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National Bureau of Standards

Library, E-01 Admin. Bldg.

MITED STATES MRTMENT OF bMMERCE

Iblication

APR 8 1971

NBS TECHNICAL NOTE 569

,k y\

U.S.

HTMENT

OF

)MMERCE

7

I/'

National

Bureau

of

ndards
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The National Bureau of Standards1 was established by an act of Congress March 3,

1 901 . The Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the Nation's science and

technology and facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the Bureau conducts research and provides: (1) a basis for the Nation's physical measure- ment system, (2) scientific and technological services for industry and government, (3) a technical basis for equity in trade, and (4) technical services to promote public safety.

The Bureau consists of the Institute for Basic Standards, the Institute for Materials

Research, the Institute for Applied Technology, the Center for Computer Sciences and

Technology, and the Office for Information Programs.

THE INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS provides the central basis within the United States of a complete and consistent system of physical measurement; coordinates

that system with measurement systems of other nations; and furnishes essential services leading to accurate and uniform physical measurements throughout the Nation's scientific community, industry, and commerce. The Institute consists of a Center for Radiation Research, an Office of Measurement Services and the following divisions: Applied Mathematics—Electricity—Heat—Mechanics—Optical Physics—Linac

Radiation2—Nuclear Radiation2—Applied Radiation2—Quantum Electronics3—

Electromagnetics3—Time and Frequency3—Laboratory Astrophysics3—Cryogenics3

. THE INSTITUTE FOR MATERIALS RESEARCH conducts materials research lead- ing to improved methods of measurement, standards, and data on the properties of

well-characterized materials needed by industry, commerce, educational institutions, and

Government; provides advisory and research services to other Government agencies;

and develops, produces, and distributes standard reference materials. The Institute consists of the Office of Standard Reference Materials and the following divisions: Analytical Chemistry—Polymers—Metallurgy—Inorganic Materials—Reactor

Radiation—Physical Chemistry.

THE INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED TECHNOLOGY provides technical services to pro- mote the use of available technology and to facilitate technological innovation in industry and Government; cooperates with public and private organizations leading to the development of technological standards (including mandatory safety standards), codes

and methods of test; and provides technical advice and services to Government agencies

upon request. The Institute also monitors NBS engineering standards activities and

provides liaison between NBS and national and international engineering standards

bodies. The Institute consists of the following technical divisions and offices: Engineering Standards Services—Weights and Measures—Flammable Fabrics

Invention and Innovation—Vehicle Systems Research—Product Evaluation

Technology—Building Research—Electronic Technology—Technical Analysis

Measurement Engineering.

THE CENTER FOR COMPUTER SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY conducts re- search and provides technical services designed to aid Government agencies in improving cost effectiveness in the conduct of their programs through the selection, acquisition,

and effective utilization of automatic data processing equipment; and serves as the principal focus within the executive branch for the development of Federal standards for automatic data processing equipment, techniques, and computer languages. The Center

consists of the following offices and divisions: Information Processing Standards—Computer Information—Computer Services —Systems Development—Information Processing Technology.

THE OFFICE FOR INFORMATION PROGRAMS promotes optimum dissemination

and accessibility of scientific information generated within NBS and other agencies of

the Federal Government; promotes the development of the National Standard Reference

Data System and a system of information analysis centers dealing with the broader

aspects of the National Measurement System; provides appropriate services to ensure

that the NBS staff has optimum accessibility to the scientific information of the world,

and directs the public information activities of the Bureau. The Office consists of the following organizational units: Office of Standard Reference Data—Office of Technical Information and

Publications—Library—Office of Public Information—Office of International

Relations.

1 Headquarters and Laboratories at Gaithersburg, Maryland, unless otherwise noted; mailing address Washington, DC. 20234.

2 Part of the Center for Radiation Research.

3 Located at Boulder, Colorado 80302.
IAL BUREAU OF STAN3AW3S

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Maurice H. Stans, Secretary

[J ,^ 5 .NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS • Lewis M. Branscomb, Director

3- • NBS

-t , TECHNICAL NOTE 569

ISSUED MARCH 1971

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note 569, 71 pages (Mar. 1971)

CODEN: NBTNA

Hurricane Camille - August 1969

R. D. Dikkers, R. D. Marshall,

Building Research Division

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

H. C. S. Thorn

Environmental Data Service

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

"»f„u of

'

NBS Technical Notes are designed to supplement the Bureau's regular publications program. They provide a means for making available scientific data that are of transient or limited interest. Technical Notes may be

listed or referred to in the open literature.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C, 20402.

(Order by SD Catalog No. C 13.46:569). Price 70 cents.
PREFACE

One week after Hurricane Camille struck the Mississippi-Louisiana Gulf

Coast, a four-man team from the Building Research Division of the National

Bureau of Standards was sent to investigate the damage to buildings and

other structures. The team members were:

Dr. Edward 0. Pfrang, Chief, Structures Section

Mr. William C. Cullen, Chief, Materials Durability

and Analysis Section

Mr. Robert D. Dikkers, Structural Research Engineer

Dr. Richard D. Marshall, Structural Research Engineer

The team carried out photographic surveys on the ground and from the

air during the period of August 24-26, 1969. The investigation was

primarily limited to the heavily damaged area along the coast from

Waveland to Biloxi, Mississippi. This report is based largely on the

photographic data acquired during this period and on wind and surge data

compiled by Mr. H.C.S. Thorn, Senior Research Fellow, Environmental Data

Service, NOAA. Additional information was provided by other agencies

and individuals and their assistance is acknowledged in this report.

li
TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

INTRODUCTION 1

METEOROLOGICAL EVENTS 2

Path of Hurricane 2

Wind Regime 4

Storm Surge 6

STRUCTURAL DAMAGE 10

Biloxi 10

Gulfport 14

Long Beach 37

Pass Christian 41

St. Louis Bay Crossings 47

Bay St. Louis 47

Waveland 52

Hancock County - Inland Area 55

DISCUSSION 60

Wind Speeds 60

Storm Surge 61

Building Damage 62

Mobile Homes 64

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 65

REFERENCES 66

in
HURRICANE CAMILLE - AUGUST 1969*

A Survey of Structural Damage

Along the Mississippi Gulf Coast

by

Robert D. Dikkers, Richard D. Marshall

and H.C.S. Thorn

ABSTRACT

One week after Hurricane Camille devastated the Mississippi-Louisiana

Gulf Coast with 125 mph winds and 20-ft tides on August 17, 1969, a fourman NBS team investigated the damage to buildings and other structures.

This report presents photographic survey data from this investigation along

with additional data on wind speeds and storm surge. Based on these

data, suggestions are made pertaining to the improvement of building

design and construction practices.

Key words: Buildings; failure; hurricanes; mobile homes; roofs;

structural engineering; tides; wind.

* This investigation was conducted with the aid of a financial grant

from the Office of Civil Defense, Office of the Secretary of the Army.

IV
INTRODUCTION

Hurricane Camille (August 1969) was one of the most intense and costly

tropical storms ever to hit the United States mainland. It devastated

the Mississippi- Louisiana Gulf Coast with high winds and tides and then in

a weakened condition dumped torrential rains over Virginia's Blue Ridge

Mountains, causing flash floods and landslides. Camille caused a total of

248 deaths and $1.42 billion in property damage along the MississippiLouisiana Gulf Coast and in Virginia [1, 2, 3].*

In Mississippi-Louisiana, 144 persons were killed and 8,931 injured.

The total dollar damage was about $1.28 billion. Hurricane Betsy which

struck the Louisiana coast in September, 1965, caused less than 100

deaths and approximately $1.76 billion damage in terms of 1969 dollars.

Based on Red Cross survey data [3] , the impact of Hurricane Camille on

property in Mississippi-Louisiana is summarized below:

5,662 homes destroyed

13,915 homes with major damage

33,933 homes with minor damage

1,082 mobile homes destroyed

621 mobile homes with major damage

775 farm buildings destroyed

2,289 farm buildings with major damage

679 small businesses destroyed or with major damage

* Figures in brackets refer to the references listed at the end of this

report.

1
METEOROLOGICAL EVENTS

Path of Hurricane

Shortly before 8 A.M. CDT on Friday, August 15, 1969, a reconnaissance

aircraft located Hurricane Camille about 75 miles from extreme southwestern Cuba [4]. Highest winds were estimated at 90 mph. The storm

had been under close surveillance for the previous 24 hours when winds

were still less than 60 mph near the center of the depression. During

the next two days Camille continued moving toward the north northwest

at about 10 mph. The hurricane path is indicated in figure 1.

At 1 P.M. CDT on Sunday, August 17, Camille was 155 miles southeast of

New Orleans and moving north northwest at 12 to 15 mph. Maximum wind

speeds were estimated at 160 mph near the center. Camille passed just

to the east of the mouth of the Mississippi River generating a surge

that topped both east and west bank levees and caused severe flooding

in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana. The center of Camille came ashore at

Waveland, Mississippi, at 10;30 P.M. CDT and passed over Bay St. Louis

on her way north through Hancock County. During the early morning hours

the hurricane began to weaken, and at 5 A.M. CDT on Monday, August 18,

Camille was located about 40 miles south southeast of Jackson,

Mississippi, moving northward at about 15 mph. She continued to weaken

as she moved northward through Mississippi and was classified as a

depression on moving into Tennessee. Rainfall over southern Mississippi

and southeastern Louisiana ranged from 3 to 11 inches. On Tuesday,

August 19, the depression stages of Camille moved into southwestern

Virginia and produced torrential rains along the eastern slopes of the

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recorded, producing record flooding along the James River. On August

22, Camille was absorbed into a cold front southeast of Cape Race,

Newfoundland.

Wind Regime

In most extreme storm conditions it is difficult to obtain reliable

wind speed observations and Hurricane Camille was no exception.

Of the wind speed observations taken during the storm [4] , approximately

six could be considered to be reasonably reliable. These observations

were modified to obtain fastest mile speeds at the standard height of 30 ft,

The map of figure 2 is a modification" of a map issued by the New Orleans

Weather Bureau Office shortly after the passage of Camille. The best

estimates of the path and isotachs are shown along with observations of

maximum speeds made by commissioned weather observers in the area.

Also shown is the calm center or "eye" of the hurricane which was

estimated to be approximately 10 miles in diameter as she came ashore.

Two of the most useful observations in setting the general level of the

wind were the observation at Keesler Air Force Base and a record from

Transworld Drilling Company's Rig 50. The Keesler record is a standard

one and required only that the observation be raised from 13 to 30 ft.

A reproduction of the Transworld record was first published by DeAngelis

and Nelson [4] and is of particular interest because of its proximity to

the hurricane center. The record showed a maximum wind speed of 172 mph,

4
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but there was some difficulty with the paper transport which caused a

time displacement. However, it is not likely that this would have

altered the pen displacement. The aneomometer was a propeller-vane

type with a distance constant of approximately 15 ft and was mounted

about 100 ft above the water [5]. The 172 mph peak speed was reduced

to the 30 ft level using a power law approximation of the velocity profile. An exponent of 1/7 was used which appeared to be reasonable

considering the condition of the water surface. This resulted in a

peak gust of 144 mph and a fastest mile speed of 115 mph at the 30 ft

elevation.

Examination of figure 2 shows that the 50-year design winds [6] were

exceeded in the area between Slidell, Louisiana, and Ocean Springs,

Mississippi. Between Gulfport and Wave land, Mississippi, the 100-year

design winds were exceeded by winds corresponding to a mean recurrence

interval of perhaps as much as 200 years. Although there were no known

official reports of tornadoes, several non-commissioned weather

observers reported tornadoes to the northeast of the center where they

would be expected to occur. At least one structure (near Wiggins,

Mississippi) suggested damage by a tornado 17].

Storm Surge

Major flooding occurred along the Gulf Coast from lower Plaquemines

Parish in Louisiana to Bayou La Batre, Alabama, and tides ran 3 to 5 ft

above normal as far east as Apalachicola, Florida. Flooding and wave

damage were extremely heavy just east of the storm's center where tides

6
ran as much as 25 ft above mean sea level. Figure 3, reproduced from

Geological Survey Maps [8], shows the flooded areas along the

Mississippi Coast and the surge height in feet above mean sea level.

The isotachs of figure 2 have been superimposed on figure 3 for relating

the flood damage to the wind distribution. It should be noted, however,

that factors other than wind speed can also influence surge intensity.

In order to give an estimate of the severity of the storm surge, a

mixed Frechet distribution 19] was fitted to the 77-year tide height

series at Biloxi. The mixture consisted of two components; tides

associated with tropical storms passing to the west of Biloxi and tides

associated with all other storm passages. The distributions are shown

in figure 4 with the middle curve corresponding to the mixed distribution. The surge height of 15.5 ft recorded at Biloxi corresponds to a

mean recurrence interval of 160 years. This is in rough agreement with

the mean recurrence interval associated with wind speeds observed in the

Biloxi -Gulfport area. Unfortunately, no long-term records are available

for surge at Pass Christian where the peak value was observed.

As with all coastal hurricanes, much of the damage from Camille was due

to storm surge. In the area extending from Gulfport to Pass Christian,

heavy damage due to surge was observed up to 400 yds inland. The inten^

sity of damage was strongly influenced by local topography, there being

areas near the peak surge which escaped damage because of slightly

higher ground elevation.
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STRUCTURAL DAMAGE

The degree of wind damage along the Mississippi Gulf Coast ranged from

superficial to total destruction. Damage caused by surge was particularly heavy west of Gulfport and considerable flooding occurred in the

back bay areas. The photographs on the following pages illustrate the

type and intensity of damage observed by the survey team and are presented in general geographical order, starting at Biloxi and progressing

westward to Waveland and then inland for a distance of about 20 miles.

A map of the area bounded by Ocean Springs and Bay St. Louis is presented in figure 5.

Biloxi

As indicated in figure 3, maximum wind speeds and surge heights in the

Biloxi area were approximately 105 mph and 18 ft respectively. Precast

concrete deck slabs of the Biloxi Bay Bridge (fig. 6) were moved longitudinally on their pile bents by surge-borne waves. Some slabs were

displaced as much as 3 to 4 ft and considerable debris was lodged in

the bridge railing. The ground floor of the Buena Vista Motel (fig. 7)

was completely gutted by waves and extensive wind damage to the roofing

was observed. Note the proximity of the structure to the water.

Structures on slightly higher ground fared much better even though

their ground floors and basements were flooded (fig. 8). Generally,

surge damage was limited to those areas within two blocks of the

beach.

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Figure 6. Biloxi Bay Bridge, Biloxi, Mississippi,

Figure 7. Buena Vista Motel, Biloxi.

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Figure 8. Coastal area, Biloxi, Mississippi,

Figure 9. Chapel, Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi,

13
Keesler Air Force Base - Damage to buildings was limited to loss of

cladding and roofing with some flooding occurring in housing developments located along the back bay. The chapel shown in figure 9 suffered

the most serious damage with the loss of copper roofing and subsequent

water damage to the interior furnishings. Single-family dwellings with

wind-resistant shingles exhibited very little damage (fig. 10).

Broadwater Beach Marina - This marina (fig. 11) near Biloxi consists of

reinforced concrete columns and double-T roof members over the boat

slips. Although some of the roof members were damaged (fig. 12), the

overall performance of the structure was very good considering that it

was completely inundated by the storm surge. Surge height in this area

(approximately half way between Biloxi and Gulfport) was about 20 ft.

The building shown in figure 13 suffered heavy damage due to wave

action and wind. Note the damage to roofing near the windward corner

of the building. This type of damage is typical of flat-roofed

structures investigated by the team. Although the seawall generally

suffered light damage, considerable erosion was observed behind the

wall and under the adjacent pavement slabs of U.S. 90 as indicated in

figure 14.

Gulfport

An aerial view showing a portion of the downtown business and commercial

area of Gulfport is shown in figure 15. Many small buildings located

along this flat coastal area were heavily damaged or destroyed by the

14
Figure 10. Single-family, residence3 Keesler Air Force Base.

Figure 11. Broadwater Beach Marina between Biloxi and Gulf-port3 Mississippi.

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Figure 12. Close-up view of damage to Broadwater Beach Marina.

Figure 13. Residential area between Biloxi and Gulfport} Mississippi.

16
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Figure 14. Seawall along U.S. Highway 90.

Figure 15. Business and commercial area, Gulfport3 Mississippi,

17
20-ft storm surge. One group of buildings in this area comprised the

Marine Life Aquarium (fig. 16). The large steel-arched building at the

left provided shelter for a display tank and a concrete seating area.

Detailed description of the damage to these structures has been reported

by another survey team [10]

Three large ships, which were driven aground on the Gulfport Coast near

the Mississippi Power Company building, are shown in figure 17.

The effect of building geometry on local wind pressures is demonstrated

by the church in figure 18. This structure is located approximately

3 miles inland and probably experienced peak gusts when the wind was

blowing from left to right. Strong vortex flows can develop along the

eaves of the gable end, resulting in extremely high suctions. Failure

of this roof structure is quite similar to that depicted in figure 9.

Mississippi Power Company - The new seven-story Mississippi Power

Company building is located on U.S. Highway 90 in Gulfport. Figure 19

is an aerial view illustrating the proximity of the building to the

coastline. Opened in April, 1969, this $2.5 million concrete frame

building sustained only minor damage. To help protect the building

from flooding, it was situated on an elevated, earth-banked plazapodium (about 26 ft above mean sea level)

On the first floor, the building has 35 windows measuring 5 ft by 14 ft

and a total of 504 windows, each 5 ft by 8 ft by 6 in, on the second

18
Figure 16. Marine Life Aquarium, Gulfport.

Figure 17. Ships aground at Gulfport, Mississippi,

i ,

19
Figure 18. Churoh located in northern part of Gulf-port.

Figure 19. Seven-story Mississippi Power Company building,

Gulfportj Mississippi.

20
through seventh floors (fig. 20) [11]. The large first-floor windows

were protected from flying or floating debris by a wire fabric screen

which was erected just prior to the storm. The windows consist of

one- inch thick panels of insulating reflective glass set in bronze

anodized aluminum framing with neoprene gaskets. The neoprene gaskets

provide a resilient mounting for the glass and prevented metal -to- glass

contact and minimized breakage. After the storm, it was reported

that, out of more than 500 windows, a total of 13 lights had to be

replaced [11].

In addition to the window damage, some minor damage occurred to one side

of the roof enclosure surrounding the air-conditioning cooling tower

(fig. 21). The structure for the enclosure consisted of rectangular

structural steel tubing and 2- in thick concrete panels which were

reinforced with expanded metal lath.

Figures 22 through 24 indicate the general level of damage in the area

surrounding the Mississippi Power Company. The prefabricated metal

building in figure 22 again points up the importance of local wind

effects when designing roof elements. The random distribution of damage

shown in figure 23 is typical of the entire area covered by the survey.

Failures of roofing are usually progressive as is indicated in figure 24,

Gravel from this built-up roof contributed considerably to the flying

debris.

21
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Figure 20. Close-up view of Mississippi Power Company building.

Figure 21. Enclosure structure on roof of Mississippi Power

Company building3 Gulfport, Mississippi.

22
Figure 22. Area directly north of Mississippi Power Company

building

.

Figure 23. Area directly east of Mississippi Power Company

building, Gulfport, Mississippi.

23
Wooden frame houses suffered relatively little wind damage, most damage

being caused by wind-driven missiles and falling trees. The house shown

in figure 25 was subjected to the direct action of waves and was probably

battered by water-borne debris. The oil storage tank in figure 26 was

carried inland on the surge from its original location on a pier in the

port complex. The large dent indicates a collision with other structures

while being driven ashore.

An old wood-frame house (fig. 27) escaped major damage except for its

metal roof covering.

A major task throughout all the damaged area (Biloxi to Waveland) was

the clearing of debris (trees, building materials, etc) from public and

private property (fig. 28). Within one week, all major access roads

had been opened. It was also reported that in the first two weeks

338 miles of streets had been cleared and an initial 17,000 truckloads

of debris dumped J12], Over a 3-month period more than 300,000 loads

were trucked to 17 emergency dump sites.

U.S. Naval Construction Battalion Center - The U.S. Naval Construction

Battalion Center in Gulfport is located about 1-1/2 miles inland.

Accordingly, structural damage which was observed resulted from high

wind forces, not high tides. It was reported that about 10 warehouses,

17 barracks, and 8 miscellaneous structures were either totally destroyed

or considered to be beyond repair. Another 23 structures suffered minor

damage [13].

24
Figure 24. Roofing damage on building adjacent to north side

of Mississippi Power Company building.

Figure 25. Wood-frame residence

Mississippi.

damaged by waveSj Gulfport3

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Figure 26. Tank washed ashore by storm surge. Gulf-port.

Figure 27. Metal roofing damage, Gulfport3 Mississippi.

26
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Figure 28. Debris clearance, Gulfport.

Figure 29. Damaged warehouses, U.S. Naval Construction Battalion

Center, Gulfport, Mississippi .

27
An aerial view of the damaged warehouses is shown in figure 29. These

wood-frame buildings were built during World War II and were still in

daily use. The major damage to these structures occurred on the windward side. As shown in figure 29, the warehouse units were constructed

with brick fire walls between each section. The roofs were supported

by timber trusses and the front and back walls were of wood-frame construction. Close-up views illustrating the collapsed wood-frame walls,

damaged brick fire walls and dislodged roof trusses are shown in

figures 30 and 31.

Comparatively minor damage was suffered by three reinforced concrete

masonry warehouses (fig. 32) which were built during or since 1950.

These warehouses were located near the older wood-frame warehouses (see

upper left of fig. 29). As shown in figure 33, these structures lost

some 2-ft wide by 8-ft long precast concrete roof panels along the

perimeter of the roof. It was observed that all roof panels were

securely anchored at interior points by steel clips but no anchorage was

provided for the perimeter panels, the location where peak uplift

usually occurs. Prior to the passage of Hurricane Camille, it was

reported to the NBS survey team that hundreds of civilian dependents

left their homes to take refuge in these concrete -masonry warehouses.

Severely damaged two- story wood- frame barracks and a one -story woodframe warehouse are illustrated in figures 34 and 35. The type of

damage observed from both the ground and the air seems to indicate this

area was probably struck by tornadoes. Nearby, large pine trees were

28
Figure 30. Close-up view of damaged warehouse shown in figure 29.

Figure 3l. Damaged warehouse roof and fire wall, U.S. Naval C. B. Center, Gulfport3 Mississippi.

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Figure 32. Reinforced concrete and masonry warehouse, U.S. Naval

C. B. Center, Gutf

'port.

Figure 33. Precast concrete roof slabs, U.S. Naval C. warehouses, Gulfport, Mississippi.

B. Center

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Figure 34. Wood-frame barracks, U.S. Naval C. B. Center_, Gulfport.

Figure 35. Wood-frame warehouse and barracks, U.S. Naval C. Center3 Gulfport, Mississippi.

31
broken off some distance above the ground (fig. 36).

Figure 37 illustrates a steel-framed building which lost one end-wall

and most of its light wood- frame cladding.

A 12-in thick masonry end wall of the new B.O.Q. building was also

toppled during the hurricane (fig. 38). The forces causing the outward

collapse of this wall were probably due to a combination of suction on

the leeward side and a high internal pressure. However, an inspection

of the construction indicated there were no metal anchors tying the

wall to the adjacent laminated timber arches. Brick masonry columns

at both ends of the wall contained vertical steel reinforcement, but

this reinforcement extended only about 20 inches above the column base.

Underneath the collapsed masonry wall (note hump in fig. 38) is a car

which was parked by the owner in what he probably considered to be a

sheltered and safe location. Other automobiles at the U.S. Naval Center

were also damaged by flying debris (fig. 39).

Figures 40 and 41 indicate the sporadic nature of wind damage in the

area west of the U.S. Naval Center and north of Long Beach. Failures

were usually initiated by loss of carport roofs or large roof overhangs

which often led to removal of the complete roof structure.

The remains of a mobile home in the same general area are shown in

figure 42. The areas shown in the figures 40-42 are relatively clear

of large trees, a fact which probably reduced the intensity of damage.

32
Figure 36. U.S. Naval C. B. Center, Gulfport.

Figure 37. U.S. Naval C. B. Center, Gulfport, Mississippi,

33
Figure 58. Masonry wall damage, U.S. Naval C. B. Center, Gulfport.

Figure 39. Damaged ear, U.S. Naval C. Mississippi.

B. Center, Gulfport,

34
Figure 40. Residential area west of Gulfport.

Figure 41. Residential area north of Long Beach, Mississippi,

35
Figure 42. Remains of mobile home, Long Beach.

Figure 43. Saint Thomas Catholic Church, Long Beach, Mississippi.

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Heavy structural damage due to windfalls was observed in many areas.

Long Beach

Long Beach, located between Gulfport and Pass Christian, experienced

maximum wind speeds and surge heights of approximately 130 mph (fastest

mile) and 21 ft, respectively (fig. 3). As illustrated in the following

figures (43-53), many of the buildings along this coastal area were

totally destroyed by wave wash.

Figure 43 shows a wood-frame church which was badly damaged by wave

action. Commercial buildings located in a shopping center on U.S.

Highway 90 are shown in figures 44-46. A small store constructed with

masonry walls and located on the coastal side from the supermarket shown

in figures 45 and 46 was completely destroyed. The church building

shown in the center background of figure 45 had considerable storm

surge damage to its interior although its exterior walls and roof were

only slightly damaged.

Water-borne debris piled up in front of a damaged masonry veneer

wood -frame building (probably a motel) is illustrated in figure 47.

Ramada Inn - This motel (fig. 48) consists of a main building parallel

to the highway (U.S. Route 90) plus two wings perpendicular to and

behind the main building. As shown in figure 48, the motel wing on the

right (east wing) suffered more damage than the other wing, probably

because of its clearer exposure to the waves. The main building including

37
;/»w

Figure 44. Commercial building, Long Beach. (Building is located

across the street from shopping center shown in fig. 45)

Figure 45. Shopping center} Long Beach3 Mississippi.

38
Figure 46. Close-up view of supermarket shown in figure 45.

Figure 47. Close-up view of residential building^ Long Beach,

Mississippi.

39
Figure 48. Ramada Inn3 Long Beach3 Mississippi ,

Figure 49. Restaurant area on west end of main building, Ramada

Inn3 Long Beach.

40
the restaurant area (fig. 49) experienced extensive water damage. On the

east end of the main building, the top-story portion of a masonry wall had

collapsed (fig. 50). An inspection of this brick and block wall indicated

it contained some vertical reinforcement; however, the block cells containing this reinforcement did not contain any grout or concrete (fig. 51),

Figures 52 and 53 illustrate the total destruction of numerous small

residential buildings along the Long Beach and Pass Christian coastal

area. The distance which the storm surge traveled inland is also

evident in these figures.

Pass Chr istian

Along the coastal area in Pass Christian, several apartment buildings

were totally destroyed by wave action. One of these buildings was the

Richelieu Apartments (fig. 54) where 23 persons were killed because they

failed to heed warnings to evacuate. A close-up view of the remains of

the Richelieu Apartments, a three- story brick veneer and wood-frame

building is shown in figure 55.

The remains of other demolished apartment buildings are illustrated in

figures 56-58. The construction of these buildings was similar - brick

veneer and wood frame.

A residential area of Pass Christian is shown in figure 59. Fallen

trees indicate that maximum winds were from the east (fastest mile

speeds were probably in excess of 140 mph) . The Pass Christian business

41
^di\'

Figure SO. Damaged masonry wall on east end of main building,

Ramada Inn.

Figure 51. Damaged masonry wall, Ramada Inn; block cells containing

vertical reinforcement were not grouted.

*aKS&

42
Figure 52. Residential area along ooast} Long Beaoh3 Mississippi.

Figure 53. Coastal area3 Long Beaeh.

43
' I

'-

Figure 54. Richelieu Apartments, Pass Christian.

Figure 55. Debris from Richelieu Apartments} Pass Christian,

Mississippi'.

Mj *^

I

iL ^M \\fcM^i mk> M i&& -^^m : x

#•/ i~? " „

'•'• jriL.;-

*-j8»*>- ,^*-^r

>i

>,.*'-

44
Figure 56. Remains of an apartment building, Pass Christian,

Mississippi.

Figure 57. Brick veneer from destroyed apartment building, Pass

Christian.

45
Figure 58. Floor construction used in some apartment buildings3 Pass Christian.

Figure 59. Residential area} Pass Christian, Mississippi.

46
district suffered extensive damage as illustrated in figure 60. The

debris in the center of the figure is all that remains of the commercial

buildings which were located on the south (near) side of the street.

Note U.S. Highway 90 in the foreground. Accumulations of debris were

particularly heavy in the back bay areas and along the beaches of

Mississippi Sound as indicated in figure 61.

St. Louis Bay Crossings

The L § N Railway Bridge over St. Louis Bay is shown in figure 62.

Rails, ties and ballast were swept from the deck by surge-borne waves.

The missing span was not carried away in the storm but was severely

damaged and required replacement. The bridge carrying U.S. Route 90

(shown in background) suffered damage very similar to that of the Biloxi

Bay Bridge. A displaced deck slab is shown in figure 63.

Bay St. Louis

Figures 64 and 65 indicate the intensity of damage in the Bay St. Louis

residential area. It is believed that the center or "eye" of Camille

passed directly over this portion of the city. Note that most of the

trees have been uprooted rather than broken off.

One of a group of modern single-family dwellings near Bay St. Louis,

which suffered only minor wind damage, is shown in figure 66. In this

and several other dwellings, it was noted that the corner supports for

the carports were either slightly damaged or completely destroyed. The

wind-resistant asphalt shingles on the houses performed very well.

47
Figure 60. Business area3 Pass Christian, Mississippi,

Figure 61. Debris along east abutment of Bay St. Louis Bridge,

48
Figure 62. L & N Railway Bridge_, Bay St. Louis. (Damaged span

removed)

Figure 63. Bay St. Louis Bridge^ U.S. Highway 90.

49
Figure 64. Residential area, Bay St. Louis3 Mississippi,

Figure 65. Residential area3 Bay St. Louis.

50
Figure 66. Single-family residence near Bay St. Louis.

Figure 67. Single-family residence3 Waveland} Mississippi.

- i

51
Waveland

A residence and a bank building, which were struck by waves, are illustrated in figures 67 and 68. The residential building lost most of its

exterior and interior wall coverings but the good anchorage of the woodstud walls to the concrete slab foundation and to the timber roof prevented total destruction. As shown in figure 68, the bank building

was completely destroyed except for the reinforced concrete vault and

building frame.

A small two- story motel located about 3 miles from the coast and on

U.S. Route 90 near Waveland, Mississippi, is shown in figure 69. This

brick-veneer and wood- frame building was arranged in a U-shaped plan

and had a flat roof overhanging the second floor exit balcony. The

direction of the wind was such that it resulted in one wing of the motel

losing only part of its built-up roofing (fig. 69), while the other

motel wing (fig. 70) was stripped of its entire roof structure due to

the uplift forces acting on the roof overhang.

Across the highway from the small motel is a larger two-story motel,

which has a flat concrete roof overhanging the second- story balcony

(fig. 71). In this building the roof structure was apparently heavy

enough and anchored satisfactorily to resist the uplift forces. The

only damage observed was to the built-up roofing and underlying insulation.

52
MER«T NTS BANK

Figure 68. Bank building3 Waveland.

Figure 69. Motel near Waveland, Mississippi,

H-!!

mi Mh

53
Figure 70. Damaged wing of motel shown in figure 69.

Figure 71. Motel} U.S. Highway 90 near Waveland, Mississippi.

54
One of the many mobile homes which were overturned is shown in figure 72,

This particular mobile home was located in Louisiana on U.S. Route 90

just west of Pearlington, Mississippi.

Hancock County -__ Inland Area

North Central High School is located on County Road 603 about 15 miles

north of Waveland, Mississippi. The main school buildings are constructed with brick and block walls and a steel joist roof system. As

shown in figure 73, the roof covering and insulation were stripped from

the buildings and the windows were badly damaged. This exterior damage

also resulted in extensive rain damage to the interior and contents of

the buildings.

Two mobile homes adjacent to the main buildings and used as temporary

classrooms were totally destroyed (fig. 74).

A smaller masonry building containing athletic locker rooms lost most

of its built-up roof covering (fig. 75). It appeared that the wind

probably tore off the roof vents first which then made the roof covering

more vulnerable to wind action.

A small concrete block building (fig. 76) near the other school buildings

had a wood- frame roof which was adequately anchored to the walls. Wind

uplift on the roof did produce some major tensile cracks in the horizontal

mortar joints of the walls.

55
Figure 72. Damaged mobile home3 U.S. Highway 90 near Pearlington,

Mississippi..

Figure 73. North Central High School between Waveland and

Poplarville3 Mississippi.

56
Figure 74. Temporary classrooms, North Central High School.

Figure 75. Athletic building, North Central High School.

57
About five miles north of the North Central High School, a tall steel

observation tower was toppled by the strong winds. One leg of the tower

was sufficiently anchored to a concrete footing (fig. 77) to pull the

footing from the ground and drag it about 15 ft when the tower overturned.

58
Figure 76. Small concrete block buildings North Central High

Schoo I

.

Figure 77. Steel observation tower near North Central Eigh School.

59
DISCUSSION

Natural disasters such as Hurricane Camille provide full-scale tests of

buildings and other structures. Information gained from the systematic

study of building performance in these disasters should lead to improved

design and construction practices that will save lives and reduce property losses. In the following discussion, observations relating to

wind speed, storm surge and consequent structural damage are briefly

summarized.

Wind Speeds

Spectacular estimates of wind speeds have been presented in a number of

reports and articles on Hurricane Camille with little consideration

given to type of exposure, height of observation and instrument characteristics. In reviewing hurricane reports submitted after the passage

of Camille, approximately six observations of wind speed were considered

to be reasonably reliable. Most of these required some adjustment to

standard height and conversion to fastest mile. This lack of reliable

information is quite remarkable considering the advanced warning of the

hurricane's path and the number of major installations with wind measuring

equipment in the storm area.

In order to evaluate the performance of buildings and other structures

along the Mississippi Gulf Coast, the severity of the storm must be

compared with accepted design wind speeds. As indicated earlier in this

report, the 50-year design winds (95 mph) were exceeded in the area

extending from Slidell, Louisiana, to Ocean Springs, Mississippi, while

60
the 100-year design winds (105 mph) were probably exceeded over the

central half of this area. Though the true severity of Camille will

never be known, it is interesting to note that the reported design speed

of 150 mph assigned to the Mississippi Power Company building corresponds

to a mean recurrence interval of approximately 370 years. As noted

previously, this structure suffered relatively minor damage.

The number of tornadoes generated during the passage of Camille is

unknown. Waterspouts were observed on Keesler AFB radar during the

storm and the type of damage observed by the survey team in certain

areas suggested tornadic action.

Storm Surge

The storm surge generated by Camille along the Mississippi Gulf Coast

was particularly devastating. It is believed that damage directly

attributable to wave action and flooding far exceeded that due to wind

in the area covered by the survey. Greater consideration should be

given to storm surge, a factor which is overlooked in most existing

building codes.

The prediction of surge heights is exceptionally difficult because of the

number of variables involved. In addition, the design of most buildings

to directly resist wave action is generally impractical because of the

prodigious loads involved.

61
In future development of the devastated area, the following steps could

substantially reduce the risk of surge damage.

1. Minimize the effects of wave action by leaving ground-floor

areas completely open and using this space for plazas and

parking.

2. Constructing buildings on elevated areas, as in the case of

the Mississippi Power Company building, or on pole or pile

supports.

3. Institute restricted zoning in areas known to be vulnerable

to storm surge.

Building Dama ge

Since the NBS team spent only a brief period (approximately 3 days)

surveying the damage along the Mississippi Gulf Coast, it was not possible

to conduct a detailed inspection of many of the buildings illustrated in

this report. Accordingly, the following discussion is based on typical

damage which was observed.

Current Design Practice - The satisfactory performance of various major

buildings and structures (for example, Broadwater Beach Marina, fig. 11;

Mississippi Power Company Building, fig. 19; U.S. Naval Center concrete

and masonry warehouses, fig. 32; and motel, fig. 71) indicates that the

use of current good design and construction practices can greatly minimize

property damage resulting from hurricane winds and storm surge.

62
In general, wood-frame residential buildings (figs. 10, 25, 27, 66)

performed very well where they were constructed in accordance with current recommendations [7, 14, 15]. As demonstrated in Hurricane Camille

as well as in previous hurricanes, it is essential that wood-frame

buildings be properly anchored to their foundations, and walls, floors

and roofs adequately tied together.

The proper use of reinforced masonry walls in many buildings (figs. 31,

38, 45, 50) would probably have reduced some of the damage which was

observed.

Roofs - Roof damage on buildings with flat roofs (figs. 13, 32, 33)

clearly demonstrates the need to give more consideration to local wind

effects. The effect of building geometry on local wind pressures was

apparent in a number of cases (figs. 9, 18, 22).

Carport roofs and roof overhangs were particularly vulnerable in a considerable number of residential buildings (figs. 40, 41, 66, 69, 70). In

some of these buildings, failures which were initiated by loss of carport

roofs or roof overhangs led to removal of the complete roof structure.

Roof Coverings - Wind-resistant (self sealing) asphalt shingles performed

very well as shown in figures 10 and 66. Inadequate fastening resulted

in metal roofing (figs. 9 and 27) being stripped from some buildings.

Built-up roofing applied to concrete roof decks (fig. 32) generally suffered

little damage. However, built-up roofing applied over insulation

63
(regardless of type) appeared to experience more damage (figs. 24 and 75).

In a majority of cases, built-up roofing damage appeared to commence at

the perimeter of the roof. Lack of adequate perimeter attachment was

evident where serious damage was observed. In one building (fig. 75)

the loss of roof exhaust vents probably caused the removal of considerable

built-up roofing.

Anchorage Details - The lack of proper anchors to connect various building

elements together caused damage in at least two buildings (figs. 33 and 38)

Construction Inspection - The lack of adequate inspection during construction was also evident in several damaged buildings. One example of

construction deficiencies is shown in figure 51. Additional examples

have been presented in other reports 110, 13].

Mobile Homes

The majority of mobile home damage observed (figs. 42, 72, 74) could have

been greatly minimized by the use of over-the-roof ties as specified in

the current standard for mobile homes [16] . Because the panel connections

on mobile homes are not sufficiently ductile, partial failures generally

develop into complete failures, making anchors attached only to the floor

system less effective. This observation is supported by the statistics

presented earlier in this report which show that the ratio of mobile

homes destroyed to those with major damage has a trend opposite to that

of conventional homes and farm buildings.

64
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The assistance and cooperation of the following individuals who provided

useful data and suggestions for use in this report and assisted the NBS

team during their survey is acknowledged:

Dr. E. 0. Pfrang, Chief, Structures

Section, Building Research Division

(a member of the NBS survey team)

Mr. William C. Cullen, Chief, Materials

Durability and Analysis Section,

Building Research Division (a member

of the NBS survey team)

Mr. Arthur I. Cooperman, Chief,

Marine Section, Environmental Data

Service, NOAA

Mr. Richard M. DeAngelis, Marine

Climatologist, Marine Section,

Environmental Data Service, NOAA

Col. H.E. Ercanbrack, Keesler Air

Force Base, Biloxi, Mississippi

Mr. L.F. Tharp, Chief Engineer,

Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi

Capt. James M. Hill, Jr., Commanding

Officer, U.S. Naval Construction

Battalion Center, Gulfport, Mississippi

Lt.j.g. John E. Skelton, Assistant

Public Works Officer, U.S. Naval

Construction Battalion Center, Gulfport

Mr. J.E, Kizzire, Manager of General

Services, Mississippi Power Company,

Gulfport

65
REFERENCES

1. "Hurricane Camille is Called Most Costly in U.S. History," Washington

Evening Star, Washington, D.C., November 16, 1969.

2. "Hurricane Camille - A Month of Federal Action," Information Office,

Office of Emergency Preparedness, Executive Office of the President,

Washington, D.C., September 25, 1969.

3. "Hurricane Camille - 4 Months of Action," Office of Emergency

Preparedness, Executive Office of the President, Washington, D.C.,

December 1969.

4. DeAngelis, R.M. and Nelson, E.R. , Hurricane Camille - August 5-22,

Climatological Data , National Summary, Vol. 20, No. 8, ESSA, Washington

1969.

5. Communication with Mr. J.C. Roe, Technical Advisor, Marine Observations, Transworld Drilling Company.

6. Thorn, H.C.S., New Distributions of Extreme Winds in the United

States, Journal of the Structural J)iv^ision, ASCE, Vol. 94, No. ST7,

Proc. Paper 6038, July 1968.

7. U.S. Forest Service, Wood Structures Survive Hurricane Camille'

Winds, Forest Products Laboratory FPL 123, Madison, Wisconsin,

October 1969.

8. Wilson, K.V. and Hudson, J.H., Hurricane Camille Tidal Floods of

August 1969, Hydrographic Investigations Atlas HA-404 , U.S. Geological

Survey, Washington, 1969.

9. Thorn, H.C.S., Toward a Universal Climatological Extreme Wind Distribution, Proc. International Research Seminar on Wind Effects on

66
Buildings and Structures, Ottawa, Canada, September 1967, Vol. 1,

University of Toronto Press, 1968.

10. Criswell, M.E. and Cummins, R.S., "Survey of Gulf Coast Structural

Damage Resulting from Hurricane Camille, August 1969," U.S. Army

Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Technical Report N-70-10,

Vicksburg, Mississippi, April 1970.

11. E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Co (Inc) , Elastomer Chemicals Department,

"Building with Elastomers," Wilmington, Delaware, January 1970.

12. Black, R.H. , "The Effects of Hurricane Camille on Industry, Public

Utilities, and Public Works Operations," URS Research Company,

San Mateo, California, March 1970.

13. Bryson, S.Z., Slagle, F.L., Hales, A.R., "Supplemental Structural

Report on Hurricane Camille Damage," NAVFAC, November 1969 (an

unpublished report)

.

14. Anderson, L.O. and Smith, W.R. , "Houses Can Resist Hurricanes,"

U.S. Forest Service Research Paper FPL 33, U.S. Department of

Agriculture, August 1965.

15. Southern Pine Association, National Forest Products Association and

American Wood Preservers Institute, "How to Build Storm Resistant

Structures," 1969.

16. American National Standards Institute, "American National Standard

for Mobile Homes, A119.1 - 1969."

67

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