April 12, 2016

Disclaimer: This paper is the product of professional research performed by staff of the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review 

Commission, and was prepared at the request of the Commission to support its deliberations. Posting of the report to the Commission’s 

website is intended to promote greater public understanding of the issues addressed by the Commission in its ongoing assessment of U.S.-

China economic relations and their implications for U.S. security, as mandated by Public Law 106-398 and Public Law 113-219. However, 

the public release of this document does not necessarily imply an endorsement by the Commission, any individual Commissioner, or the 

Commission’s other professional staff, of the views or conclusions expressed in this staff research report.

China’s Island Building in the South China 

Sea: Damage to the Marine Environment, 

Implications, and International Law

Author: Matthew Southerland, Policy Analyst, Security and Foreign Affairs

Acknowledgments: The author thanks John W. McManus, Frank E. Muller-Karger, and Raul “Pete” 

Pedrozo for their helpful insights and reviews of early drafts. Their assistance does not imply any 

endorsement of this report’s contents, and any errors should be attributed solely to the author.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 

Table of Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................3

Damage to the Marine Environment ..........................................................................................................................3

Implications................................................................................................................................................................6

Did China’s Activities Violate International Law? ....................................................................................................7
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 3 

Introduction

From December 2013 to October 2015, China built artificial islands with a total area of close to 3,000 acres on 

seven coral reefs it occupies in the Spratly Islands in the southern part of the South China Sea.* 1 To build these 

islands, Chinese dredgers gathered and deposited sand and gravel on top of the reefs. Although the international 

community’s primary focus regarding these activities has been on issues of sovereignty, security, and geopolitics, 

international observers have also sounded the alarm about the environmental consequences.2 Leading marine 

scientists have commented on this issue, as have the government of the Philippines and the Commander of the U.S. 

Pacific Command.3 Although dredging, land reclamation, and the building of artificial islands are not unique to 

China, the scale and speed of China’s activities in the South China Sea, the biodiversity of the area, and the 

significance of the Spratly Islands to the ecology of the region make China’s actions of particular concern. 

China’s reclamation activities far outpaced those of the other claimants in the South China Sea. In August 2015, the 

U.S. Department of Defense reported that Vietnam had reclaimed approximately 80 acres, Malaysia had reclaimed 

70 acres, the Philippines had reclaimed about 14 acres, and Taiwan had reclaimed approximately 8 acres in the 

Spratly Islands.

The South China Sea is a highly biodiverse marine area.

4 According to one scientific paper, it is home to 571 species 

of reef coral; the Spratly Islands alone have 333 species of reef coral. 5In contrast, the Caribbean has less than 65 

reef coral species.6 Moreover, a body of research by marine biologists dating back to the early 1990s indicates that

currents carry young fish spawned in the Spratly Islands to coastal areas of the South China Sea, and that the coral 

reefs of the Spratly Islands may play a role in replenishing depleted fish stocks in those coastal areas.

7

Prior to the commencement of China’s dredging and island building in the Spratly Islands, the South China Sea’s 

coral reefs were already under heavy stress. Coral loss due to bleaching, disease, and destructive fishing methods 

has occurred,8and these reefs, like others around the world, face threats from ocean acidification and rising sea 

levels.9 

Damage to the Marine Environment

China’s island building in the South China Sea buried a large area of coral reefs. Chinese dredgers deposited sand 

and gravel on top of about 13 square kilometers (approximately five square miles) of coral reefs China occupies, a 

process that destroys the coral underneath.† 10 Chinese activities associated with land reclamation on these reefs—

such as creating access channels for ships or dredging harbors—also destroyed portions of them. For example, in 

dredging its deep-water harbor at Fiery Cross Reef (see Figure 1), Chinese dredgers would have destroyed coral 

and other organisms (assuming the reef had not already been damaged). Furthermore, Frank E. Muller-Karger, 

professor of biological oceanography and remote sensing in the College of Marine Science at the University of 

South Florida, explained to the New York Times that in the process of island building the sediment deposited on the 

reefs “can wash back into the sea, forming plumes that can smother marine life and could be laced with heavy 

metals, oil and other chemicals from the ships and shore facilities being built.”11 

 

*

Infrastructure that China is building on these artificial islands includes airstrips, helipads, port facilities, and radars, among other things. 

USNI News, “Document: DNI Clapper Assessment of Chinese Militarization, Reclamation in South China Sea,” March 8, 2016. 

http://news.usni.org/2016/03/08/document-dni-assessment-of-chinese-militarization-reclamation-in-south-china-sea; Center for Strategic 

and International Studies, Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, “Island Tracker.” http://amti.csis.org/island-tracker/. 

† Although these coral reefs could partially recover, the sediment deposited on top would have to be washed away first, which could happen 

naturally if sea level rise continues to accelerate at the rate anticipated under current conditions. John W. McManus, Offshore Coral Reef 

Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea, forthcoming.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 4 

Figure 1: China’s Land Reclamation and Construction on Fiery Cross Reef,

August 2014 to September 2015

Source: Figure adapted from Center for Strategic and International Studies, Asia Maritime Transparency 

Initiative, “Fiery Cross Reef Tracker.” http://amti.csis.org/fiery-cross-reef-tracker/; Center for Strategic 

and International Studies, Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, “Spratly Islands Update: Is Mischief 

Reef Next?” http://amti.csis.org/new-imagery-release/. 

Chinese dredgers in the Spratly Islands extracted the sand and gravel from within the lagoons and reef flats of coral 

reef atolls*at the land reclamation sites—a process known as shallow-water dredging (see Figure 2 for a diagram 

of an atoll and Figure 3 for satellite imagery of dredgers at Mischief Reef).12 This shallow-water dredging removes 

not only sand and gravel, but also the ecosystems of the lagoon and the reef flat, important parts of a reef.

13

Moreover, dredgers stir up plumes of sand and silt that damage coral tissue and block sunlight from organisms such 

as reef-building corals, which cannot survive without it.

14

 

 

* An atoll is a circular or ovular coral reef with a lagoon in the middle. 

August 14, 2014

September 3, 2015
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 5 

Figure 2: Diagram of an Atoll

Source: Diagram provided by John W. McManus.

In addition, Chinese dredgers may have gathered sand and gravel for the artificial islands from nearby atolls and 

other reefs in the Spratly Islands, although the Chinese government has not acknowledged that dredging at these 

reefs has occurred.

15 (It is difficult for outside observers to access the Spratly Islands. Obstacles to reaching the area 

have included opposition from the Chinese and Philippine governments to traveling there, the remoteness of the 

area, and the high cost of such trips.16) If this dredging occurred, and even if these reefs had not been previously 

damaged, they still may not fully recover for up to 10 to 15 years. That time frame could become longer if dredgers 

continue to disturb the reefs.17 Sand and silt stirred up by dredgers settles on the coral, which can cause problems 

such as lowering coral growth rates, inhibiting coral reproduction, and increasing coral’s susceptibility to disease.18

Satellite imagery can provide a powerful tool to analyze this problem because some dredgers leave arc-shaped 

marks in the sediment that can be visible in these images.

19 However, similar marks are made by the propellers of 

boats harvesting giant clams, which complicates the identification of damage caused by dredging.

20 Analysis of 

satellite imagery, news reports, videos, and other sources reveals that large-scale scarring of coral reefs from the 

harvesting of giant clams—an endangered species—in the Spratly Islands and the Paracel Islands has certainly 

occurred over the past few years; fishermen from China caused much of this damage.

21

The Chinese Academy of Sciences South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, an institute that has conducted multiple 

research trips to the Spratly Islands over its history,22 did not respond to questions submitted by the Commission 

staff about the environmental impact of China’s dredging and island building.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 6 

Figure 3: Dredging and Land Reclamation Operations at Mischief Reef, March 2015

Source: Center for Strategic and International Studies, Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, “Mischief Reef Tracker.” 

http://amti.csis.org/mischief-reef-tracker/#bwg1/29.

Implications

Though information about the scope of the environmental damage caused by China’s dredging and land 

reclamation is limited, China’s island building activities in the Spratly Islands certainly have negatively impacted

fisheries in the immediate areas of the reclamation sites. John W. McManus, professor of marine biology and 

ecology in the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science at the University of Miami, explained to 

Commission staff that the sand and silt plumes created by dredging sand and gravel and depositing it on the coral 

reefs either would have killed fish or expelled them from the reefs. Most of the small expelled fish would have been 

eaten by open-water species as they left the protection of the reef and became exposed to predators. Though juvenile 

fish from other reefs that arrive via currents at the damaged reefs would survive if there were available hiding places

(which are necessary for most small reef fish to inhabit a coral reef), many of the areas of reef suitable for hiding 

would have been filled by the artificial island. The end result would be fewer small reef fish inhabiting the reef as 

well as a reduced number of wide-ranging larger fish, such as large groupers and wrasses, which eat the small fish.23

While the area of coral reefs that have been buried at the seven occupied land features is small compared to the total 

area of shallow and deep reefs in the Spratly Islands (3,821 square kilometers or approximately 1,475 square 

miles),24 the damage also could negatively impact the health of fisheries in the coastal areas of the South China Sea;

this is because the coral reefs of the Spratly Islands are believed to play a role in the replenishment of depleted fish 

stocks in the South China Sea’s coastal areas.25 Marine science indicates that currents carry the offspring of fish 

that spawn in the reefs to some of these areas and that a second generation could even migrate to southern Mainland 

China.26 Further studies that quantify the contribution of the Spratly Islands’ coral reefs to the fish stocks in the 

South China Sea and examine potential Chinese dredging at unoccupied reefs are needed to assess the full impact

of China’s island building on the South China Sea’s fisheries.

Fish are a critical food source for the coastal populations of Southeast Asia.27 The fish stocks of the South China 

Sea already face the problem of overfishing, and damage to the spawning grounds of fish may increase the pressure 

on these fisheries.28 If the larvae spawned in the coral reefs of the Spratly Islands make a significant contribution to 
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 7 

fish stocks in the coastal areas of the South China Sea, then the damage caused by China’s island building activities 

may contribute to the food insecurity caused by overfishing and harm the livelihoods of fishermen in the region.

In addition, China’s new artificial islands will almost certainly lead to increased Chinese fishing in the surrounding 

waters, which would put further pressure on fisheries in those areas. In 2015, a spokesperson for China’s Ministry 

of Foreign Affairs said that among their other functions, these islands will support “fishery production and service,” 

and China’s National Development and Reform Commission announced the islands will provide fishing boats with 

shelter during storms, as well as repair and replenishment services.29 Increased Chinese fishing activity in these 

waters also raises the risk of a clash between Chinese fishing boats and those of other claimant countries. Multiple 

instances of Chinese fishing boats ramming or otherwise harassing other vessels in the South China Sea have been 

reported.30 China’s practice of protecting its fishing boats with large coast guard vessels could further exacerbate 

this risk,* particularly as the port facilities at China’s artificial islands will allow those ships to dock to replenish 

supplies, enhancing their ability to operate in the area. 

Did China’s Activities Violate International Law?

China’s island building activities may have violated some of its environmental commitments under international 

law. According to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which China ratified, “states have the 

obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment.” 31 Among its specific provisions related to the 

environment, UNCLOS requires states to “ensure that activities under their jurisdiction or control are so conducted 

as not to cause damage by pollution to other States and their environment.”32 States also are to take actions 

“necessary to protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat of depleted, threatened or 

endangered species and other forms of marine life.”33 Further, states are to “observe, measure, evaluate and analyze, 

by recognized scientific methods, the risks or effects of pollution of the marine environment” and to publish the 

results of these activities or give reports to international organizations.34 In addition to UNCLOS, China is a party 

to the Convention on Biological Diversity, under which states have “the responsibility to ensure that activities 

within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the 

limits of national jurisdiction.”

35

In May 2015, the director general of the Department of Boundary and Ocean Affairs in China’s Ministry of Foreign 

Affairs stated that China’s island building had “gone through science-based evaluation and assessment, with equal 

importance given to construction and protection.”36 He added, “We have taken into full account issues of ecological 

preservation and fishery protection, followed strict environmental protection standards and requirements in the 

construction process, and adopted many effective measures to preserve the ecological environment.”37 However, 

the Chinese government has not published sufficient information about its assessment of the environmental impact 

 

* Of further concern is the fact that China’s maritime militia, which U.S. Naval War College associate professor Andrew S. Erickson and 

research fellow Conor M. Kennedy describe as a “dual-hatted force of specially registered fishing vessels with fisherman-soldier crews,” 

is becoming increasingly active in the South China Sea. China is training the maritime militia to support the activities of China’s naval 

and maritime law enforcement forces in the South China Sea. Andrew S. Erickson and Conor M. Kennedy, “China’s Island Builders,” 

Foreign Affairs, April 9, 2015. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/east-asia/2015-04-09/china-s-island-builders; Andrew S. 

Erickson and Conor M. Kennedy, “China’s Daring Vanguard: Introducing Sanya City’s Maritime Militia,” Center for International 

Maritime Security, November 5, 2015. http://cimsec.org/chinas-daring-vanguard-introducing-sanya-citys-maritime-militia/19753; 

Andrew S. Erickson and Conor M. Kennedy, “Trailblazers in Warfighting: The Maritime Militia of Danzhou,” Center for International 

Maritime Security, February 1, 2016. http://cimsec.org/trailblazers-warfighting-maritime-militia-danzhou/21475; and Andrew S. 

Erickson and Conor M. Kennedy, “China’s Maritime Militia,” CNA Corporation, March 7, 2016. 

https://www.cna.org/cna_files/pdf/Chinas-Maritime-Militia.pdf.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 8 

of the island building to ensure the truth of that assertion, nor does it appear China has provided additional 

information to any international organization. 

In June 2015, China’s State Oceanic Administration published an article describing measures taken in the process 

of building the artificial islands to minimize the impact on the marine ecosystem, including regular monitoring of 

the coral reefs’ health during the island building. The article also includes an assertion that much of the building 

occurred on parts of the reefs with low coral cover or dead coral.38 Regardless of the veracity of this assertion, the 

article does not address the following problem: Given the proper circumstances, coral could still grow on areas of 

reef with low coral cover or dead coral, but as long as there is an artificial island on those parts, coral will never 

grow there. In addition, as Edgardo D. Gomez, professor emeritus at the University of the Philippines Marine 

Science Institute, explained to Commission staff, “even reefs with low coral cover are ecologically valuable because 

the structure provides a substrate for many other organisms.”39

In the ongoing case initiated by the Philippines at the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague regarding

China’s claims and activities in the South China Sea, one of the Philippines’ claims includes a statement that 

“China’s occupation of and construction activities on Mischief Reef ... violate China’s duties to protect and 

preserve the marine environment under [UNCLOS].”40 In mid-2016, the arbitral tribunal is expected to rule on 

whether it has jurisdiction over this and seven other claims brought by the Philippines. It is also expected to rule on 

the merits of several other Philippine claims over which it has already determined it has jurisdiction.41

If the arbitral tribunal decides it has jurisdiction over this claim and rules in the Philippines’ favor, it can direct the 

Chinese government to publish more information about the environmental impact of the island building and the 

results of monitoring activities conducted during the project. It can also direct the governments of China and the 

Philippines to form an independent committee of experts to assess the environmental impact of the island building 

and propose measures to mitigate additional damage.

42 Such a decision by an international tribunal occurred in 2003 

in a case brought to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea by Malaysia against Singapore regarding 

Singapore’s land reclamation in and around the Straits of Johor.43 Among its other decisions, the tribunal required 

the two sides to form a group of experts to assess the environmental effects of the land reclamation.44

The Chinese government is unlikely to initially heed any rulings in the Philippines’ favor by the tribunal.45 Beijing 

has described its position on arbitration with the Philippines as one of “non-acceptance and non-participation.”46

However, such inaction in response to a ruling against China likely would harm China’s reputation.47 As a result, 

over the next few years the Chinese government might take some steps to ameliorate the fallout. 48 These steps could 

include measures—symbolic or substantive—that attempt to address concerns about environmental damage 

resulting from its island building. Even so, due to the utility of these outposts for enhancing China’s situational 

awareness and ability to project military power in the South China Sea, it is unlikely the Chinese government will

remove the sand and gravel that dredgers have deposited on these reefs. 

Environmental degradation is just one of many implications of China’s land reclamation in the South China Sea, 

which taken together illustrate Beijing’s troubling attitude of general disregard for regional and international norms, 

laws, and the mature conduct expected of a major power. Beijing has demonstrated an apparent willingness to flout 

international law; militarize an already tense and contested area; eschew an established dispute management 

mechanism in favor of unilateral actions to consolidate a more powerful position vis-à-vis other claimants; and 

damage the environment in a region where food security is already threatened by overfishing. This runs counter to 

U.S. interests in peacefully resolving disputes according to law, refraining from actions that heighten tensions, and 

maintaining a healthy and productive marine environment.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 9 

Endnotes

1 U.S. Department of Defense, Asia-Pacific Maritime Security Strategy, August 20, 2015, 16. 

http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/NDAA%20A-P_Maritime_SecuritY_Strategy-08142015-1300-FINALFORMAT.PDF; 

USNI News, “Document: DNI Clapper Assessment of Chinese Militarization, Reclamation in South China Sea,” March 8, 2016. 

https://news.usni.org/2016/03/08/document-dni-assessment-of-chinese-militarization-reclamation-in-south-china-sea; and Sam 

LaGrone, “PACOM Harris: U.S. Would Ignore a ‘Destabilizing’ Chinese South China Sea Air Defense Identification Zone,” USNI 

News, February 26, 2016. https://news.usni.org/2016/02/26/pacom-harris-u-s-would-ignore-a-destabilizing-chinese-south-china-sea-airdefense-identification-zone. 

2

James Borton and Nguyen Chu Hoi, “China’s Reclamations Harm Sea Life,” Taipei Times, September 11, 2015. 

http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2015/09/11/2003627420/1.

3

Johnny Langenheim, “Preventing Ecocide in the South China Sea,” Guardian, July 15, 2015. 

http://www.theguardian.com/environment/the-coral-triangle/2015/jul/15/preventing-ecocide-in-south-china-sea; Oliver Holmes, “South 

China Sea Images Reveal Impact on Coral of Beijing’s Military Bases,” Guardian, September 17, 2015. 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2015/sep/17/south-china-sea-images-reveal-impact-on-coral-of-beijings-militarybases; Pia Ranada, “China Reclamation Poses P4.8-B Economic Loss for PH,” Rappler (Philippines), April 23, 2015. 

http://www.rappler.com/nation/90878-china-west-philippine-sea-reclamation-fisheries-food-security; and Harry Harris, “ASPEN 

Security Forum Remarks by Adm. Harris” (Aspen Security Forum, Aspen, CO, July 23, 2015). 

http://www.pacom.mil/Media/News/tabid/5693/Article/610920/aspen-security-forum-remarks-by-adm-harris.aspx.

4 Danwei Huang et al., “Extraordinary Diversity of Reef Corals in the South China Sea,” Marine Biodiversity 45:2 (June 2015): 157-168.

5 Danwei Huang et al., “Extraordinary Diversity of Reef Corals in the South China Sea,” Marine Biodiversity 45:2 (June 2015): 157-168; 

John W. McManus, Offshore Coral Reef Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea, forthcoming.

6 Lauretta Burke et al., “Reefs at Risk Revisited,” World Resources Institute, 2011. 

http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/pdf/reefs_at_risk_revisited.pdf. 

7

John W. McManus, “The Spratly Islands: A Marine Park Alternative,” Naga, ICLARM Quarterly 15:3 (1992): 4-8; John W. McManus, 

“The Spratly Islands: A Marine Park?,” Ambio 23:3 (1994): 181-186; M.C.A Ablan et al., “Meso-scale Transboundary Units for the 

Management of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea Area,” Naga, WorldFish Center Quarterly 25:3-4 (July-December 2002): 4-9; 

Jonathan T. Kool et al., “Connectivity and the Development of Population Genetic Structure in Indo-West Pacific Coral Reef 

Communities,” Global Ecology and Biogeography 20:5 (September 2011): 695-706; John W. McManus, Offshore Coral Reef Damage, 

Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea, forthcoming; and Johnny Langenheim, “Preventing Ecocide in the South China 

Sea,” Guardian, July 15, 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/the-coral-triangle/2015/jul/15/preventing-ecocide-in-southchina-sea.

8 Terry P. Hughes, Hui Huang, and Matthew A. L. Young, “The Wicked Problem of China’s Disappearing Coral Reefs,” Conservation 

Biology 27:2 (2012): 261, 265. 

9

Johnny Langenheim, “Preventing Ecocide in the South China Sea,” Guardian, July 15, 2015. 

http://www.theguardian.com/environment/the-coral-triangle/2015/jul/15/preventing-ecocide-in-south-china-sea.

10 John W. McManus, “Spratly Islands Importance, Damage, and Options for Peace” (Conference on “Sustainable Usage of the Oceans” at 

Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies, October 19, 2015); Center for Strategic and International Studies,

Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, “Island Tracker.” http://amti.csis.org/island-tracker/.

11 Derek Watkins, “What China Has Been Building in the South China Sea,” New York Times, February 29, 2016. 

http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/07/30/world/asia/what-china-has-been-building-in-the-south-china-sea2016.html?ref=asia&_r=0. 

12 John W. McManus, “Spratly Islands Importance, Damage, and Options for Peace” (Conference on “Sustainable Usage of the Oceans” at 

Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies, October 19, 2015); Greg Torode, “‘Paving Paradise’: Scientists 

Alarmed over China Island Building in Disputed Sea,” Reuters, June 25, 2015. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-southchinasea-chinaenvironment-insig-idUSKBN0P50UB20150625; and Johnny Langenheim, “Preventing Ecocide in the South China Sea,” Guardian, July 

15, 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/the-coral-triangle/2015/jul/15/preventing-ecocide-in-south-china-sea.

13 Johnny Langenheim, “Preventing Ecocide in the South China Sea,” Guardian, July 15, 2015. 

http://www.theguardian.com/environment/the-coral-triangle/2015/jul/15/preventing-ecocide-in-south-china-sea; John W. McManus, 

Offshore Coral Reef Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea, forthcoming; and John W. McManus, “Spratly 

Islands Importance, Damage, and Options for Peace” (Conference on “Sustainable Usage of the Oceans” at Johns Hopkins University 

School of Advanced International Studies, October 19, 2015).

14 R.C. Highsmith et al., “Survival of Hurricane-Generated Coral Fragments and a Disturbance Model of Reef Calcification/Growth Rates,” 

Oecologia 46:3 (1980) 322-329; Christina Larson, “China’s Island Building Is Destroying Reefs,” Science 349:6255 (September 25, 2015): 

1434; and John W. McManus, Professor of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, 

University of Miami, interview with Commission staff, February 2, 2016.

15 Frances Mangosing, “Justice Carpio: China Destroyed 17 Reefs in the Spratlys,” Inquirer.net (Philippines), July 29, 2015. 

http://globalnation.inquirer.net/126703/justice-carpio-china-destroyed-17-reefs-in-spratlys.

16 Rupert Wingfield-Hayes, “Flying Close to Beijing’s New South China Sea Islands,” BBC, December 14, 2015. 

http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35031313; Grace Chua, “Science and Politics in the South China Sea,” Hakai Magazine (Canada), 

November 10, 2015. http://www.hakaimagazine.com/article-short/science-and-politics-south-china-sea.

 
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 10 

 

17 John W. McManus, “Spratly Islands Importance, Damage, and Options for Peace” (Conference on “Sustainable Usage of the Oceans” at 

Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies, October 19, 2015); John W. McManus, Offshore Coral Reef 

Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea, forthcoming.

18 P.L.A. Erftemeijer et al., “Environmental Impacts of Dredging and Other Sediment Disturbances on Corals: A Review,” Marine 

Pollution Bulletin 64 (2012) 1737-1765; F.J. Pollock et al., “Sediment and Turbidity Associated with Offshore Dredging Increase Coral 

Disease Prevalence On Nearby Reefs,” PLos ONE 9:7 (2014); and John W. McManus, Offshore Coral Reef Damage, Overfishing and 

Paths to Peace in the South China Sea, forthcoming.

19 John W. McManus, Offshore Coral Reef Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea, forthcoming; Victor R. Lee, 

“Satellite Imagery Shows Ecocide in the South China Sea,” Diplomat (Japan), January 16, 2016. 

http://thediplomat.com/2016/01/satellite-images-show-ecocide-in-the-south-china-sea/.

20 Victor R. Lee, “Satellite Imagery Shows Ecocide in the South China Sea,” Diplomat (Japan), January 16, 2016. 

http://thediplomat.com/2016/01/satellite-images-show-ecocide-in-the-south-china-sea/.

21 Victor R. Lee, “Satellite Imagery Shows Ecocide in the South China Sea,” Diplomat (Japan), January 16, 2016. 

http://thediplomat.com/2016/01/satellite-images-show-ecocide-in-the-south-china-sea/.

22 Science.china.com.cn, “Chinese Academy of Sciences South China Sea Institute of Oceanology: Science is Saving Coral Reefs,” July 17, 

2013. Staff translation. http://science.china.com.cn/2013-07/17/content_29450006.htm; M.X. Zhao et al., “Coral Communities of the 

Remote Atoll Reefs in the Nansha Islands, Southern South China Sea,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 185 (2013): 7381-

7383; and Chinanews.com, “Chinese Academy of Sciences ‘Experiment-3’ Scientific Research Ship Begins Spratly Island Area Cruise,” 

August 23, 2012. Staff translation. http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2012/08-23/4129621.shtml.

23 John W. McManus, Professor of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of 

Miami, interview with Commission staff, March 22, 2016.

24 John W. McManus, Offshore Coral Reef Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea, forthcoming.

25 John W. McManus, “The Spratly Islands: A Marine Park Alternative,” Naga, ICLARM Quarterly 15:3 (1992): 4-8; John W. McManus, 

“The Spratly Islands: A Marine Park?,” Ambio 23:3 (1994): 181-186; M.C.A Ablan et al., “Meso-scale Transboundary Units for the 

Management of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea Area,” Naga, WorldFish Center Quarterly 25:3,4 (July-December 2002): 4-9; and 

John W. McManus, Offshore Coral Reef Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea, forthcoming.

26 John W. McManus, “The Spratly Islands: A Marine Park Alternative,” Naga, ICLARM Quarterly 15:3 (1992): 4-8; John W. McManus, 

“The Spratly Islands: A Marine Park?,” Ambio 23:3 (1994): 181-186; M.C.A. Ablan et al., “Meso-scale Transboundary Units for the 

Management of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea Area,” Naga, WorldFish Center Quarterly 25:3,4 (July-December 2002): 4-9; 

Jonathan T. Kool et al., “Connectivity and the Development of Population Genetic Structure in Indo-West Pacific Coral Reef 

Communities,” Global Ecology and Biogeography 20:5 (September 2011): 695-706; and John W. McManus, Offshore Coral Reef 

Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea, forthcoming.

27 U.S. China Economic and Security Review Commission, Hearing on China’s Relations with Southeast Asia, oral testimony of Meredith 

Miller, May 13, 2015.

28 Oliver Holmes, “South China Sea Images Reveal Impact on Coral of Beijing’s Military Bases,” Guardian, September 17, 2015. 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2015/sep/17/south-china-sea-images-reveal-impact-on-coral-of-beijings-militarybases; Greg Torode, “‘Paving Paradise’: Scientists Alarmed over China Island Building in Disputed Sea,” Reuters, June 25, 2015. 

http://www.reuters.com/article/us-southchinasea-china-environment-insig-idUSKBN0P50UB20150625.

29 China’s National Development and Reform Commission, National Development and Reform Commission Draws up a Plan for the 

Construction of Civilian Infrastructure on the Islands and Reefs in the Spratly Islands, June 17, 2015. Staff translation. 

http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/xwzx/xwfb/201506/t20150617_696335.html; Open Source Enterprise, “Transcript of PRC FM Spokesman News 

Conference 9 April 2015,” April 9, 2015. ID: CHO2015040928753011.

30 Andrew S. Erickson and Conor M. Kennedy, “China’s Maritime Militia,” CNA Corporation, March 7, 2016. 

https://www.cna.org/cna_files/pdf/Chinas-Maritime-Militia.pdf; Andrew S. Erickson and Conor M. Kennedy, “China’s Daring 

Vanguard: Introducing Sanya City’s Maritime Militia,” Center for International Maritime Security, November 5, 2015; Jeremy Page, 

“Vietnam Accuses Chinese Ships,” Wall Street Journal, December 3, 2012. 

http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323717004578157033857113510; Bloomberg, “Vietnam Says Chinese Boat Harassed 

Survey Ship; China Disputes,” June 9, 2011. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-06-05/china-reassures-its-neighbors-afterclashes-over-claims-in-south-china-sea; and CNN, “Pentagon Says Chinese Vessels Harassed U.S. Ship,” March 9, 2009. 

http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/03/09/us.navy.china/index.html.

31 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, “Part 12: Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment.” 

32 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, “Part 12: Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment.”

33 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, “Part 12: Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment.”

34 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, “Part 12: Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment.”

35 Convention on Biological Diversity, “Article 3: Principle.” 

36 China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, An Interview on China’s Construction on the Nansha Islands and Reefs, May 27, 2015. 

http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1267264.shtml.

37 China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, An Interview on China’s Construction on the Nansha Islands and Reefs, May 27, 2015. 

http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1267264.shtml.

38 Feng Aiping and Wang Yongzhi, “The Island and Reef Expansion Project in the Spratly Islands Has Not Impacted the Coral Reef 

Ecosystem,” China’s State Oceanic Administration website, June 10, 2015. Staff translation. 

http://www.soa.gov.cn/xw/dfdwdt/jgbm_155/201506/t20150610_38318.html. 

39 Edgardo D. Gomez, Professor Emeritus, University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute, interview with Commission staff, March 

4, 2016.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 11 

 

40 Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague, Ninth Press Release: Arbitration between the Republic of the Philippines and the People’s 

Republic of China, November 30, 2015. http://www.pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1524.

41 Center for Strategic and International Studies, Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, “Arbitration on the South China Sea: Rulings from 

The Hague.” http://amti.csis.org/ArbitrationTL/index.html.

42 Robert Williams, “A Secret Weapon to Stop China’s Island Building: The Environment?” National Interest, April 20, 2015. 

http://nationalinterest.org/feature/secret-weapon-stop-chinas-island-building-the-environment-12672.

43 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Case Concerning Land Reclamation

by Singapore in and around the Straits of Johor (Malaysia V. Singapore) (Provisional Order), October 8, 2003. 

https://www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/cases/case_no_12/12_order_081003_en.pdf; Robert Williams, “A Secret Weapon to 

Stop China’s Island Building: The Environment?” National Interest, April 20, 2015. http://nationalinterest.org/feature/secret-weaponstop-chinas-island-building-the-environment-12672.

44 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Case Concerning Land Reclamation

by Singapore in and around the Straits of Johor (Malaysia V. Singapore) (Provisional Order), October 8, 2003. 

https://www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/cases/case_no_12/12_order_081003_en.pdf; Robert Williams, “A Secret Weapon to 

Stop China’s Island Building: The Environment?” National Interest, April 20, 2015. http://nationalinterest.org/feature/secret-weaponstop-chinas-island-building-the-environment-12672.

45 Mingjiang Li, “Possible Consequences of the Philippines’ South China Sea Arbitration Case,” Center for Strategic and International 

Studies, Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, December 17, 2015. http://amti.csis.org/possible-consequences-of-the-philippines-southchina-sea-arbitration-case/.

46 China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hong Lei’s Regular Press Conference on February 29, 2016,”

February 29, 2016. http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/xwfw_665399/s2510_665401/2511_665403/t1344004.shtml; Xinhua (English 

edition), “China Says Arbitral Tribunal’s Ruling on South China Sea ‘Null and Void,’”October 30, 2015. 

http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-10/30/c_134767443.htm. 

47 Center for Strategic and International Studies, Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, “An Interview with Paul Reichler, Lead Counsel 

for the Philippines in its Case against China,” December 9, 2015. http://amti.csis.org/interview-with-paul-reichler-lead-counsel-for-thephilippines-in-its-case-against-china/; Robert Williams, “A Secret Weapon to Stop China’s Island Building: The Environment?” 

National Interest, April 20, 2015. http://nationalinterest.org/feature/secret-weapon-stop-chinas-island-building-the-environment-12672.

48 Center for Strategic and International Studies, Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, “An Interview with Paul Reichler, Lead Counsel 

for the Philippines in its Case against China,” December 9, 2015. http://amti.csis.org/interview-with-paul-reichler-lead-counsel-for-thephilippines-in-its-case-against-china/.