sacrificing safety.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will extend

application of zone modeling technology by

working with designers and fire protection

consultants to determine the primary needs

for fire safety design of large buildings.

Worldng with these industries BFRL will

help to implement zone modeling. To

enhance the widespread use of these zone

modeling tools, BFRL experts intend to

promulgate a well defined interface for this

application, encompassing a core model and

user interface. The components will be

provided with complete documentation,

including a demonstration of predictions in a

large building. A model will be developed

taking advantage as much as possible on

previous experience and existing software to

address the primary user needs while

maintaining computing times useful for

creative design tasks.

Recent Results

Peacock, R. D., Reneke, P. A., Jones, W. W.,

Bukowsld, R. W., Forney, G. P., A User's

Guide to FAST: Engineering Toolsfor Estimating

Fire Growth and Smoke Transport, NIST TN

921, September 1997.

113
Enhanced Fire Safety Evaluation

System

Principal Investigator

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-95-6853

Sponsor

General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Real Property Management and

Safety

Objective

To advance the technical basis of the Fire

Safety Evaluation System (FSES) and

facilitate its evolution to a risk management

tool.

Problem

Current fire safety practice within GSA is rooted in the Life Safety Code prescriptions

and using the FSES for equivalency

determinations. The goal of GSA

Headquarters is to move this to a risk

management basis. Lacking is technical

guidance and review of fire safety practice

and software development of fire safety

evaluation management tool.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will embed FSE

calculations into the FSES in place of

judgmental assignment of scores for system

parameters.

Recent Results

Delivered to GSA a windows version of the

Fire Safety Evaluation System, September

1997.

Manufactured Housing Fire Safety

Principal Investigator

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsors

Department of Housing and Urban

Development and

Federal Emergency Management Agency

United States Fire Administration

Objective

To develop selected fire safety strategies that

address losses in existing and new

manufactured housing.

Problem

In January of 1995, HUD and USFA entered

into an agreement to consider possible

improvements in fire safety for manufactured

homes. Such improvements should be cost

effective in that they should not

unnecessarily increase the cost of

manufactured housing which serves an

important role as affordable housing.

Improvements which can be applied to the

existing stock of manufactured homes are preferred as these will have a larger impact

than those lim.ited to new units.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform five

tasks:

1 . Review of smoke detector

requirements. Current requirements for

number and location of detectors to develop

recommendations for changes to be made

(especially for double-wide units) to the

HUD Standard will be reviewed. Type

(ion/photo), number, location, power sources

(ac/dc and long-life battery), and audibility

shall be studied with analytical techniques

currently available utilizing floor plans and

typical construction information supplied by

industry. Criteria for allowing ceiling

mounting where insulation exceeds a specific

R-value shall be developed. New technologies

such as "hush" features and multi-mode,

114
multi-criteria detectors shall be evaluated for

application to the manufactured housing

market. Specific recommendations with

respect to selection of detectors for

installation in proximity to cooking areas to

minimize nuisance alarms shall be included.

Demonstration testing of new technologies

identified in this task shall be performed.

2. Universal adaptor for smoke detector

replacement. Worldng with NEMA, a

suggested voluntary industry standard for a

universal mounting plate/adaptor and

electrical connections which would facilitate

homeowner replacement of ac powered

smoke alarms on a 10-year schedule will be

developed.

3. Fire Safety Educational Materials.

Brochures on fire safety in manufactured

housing along the lines of USFA's Protecting

Your Family From Fire will be developed.

These materials should be simpler in format

and style and cover prevention and care of

fire safety features found in manufactured

housing. It shall also point out the benefits of

post-Standard housing. Individual brochures

on smoke alarms, sprinlders, fire safe

furnishings, escape planning (including use of

escape windows), and electrical safety shall

be produced. The residential sprinlder

brochure shall include details of the latest

sprinkler technologies such as low flow heads,

half inch pipe, and combined

domestic/sprinlder piping systems in

consultation with USFA staff and

representatives of the NFPA Sprinlder

committee.

4. More Fire Safe Furnishings. A

meeting between the Manufactured Housing

Institute and the furniture (UFAC), bedding

industry (Sleep Products Association), and

the textile industry (Man Made Fibers Assn.)

will be scheduled to explore the possibilities

of providing more fire safe furnishings in new

units. The current procedures are voluntary

and have been shown to be effective. Thus,

no regulatory action would be necessary.

Industry data shows the cost impacts to be

minimal, so such a program should be

attractive to the manufactured housing

industry.

5. Technology Demonstration.

Demonstration of the technologies (detector

and sprinkler) studied in this project will be

conducted. The use of public/private

cooperation to perform this demonstration

will be explored. Recently BFRL has

performed demonstration tests of residential

sprinlders for USFA. The use of the facilities

installed and instrumented for those tests will

be explored. Cooperative demonstrations

with the Manufactured Housing industry

through their trade association (MHI) or major manufacturers (e.g., Fleetwood) will be

explored.

Recent Results

Smoke Alarm in Manufactured Housing, to

be published a NIST internal Report in

review.

115
Experimental Application of Fire

Hazard Analysis for U.S. Passenger

Train Systems

Principal Investigator

Richard D. Peacock

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6664

interior fire on a vehicle located in a tunnel.

Recent Results

Braun, E., and Peacock, R. D., Fire Safety of

Passenger Trains, Material Evaluation in the

Cone Calorimeter, NIST TN 1406, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, July

1997.

Sponsor

Department of Transportation

Federal Railroad Administration

Volpe Transportation Systems Center

Objective

To demonstrate the practicality and

effectiveness of new generation test methods

and hazard analysis techniques when applied

to passenger rail transportation vehicle fire

safety.

Problem

Considerable advances in fire safety

engineering have been made in the decade

since the original development of the current

U.S. guidelines for passenger train material

selection. Some requirements for system

design, materials controls, detection,

suppression, and emergency egress are included in the variety of requirements with

each applying to distinct subsets of rail transportation. New test methods and hazard

analysis techniques are leading a revolution

in the analysis of a material's overall

contribution to fire hazard in a particular

application. These advances should be

incorporated in future designs of passenger

trains.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform full-scale

tests and computer modeling to perform a

fire hazard analysis of a passenger rail vehicle

constructed of currently used materials and

construction techniques. Assemblies of

passenger vehicle components will be tested

in full-scale to obtain inputs for modeling

efforts. Currently available computer-based

methods for fire hazard analysis will be

employed to study specific fire scenarios,

including an interior fire, exterior fire, and an

116
Performance Fire Codes

Principal Investigator

Walter W. Jones

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6887

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide leadership in the International

Council for Building Research, Studies and

Documentation (CIB) and the International

Building Code (IBC) that results in

promoting changes to performance-based

codes and standards.

Problem

The model code and national standards

organizations in the United States are now

moving to make the change to a performance-base. The implications for these

changes are enormous and must be done in a

spirit of cooperation. Two important

problems with which BFRL is particularly

suited to assist are developing the statement

of the actual goals and objectives, and

developing the engineering tools to assess building design to ascertain compliance with

these goals.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will develop with the

private codes and standards organizations

new documents as part of the IBC

consolidation process. At the same time

BFRL is leading the CIB effort in verification

and uncertainty of engineering methods

which will be needed to implement these new

concepts. This effort will continue at least

until the first U.S. performance code is published by the IBC in 1999.

Recent Results

Bukowsld, R. W., Fire Safety Engineering in the

Pursuit of Performance-based Codes: Collected

Paper, NISTIR 5878, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, August 1996.

Study of Heat and Smoke

Movement and Their Influence on

Detector Response in Enclosed

Spaces

Principal Investigator

John H. IGote

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6890

Sponsor

National Fire Protection Research

Foundation

General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Real Property and Management

Federal Emergency Management Agency

United States Fire Administration

Objective

To examine the effect of complex ceiling

geometry and obstructions on the

distribution of heat and smoke in order to

optimize requirements for automatic fire

detector location found in NFPA 72E and for

automatic sprinlders as covered by NFPA 13,

13D, and 13R.

Problem

Recommendations for the placement of

automatic fire detectors found in the NFPA

Standard on Detection Devices (72E) are based on engineering judgement or on

limited experimental data. In the

implementation of these data, tables and

curves were developed from calculations with

a zone model which are also only applicable

for flat, unobstructed ceilings. Since 72E

includes recommendations for placement of

fire detectors in spaces with sloping or peaked ceilings, or with open beams and

joists, some validation of these

recommendations is necessary. Further,

detector siting problems associated with

stratification and high air movement from

HVAC systems are mentioned in the

standards, but only limited installation

guidance is provided which are based only on

judgement.

117
Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will examine the space

around HVAC return ducts where airactivation cold occur.

Recent Results

IClote, J. H., Forney, G. P., Davis, W. D.,

Bukowski, R. W., Field Modeling: Simulating

the Effects of HVAC Induced Air Flowfrom Slot

Diffuses on Detector Response, Year 4 Technical

Report, NISTIR 5908, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, October 1996.

BACnet Support

Principal Investigator

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6863

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

Develop a strategy for the implementation of

BACnet (Building Automation and Control

Networks) by the fire alarm industry.

Problem

While BACnet is well accepted in the

building controls industry, it should expand

into other building systems, such as fire

detection and other such systems.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will facilitate

adoption of BACnet. This includes

promotion of BACnet as a communications

protocol for the fire alarm industry.

Presentations were made at the Standing

Task Group on New Technologies of the

National Fire Alarm Correlating Committee,

identifying changes needed for the 1 999

edition of the NFAC to allow use of BACnet.

Recent Results

New project.

118
Fire Research Information Services

(FRIS)

Principal Investigator

Nora H. Jason

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6862

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To serve BFRL staff and the broad BFRL user community while serving as a model for

information resource management for the

next century.

Problem

To collect, organize in a logical manner, and

disseminate international fire literature and

experimental data to the BFRL staff and the

user community to capture the knowledge of

the past so that it may be identified and

incorporated into today's technical work

thereby avoiding duplication of research.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will provide access to

documents, data, and software electronically

through the FIREDOC database and the

FRIS HomePage and develop a plan to input

BFRL building staff documents into

FIREDOC from 1970 to the present.

Recent Resuhs

Martin, Phyllis, M., Jason, Nora H., Editors,

BFRL Publications 1995, NIST SP900,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, May 1996.

r

Fire Forum

Principal Investigator

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To perform the duties of Secretary to the

FORUM for International Cooperation on

Fire Research

Problem

The FORUM is an international body of the

Heads of fire research organizations around

the world, chaired by BFRL. The FORUM

represents 14 countries; they require the

technical support of a person to compile

minutes and ensure that assignments are followed-up between meetings.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL, serving as the

secretary will produce a meeting report for

internal distribution and an annual report for

general distribution. The secretary is also

responsible for the dissemination of

information on the FORUM and its activities

to appropriate organizations and to the

public through the INTERNET and printed

media. The secretary also assures that

assignments made at the annual meeting are completed on schedule. The secretary will

also provide BFRL input to FORUM special

projects on hazard evaluation of enclosure

linings and international fire incident data

organization.

Recent Results

Published FORUM related information for

the committee members.

119
RECENT GRANTS - FIRE

MODELING AND

APPLICATIONS

I . Review and Evaluation of

Thermal Sensors for Use in

Testing Firefighter Protective

Clothing

Principal Investigators

Dr. Roger L. Barker

Dr. Hechmi Hamouda

Center for Research on Textile Protection &

Comfort

College of Textiles

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, NC 27695-8301

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To comparatively evaluate thermal sensors used to measure heat transferred through

firefighter protective clothing materials.

Problem

Thermal sensor technologies are available

that can be used to measure heat transferred

through firefighter protective clothing

materials. Instrument readings can be

translated to predict skin bum injury.

The purpose of the proposed research is to

review the state of the art of these thermal

sensor technologies and associated bum

translation methods. This research will

identify^ and comparatively evaluate thermal

sensors and provide a detailed quantification

of performance. It will ultimately result in

the selection and development of a thermal

analysis system that will provide the

optimum utility for instrument evaluation of

the thermal protective performance of

firefighter protective clothing, in laboratory

and in field exposures to fire hazards.

Approach

A review of available literature pertinent to

thermal sensors, as well as methods and

criteria used to translate thermal readings

into skin bum damage has been conducted.

Special emphasis has been given to

investigations and studies dealing with

measurement of thermal protective clothing

systems performance both in laboratory and

field tests.

The primary focus of the initial sensor development phase of this project has been

on the adaptation and validation of a

calorimeter type system developed at NCSU

mainly for use in thermal manikins. The

NCSU sensor can potentially overcome many

of the drawbacks associated with other

thermal sensory devices, including heat loss

during exposure. It does not rely on reverse heat transfer calculations to estimate incident

heat flux. This avoids errors associated with

thermocouple location, and the mathematics

of the heat transfer calculation. Direct heat

flux measurement, using the NCSU

calorimeter sensor, should circumvent these

errors and provide a more accurate direct

reading.

The response of the NCSU calorimeter and

other thermal sensors, is being evaluated to

establish an initial basis for performance

comparisons. Various burn translation

models, and associated mathematics are being compared, including translations based

on StoU and Henrique criteria. Laboratory

experiments are being performed to

determine the effect of the thermal; exposure

duration and intensity on the sensor

response, and resulting burn predictions.

Based on results obtained in the evaluation

phase of this project, a sensor and translation

criteria predicting sldn burn damage, will be

specified. Design modification of the sensor and the translation criteria will also be

addressed and detailed when they may be

required for field testing.

The final phase of this project will involve

detailed quantification of the selected sensor, or sensors, performance. This phase will

involve extensive evaluation by NCSU as well

as multi-lab evaluation, which will include

120
work with NIST and potentially other

selected labs.

Recent Results

Several thermal sensor technologies and

associated burn translation methods have

been reviewed. This information has been

summarized in a comprehensive literature

review of sensor technologies for evaluating

the thermal protective performance of

firefighter protective clothing. Five different

state-of-the-art thermal sensors have been

identified and laboratory experiments are now underway to comparatively evaluate

their performance. The performance range of

each candidate sensor is being quantified

based on exposures to a laboratory heat

source. Laboratory experiments are providing

the basis for developing performance criteria

for each sensor, and for comparative

evaluation based on heat flux tolerance,

response time and thermal sensitivity.

Thermal leakage, in prolonged heat

exposures, is also being assessed for each of

the five types of sensors. Integration of burn

translation models and sensor performance

capabilities is currently being evaluated. A

thermal analysis system is being developed

that will facilitate and optimize the ultimate

integration of sensor instrumentation with

burn prediction algorithms.

2. Enhanced PC-Based Building

Fire Assessment System

Principal Investigator

Edward K. Budnick, P.E.

Hughes Associates, Inc. 410-737-8677

Sponsors

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

U.S. General Services Administrative

Public Building Services

Office of Real Property Management.

Objective

To develop a PC-based version of the current

Fire Safety Evaluation System for office

occupancies and integrate selected

quantitative methods that will enable

engineers to perform detailed fire hazard, risk

equivalency, and cost optimization analyses

for existing or planned buildings.

Problem

The need to accurately measure fire risk

impact and estimate costs of different fire

safety strategies on levels of fire safety in

individual buildings is essential to

achievement of an overall building risk

management philosophy. Limitations in

current prescriptive requirements represent

significant inhibitions to needed design

flexibility and general usefulness. There is a growing need among building owners, local

code authorities, and design engineers about

the availability of quantitative methods to

evaluate building fire safety within a broad,

risk-based context which permits examination

of "equivalent" alternatives.

Approach

This effort is being conducted in three

phases. Phase I was completed in FY1995

and involves development of a PC-based

version of the NFPA-FSES for business

occupancies. This program was developed

using the Microsoft Visual C/C+ +

Windows® development platform and is fully

compatible with the normal Windows® 3.1

121
environment. It contains explanatory text to

assist the user in selecting the correct

parameter conditions and uses visual prompts

to guide the user through the FSES method.

Phase II will be completed in FY1 997 and is directed at enhancing the FSES methodology

(EFAS) to allow quantitative assessment of in

situ configurations and comparison of design

options. The primary emphasis of this phase

will be to enable the program user to develop

realistic fire heat release rate curves for a space or building under consideration.

Several methods are available for this,

including basic fuel load-ventilation

correlations, fire growth curves, and existing

computer models such as ASET or CFAST.

Computer models such as CFAST are readily

embedded within the C/C+ + source code

and may be accessed directly from the EFAS

program shell.

Once a user has successfully developed a fire

scenario for the space, several algorithms

become available to assist in evaluating the

appropriate response to the FSES parameters,

compare spaces to identify worst case/critical

locations within a structure, or estimate the

overall risk benefit of various fire safety

improvements. Many of the algorithms

under consideration for this task are contained within the FPETOOL package and

include egress calculations, sprinkler

response, flashover estimates, and smoke

movement.

Recent Results

Hughes Associates, Incorporated, Fire Safety

Evaluation System (FSES)for Business

Occupancies Software (Version 1.0for Windows®)

Users Manual, NIST-GCR-96-692, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

March 1996.

Secondary goals in Phase II include assigning

quantitative meaning to the relative risk scores obtained in the FSES methodology,

enabling the user to make modifications

within a parameter, keep track of the added

benefit relative to other modifications, and

convert the program to a Windows® 95/NT

environment while maintaining backwards

compatibility with Windows® 3.

1

environments.

Phase III will attempt to integrate the results

and methods developed in the initial phases

into a computerized risk management

program.

122
3. Evaluation of Alternative

Methods for Fire Rating Structural

Elements

Principal Investigator

Robert J. Dexter, Ph.D.

Center for Advanced Technology for Large

Structural Systems

Lehigh University

610-758-6108

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To evaluate current computational methods

for assessing the integrity of structures

exposed to fire and to develop practical tools

for analysis in support of economical fire-safe

construction.

Problem

The current U.S. Standard is ASTM El 19,

but this document has several disadvantages.

The primary disadvantage is that the

temperature-time history of a real fire in a building is much less severe than the

temperature-time history prescribed in

ASTM El 19. However, there are also at

least three reasons why the performance of a column in a building would be expected to

vary significantly from the fire rating by

ASTM Ell 9, even if the column were

subjected to the ASTM E1I9 temperaturetime history.

First, ASTM Ell 9 allows for two rating

options for building columns, furnace testing

with simultaneous column load, and, furnace

testing without simultaneous load. With the

no-load option, the criterion for failure is the

attainment of a critical temperature on the

surface of the column. The United States

does not have furnace test facilities capable of

carrying out a furnace test of a column under

load. Consequently, all ASTM El 19 column

ratings determined in the United States

follow the no-load option. However, test data from other countries show that the time

to failure of a column may vary as much as

30 percent from the time to attain the critical

temperature.

Second, for a variety of reasons, structural

elements in buildings are not usually loaded

to anywhere near their maximum allowable

limits. However, despite the expected level

to which individual elements are actually

loaded, present building codes would

typically require like structural elements to

have the same ASTM E 1 1 9 rating.

Finally, the structural responses of the

individual structural elements are dependent

on their end constraints, which: 1) are strongly coupled to the response of the

overall structure; and, 2) can have a major

impact on element load-bearing capability.

Clearly, computational thermal and

structural analyses can provide a means of

addressing and resolving these issues.

Computational methods may eventually

provide an alternative to the ASTM E 1 1

9

method for fire rating structural elements.

Approach

The approach is to evaluate computational

methods for advancing accepted U.S.

methods of evaluating the fire performance of

structures. This 2 -year level of effort will

review the range of possible approaches, from

simple calculations to sophisticated

numerical simulation, and gain competence

with and apply at least one computer

program. As for numerical simulations,

ATLSS acquired and installed the specialized

computer program SAFIR, developed by J-M.

Franssen of the University of Liege, for

simulating the thermal and structural

response of fire-exposed structures.

Initial applications of SAFIR involved

simulating the response of columns subjected

to ASTM El 19 furnace fire tests. This study

included simulations of furnace tests of

axially loaded concrete-filled steel tubes and

steel I-sections with and without insulation.

The level of natural variability of the results

of tests on like specimens was established.

The computed results agree with the

experimental results with an accuracy about

123
the same as this natural variability. This

initial SAFIR effort established the feasibility

of using a computational approach to

determine ASTM Ell 9 ratings as a possible

alternative to full furnace testing. Further

work is required with this promising

approach in order to: 1 ) instill confidence in

the U.S. building-code-making and -using

community that a calculation-based ASTM

Ell 9-type method of determining fire

resistance is a reliable alternative to the

recognized ASTM El 19 furnace test method;

and, 2) develop a plan to develop this

alternative to the point that it is recognized

and adopted.

In the second year, ATLSS will: 1) assist Dr.

Franssen in the further development of

SAFIR to become more user friendly and

versatile; 2) perform further analysis on

concrete filled tubes; 3) explore the potential

advantages of fire-resistant steel; 4) simulate

response of prestressed concrete structures

under load, and 5) evaluate the effects of

various fire scenarios on continuous

structures.

At the conclusion of the two year program,

the scope of the work necessary to complete

the development of an advanced,

calculation-based, fire-resistance rating

system will be clearly defined. This work will

include 1 ) the expanded use of thermal and

structural analysis simulations to include

evaluation of the fire performance of

structural elements to fire environments

other than the ASTM Ell 9 standard fire,

i.e., to real fire environments; and, 2)

evaluation of the fire performance of entire

structures, e.g., steel-framed buildings with

composite floor slabs, first when exposed to

the standard fire environment, and then to

real fire environments.

Recent Results

Gilvery, K. G., and Dexter, R. D., Evaluation

ofAlternative Methodsfor Fire Rating Structural

Elements, NIST-GCR-97-718, prepared by

Lehigh University for National Institute of

Standards and Technology, May 1997.

4. Assessment of the

Technological Requirements for

the Realization of PerformanceBased Fire Safety Design in the

United States - Phase I: Fundamental Requirements

Principal Investigator

Brian J. Meacham, P.E.

Technical Director

Society of Fire Protection Engineers

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Real Property Management

Objective

To assess the availability and applicability of

fire safety engineering tools and design

methodologies for use within a performancebased approach to building and fire safety

design.

Problem

Performance-based fire safety design methods

are being used or developed in many parts of

the world. The based of several of these

methods are the many fire engineering tools

and methods developed in the United States.

Unfortunately, these tools and methodologies

are not being widely applied within the

United States. There are many reasons for

this, including the lack of performance-based

fire and building codes in general use, and,

where there are such codes or regulations, the

lack of documentation on the availability and

application of credible fire safety engineering

tools and methodologies for fire safety design.

Approach

The first task will be to determine what is meant by "a performance-based approach" to

fire safety design as it relates to the fire

protection community in the United States.

This will include identification of acceptable

terminology and definitions and an outline of

124
an approach (thought process) that can serve

as a framework for applying quantitative fire

protection analysis and design tools in the

United States.

The next step would be to identify and

inventory the efforts related to performancebased fire safety design approaches worldwide and evaluate their applicability to the

United States. Although summaries of many

of the existing methods have been published

recently, they have not included significant

evaluations of their applicability in the

United States.

The inventory and evaluation process will

examine work underway in the countries of

Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Sweden,

the United Kingdom, the United States and

any others identified during the identification

stage. It will also include projects being

undertaken by international organizations

such as the Conseil International du

Batiment (CIB) and the International

Organization on Standardization (ISO).

Recent Results

Meacham, B.}., "Assessment of the

Technological Requirements for the

Realization of Performance-Based Fire Safety

Design in the United States, Phase I: Fundamental Requirements," Society of Fire

Protection Engineers, January 1997.

Meacham, B.J., The Evolution of

Performance-Based Codes & Fire Safety

Design Methods," Society of Fire Protection

Engineers, August 1996.

5 . Interactive Virtual

Environments for Fire Simulation

Principal Investigator

Carlo H. Sequin, Ph.D.

Computer Science Division, EECS

Department

University of California, Berkeley

Berkeley, California 94709

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards &

Technology

Objective

To combine Berkeley virtual reality

architectural walkthrough technology with

NIST CFAST fire simulation technology,

providing simulation and scientific

visualization of the CFAST model within a

real-time, interactive virtual environment.

Problem

Virtual reality techniques developed at

Berkeley over the last 5 years provide

intuitive, real-time visualization and

interaction with conditions and structures in

heavily occluded architectural environments.

NIST's CFAST fire simulation software

provides fast, accurate computation of

conditions within buildings in fire situations,

but lacks the ability to interactively construct

simulation scenarios or to directly visualize

results in 3D. A marriage of these

technologies will bring interactive 3D

visualization to fire simulation. This will

provide immediate benefits in translating

real-life scenarios into computer models, as well as converting the results of those

computer models into easily understood

visualizations of simulation conditions. In

the longer term, this combination of

technologies has great potential in firefighter

training and performance-based standards for

building design.

Approach

In the first two years of this project, our

emphasis was on bringing CFAST and

WALKTHRU together so that CFAST could run a simulation while basic elements such as

125
fire size and interface height were visualized

in the WALKTHRU environment. Although

the two systems operate on conceptually

similar models of the world (i.e. a

"cell-and-portal" structure), the specifics of

the implementations are sufficiently different

that our efforts for the first few years will

involve running the two programs on parallel,

but separate world models. WALKTHRU

provides the front end for interaction with

and visualization of the virtual world, and

CFAST provides the engine by which

environmental conditions in the virtual world

are updated. We currently have a working,

integrated system in which CFAST and

WALKTHRU work side-by-side in this

fashion, on a pair of models which are input

separately; one CFAST model containing the

fire scenario, one WALKTHRU model

containing the detailed world geometry, and

a "registration map" which allows the two

programs to relate their models of the world.

We have developed a system in which these

registration maps can be created

automatically when the database is initially

generated from AutoCAD floorplans.

A major portion of the work involves the

creation of building models appropriate for

fire simulation. The world geometry required

by CFAST is a strict subset of the viewing

geometry required by WALKTHRU, so it is possible to automate or assist the user in

creating CFAST geometry from a WALKTHRU model. 3D building model

generation is a difficult and insufficiently

studied task; a large part of our research

contribution will be to develop techniques by

which usable 3D models of interesting

environments can be generated either by

hand, interactively, and/or by automated

processing of CAD floorplan information.

This work will allow rapid and accurate

creation of the environmental geometry

which is needed for any simulation or

visualization to take place. The Building

Model Generator (BMG), which

automatically generates a WALKTHRU

model and its corresponding registration map

from an AutoCAD floorplan, is a first step

toward this goal. BMG corrects common

modeling errors and generates a complete 3D

model with little or no human intervention,

reducing the time required to model a

building by two to three orders of magnitude.

Our work thus far has resulted in the ability

to take a normal CFAST fire scenario and

visualize the fire size, plume, and interface

heights within the environment in real time.

The viewer can visualize the fire with

realistically texture-mapped flames, smoke,

and plumes. During 1997/98, we will

develop techniques for visualizing the other

spatial quantities that result from the

simulation in the 3D environment, such as heat levels and gas concentrations. All these

quantities should be displayed in a visually

plausible manner in the 3D WALKTHRU

environment, rather than as separate 2D

density plots or graphs.

We will concentrate our efforts on enhancing

the interface required to allow users to

generate and modify fire simulation scenarios

interactively from within the virtual

environment and then observe the results of

the simulation in a visually informative

manner and as close to real-time as possible.

The user will be able to set a fire by entering

a room within the WALKTHRU program

and selecting a wastebasket or chair to begin

burning, rather than juggling numbers and

codes in a text file. We will also try to make

the environment interactively modifiable; for

example, we would like the user to be able to

open doors and windows and see the effect

on the course of the fire scenario in progress

in real time. However, this will require

enhancements to the CFAST fire simulator

that are beyond our own control.

Once these techniques are fully developed

and integrated, non-specialist users will be

able to quiclcly and easily create a complete,

highly accurate geometric model of an

architectural environment from

computer-readable floorplans. From within

the model, they will be able to interactively

set up simulations and watch the results

unfold spatially and intuitively in real time.

They will also be able to change some

building parameters, such as the density of

sprinkler heads, and study the effectiveness

126
of such measures.

Recent Results

Bukowski, R. W. and Sequin, C. H.,

"Interactive Simulation of Fire in Virtual

Building Environments," SIGGRAPH, 1997.

6. An Analysis of Performance

Requirements for an International

Building Code

Principal Investigator

Charles W. Van Rickley

Van Rickley and Associates

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To support and enhance the Building and

Fire Codes in the United States by examining

the currently adopted codes in relation to

their ability to be merged into one code and

being converted from a Prescriptive to a Performance-Based format.

Problem

The United States is moving rapidly in the

direction of a single national model building

code. Three different model codes presently

exist and are available for use. One or the

other of these codes is adopted by nearly

every community in the United States. Not

infrequently, more than one code is adopted

within a single state, or among neighboring

communities. This causes confusion among

building owners and the building community

and frequently causes unnecessary costs.

A second movement is to change from a

Prescriptive to a Performance-Based Code.

Prescriptive Codes seldom identify their

underlying purpose, goals or objectives. The

lack of goals or measurable objectives

frequently prohibit the acceptance of new

technology as an equivalent to prescribed

protection. This creates serious hardships

when attempting to utilize new or innovative

building design or construction methods.

Approach

The first year focuses on supporting the

development of a single International

Building Code and the transition form a

Prescriptive to a Performance-Based Code

format by:

127
a) Assembling a research and study group of

key code officials, representatives of code and

standard development groups and related

technical organizations.

b) Reviewing the regulations applied to

various building occupancy or use groups, to

identify and define the basic goals and

objectives.

c) Seeldng consensus of the goals and

objectives, once defined, by key code officials,

code and standard development groups and

related technical organizations.

d) Attempting to develop the accepted goals

and objectives into statements in a format

acceptable for submittal as proposals for

model code adoption.

e) Maintaining a positive relationship with

all the existing model code and standard

publishers throughout the course of the

project by continuous communication and

interaction in each of their code and standard

development processes.

Recent Results

The Performance Advisory Group was formed

with approximately 75 participants

representing Code Officials, Design

Professionals and Building Industry

Representatives.

A worl<shop was conducted, with an

attendance of 65 persons, to enlighten

Building Officials, Design Professionals and

Building Industry Representatives on the

concept of a Performance-Based system.

The Performance Advisory Group Leader is a

participant and an Ex-Officio member of the

International Building Code, Performance

Code Committee, providing group input into

the Performance Code development process.

Related Grants

Meacham, B., and Lucht, D., "Assessment of

the Technological Requirements for the

Realization of Performance-Based Fire Safety

Design in the United States," Society ofFire

Protection Engineers, 1 996.

7. Evaluation of the HDR Fire

Test Data and Accompanying

Computational Activities with

Conclusions from the Aspects of

Present Code Capabilities

Principal Investigator

Lothar Wolf, Ph.D.

Nuclear Engineering Program

Department of Materials and Nuclear

Engineering

University of Maryland at College Park

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide fundamental information about

the design and performance of fire

experiments in the HDR containment

building in Karlsruhe, Germany. To assess the performance of the NIST fire code

CFAST in modeling the fire experiments and

provide insights towards the goal of

improving computational capabilities.

Problem

The U.S. fire community lacks large scale

experimental data from large, complex,

multiple level, industrial structures. This

creates a difficulty in evaluating the

performance of fire codes in modeling fires in

complex structures. Providing information

about the experiments in the HDR facility

will improve the code evaluation capability of

U.S. fire researchers.

Approach

The experiments performed in the HDR

facility included propane gas, wood crib, oil

pool, and cable fires. Tests were performed

in specially constructed rooms with the

facility and with the exception of the cable

fires were allowed to involve the entire 60 m

height and 10000 m^ volume of the HDR

containment building. A total of four test

locations located at different elevations with

the building were used.

128
The emphasis on this first year of the project

is to provide documentation on a series of 1

propane fires performed at the HDR facility

and to perform computations of selected tests with CFAST. These fires are relatively low in

power as compared to other tests performed,

maximum power of 1 .2 MW, but they have

well Icnown boundary conditions which is an

important consideration when using

experimental data to validate a computer

code.

The documentation will provide a description

of the facility's compartments and their

interconnections, the experimental

timeliness, instrumentation mappings, types

of sensors used, a summary of integral and

local tests results, and a discussion on key fire

safety parameters for code evaluation that are obtainable from the data. CFAST

computations will assess the overall

performance of CFAST as well as provide an

assessment of the affect of modeling decision.

Future work will provide documentation on

the remaining tests groups performed in the

HDR, perform further comparisons of

CFAST to experimental data, and provide an

evaluation of applying nuclear industry safety

codes to modeling fires in complex structures.

Recent Results

Floyd, J., Wolf, L., and ICrawiec, J., "Evaluation of the HDR Fire Test Data and

Accompanying Computational Activities with

Conclusions from Present Code Capabilities,

Vol. 2: CFAST Validation for T51 Gas Fire

Test Series," NIST Contract

60NANB6D0127, Nuclear Engineering

Program, Dept. of Materials and Nuclear

Engineering, University of Maryland, College

Park, MD, October 1997.

r

Floyd, J., Wolf, L., and ICrawdec, J., "Evaluation of the HDR Fire Test Data and

Accompanying Computational Activities with

Computational Activities with Conclusions

from Present Code Capabilities, Vol. 1 , Test

Description for T51 Gas Fire Test Series,"

NIST Contract 60NANB6D0127, Nuclear

Engineering Program, Dept. of Materials and

Nuclear Engineering, University of Maryland,

College Park, MD, September 1997.

Wolf, L., and Floyd, J., "Large Scale Fire

Experiments in the HDR Containment,"

1997 ASME National Heat Transfer Conference,

Baltimore, MD, pp. 69-79, August 10-12,

1997.

Floyd, J., and Wolf, L., "Comparison of

Measured Data from the HDR-T5 1 Gas Fire

Tests to Predictions Made by CFAST," 1997

ASME National Heat Transfer Conference,

Baltimore, MD, pp. 80-86, August 10-12,

1997.

Floyd, J., and Wolf, L., "Comparisons of

Measured Data from the HDR-T5 1 Gas Fire

Tests to Predictions Made by CFAST," 2nd

International Conference of Fire Research and

Engineering (ICFRE-2), Gaithersburg, MD,

August 10-13, 1997.

Floyd, J., and Wolf, L., "Modeling of the

HDR-T51 Gas Fire Tests Using CFAST

vol.3," 5th International Conference on Nuclear

Engineering (ICONE-5), Nice, France, May

26-30, 1997.

129

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

DIVISION

LARGE FIRE RESEARCH

J

In-situ Burning of Oil Spills

Principal Investigator

William D. Walton

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6872

Sponsor

Department of Interior

Minerals Management Service,

Department of Transportation

U.S. Coast Guard, and

State of Alaska

Objective

To determine conditions where in-situ

burning can be used effectively as a response

method to accidental spills of crude oil on

land and on water.

Problem

In support of other agency objectives to carry

out burning as a response method to oil

spills, predictions are needed to assess the

impact of the smoke plume produced by

burning on downwind locations. BFRL's

Large Eddy Simulation (EES) model

continues to gain acceptance for use in

planning in-situ burns although there has

been limited verification. There is a need for

predictions that take into account the effect

of local terrain features such as mountains.

Further, the spill response planning

community has shown a strong interest in

using the EES model as a planning tools.

One of the most significant remaining

obstacles to the acceptance of burning as a

spill response technique is the lack of a standard method for evaluating a fire

resistant oil spill containment boom. To

develop a test method, knowledge of the

thermal exposure conditions and physical

stresses that the boom is expected to be

exposed to, must be determined.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRE developed two

versions of the AEOFT model. The first,

AEOFT-FT, is for flat terrain, and the second,

AEOFT-CT, accommodates complex terrain

such as mountains. An implementation of

AEOFT-FT with a graphical user interface for

personal computers, AEOFT-FT-PC has been

developed. The program is presently

undergoing Beta testing and the user guide is being developed. While the Beta version

accommodates a single fire, multiple fires will

be added later in the year. AEOFT-CT is being developed for workstations and a GUI

interface for personal computers is planned

next year. AEOFT verification measurements

are planned on burns of opportunity.

In order to characterize the thermal exposure

conditions on fire resistant boom, a series of

experiments have been conducted to measure

the exposure to boom from a characteristic

spill fire. The results of these experiments

have been analyzed. The results of a series of

propane fueled burn experiments have been

published and a plan for the future

development of a boom test method has been

developed. Experiments with the boom test

method are planned for FY1998.

Recent Results

McGrattan, K. B., "Smoke Plume Trajectory

from In-Situ Burning of Crude Oil: Complex

Terrain Modeling," Proceedings, Twentieth

Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical

Seminar, Vancouver, B.C., June 1997.

Walton, W. D., Twilley, W. H., and Mullin,

J. v., "An Evaluation of Propane as a Fuel for

Testing Fire-Resistant Oil Spill Containment

Booms," Proceedings, Twentieth Arctic and

Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar,

Vancouver, B. C, June 1997.

McGrattan, K. B., Baum, H. R., Walton, W.

D., and Trelles, J. J., Smoke Plume Trajectory

from In-Situ Burning of Crude Oil in Alaska:

Field Experiment and Modeling of Complex

Terrain, NISTIR 5958, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, January 1997.

133
Demonstration of Water Based

Fire Fighting Agents

Principal Investigator

Daniel Madrzykowsld

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6677

Sponsor

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To develop methods for demonstrating

biodegradable, environmentally safe,

nontoxic fire suppression liquids which are

effective on Class A, B and many D fires.

Problem

Water based fire fighting agents have been

used for many years to enhance the fire

fighting capabilities of ordinary water. The

most vddely used of the water based agents

are the foams for use on Class B fires. Agents

designed primarily for Class A fires have been

used most extensively in conjunction with

wildland fires. More recently these agents

have been promoted for use on a wider range

of Class A and in some cases Class B and D

fires. These agents are frequently advertised

as more effective than plain water while being

environmentally safe. In some cases they are also claimed to reduce the quantity and

toxicity of smoke.

There are a number of commercially available

water based fire suppression agents designed

primarily for Class A fires. Generically these

agents can be classified as surfactants which

reduce the surface tension of water,

potentially modifying the fire fighting

capabilities. There are standards for assessing

these agents, however most of the criteria do

not address the fire fighting

(protection/suppression) capabilities of the

agent. This is particularly true for Class A

and Class D fires. An evaluation protocol is needed to measure the fire fighting capability

of an agent and to relate its performance to

plain water or another agent in a given

situation. This would enable the fire

protection community to select the most cost

effective fire suppression agent(s) to fit their

specific needs, thus optimizing utilization of

their resources.

The use of water based firefighting agents

raises the question of potential health and

environmental effects. First is the exposure of

fire fighters to the agent itself and the

products of combustion produced when using

the agent. Second is the impact as agent

run-off enters the environment. These issues

have generally been addressed with standard

toxicity and environmental impact tests,

although a complete series of these tests has

not been performed even for the most

commonly used agents

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform four

taslcs:

1 . Conduct a workshop with users, manufacturers and researchers of

biodegradable, environmentally safe,

nontoxic fire suppression liquids.

2. Collect information on agents which

are considered by their manufacturer to be

biodegradable, environmentally safe,

nontoxic fire suppression liquids which are

effective on Class A, B and many D class.

3. Develop methods as required and

assess the biodegradability, environmental

safety, toxicity and physical properties of a

limited number of water based fire fighting

agents.

4. Develop methods as required and

demonstrate the fire fighting effectiveness of

a limited number of water based fire fighting

agents for Class A, B and D fires.

Recent Resuhs

Johnson, C. W., and George, C. W., Wildland

Fire Foam Characterization, USDA Forest

Service Intermountain Fire Science

Laboratory, Missoula, MT, May 1997.

Class B Fire Tests of Biodegradable,

Environmentally Friendly, Non Toxic Foam Fire

134
Fighting Agents, Report No.

6 1 80/0240A. 1 : JTL, Naval Research

Laboratory, Washington, DC, April 1996.

Report ofMagnesium Chip Fire Tests Utilizing

Biodegradable, Environmentally Safe, Nontoxic,

Liquid Fire Suppression Agents, Project #

95NIC22435/NC 3067, Underwriters

Laboratories, Northbrook, IL, October 1995.

Quantitative Evaluation of Fire

Safety Features

Principle Investigators

David Evans

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6863

Kevin McGrattan

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-2712

Howard Baum

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6668

Anthony Hamins

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6598

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and verify methods to predict the

performance of fire safety technologies.

Problem

There is a need to meet the requirement of

future performance based designs by using

reliable means to evaluate alternative active

and passive fire safety features for buildings.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will develop and

verify means to predict the performance of

existing practices and lay the technical

foundations to evaluate the performance of

future technologies. The emerging

computational technology of large eddy

simulations and its application to the

problem of determining the interaction of

industrial sprinlders with draft curtains and

heat and smoke vents have been selected as an initial demonstration of advanced fire

safety analysis. Computations with the large

eddy simulation (LES) model of a standard

rack storage commodity fire will be used to

design large scale tests involving sprinklers,

draft curtain, and vents. Under support from

135
the National Fire Protection Research

Foundation (NFPRF) these large scale tests

will be performed in a non-BFRL facility to

verify the modeling and develop a data base

of full scale fire data.

In order to develop an accurate predictive

method auxiliary studies of ( 1

) the burning

rate of the standard commodity both with

and without water application, and (2)

measurement of industrial sprinkler spray

characteristics will be performed. Results

from this work are likely to result in better

performing and cost effective fire protection

system designs for warehouse and

manufacturing facilities. Laboratory space

will be developed in BFRL's fire facility to

conduct verification tests of LES model fire

flow predictions in geometrically complex

spaces. This facility will also serve as a site

for fire flow visualization experiments and a platform for intermediate scale evaluation of

fire measurement methods. Future

assessments of industry needs will indicate

priorities for investigations of other fire

protection features which may include mist

suppression systems, smoke control, smoke

detectors, heat detectors, fire resistance of

partitions and emerging fire safety

technologies developed by BFRL and others.

Recent Results

Mell, W., Baum, H. R., and McGrattan, K.

B., "Simulation of Fires with Radiative Heat

Transfer," Proceedings, ICFRE2, Gaithersburg,

MD, August 1997.

Baum, H. R., McGrattan, IC B., and Rehm,

R. G., Large Eddy Simulations of Smoke

Movement in Three Dimensions, NISTIR 6030,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, June 1997.

McGrattan, K. B., and Stroup, D. W.,

"Sprinkler, Vent, and Draft Curtain

Interaction: Experiment and Computer

Simulation," Proceedings, ICFRE 1,

Gaithersburg, MD, August 1997.

Office Building Fire Research

Program

Principal Investigator

Daniel Madrzykowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6677

Sponsor

General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Property Management and Safety

Objective

To quantify the impact of large fires on

buildings and their occupants, and

investigate the use of current technology and

resources for mitigating the hazards.

Problem

Systems furniture or "work stations" have

been identified as a source of large heat

release rate fires in office buildings. Because

of the wide spread use of systems furniture,

the potential fire hazard in an open plan

office environment needs to be quantified.

The means of egress in a long corridor

adjoining the fire compartment needs to be

determined. If the fire cannot be suppressed

in the room of origin, information about the

impact that sprinklers have on the smoke

flow in the corridor is needed. While the

impact of sprinlders has been demonstrated

in BFRL experiments, it has not been

included in the corridor flow model due to

insufficient databases.

Approach

During FYI997, BFRL will conduct large

scale experiments on the effects of obstructed

ceiling flows on sprinlder activation will be

conducted. Experimental results will be

compared with the current capabilities of

FPEtool.

Recent Results

Madrzykowski, D., "Office Work Station

Heat Release Study: Full Scale vs. Bench

Scale," Proceedings, INTERFLAM '96,

Cambridge England, March 1996.

136
I

Modification of Fire Protection

Requirements for NRC

Principal Investigator

David W. Stroup

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6564

Sponsor

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research

Objective

To support the Nuclear Regulatory

Commission (NRC) in developing a new

"rule" that will permit utilities to use performance-based methods to design fire

protection provisions for nuclear power

plants.

Problem

Current regulation is based on Appendix R of

10 CFR 50 which is prescriptive.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will provide technical

assistance to the NRC in the preparation of

documents supporting the implementation of

performance-based fire safety regulations for

nuclear power plants.

Recent Results

Provided letter reports to the sponsor.

Firefighter Thermal Environments

and Protective Clothing and

Equipment Performance

Principal Investigator

James R. Lawson

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6676

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology and

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To develop measurement equipment and

techniques for the evaluation of thermal

environments experienced by firefighters

while conducting fire suppression and rescue

tasks and the performance of the firefighters

protective clothing, while conducting fire

suppression and rescue tasl<:s.

Problem

Firefighters' protective clothing and

equipment has seen significant performance

improvements over the last few decades;

however, thousands of firefighters continue

to be burned each year. In addition,

firefighters are suffering from heat stress

which has an impact on their job

performance and health. The apparatus

presently used to measure the performance of

firefighter clothing can only subject the

clothing to fire exposures created in the

laboratory.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will obtain input from

the fire service and protective clothing

equipment manufacturers to identify special

needs of firefighters and industry. A standard

methodology is being developed to make

appropriate measurements and to calculate

the thermal properties and performance of

firefighters' protective clothing when exposed

to a range of thermal and moisture

environments. Computer models are being

developed to predict the heat flow through

137
protective clothing and to predict the stored

energy in the clothing. A portable wireless

instrumentation package is being developed

to measure fire fighting environments.

Recent Results

Lawson, J. R., and Jason, N. H., Editors,

Firefighter Thermal Exposure Workshop: Protective

Clothing, Tactics, and Fire Service PTE Training

Procedures, NIST SP 91 1, National Institute

of Standards and Technology, February

1997.

Lawson, J. R., Fire Fighter's Protective Clothing

and Thermal Environments of Structural Fire

Fighting, NISTIR 5804, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, August 1 996.

Participation in Non-Project

Committees and Standards

Principal Investigator

David Evans

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6863

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide support for technical committee

and standards group meetings not otherwise

part of the fire program technical project

effort.

Problem

There is a need to maintain a continuing

relationship with organizations and technical

efforts in fire community.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will provide resources

for leadership in technical efforts that are not

always aligned with specific technical projects

underway, but nevertheless are important to

the over success of the fire program mission.

This project provides partial support for staff

to participate in activities that are not

otherwise covered as part of the technical

program activities. The choices for support

are expected to differ somewhat from

year-to-year as the priorities and funding

opportunities change.

Recent Results

No publications published to date.

138
Large Fire Research Facility RECENT GRANTS - LARGE FIRE

RESEARCH

Principal Investigator

Nelson Bryner

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6868

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To perform large scale fire experiments in a

safe and efficient manner. Provide large fire

measurement capabilities to meet the needs

of industry and government customers.

Problem

Use of BFRL's large fire research facility must

be scheduled for timely performance of

experimental programs. Modernization of

equipment and facilities is required to

address issues of environmental and work

place safety.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue to

provide daily management of the Large Fire

Research Facility, including the scheduling of

tests and their timely execution, along with

the gradual modernization of equipment and

facilities. Short term improvements will be

developed and executed during the year.

Plans for a new emissions control systems to assure full compliance with environmental

requirements at BFRL are being developed.

Recent Results

Two new heat release rate calorimeters were

designed and constructed. The smaller

calorimeter is designed for 50 KW capacity

and the new furniture scale calorimeter has a capacity of 1 MW.

1 , Characterization of Sprinlder

Sprays and Their Interaction with

Fire Induced Flows

Principal Investigator

Arvind Atreya, Ph.D.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

and Applied Mechanics

University of Michigan

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objectives

To develop an appropriately scaled

(laboratory-scale) sprinkler to simulate

warehouse-scale sprinkler-fire interactions,

provide high resolution, large-scale planar

data for validation of field models of

sprinkler fire suppression, (a) Drop size

distribution produced by the scaled pendent

sprinkler head under various water flow rate

conditions, (b) Droplet velocities in the

presence and in the absence of a fire, (c)

Sprinkler and fire induced gas velocities, and

(d) Actual delivered water density to the

burning surface.

Problem

An optimum sprinkler system, for a given

application, is one that provides the

maximum fraction of water delivered by the

sprinkler (or sprinklers in a large warehouse)

to the burning surfaces and suppresses the

fire in the shortest time after its initiation.

The design of such a sprinkler system

depends on the geometrical relationship

between the sprinkler(s) and the fire source,

the heat release rate of the fire and the

sprinkler spray characteristics. To save the

expense and complexity of full-scale

experiments currently needed for just

evaluating sprinlder systems for different fire

configurations (never mind optimization),

computer models are needed. This project

provides both data for experimental

139
validation of computer models and results of

scaled experiments.

Approach

Well-instrumented, laboratory-scale (2 m x 2

m X 2 m) experiments are being performed

using a scaled pendent sprinkler head.

High-resolution, large-scale PIV measurement

capability has been developed for making

measurements. The following four sets of

experiments are being conducted:

Recent Results

W. Rho, D. A. Everest and A. Atreya,

Droplet Distribution, Scaling and

Measurements in a Reduced-Scale Sprinkler,

2nd International Conference on Fire Research and

Engineering, 1997.

1 . Experiments for characterizing the

sprinlder sprays without the fire plume.

2. Experiments for characterizing the fire

induced flows.

3. Experiments for studying the interaction

of the sprinlder sprays with the fire plume.

4. Experiments with asymmetrically placed

fire plumes with respect to the sprinkler

spray.

These experiments will provide the following

data for validation of theoretical models of

sprinlder fire suppression:

a) Droplet size distribution produced by a

scaled pendent sprinkler head under various

water flow rate conditions. This data will be

provided at all locations of the spray

envelope both in the presence and in the

absence of a fire.

b) Droplet velocities at all locations of the

spray envelope both in the presence and in

the absence of a fire.

c) Sprinkler and fire induced gas velocities in

the sprinkled volume.

d) Actual delivered water density to the

burning surface and in the vicinity of the fire

location.

e) Overall exhaust heat release rate to

quantify the fire suppression effectiveness.

Dimensionless correlations of droplet and

induced gas flow parameters are also being

developed to enable application of the

experimental results to warehouse-scale fires.

140
2 . Fire Protection in Large

Industrial Fires

Principal Investigator

Marino di Marzo

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of Maryland

301-405-5257

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To Investigate fire safety engineering concerns associated with properties

characterization and performance evaluation

of fire protection foams; ignition and burning

of heavy oil emulsion on water; critical

literature review, experiments and modeling

of two-dimensional fire sources; and

integration of CFAST with existing models

for the analysis of complex wall assemblies.

Problem

Fire Protection Foams - The most common

active methods to mitigate and contain large

industrial and petrochemical fires encompass

water sprays and water films. An integrated

approach to identify cost-effective,

environmentally safe agents and their

application strategies are sought. In

particular, the performance of water based

foams, used in recent wild-fire in suburban

settings to protect residential structures, is investigated.

Oil Spill - The environmental impact of oil

spills at sea is mitigated by igniting and

burning the spill. Ignition and flame spread

characteristics of different crude oils in their

natural state, weathered and emulsified is characterized. A standard test based on a modified HIFT apparatus is used to estimate

the combustion self sustained capability.

This project is directed by J. Torero

(FPED-UMCP).

Two-Dimensional Fire Sources - The

synthetic representation all the available data

on point sources as well as on line sources at

different burner aspect ratio is pursued. The

objective is to derive a universal formulation

of temperature and flame height for finite

line fires. This project is directed by J. Quintiere (FPED-UMCP).

Thermal and Structural Response of Complex

Wall Assemblies - The development of a more realistic model for existing

compartment fire models is pursued by

validating a simple one-dimensional heat

transfer algorithm which can be readily

implemented in CFAST with the results of

the SAFIR (i.e., a three-dimensional finite

element code). This project is directed by J. Milke (FPED-UMCP).

Approach

Fire Protection Foams - The performance of

fire protection foams exposed to fire has been

characterized in the previous grant period.

Radiant heat absorption in the foam layer

was found to be the dominant parameter in

the foam destruction process. The density of

the foam layer is also a strong function of fire

exposure transient and the radiation

extinguishment coefficient is dependent on

the foam density. A quasi-steady stated

model is formulated on these basis to predict

the temperature profile within the foam

layer. The results indicates that the radiation

deposition term and the evaporation term are one order of magnitude larger than the

thermal diffusivity and convective terms.

Further, the foam density profile causes the

radiant absorption to be maximum 2 cm to 4

cm in the depth of the foam layer.

Careful evaluation of the radiation extinction

coefficient is conducted with a newly

developed testing routine for various foam

expansion ratios (i.e., the volume of the foam

over the volume of the original liquid

solution). A testing apparatus is also

developed for the measurement of the

thermal diffusivity as well as for the

determination of the thermal expansion

characteristics of a given foam. Enhancement

of the foam fire resistance is obtained via the

introduction of highly reflective pigments at

the foam layer exposed surface. Application

of small amounts of pigments (i.e., I%-2 %

141
by weight) are shown to produce fire

resistar\ce enhancements of the order of 1 00

%. Optimal foam expansion ratios and

pigments loading are evaluated within a broad testing program.

Oil Spills - An experimental technique has

been developed to systematically study the

ignition and flame spread characteristics of

liquid fuels spilled on a water bed. The

hardware used for the Lateral Ignition and

Flame Spread (LIFT) standard test method

(ASTM-132I) has been modified to allow the

used of liquid fuels deposited on water.

Flammability diagrams are obtained for

different fuel characteristics typical of oil

spills and for different of oil spill thiclcness.

These flammability diagrams provide a number of essential parameters such as

critical heat flux for ignition, ignition delay

time and flame spread velocity as a function

of the external heat flux. A series of "fire properties" corresponding to each fuel can

also be deduced from the flammability

diagrams and can be used to quantify the

tendency of the fuel to ignite and to sustain

flame spread.

Recent Results

Tafreshi, A., di Marzo, M., Stubbs, L., and

Floyd, R., "Characterization and Evaluation

of Fire Protection Foams," 2nd International

Conference of Fire Research and Engineering,

NIST, August 10-15, 1997.

Conference, HTD-Vol. 328, Vol. 6, pp.

123-129, 1996.

Boyd, C, and di Marzo, M., "Numerical

Model and Experimental Results of Fire

Protection Foam Exposed to Heat

Radiation," y4n«Mfl/ Conference on Fire Research,

NIST, Gaithersburg, MD, October 28-31,

1996

Dillon, S.E., and Milke, J., "The Thermal and

Structural Response of Light Steel Frame

Wall Assemblies Exposed to Fire Using the

SAFIR Finite Element Model," 2nd

International Conference of Fire Research and

Engineering, NIST, August 10-15, 1996.

Gopalnarayanan, S., Floyd, R.,Wang, S.,

Stubbs, L., and di Marzo, M., "Issues and

Techniques Associated with the

Measurements of Properties of Fire

Protection Vo3ims," Annual Conference on Fire

Research, NIST, Gaithersburg, MD, October

28-31, 1996.

Tafreshi, A., di Marzo, M., Stubbs, L., and

Floyd, R., "Performance Enhancement

Techniques for Fire Protection Foams by

Utilizing Reflective Pigments," 2nd

International Conference ofFire Research and

Engineering, NIST, August 10-15, 1997.

Wu, N., Baker, M., Kolb, J., and Torero, J.L.,

1997, "Ignition and Flame Spread

Characteristics of Liquid Fuels on a Water

Bed," 2nd International Conference of Fire

Research and Engineering, NIST, August 10-15,

1997.

Boyd, C, and di Marzo, M., "Fire Protection

Foam in a Radiative Environment,"

Proceedings of the 31st National Heat Transfer

142
3. A Study of Two Phase High

Liquid Loading Jet Fires

Principal Investigator

Jay P. Gore

Purdue University

765 494 1452

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

The objective of this project is to study:

visible flame lengths, radiation and pollutant

emission properties of high liquid loading jet

fires, and their gas fired analogs.

Problem

Two phase jet fires result from effective

atomization of a liquid fuel by small

quantities of trapped gases. The oil well fires

in Kuwait are the most prominent example.

The visible flame lengths of such fires

increase with increasing heat release rates

even in the momentum dominated regime.

This increase is contrary to existing

laiowledge.

Approach

An effervescent atomizer burner simulates

the physical processes that occur in

accidental fires involving high liquid loading

two phase jets. We built a small burner for

operation in the 1 0 kW to 60 kW firing rate

range and a large burner for operation in the

30 k W to 200 kW firing rate range. We

have measured: radiative heat loss fractions,

visible flame lengths, chemical flame lengths,

and pollutant emission indices for several

spray fires stabilized on these burners.

Toluene, haptene, methanol and crude oil

were the liquid fuels. The atomizing gas was

methane. A hydrogen pilot flame stabilized

the spray fires. Non-premixed acetylene jet

fires stabilized without a pilot flame on long

tubular burners with different diameters were

studied as the gas fired analogs of the spray

fires.

The visible flame lengths for both the spray

fires and the acetylene fires continuously

increased with firing rate. The chemical

flame heights on the other hand became

constant beyond a firing rate which marks

the transition between buoyant and forced

regimes. Pollutant emission indices for soot,

CO and NO^ varied significantly with the

amount of atomizing methane.

We measured spectral radiation intensities

leaving diametric paths at various heights

above the burner exit for the acetylene jet

fires and the toIuene/CHyHj spray fires. The

data showed that the visible intensity

increases with wavelength between 450 nm

and 750 nm at all heights. The visible

intensity decreased by 3 orders of magnitude

over the length of the flame. We integrated

the visible spectral intensity weighted by the

standard response curve for a human eye and

plotted the resulting visible total intensity as a function of distance from the injector exit.

A repeatable lowest total intensity value of

0.2 W/m^-sr was defined as the cut-off

determining the visible flame height. These

data agree well with the video-tape based

visible flame heights removing the

uncertainty concerning the sensitivity of the

video tape and transfer efficiency of the

various intermediate components.

We estimated entrainment rates based on

integration of our particle imaging

velocimetry based data around the fires for

selected acetylene jet flames and the spray

fires. We compared the visible and chemical

flame length data for the acetylene flames

and the spray flames with the correlations of

Becker and Liang, Delichatsios, and Blake

and McDonalds. The data for the luminous

flames suggest that the trends of the

correlations are appropriate for the visible

flame heights. The chemical flame heights

become constant at lower momentum rates

compared to those estimated by the

correlations. The entrainment rates for the

acetylene flames agreed well with the Ricou

and Spalding correlation. However, those for

the spray flames were significantly lower than

the estimates based on the correlations.

143
Recent Results

Lawler A., "An Experimental Study of Flame

Length and Pollutant Emission for

Effervescent Atomizer Spray Flames," M. S.

Thesis, Purdue University, 1996.

4. Measurements of Heat Release

Rates and Vorticity Distributions

in Pool Fires for the Calculation of

Fire Induced Flow Field

Principal Investigator

Jay P. Gore

Purdue University

765-494-1452

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

The objective of this project is to obtain

major species and velocity distributions in gas

fires with firing rates selected to simulate

pool fires. The measurements are required to

have sufficient resolution to yield gradients

that allow us to evaluate the heat release

rates and vorticity distributions.

Problem

Mass flow rate of air entrained by a pool fire

determines fire size, radiative feedback, and

hazardous chemical emission indices. The

correlations for entrainment rate currently

available in the literature and used in various

fire codes show a very large variation. A

numerical recipe pioneered at NIST involves a solution of two elliptic partial differential

equations for the velocity potential and the

stream function. The source terms in these

equations involve distributions of heat release

rates and vorticity within the fire. The

present work will provide measurements of

the source terms and allow a direct

evaluation of the predictions of the fire

induced flow field.

Approach

Our previous work involved measurements of

velocity vectors in the vicinity of 7.1 cm, 15

cm, and 30 cm pool fires burning toluene,

heptane and methanol. An imaging

technique called particle imaging velocimetry

(PIV) was used for obtaining these data. The

results were correlated with the fire Froude

number as the nondimensional parameter.

144
With the use of this parameter, the

normalized entrainment rate data for six fires

involving the three fuels and the 1 5 cm and

30 cm pools collapsed within 1 5 percent

when plotted as a function of normalized

distance from the fuel surface. The data for

the 7.1 cm fires with the three fuels collapsed

to a separate curve showing the effects of a

size parameter.

Comparisons of the measurements and

predictions of a fire induced flow code

developed by Dr. Baum at NIST showed

qualitative agreement. However, the

distributions of vorticity and heat release

rates had to be adjusted using flame radius as an adjustable parameter.

Motivated by this, measurements of heat

release rates and vorticity distributions in

pool fires have been initiated. To make the

measurements feasible, surrogate natural gas

fueled fires that allow gas species sampling in

all parts and also allow seeding for velocity

measurements are being used. However, the

fuel flow rates for these surrogate fires are selected to yield identical fire Froude

numbers for the gaseous and the liquid fires.

Results show that this fire Froude number

scaling is crucial.

Early attempts at using measurements from

the literature for evaluating the heat release

rates and vorticity distributions showed that

the species data do not have adequate

resolution for this purpose. The velocity data

in the literature do not extend far enough

beyond the flame sheet to yield a complete

distribution.

Measurements of species concentrations in

7.1 cm and 15 cm fires show that laminar

flamelet state relationships can be used for

mean properties. The data show that

majority of the heat release occurs in an

annular region within 1 diameter distance

from the fuel surface. In contrast, the visible

flame extends to approximately five

diameters. The expansion velocities

calculated using the measured heat release

rates show that the extent of the fire induced

flow field is narrower than that predicted

using existing correlations.

Recent Results

Zhou X. C, Gore J. P. and Baum H. R.,

"Measurements and Predictions of Air

Entrainment Rates of Pool Fires," Twenty

Sixth (International) Symposium on Combustion, Naples, Italy, 1997.

Zhou X. C. and Gore J. P., "Estimates of

Heat Release Rates and Velocity Potential in

Pool Fires Using Measurements of Major

Species Concentrations," Central States Section

Meeting, Point Clear, AL, 1997.

145
5 . Large Fire Analysis

Principal Investigator

Professor Patrick J. Pagni

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of California, Berkeley

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop of a Modular UrbanAVildland

Intermix Fire Growth Model.

Problem

The following elements are currently

envisioned of comprising our modular fire

growth model:

1 . The initial fire strength.

2. The plume above the initial fire.

3. The combined flow field induced by

multiple fire sources.

4. The initial distribution of brands.

5. The brand combustion, heat, and mass

transfer.

6. The brand dynamics.

7. Interaction with the ambient atmosphere.

8. Interaction with the terrain.

9. Spread mechanisms other than spotting.

10. Fuel characterization and ignition.

1 1 . The strength and duration of a structure

threatening fire. 12. Ignition and growth on the structure.

13. Window glass breakage.

14. Structure protection.

Approach

During this grant period we have completed

the fire-induced flow field generated from

multiple fire sources and identified its role in

lofting brands, which are recognized as the

critical mechanism of conflagration fire

spread. We presented results at: the

NIST/SFPE Meeting in Orlando in

September 1995, the 13th UJNR Panel

Meeting in Gaithersburg in March 1 996, and

the 5th International Symposium on Fire

Safety Science in Melbourne, Australia in

March, 1997. During this grant period, our

program produced two Safety Science

Doctorates: Prof. Dembsey went to WPI and

Dr. Trelles went to NIST. Our study

currently focuses on four problems: 1

quantification of the lofting of brands of all conceivable shapes, compositions, and

conditions; 2) the time-varying

characteristics of those brands as they

combust while being transported; 3) the

dynamics of the brand-wind-plume

interaction that determines the brand

deposition distribution and the pattern of the

downwind ignition sites; and 4) validation of

a ground fuels flame spread model. The rich

forest fire literature is being fully utilized; we

rely on previous work by Tarifa and Albini.

Our experience with the 1991 Oakland Hills

Fire, the 1993 Los Angles fires, and the 1995

Kobe post-earthquake fires provide specific case studies for the application of these

models. Because of the analog between

structural rubble piles and forest wood/brush

piles as brand sources, this model may also be

capable of assessing possible post-earthquake

conflagrations. Our experience working with

the Baum-McCaffrey mass fire model

provides the starting point for the brand

lofting study. Spherical, cylindrical, and

disk-shaped brands in combusting and

non-combusting, maximum drag and

tumbling modes are being analyzed

theoretically and experimentally. The large

scale eddy simulation plume model ALOFT

will be used to help identify the downwind

brand deposition contours. During a Spring

1997 sabbatical, I will come to the BFRL to

work with Dr. Baum.

Recent Results

J. Waycheese, P. Pagni, D. Liepmann, "Brand

Lofting above Large Scale Fires," ICFRE 2,

Gaithersburg, MD, August 1997.

J. Trelles and P.J. Pagni, "Fire-Induced Winds

in the 20 October 1991 Oakland Hills Fire,"

Fifth International Symposium on Fire Safety

Science, Australia., March 1997.

N.A Dembsey, P.J. Pagni, and R.B.

Williamson, "Compartment Fire

Experiments: Comparison to Models," Fire

Safety Journal, 25:3, pp. 187-227, 1996.

146
P.J. Pagni, "Zukoski's Intellectual Progeny in

Fluid Mechanics of Fires," 13th Meeting of the

UJNR Panel on Fire Research and Safety,

Gaithersburg, MD, March, 1996.

J. Woycheese, "Brand Lofting in Large Scale

Fires," Masters Thesis, Mechanical Engineering

Department, University of California at

Berkeley, December 1996.

J. Trelles, "Mass Fire Modeling of the 20

October 1991 Oaldand Hills Fire," Doctoral

Dissertation, Mechanical Engineering

Department, University of California at

Berkeley, December 1995.

N.A. Dembsey, P.J. Pagni, and R.B.

Williamson, "Compartment Fire Near-Field

Entrainment Measurements," Fire Safety

Journal, 24:4, pp. 383-419, 1995.

147
I

I
FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

FIRE SENSING AND

EXTINGUISHMENT
i
Advanced Fire Detection

Principal Investigator

Emil Braun

Fire Science Division

301-975-6665

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To complete development of a Fire Emulator

Detector Evaluator (FE/DE) and to evaluate

by the response characteristics of

multi-sensor point detectors using key fire

parameters that simulate standard fires.

Problem

Current test protocols and certification

processes have been developed to

accommodate specific detection sensor

technologies. Test methods exist to evaluate

specific classes of sensors, i.e., ionization,

optical, temperature, etc. In the past, the fire or smoke sources used in these test methods

were optimized for a unique fire or smoke

property to quantify detector response. To

improve detection sensitivity and reduce false

alarm rates, industry has developed new

sensors. Some designs are based on the

measurement of different aspects of the fire source than those traditionally evaluated by

current test methods. Other designs are based

on specific combinations of sensors that can

help in distinguishing a real fire source from

a false reading. Existing test methods may

not be able to evaluate and quantify the

performance of new sensing methods or

multi-detector systems.

r

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will have completed

the first generation Fire Emulator/Detector

Evaluator (FE/DE) to the point that new

generation spot-type fire detector designs

may be evaluated. CEN 54 is a European test method that defines a room fire test and

several fire sources for the evaluation of

specific fire detectors. Using CEN 54 ceiling

data at the detection site as representing a

standard set of fires, strategies will be

developed for controlling velocity,

temperature, CO, and smoke concentrations

as a function of time to simulate these fire sources. A new smoke generator will be

designed to replicate key physical attributes

of particulates produced in these standard

fires. In collaboration with the detector

industry and other researchers, appropriate

detector designs will be selected to assess the

performance of the FE/DE.

Recent Results

Grosshandler, W., and Cleary, T., Test Fire

Signatures and the

Fire-Emulator/Detector-Evaluator, UJNR,

Proceedings of the Panel on Fire Research and

Safety, NISTIR 6030, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, June 1997.

Grosshandler, W., Progress Report on Fire

Detection Research in the U.S. UJNR Proceedings

of the Panel on Fire Research and Safety,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, March 1997.

Grosshandler, W., "Towards the

Development of a Universal Fire

Emulator/Detector Evaluator," Fire Safety

Journal, 1996.

Cleary, T., Grosshandler, W., Nyden, M.,

and Rinkinen, W., "Signatures of Smoldering

Fires for Multi-element Detector Evaluation,"

INTERFLAM, March 1996.

151
Principal Investigator

Richard G. Gann

Fire Science Division

301-975-6866

Sponsor

Department of Defense

Office of the Secretary of Defense

Next Generation Fire Suppression

Program

Selection Criteria, Fire Suppression

Principles, Technology Testing

Methodologies, New Suppression Concepts,

Emerging Technology Advancement, and

Suppression Optimization. The program will

be managed by a Technical Program Manager

assisted by a Technical Coordinating

Committee of experts and will be overseen by

a steering committee of DoD officials.

Recent Results

New project.

Objective

To develop and demonstrate, by

environmentally acceptable and user-safe

processes, techniques, and fluids that meet

the operational requirements currently

satisfied by halon 1301 systems in aircraft,

ships, land combat vehicles, and critical

mission support facilities.

Problem

Halon 1301 (CF3Br), the principal clean fire

suppressant used for total flooding

applications within the Department of

Defense, is not longer in production due to

its harmful effect on stratospheric ozone. The

DoD has extensively tested the current

alternative chemicals and found that their

weight and volume penalties would make

retrofitting existing systems extremely

expensive and difficult. For the near term, a bank of out-of-service halon 1301 is satisfying DoD needs, but this bank is of

uncertain size and longevity. The Office of

the Secretary of Defense has initiated the

Next Generation Fire Suppression

Technology Program (NGP) to provide

solutions for current systems. NIST has been

asked to provide the technical management

of the NGP.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will following a request from the Director of Defense

Research and Engineering, to develop and

demonstrate processes, techniques, and fluids

that meet the operational requirements

currently satisfied by halon 1301. The plan

consists of 24 research elements organized

into six thrusts: Risk Assessment and

152
Dispersed Liquid Agent Fire

Suppression Screen

Principal Investigator

Jiann C. Yang

Fire Science Division

301-975-6662

Sponsor

Department of Defense

Strategic Environmental Research and

Development Program

Objective

To develop a bench-scale suppression screen

suitable for comparing the performance of

dispersed fluids in extinguishing a

laboratory-scale flame.

Problem

Halon 1301 (CF3Br) has properties that

make it particularly effective as a fire

extinguishing agent. In addition to the

chemical activity attributable to the bromine

atom, halon 1301 is a gas at room

temperature and pressure. It is stored as a

liquid under high pressure making it superheated at atmospheric conditions.

When discharged, halon 1301 flashes to a gas

and quickly disperses throughout the volume

being protected. Replacements are sought

which perform equally v^ell in applications

critical to the Department of Defense.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will select fluids to

span a variety of anticipated operating

conditions. These include pure water; water

plus an additive (dissolved gas or salt); a low

viscosity nonaqueous, zero ODP fluorocarbon

(e.g., C6F14); and a high viscosity, higher

boiling point compound (unspecified). They

wall be suspended in air streams at modest

velocities and transported to a propane

diffusion flame. In order to characterize and

calibrate the performance of the burner,

gaseous agents will also be used. This will

allow comparisons of the performances of

gaseous agents with those of aerosols. The

burner will be based upon the design of Tsuji,

in which a gaseous fuel (propane) is brought

into a porous cylinder located cross-flow

within an air stream. Flame extinction limits can be observed with little ambiguity and

high reproducibility. Two different methods

of generating aerosols are envisioned. For

larger, close-to-mono-dispersed aerosols (25

mm to 250 mm), a multiple orifice

piezoelectric droplet generator will be built.

The literature will be scanned to identify

candidate techniques for generating droplets

in the 0.25 mm to 25 mm range. Aerosols

generated in these manners can be

introduced directly into the burner air

stream. However, no existing technique may

be suitable for some fluids such as slurries,

emulsions, or chemically generated aerosols.

A separate aerosol chamber will be needed in

which high concentrations of agent can be

produced using whatever technique is envisioned in practice. The aerosol will be

transported from the generating chamber to

the burner where it can be metered into the

air stream. Extinction experiments will be

conducted with and without obstacles in the

air stream just ahead of the flame.

Recent Results

New project.

153
Fire Suppression Chemistry

Principal Investigator

Gregory T. Linteris

Fire Science Division

301-975-2283

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide by a fundamental understanding

of the detailed chemical steps by which the

most efficient chemical flame inhibitors act to

extinguish flames, for use by the fire

protection community to facilitate the

development of the next generation of

suppression agents and technologies.

Problem

Fire suppressants and their application

methods should be effective, fast-acting,

economical, have low toxicity, permit a habitable environment during suppression,

and cause no collateral damage to the

protected space. Existing suppressants,

however, are nonideal for various reasons. There exists a continuing need for better

suppressants and suppression methods, but

limited scientific understanding of how

existing chemical inhibitors act to extinguish

flames hinders development of new agents.

Some chemical inhibitors have been found to

be up to 1 00 times more effective than CF^Br

in inhibiting premixed hydrocarbon-air

flames. Nonetheless, their mechanism of

inhibition is not clearly understood.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will study the

behavior of chemical inhibitor Fe(CO)^, in

detail to develop a detailed understanding of

it's effectiveness that can help in the search

for new agents.

Recent Results

Linteris, G.T. and Reinelt, D. "Inhibition of

Flames by Condensed-Phase Agents," in

Interflam'96, Seventh International Fire

Science and Engineering Conference, March

1

26 - 28, 1996, Cambridge, England,

Interscience, London, 1996, p. 477-486.

Reinelt, D., and Linteris, G.T., "Experimental

Study of the Flame Inhibition Effect of Iron

Pentacarbonyl," Halon Options Technical

Working Conference, Albuquerque, NM, May

7-9, 1996.

Linteris, G.T., Burgess, D.R., Babushok, V.,

Zachariah, V., Westmoreland, P., and Tsang,

W., "Inhibition of Premixed Methane-Air

Flames by Fluoroethanes and

Fluoropropanes," Combustion and Flame, June

1996.

Reinelt, D., and Linteris, G.T. "Experimental

Study of the Inhibition of Premixed and

Diffusion Flames by Iron Pentacarbonyl,"

Twenty-Sixth Symposium (International) on

Combustion, The Combustion Institute,

Pittsburgh, Aug. 1996.

Fallon, G.S., CheUiah, H.K., and Linteris,

G.T., "Chemical Effects of CF^H in

Extinguishing Counterflow CO/Air/H2

Diffusion Flames," Twenty-Sixth Symposium

(International) on Combustion, The

Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, Aug. 1996.

Reinelt, D., Babushok, V., and Linteris, G.T.,

"Numerical Study of the Inhibition of

Premixed and Diffusion Flames by Iron

Pentacarbonyl," Eastern States Section

Meeting/T/ze Combustion Institute, S. Carolina,

Dec, 1996.

Babushok, V., Tsang, W., Linteris, G.T., and

Reinelt, D., "Chemical Limits to Flame

Inhibition," Eastern States Section

Meeting^T/jf Combustion Institute, S. Carolina,

Dec, 1996.

i

Linteris, G.T. and Gmurczyk, G. "Inhibition j of Premixed Methane-Air Flames by Iron I Pentacarbonyl," 1 5th International Colloquium

on the Dynamics ofExplosions and Reactive

Systems, July 30 - Aug. 4, 1 995, Boulder, CO,

p. 298-301.

I

1
Suppression of Engine Nacelle

Fires

Principal Investigators

Anthony Hamins

301-975-6598

John Yang

Fire Science Division

301-975-6622

Sponsor

Department of Air Force

Aircraft Survivability & Safety Branch

Wright Patterson Air Force Base

Objective

To provide, guidance in measurement

techniques, test plan development, data

analysis, and interpretation of full scale

experiments investigating the effectiveness of

available and emerging agents/technologies in

full-scale fire testing in an engine nacelle.

Problem

The Air Force soon will begin testing a solid

propellant gas generator (SPGG) in a full

scale mock-up of a F-22 nacelle at the Wright

Patterson Engine Nacelle Test Facility. For

comparison, gaseous agent such as HFC- 125

will also be tested. Expertise is needed to

provide guidance in the development of a test

plan, determination of measurement

parameters, measurement techniques, data

analysis, and interpretation of the full scale

experiments. The mixing/suppression model

developed at NIST serves as a basis for

design and interpretation of the full scale

nacelle experiments.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will review the

preliminary nacelle design and test plan

developed by Wright Patterson personnel

and other contractors. Quantification of

fundamental variables is required to assess the suppression effectiveness of replacement

agents and techniques. These variables

include the rate and duration of agent

injection, the air/agent temperature, and the

air/agent flow. BFRL will identify

instrumentation which will allow

quantification of key experimental

parameters. The veracity of the acquired data

and acquisition methodology will be verified

by BFRL staff during site visits. An analysis

will be performed of the data in terms of a model which considers the effect of air flow,

air temperature, agent type (CF^l, HFC- 125,

or inert species from SPGG), the rate and

duration of agent application, and the local

flow field geometry (e.g., effect of an obstacle

in the flow field).

Recent Results

No publications produced to date.

155
Chemical Inhibitor Effects on

Diffusion Flames in Microgravity

Principal Investigator

Gregory T. Linteris

Fire Science Division

301-975-2283

Sponsor

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

Lewis Research Center

Space Systems Branch

Objective

To develop an understanding of the

differences in flame inhibition effects of

halogenated compounds between unit gravity

and microgravity.

Problem

Since halogenated compounds will remain

the fire suppressant of choice in many space

missions, there is a need for experimental

evidence on the effectiveness of these

compounds for diffusion flames under zero buoyancy conditions.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform

experiments with an expert at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology on

normal and microgravity studies of laminar

jet and co-flow diffusion flames inhibited by

halogenated suppressant in the air or fuel

stream. In microgravity, visual and

temperature diagnostics will be used to detect

flame shape, dynamics, and stability limits.

Normal gravity experiments will use

additional chromatographic and

spectroscopic diagnostics in addition to visual

and temperature experiments. Analytical and

computational work will be performed using

existing general 2-D codes with chemical

Idnetic models for comparison with the

observed results.

Determine the effects of flame inhibitors on

the physical characteristics (height, shape,

color, and luminosity) and stabihty limits

(ignition, extinction, lift-off and blow-off) of

gaseous diffusion flames in the presence of

halogenated fire suppressants in nucrogravity;

and to develop quantitative analytical models

for the observed behavior, including chemical

kinetic effects, in order to understand the

mechanisms of inhibition of halogenated

compounds in gaseous diffusion flames in

microgravity.

Recent Results

VanDerWege, B.A, Bush, M.T., Hochgreb,

S., and Linteris, G.T., "Inhibition of CH4

Laminar Flame Speeds by CF3H and C2F6

in a Combustion Bomb," Combustion Science

and Technology, July 1995.

VanDerWege, B.A, Bush, M.T., Hochgreb,

S., and Linteris, G.T., "Effect of CF3H and

CF3Br on Laminar Diffusion Flames in

Normal and Microgravity," Eastern States

Section Meeting/TTz^ Combustion Institute,

Worcester, MA, October 1995.

156
Low Environmental Impact Fire

Suppression

Payload Specialist on STS-83

Principal Investigator

Gregory T. Linteris

Fire Science Division

301-975-2283

Sponsor

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

Objective

To perform duties as a payload specialist on

space shuttle missions to launch on April 2,

1997 and July 4, 1997. Experiments included

those in combustion, material science,

protein crystal growth, plant biology, and

fluid mechanics.

Problem

The high temperatures associated with fires

and combustion processes often lead to

complex fluid motion that is strongly

influenced by the gravitational field. Because

the spread of a fire can be either accelerated or retarded as the force of gravity is changed,

the level of safety associated with the design

of a spacecraft is uncertain. In addition,

buoyancy driven flows render even the

simplest flame almost impossible to model

from first principles.

Approach

The Microgravity Sciences Laboratory (MSL)

was developed by NASA to perform

experiments on physical phenomena that are

significantly affected by the earth's gravity.

Greg Linteris underwent a rigorous training

period to qualify as an astronaut on

Columbia, during which time he worked

closely with the principal investigators of the

micro-gravity combustion experiments. He

conducted numerous combustion and fluid

mechanics experiments, as well as experiments with biological and crystalline

materials as a Payload Specialist on two

different launches of the Orbiter.

Recent Results

Duties successfully performed as required.

Principal Investigator

William Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To facilitate the adoption of promising low

environmental impact fire suppression

technologies by developing for fire simulators

improved phenomenological models for agent

transport; and establishing for users, manufacturers, and regulators scientifically

defensible test methods for evaluating the fire

suppression performance of proposed

alternatives.

Problem

Currently fielded technologies for suppressing

fires can adversely effect the local or global

environment. Proposed halon alternatives

containing chlorine or iodine have a non-zero ozone depletion potential; fluorine

containing alternatives may have very long

atmospheric lifetimes. Other approaches to

fire protection such as inert gas, powder or aqueous systems are not without occupant

risk or have features that make them less

desirable from an operational standpoint.

Development of new technologies is hampered by a lack of understanding of the

physical processes controlling dispersion and

by the absence of metrics for establishing

agent/system effectiveness.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform two

tasks. First, an assessment of the state of

understanding of droplet and spray dynamics

will be conducted prior to developing a

research plan targeted at generating

phenomenological sub-models for meaningful

CFD and zone-type predictions of physical

suppression processes (up to the point of

significant flame/suppressant interactions).

157
Second, new test methods will be developed

to evaluate the performance of solid

propellant gas generators (SPGGs) in

suppressing baffle-stabilized pool fires and to

quantify the impact of an energy source within the targeted volume on the amount of

a gaseous suppressant to control a class-C

fire.

Recent Results

Yang, J., and Grosshandler, W., Solid

Propellant Gas Generators: Proceedings of the

1995 Workshop, NISTIR 5766, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

November 1995.

Grosshandler, W., "In Search of Alternative

Fire Suppressants," Symposium on Thermal

Sciences and Engineering in Honor of Chancellor

Chang-Lin Tien, Berkeley, pp. 275-282,

November 1995.

Yang, J., and Grosshandler, W., "Solid

Propellant Gas Generators: An Overview and

Their Application to Fire Suppression,"

International Conference on Fire Research

and Engineering, P. Lund, editor. Society of

Fire Protection Engineering, pp. 88-90, 1995.

Analysis of High Bay Hangar

Facilities for Detector Sensitivity

and Placement

Principal Investigator

William Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsor

Department of Navy

U.S. Naval Facilities Engineering Command

Objective

To provide a comprehensive report of full scale tests including experimental data on

flame detection, smoke detection, and smoke

movement in high bay aircraft hangars using

aviation fuels conducted during FY1995.

Problem

Fire protection criteria for aircraft hangars

employ "best engineering judgement" using

NFPA codes and standards which are based

upon maximum ceiling heights of 9. 1 m. For

years, DoD and the private sector have

extrapolated data from research conducted in

buildings with conventional ceiling heights,

although there are no actual data to support

this practice for fire detection and

suppression systems located over 9.1 m or more above the fuel level. The effects of

stratification, wind, and the movement of

smoke and heat in high bay areas such as

aircraft hangars are not presently known.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform

additional editions of test footage and

compilation of graphical tables and charts to

include in video production. The final report

will present building specifications,

instrumentation layouts, detector

descriptions, overall results, conclusions, and

recommendations. It has yet to be decided if a CD-ROM which includes all additional

information and an entire data set for both

test series, will be included with the final

report.

158
Recent Results

Goff, J. E., Lowe, D. L., Notarianni, K. A.,

and Davis, W., Analysis ofHigh Bay Hangar

Facilitiesfor Fire Detector Sesitivity and

Placement, NIST TN 1423, National Institute

of Standards and Technology, February

1997.

Agoff, J. E., Lowe, D. L., Notarianni, K. A,

and Davis, W., Aircraft Hangar Fires and Fire

Protection Improvements, NIST video, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

March 1997.

Smoke Movement in High Bays

Principal Investigators

William Davis

Fire Science Division

301-975-6884

Kathy Notarianni

Fire Science Division

301-975-6883

Sponsor

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

NASA Headquarters

Objective

To develop and validate algorithms for

predicting and detecting smoke movement in

high bay spaces.

Problem

The NASA inventory of buildings contains a

large number of buildings with ceiling heights

in excess of 9 m. At these heights, design

tools such as fire models have not been

validated and only a few fire experiments

have been conducted. With the completion

of the Navy's high bay hanger facilities

experiments in 15 m and 22 m high hangars,

a unique set of data exists which allows the

validation of existing fire models and

provides the opportunity for developing new

detection algorithms which are appropriate

for use at these building heights.

During the past year, the experimental data

has been analyzed for both the 15m and 22

m high hangars. Using the 15 m data, the

results of a number of fire models have been

compared with the data in order to validate

these models and to identify physical

algorithms which may require modification at

these heights.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL plans to extend the

validation effort to the 22 m high facility.

Algorithm development will use the computer

model, LAVENT, as a test bed for the

development of an improved ceiling jet model

159
and a smoke detection algorithm. The

algorithms will be generic and will be capable

of being transported to other computer

models with a minimum of effort.

Recent Results

Davis, W. D., Notarianni, K. A., and

McGrattan, K. B., Comparison of Fire Model

Predictions with Experiments Conducted in a Hangar with a 15 m Ceiling, NISTIR 5927,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, December 1 996.

Research in Fire Protection

Technologies - A Resource

Allocation and Impact Study

Principal Investigator

ICathy Notarianni

Fire Science Division

301-975-6883

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a decision analytical framework

to determine where research into various fire

protection technologies would have the

greatest payoff, as defined by reduction in

annual fire deaths and injuries, reductions in

dollars of property loss, costA)enefit to

society, and impact on industry.

Problem

BFRL, other groups involved in fire research,

and the policy makers funding fire research

face decisions about what initiatives to fund

and what pay-off can be expected. Although

it is almost never intuitive as to how much it

is worth investing in a particular technology,

and what the pay-offs are, these decisions

have become more critical each year as the

budget has become tighter and decision

makers are faced with harder choices.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will evaluate four

groups of fire protection technologies : technologies that reduce the number of

ignitions; materials that don't bum or don't

burn readily; fire detection technologies; and

fire suppression technologies. A decision

model incorporating technical and economic

feasibility evaluations will be developed to

forecast pay-off investments in each of the

above areas. Three different time frames will

be considered: less than 5 years, 5 to 20

years, and greater than 20 years. As a first

approximation, fire loss statistics from the

past years will be used to determine which of

these technologies shows the greatest

potential for each type of pay-off and time

160
frame. One area of technology, and

ultimately one specific technology in that

area, will be selected for a detailed study of

its impact potential and cost. Computer fire

models will be used to forecast future

performance, effectiveness, and reliability. A

cost and uncertainty analysis will be

included.

High Heat Flux Measurement

Standards

Principal Investigator

William Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-972-2310

Recent Results

New project.

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To demonstrate the effect of different modes

of heat transfer on the absolute reading of

heat flux gauges, as a means for industry

designers and regulators to identify new

reliable heat flux measurement methods

which are required to enable the development

of more fire safe materials, effectively

packaged electronics, and efficient energy

systems.

Problem

Standard methods exist for calibrating

thermal radiation detectors at flux levels

extending to 10 kW/m^ using controlled

blackbody cavities, and up to 40 kW/m^

using a monochromatic laser radiation

source. However, heat flux transducers are often used under conditions where

convection is dominant, where radiation

emanates from a source with different

spectral character, or where the flux levels

exceed 40 kW/ml

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will complete an

experimental facility consisting of a wind

tunnel with a heated wall in which a heat flux

transducer can be mounted flush. Air at a

cooler temperature will flow through the duct

in a precisely controlled manner. The gas

temperature and velocity will be variable,

with heat fluxes at the surface designed to be

preset between 0.5 kW/m^ and 5.0 kW/m^

within an uncertainty of less than ± 5

percent. Flow visualization, hot-wire probing,

thermocouples, and temperature sensitive

liquid crystals will be used to measure the

temperature fields in the air and on the

161
surface adjacent to the flux gauge. Numerical

simulations by co-workers in NlST's

Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory

and in the Electronics and Electrical

Engineering Laboratory of the energy transfer

will be used to refine the design and

minimize uncertainties. In a second facility,

the guarded hot-plate concept will be

extrapolated to produce heat fluxes up to 1 00

kW/m^ A 1 .0 mm thick layer of helium will

separate two flat, polished copper plates

maintained at a temperature difference of

several hundred degrees. This type of

construction should minimize the

contribution of radiation and convection to

the conductive heat transfer.

Recent Results

Grosshandler, W., and Blackburn, D.,

"Development of a Heat Flux Conduction

Calibration Apparatus," 1997 International

Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition,

Dallas, TX, November 1997.

Holmberg, D., Steclder, K., Womeldorf, C,

and Grosshandler, W., "Facility for

Calibrating Heat Flux Sensors in a Convective Environment," 1997 International

Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition,

Dallas, TX, November 1997.

RECENT GRANTS-FIRE

SENSING AND

EXTINGUISHMENT

I . Fire Detection Using Reflected

Radiation and Source Temperature

Discrimination

Principal Investigator

Dr. Yudaya Sivathanu

Thermal Sciences and Propulsion Center

School of Mechanical Engineering

Purdue University

West Lafayette, IN 47907

765-494-9364

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To determine the efficacy of a near-infrared

fire detector which detects fire based on a

statistical analysis of apparent source temperatures and to simulate the effects of

surface reflections on the apparent source temperatures measured by the near-infrared

fire detector.

Problem

Conventional fire detectors, that sense fires

based on the local concentrations of smoke or hot gases, have a very slow response time.

This time delay is associated with the

diffusion of the combustion products from

the fire to the detector. Fire detectors that

utilize radiation either in the infrared or in

the ultraviolet or a combination of both have

a much faster response time. However,

conventional radiation detectors suffer from a high false alarm rate that limit them to

specific applications. There is a commercial

need for a general purpose, fast acting fire

detector which has a very low false alarm

rate.

Approach

Natural fires can be distinguished by their

apparent source temperature and the power

spectral density of radiation emitted by them.

162
The near infrared fire detector measures the

radiation intensities incident on it at 900 nm

and 1 000 nm and uses them to calculate a time series of apparent source temperatures.

A statistical analysis of the source temperatures is used to discriminate fires

from background radiation. Radiation

intensities from the six standard test fires

(specified in the CEN guidelines) were

studied to obtain a suitable fire detection

algorithm. The near infrared fire detector

was tested for both false alarm rates and

response times with fires started within and

outside it's direct view.

Y. R. Sivathanu and L. K. Tseng,

"Characterization of the Radiation Properties

of Fires Using Multi-Wavelength

Measurements," 1996 Proceedings of the

Thirtieth Section Anniversary Technical

Meeting of the Central States Section of the

Combustion Institute, St. Louis, MS, p. 305,

1996.

Y. R. Sivathanu and }. P. Gore, "Radiative

Heat Transfer Inside a Cylindrical

Enclosure," 1996, Proceedings of the ASME

Heat Transfer Division, Vol. 1, HTD-vol. 332,

1996.

Numerical evaluation of the fire detector was

also conducted at the same time by using a

discrete probability function (DPF) method

to trace radiation from a standard test fire to

the detector within different enclosures. The

walls of the enclosures were assumed to

reflect part of the radiation (both specularly

and diffusely) with the remainder being

absorbed. The effect of the surface

reflections on the apparent source temperatures was studied to ascertain that

the fire detector could function adequately

even if the fire was not within the direct view

of the detector.

The major conclusions of the study are:

( 1 ) Utilizing near infrared radiation and

source temperature discrimination provides

an effective method of detecting open and

smoldering fires.

(2) Numerical and experimental

evaluation suggest that the near infrared fire

detector can detect the presence of fire, even

when the fire is not within the direct view of

the detector.

Recent Results

Y. R. Sivathanu and L. K. Tseng, "Fire

Detection Using Time Series Analysis of

Source Temperatures," /fMrwfl/ ofFire Safety,

1997.

Y. R. Sivathanu and J. P. Gore, "Effects of

Surface Properties on Radiative Heat

Transfer in a Cylindrical Tube with

Nonparticipating Media," Journal ofHeat

Transfer, August 1997.

163
2. Water Mist Penetrations

Through Complex Openings of

Compartments

Principal Investigator

Prof. S. C. Yao

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

Carnegie Mellon University

Pittsburgh, PA 15213

Tel. 412-268-2508

email: scyao@cmu.edu

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To understand the phenomena, to reveal the

mechanisms, and to correlate the results of

the mist penetration through openings of

compartments during fire extinguishment.

Problem

During equipment fires, water mist are

difficult to penetrate the compartment

openings. This complex transport process is strongly influenced by both the structures of

the openings which could be screens or slots,

etc. and the water mist conditions which are droplet sizes, velocities and number densities

etc.

chance of penetrating into the compartment.

For the droplets which are intercepted by the

structures. The impaction phenomena are studied experimentally. Single droplets are produced from a monosize droplet generator.

The study covers droplets with a range of

sizes and velocities impacting to wires of

various diameters and at different offset. The

results are correlated with the incoming

droplet Weber number, the drop to wire size

ratio, and the nondimensional offset in a regime map.

Recent Results

Hung, L.S. and Yao, S.C., "Interactions of

Droplets with Cylindrical Objects,"

Submitted for ILASS-Americas, Ottawa,

Ontario, Canada, 18-21 May 1997.

Hung, L.S. and Yao, S.C., "Experimental

Investigation of the Water Mist Impacting

Phenomenon on Horizontal Wires," Presented

at N1ST Annual Conference on Fire Research,

Gaithersburg, MD, October 28-31, 1996.

Hung, L.S. and Yao, S.C., "Numerical Studies

on the Deposition and Transport of Water

Mist to a Horizontal Plate," Presented at NIST

Annual Conference on Fire Research,

Gaithersburg, MD, October 28-31, 1996.

Approach

The interaction of the water mist and the

compartment is modeled through numerical

computations. The mist may come at gravity

fall or at a prescribed velocity. The

impaction efficiency of the mist to the

compartment is correlated with a non-dimensional Impaction Parameter. This

determines the amount of mist arrives to the

compartment boundary. For large droplets,

they will impact onto the screen wires or

structures directly. Therefore, the area ratio

of the wire or structure to the overall opening

will determine the amount of interceptions.

For small droplets, they can follow with the

air flow and come into the compartment

easier. Computation is performed to model

the escaping efficiency of small droplets with

respect to the array of slots to estimate their

164
3. A Theoretical and Experimental

Investigation on Physical, Thermal

and Chemical Effects of

Condensed Phase Fire

Suppressants

Principal Investigator

Harsha K. Chelliah

Department of Mechanical, Aerospace

and Nuclear Engineering

University of Virginia

Charlottesville, VA 22903

(804) 924-6037

Objective

To quantify the physical, thermal and

chemical effects of condensed-phase fire

suppressants in extinguishing counterflow

laminar flames by experimental and

computational techniques.

Problem

The production of chemical fire suppressants

containing Br-atoms (e.g. CF^Br - halon

1301) has been banned because of its adverse

effects on the upper-atmospheric ozone layer.

However, on a mass basis, sodium

bicarbonate (NaHCO^) is known to be more

effective than halon 1301, and certainly far

more effective than most alternate gas-phase

fire suppressants. Recent experiments aimed

at quantifying the effectiveness of NaHCO^

particles of varying sizes have shown

counter-intuitive trends in suppression

effectiveness. In order to understand these

results and provide information valuable in

the search for alternative fire suppressants, a comprehensive experimental and theoretical

approach is adopted in the present work.

Approach r

Nonpremixed flames of hydrocarbon fuels

and air, established in a steady, laminar,

counterflow field, provide an excellent

configuration for theoretical and

experimental studies directed at better

understanding the fundamental

characteristics of fire suppressing agents. In

this flow field, the axial velocity gradient, or the flow strain rate, at flame extinction

provides a convenient parameter to quantify

the suppression effectiveness. Numerical

calculations on flame extinction condition in

this flow field are being performed using two

approaches. In the first approach, quasi-one

dimensional calculations along the axis of

symmetry are performed using a hybrid

Eulerian-Lagrangian description for the

gas-particle motion, v/ith detailed chemical

kinetic models. The flame extinction results

with fine-water droplets have shovm

interesting nonmonotonic effect on water

droplet size in extinguishing the counterflow

nonpremixed methane-air flames. In

subsequent analysis, the exact thermal,

physical and chemical contributions have

been quantified. In the second approach,

two-dimensional axisymmetric conservation

equations, with simplified reaction models,

are solved numerically. The aim here is to

investigate the effect of water droplet number

density on the approximations introduced in

deriving the quasi-one dimensional

formulation used in the first approach. This

effort will be extended to investigate the

effect of sodium bicarbonate particles next.

In the supporting experiments, an enclosed,

counterflow burner has been designed and

built with provision for introducing

condensed-phase suppressing agents with the

air-stream. Because of the seeding of the air

stream with the condensed phase agents, use

of screens is not an option to make the flow

uniform. Therefore, converging nozzles made

out of Pyrex glass are used to obtain uniform

flow at the jet exit. An LDV system has been

set up to verify the quality of the flow and

also the local flow strain rate. Significant

effort has been devoted to developing a steady particle feed system, for a wdde range

of particle sizes. The next goal is to

characterize the effectiveness of various sizes

of NaHC03 particles (sized into groups of 0

mm- 10 mm, 10 mm-20 mm, 20 mm-30 mm,

40 mm-60 mm, and 60 mm-75 mm) in

suppressing nonpremixed gaseous flames,

based on the local extinction strain rate

measurements using the LDV system. In

subsequent years, advanced laser diagnostic

facilities will be used for point measurements

and planar imaging of the temperature and

165
species profiles to further validate the

numerical model.

Recent Results

Lentati, A.M. and Chelliah, H.K.,"The

Dynamics of Water Droplets in a Counterflow Field and its Effect on Flame

Extinction," Eastern States Section Meeting,

Tlie Combustion Institute, Hilton Head, SC,

December 1996.

1

I

166
FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

MATERIALS FIRE

RESEARCH
I
Fire Safe Materials

Principal Investigator

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop theoretical models describing

thermal degradation behavior of polymer

chains in the presence of flame retardant

additives, new approaches to flame retardant

materials, and methods to measure material

flammabilities and their relationship to fire

performance of specific end products for the

material.

Problem

Many inexpensive, large volume commodity

polymers have excellent physical properties.

However, almost all of them are highly

flammable. Therefore, flame retardant

additives are commonly used in the end

application when good fire performance is required. The development of new

environmentally friendly, inexpensive flame

retardant additives is expensive and time

consuming for U.S. industry. Instead of the

traditional trial-and-error approach, a more

scientific approach based on various technical

tools is needed for the industry to make more

fire safe, environmentally friendly end

products. The problem is the need for

rational development of new materials, as well as appropriate evaluation of the

flammability properties of end products with

new flame retardants to assure their

improved fire performance. This requires

appropriate, bench-scale methodology to

determine relevant flammability properties of

candidate materials and their relationship to

fire performance of the specific end products

made from these materials.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will further develop a molecular dynamics model describing the

thermal degradation of commodity polymers

with potential flame retardant additives to

determine the effects of the additives on

thermal stability of the polymers and the

formation of stabihzing crosslinks. These

calculated results will be compared with the

experimentally measured changes in the

polymers with the additives during thermal

degradation. 7\fter the specific end products

are selected, BFRL will conduct full scale

experiments with various samples with and

without flame retardants to understand their

controlling physical processes. A fire growth

model will be developed for the specific end

products based on the controlling physical

processes. The inputs to the model will be

measured for the samples tested in full scale

experiments. The calculated results are be

compared with the full scale data to examine

the accuracy of the model and to continue

the improvement of the model. The results

will establish the relationship between the

effectiveness of flame retardancy for the

materials measured in bench scale tests and

their fire performance in the selected end use. An industrial consortium has been formed

and potential end applications v^ll be

determined shortly after evaluating the

inputs from the consortium members.

Recent Results

Gilman, J.W., Ritchie, S.J., Kashiwagi, T.,

and Lomakin, S.M. " Fire Retardant

Additives for Polymeric Materials. 1 . Char

Formation from Silica Gel - Potassium

Carbonate" Fire and Materials, 21 :23-32,

1997.

169
Development of

Environmentally-Friendly, New

Flame Retardants Consortium

Principal Investigator

Takashi ICashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsors

Consortium Members (AICZO NOBEL, FMC,

PQ Corp., Sekisui America)

Objective

To understand the mechanisms of char

formation and heat release rate reduction due

to the addition of silica gel in polypropylene,

PP.

Problem

Many inexpensive, large volume commodity

polymers have excellent physical properties.

However, almost all of them are highly

flammable. Therefore, flame retardant

additives are commonly used in the end

application when good fire performance is required. Some of the most common

additives contain halogens, chemicals that

have raised some environmental concerns,

especially in Europe. U.S. manufacturers are seeking new, environmentally friendly flame

retardants in order to manufacture the same

products for export as well as domestic sale.

Polypropylene is a commodity polymer which

is used for fabric in upholstered furniture,

carpets, cables, in automobile and so on. One

environmentally friendly flame retardant

approach is to alter the thermal degradation

processes so as to enhance char formation

during polymer burning. Char formation

reduces the amount of carbon containing,

combustible, volatile, degradation products,

char also insulates the underlying polymer,

due to the char's low thermal conductivity.

However, PP does not generate char during

its burning. We know that the addition of

silica gel in PP generates a significant amount

of char and reduces heat release rate. We do

not yet understand the mechanisms for the

formation of char, in this system. A thorough

investigation of these mechanisms is needed

to optimize the structure and composition of

silica gel to generate more char and enhance

the reduction in heat release rate.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will use its Cone

Calorimeter to evaluate the effect of particle

size, pore size, pore fraction, and silanol

content of the silica gel on the flammability

properties of PP. The Cone Calorimeter data

will assist in determining what parameter of

the silica gel controls the flammability of PP.

BFRL will use the gasification apparatus

(unique to NIST) to measure gasification rate

and temperatures in the sample in nitrogen

atmosphere to determine the effects of the

silica gel structure/composition on the

gasification processes of PP. Polymer residues

generated from the gasification apparatus or our nitrogen flow reactor at various

temperatures will be analyzed by IH, 13C,

and 29Si solid state NMR. Changes in the

thermal degradation processes of PP with the

addition of the silica gel will be measured

using FTIR evolved gas analysis. A series of

computer experiments will be conducted

using BFRL's developed molecular dynamics

model in an effort to elucidate the

mechanism by which the presence of silica gel

alters the thermal degradation chemistries or

physical gasification processes of PP.

Combined analysis of the computational

results with the experimental data will reveal

the char formation mechanism and also will

determine the optimal structure/composition

of silica gel for the formation of char and

reduction in heat release rate in PP.

Recent Results

New project.

170
Flammability of Automotive

Materials and Components

Principal Investigator

Thomas J. Ohlemiller

Fire Science Division

301-975-6481

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

General Motors Corporation

R&D Center

Automotive Safety Research Department

Objective

To measure the flammability of materials and

assemblies from the engine and passenger

compartments of various automobiles and

identify means of improvement.

Problem

This is one task of three undertaken under a CRADA with General Motors Corporation.

There is need to examine the origins,

progression and severity of post-crash

automobile fires and to assess potential

means to alleviate this fire problem.

Required is a quantitative measure of the

heat release rate from functional assemblies

found in automobiles, especially under the

hood. Since thermoplastics are involved in

most of these, the expected mode of burning

is one of the object interacting with its self-generated pool fire.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will measure the heat

release rate from objects yielding a peak HRR

of about 50 kW or less. This includes a provision for a pool fire beneath the object.

BFRL will perform experiments using its Cone Calorimeter of the factors affecting an

interacting object/pool fire.

Recent Results

New Project.

Vehicle Fire Initiation and

Propagation

Principal Investigators

Thomas G. Cleary

Fire Science Division

301-975-6858

Thomas J. Ohlemiller

Fire Science Division

301-975-6481

Sponsor

General Motors Corporation

R&D Center

Automotive Safety Research Division

Objective

Develop a better understanding of the

dynamics of post-collision fires that threaten

the safety of vehicle occupants and develop

realistic, repeatable ignition protocols for

vehicle fire safety testing.

Problem

Approximately I percent-2 percent of all high-speed vehicle crashes are attended by

fire which results in an estimated 300 vehicle

occupant deaths per year due to fire in

otherwise survivable crashes. It is unknown

whether cost-effective solutions (less

flammable materials substitution, active

suppression, etc.) could be devised to

improve the death and injury rate from

post-collision fire.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will analyze a series of

instrumented high-speed crashes performed

by GM for clues suggesting ignition sources,

the distribution of flammable fluids and the

potential for ignition. Plausible ignition

scenarios will be hypothesized: then,

repeatable fire initiation protocols will be

developed that mimic ignition scenarios in

terms of the initial fire insult to the vehicle.

The crashed vehicles will be heavily

instrumented (video, temperature, heat flux,

and gas analysis) and burned given a predetermined initiation protocol to examine

the role specific vehicle components play in

171
the fire growth and spread into the passenger

compartment. From these results,

intervention (active or passive) strategies

could be proposed and tested, leading to safer

vehicles.

Evaluation of Potential Fire

Intervention Materials and

Technologies

Recent Results

New project.

Principal Investigator

Anthony Hamins

Fire Science Division

301-975-6598

Sponsor

General Motors Corporation

R&D Center

Automotive Safety Research Department

Objective

To identify and evaluate fire protection and

suppression technologies that could improve

fire safety of vehicles.

Problem

Heat transfer, transport of toxic gases, and

flame propagation into the passenger

compartment lead to fatalities associated

with post-accident vehicle fires.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will evaluate the

progression of fires in vehicle tests and

determine where active and passive fire

protection systems can effectively intervene.

Identification of superior materials and

appropriate fire protection technologies wiW

be sought from industry. Based on the

information gained from the vehicle fire tests,

one or more representative fire scenarios will

be developed for use in intermediate and

full-scale evaluation of selected materials and

technologies. Intermediate-scale testing of

selected materials and technologies will be

conducted using the representative scenarios.

Recent Results

New project.

172
Quantitative Evaluation of Fire

Safety Features

such as radiative emission, fire growth and

spread. The effect of water on these

parameters will also be investigated.

Principal Investigator

Anthony Hamins

Fire Science Division

301-975-6598

Recent Results

New project.

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To predict the burning rate of a standard

rack-storage commodity fire, with and

without water sprinkler application.

Draft curtains, a fire safety requirement for

industrial rack storage of commodities are expensive. Models which provide a reliable

means to predict the effectiveness of

alternative active and passive fire protection

are desirable. Computations using the

methodology of large eddy simulations have

been developed to model the interaction of

sprinklers and draft curtains for rack storage

commodity fires. Furthermore, the model has

been shown to be capable of predicting the

major features in two existing large scale

tests. Verification of the micro-scale

combustion sub-models are needed to

improve computational reliability.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will observe small,

intermediate, and if possible, large-scale bum

experiments observed to ascertain fire

behavior. Relevant literature will be

consulted in an effort to develop an improved

first generation burning rate model. A series

of small and intermediate scale

measurements will be conducted to validate

the improved burning rate model. Small scale

experiments, such as in the cone calorimeter,

will investigate the combustion characteristics

of wet and dry cardboard. The effect of

sample orientation on flame spread will be

studied using a large radiant panel. The

burning of single and multiple box arrays will

be conducted to observe key fire phenomena

Problem t

173
Combustion of Silicone

Principal Investigator

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor

Dow Corning Corporation

Objective

To understand the combustion mechanism of

siloxane and why the heat release rate (as

measured in the Cone Calorimeter) of

burning siloxane is nearly independent of

external thermal radiant flux.

Problem t The heat release rate (HRR) of burning

materials increases significantly with an

increase in external thermal radiant flux

applied to the burning surface. This is true

for non-charring materials and for charring

materials. However, the burning behavior of

siloxanes differs markedly from carbon-based

materials. Perhaps most significant, the HRR

for siloxanes (chain length > 15 Si-0 units)

does not increase significantly with an

increase in external thermal radiant flux.

Whereas carbon based materials may form

products of incomplete combustion such as soot and carbonaceous chars, siloxanes form

very minimal char but produce substantial

amounts of solid amorphous silica (Si02) as a major product of combustion. Previous

studies suggest that amorphous silica plays a

significant role in mediating the burning

behavior of siloxanes.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform three

tasks:

1 . Gasification rates of silicone fluids

will be measured in nitrogen as a function of

a well-defined simulated silica layer in the

fluid to determine the role and mechanism of

the silica ash layer in the burning behavior of

silicone fluids.

2. Determine the distribution of

temperature in silicone flames. A number of

techniques will be explored including

aspirated thermocouples as well as optical

methods as an effective grey body spectral

emission approximation.

3. Author technical paper on the

gasification rate, global heat of gasification,

vapor products and residue analysis for

submitted to an appropriate technical

journal.

Recent Results

Buch, R., Hamins, A., Konishi, IC, Mattingly,

D., and ICashiwagi, T., "Radiative Emission

Fraction of Pool Fires Burning Silicone

Fluids," Combustion and Flame, 1 08: 1 1 8- 126,

1997.

Austin, P. J., Buch, R. R., and Kashiwagi, T.,

Gasification of Silicone Fluids Under External

Thermal Radiation, NISTIR 6041, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, July

1997.

174
Principal Investigator

Kenneth Steclder

Fire Science Division

301-975-6678

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Production and Certification of

Cone Calorimeter SRMs

The other standard sample will be a charforming material which tends to generate an

unsteady, low heat release rate (and burning

rate), typically with two different peak heat

release rates during burning, and with low

smoke production. Several materials will be

assessed, including polystyrene and

phenolics, and two will be selected for

certification and production as SRM's.

Recent Results

New project.

Objective

To produce and certify two standard

reference materials for heat, mass, and smoke

release rates in the Cone Calorimeter.

Problem

There are about 1 40 Cone Calorimeters in

the world and their number is increasing

annually. This device and attendant test

method were developed at in the middle

1 980's to measure simultaneously three

different flammability properties of a single

end-product specimen: heat release rate, mass

loss rate (burning rate), and smoke

production. The method is used widely by

testing companies, materials/chemical

companies, and end-products producers to

evaluate fire performance of existing

materials as well as new, exploratory

materials. However, there often is substantial

scatter in lab-to-lab results, and there are no

standard reference materials to calibrate the

entire system in a manner which closely

mimics the behavior of a real sample (a

methane burner currently is used for heat

release rate). Therefore, realistic calibration

samples in slab form are critically needed to

make certain that the device measures heat

release rate, mass loss rate, and smoke

production accurately, repeatably, and

reproducibly.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL plans to certify and

produce two standard reference materials;

one will be a thermoplastic which forms no

char during burning; it will tend to generate a

nearly steady, high heat release rate (and

burning rate), with high smoke production.

175
Radiative Ignition and Subsequent

Flame Spread in Microgravity

Principal Investigator

Takashi ICashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology and

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

Microgravity Science Project

Objective

To extend the BFRL theoretical model of

ignition and subsequent flame spread over a thermally thin material in microgravity to a thick material and conduct experiments in

drop towers for comparison of the predicted

results wath the experimental observation.

Problem

Fires in spacecraft pose significant dangers to

the crew due to toxic combustion products

and over pressurization by heat release.

Momentary ignitions due to electrical shorts or overheating might be an acceptable and

recoverable hazard, but a transition from the

ignition to flame spread is an acceptable risk.

The transition mechanism has not been well

understood.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform a parametric study to examine the effects of

many physical and chemical parameters on

transition from ignition and flame spread and

flame growth will be conducted using the

newly developed code based on full Navier-Stokes equations (time-dependent

and 2D/3D). BFRL will continue to analyze

experimental results obtained in the USMP-3

flight and also in JAMIC II. Experiments in

50 percent oxygen will be conducted in

JAMIC using thin PMMA samples and

thicker paper samples as JAMIC III.

Recent Results

McGrattan, K.B., ICashiwagi, T., Baum, H.R.,

and Olson, S.L., "Effects of Ignition and

Wind on the Transition to Flame Spread in a Microgravity Environment," Combustion and

Flame, 106:377-391, 1996.

ICashiwagi, T., McGrattan, K.B., Olson, S.L.,

Fujita, O., lOkuchi, M., and Ito, K., "Effects

of Slow Wind on Localized Radiative

Ignition and Transition to Flame Spread in

Microgravity," Twenty-Sixth Symposium

(International) on Combustion, The

Combustion Institute, 1345-1352, 1996.

176
Combustion of a Polymer (PMMA)

Sphere in Microgravity

Principal Investigator

Jiann C. Yang

Fire Science Division

301-975-6662

Sponsor

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

Lewis Research Center

Objective

To determine the burning rates of PMMA

spheres in a low gravity environment under

various ambient oxygen conditions.

Problem

The need to use polymeric materials that may

be flammable cannot be totally eliminated

aboard the space shuttle or the future

manned permanent space-station. This study

is pertinent to the problem associated with

the potential fire threat caused by the

presence of polymeric materials. The use of

spherical geometry has many advantages

because a spherical flame, which is one-dimensional, is amenable to simple

mathematical analysis and facilitates a

detailed examination of the many interesting

phenomena associated with the combustion

of a solid phase material without involving

the complications of flame-spread, which is

still an active research area.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform fire

experiments using polymeric materials in low

gravity aboard the NASA Reduced Gravity

DC-9 Aircraft. The sphere will be ignited

using a pair of heating coils. Experiments

using suspended spheres will be conducted,

and a mechanism for deploying an

unsupported sphere will also be developed.

Suspended spheres will be obtained by

supporting the spheres at the tip of a thermocouple. Results will be compared with

those obtained under normal gravity

condition.

Recent Results

Yang, J.C., Hamins, A., Gorchkov, N., and

Glover, M., "Combustion of

Polymethymethacrylate Spheres,"

Work-in-Progress Poster Sessions, Twenty-sixth

Symposium (International) on Combustion,

Naples, Italy, August 1996.

Yang, J.C., Hamins, A., Gorchkov, N., and

Glover, M., "Combustion of

Polymethymethacrylate Spheres at Normal

and Reduced Gravity," Annual Conference on

Fire Research, October 1996.

177
RECENT GRANTS-MATERIALS

FIRE RESEARCH

1 . Cross-Linking of Polystyrene by

Friedel-Crafts Chemistry to

Enhance Resistance to Thermal

Degradation

Principal Investigators

Charles A. Wilkie

Michael A. McIGnney

Department of Chemistry

Marquette University

P. O. Box 1881

Milwaukee, WI 53201

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a suitable system for FriedelCrafts chemistry to achieve cross-linking of

polystyrene only under conditions which

approximate those which may be

encountered in a small fire.

reactions. In the typical reaction, one uses aluminum chloride as the catalyst with an

alkyl halide as the alkylating agent. This is unsuitable because the catalyst is quite

hygroscopic so it will seriously erode the

characteristics of the polymer and because

hydrogen chloride is evolved as a byproduct

of the reaction. An additional problem is that an alkyl halide will alkylate benzene at

room temperature when aluminum chloride

is used as the catalyst. In order to use this

reaction one must identify an inefficient

catalyst which will only promote the reaction

at elevated temperatures and/or an inefficient

alkylating agent. Another requirement is that

the all<ylating agent be dysfunctional so that

cross-linldng is possible. The combinations

which has proven most efficacious to date

uses zeolite catalysts with diols as the

alkylating reagents.

Recent Results

Li, J., and Wilkie, C. A, "Improving the

Thermal Stability of Polystyrene by FriedelCrafts Chemistry," Polymer Degrad. Stab., has

not yet been published.

Problem

It is usually assumed that a cross-linked

polymer will be more thermally stable than is a thermoplastic material. One may easily

cross-link the majority of polymers but they

lose all processability upon cross-linking.

The goal of this work is to maintain the

processability of polymers by incorporating

materials which will promote the cross- linldng of polymers only under thermal

conditions which exceed those which would

be used during the processing of the polymer.

Approach

Any cross-linldng scheme must take

advantage of the functional groups which are present on the polymer. In the case of

polystyrene, the only functional group which

is present is the aromatic ring and this means

that a reaction must be performed on this

ring to achieve cross-linking. One chemical i reaction which may occur on aromatic rings j

is Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation

'

I 178
2. A Fire Growth Simulation

Model for Materials

Principal Investigator

Professor James Quintiere

Fire Protection Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, MD

301-405-3993

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

The proposed research seeks to develop and

assess a simulation model to predict the fire

growth on commercial materials used in

building construction and finish applications.

Problem

Many standard regulatory test methods are intended to assess and control the

flammability of interior finish and

construction materials. While these tests vary, room-comer tests of wall and ceiling

materials have emerged as an alternative and

more universal measure of material

performance. Predictive methods to assess

fire growth on such materials in realistic

scenarios are limited and lack confidence.

Approach

In 1 992 a simulation model was published

which had good success at predicting the

performance of materials in the ISO DP 9705

room comer test protocol. Since then 24

materials have been assessed by the model

and compared to its actual test performance.

Encouraging results were obtained.

Subsequent analysis of UBC room-comer test protocol results for textile wall materials

demonstrated the model's versatility and its reasonably accurate predictability. The model

offers the framework for fire growth

prediction within the context of building fire

and smoke models such as CFAST.

The model is a systems approach to fire

growth. The approach has been to maintain

simplicity but completeness. Simplicity is

needed in order to easily accommodate

material data from standard tests. Property

data for the model are derived from tests

results of the Cone Calorimeter and the LIFT

apparatus. Data over a heat flux range are needed to adequately develop the needed

property data to predict ignition, flame

spread and burning rate. Other needed

model input data include the heat flux and

flame height characteristics of the comer

ignitor burner. This controls the heat flux

during flame spread in the corner. Recent

studies of the heat flux characteristics of corner burners can provide more accurate

and more general data inputs for the model.

Currently the model consists of four

differential equations for flame spread and

burnout fronts in two directions, an integral

equation for room surface temperature, and

an algebraic equation for smoke layer

temperature. A complete documentation and

reassessment of the model is underway.

New data from full-scale comer tests will be

examined. These include 12 materials tested

in the ISO standard, former work by Kokkala

in a much larger test, and NIST data for a composite material in a non-standard comer

test.

The goals are to present a clear description of

the model so that others might consider its use, to improve the physical basis for the

model in view of recent research, and to

assess the accuracy of the model against new

full-scale data.

Recent Results

Quintiere, J. G., Haynes, G., and Rhodes, B.

T., "Applications of a Model to Predict Flame

spread over Interior Finish Materials in a Compartment," Journal of Fire Protection

Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1995.

Quintiere, J. G., Hopkins, M., and Hopkins,

D. Jr., "Fire Hazard Prediction for Textile

Wall Materials," Department of Fire

Protection Engineering, University of

Maryland, prepared for the American Textile

Manufacturers Institute, January 1995.

179
3. The Development of Novel Low

Flammability Siloxane-Based

Impact Modifiers for Cyanate

Ester Resins

Principal Investigator

Professor Steven K. Pollack

Department of Chemistry

Howard University

202-80-6892

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop siloxane polymers terminally

functionalized with cyanate ester group

capable of being compounded with

commercial cyanate ester resins such that

they impart higher impact resistance with no

increase or with a decrease in flammability.

Problem

Cyanate ester resins (CERs) have been

proposed as a potentially useful matrix

material for airframes. CERs have seen their

widest use in printed circuit wiring board

(PCWB) technologies. Their use in radomes

and for application in near earth orbit has

also seen a recent increase. However,

commercial CERs do not currently have the

appropriate fracture toughness for

applications such as airframe construction.

Standard techniques for improving the

performance of brittle polymer matrices

would include the addition of a phase

separated rubbery materials as impact

modifiers. These serve to induce

microfracturing in a controlled fashion and

the rubbery particles then act as energy

dispersing elements in the matrix. Thus a rubber-modified matrix will fail "gracefully"

rather than catastrophically. A major

concern for the increase in the use of

polymeric materials in commercial airline

construction is their potential for

combustibility. The CERs have flammability

comparable to conventional phenolic resins

and possess excellent processibility. Added

impact modifiers must not lead to increases

in flammability or to the release of toxic

materials during combustion.

Approach

We are developing compositions of cyanate

functional siloxanes and determine the

appropriate formulations to provide optimal

mechanical performance with combustion

properties as good as or better than pure

CERs. To accomplish this, we are synthesizing cyanate terminated siloxane

polymer. This involves the synthesis of

disiloxanes functionalized with terminal

phenol groups. These dimers are then

equilibrated with the cyclic trimer or tetramer

of dimethylsiloxane and in some formulations

with the addition of diphenylsiloxane, the

latter intended to improve the solubility of

the siloxane in the CER resins. After

formation of the phenol terminated

oligomers, they are reacted with cyanogen

bromide to create the final CER-siloxane.

This is then blended with oligophenol

derived commercial cyanate ester resins.

Recent Results

No published report on this work.

180
FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

ADVANCED FIRE

MEASUREMENTS

Improvement and Development of

Fire Diagnostics

Principal Investigator

William M. Pitts

Fire Science Division

301-975-6486

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To quantitatively characterize fire behavior

using experimental measurement techniques

having reliable estimates of accuracy and

precision.

Problem

As the understanding of fire behavior and

modeling has advanced, the need for

quantitative characterization of fire

properties has increased dramatically. Such

measurements are required to improve the

understanding of fire physics and chemistry.

Also, detailed measurements are needed to

validate the zone and field models which are being developed to predict fire behavior.

Nearly all measurement techniques currently

employed for fire characterization have been

in use for several decades and have generally

not incorporated the great strides made in

instrumentation and data acquisition

abilities. Compounding the problem is that

all currently used techniques are subject to

systematic and random errors which have not

been fully characterized.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will assess many

currently used methods characterizing fire

properties and based on analysis and testing,

recommend modifications which will improve

both precision and accuracy. A systematic

program will investigate potential new fire

diagnostics and develop practical systems for

implementation.

Recent Results

New project.

Particle Measurement in Support

of the Semiconductor Industry

Principal Investigator

George W. Mulholland

Fire Science Division

301-975-6695

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a facility for accurately measuring

particle size/concentration and for depositing

monodisperse particles of specified size,

number, and chemistry on calibration

artifacts to support the Semiconductor

Roadmap goal of qualifying 60 nm diameter

particles.

Problem

The detection, quantification and

characterization of particulate contamination

on semiconductor surfaces is essential to

advanced semiconductor manufacturing. The

present practical limit for particle detection is 100 nm diameter. The National Technology

Roadmap for Semiconductors calls for the

ability to detect and quantify particles with a 60 nm diameter by 200 1 . There is currently a need for accurately sized monodisperse

particles in the size range from 70 nm to 200

nm for developing and calibrating improved

scanning surface inspection systems.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will perform electrical

mobility measurements by VLSI Standards

on a reduced data set. The mean particle size

will be determined from the data in

collaboration with Statistical Engineering

Division and a report prepared enabling the

particle suppliers to provide more accurate

particle samples. The stability of the aerosol

generation system will be improved and then

used in assessing the performance of a modified inlet for the electrical mobility

analyzer. The improved system will be used

in accurate particle size measurement for 80

nm polystyrene spheres, which is the key

183
target particle size for new scanning surface

inspection systems. A trajectory model has

been developed for the electrical mobility

analyzer in collaboration with NIST's

Statistical Engineering Division and is being

used to assess the effect of particle diffusion

on the classifier performance.

Recent Results

Mulholland, G.W., Bryner, N., Liggett, W.,

Scheer, B.W., and Goodall, R.K., "SelecUon

of Calibration Particles for Scanning Surface

Inspection Systems," Proceed. ofSPIE Meeting,

August, 1 996, Denver.

Mulholland, G.W., and Bryner, N.P.,

"Application of the Electrostatic Classifier for

Particle Metrology Relevant to the

Semiconductor Industry," Fine Particle Society

Meeting, August 1996, Chicago, IL.

Carbon Monoxide Production and

Prediction

Principal Investigator

William M. Pitts

Fire Science Division

301-975-6486

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a fundamental understanding of

the mechanisms of carbon monoxide

formation in flames sufficient to produce a

detailed predictive model.

Problem

CO generated by fires in enclosures is responsible for roughly two-thirds of fire

deaths. The conditions necessary and the

mechanisms responsible for the generation of

high concentrations of CO are poorly

characterized. As a result, it is currently

impossible to predict the generation of CO by

fires. Such a predictive capability is required

by Laboratory fire models such as HAZARD.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue to

perform fundamental and engineering

investigations. The engineering studies are designed to develop appropriate correlations

for CO formation for fires in enclosures and

provide the necessary knowledge to

incorporate the findings into existing BFRL

fire models. The fundamental investigations

will identify the principal chemical and

physical mechanisms responsible for the

formation of high CO concentrations in fires

and to theoretically justify the use of the

engineering correlations. Ultimately, the

findings will be incorporated into a simple

physical model for CO production in

enclosure fires.

Recent Results

Identified four mechanisms which are

j responsible for the formation of CO within i an enclosure containing a fire. The i

I 184
mechanisms were incorporated into an

algorithm designed to allow the user to

identify which mechanisms are important for a given fire and to provide guidance on

estimating the amounts of CO generated.

Lean Flammability Limit as a

Fundamental Refrigerant Property,

Phase III

Principal Investigators

William Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Carole Womeldorf

Fire Science Division

301-975-4415

Sponsor

Air-conditioning and Refrigeration

Technology Institute

Objective

The ultimate goal of this research program is to provide industry (by 1999) with a high

precision, repeatable method for measuring

flame limits based upon a counter-flow

burner design. The specific objectives of

Phase III are to determine if 1) the absolute

value of the lower flammability limit is sensitive to small changes in burner design;

2) the burner can operate and produce flame

limits and critical flammability ratios at

elevated temperatures, or with marginally

flammable refrigerants; and 3) how the

burner design might be simplified for use by

industry.

Problem

CFCs have been phased out of production for use as refrigerants because of their

destructive effect on stratospheric ozone. Replacing halogen atoms in the molecule

with hydrogen atoms can transform a nonflammable CFC into a potentially

flammable material. The efficiency and

flammability of R-32 and other alternative

refrigerants must be carefully balanced in

mixtures to provide safe and environmentally

friendly refrigerants. ASTM Standard E 681-

94 identifies test equipment and methods for

measuring the flammability limits. For

strongly flammable gases it provides a well

defined limit of flammability; however, for

weakly flammable alternative refrigerants, the

test method gives results with a larger

185
uncertainty due to its sensitivity to ignition

conditions, wall quenching effects, and

operator interpretation of the flammable

condition. The ambiguity hinders attempts

to optimize the efficiency and safety of

alternative refrigerant mixtures.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will vary nozzle

spacing and geometry to determine the effect

on the zero-strain limit and to confirm that

the design chosen for the NIST burner is appropriate for the purposes of the

refrigeration industry. The opposed flow

burner will also be modified to operate at

inlet gas temperatures up to 100 °C.

Measurements of the lower flammability

limit of R-245ca in air at room temperature

and 100 °C will be attempted using the

extrapolation-to-zero-strain approach

developed in Phase I. If a stable flame can not be obtained, the initial conditions will be

varied to enhance the combustion process. A

new burner and flow control system will be

designed for industrial use and an operating

procedure formalized based upon experience

with the current NIST burner.

Recent Results

Womeldorf, C, and Grosshandler, W., "Lean

Flammability Limit as a Fundamental

Refrigerant Property, Phase II," Interim

Technical Report, DOE/CE/238 10-68, April

30, 1996.

Laminar Flame Speeds in

Refrigerant/Air Mixtures

Principal Investigators

William Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Carole Womeldorf

Fire Science Division

301-975-4415

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To support the continued development of an

improved experimental procedure for use by

industry (in 1999) to refine safety standard

measurements of the flammability of

refrigerant blends.

Problem

The standard method for determining

flammability limits of refrigerants is somewhat subjective and difficult to analyze.

Research at NIST has shown tliat a counter

flow burner avoids the pitfalls for the ASTM

devise for methane, but for slow burning

HFCs the flame is much thicker. Detailed

information on the flame structures and

speed is needed in the counter flow burner to

properly analyze the results and to guide the

development of an alternative test method

for the industry.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will take LDA velocity

measurements for lightly-strained,

stoichiometric R-32/air flames and for

mixtures near the flammability limit. Prior to

these measurements, an exhaust scrubber

system will be designed and installed to trap

the HF which is released during the

combustion process. The refrigerant delivery

system will be modified to accommodate

liquids with normal boiling points up to 30

°C. Measurements of the lower flammability

limit of different compounds will be

compared and interpreted in light of flame

186
speeds predicted from a chemical kinetics

model.

Recent Results

A counter-flow burner has been designed and

built to operate on R-32 and R-32 blends. In

related work done for the Air-conditioning

and Refrigeration Technology Institute, it has

been established that the burner can be used

to define the flammability limits of these

refrigerants in ambient air mixtures.

A Numerical Model for

Combustion of Bubbling

Thermoplastic Materials in

Microgravity

Principal Investigator

Kathryn Butler

Fire Science Division

301-975-6673

Sponsor

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

Objective

To improve our fundamental understanding

of the behavior of burning thermoplastic

materials in microgravity. The end product,

to be delivered by June 2000, is a threedimensional model that predicts the

temperature field, burning rate, and bubble

bursting characteristics for a combusting

thermoplastic sphere.

Problem

Recent microgravity experiments on

combustion of thermoplastics, including

velcro made of nylon and electrical wire

insulation, have pointed out a fire hazard

unique to low gravity. Chemical reactions

within the bulk of certain burning

thermoplastic materials generate internal

bubbles, which grow and migrate until they

burst at the surface and eject fuel and fuel

vapor into the surroundings. Under normal

gravity conditions, the primary danger of fire

spread by contact with burning

thermoplastics is from the dripping of the

molten material. In microgravity, however,

the forcible ejection of molten fuel droplets

and fuel vapor uniquely enhances fire growth

by transporting burning material in random

directions, threatening the safety of the crew

and spacecraft.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will develop a timedependent, three-dimensional numerical

model to predict the temperature field,

burning rate, and bubble bursting

187
characteristics of these materials. The model

will include the dynamics of bubble growth

and migration, heat transfer through the

condensed material, the chemistry of

gasification, and coupling to the gas phase.

In this model, the thermoplastic material is

initialized as a volume of highly viscous

material in which a number of bubble

nucleation sites (up to 10000) are randomly

distributed. A separate model will study

details of the bursting process. Gas phase

mechanisms will be calculated in sufficient

detail to adequately represent the coupling

between the flame and the surface of the

burning thermoplastic sample.

Model results will be compared with

experimental results from the BFRL

performed NASA research project

"Combustion of a Polymer (PMMA) Sphere

in Microgravity," and with ground-based

experiments performed using BFRL's cone

heater. Values to be compared include

temperature as a function of time at the

locations of thermocouples embedded in the

samples, growth and migration of bubbles

wdth time, and bursting rate, given by the

number of bubbles that arrive at the sample

surface as a function of time. A parametric

study of the model will investigate the effects

of variations in material properties and

combustion condition on burning rate and

combustion behavior.

Recent Results

A preliminary model including bubble

nucleation, bubble growth and migration,

and heat transfer has been developed for a rectangular sample. Three-dimensional

visualization tools are in place.

Flammability of Structural

Composites

Principal Investigator

Tom J. Ohlemiller

Fire Science Division

301-975-6481

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

Develop quantitative procedures for assessing

the impact of fire on structural composites

with the ultimate goal of devising materials

guidelines which assure fire safe performance.

Problem

Composites have great potential for a wide

variety of structural uses. However, the

organic nature of the binder resin that

constitutes roughly half of these materials

renders them flammable. Thermal

degradation of this resin in a fire also could

lead to structural failure. At present, BFRL is focused on the flammability issue, in

particular on upward flame spread since it is the fastest, most threatening mode of fire

growth. Some of the most likely resins for

large volume structural usage, e.g., polyester

and vinyl ester, are known from previous

work to be susceptible to fire growth by

upward flame spread. Intumescent coatings

are a promising technology used in the past

to suppress fire growth on materials such as wood. Need is similar technology for

composite materials.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will examine the

problem of fire growth on the surface of

composites in a specific configuration, i.e., a

vertical, 90° corner. This is a generic

representation of an end use configurations

in which two burning surfaces can interact

radiatively thereby enhancing the likelihood

and rate of fire growth. Fires of varied size

and imposed heat flux level are applied at the

base of this corner and the subsequent fire

growth on the composite wall surfaces is

188
measured. These tests are expensive to

conduct and inherently limited in the

parameter ranges. It is of interest to

generalize the results, if possible, by means of

a fire growth model. The method of choice is

to employ the type of semi-empirical model

developed at the University of Maryland and

BFRL for fire growth on more conventional

materials. Such a model uses inputs

measured in bench-scale tests to characterize a particular material. When validated

against available fire growth data, the model

can be used to predict the behavior of a material in other conditions. This lends

much greater credibility and usefulness to the

limited full-scale tests likely to be done for a new material.

Recent Results

One intumescent coating was successfully

tested in a full-scale comer fire and was

found to limit fire grovv1:h.

Ohlemiller, T. J., Cleary, T., and Shields, J. R., "Effect of Ignition Condition on Upward

Flame Spread on Composite Material in a Corner Configuration," 41st SAMPE Meeting,

March 1996.

Fire Safe Aircraft Interior

Materials

Principal Investigators

Jeffrey Gilman

Fire Science Division

301-975-6573

Marc Nyden

Fire Science Division

301-975-6692

Sponsor

Federal Aviation Administration

Objective

To determine the effects of preceramic

polymers and clay-nano-composites on the

flammability of engineering polymers useful

in aircraft interiors and develop theoretical

models to describe thermal degradation

behavior of a variety of polymers including

crosslink formation, products composition,

and relative heat release rate from polymer

burning.

Problem

Advancement of materials to be used in the

interior of commercial aircraft is urgently

needed to gain more egress time for

passengers to escape from fire which may

occur as a result of crash landings. However,

the current capability to predict the

flammability of aircraft materials on the basis

of their molecular structure is limited. In this

laboratory, molecular dynamics modeling has

been developed to explore mechanisms of

thermal degradation and crosslink formation

in vinyl polymers. Development of a new

code that extends this model to include gas

phase reactions and also to apply to

engineering plastics will bring a new tool to

aid in the design of new generation fire

resistant aircraft materials. Inorganic

polymers which convert to a ceramic are new

advanced material that may be useful in fire

retarding organic polymers. These

"preceramic" when heated to high

temperature pyrolyze to form a ceramic

residue in high yield, this thermally insulates

the underlying material. Indeed, this concept

189
has been proved promising in initial studies

and a provisional patent application has been

filed. The clay-nano-composite approach is another important new method which has

shown promise for flame retarding polymers.

However, we need to determine the

mechanism by which these new systems

functions and determine if these approaches

will work in polymers useful in aircraft

interiors.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will extend the range

of the applicability of the currently available

molecular dynamics model to permit

investigation of polymers, such as PBO, PT,

and PEEK, which are of particular interest to

the FAA. Further extension of the model will

be to develop code to include reaction

pathways involving the attack of the polymer

and its degradation products by OH, H and

O radicals generated in the gas phase

combustion. Analysis of the energetics of

these reactions will provide a means to

calculate the relative heat release rate from

burning polymers. The effect of preceramic

polymers and clay-nano-composites on the

flammability properties of organic polymers

will be determined. Polysilsesquioxanes,

polycarbosilazanes will be evaluated for their

compatibility with various organic polymers

and the mixtures and blends prepared. Claynano-composites with both delaminated and

intercalated structure will be prepared using

organic modified montmorillonite calys. The

organic polymers examined will include

thermosets, engineering polymers, and

thermoplastics. The blends will be prepared

and the degree of mixing will be evaluated

using special solid state CP/MAS '^C-NMR

techniques and SEM (to determine the

effects of the degree of mixing on

flammability properties). Preceramic-blends

and nano-composites which show significant

improvement in flammability will be studied

in detail to determine mechanistic

information on how these new materials

affect the flammability of a particular organic

polymer.

Recent Results

Gilman, J. W., Brown, J. E., and Oliver, K.

D., "Synthesis of New Cyanate Ester Resins

for Polymer Flammability Studies,"

Proceedings of Society ofPlastics Engineer,

ANTEC '96 Annual Meeting, Indianapolis, IN,

May 1996.

Nyden, M. R., Coley, T. R., and Mumby, S.,

"Applications of Molecular Dynamics to the

Study of Thermal Degradation in Aromatic

Polymers; I. Polystyrene," Proceedings of Society

of Plastics Engineer, ANTEC '96 Annual

Meeting, Indianapolis, IN, May 1996.

190
RECENT GRANTS-ADVANCED

FIRE MEASUREMENTS

1 . Mixing and Radiation

Properties of Buoyant Luminous

Flame Environments

Principal Investigator

G.M. Faeth

Department of Aerospace Engineering

The University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, MI 48 1 09-2 1 1

313-764-7202

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To measure the radiation and mixing

properties of luminous buoyant turbulent

flame environments and use these results to

improve fire models.

Problem

Radiation and turbulent mixing of luminous

flames affect fire spread, growth and

combustion rates and are important elements

of fire models. Unfortunately, available

information about soot optical properties is limited even though continuum radiation

from soot dominates radiation in fires. Similarly, information about the properties of

buoyant turbulent flows typical of fire

environments is limited which impedes of the

development of fire models. Thus, the

problems being studied include the optical

properties of soot and the mixing properties

of buoyant turbulent flows.

Approach

Past work has shown that soot optical

properties approximate Rayleigh-Debye-Gans

scattering of lydisperse fractal aggregates of

primary soot particles (RDG-PFA theory);

thus, current work is addressing soot

refractive index properties and how they vary

with fuel type and flame condition.

RDG-PFA theory has been used for in-situ

measurements of the refractive index

properties in the visible of soot emitted from

gaseous-hydrocarbon fueled buoyant

turbulent diffusion flames, finding good

agreement with the often-criticized ex-situ

measurements of Dalzell and Sarofim.

Current work involves extending the in-situ

measurements to soot for other hydrocarbon

fuel and flame conditions, and given their

acceptable evaluation, using ex-situ methods

to find soot refractive index properties in the

infrared that are needed for practical

continuum radiation predictions for flames.

Past studies of buoyant turbulent flows

established the properties of self-preserving

round buoyant turbulent plumes and used

these results to show that existing turbulence

models gave effective mean properties

predictions even though predictions of

turbulence properties were not very effective.

This deficiency is a concern because

predictions of rapidly-developing flows

typical of fire environments require good

estimates of turbulence properties. Current

work is extending the study to self-preserving

plane free plumes; the new measurements

show that these flows are observed farther

from the source and are narrower than

previously thought. Subsequent work v^U

measure additional properties in both free

and attached self-preserving plane turbulent

plumes and exploit these results to evaluate

and develop turbulence models.

Recent Results

Faeth, G.M., and Koylu, U.O., "Structure and

Optical Properties of Flame-Generated Soot,"

TrsLnsport Phenomena in Combustion (S.H.

Chan, ed.), Taylor & Francis, Washington,

vol. 1, 19-44, 1996.

Dai, Z., and Faeth, G.M., "Measurements of

the Structure of Self-Preserving Round

Buoyant Turbulent Plumes," J. Heat Trans.,

vol. 118, 493-495, 1996.

Koylu, U.O., and Faeth, G.M., "Spectral

Extinction Coefficients of Soot Aggregates

from Turbulent Diffusion Flames," J. Heat

Trans., vol. 118,415-421, 1996.

Farias, T.L., Carvalho, M.G., Koylu, U.O.,

191
and Faeth, G.M., "Light Scattering from Soot

Aggregates with Radially Inhomogeneous

Primary Particles," Int. J. Heat Tech., vol. 13,

27-47, 1995.

2. Experimental and Modeling

Studies of Soot and Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbon Oxidation

in Post-Flame Gases

Dai, Z., Structure of Self-Preserving Round

Buoyant Turbulent Plumes , Ph.D. Thesis, Dept.

Of Aerospace Engineering, the University of

Michigan, 1995.

Principal Investigator

J. Houston Miller

Department of Chemistry

The George Washington University

Washington DC 20052

Objective

To gain insight into the role of Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) and soot

oxidation contribution to the post-flame

chemistry that leads to high levels of carbon

monoxide (CO) in room fires.

Problem

Unwanted fires burning under ventilated lead

to toxic emissions. These toxic emissions such

as CO and PAH are found to be correlated to

the Global Equivalence Ratio (GER) of the

flame or fire. Moreover, the amount of CO,

attributable for two-thirds of all deaths in

fires, is also found to be a function of the

post-flame temperature. The contribution of

soot and PAH oxidation to the toxicity of the

effluents of fires needs to be investigated in

order to accurately predict levels of CO in

these situations.

Approach

Under ventilated and over ventilated laminar

ethylene diffusion flames were burned in an

enclosed apparatus. The resultant emissions

pass through a quartz tube that is heated to

temperatures typical of those found in upper

layers of room fires. Both optical absorption

and scattering measurements are used to

characterize the gas phase and condensed

phase components of the flow. Furthermore,

extractive sampling coupled with GC/MS

provided for another method of condensed

phase analysis (PAH). Some of the key

results of our measurements have been the

concentrations of the products of incomplete

combustion all increase with GER. For lean

stoichiometrics, the oxidation chemistry

proceeds at a greater rate with increasing

192
tube furnace temperature. For rich

stoichiometrics, evidence exists that chemical

processes (including both paralytic and

oxidation chemistry) occur at all tube furnace

temperatures. However, these chemistries

undergo a marked change in intensity at

about 800 K. The magnitude of the soot

oxidation in our combustor agreese

qualitatively with what may have been

expected from high temperature

extrapolations. However, the activation

energies for our rates are substantially lower.

These results agree with not only

fundamental Idnetic measurements and

calculations but also the observations made

in hood and enclosure fire experiments.

With these results in hand, further

experimental work in FY1997 will

concentrate on accurate determination of

particle size and velocities within the flow

tube using a Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer.

A diffusion flame/plug flow reactor model wdll

also be in development. This treatment of the

combustor will include both the condensed

phase and gas phase compounds in order to

gain fundamental Idnetic and mechanistic

insight of the intermediate temperature

oxidation chemistry.

Recent Results

Skaggs, R.R., Tolocka, M.P., and Miller, J.H.,

Combust. Sci. and Tech. 1996, 116-117, 399.

Tolocka, M.P., Richardson, P.B., and Miller,

J.H., Chem. Phys. Proc. Combust. 1996, 111.

3. Dynamics, Transport and

Chemical Kinetics of

Compartment Fire Exhaust Gases

Principal Investigators

Uri Vandsburger

Virginia Tech

Blacl<sburg VA

(540) 231-4459

Richard J. Roby

Hughes Associates Inc. Baltimore, MD

(410) 737-8677

Objective

To determine the conditions leading to the

transport of high concentrations of CO to

locations remote from the burning

compartment in building fires and to provide

quantitative correlations to be used in

building fire safety design, to reduce the risks

of CO poisoning in building fires.

Problem

Over the past decade, the percentage of

deaths from smoke inhalation in building

fires has risen by 1 percent every year, and

was responsible for 75 percent of the deaths

during 1992. Presently used fire safety

engineering models do not incorporate the

transport and evolution of compartment fire

gases.

Approach

The reduced-scale building fire facility at

Virginia Tech was arranged with the

compartment (1.22 m by 1.52 m by 1.22 m),

which contained a liquid hexane pool fire,

placed on the side at the end of the hallway

(1.67 m by 1.22 m by 5.18 m) forming an Lshape. The global equivalence ratio of the

compartment fires was 3.0±0.3 during the

post-flashover period.

The degree of oxidation of CO-transported

into the hallway is controlled by the amount

of oxygen entrained into the compartment

fire exhaust plume, and also by the thermal

evolution of the plume and ceiling jet in the

hallway. The size of the opening connecting

193
the compartment and hallway, the height of

the soffit at the opening and the hallway

upper-layer depth (controlled by the height

of the soffit at the end of the hallway) all play a role in the entrainment of ambient

(hallway) gases into the plume.

Work during the reporting period addressed

two issues:

1 . Development of correlations for

oxygen entrainment into the compartment

fire gases entering a hallway, and for

predicting the CO yield at the hallway exit.

2. Initial stages of a study examining

the role/effect of heat transfer in the hallway

on the CO levels.

Three situations were examined, which

differed in the upper layer thickness and

hence in the exhaust gas recirculation time in

the hallway. For very long recirculation times

the upper layer depth varied between 0.0 m

and 0.20 m, and the CO yield was at a minimum; magnitude controlled by opening

size. A long recirculation time, upper layer

depth 0.2 m-0.6 m, resulted in higher CO

yields. For short recirculation times, upper

layer depth >0.6m, the CO yields were equal

or higher to the levels inside the

compartment (0.22). The yield was

independent of opening size, and was highest

with external burning. The findings were

explained qualitatively, last year, in terms of

the reacting flowfield structure inside the

hallway (also explaining fire death in the

Hillhaven Nursing Home fire.)

To explain the observed CO yield, the

controlling parameter which is the

entrainment of oxidizer into the plume of hot

gases exiting the compartment into the

hallway was quantified. This was done

measuring Oj levels in the upper layer.

Experiments were run using over ventilated

flames inside the compartment. The

concentrations of Oj were measured in the

compartment exhaust plume and in the

ceiling jet in the hallway. The compartment

exhaust vent area was varied between 0.04

m^ and 0. 12m^. Ceiling jet entrainment

was determined without an inlet soffit. Air

entrainment was found to increase with a decrease in exit vent size, and increase in

inlet soffit size. The parameters controlling

the CO yield in the hallway were determined

to be the compartment vent size, inlet soffit

height, depth of upper layer, occurrence of

external burning and GER of compartment

fire. The first two control the entrainment

dynamics, while the third controls the O2

levels in the entrained gases. Correlations

were developed for the hallway CO yields as a function of the entrainment function, and a nondimensional heat release rate. These

functions incorporate the Froude number,

geometrical vent parameters, and a nondimensional upper layer height in the

hallway.

Work started on quantifying the effect of

heat transfer in the hallway on the evolution

of CO levels. Presently the data is qualitative, indicating the regions of high

reaction rates/heat release. Newly purchased

miniature heat flux sensors will be utilized in a detailed study beginning March 1997.

Recent Results

Lattimer, B. Y., Vandsburger, U. and Roby,

R. ].,The Transport ofHigh Concentrations of

Carbon Monoxide to Locations Remotefrom the

Burning Compartment, Annual Report, 1 996,

NIST GCR, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, 1 996.

194
BFRL HEADQUARTERS

OFFICE OF APPLIED

ECONOMICS

Building for Environmental and

Economic Sustainability (BEES)

Principal Investigator

Barbara C. Lippiatt

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6133

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop decision-support software for

selecting building products that achieve the

most appropriate balance between life-cycle

environmental and economic performance.

Problem

Environmental and economic performances

are two key factors in building product

selection decisions. The environmental

performance of building products, however, is not readily assessable and comparable to

economic performance. A methodology is needed for assessing and comparing

environmental against economic

performance. To maximize technology

transfer, the methodology should be

implemented in publicly-available, user-friendly, decision-support software.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will specify five

additional building products for which its contractor will collect and deliver

environmental performance data for the

BEES system (Building for Environmental

and Economic Sustainability). The Building

and Fire Research Laboratory will refine its default set of relative weights for synthesizing

these data into overall environmental

performance scores. The staff also will

continue to assess economic performance

using the life-cycle costing concept, and

collect life-cycle cost data for the five

additional building products.

A full-featured Beta Test version of BEES will

be developed, incorporating ten building

products. Algorithms and code will be added

to the Alpha version completed in FY1996 to

enable reporting of embodied energy results

and parameterization of transportation

distances, relative weights for environmental

impacts, and the discount rate. A Beta Test

will be conducted, including more than 70

individuals and organizations who have

expressed interest in reviewing the software.

The Beta Test comments will be

incorporated, and BEES 1.0 for WERB

review will be completed.

In FY1998, with additional funding, BFRL

plans to publish, market, expand, and

standardize the BEES methodology

Recent Results

Lippiatt, B.C, "Selecting Environmentally and

Economically Balanced Building Materials,"

Chapter 2, Sustainable Building Technology

Manual: Green Building Practices for Design,

Construction, and Operations, DoE's Center

of Excellence for Sustainable Development

(http://www.sustainabIe.doe.gov/ss/ptipub2.ht

ml).

197
Purchasing Environmentally

Preferable Products

Principal Investigator

Barbara C. Lippiatt

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6133

Sponsor

Environmental Protection Agency

Pollution Prevention Division

Objective

To develop decision-support software for

purchasing products that achieve the most

appropriate balance between life-cycle

environmental, economic, and technical

performance.

Problem

In October 1993, President Clinton signed

Executive Order 12873, "Federal Acquisition,

Recycling, and Waste Prevention," which

directs Federal agencies to evaluate the

environmental attributes of the $200 billion

in products and services they purchase each

year. EO 12873 directs EPA to provide

guidance to Federal agencies on incorporating

environmental preferability into their

purchase decisions. EPA is recommending

that the environmental life-cycle analysis

(LCA) approach be used to assess environmental performance. While LCA

provides a comprehensive examination of a product's environmental effects throughout

its lifetime, it is difficult to implement and its environmental performance results are

sensitive to a number of key parameters.

Furthermore, to be practical, environmental

performance must ultimately be balanced

against economic and technical performance.

To carry out the mandate of EO 12873 while

not overwhelming Federal purchasers or exceeding purchasing budgets, a flexible LCA

technique that incorporates economic and

technical performance needs to be developed

and implemented in user-friendly

decision-support software for the Federal

procurement community.

Approach

In support of EO 12873 and the EPA

Environmentally Preferable Products (EPP)

Program, this 4-year, four-phase project will

develop a flexible methodology for selecting

products that achieve the most appropriate

balance between life-cycle environmental,

economic, and technical performance. During

FY1997, BFRL will implement this

methodology in Windows-based

decision-support software tailored to the

Federal procurement community. BFRL will

develop a demonstration version of the EPP

software with performance data for two major

product categories. BFRL will develop a methodology for balancing the environmental

and economic performance of products using

the LCA and LCC approaches. The

methodology will involve assessing,

synthesizing, and balancing multiple

environmental and economic attributes, all of

which are measured in different units. These

attributes include five global and regional

environmental impacts (global warming,

acidification, nitrification, natural resource

depletion, and solid waste), and product costs over the economic life cycle (first costs and

future costs).

In consultation with the EPP Program, BFRL

will select two major product categories (such

as building products and infrastructure

products) representing a significant share of

Federal purchases for which to illustrate the

technique. This will involve selecting specific

product categories (e.g., paint products and

parking lot paving products) within each

major product category in order to provide

the level of detail necessary to identify

mutually exclusive product alternatives (e.g.,

latex vs. acrylic wall finish paint). The staff

will contract for LCA inventory data such

that a total of five products is included in the

two product categories (two alternative

products in one category, and three in the

other category). BFRL will develop LCA

impact assessment and valuation data for the

five global and regional environmental

impacts, along with LCC data to complete

the data set for each product. The LCA

impact valuation data will consist of several

alternate sets of relative importance weights

198
for the five impacts, including weights

derived from published sources and

user-defined weights.

The methodology and data will be

incorporated into a demonstration version of

the EPP software. The demonstration version

will permit users to select a product category

of interest and set key study parameters (e.g.,

weights for the five environmental impacts,

weights for the relative importance of

environmental vs. economic performance, the

discount rate for converting future costs to

their equivalent present value, and

transportation distance from a factory of final

manufacture to point of end use). The

software will conduct LCA and LCC analyses

on the alternative products and graphically

display overall and detailed LCA and LCC

results. Software features will include

context-sensitive help, visually intuitive

screens, and printed reports.

Recent Results

New project

Economics of New-Technology

Materials

Principal Investigator

Mark A. Ehlen

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-4522

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop life-cycle economic methods for

evaluating the cost effectiveness of

substituting new construction materials-such

as high-performance concrete and steel, FRP

composites, and aluminum—for traditional

materials in civil engineering applications.

Problem

Federal, state, and private agencies that

maintain building and bridge infrastructure

face decreasing budgets, suggesting that they

consider specifying new, higher-performance

construction materials that can reduce the

cost of constructing and maintaining their

facilities. Although these high-performance

materials may be technically sound, barriers

need to be overcome for these materials to be

accepted for general use. Engineers and

designers need to be satisfied that the

material, when used in a civil structure, will

be safe and behave predictably. Once

satisfied, project managers and other decision

makers then need sophisticated but practical

guidelines for evaluating the cost

effectiveness of these alternative building

materials over their life cycle. Providing a method for evaluating life-cycle cost

effectiveness will give decision makers a tool

to help them select, both for research and

applications on the job, those materials that

will deliver their infrastructure at least cost.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will develop an alpha

version of the decision support software

BridgeLCC to aid state and Federal

department of transportation officials choose

cost-effective materials when issuing

199
specifications for the construction and repair

of bridges. BridgeLCC will incorporate the

methodology and cost classification scheme

of BFRL's 1996 published report 5864 (see

below). It will include techniques for taking

into consideration uncertainties associated

with the life-cycle costs of new construction

materials, and will allow state departments of

transportation that use the PONTIS bridge

management system (BMS) software to

calculate the life-cycle costs of their existing

bridges. An integral part of the project will be

the development of an ASTM standard

classification of bridge elements so that

life-cycle cost data can be shared amongst

designers, estimators, cost engineers, and

project managers.

Recent Results

Ehlen, M.A. and Marshall, H.E., 77?^

Economics of New Technology Materials: A Case

Study of FRP Bridge Decking, NISTIR 5864.

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, 1996.

How to Select Research Projects

and Measure Their Impacts

Principal Investigator

Robert E. Chapman

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-2723

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide economic support to BFRL on

how ( 1

) to identify industries affected by

BFRL research, estimate economic impacts

resulting from BFRL research, and estimate

the return on BFRL's research investment

dollars, and (2) to select appropriate research

projects for funding.

Problem

The measurement of economic impacts of

research is a major objective of NIST.

Managers need to know the impact of their

research programs in order to achieve the

maximum social benefits from their limited

budgets. Improved methods for measuring

economic impacts are essential to BFRL to

help select the "best" among competing

research programs, to evaluate how cost

effective are existing research programs, and

to defend or terminate programs on the basis

of their economic impact. This need for

measurement method exists across programs

in both BFRL and NIST.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will (1) initiate a new

economic impact assessment and (2) develop an approach for use by BFRL senior

management in selecting among competing

research projects. This work will be

performed with BFRL senior management

and key technical experts to select a BFRL

research project for an economic impact

assessment. Next, work will identify and

classify the benefits and costs associated with

the project (e.g., those sectors of the national

economy affected by the research and the

likely types of outcomes). Potential sources of

200
data to estimate project-related benefits and

costs will then be identified along with a

strategy for estimating benefits and costs. The principal investigator will initiate date

collection and compile it in a form which will

facilitate a rigorous analysis of project-related

benefits and costs. The impact assessment

will be completed in FY1998.

Many research investment alternatives differ

in characteristics that decision makers

consider important but that are not readily

expressed in monetary terms. When

nonfinancial characteristics are important,

decision makers need a method that accounts

for these characteristics when choosing

among alternative research investments. The

analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is a method that considers nonfinancial

characteristics in addition to common

economic evaluation measures when

evaluating project alternatives. A prototype

"management approach" will be developed

which may be used for screening and

selecting among competing BFRL research

projects. The prototype will enable BFRL

senior management to ( 1) assess fit to the

mission, (2) set priorities, and (3) evaluate

performance against a specific management

goal. OAE will prepare a white paper

outlining the approach.

Recent Results

Chapman, Robert E., and Fuller, Sieglinde K.

Benefits and Costs of Research: Two Case Studies

in Building Technology, NISTIR 5840,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, July 1996.

Chapman, Robert E., and Weber, Stephen F.,

Benefits and Costs of Research: A Case Study of

the Fire Safety Evaluation System, NISTIR

5863, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, July 1996.

Baseline Measures for National

Construction Goals

Principal Investigator

Robert E. Chapman

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-2723

Sponsors

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide economic support to the

Subcommittee on Construction and Building

(C&B), identify data that can provide

baseline measures of current practice with

respect to the seven National Construction

Goals (NCGs), and to represent BFRL on the

Construction Industry Institute (CII)

Benchmarking and Metrics Committee

(BMC).

Problem

Both the C&B activities and the CII BMC

activities are aimed at promoting the

competitiveness of the construction industry.

Support of BFRL's C&B-related activities is focused on the seven NCGs; they are to be

attained by the year 2002. The NCGs are: (I) 50 percent reduction in delivery time, (2)

50 percent reduction in operation,

maintenance, and energy costs, (3) 30

percent increase in productivity and comfort,

(4) 50 percent fewer occupant-related

illnesses and injuries, (5) 50 percent less

waste and pollution, (6) 50 percent more

durability and flexibility, and (7) 50 percent

reduction in construction worl<force illnesses

and injuries. Data describing current

practices of U.S. firms with respect to the

NCGs are needed to establish a baseline

against which to measure progress of the

construction industry toward achieving these

goals. It is essential to have baseline data and

associated measures of progress toward

improved performance to determine the

success of actions taken to improve the

competitiveness of the construction industry

in U.S. and international markets. Having

these measures of progress makes it possible

201
to demonstrate the benefits of advanced

technologies and practices.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will accumulate data

on current industry performance with respect

to the NCGs. A significant effort will be

made to develop methods for measuring

progress. In subsequent years these methods

will be applied to the measurement of

progress toward each of the seven NCGs. The

methods will ultimately be made available on

the Internet. User-friendly decision support

software will also be developed to access baseline data and to measure progress toward

attainment of the NCGs.

A white paper will be prepared describing

baseline measures (e.g., approach, goals

covered, goals yet to be covered, strategy for

data collection, data collected, and analyses

performed) and proposed measures of

progress. Work on the CII BMC will focus on

ensuring that CII's extensive data collection

effort continues to have a focus on those

NCGs which are of mutual interest to BFRL

and CII. OAE will continue to provide

guidance in analyzing data received from CII

member organizations and will participate

actively in the development of new metrics

for measuring performance and/or process

improvements.

Recent Results

Chapman, Robert E., and Fuller, Sieglinde

IC, Baseline Measures of Construction Industry

Practices and Measures of Progressfor the

National Construction Goals: Status and Future

Directions, January 1997.

Life-Cycle Costing Methodology

Principal Investigator

Sieglinde Fuller

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6134

Sponsor

Department of Energy

Federal Energy Management Program

Objective

To provide, on a continuing basis, economic

analysis methods, data, software, training,

and consulting to the Federal Energy

Management Program in support of energy

and water conservation projects in federal

buildings and facilities.

Problem

The National Energy Conservation Policy Act

directs BFRL to provide expert consulting to

DOE related to economic analysis of energy

conservation projects in federal buildings.

Executive Order 12902 of March 8, 1994,

requires that energy usage in federal facilities

be reduced by 30 percent by the year 2005

relative to 1985 levels (on a Btu/SF basis), in a cost-effective manner.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will provide on a continuing basis, economic analysis method,

data, software, training, and consulting.

BFRL is responsible for assisting DOE in the

development and modification of FEMP LCC

rules, as promulgated in 10 CFR 436 Subpart

A. BFRL is amplifying these rules and

procedures in NIST Handbook 135,

Life-Cycle Costing Manualfor the Federal Energy

Management Program.

Annually, BFRL computes the discount rate

to be used in the analysis of federal energy

and water conservation projects, using the

procedure specified in I0CFR436. In

addition, staff computes tables of discount

factors and energy price indices, based on

this discount rate and on energy price

projections received from DOE/EIA for this

purpose. These data are published each

October 1 in the Annual Supplement to

202
Handbook 135, and included in electronic

form with the NIST LCC software.

BFRL has developed five computer programs

for economic analysis of energy and water

conservation projects: BLCC, Quick Input,

DISCOUNT, ERATES, and EMISS. The

programs are maintained, updated, and

enhanced with new analytical capabilities

annually. These programs are distributed by

DOE and numerous private-sector software

vendors. The programs, as well as the

publications can be downloaded from the

internet. User manuals are provided with

each program. The OAE software has also

been incorporated into several other software

projects outside NIST, sponsored by DOE.

BFRL has developed a basic LCC workshop

which it has conducted five times each year

at locations throughout the United States,

primarily for federal engineers and energy

managers, but attended by representatives

from state and local government, utilities,

and consultants from the private sector. A

condensed version of this basic workshop is taught semi-annually as a teleseminar which

is broadcasted to many sites across the

United States. In FY1996, staff developed

an advanced LCC workshop that is more

oriented toward project analysis and the OAE

LCC software. Staff has trained 22

instructors, mostly university professors and

private consultants, to conduct the basic LCC

workshop, and is providing them with

required teaching materials. These trainers are now conducting additional workshops

throughout the United States, significantly

expand the reach of BFRL training activities.

Staff have developed three LCC training

videos with workbool<s to promote the use of

economic analysis in project design and

maintenance.

BFRL provides consulting to DOE related to

methods of economic analysis for federal

energy and water conservation projects on a continuous basis. For example, changes to the

FEMP LCC rules in 10 CFR 436 are made in

consultation with OAE; users of BFRL

publications and software frequently call with

technical questions related to these materials

and to interpretation of 10 CFR 436; and

staff have successfully worked with DoD and

FEMP to coordinate their LCC applications.

Staff participates in the development of

standard economic evaluation methods by

ASTM's Building Economics Subcommittee,

and ensure that the recommended FEMP

methods for LCC are consistent with current

ASTM standard methods.

Recent Results

Fuller, Sieglinde IC, Energy Price Indices and

Discount Factors for LCC Analysis April

1997, Annual Supplement to Handbook 135,

NISTIR 85-32 73- 11, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, 1997.

203
Minimizing Compliance Costs of

the Life Safety Code for

Correctional Facilities

Principal Investigator

Stephen F. Weber

Office of Applied Economics

(301) 975-6137

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a systematic procedure for finding

low cost, safety-equivalent solutions

compliant wdth the Life Safety Codefor

Detention and Correctional Facilities and to

incorporate the procedure into Windows

software.

Problem

The Fire Safety Evaluation System (FSES)

for Detention and Correctional Facilities

(Chapter 4 of the NFPA 101 A Guide to Alternative Approaches to Life Safety) offers the

managers and fire safety engineers of such

facilities many alternatives equivalent to

prescriptive code compliance. This flexibility

makes possible major cost savings when

achieving compliance with the Life Safety

Code. Because so many acceptable solutions

are available, however, economical solutions

cannot be found by simple trial and error. What is needed is a systematic procedure for

finding a practical set of low-cost,

safety-equivalent solutions from which the

building owner can choose. The NIST Office

of Applied Economics has successfully

developed a similar procedure and supporting

software for Health Care Occupancies. The

Public Health Service has applied this

software to 86 military hospitals and

identified code-compliant solutions with cost

savings of over 40 percent (about $2,200 per

bed) compared with the prescriptive solution.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will develop a comprehensive list and detailed specifications

for all construction retrofits that apply to

each of the 1 3 fire safety parameters included

in NFPA 101 A for Detention and

Correctional Facilities. Then cost estimating

algorithms and supporting cost data will be

developed for all the construction retrofits

specified under item 1 . A cost minimization

model will be developed with supporting

algorithms capable of systematically

evaluating the costs of all safety-equivalent

alternatives to quickly identify the least-cost

alternative for any given building zone. The

model will address all exceptions codified in

the nine footnotes to Table 4-1 of NFPA

101 A. Then software will be designed and

developed to permit easy user specification of

the current safety conditions for each of the

13 fire safety parameters and for the

quantities of each construction retrofit to be

considered for evaluation by the cost

minimization model and algorithms. The

software will also let users apply the cost

minimization model and supporting

algorithms to identify the least-cost

alternative for any zone in the correctional

facility. Other modules of the software will

generate a list of low-cost safety-equivalent

solutions for any zone in the correctional

facility and another list of simultaneous

solutions for all zones in the facility

compatible with selected facility-wide design

criteria. A User Manual with tutorial will also

be developed. The software and manual will

be distributed to a large set of Beta testers,

revised accordingly, and published.

Recent Results

New project

204
Decision Support Software for

Hospitals Financed by

HUD-Guaranteed Loans

Principal Investigator

Stephen F. Weber

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6137

Sponsors

Department of Health and Human Services

Health Resources and Services

Administration

Objective

To develop a comprehensive decision support

software system for the hospitals and health

care facilities financed by HUD-guaranteed

loans.

Problem

The Division of Facilities and Loans of the

Health Resources and Services

Administration (HRSA) manages a large

portfolio of HUD-guaranteed loans made to

hospitals and health care facilities. Existing

software is used solely for manual recording

and reporting on the current status of

outstanding loans and does not support

optimization of decisions on operation,

maintenance, repair, and expansion

expenditures over the life cycle of the

facilities. Moreover, the system is not

integrated with other critical HUD data

about the current condition of the hospital

facilities themselves. The source code is unavailable, so that the software cannot be

modified or updated. HRSA sponsors need a new system that can access all relevant data

to support critical decisions, such as when to

survey hospitals for compliance with the Life

Safety Code, when an energy conservation

audit is advisable, and whether to renew or refinance a loan in light of the facility's

operation and maintenance performance.

Approach

During FYI997, BFRL will develop a fully

functional test version of the Loan Manager

software with data entry and review modules

as well as a standardized quarterly report

module. After the test version of the software

has been evaluated by HRSA, BFRL will

revise it per comments and integrate the

report module into it. Staff will deliver the

software to HRSA, install it, and import the

existing data into the new software.

During the follow on phases, BFRL will

conduct a study to determine the

appropriateness and feasibility of read-only

remote access to the data by HUD Hospital

Mortgage Insurance Staff as a substitute for

the existing centrally printed quarterly

reports. Such access at the local level will

make possible more cost-effective decisions

about the health care facilities. BFRL wdll

develop the necessary modules to permit

customized, user-defined queries of the data

and will also develop decision support

modules to guide actions on major

expenditures for repairs, renovations, and

expansions of the health care facilities.

Recent Results

In July 1997, Loan Manager 1 .0 was

completed and delivered to the HHS

sponsors. The software has been used to

generate both quarterly and annual reports

on $10 billion portfolio of HHS and HUD

loads. The reports were distributed to all loan officers throughout the United States.

205
Allocating Capital Improvement

Budgets Among Historic Buildings

Principal Investigator

Barbara C. Lippiatt

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6133

Sponsor

General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Portfolio Management

Objective

To develop a comprehensive decision-support

software system for allocating capital

improvement budgets among historic

buildings.

Problem

Sixty percent of the buildings owned by the

Public Buildings Service are classified as historic structures based solely on their age.

Some of these buildings are truly historic,

while others have little historic significance.

In addition, at any given time, some of these

buildings require relatively large investments

in maintenance, repair, and alteration

activities, while others require little. In order

to manage them effectively, PBS needs to

know their relative historic importance, and

weigh historic importance against proposed

investment costs in allocating capital

improvement budgets. PBS has developed

and is currently implementing the Building

Preservation Plan (BPP), a system for

collecting detailed data on the historic

properties of its buildings. PBS has also

developed the Building Engineering Report

(BER) system for collecting detailed data

(including costs) for proposed maintenance,

repair, and alteration activities. These two

systems offer a rich set of detailed data at the

individual building level, yet they are not

now integrated. Moreover, there is no

consistent, reliable method for analyzing and

combining these data to support critical

budget allocation decisions by PBS.

Approach

BFRL recently completed work for PBS that

developed and automated in the software

HIST 1.0 a method for rating the portfolio of

PBS buildings by their historic significance.

During FY1997, BFRL will upgrade the

software to a visually based, graphical

environment, generating new graphical

analysis methods for decision support, and

ultimately combining the "benefits" of historic

preservation (as reflected in the historic

ratings) with its costs to support capital

improvement budget allocation decisions.

The project will be conducted in three

phases, each culminating in an enhanced,

working version of the HIST software.

1 . Convert the HIST system to the

Windows environment to permit new

graphical analysis capabilities. A HIST 2.0

prototype was completed in FY1996, and in

FY1997 will be made compatible with new

BPP data file formats and structures

emanating from an ongoing PBS project to

upgrade the BPP system to the Windows

environment. HIST also is being redesigned

to take advantage of the event-driven

capabilities of Windows by developing

object-oriented code and permitting

simultaneous tasking. New features include a pull-down menu structure, redesigned and

visually intuitive screens with mouse support,

and enhanced and redesigned printed reports.

BFRL, in collaboration with PBS, also will

complete development of a set of new

analytical tools, including reporting average

historic ratings by "class," such as by National

Register status, age category, building class,

and city size. BFRL will specify the structure

and content for any new data fields to be

added to the BPP data files to implement

these new analytical tools.

2. BFRL will automate and integrate in

HIST the new analytical tools developed

under Phase I. For visual decision support,

the new tools will be implemented using a

true graphical user interface, displaying "live"

graphs that may be customized by the user. Graphical printed reports based on the new

analytical tools will also be added to the

HIST system. The system will be networked

to enable simultaneous use of the BPP and

HIST systems both by PBS Headquarters

206
and the GSA regions. Phase 3. BFRL will

develop and automate in HIST a method for

allocating capital improvement budgets

among the PBS historic building portfolio by

weighing the "benefits" of historic

preservation (as reflected in the historic

ratings) against its costs. The method will use

the data in the BPP and BER systems.

Recent Results

In February 1997 the beta test version of

HIST 2.0 was delivered to PBS. PBS staff

are currently using the software to rank

historic buildings in the PBS portfolio.

Economic Support to NIST

Manufacturing Extension

Partnership

Principal Investigator

Stephen F. Weber

Office of Applied Economics

30-975-6137

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To support the economic and program

evaluation missions of NIST's Manufacturing

Extension Partnership (MEP) by identifying

economic data sources, developing economic

data analysis software, developing economic

maps, modeling economic impacts, and

identifying resources for conducting

economic analyses.

Problem

MEP management needs economic consulting

support for planning, reporting, and program

evaluation.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will continue to assist

NIST's Manufacturing Extension Partnership

(MEP) in interpreting the survey

questionnaires as new monthly survey data

become available. BFRL will use these results

to develop statistics that indicate the regional

performance of the Manufacturing Extension

Centers (MFCs) and to determine which

types of assistance yield the largest economic

impacts. These survey results will be used to

conduct, using the REMI macroeconomic

modeling system, both national and

state-level economic impact studies of MFC

activities.

BFRL will implement the application of Data

Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to measure and

suggest improvements in the relative

efficiency of MFCs. BFRL will work with

MEP headquarters and selected MFCs to

identify and obtain the best data to serve as

207
input, output, and control variables in the

DEA analysis. Staff will apply DEA software

to the data and then perform a series of

post-processing operations to identify the

"reference" MEC(s) for each MEC in the data

sets. Summary reports will be developed that

present the set of optimal weights and

measures of efficiency as well as reference

points for increased levels of output at

current levels of input and current levels of

output at reduced levels of input.

MEP will provide with economic data and

maps to define the scope, scale, and

geographic distribution of manufacturing

establishments and MECs. BFRL also will

support individual MECs with

program-related economic analysis, and with

resource identification and liaison with other

sources of economic expertise needed to

conduct these analyses.

Two reports are planned for publication in

the Fall of 1 997 will illustrate the use of the

REM! model in estimating the economic

impacts of productivity improvements in

small and medium manufacturing plants

caused by the MEP program. The other will

apply the DEA approach a large set of MEC

performance data.

Recent Results

Prepared a draft report on REMI analysis ( 1

summarizing the survey data in terms of

economic impacts by substance code, activity

type, MEC, and State, (2) outlining the

economic model used to prepare data for

REMI, and (3) presenting the standard

REMI measures of economic impact, such as changes in GDP. Developed economic maps

showing small manufacturing industry

concentrations and the coverage by county of

all MECs in the MEP system.

Economic Support to NIST

Advanced Technology Program

Principal Investigator

Stephen F. Weber

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6137

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To support the economic and program

evaluation missions of ATP by providing

reviews of economic impact proposals;

providing economic modeling and analysis

services; designing and developing economic

questionnaires; and implementing

questionnaires in software to permit

electronic submission by ATP awardees of a

variety of periodic reports on economic

progress and economic impacts.

Problem

ATP management is developing and

administering questionnaires to track the

technological and economic progress of

awardees. Economic consulting is needed to

help develop and review the questions, and

software is needed to implement the

questionnaires in electronic form. ATP also

needs help in conducting economic impact

assessments of its projects, including

application of the REMI simulation and

forecasting econometric model, and reviewing

proposals from economists outside of NIST.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will support ATP by

helping to develop economic questions,

worldng with ATP economists to specify data

requirements, and designing efficient ATP

awardee questionnaires to support economic

impact models as well as REMI analyses.

Staff also will restructure the existing

questions and collected data from the

Quarterly and Anniversary Report system

into a new format for baseline questions and

annual questions . OAE will develop data

208
structures, files, and data relations for

collecting in the field and storing in a

centralized database all questionnaire

responses. Data validation features will ensure data integrity and reliability. BFRL

will develop software utilities for creating

distribution diskettes and for consolidating

data from floppy disks into a centralized

database. Full support for mouse pointing

devices will be included in the restructured

version of the software.

Staff will work with ATP economists to

develop methods to estimate economic

impacts of ATP funded research and to apply

econometric forecasting and simulation tools

such as REMI to case studies of ATP

projects. Staff will provide an economist to

serve on a Source Evaluation Board (SEE) for

evaluating proposed economic studies.

Recent Results

In March 1997 completed a new version of

the ATP economic questionnaires, which

incorporate the new Baseline/Annual/Closeout reporting cycle for awardees.

Economic Support for the NIST

Office of Law Enforcement

Standards

Principal Investigator

Stephen F. Weber

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6137

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To update AutoBid software to support

police vehicle acquisition decisions.

Problem

AutoBid software that supports police vehicle

acquisition decisions needs to be updated

each year to include the latest model year

data on police vehicle performance. The data

files contain the performance test results for

police patrol vehicles published annually by

the Michigan State Police. Data files are

explicitly referenced in the source code of the

software. This feature requires that the

source code be modified each year when the

new model year data become available. As a

result, the entire program must be recompiled

each year.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will assist NIST's

Office of Law Enforcement Standards

(OLES) prepare the data files compatible

with AutoBid for the 1997 model year, as soon as the police patrol vehicle performance

data become available. Staff will complete

work on modifying the software to

automatically recognize any vehicle model

year data files in the current directory and

provide the user with a menu to select any

given year for which the data are present.

This will enable OLES to maintain the data

files in the future. BFRL will also prepare a system of JAVA - based software and files to

permit direct access to vehicle performance

data on the World Wide Web.

209
Recent Results

Maintained, over 8 years, the AutoBid

software and included the performance data

for the most recent model year police patrol

vehicles.

Cost-Effective Decisions for Police

Patrol Vehicle Disposal

Principal Investigator

Stephen F. Weber

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6137

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a systematic procedure and

supporting Windows software for

cost-effective disposal and replacement of

police patrol vehicles.

Problem

The disposal and replacement of police patrol

vehicles have major cost consequences for law

enforcement budgets. Most current

approaches to vehicle disposal/replacement

decisions use average costs to predict future

repair costs for an entire class of vehicles

(defined by model and year). But this works

only if every vehicle's repair history closely

follows the average repair history of the class.

More sophisticated repair models should be

applied to produce significant cost savings

compared with the current approaches.

Approach

A statistical model has been developed at

NIST that permits estimation of the number

of failures expected to occur in the coming

planning period. During the FY1997, BFRL

will apply this model to help fleet managers

make cost-effective decisions regarding the

disposal and replacement of vehicles. A

prototype version of software, AutoRank was

developed to test the feasibility of the

statistical model. The approach consists of

applying data on the frequency of repairs for a vehicle class to estimate a generalized

model of vehicle repairs based on the Weibull

distribution, widely used for reliability

analysis. Then, for each vehicle in the fleet,

the model will use data on the particular

vehicle's pattern of repairs to estimate

expected repair costs for that vehicle over the

210
coming period. Vehicle repair estimates can

be grouped by repair category. The model

will then rank all vehicles for disposal based

on expected repair costs, operation and

maintenance costs, and loss of resale value.

The fleet manager would then dispose of

those vehicles with the highest predicted

costs, resulting in a cost-effective strategy for

vehicle disposal and replacement.

BFRL will apply the statistical model to

national vehicle repair data from large police

fleets to develop reliable estimates of the

population parameters for each vehicle class.

These derived national estimates are essential

for smaller fleets whose sample sizes will not

permit reliable parameter estimation. The

software will be developed to manage the

fleet's repair history data and to apply the

national statistics to estimate the costs of

keeping each vehicle in the fleet for the

coming year. The software will be able to

generate at any time a priority ranldng of

individual vehicles for disposal to minimize

fleet maintenance and repair costs.

Recent Results

Developed and tested statistical model for

estimating expected failures on hypothetical

data.

211

BFRL HEADQUARTERS

Performance Standards System for

Housing

Principal Investigator

Joel Zingeser

Headquarters

301-975-4630

Sponsors

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, and

Department of Housing and Urban

Development

Policy Development and Research

Objective

To support the development of a comprehensive national and international

performance standards system that guides the

procurement, evaluation and acceptance of

innovative housing products and systems.

Problem

The present prescriptive system for regulating

housing construction is a primary barrier to

innovation and limits competition both

nationally and internationally. U.S. housing

products, components, systems, and

l<jiow-how have not been widely accepted in

the global economy. The creation of a well

conceived and functioning performance based

standards system for the procurement and

evaluation of housing will more readily allow

for and should encourage the use of

innovative designs, products and processes

leading to improved quality, lower life-cycle

costs of housing to consumers and increased

competitiveness for U.S. companies. The

need for a performance standards system for

housing is a priority component of the

Residential Sector Strategic Approach aimed

at meeting the National Construction Goals.

Research is required to develop better criteria

and methods for evaluating performance.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will focus on creation

of national (ASTM) and international (ISO)

performance standard guides for one- and

two-family dwellings. The process of

developing these standard guides will lead to

the identification, scoping, and

implementation of a variety of research

projects, generally based on industry

determined needs and focussed on defining

the most appropriate criteria and evaluation measures. BFRL will lead in the development

of a coordinated set of individual standard

guides for each of the 1 6 attributes identified

as relevant to the specification and evaluation

of the performance of housing. These

individual standard guides will be based on a matrix of attributes and elements (building

subsystems) and will use the RCEC

(requirements, criteria, evaluation, and

commentary) structure. The matrix and the

standard guides will be reviewed for

acceptance by ASTM and ISO. The drafts of

these standard guides will be prepared by

individuals from BFRL, other government

agencies, industry volunteers, consultants,

and others as appropriate. The draft

documents will be reviewed by leading

industry participants and used to define

specific areas of research necessary to better

define the appropriate criteria and evaluation

methods. Potential areas of research include

wind, fire, seismic, indoor air quality,

lighting, energy conservation, sustainable

building, waste management, durability and

maintainability of materials and products,

automation and communications. The levels

of performance established must assure that

products which meet current standards are not precluded from the market and new and

improved products are allowed access to the

market. The program will include three levels

of partnership - other government agencies,

organizations and individuals that participate

in the development and use of standards, and

industry supporting the use of the

performance approach in national and

international markets.

Recent Results

New project.

215
Subcommittee on Construction

and Buildings

Principal Investigator

Andrew Fowell

Headquarters

301-975-6865

Sponsors

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

and

1 0 Federal Agencies

Objective

To coordinate Federal agency programs to

support the enhancement of the

competitiveness of U.S. industry, public

safety and environmental quality through

research and development, in response to the

needs of U.S. industry, labor, and academia,

for improvement of the life cycle performance

of constructed facilities to meet the National

Construction Goals by 2003.

Problem

The construction industry comprises about

1 2 percent of the Gross Domestic Product,

and yet it lags other business sectors on R&D

investment. This is partly because only a few

firms have the capability to conduct

significant R&D, and to make competitive

bids few construction firms can absorb the

risk inherent in the pursuit and development

of innovation. Most innovation in the

industry is done by manufacturers of

products that are used in buildings. For the

construction industry to be competitive in a global economy, where Japan and Western

Europe are making significant investments, it must overcome the slow pace of introduction

of innovative technology. The industry is desegregated, lacks leadership, and faces

many barriers to the use of new technology.

There has been a lack of coordination

between government and industry, and

between agencies within the Federal

Government involved in construction.

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will provide the

secretariat for the Subcommittee on

Construction and Building of the National

Science and Technology Council Committee

on Technological Innovation. The

Subcommittee coordinates activities within

the Federal Government and works with the

construction and building industry to

stimulate research and adopt both process

and product innovations. Sixteen Federal

agencies are represented on the

Subcommittee which meets monthly. The

National Association of Homebuilders

(NAHB), The National Institute of Building

Sciences (NIBS), the Construction Industry

Institute (CII), and the American Public

Works Association (APWA) representing the

residential, commercial/institutional, and

public works sectors of the industry are developing strategic implementation plans to

address the National Construction Goals.

CERF is under contract to summarize the

sector plans. The Building Economics Group

of BFRL will continue to search and analyze

available data relating to current practices to

provide baseline data on the goals. As

sufficient funds are acquired we will contract

for additional tasks with NCSBCS to develop

streamlined model administrative processes

and procedures, and enabling legislation for an improved regulatory process. A program

similar to CONMAT will be developed for

mechanical systems and furnishings

industries. We will develop a framework for

improving tracking of construction R&D

within the federal government.

Recent Results

Report on the Construction Industry

Collaborations Workshop, NISTIR-GCR-97-

711, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, March 1997.

Wright, R. N., Rosenfeld, A. H., and Fowell,

A. J., Construction and Building: Federal Research

and Development in Support of the U.S.

Construction Industry, Subcommittee on

Construction and Building, Secretariat,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 1995.

Fowell, A. J., editor, White Papers Preparedfor

the White House - Construction Industry

216
Workshop on National Construction Goals,

NISTIR 5610, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, 1 994.

Computing and Network

Resources

Principal Investigator

Tze Fai Chu

Headquarters

301-975-6724

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide improvements, day to day

support, and long range planning for the

BFRL network, Web site, intranet services,

and PC users.

Problem

Efficient computing requires a uniform and

consistent environment for both scientific

and administrative services. PC users need

expert day to day support to configure and

install new software, and to minimize

software problems during use. The World

Wide Web is becoming a means for

communicating the results of BFRL activities

to the user audience. BFRL needs to update

and make more user friendly, its presentation

on WWW. BFRL also must take full

advantage of the network for internal

communications

Approach

During FY1997, BFRL will configure,

purchase, and install new hardware and

operating software for local area networks to

provide a uniform and reliable system.

During the year, BFRL will be upgraded to

100 mps. Software will be added to local area networks to enable BFRL staff to send

r Facsimile messages directly from their

computer. The BFRL home page will be

updated to make the BFRL site on WWW

user friendly and informative. Technical

assistance will be provided to BFRL staff to

make reports available on WWW. The BFRL

intranet will be developed as a user friendly

information resource for the staff. Included

on the intranet will be project descriptions,

quarterly reports, financial information, news

217
from the director, information on upcoming

seminars and meetings, lists of publications

in process, staff information, etc. Training

will be of a high priority to ensure that the

project teams are able to provide fast

problem solving, reliable advice to staff, and

maintain a high quality and user-friendly

internet presentation.

Recent Results

The BFRL network, consisting of 3 subnets,

has been upgraded to 100 Mbps capability.

The network has been configured to allow

access to any of the 3 subnets from any

physical location within BFRL. The BFRL

Internal Intranet has been enhanced and

made available only to those on the BFRL

network. A Windows NT server has been

purchased and will be used to provide data

storage, centralized faxing capabilities and

Intranet Web hosting.