Integrated Renewable Resource

Management for U.S. Insular Areas

June 1987

NTIS order #PB87-205829
Recommended Citation:

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Integrated Renewable Resource

Management for U.S. Insular Areas, OTA-F-325 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office, June 1987).

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 86-600595

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325

(order form on p. 443)
Foreword

The United States has political, economic, humanitarian, and strategic interests in sustained economic development of U.S.-affiliated Caribbean and Pacific islands. Despite a U.S.

commitment to support the economic vitality of these islands, most have become less selfreliant in food and fiber production, and now depend increasingly on Federal funding for

jobs, public welfare, and food and other goods and services to the islands.

Interest in the development of increased self-reliance in U.S.-affiliated islands has grown

significantly in the last two decades. After 16 years of negotiation, the Congress, the United

Nations and three governments emerging from the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

—the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands—approved agreements redefining their relationships

with the United States. The remaining agreement, with the Republic of Palau, is expected

soon, thus terminating the only remaining trusteeship created by the United Nations after

World War II. Concomitant with the interest in development of island self-government has

been concern over development of self-reliance. Similarly, the economic well-being of the

U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands has come under increasing scrutiny due to the growing strategic importance of the Caribbean Basin, and the implementation of the Caribbean Basin Initiative,

Several factors contributing to the growing dependence of U.S.-affiliated islands include:

scant natural resources and long distances between islands and sources of inputs, products,

or markets; rapidly growing populations; tropical resource characteristics with generally

high natural productivity but extreme vulnerability to disruption; and common histories of

significant resource degradation. Despite the latter, the economic constraints posed by size

and isolation of many of these islands dictate that much of the productive sector be based

on renewable resources—agriculture, aquiculture, fisheries, and tourism.

Renewable resource development can help foster self-sufficiency, but certain approaches

are not compatible with sustained development (e. g., harvesting resources until long-term

productivity is lost, resources are depleted, or the environment is degraded). Similarly, policies, programs, and projects that seriously conflict with local cultures and customs are likely

to be counterproductive.

The Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, in 1984, requested the Office

of Technology Assessment to conduct an assessment of the constraints to development of

insular resource-based enterprises, and the opportunities to improve sustainable renewable

resource development and management on the U.S.-affiliated islands. The House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs endorsed the request. The assessment identifies and discusses in-depth some constraints and opportunities to integrated management of renewable resources on these islands.

OTA greatly appreciates the contributions of its advisory panel and workshop participants assembled for the study, and the authors of the commissioned papers. We are especially grateful for the time and effort donated by the numerous contributors who served as

reviewers and as liaisons from the insular governments and other government agencies. In

addition, we would like to thank those from within OTA who provided assistance, particularly Dr. Gordon Law of the International Security and Commerce Program. As with all OTA

studies the content of the report is the sole responsibility of OTA.

iii
Integrated Renewable Resources Management

for U.S. Insular Areas Advisory Panel

Fernando Abruna

Soil Scientist (retired)

Puerto Rico

John S. Corbin

Aquiculture Development Program

Hawaii Department of Land and Natural

Resources

Eric Dillingham

Farmer

U.S. Virgin Islands

Lucius G. Eldredge

Micronesian Area Research Center

University of Guam

Sam Falanruw

Department of Resources and Development

Yap State Government

Michael J. Gawel

Chief of Marine Resources

Federated States of Micronesia

Michael Hamnett

Pacific Islands Development Program

East/West Center

Stanley Hosie

Foundation for the Peoples of the South

Pacific

Carolyn Imamura

planning and Programs

Pacific Basin Development Council

Robert E. Johannes

Division of Fisheries Research

CSIRO Marine Laboratories

Shelley M. Mark

Department of Agriculture and Resource

Economics

University of Hawaii

John Matuszak

VI Cooperative Extension Service

College of the Virgin Islands

Jerome McElroy

Department of Business Administration and

Economics

Saint Mary’s College

Dieter Mueller-Dombois

Department of Botany

University of Hawaii

Robert Owen

Chief Conservation Officer (retired)

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

Maria T. Pangelinan

Saipan Farmers Cooperative Association

Frank Peterson

Department of Geology and Geophysics

University of Hawaii

Allen Putney

Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas

Management Program

West Indies Lab

Ralph Schmidt

Forest Division

Food and Agriculture Organization

Rome, Italy

Ace Tago

Pacific Management and Research

Associates

Edward Towle

Island Resources Foundation

Patrick Williams

Commissioner of Agriculture

U.S. Virgin Islands

Adrian Winkel

Former High Commissioner

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the reviewers. The reviewers

do not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full responsibility for the report and

the accuracy of its contents.

iv
OTA Project Staff on Integrated Renewable Resource

Management of U.S. Insular Areas

Roger Herdman, Assistant Director, OTA

Health and Life Sciences Division

Walter E. Parham, Program Manager

Food and Renewable Resources Program

Alison L. Hess, Project Director

Analytical Staff

Patricia J. Durana, Research Analyst1

David S. Liem, Analyst 2

Eric Passaglia, Special Assistant and Spanish Translator

Meriwether Wilson, Research Analyst2

Susan J. Wintsch, Contracted Editor

Benjamin Yarofmal, Research Assistant4

Clerical Staff

Patricia Durana5 Rebecca Erickson6

Sally Shafroth7

Administrative Assistants

Carolyn Swann Nellie Hammond

Secretaries

1From August 1985.

2From January 1985 to May 1986.

3From June 1985 to September 1985.

4From May 1986 to August 1986.

5From October 1984 to August 1985.

6From August 1985 to November 1986.

7From November 1986.
CONTENTS

Page

Chapter l. Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Chapter 2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Chapter 3 Island Structure and Resource Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Chapter 4. Island Renewable Resource History and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Chapter 5. Islands As Integrated Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......131

Chapter 6. Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture,

Agroforestry, and Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......185

Chapter 7. Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries

and Aquiculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221

Chapter 8. Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural,

and Fisheries Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275

Chapter 9. Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ... ..3l9

Chapter 10. Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress . ..................347

Appendix A. Maps of the U.S.-Affiliated Islands . . . . . . . . . . ..............369

Appendix B. Other U.S. Island Possessions in the Tropical Pacific ....... 373

Appendix C. U.S. Military Presence in U.S.-Affiliated Islands . ...........377

Appendix D. Integration of Traditional and Modern Law.... . ....,...... 381

Appendix E. Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource

Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Carribbean and Pacific Islands .. ....384

Appendix F. Summary of Regional Workshops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...406

Appendix G. Commissioned Papers . . . . . . . . . ..........................426

Appendix H. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....429

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 437
Chapter 1

Summary
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Insular Resource History and Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Insular Renewable Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Islands as Integrated Resource Systems. . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Constraints to the Sustainable Development of Renewable Resources . . . .

Opportunities for the Sustainable Development and Use

of Renewable Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Development Goals and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Agriculture, Agroforestry and Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Technologies To Support Resource Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preharvest Control Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Food Preservation and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Market Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cooperatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Vertical Integration of Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Technologies To Support Resource Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Technologies To Support Resource Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Integrating Technologies , . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Planning/Policy Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary of Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Congressional Oversight and Federal Agency Coordination Issues . . . . . . .

Data Collection and Information Management Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Research Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Education, Extension, and Training Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Incentive Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table

2

6

7

9

10

11

13

13

13

18

21

21

22

22

22

22

23

23

23

26

26

28

30

30

32

33

35

36

Table No. Page

l-1. Population, Land Areas, and Estimated U.S. Federal Expenditures in

U.S.-Affiliated Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure s

Figure No. Page

l-1. U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands and Neighboring States . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

l-2. U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands and Neighboring States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

l-3. Micronesia and the United States: A Comparison of Size . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

l-4. Erosive Energy Buffer Systems on Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 1

Executive Summary

INTRODUCTION

The U.S.-affiliated tropical islands include of Micronesia (FSM), and the Republic of Palau

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) in the Pacific (figure 1-2). All of these islands,

in the Caribbean (figure l-l) and American Sa- except Puerto Rico, are very small (table l-l);

mea, Guam, the Commonwealth of the North- the Micronesia island groups are distributed

ern Marianas Islands (CNMI), the Republic of over an area as large as the conterminous

the Marshall Islands (RMI), the Federated States United States (figure I-3) but have an aggregate

Figure 1-1 .—U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands and Neighboring States

Jamaica Republic

CARIBBEAN SEA

Aruba Curacao

ATLANTIC

OCEAN Miles

1 I I I 1

0 200

LESSER

ANTILLES

Virgin

Puerto Islands

Rico U.S. \ Anguilla

,*%I

.%

St. Martin O Antigua

St. Kitts t ?

;Dominic a

St. Lucia h

St. Vincent ● Q Barbados

● . a.

SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 1986
4 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 1-2.— U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands and Neighboring States

State of Hawaii

Tropic of Cancer

.- —. —--——— . — — —— — - -— ——— — — — - — — —— — — — — —- -—————

North

Pacific

Ocean

SOURCE Adapted from a map prepared by the State of Hawaii Department of Planning and Economic Development, 1984

land area less than that of Rhode Island. The

U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands also are distant

from major foreign population centers.

As commonwealths, Puerto Rico and the

CNMI have autonomous governments, but are

voluntarily associated with the United States.

The USVI, American Samoa, and Guam are unincorporated territories with semi-autonomous

governments. The FSM and RMI, which (along

with the CNMI and Palau) comprised the former

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, have recently signed compacts with the United States

to become Freely Associated States. This status allows the islands free control of internal

affairs, assures them fiscal aid, and makes them

eligible for some international aid; the United

States retains responsibility for national defense.

The majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands

have developed dependence on Federal funding to provide jobs, to support public welfare,

and to import food and other goods and services to the islands. Several factors common to

the U.S.-affiliated islands have contributed to

this

1.

2.

3.

dependence:

lack of full political status and benefits of

States;

scant natural resources and large distances

between islands and sources of inputs,

products, or markets;

rapidly growing populations;
Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 5

Tabie 1-1.— Population, Land Areas, and Estimated U.S. Federal Expenditures in U.S.-Affiliated Islands

1984 Land area Approximate number Estimated U.S. Federal

Insular area Population

a (sq. mi.)b

of islandsbexpenditures, 1984C

Puerto Rico. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............3,270,000 3,425 4 $5,420 million

U.S. Virgin Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107,500 132 66 $ 387 million

Guam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119,800 209 1 $ 768 million

American Samoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,300 77 7 $ 61 million

Northern Mariana Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,600 182 21 $ 103 million

Marshall Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,900 70 1,225

Federated States of Micronesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88,400 279 607 $ 163 million

Palau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,000 179 350

SOURCES a Land Use Planning Report, 13(46):365, November 25, 1965; U S. Department of State, 1984 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, report to the United Nations

on administration of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1965 b U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Puerto Rico Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental

Impact Statement (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1976); U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, The Virgin Islands Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1979);

US Department of State, Annual Reports for American Samoa, Guam, and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1980.

C U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Federal Expenditures by State, FY 1985 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government printing Office, 1986)

Includes: 1) Grants to State and local governments, 2) Federal salaries, 3) payments to individuals, 4) procurement, and 5) other

Figure 1-3.—Micronesia and the Contiguous United States: A Comparison of Size

NORTHERN

MARIANA

ISLANDS

\

<

4

I

MARSHALL

,

ISLANDS

\ * Truk

- ● Kolonla ● Majuro

Yap

9 Colonia

= Kobor.

FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESI A Kosrae

. .

I PALAU

,.

SOURCE Adapted from H F Nufer, Micronesia Under American Rule: An Evaluation of the Strategic Trusteeship (1947-1977) (Hicksville, NY Exposition Press, 1978)
6 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

4. tropical resource characteristics with generally high natural productivity but extreme vulnerability to disruption; and

5. common histories of resource degradation.

Despite the United States’ past and present

commitment to the economic vitality of the

U.S.-affiliated islands, most have become less

self-sufficient in food production over the past

several decades. This dependence amounts to

a complete reversal of precontact tradition. Before European discovery, the inhabited Pacific

and Caribbean islands were self-supporting.

People subsisted on the available marine and

terrestrial natural resources and extended family systems provided for members unable to provide for themselves.

Changes occurred with colonization and the

increasing influence of foreign cultures. Colonial policies and practices over several centuries, the introduction of new fishery and agricultural technologies and cash economies,

military occupation and use, and the advent of

tourism, all have affected island resource systems and uses. Growing populations on many

islands represent an added stress on an already

limited resource base.

High levels of financial aid from the United

States during the last two decades have not fulfilled the intention of fostering modern, selfsufficient island economies. Largely directed

toward social support programs, generous aid

packages may have reduced local incentives to

pursue that goal.

A self-sufficient economy meets as many domestic needs as possible, and generates export

revenue to pay for the imports required for a

desired or acceptable standard of living. Development of an active productive sector on the

islands may foster increased self-sufficiency.

The economic constraints posed by size and

isolation of many of these islands dictate that

much of the productive sector be based on natural resources—e.g., agriculture, fisheries, and

tourism.

Renewable resource development can help

foster self-sufficiency, but sustainable development precludes certain approaches. For example, harvesting resources to the point where

long-term productivity is lost, resources are

depleted, or the environment is degraded is ultimately counterproductive. Similarly, policies,

programs, and projects that seriously conflict

with local cultures and customs are likely to

be counterproductive.

Insular Resource History and Trends

Although the histories of the peoples and settlement of the U.S.-affiliated island areas are

diverse, certain common factors exist:

1.

2.

3.

on most islands, relatively large indigenous

populations were sustained by island resources before western contact and remnants of traditional agriculture and fishery practices still exist on many islands;

all of these islands were colonized or

administered by foreign nations whose activities primarily were designed to exploit

island resources; and

all of the islands have been of some strategic importance to the United States and

most remain so.

The islands share common renewable resource problems, including both natural (e.g.,

flooding, landslides, and other natural hazards)

and manmade resource degradation. Deforestation and soil-moving for agriculture and construction have caused heavy soil erosion on

many islands and adversely affected the surrounding coral reefs. Numerous island species

are near extinction, and others have already

gone extinct, due partly to habitat loss (e.g.,

removal of mangroves), to overexploitation

(e.g., hunting of fruit bats), and to introduction

of exotic competitive or predatory species (e.g.,

brown tree snake, mongoose). Increasing human population density, combined with inadequate sewage treatment, and introduction of

agricultural and industrial chemicals has reduced freshwater and nearshore water quality

on many islands. Oil spills have damaged nearshore environments in both the Pacific and the

Caribbean.

Turtles, nearshore fish and shellfish, and certain tree species have been overexploited in
Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 7

many island areas. Despite attempts to recover

declining populations, poaching by local inhabitants and foreign nationals continues. Dynamite and chlorine bleach used by Pacific

fishermen to “fish” have long-term destructive

effects on the reef and lagoon areas. Dredging

and mining in nearshore areas has resulted in

the loss of many mangrove areas and coral

reefs, which in turn may adversely affect nearshore fishery potential. Shipwrecks, heavy sedimentation, and anchor gouges have caused significant degradation of coral reefs and seagrass

beds near many islands.

Puerto Rico’s nearshore waters have been

heavily exploited and very nearly overfished.

Similarly, even modest increases in fishing effort could surpass the natural capacity of waters

around the USVI. While good data on harvest

levels and production capacities in the Pacific

are lacking, there is evidence of depletion in

the nearshore environment, particularly around

urban centers.

More exotic resource problems remain in the

Pacific islands, American and Japanese military ordnance from World War II still litter

some of the islands, presenting a hazard to humans and inhibiting the use of some lands.

Chemical repositories on Johnston Island have

leaked military chemicals into the groundwater.

Nuclear testing in the Marshalls has rendered

several islands virtually uninhabitable. Efforts

are being made to restore these islands to

habitable conditions. Although surface nuclear

tests have been banned; other islands still are

used as nonnuclear practice bombardment

targets.

Concerns have increased over adverse trends

in resource use resulting in efforts to maintain

or enhance resources on many of the U. S.-

affiliated islands. These concerns have been expressed in a variety of ways, including:

●

●

●

efforts to maintain the resource base (e. g.,

coastal resource management);

efforts to restore the renewable resource

base (e.g., reforestation, captive breeding

of endangered populations);

efforts to redirect use to underused resources (e.g., outer reef fisheries);

●

●

efforts to culture species (e.g., aquiculture,

culture of crops currently gathered from

the wild); and

efforts to enhance existing renewable resources (e.g., artificial reefs, enrichment

planting of forests).

Sustainable renewable resource management

depends not only on the capability of the ecological resources, but also on the availability

of skilled labor and willingness to engage in

resource management and development activities. Many young adults seek education and

employment opportunities in the U.S. mainland. Despite substantial outward migration,

remaining populations are rapidly growing.

Many of those who remain depend on extended family relationships and social support

programs to supply their needs. Most formal

labor is captured by local governments and

services for the public sector and its employees. Wages, security, and prestige are higher

in government employment. Skilled labor, training, and interest in the agriculture and fisheries

sectors are low on all the islands.

Insular Renewable Resources

Characteristics of island resources—soil,

water, vegetation, and wildlife—determine the

uses and technologies that may be implemented

productively and sustainably. U.S.-affiliated islands may be categorized into four groups with

common resource characteristics:

1.

2.

3.

4.

high volcanic islands: peaks of undersea

volcanoes (both active and dormant), often

surrounded by fringing reefs;

low-lying atolls: composed entirely of coralline reef limestone enclosing a lagoon;

raised limestone islands: primarily limestone, originally formed in waters surrounding older volcanic islands and now

above sea level; and

continental islands: geologic extensions of

continents or parts of certain undersea

mountain ranges.

All of the islands are within the tropical climatic region characterized by warm, relatively

stable temperatures and commonly high humid-
8 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

A low-lying atoll island in the Marshall Islands, built on the inside edge of an encircling coral reef.

ity. Precipitation levels vary widely among the

islands. Rainfall has high kinetic energy and,

thus, greater ability to erode soils than in temperate regions. Further, the islands are vulnerable to major disturbances—hurricanes and

typhoons (e.g., the western north Pacific receives an average of 26.3 typhoons per year),

which can have devastating effects on resources, infrastructure, and populations.

Freshwater availability is determined largely

by island structure. Atolls have no natural surface water and retain little groundwater due

to highly permeable soils. On the other hand,

flash flooding and heavy erosion is common

on high islands where slopes are steep. Hydrologic systems are much more complex on continental islands, corresponding to their more

complex geology.

Chemical weathering of soils predominates

on tropical islands causing accelerated leaching of soil nutrients. Resultant soils generally

are nutrient-poor regardless of parent rock type.

Further, the chemical composition of the resulting soils often is imbalance so that many

food or tree crops will exhibit stunted growth

or will not survive.

Because of differing histories of formation

and geology, the nature and extent of renewable resources on the islands vary. However,

their insular ecology leads to certain commonalities among resource systems:

● richness in endemic species,

● species-richness of forests,

● value to science disproportionate to their

size,
are infertile, barren, and actively eroding.

● vulnerability to

● vulnerability t o

disruption, and

overexploitation.

Islands as Integrated Resource

systems

Island ecosystems are closely interrelated. Island terrestrial ecosystems, structured topographically from highland forests to coastal

vegetation, sequentially buffer the erosive

forces of heavy tropical rainfall and rapid runoff and protect nearshore marine ecosystems

from excessive freshwater intrusion and sedimentation (figure 1-4). Similarly, the combination of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and littoral

vegetation serve to reduce the erosive energy

of wave action, thereby protecting shorelines

from erosion and providing the basic conditions

for island expansion. Organic matter also is

transported among these ecosystems via water

flow and movement of animals, allowing recolonization and recovery of degraded areas.

Thus, the value of individual ecosystems includes not only the particular resources they

contain, but also their essential functions in the

insular ecology.

Unmodified island ecosystems generally are

at equilibrium. However, environmental manipulation or modification generally is necessary to accommodate human populations. If

such modifications allow the natural flow of

energy, freshwater, and nutrients through the

system the natural equilibrium still may be

maintained. Options exist in the methods and

types of modifications to be enacted; selection

of a development approach which mimics or

acts in concert with the desired natural process will result in fewer impacts on associated

ecosystems.
10 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 1-4.— Erosive Energv Buffer Svstems on Islands

SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 1986

Traditional island societies demonstrated a

keen sense of the interrelated nature of the island ecosystems: activities were designed to

mimic natural ecosystems and preserve related

environmental functions. Damaged areas were

left fallow allowing natural recovery processes

to restore productivity. Present population pressure coupled with human economic desires preclude most resource uses which rely on time

for recovery. Alternative methods include abandoning degraded lands, or expending considerable money, energy, and effort to reclaim sites

(e.g., reforestation).

The U.S.-affiliated islands’ renewable resources still provide many goods and services,

however, they have not become the basis of viable, modern economies. A variety of factors

constrain efforts to achieve this goal.

I

Saltwater

and

storm surge

buffer system

Constraints to the Sustainable

Development of Renwewable Resources

A number of physical, biological, geographical, and socioeconomic factors constrain sustainable renewable resource development and

management on U.S.-affiliated islands. Physical constraints that particularly affect small island agriculture and land-based aquiculture are

limited availability of land and water resources.

Low fertility of tropical soils, occasional torrential rainfall, distinct dry seasons on some

islands, and mountainous topography of high

volcanic and continental islands may preclude

some types of agricultural activity. Physical

constraints to fisheries development include

low productivity of offshore tropical waters and

limited extent of productive nearshore areas.

Many nearshore resources already are being
Ch. 1—Executive Summary • 11

exploited near or beyond sustainable levels. Marine ecosystems are extremely vulnerable to natural and human disturbance, often requiring

long recovery periods.

Added to these constraints are the lack of

reliable data on the status of island terrestrial

and marine renewable resources, and incomplete understanding of the “mechanics” of tropical ecosystems. The development strategies

and technologies designed for temperate fisheries and agriculture are not readily transferable to tropical settings. Failure to appreciate

this may explain why many “western” attempts

to manage and develop resources in tropical

settings have not been successful.

Geographically, the Pacific islands are extremely isolated. Transportation in general is

difficult and unreliable. These factors, combined with small size or lack of formal markets

for export products, and proximity of major

Asian competitors, make it difficult or impossible to achieve economies of scale. Such constraints are much less severe in the Caribbean.

Sustainable resource development is limited

not only by the inherent nature of tropical resources, and island geographic settings, but also

by several socioeconomic characteristics of the

islands. In the Pacific, certain resource ownership and use traditions constrain access to resources by “outsiders,” including other islanders, who may be interested in developing

the resource. Commercial development of resources, in particular, is contrary to traditions

of harvesting for immediate subsistence use

only, and of sharing any harvesting excess with

needy relatives or friends.

The skills and knowledge needed for sustainable resource development is also scarce on these

islands. Environment and resources play a minor role in school curricula, or are entirely neglected. Education at all levels is primarily oriented toward liberal arts. A preference exists

for government employment rather than in the

fisheries and agriculture sectors which are perceived as “lower status. ” Many who do not find

government jobs, migrate to the mainland

United States, and many who leave the islands

to pursue higher education never return. Outmigration and reluctance of the islanders to

work in some types of employment creates a

demand for alien immigrant workers, whose

presence may create social tensions.

Opportunities for the Sustainable

Development and Use of

Renewable Resources

Opportunities exist for expanding the role of

renewable resources in the economic development of the islands, and for reducing the

islands’ heavy dependence on imports and

U.S. aid.

Warm temperatures and generally favorable

climates characterize most of the U.S.-affiliated

islands in both the Pacific and Caribbean regions. The islands are capable of sustaining

high agricultural and aquatic productivity. The

mangrove, seagrass, and coral reef ecosystems

of these islands are highly productive and rich,

and interactively support populations of economically valuable marine organisms.

Nearshore marine resources show signs of

stress in both regions. However, the success

of the Japanese in Micronesia during the mandate period suggests there is unrealized potential in the Pacific for marine resource development, particularly through expanded use of

underexploited and migratory species. Aquaculture may have some potential in the U. S.-

affiliated islands to supply both local and export markets. Both regions have appropriate

sites for pond, estuarine, or offshore culture

systems. However, significant constraints to

aquiculture development exist, including high

cost of inputs, difficulty in obtaining juveniles,

and lack of aquiculture extension services.

Thus, aquiculture has not been developed to

any great degree in the U.S.-affiliated islands.

The high islands of the Pacific and Puerto

Rico also have significant terrestrial resources.

There is potential for making traditional agricultural methods more productive and for introducing new crops and technologies to the

U.S.-affiliated islands. Agroforestry, a landuse

system that integrates or rotates growth of

woody perennials and nonwoody crops or ani-
12 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Off/cc of Technology Assessment

Growing numbers of tourists visit the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands to enjoy their natural beauty

and explore cultural and historic sites. (Pictured here: Truk Lagoon.)

reals was traditionally practiced on many U. S.-

affiliated islands. Incorporating trees into more

productive agricultural systems can optimize

landuse while retaining the advantages of a forest (watershed protection, erosion control, wildlife habitat).

Commercial agriculture still is considered

desirable for the U.S.-affiliated islands. Even

small islands may become successful producers of specialty crops attractive to world markets. Pohnpei black pepper, for example, has

penetrated U.S. gourmet markets. Coffee, nuts,

spices, essential and perfume oils, cacao, and

certain ornamental plants, fruits, and vegetables are all high-value crops which have market potential.

The natural resources of tropical islands also

may contribute to economic development through

tourism. Tourists are attracted to the islands

because of their warm climates, coral reefs,

beaches, flora and fauna, and spectacular scenery. Tourism and related industries currently

comprise the major economic sector of the

USVI, and tourist presence in the Pacific region is growing rapidly. Tourists provide revenue by purchasing food, services, and island

handicrafts. Although tourism has created environmental and social problems in the past, it

has the potential to contribute significantly

to the economic self-sufficiency of the U. S.-

affiliated islands. Ideally, the tourism industry

would be planned and developed to maximize

economic benefits to the islanders and mini-
Ch. l—Executive Summary ● 1 3

mize negative environmental and social ing reduced unemployment and outmigration,

impacts. improved lifestyles for islanders, and mainteSuccessful and sustainable renewable re- nance of biological diversity. If development

source development may assist in increasing is sensitive to island traditions and practices,

the self-sufficiency of the U.S.-affiliated islands. it can also contribute to the retention of rich

There are many other potential benefits, includ- cultural heritages.

DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND STRATEGIES

Introduction

Imports constitute the bulk of island consumption, thus, to increase self-sufficiency territories must either produce enough to satisfy

local consumption, or generate export earnings

to balance imports, or both. In view of the constraints to agricultural development and increasing depletion of nearshore marine resources on many islands, total self-sufficiency

is probably not attainable. A more attainable

goal may be to improve the islands’ long-term

productive capacities through optimal use of

land available for food production (taking into

account other land use requirements), redirecting marine harvest to include certain underexploited species and offshore areas, and further

development of culture techniques. Strategies

for agriculture or fisheries development could

be tailored to nonmarket, semicommercial or

full commercial production as appropriate.

What is appropriate may vary among islands

and will depend on many geographical, ecological, and socioeconomic factors.

The integrated management of renewable resources for sustained yields requires a blend

of strategies for resource development as well

as for resource conservation, recovery, and

replenishment. Strategies simply to increase

harvests of already overexploited resources

may raise yields initially, but will ultimately

lead to depletion that may be irreversible.

Agriculture, Agroforestry,

and Forestry

Traditional forms of agriculture remain on

many islands, especially in the Pacific. These

forms evolved to be productive while retaining many natural ecosystem functions. Common Pacific island systems are:

● culture of wetland tare,

● atoll pit taro culture,

● mixed “tree gardening, ”

● intermittent tree gardening,

● “lanchos” (weekend farms) and backyard

gardening, and

● traditional open canopy culture.

In the U.S. Caribbean, little indigenous agriculture remains, but traditional agriculture systems have been brought into Puerto Rico and

the USVI by “down-island” migrants such as

the French herb farmers from neighboring St.

Barthelemy who practice a specialized form of

polyculture of herb and tree crops.

Despite the success of traditional systems,

most modern attempts to develop agriculture on

the islands largely have followed the U.S. example of consolidated, capital-intensive monoculture requiring imported fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation or drainage systems, and

mechanization. Although efforts to develop

agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands

have been introduced as small-scale projects

for limited-resource farmers, many have been

unsuccessful for reasons including:

● lack of markets,

● low market prices,

● technologies dependent on imported

inputs,

● lack of management skills among farmers,

• diseases and pests, and

● a general lack of commitment by the U.S.

and local governments.

Agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean

islands historically centered around major
14 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas —

Photo credit: C Hodges

Eighty percent of American Samoan households engage in small-scale agriculture,

commonly an indigenous polyculture as pictured here.

export crops including such commodities as

sugar, tobacco, and coffee. Most of this type

of agriculture was abandoned as markets declined and soils became degraded. Development

of modern agriculture in the U.S. Caribbean

has seen some success, especially in dairy and

beef production, and vegetables and fruits. Still,

Puerto Rico annually imports about 1.2 billion

dollars’ worth of food. Most farm operators in

the USVI and Puerto Rico also engage in offfarm wage-earning activities. Many lands have

been abandoned, and agriculture has adapted

to resource loss by reducing farm size and effort, replacing capital-intensive inputs, and

changing the composition of output from export crops to domestically consumed products.

Major constraints to agricultural development which apply to all of the U.S.-affiliated

islands generally fall into the following categories: biophysical, economic, infrastructural,

and sociocultural. Major biophysical constraints are low soil fertility, limited or irregular water resources, and limited arable land of

suitable soil types and level topography. Land

tenure systems, characterized by fragmented

landholdings and clan influence over use rights,

are primary cultural constraints. Economic

constraints include the small size of domestic

markets for agricultural products, availability

of high-paying alternate employment, low social esteem of farming, high cost of imported

livestock feed and other inputs, and in tourism-
Ch. 1—Executive Summary c 15

dominated islands, the relatively low value of

agricultural lands compared to other uses (i.e.,

commercial real estate). Undeveloped infrastructure on some islands (i.e., lack of rural farm

roads, scarcity of transportation to markets)

also pose constraints.

Successful tropical island agricultural systems generally exhibit characteristics which

mimic and extend natural ecosystem processes

by providing for water and nutrient flow, and

maintaining a canopy to protect and enhance

soil quality at critical periods. An agricultural

system which incorporates a diversity of crop

species and varieties strengthens the system’s

resilience to disruption from pests and disease

outbreaks and, further, provides a variety of

products throughout the year despite erratic

weather patterns. For such systems to be readily adopted, they should be based on traditionally used systems and require minimal exotic,

nonrenewable inputs such as fossil fuel energy

or derived chemicals.

Major characteristics of ecologically and economically sustainable systems include:

● mimicking natural systems through polycultures that incorporate perennial species,

● optimization of agroecosystem components (e.g., maximizing recycling of locally

available plant nutrients and natural maintenance of soil moisture) rather than maximization of total yield,

. provision of farmer and consumer security in areas prone to natural disaster and

in areas with small and erratic markets,

and

● emphasizing incremental changes from

traditional agricultural systems to ease and

speed adoption.

Although farm size, type of technologies applied, and farming goals are not directly related,

agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands can be

classified into four general types that comprise

a continuum of farming systems:

1. Subsistence smallholder: Family (or clan)

member(s) producing solely for family con2.

3.

4.

sumption, although “surplus” commodities may be sold. Traditional cropping or

gathering techniques commonly are used,

and the number of crops produced usually

is greater than in commercial smallholder

systems.

Semicommercial smallholder: Individual

or family members regularly producing

commodities for the market, but only on

a part-time basis. Farming mayor may not

be regularly directed to home consumption

(the farmer may have a full-time wage job

in the money economy). Commodities

sometimes are produced using modern

technology,

Commercial smallholder: Individual or

family member(s) producing solely or substantially for the market. Commercial

smallholders typically are full-time producers who derive their principal livelihood

from farming. Commodities are normally

produced using modern technology. The

range of crops is much narrower than for

the subsistence smallholder, The commercial smallholder may have a few wage employees, but most would rely solely on unpaid family labor.

Large-scale commercial farming: Usually

characterized by significant investment in

operation, and use of paid wage and salary workers. Ownership commonly would

be corporate in form, with production

using modern, high-input technology. Output per unit of land or labor would tend

to be much higher than for smallholder

agriculture.

“Large-scale” commercial farming on the islands is not large by continental U.S. standards.

Commonly, field farming of over 20 acres or

annual gross sales over $20,000 is considered

a large-scale operation for the U.S.-affiliated

islands. Most farming in the U.S. Pacific is subsistence and semicommercial; in the U.S. Caribbean islands, small-scale commercial and semicommercial farming is prevalent. In Puerto

Rico, several large-scale enterprises exist, but

the most recent of these (a large rice project
16 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

on the north coast and one Israeli-sponsored

vegetable and fruit development on the south

coast) have failed. For the most part, island ecologies and economies are not conducive to largescale farming.

Strategy: Support and Protect

Nonmarket Agriculture

Nonmarket (subsistence and part-time) agriculture provides the basis for good nutrition

and a cadre of people who will retain the interests and skills allowing future upgrading to

semicommercial and commercial systems.

Most subsistence agricultural systems are

characterized by high crop diversity, are well

adapted to natural conditions, are strongly

rooted in local culture, and make maximum use

of local resources. These systems generally are

stable, sustainable, and ecologically benign.

They often provide beneficial environmental

services, such as soil stabilization and habitat

protection.

Without a conscious effort to preserve such

food production systems, even relatively stable systems may become rare or disappear

along with the rich genetic heritage they represent. Most traditional systems already are

declining. Potential mechanisms to support

nonmarket agriculture include:

•

●

●

consideration of the impacts of development on traditional agriculture (e.g., as

a component of environmental impact

statements);

provision of research and extension services for backyard gardeners; and

enhanced game management to protect

traditional agriculture and provide an alternate source of protein for low-income

families.

Development projects that might have adverse

impacts on traditional agricultural systems

could be redesigned.

Strategy: DeveIop Smallholder

Agriculture

Development of smallholder agriculture

could generate cash income for subsistence

farmers in the pacific, and increase income for

small-scale or semicommercial farmers in both

the Pacific and Caribbean areas. Modest acreage is required for smallholder operations,

which rely heavily on family labor. Policies and

technologies which would raise subsistence

sector productivity and strengthen urban markets for local farm products could assist in gradually expanding nonmarket production to semicommercial production.

Several common characteristics of traditional

systems might be integrated with modern practices to achieve more productive agricultural

systems with commercial potential. Improved

cultivars of traditional crops, as well as the introduction of new crops and technologies may

be appropriate for development efforts. Trees

could be incorporated with crops in new, more

productive versions of traditional agroforests,

space would be used as efficiently as possible,

and crop combinations designed to maximize

overall productivity on a sustainable basis. Similarly, livestock could be penned and fed agricultural wastes, thus providing a supplementary protein or income source and a supply of

organic matter to re-apply to fields.

Commercial small-scale operations may be

handicapped by small and unstable markets or

inadequate transportation services. Moreover,

small producers commonly are not able to produce uniform quality products, do not have access to adequate capital, and lack marketing

skills. Thus, development of small-scale farming systems probably would require strong government and private sector support for credit,

identification and extension of appropriate

technologies and crops, and identification and

creation of market outlets.

Development of smallholder agriculture is

likely to benefit the large number of subsistence

farmers (Freely Associated States), semicommercial, and part-time farmers (American

Samoa, Guam, the CNMI, Puerto Rico, and the

USVI) in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Further, it

is likely to be more compatible with the present

land tenure systems than would large-scale

farming. Smallholders tend to produce a large

range of commodities which may alleviate marketing constraints in small size markets.
Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 1 7

Photo credit” Office of Technology Assessment

This semicommercial mixed polyculture on St. Thomas,

USVI, provides more than 30 crops, including tree

crops, for the farmer’s subsistence and

for sale in a roadside stand.

Strategy: Develop Intensive

Commercial Farming

Although subsistence and semicommercial

farms may satisfy many local food needs, additional commercial and competitive operations

are needed to generate cash to pay for imports.

The high input requirements of large-scale commercial agriculture limit its applicability on

most of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Large parcels of land with uniform soil types are scarce

in the Pacific territories; where they occur in

the Caribbean, they are expensive. Local markets to absorb large product volumes are also

lacking, export potential is difficult to achieve,

and transportation is poor. Although these factors all constrain the development of large-scale

commercial farming, particularly in the Pacific,

selective opportunities for such development

exist. On Puerto Rico some large-scale farming is possible. New technologies, including

drip irrigation and improved pasture technologies, may be needed to increase productivity

and raise the quality of crops and livestock

with large-scale commercial potential. In some

cases, improvements in management alone may

increase yields.

Highly productive, commercial agriculture

could be developed on a smaller scale in other

island areas. Certain carefully selected crops

and modern technologies could be adapted to

tropical island ecology. Where appropriate, increased mechanization for tillage, seeding,

spraying, and harvesting could be made available as agriculture develops.

An alternative to improved pasturage and

more intensive field farming is cultivation in

controlled environments. Various types of container and site-controlled agriculture, ranging

from small containers to permanent greenhouses, offer potential for development of intensive agriculture in the smallest U.S.-affiliated

islands. Controlled-environment cultivation

may overcome some constraints posed by land

and freshwater availability, high land prices,

unproductive and highly erodible soils, and pest

and disease outbreaks. Such technologies

(hydroponics, greenhouses, and shadehouses)

already have been implemented on some islands with varying degrees of success. Yields
18 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

from container agriculture commonly are very

high although labor and water requirements

also are high.

Tropical greenhouses permit growth of crops

that cannot withstand heavy rainfalls typical

of the tropics. Shadehouses are used throughout the islands for tree and perennial crop

propagation and may also be used to grow coolseason crops sensitive to high temperatures and

long day lengths. Hydroponics—a totally controlled system with artificial growth media, and

high capital requirements—is probably feasible only for certain high-value herbs and vegetables. Such systems have been successful in the

U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands and on Guam,

and are technically suitable for other islands

where water supplies are adequate.

Very high-value specialty crops offer another

possible commercial agricultural opportunity

for many islands: spices, essential oils, specialty

fruits and vegetables all have development potential and some (e.g., Pohnpei black pepper)

have already penetrated world gourmet markets. High returns to labor and management

are possible from small plantings. Strict quality control would be necessary which may initially require private joint ventures or government management.

Strategy: Develop Commercial Forestry

Commercial forestry development may be

possible on some lands unsuitable for other

uses. The forestry program in Puerto Rico, a

cooperative operation with the U.S. Forest Service, has had considerable success in species enrichment of forests and in increasing total forest cover. The USVI Urban Forestry Program

provides mahogany culled from roadside plantings to small-scale furniture and crafts producers. Forests in the Pacific islands commonly

are used for construction materials, charcoal,

and fuelwood, but little forest maintenance, enrichment, or reforestation is practiced.

Reforestation or afforestation of severely

degraded lands may renew soil productivity to

allow profitable use of these lands.

Strategy: Develop Rese arch Programs

Relevant to Island Needs

In order to accelerate agriculture development, research programs need to be directed

to specific goals relevant to island development,

Although the need for research is widely recognized, the research capacity of many U.S.

island institutions is limited. Research is hindered further by inadequate or unavailable

baseline data and skilled research staff. The

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has

designated research institutes for tropical agriculture (the Tropical Agriculture Research Station in Puerto Rico and the Tropical Fruit and

Vegetable Research Laboratory in Hawaii) and

for tropical forestry (the Institute of Tropical

Forestry in Puerto Rico and the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry in Hawaii). However,

funding for these institutions has declined in

recent years.

Research performed by local institutions

could be supplemented by taking advantage of

research performed by other regional institutions. Research performed by the University

of the South Pacific, the South Pacific Commission, the Caribbean Agriculture Research and

Development Institute, and other regional research institutions can provide useful information. It probably would be to the advantage of

small island governments to establish cooperative relationships with appropriate international research institutions or major universities that can assist in basic research.

Nearshore Fisheries a n d

Aquaculture

Islanders have harvested tropical aquatic

organisms for a tremendous range of utilitarian, symbolic, and ornamental functions since

prehistoric times. The sea was important as a

food source in the Caribbean and supplied an

estimated 90 percent of the Pacific islanders’

animal protein. Fishing was an integral part

of traditional high island socioeconomy and essential to life on atolls. Today, as in the past,

marine resources still supply a large percentage of consumed protein.
Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 1 9

Photo credit: C. Wahle

Nearshore fishing takes place primarily in the vicinity of coral reef ecosystems,

a major feature of atolls and tropical nearshore waters.

Tropical nearshore environments are biologically complex and variable. Ecologic structure

and composition vary widely within and among

islands, even over short distances. Nevertheless, nearshore ecosystems in the islands generally comprise three distinct, but intimately

interrelated habitats: 1) mangrove forests, 2)

seagrass meadows, and 3) coral reefs. Many animals migrate among the habitats during different times in their life cycle, and nutrients are

efficiently captured, retained, and recycled.

However, these systems are highly susceptible

to disruption and degradation by natural or

manmade stresses. Natural recovery processes

can take decades once the source of stress is

removed.

Nearshore resources effectively are the social security reserve and unemployment insurance of many island people. Further damage

to these resources and/or resource depletion

through overcapitalization of fisheries may

have an extremely high opportunity cost in

terms of public assistance, food imports, and

social costs of diminished self-esteem.

The major constraints to nearshore tropical

fisheries development include inadequate

knowledge of complex ecosystems, inherently

limited productivity of offshore waters, and vulnerability of tropical fisheries to natural and

human disturbances. Equipment maintenance

and servicing, and problems of transporting inputs and exports also hinder development. Scientific information on the current status of

nearshore marine resources is fragmented and

inconclusive. Without concise data on resource

distribution and abundance, the concept of op-
20 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

timum sustainable yield is mere technical

jargon.

Most research and classical models of marine

biological systems have been based on continental shelf areas of the Northern Hemisphere.

The physical differences between reef slopes

of oceanic islands and continental shelves, and

the diversity and complexity of tropical sea fisheries reduce the value of these biological and

bioeconomic models. The effects of selectively

fishing certain species, fishing the same species at different depths, the relationships between nearshore and offshore stocks, and fish

population dynamics, are less well understood

in tropical than in temperate waters.

Strategy: Support Subsistance and

Small=Scale Commercial Fisheries

Nearshore marine resources are susceptible

to overexploitation, thus, technologies that simply increase nearshore harvests probably will

have long-term negative impacts on fisheries’

potential. The productive capabilities of nearshore systems have already been exceeded in

many areas and are being approached rapidly

in others. Therefore, little potential exists for

significant, sustainable expansion of these

fisheries.

Subsistence and small-scale fisheries are

nonetheless important for their food-, income-,

and employment-generating potential. As nearshore resources have come under greater pressure, fishermen have increasingly moved offshore and/or made more use of migrating

pelagic species sometimes found in lagoons and

at reef edges. Such resources, as well as other

underexploited species (possibly shark, deepwater shrimp, and other species beyond reefs)

probably offer opportunities in the U.S. Caribbean and Pacific for expansion of small-scale

fisheries—commercial, recreational, or subsistence. Development policies in both areas emphasize underused marine resources. In some

cases, it might be possible to develop fisheries

for species not desired locally, but valuable as

export commodities. However, even underexploited resources can become quickly depleted

without careful management.

Strategy: Develop Aquaculture

Aquiculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms in fresh, brackish, or marine waters, began over 2000 years ago in China. Interest in

aquiculture is apparent in the U.S.-affiliated

tropical islands. Aquiculture offers a potential

mechanism to supply fishery products to local

markets, increase job opportunities and income

in rural areas, generate export dollars, and supplement marine resources through reseeding

programs.

Systems range from low maintenance marine

enclosures to intensively managed hatcheries

and raceways, and from subsistence production to production for commercial markets. Applicability of these techniques may depend on

many factors: including availability of appropriate sites; technology, capital, and labor requirements; and market potential.

Sea ranching involves collecting and growing wild or cultured stock—usually sessile or

sedentary species—under managed natural

conditions. This carries the benefit of a secure

food source, but also the risk that natural stocks

will be collected too rapidly, reducing natural

productivity. Control and conservation measures may mitigate this problem,

Culture in natural waters includes bottom and

near-bottom intertidal and subtidal culture of

sedentary species (clams, oysters, conch, seaweed). This is practical only where natural supplies of phytoplankton are sufficient to serve

the food needs of cultured species–generally

these areas are restricted to larger islands. Seaweed cultivation, on the other hand, may be

well suited to small, remote islands, since the

thalli can be sun-dried and stored for many

months.

Culture of marine fish in floating net pens

or cages is possible where space is available

in protected estuaries and bays. Several species of finfish could form the basis for mariculture in the Pacific and Caribbean.

A variety of crustaceans (prawns and shrimp)

and fish (rabbitfish, milkfish, mullet, redfish,

tilapia) are suitable candidates for fresh or saltwater pond culture on U.S. islands. Commer-
Ch. 1—Executive Summary “ 21

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Techniques have been developed at the Micronesia

Mariculture Demonstration Center in Palau for culture

of giant clams—unique among farmed animals in that

they derive their nutrition from symbiotic algae

embedded in their mantles and thus require no

supplemental feeding.

cial ventures based on pond aquiculture have

been developed on Guam and Puerto Rico.

These have had mixed success, but interest in

this form of aquiculture remains high. There

is potential for expansion of pond farming in

both regions not only to raise food species, but

also high-value species for the aquarium trade,

and bait fishes to supply tuna fisheries.

All of these forms of aquiculture are possible in tropical environments, however, adaptive research is required to test the applicability

of specific culture systems to local environments and species. Technologies must be socially acceptable and economically feasible.

Logistical constraints such as difficulties in supplying inputs and delivering products should

be considered.

Land availability constrains the development

of extensive pond aquiculture on most islands.

However, semi-intensive commercial operations may have some potential. Such operations, which are already being developed in

Puerto Rico, are characterized by smaller, more

engineered and managed ponds, more supplemental feeding, and higher stocking densities

than extensive systems. Intensive culture involving even higher degrees of environmental

control and technical expertise probably is not

yet feasible for most U.S. islands. Aquiculture

development in many island locales may be

most successful where simple methods are used

to produce high-value species to supply hotel

and tourist facilities.

Several constraints to resource development

might be addressed through appropriate technologies for food storage, processing, distribution, and marketing. In general, reduction of

crop losses and maintenance of product quality is easier than expanding and intensifying

sustainable production. Tropical diseases,

pests, and spoilage all take a toll on crops and

livestock before and after harvest. Nearly 30

to 40 percent of island crops may be lost to a

combination of these factors.

Preharvest Control Technologies

Appropriate pest, disease, and weed control

can contribute to reduction of losses and damage, and thereby, effectively increase yields and

marketability of crops and livestock. Use of

pest- and disease-resistant crops is a traditional

strategy that might be more widely applied on

the islands following development and field

trials. Certain traditional cropping systems also

serve to control pests, i.e., polyculture (with

some plants serving as pest barriers), field and

crop rotation, and careful timing of plantings.

Chemical controls are easily applied and immediately effective, but may destroy the natural balance between pests and their natural

predators, leading to more severe problems in

the future. The effectiveness of chemical controls generally is short-lived and environmental

contamination poses a serious risk.

Biological control employs the use and manipulation of natural predators to control pests,

and may be preferable to chemical controls.
—

22 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

However, considerable research, experimentation, and field trials will be necessary to identify appropriate control agents. A balance of

biological and chemical controls, and polyculture may offer the best long-term pest/disease

control strategy. Highly skilled and motivated

agricultural extension services will be integral

to the success of this strategy. Strong quarantine programs to prevent reinfestation could

complement such efforts.

Food Preservation and Processing

Improved storage and transportation could

greatly reduce postharvest loss of agriculture

and fishery products to spoilage, insects, rats,

and other pests. Refrigeration can achieve these

results, but generally it is constrained by lacking or irregular power supplies. Newly developed solar-powered refrigeration systems offer some promise for cold storage at remote

localities; however, development costs would

be high initially.

Other methods of food preservation and processing range from traditional sun-drying and

smoking of fish and coconut meat to modern

freeze drying and canning technologies. Some

processing and preservation methods are practiced on the islands, and others which are not

yet practiced might be applicable. However,

most modern processing technologies are

energy-intensive and therefore expensive.

Establishment of regional or local cooperative

food processing centers may make processing

more affordable.

Market Development

Steps to develop local markets for island products could include gradual increases in the use

of locally produced commodities for federally

funded programs, for U.S. military personnel,

and for tourists. Currently, only limited

amounts of island products enter into these

markets. Several factors hinder greater reliance

on local products by these sectors, including

irregular and limited supplies, and irregular

product quality.

There is potential for development of regional

markets in the Pacific, but this will depend on

strengthened transportation services, and establishment and/or revision of quarantine regulations. In the Pacific, Guam and the CNMI have

better export potential because of air transport

links with Japan. Currently, Japanese markets

remain closed to Micronesia exports because

of strict quarantine regulations.

Removal of import tariffs from Caribbean basin countries has seriously reduced the potential for export of fresh produce from Puerto

Rico. To increase exports under these conditions, Puerto Rico probably will need to both

reduce production costs and improve product

quality to become more competitive.

Cooperatives

Cooperatives seem to be a practical way of

organizing and mobilizing capital and people

in developing communities. Local producers

might be encouraged to expand crop production if cooperative processing and/or marketing facilities guaranteed sale of surplus produce. Agriculture and fishery cooperatives can

also competitively purchase supplies, services,

and equipment that individuals cannot afford.

The more highly organized cooperatives provide fully integrated programs for their members, and cover equipment purchases, offer

assistance in processing and marketing, and

even research and development.

While some cooperatives are successfully

operating on the islands (e.g., Saipan Farmer’s

Cooperative Association), others have struggled

or failed. Local governments might encourage

their development through investing in infrastructure and providing tax benefits and technical assistance.

Vertical Integration of Operations

Contract farming to vertically integrate small

farmers with large agricultural production/

processing and marketing operations is likely

to help increase food production on U.S.-affili-
Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 2 3

ated islands. Small farmers contract with a large

company to raise products, which the company

purchases at a guaranteed price, processes, and

markets. The company may also provide

farmer-contractors with some agricultural inputs and production assistance. Such enterprises are capable of economies of scale and

benefit both producers and consumers. There

are several successful, vertically integrated agricultural enterprises in Puerto Rico. Black pepper production on Pohnpei is also integrated,

although the processing and marketing unit is

government run.

TECHNOLOGIES TO SUPPORT RESOURCE SUSTAINABILITY

Agriculture cannot be a productive sector of

island economies if soils become too nutrientdepleted or if soil erosion is uncontrolled. Maximum economic yield cannot be attained offshore if marine resources are harvested indiscriminantly. Many technologies supportive of

resource sustainability are aimed at minimizing

depletion, and at regulating use of resources.

Agriculture

Soil Conservation

Soil erosion and degradation is greatest in

conventional clean-tilled row-cropping, particularly when fallow periods are short, Prevention might include lengthening fallow

periods to take advantage of the natural regeneration capacity of the ecosystem, restricting and

controlling burning, and applying soil-conserving cultivation and culture practices (i.e., terracing, contour farming, mulching, conservation tillage, and planting of soil-conserving

crops and hedgerows).

Each technology has advantages and disadvantages. For example, conservation tillage

contributes to reducing soil erosion and labor

and equipment requirements, and increases soil

moisture retention. However, this technique relies heavily on herbicides for weed control and

creates potential habitat for pests. Contour

farming is inexpensive, but becomes less effective as the inherent potential for erosion increases. Steep lands can be terraced, but surface

compaction and pending may result. Terrace

construction is expensive and may require removal of topsoil from large areas. Considerable

expertise will be needed to determine which

soil-conserving technology is appropriate for

application in a specific area.

The development of local soil amendments

may be necessary to offset the nutrient draining effects of commercial agriculture technologies. Most soils in the islands are relatively

nutrient poor due to a variety of factors, thus,

the need for fertilizers (organic or commercial)

to produce and sustain commercial yields is imperative.

Despite evidence that tropical soils respond

much differently to such fertilizers than temperate soils, and despite the potential adverse

impacts of fertilizers on groundwater and marine ecosystems, commercial fertilizers are

commonly used on the islands. Research is

needed on other methods of maintaining soil

fertility such as green manuring, intercropping

with legumes, fallow periods, and crop rotation. The possibility of using municipal wastes

as compost also might be explored. Evidence

suggests that the efficiency of commercial fertilizers may be increased if they are used in

combination with organic fertilizers and/or

mycorrhizae, or with zeolite minerals.

Fisheries

For many Pacific islands, management of resources to ensure sustained yield is even more

imperative in the marine than in the terrestrial

environment. These resources provide for

many subsistence needs and represent a food

reserve in the event of natural calamities.
24 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Plastic mulches, applied here on St. Croix, USVI, serve to inhibit weed growth and enhance soil moisture retention.

Modern Regulatory Measure

Although marine resource management was

traditionally practiced by islanders, rigorous

scientific efforts to manage these resources are

relatively recent. These commonly involve regulatory measures to restrict harvest methods

and seasons in order to conserve individual

stocks and to restrict access to critical habitats.

The Caribbean Fishery Management Council

has placed restrictions on types of gear that may

be used for harvest and has established minimum permissible sizes for some species. Other

restrictions on seasons or areas are also possible, but have not been enacted. Modern management efforts in the Caribbean and the Pacific are also limited in that they focus on single

species or groups of species rather than on entire ecosystems.

Parks

Ultimately, some extremely sensitive ecosystems may have to be given special status as marine parks or reserves. Ecosystems such as coral

reefs and mangrove forests which are important habitat for many marine species and are

highly vulnerable to degradation are prime candidates. As yet there are few protected marine

areas in the U.S. island territories. If successfully sited, established, and managed, marine

parks and reserves could protect critical areas,

and also provide a source of recruitment for

restocking exploited surroundings.

Traditional Management Methods

While fishing efforts might be limited by any

or all of the above methods, enforcement is dif-
C/I. I—Executive Summary . 25

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

The Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Refuge in Palau, encompassing 640 acres, includes considerable open marine areas

and unique marine lakes.

ficult in tropical areas where species numbers

are high, and catch and market data are scarce.

Biologists also know less about tropical than

temperate fisheries. Despite attempts to protect

overexploited resources, western cultures

largely have been unable to manage tropical

reef fisheries efficiently. Traditional management measures are a part of village lore in some

Pacific islands. Some management measures,

reveal a sophisticated knowledge of ecological

relationships. Traditional use rights in fisheries

(TURFS) of the Pacific islands are based on the

principle of limited entry and other conservation strategies. TURFS continue to play a major role in some island cultures. On some islands, they have been seriously disrupted by

western technologies and by economic pressures of commercialization.

Existing TURFS may contribute to fisheries

conservation in the U.S. Pacific islands. Management schemes and regulations recognizing

traditional marine tenure in the islands could

be established. Private enterprises, such as seaweed and giant clam farming, pearl culture and

trochus fisheries, would be likely to respond

well to exclusive ownership. In areas where

TURFS have lapsed, local management and enforcement responsibilities could be instituted.

TURFS cannot, however, guarantee successful conservation. TURF systems are diverse and

some are more useful in fishery management
26 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

than others. TURFS pose an impediment to

commercial tuna fishermen who obtain bait fish

from these areas, often with great difficulty.

TURFS may also impede nearshore harvest of

migratory pelagic species.

Artificial Habitats

Management of marine resources for sustained yields might also involve use of artificial reefs and fish aggregation devices (FADs).

Artificial reefs range from scrap automobiles

and tires to specially designed and engineered

structures. Whether the introduction of artificial reef habitats enhances overall fisheries

productivity or merely increases local populations by attracting fish from elsewhere is not

known—there is evidence for both results.

FADs are anchored buoys placed beyond reefs

to attract pelagic fish. Although catch rates are

significantly increased by their deployment, the

impact of FADs on regional fish stocks and the

sustainability of high catch rates have not been

evaluated. Until such questions are answered,

artificial reefs and FADs probably cannot be

determined to contribute to fisheries management for sustained yields.

Extensive degradation of terrestrial resources

and overexploitation of nearshore marine resources is apparent in many insular areas. Programs aimed at resource restoration and recovery will likely be important to long-term

ecologic and economic stability of the U. S.-

affiliated islands. A primary cause of soil and

land degradation has been forest clearing, thus,

revegetation programs represent a potential

strategy for improving terrestrial productivity.

Traditional and commercial agroforestry, short

or long rotation forestry, or growth of ground

cover in the form of nitrogen-fixing legumes

all offer possible options. Selection of plant species and of rotational strategies is critically important to the creation of stable and productive ecosystems. Reforestation or afforestation

of degraded lands brings many benefits aside

from products. Forests contribute to reducing

wind erosion, protect and improve soil fertility, regulate soil water and contribute to flood

control. They also provide wildlife habitat.

Agroforests provide the additional benefits of

mixed cropping.

Like terrestrial forests, mangrove and seagrass habitats have suffered extensive damage.

Success of natural or induced recovery schemes

is variable, but recovery programs represent

management options. Few attempts are currently being made to restore such habitats.

From an ecological viewpoint, the best strategy is probably to protect these habitats from

adverse impacts. They are valuable resources

that may take up to 100 years to recover naturally, if at all. Where possible, restoration is

costly and success is not guaranteed.

As the nearshore resources of the Pacific and

Caribbean regions are becoming overfished or

degraded, the idea of enhancement and reseeding of these resources is gaining attention. Restoration of marine resources generally means

restocking of selected species. Farming, or

aquiculture of marine organisms may become

important to restock or reseed depleted fishery stocks. However, without appropriate controls on subsequent harvests, a reestablished

population may be exploited at a greater than

optimal rate and possibly reextinguished.

Integrating Technologies

Many technologies for renewable resource

development can be integrated with technologies for energy production and conservation,

waste treatment, or with each other. Potential

exists for development of energy integrated

farms, and operations that integrate aquiculture with agriculture, waste treatment, and

energy production.

Energy Integrated Farms

Energy integrated farming offers a means of

transforming animal and crop wastes into use-
Ch. 1—Executive Summary . 2 7

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Slurry from biogas digesters can be directed through aquaculture— here, tilapia and water hyacinth culture—before being

discharged through agricultural irrigation systems, providing numerous additional benefits to energy generation.

ful products. Organic matter is fermented into

biogas (a methane-rich gas mixture) and a thick

slurry in oxygen-free digesters. Completely fermented slurry is virtually odorless, has reduced

harmful organisms, and retains the fertilizer

value of the original materials. It can be used

as a livestock feed additive, potting soil, and

fertilizer. Biogas can be used to generate light,

and to operate stoves, refrigerators and even

modified gas engines.

The quantity of useful products depends on

the amount and type of organic matter, digestor capacity, and ambient temperature. Abroad

scope of applications are possible, ranging from

small, single-household digesters, to huge

“high-tech” complexes requiring corporate

backing. Widespread application is constrained

by lack of large livestock operations, design and

operation expertise, and capital.

Use of energy-integrated farming technologies in the near term will probably be limited

to a few farmers with large manure supplies

and sufficient water resources for system operation. Within 8 to 10 years, small-farm biogas

units could probably be implemented more

widely. Energy derived from animal and crop

wastes, wood, and other plant materials offer

a potentially important substitute to imported

oil for many islands.

Aquaculture/Energy Production

Systems

Considerable energy is needed to pump seawater to mariculture farms. If such farms could

be integrated with powerplants, which pump

and discharge large quantities of water for cooling, considerable savings might be realized.

Powerplants and mariculture systems could be

63-222 0 - 87-2 OL. 3
28 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

designed to maximize benefits. Water pumped

from under the thermocline is relatively rich

in nutrients for aquiculture and would provide

cooling for the powerplant,

Integration of aquiculture with innovative

forms of energy production that exploit the

energy of the sea (i.e., ocean thermal energy

conversion systems, wave energy systems and

hypersaline solar ponds) may also be possible

once such systems become more readily available. Integration of aquiculture with these technologies may enhance their economic feasibility for some islands.

Waste Treatment Systems

Cultivation of seaweeds or other aquatic

plants has been integrated with water treatment

in the United States and has potential for application on tropical islands. There may also

be opportunities for increasing agricultural

productivity with land application of sewage

sludge, treated wastewater, and municipally derived compost.

Planning/Policy Considerations

Improved resource management planning requires careful consideration of development

constraints and opportunities as well as numerous other factors: information needs, possible

sources and management, choice of strategies

for plan implementation, and the role of traditional law and local people in management

planning and implementation.

Each of the U.S.-affiliated island governments

has designated a Planning Office to compile

information on factors affecting economic development and to present a framework for rational development planning. A number of

plans analyzing resource management and development activities have been prepared in each

island area either by these offices (e.g., Coastal

Zone Management plans) or by the United Nations. However, different plans are rarely centralized or aggregated. The 5-year comprehensive development plans prepared by the Freely

Associated States (under the terms of the Compact of Free Association) tend to be too general to provide real guidance to decisionmakers.

Planning processes may go awry for these and

other reasons, including:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

inadequate “in-house” planning expertise

and heavy demand on existing island

planners,

inadequate problem specification,

lack of understanding of natural processes,

inadequate specification of management

alternatives,

use of planning as a substitute for management,

lack of resources for planning, and

lack of understanding of the social and political contexts in which plans are to be implemented.

Information Procurement

and Management

A primary obstacle to the development of

baseline ecological surveys is the cost of data

collection, storage, and retrieval. Since few

islands can afford a major data acquisition effort, an initial priority could be to ensure collection of data essential to program implementation. An incremental approach could then be

taken to collect desirable data, this could emphasize the use of island residents as sources

of resource-related information,

Within many governments, data are collected

by more than one agency, sometimes resulting

in duplication of effort. Data maybe collected

in different formats and on different scales making sharing of information difficult. Opportunities to ameliorate these problems include reorganization or centralization of data collection, storage, and processing responsibilities,

and ensuring coordination among various agencies that currently share these responsibilities.

An island-by-island assessment of data collection could be a first step toward identifying opportunities for data sharing, and for collaboration on new data acquisition.

Traveling workshops could provide shortcourse training on information collection and

mapping techniques. Distribution of data to
—

Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 2 9

users may be facilitated with data lists and inventories; reproduction of reports, air photos,

and maps; workshops and seminars; and participatory approaches to planning.

Analytical Planning Techniques

Restriction of resource use to activities with

minimal adverse impacts is currently the dominant approach to resource management on the

U.S.-affiliated islands. In the short run, therefore, environmental impact statements (EISs)

will probably remain the primary technique

used for resource and plan assessments. Several “off-the-shelf approaches to impact assessment make it a relatively cost-effective and

simple procedure. A review of procedures for

conducting EISs could help planners develop

those most relevant to island environments.

Post-project evaluations are one way to reveal

the strengths and weaknesses of current EIS

procedures.

Environmental impact analysis, however, is

a short-term investigation of the likely impacts

of previously identified policy or project options and, thus, does not permit evaluation of

the full range of development alternatives.

Other methods are being developed to allow

consideration of environmental and resource

information early in resource development

planning, including resource suitability analysis, carrying capacity analysis, extended benefit/cost analysis and multi-objective analysis.

Few of these techniques have been applied to

U.S.-affiliated islands. If such methods were

fully developed and implemented, however,

repeated EISs might be rendered redundant.

Resource suitability analyses, which can

range from simple map overlays to complicated

computerized geographic information systems,

provide information about the supply of resources at various levels of suitability for various uses. Such analyses generally comprise a

method of delineating landscape or seascape

units on a map and assessing the capability of

these areas to sustain an array of potential uses

without unacceptable degradation and given

certain levels of management and technology.

Carrying capacity analysis, a method of determining the optimal human population that can

be supported at given levels of technology and

amenity, also has been used to help identify critical resource use decisions.

Benefit-cost and multi-objective analyses both

attempt to encompass the array of secondary

and intangible benefits and costs from alternative programs or projects. Benefit-cost analysis incorporates value judgments regarding the

translation of unquantifiable variables and social preferences into money values. Multiobjective planning does not force all effects into

the same measurement units, but relies on decisionmakers’ assignment of relative or weighted

values for each category of impact.

Although based in science, interpretations of

factors such as custom, skills, innovativeness,

likely technology and institutional capability

come into play in making the ratings. Thus,

each technique depends on expert judgment

and public participation as well as on manipulation and interpretation of scientific information,

Participatory Approaches to

Planning and Management

The need to incorporate public participation

in resource development planning is based on

several factors: 1) local knowledge and understanding of an area’s natural systems often complements or exceeds scientific knowledge, 2)

public participation in resource-related planning and policymaking may yield benefits in

compliance and enforcement of local regulations; and 3) actions that respect people’s priorities and that are planned with local input

and approval are more likely to succeed than

actions that require intensive regulation and

enforcement.

Generating public participation in resource

management projects can be extremely timeconsuming and costly. In order to tap local

sources of information, it usually is necessary

to give equally in return. The following conditions have been suggested as guidelines for public participation in resource management:

1. long-term presence to understand a community’s structure, build rapport, and foster mutual respect;
30 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

2. local involvement in all aspects of a project

from design to implementation, as well as

respect for local input and objectives;

3. local participation in concrete activities

from which people can gain tangible benefits; and

4. education and research activities in which

local people are equal partners with government, project staff, and professionals.

Modern Law and Traditional Custom

Custom is a valued asset of U.S.-affiliated island communities. Values such as respect for

traditional leaders, consensus-based dispute

resolution, and significance of clan membership have survived the impact of colonization

and modernization, and form a significant part

of the identity of island peoples. The opportunity exists to blend traditional management

methods and the democratic system as Micronesia develops self-government. One advantage

of retaining traditional methods of guiding social behavior is that these require no legislative decree or policing—they are ingrained in

local belief and custom. Traditional resource

management tenets often have ecologic rationale.

A formalized system for incorporation of Pacific island custom into a system of law appropriate for use in island societies could include:

explicit recognition in constitutions, statutes

and case law of the value and primacy of custom; recognition of custom whenever a new

law is adopted; and court adherence to the constitutional and legislative mandates to preserve

custom. Judges knowledgeable of local customs

could use that knowledge in decision and rulemaking in a way that ensures preservation of

customary values and principles. Further, they

could recognize that access to resources is a

part of the livelihood of island peoples, and that

complex systems of ownership and use have

evolved that do not resemble western concepts

of ownership. In resolving resource-related disputes, judges may wish to delay intervention

until traditional leaders are consulted and other

methods of dispute resolution are exhausted.

SUMMARY OF ISSUES AND OPTIONS FOR THE U.S. CONGRESS

Economic growth of the U.S.-affiliated islands is likely to be largely dependent on the

sustainable development and management of

renewable resources, and on a tourist industry that is compatible with development and

management goals. As the primary policymaking body for the islands, Congress can foster pursuit and achievement of these objectives

in a variety of ways:

●

●

●

by tuning appropriate Federal agencies and

assistance programs to the special situation and needs of islands;

by coordinating the work of agencies responsible for various aspects of resource

management on the islands;

by making opportunities for Federal assistance directed at developing sustainability of resource uses readily apparent and

more easily available to islands; and

● by providing additional assistance in the

areas of data collection and management,

planning, education, extension, training,

and research.

Various options exist within all of these areas

to improve and expand Federal support for agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and aquaculture development on the islands.

Congressional Oversight and

Federal Agency Coordination Issues

This study reveals important links among

renewable resource use, environmental protection, island cultures, political systems, and

economic development. However, no single

congressional subcommittee of the House Committee of Interior and Insular Affairs, or of the

Senate Committee on Energy and Natural re-
Ch. 1—Executive Surnmary ● 31

sources is structured to deal with all of these

interrelated issues as they apply to resource

management on the islands. Activities related

to the U.S. islands, moreover, are spread through

many programs of USDA, the National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and

the U.S. Department of the Interior (USDOI),

making coordination and congressional oversight difficult. The USDOI’s Office of Territorial

and International Affairs (OTIA) is responsible for promoting the economic, social, and political development of the U.S.-affiliated islands

and for analyzing, developing, and coordinating USDOI’s policies and programs pertaining

to international activities.

To take advantage of the OTA findings in this

assessment, mechanisms are needed to coordinate and perhaps increase appropriate support

of Federal island-related activities and to facilitate congressional oversight of these activities.

Option: New Congressional Subcommittees.—Congress could establish new House and

Senate subcommittees to deal with integrated

resource management on the U.S.-affiliated islands.1 These would provide focal points within

Congress where approaches to island resource

development could be handled and integrated.

This could benefit island officials and strengthen

existing links between the U.S. Government

and the U.S.-affiliated islands. The importance

of the islands to national security will probably

increase in the next decade, making such links

more important. Alternatively, Congress could

establish a congressional Joint Territorial Policy Study group to analyze island matters requiring congressional action.

Option: Increase Federal Program Coordination.—Congress could hold oversight hearings on OTIA coordination of Federal agencies

programs and plans for activities in the islands.

Alternatively, or in addition, Congress could

authorize and support establishment of an Interagency Coordinating Group on Resource and

Economic Development in U.S.-affiliated IsI Moving in this direction, the House Committee on Interior

and Insular Affairs established a new Subcommittee on Insular

and International Affairs early in the 100th Congress.

lands which could represent the relevant Federal territorial policy and resource-related Federal agencies. This group could assess current

insular participation in Federal resource programs, identify means for integrating programs

within and among agencies into more effective

and cost-effective packages and suggest funding priorities for technical assistance from the

agencies. Representatives could serve as insular government contacts with Federal agencies.

Finally, Congress could designate the U.S.

Man and the Biosphere Program (U.S. MAB)

as the lead coordinating agency for Federal

resource-related activities on the islands and

encourage increased coordination between

U.S. MAB, OTIA and other Federal agencies,

in addition to those already involved in U.S.

MAB activities. Research on the ecology and

rational use of small island ecosystems has been

identified as a priority for U.S. MAB support.

Increased support for the U.S. MAB islands

program could allow expansion of research and

training in the U.S.-affiliated islands, especially

in the Pacific, where the MAB Directorate has

been inactive, and could improve coordination

of federally supported, resource-related activities in the islands.

Option: Review Effectiveness of Federal Island Programs.—Many executive agency programs focused on island resource issues receive

favorable comment from island resource managers, planners, and government representatives, some do not. To help determine which

approaches have worked best in the islands and

which ones should be modified to improve their

chances of success, Congress could direct

USDA, NOAA, and USDOI each to evaluate the

effectiveness of their own programs related to

renewable resource management on the islands,

and to appear at oversight hearings related to

island issues.

Alternatively Congress could direct the General Accounting Office to conduct such reviews. While individual agencies are familiar

with their own programs’ details and likely

could perform reviews more easily, there may

be advantages to having an outside agency perform the task,
32 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Data Collection and

Information Management Issues

A first requirement for resource and economic development planning in the U.S.-affiliated islands is to collect comprehensive and

up-to-date resource, economic, and social data

and make it easily accessible to planners. Techniques also are needed to store, synthesize, analyze, and manipulate data in ways useful for

resource development planning. With the modern, reasonably inexpensive computer systems

available today, data storage, synthesis, analysis, and dissemination are not insurmountable

problems.

Existing natural resource databases on most

islands generally are inadequate, as are the

appropriate economic and social data needed

for informed judgments on future island development. Efforts to collect data in several broad

areas could greatly assist planners. For example, in order to minimize the possibility that

economically or environmentally inappropriate agricultural technologies are introduced on

islands, and to determine which production

technologies have the greatest chance for ready

and profitable adaptation, there is a need for

specific information on existing farm operation

methods. Before new aquiculture or fisheries

technologies are introduced, similar marine resource use data must be collected. While local

departments of marine resources collect aquatic

and fisheries data in the Caribbean, there is no

data collection and aggregation structure for

the Pacific Islands.

The U.S.-affiliated islands also have difficulty

identifying what island-relevant Federal data/

information programs exist, and which of various Federal agencies house what kinds of data

that might be useful for resource planning.

Option: Analyze Island Databases and Information Management Systems.—Congress

could direct USDOI to lead an interagency task

force with island representation to conduct

a critical evaluation of the natural resource,

social, and economic databases, and data-handling methodologies for the various U.S.-affiliated islands. The task force could report to Congress on the status of island databases and on

data management needs of the islands, including both equipment and personnel needs. At

subsequent hearings, Congress could determine

appropriate actions. Such an analysis has long

been needed and could foster improved linkages between the Federal agencies and island

governments. However, it maybe argued that

immediate direct action to collect needed data

is preferable to “another study. ”

Option: Assess Federal Data and Information Programs Likely To Be of Benefit to the

U.S.-Affiliated Islands.–Congress could direct USDOI to lead another, perhaps subsequent, interagency task force with island representation to assess the data/information and

programs of each Federal agency likely to benefit islands in integrated renewable resource

management and planning. A summary of findings could be published, and congressional

hearings held. This action could reduce the

possibility of duplicating data collection efforts

or of overlooking Federal programs that could

be applied appropriately to the islands, as well

as expedite island resource-related planning

activities.

Option: Establish Regional Information

Clearinghouse(s).–Congress could establish,

or support one or more existing regional island

centers (e.g., the Pacific Basin Development

Council, East-West Center, Micronesia Area

Research Center Information System, Eastern

Caribbean Center) to act as a clearinghouse for:

Federal announcements on new programs pertaining to islands; island government announcements; similar international program information; market information on agriculture

and aquiculture; and information on specialty,

background, and availability of various island

experts. Once gathered, this information could

be assessed and disseminated to island governments.

Such a structure could facilitate and speed

communications between the continental

United States and the affiliated islands, and possibly between the Pacific and Caribbean regions. However, development of this network

would require additional funding at a time

when new funding is scarce.
Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 33

Option: Reactivate USDA Minor Economic

Crops Computer Database.—USDA previously

maintained a database on minor economic

crops, many of which could grow in tropical

climates. This database no longer is kept active, and no other similar database is known

to exist. Congress could direct USDA to reactivate, update, and maintain this database, and

continue to include information on: climate and

soil conditions necessary for various crops,

crop yields, nutritional and medicinal properties of various crops, and their potential for intercropping and for use in agroforestry.

The database provides one mechanism for

information sharing between the Caribbean and

Pacific islands, and historically costs little to

maintain.

Option: Develop Small-Scale Island Farmer

and Fishermen Profiles.—Congress could direct the USDA Extension Service to gather data

and prepare profiles of small-scale farmers in

the U.S.-affiliated islands for use in the process of identifying environmentally appropriate

and economically beneficial agricultural technologies for introduction to the islands. While

such profiles are being developed the rate of

new technological implementation might be

slowed, but the risk of unsuccessful introductions also may be reduced. In addition, Congress could direct the Sea Grant Marine Extension Service to develop Artisanal Fisheries

Profiles, similar to the farmer profiles.

Option: Fisheries Statistics Collection.—

Congress could provide funding to the Pacific

Fisheries Development Foundation for island

fisheries statistics collection programs, under

either the Saltonstall-Kennedy grant program

or appropriations to the Central, Western and

South Pacific Fisheries Development Act. Sea

resource atlases could be prepared using these

and other data, perhaps by the U.S. Army Corps

of Engineers, which has prepared atlases for

some Pacific islands.

Congress could also direct the USDA National Agricultural Library to provide assistance to the Micronesia Area Tropical Agriculture Data Center at the University of Guam

to include appropriate aquiculture information. An aquiculture database also could be developed at the University of Puerto Rico, or

another appropriate Caribbean institution.

Option: Training in Data Collection, Management, and Use.—Congress could direct USDOI

in cooperation with USDA to arrange periodic

training programs on computerized data management techniques and analysis at the landgrant institutions on U.S.-affiliated islands and

on Hawaii for data managers/users from island

governments. Such programs could integrate

current island databases, expanding their usefulness.

Where no local data collection expertise is

available, U.S. agencies could allocate funds

for a local person to work side by side with Federal data collectors. This on-the-job training

could emphasize the need for sensitivity to

eventual interpretation of data.

Research Issues

Island governments have limited capability

to conduct research on other than critical local needs, and this constrains progress in several areas of sustainable resource development.

While insular research centers in tropical agriculture and island forestry exist, there are no

corresponding centers for tropical aquiculture

research. Funding for Sea Grant research,

moreover, has been declining and program representatives in Puerto Rico and Guam have little capability to direct research towards the

needs of other islands.

Federal research organizations have considerable expertise in resource-related fields and

technologies. However, little research is oriented to tropical environments, and still less

is aimed at the social and cultural aspects of

the U.S.-affiliated islands. The findings of

resource-related research conducted in the temperate continental United States do not commonly apply to tropical island areas. Reliance

on such research in the implementation of Federal programs on the islands results in “environmental misfits. ” This has caused some of

these programs to fail and may even cause hardships to island inhabitants.
34 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Federal agency research designed for a tropical environment relates mostly to renewable

resource management in tropical developing

countries (i.e., U.S. Agency for International

Development (AID) research). The islands benefit little from this relevant renewable resource

research.

Option: Increase Regional Research and

Information Dissemination Activities.—The

East-West Center was formed in 1972 to provide analysis of social, political, and other issues for Asia and the Pacific. Congress could

direct the East-West Center to increase resource

research and analysis for the U.S. Pacific islands and increase funding for such activities.

Similarly, Congress could accelerate the development of the Eastern Caribbean Center to provide similar services for the U.S. Caribbean

islands.

Option: Screen U.S.-Funded Research for

Applicability to Tropical Islands.—Congress

could direct USDA’s Office of International Cooperation and Development and its Forestry Support Service to screen U.S.-funded research for

findings in agriculture, aquiculture, forestry,

and other renewable resource areas that can

be applied to the U.S. tropical islands, and to

provide this information to the islands. AID,

for example, has accumulated a storehouse of

information on tropical resource management

planning and development in the tropics, large

parts of which might benefit island governments.

A small screening committee within USDA

could use the department’s Current Research

Information System to identify planned or ongoing research of potential benefit to the islands, and could suggest to appropriate researchers possible means of addressing issues

of relevance to the islands in their projects.

Small modifications in some USDA-funded research plans may result in significant contributions to tropical island agriculture if researchers keep island problems in mind.

Option: Link Tropical and Nontropical

Land-Grant Institutions. –Congress could direct AID to develop a mechanism whereby Title

XII-funded research activities of tropical landgrant institutions on the U.S.-affiliated islands.

This would allow for suitability testing of certain temperate technologies in tropical environments, and would likely strengthen the island

land-grant institutions’ activities in integrated

renewable resource planning and management,

as well as the United States’ overall competence

in tropical natural resource management.

Travel costs for research exchange between island and U.S. continental researchers would

be high however, reducing the Title XII funds

available for research.

Congress also could direct the U.S. Department of State to assist insular government

research organizations in establishing cooperative relationships with regional and international research institutions or major universities which can help with broad strategic and

basic research.

Option: Extend Section 406 Programs and

Funding to All Tropical Land-Grant Institutions.—Congress could extend Section 406 of

the 1966 Food for Peace Act to cover all tropical land-grant institutions, and provide funding to pursue the section’s two major goals,

which are: 1) to provide USDA and land-grant

scientists with tropical experience and training, and 2) to provide foreign nationals with

a place to learn techniques and methodologies

from U.S. specialists under tropical conditions.

Extending funding beyond the two original

tropical institutions to receive Section 406 research funds (the Universities of Hawaii and

Puerto Rico) to the five additional tropical landgrant institutions that now exist (in Guam,

American Samoa, FSM, CNMI, and the Virgin

Islands) could substantially increase tropical

agricultural research in the United States and

its territories, and give island residents local

access to training they commonly must seek

hundreds or thousands of miles away. However, it may take years for these schools to become as productive in research as the Universities of Hawaii and Puerto Rico, during which

time substantial funds must be committed.

Option: Expand Tropical Agricultural, Forestry, and Aquiculture Research.—Congress

could direct USDA to increase support for ap-
Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 3 5

plied research in agriculture and forestry development conducted by the tropical agriculture research stations and the institutes of

tropical forestry in Puerto Rico and Hawaii.

Congress could also increase support for basic

and applied NOAA Sea Grant research in various aspects of aquiculture and fisheries.

Congress also could direct NOAA to establish one or more Institutes of Tropical Aquiculture Research in the U.S.-affiliated islands

to serve as a center for tropical aquiculture

technology development. The center could be

associated with established Sea Grant institutions, but still be mandated to serve other

islands.

Education, Extension, and

Training issues

Sustainable resource development programs,

and maintenance of aesthetic, productive environments depend heavily on an educated, ecologically aware public, technologically capable

and informed practitioners, and skilled managers. While education is well-developed in the

U.S.-affiliated islands, few primary and secondary school curricula specifically address island

ecology, agriculture, or fisheries, or the relationships between environment and development, and between resources and traditional

cultures. Moreover, most Pacific island colleges

are 2-year community colleges necessitating offisland undergraduate and graduate level study.

Even where research information is available,

and technologies appropriate to island conditions have been identified, implementation can

fail if the pertinent information is not extended

to potential practitioners. In part because graduate education is weak or absent, technologically trained personnel and people capable of

providing training or technical advice are

scarce on most islands.

Island extension offices tend to be small, underfunded, and overworked, all of which hinder their effectiveness in technology transfer.

In addition, neither local land-grant colleges

nor local governments in the Pacific have adequate funds to maintain the staff needed to

reach remote and outlying populations. Similarly, the Marine Advisory Services of the Sea

Grant programs at the Universities of Hawaii

and Puerto Rico lack the staff and funds to provide assistance to other U.S.-affiliated islands,

although both are interested in doing so.

Option: Develop Environmental Education

Programs.–Congress could direct the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Education

Research and Improvement, in cooperation

with various island government units and programs involved in environmental education, to

assess ecology curricula materials for potential use in island schools. Where appropriate,

financial assistance could be provided to disseminate identified materials and to develop

primary and secondary school ecology curricula.

Development of an “environmental ethic” in

this way could reduce the need for regulatory

and incentive programs to maintain environmental quality; however, some regulatory measures and incentives are still needed to prevent

resource and environmental degradation in the

short term. Early education in ecology could

also spark student interest in resource-related

careers.

Option: Increase Island Training and Extension Services.–Congress could direct USDA,

NOAA, and USDOI to develop joint training

workshops for field extension agents in the islands, and to apprise extension agents of the

assistance opportunities offered by both local

and Federal agencies.

Congress also could direct USDA to increase

support of insular agricultural extension programs to allow expansion to remote populations. Congress also could direct NOAA to increase Sea Grant assistance in training and

extension for aquiculture, fisheries, and marine resource management for islands having

Sea Grant representatives, and to make such

services available to the other U.S.-affiliated

islands. This will require identification and

funding of new personnel.

Congress also could direct the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service and NOAA Office of Sea Grant
36 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

jointly to supply a resident scientist to the regions to provide expert advice on aquiculture

species introductions, and to conduct the necessary backup research.

Incentive Issues

Incentives, or removal of disincentives may

be necessary to encourage island peoples to

undertake new or potentially high economic

risk activities. These could initially include

availability and knowledge of potentially profitable technologies (provided by research and

extension) and ability to implement them (provided by education and training). Incentives

can be technical (marketing assistance), or financial (cost-sharing). Agricultural producers,

for example, must have accurate, thorough market information, and may need help in accessing markets for their products. Cost-sharing

programs have, in some cases, formed the basis for local government activities to develop

resource enterprises.

Some analysts argue that eligibility for and

participation in U.S. income support programs

creates a disincentive to investing money and

labor in resource-related enterprises in the U. S.-

affiliated islands.

Option: Marketing Assistance.—Congress

could direct USDA’s Agricultural Marketing

Service to assist insular governments through

three major programs:

1.

2.

3.

the Federal-State Marketing Improvement

Program, which provides funds to States

to solve marketing problems through Federal-State cooperation;

Market News, which provides timely information on prices, demand, movement,

volume, and quality of all major agricultural commodities; and

Agricultural Product Grading, which provides producers and marketers with meaningful grades indicative of agricultural

product quality.

Congress could also direct the Department

of Commerce to have NOAA’s Office of Sea

Grant programs assess aquacultural marketing

and economics issues for island aquiculture

development.

Option: Establish Insular Resource Management Cost-Sharing Programs.—Congress

could establish and authorize a new USDA program to provide cost-sharing and technical

assistance to individuals undertaking federally

approved agriculture, soil conservation, forestry, fishery, and aquiculture activities. Local administration of such a program would

mitigate travel and other problems.

Option: Analyze Income and Other Support

Programs.–Congress could direct USDA and

the Department of Health and Human Services

(DHHS) jointly to analyze eligibility formulae

for social aid, and nutritional and other impacts

of such aid. If there are large numbers of people who participate, but do not substantially

benefit from aid programs, support funding

could be gradually reduced, or partially

redirected to cost-sharing programs.

Congress could direct USDA to assess and

report on the current and potential role of local produce in island school hot lunch and other

food and nutrition programs, addressing questions of nutrition, and possible economic impacts, and suggesting a target level for homegrown contributions, Increased use of locally

grown foods in such programs could provide

markets and incentives for expanded island

agricultural activities and thus, increased economic benefits to the islands. However, local

storage and refrigeration facilities may not be

adequate to assure regular delivery. Food accessibility at open markets may also decline.
Chapter 2

Introduction
CONTENTS

Page

Insular Relationships to the Federal Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Commonwealths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Unincorporated Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Freely Associated States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

The Importance of U.S.-Affiliated Islands to US. National Security . . . . . . . 41

Economic Development in U.S.-Affiliated Islands: The Problem . . . . . . . . . . 41

Ecological Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Geographical Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Socioeconomic Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Goals of Renewable Resource Management and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Tables

Table No. Page

2-1. United States-Insular Area Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2-2. General Characteristics of Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Figure

Figure No. Page

2-1. Comparison of Typical Population Pyramids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
—

Chapter

Introduction

INSULAR RELATIONSHIPS TO

The U.S.-affiliated tropical islands have a

wide range of relationships to the U.S. Government (table 2-1), Two are commonwealths—

Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands

(NMI)–having local autonomy but voluntarily

associated with the United States. The U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and Guam are

unincorporated territories (to which only certain provisions of the U.S. Constitution have

been expressly extended) under the administration of elected Governors. Finally, the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), and the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) (which,

together with the NMI and the Republic of

Palau form the former Trust Territory of the

Pacific Islands) have signed agreements with

the United States to become Freely Associated

States. 1

The peoples of Puerto Rico and the territories of Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands are

U.S. citizens, those of Palau and American

Samoa are U.S. nationals. Guam, American

Samoa and the USVI are represented in the U.S.

Congress by nonvoting Delegates. Puerto Rico

1Although Puerto Rico is a Commonwealth of the United States,

it is referred to as “Estado Libre Asociado” or free associated

state. This should not be confused with the legal relationship

defined by free association with the Freely Associated States

in the Pacific.

THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

is represented by a nonvoting Resident Commissioner. The Resident Commissioner and

Delegates sit in the House of Representatives,

have a voice in legislation pertaining to their

islands, and can vote in Committee. While the

territories are eligible for many Federal programs on the same basis as a State, the islanders

do not contribute to the national treasury

through Federal income taxes,

Determination of U.S. policy for the territories is within the jurisdiction of Congress. Although Congress has given the Secretary of the

Interior certain authorities and responsibilities

toward these territorial governments (excluding Puerto Rico), and many Federal programs

are available to them, the territories are not

agencies or instrumentalities of the Executive

Branch of the Federal Government.

Commonwealths

A U.S. commonwealth is an autonomous

government in voluntary association with the

United States. It is responsible for its own welfare and has full legislative authority. Puerto

Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship in 1917

and Puerto Rico’s Constitution was approved

by the electorate in 1952. The Northern Mariana Islands in effect became a commonwealth

Table 2-1.—United States Insular Area Relationships

Relationship to the

Insular area Initiation of U.S. administration United States

Puerto RICO . . . . . .. . 1898 (ceded to the United States)

U.S. Virgin Islands 1917 (purchased from Denmark)

American Samo a 1900 (ceded to the United States)

Guam . . . . .. 1898 (ceded to the United States)

Northern Mariana Island s 1946 (U.S. Strategic Trusteeship)

Marshall Islands 1946 (U. S, Strategic Trusteeship)

Federated States of Micronesia 1946 (U.S. Strategic Trusteeship)

Palau 1946 (U.S. Strategic Trusteeship))

Commonwealth

Unincorporated territory

Unincorporated territory

Unincorporated territory

Commonwealth

Freely Associated State

Freely Associated State

Strategic Trusteeshipa

a Expected to become Freely Associated State in 1987

SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment 1987

39
40 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

in 1978,2 but remained officially a part of the

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until its

dissolution in 1986.

Unincorporated Territories

Unincorporated territories are not integral

parts of the United States and no promise of

statehood or a status approaching statehood is

held out to them. Only certain parts of the U.S.

Constitution apply to unincorporated territories. And, unlike States which write their own

constitutions, the laws and principles that prescribe the nature, functions, and limits of a territorial government are determined by Congress (13).

Guam was annexed from Spain at the close

of the Spanish-American War. Although relations between the Government of Guam and

the U.S. Government also are conducted under

the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior, residents of Guam elect their own officials. Most aspects of the U.S. Constitution apply to Guam. Similar to Guam, the American

Samoa Government is semiautonomous and

operates under a constitution adopted in 1960.

American Samoa has been administered by the

United States since 1900. The U.S. Virgin Islands were sold by the Danish Government to

the United States in 1917. U.S. citizenship was

granted to Virgin Islanders in 1927,

Freely Associated States

The Freely Associated States, along with the

Northern Mariana Islands, comprise the Trust

Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), the last

of 11 trusteeships established under United Nations’ sanction after World War II. Despite preliminary agreements, the Compact of Free

Association with the Republic of Palau has not

yet received 75 percent Palauan approval in a

plebiscite vote and, therefore, has not been approved by the United States or the United Nations. Until the Compact with Palau is approved

by the United Nations and the trusteeship is

‘The Northern Mariana Covenant (Public Law 94-241) was

passed by Congress in 1976, but the major part of the Covenant

did not become effective until 1978 when the Commonwealth

government was installed.

dissolved, the United States retains its responsibility to promote the economic advancement

and self-reliance of these islands.

The trusteeship was intended as a temporary

arrangement under which the United States accepted the responsibility of advancing the TTPI

—politically, socially, economically, and educationally—toward greater self-reliance, including undertaking obligations to:

. . . promote the economic advancement and

self-sufficiency of the inhabitants, and to this

end shall regulate the use of natural resources;

encourage the development of fisheries, agriculture and industries; [and] protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources (Trusteeship Agreement for the United

States Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Article 6(2)).

The United States also was charged with preparing the Micronesians for a political status

of their own choosing.

Civilian administration of the TTPI was the

responsibility of the Department of the Interior,

but each administrative district was given the

opportunity to determine its own form of government and degree of independence from the

United States. By January 1981, each emerging entity had installed a constitutional government with democratically elected officials.

The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands was established and separated from

the other existing TTPI entities in 1978, although some relations between the Northern

Marianas and the U.S. Government continued

under the jurisdiction of the Department of the

Interior. Two of the remaining political entities—the FSM (Yap, Truk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae), and the RMI—have signed Compacts of

Free Association with the United States; the

FSM and RMI compacts were approved by the

United States in early 1986 and put into effect

at the end of the year.3

Free association allows the polities full control of internal and external affairs while de-

— 3Because approval of a Compact of Free Association with the

Republic of Palau is expected shortly, Palau shall be referred

to as a Freely Associated State in the remainder of this assessment unless otherwise indicated.
Ch. 2—Introduction . 41

fense and security responsibilities are delegated ing from the United States (15 years for the RMI

to the United States. They become eligible for and FSM and 50 years for Palau) part of which

foreign aid from international organizations, must be directed to planning long-term ecosuch as the Asian Development Bank. Finally, nomic development.

they are guaranteed a specified level of fundTHE IMPORTANCE OF U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS

TO U.S. NATIONAL SECURITY

The U.S.-affiliated islands are of considerable

importance to national security, and the United

States is committed to their defense and to

maintaining lines of communication to and

through them. The islands vary in strategic importance, but all represent the U.S. presence

in spheres of strategic interest.

The U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands are of

special security significance to the United States,

primarily because of their close proximity to

Caribbean and Central American countries.

Puerto Rico is of particular significance due

to the presence of major naval installations

there and its location astride major routes of

communication. The Caribbean area has been

viewed as “America’s third border” and, thus,

expansion of inimical forces or influence in this

area is likely to be viewed with alarm (9).

Although the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands

do not play an important role in current or projected Department of Defense programs, they

might likewise be viewed as the United States’

fourth border. According to the Annual Report

of the Secretary of Defense to Congress for fiscal year 1986, at least 30 percent of U.S. trade

is conducted with the nations of East Asia, and

five of our mutual security treaties link us with

East Asian countries (9). Only a few islands (e.g.,

Guam, Kwajelein) have major U.S. bases; the

U.S. Navy, however, has a keen interest in certain contingency base rights in the Northern

Mariana Islands and Palau. (See app. B for a

brief discussion of military installations and

activities in the U.S.-affiliated islands.)

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS:

THE PROBLEM

U.S. policy towards the insular areas is

founded on common interests in the creation

of close and mutually beneficial relationships

between the insular governments and the U.S.

Government. As such, the United States has attempted to encourage political self-determination and promote economic advancement and

self-reliance in the territories while protecting

its national security interests in the Pacific and

the Caribbean. Thus, applicable Federal programs are extended to some or all of the territories, and their special needs are recognized

in direct assistance to the territories.

Many U.S. islands are highly dependent on

U.S. financial assistance for local Government – u

revenues. For example, the Federal portion of

Micronesia government revenues ranges from

30 percent (CNMI) to 87 percent (FSM) (17).

Puerto Rico is a notable exception, deriving

nearly two-thirds of its annual operating budget from internal sources (10). Nearly $5 billion are spent annually by the U.S. Government

in direct financial assistance and under Federal programs to the territories (16). Much of

these funds are used, in turn, to purchase food

and other goods and services, primarily from

the United States. Imports greatly exceed exports on many islands, and on most local food

production has been declining. A combination

of geographical, socioeconomic, and ecological factors hinder the sustainable management
—

42 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

and development of renewable resources in the

U.S. territories (table z-2).

The nature of tropical land and nearshore resources constrain the applicability of resource

development and management technologies

which have been developed for temperate areas.

The islands have considerable diversity in soil

types and, although fertile soil types exist on

some islands, soil fertility generally is low comTable 2-2.—General Characteristics of Islands

Ecological characteristics:

● small size,

● narrow range of natural resources,

● little natural organic biological diversity,

● distance from continents and external competition

fosters species endemism,

● generally little overall climatic variability, but potential

for climatic upsets,

● ecologic vulnerability, and

● tendency toward ecologic instability when isolation is

breached.

Geographical characteristics:

● relative isolation;

● a completely circumferential sea frontier and EEZ, giving a high ratio of EEZ to island land mass resulting in

very high importance of sea v. land resources;

● no internal land transport option to link the islands making up a polity or to link the island to other countries,

only air and sea transport; and

. no interior hinterland or central terrestrial core area that

is essentially distant from the sea such that coastal

resource planning and management is essentially synonymous with national resource planning and management.

Socioeconomic characteristics:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

more dependent on foreign trade than large countries

and having less influence on the terms in which that

trade is carried on;

a narrow range of resources and, hence, specialized

economies;

heavily dependent on one or more large foreign companies;

dependent for key services on external institutions such

as universities, regional training facilities, banking and

marketing arrangements;

a narrow range of local skills and specific difficulty in

matching local skills with jobs;

difficulty in providing some infrastructure services as

there may be costly diseconomies of scale in the provision of such services; and

a small Gross Domestic Product such that import substitution industries may face special difficulties.

SOURCE: E. Towle, The Island Microcosm, prepared for the U.S. National Park

Service under contract to the US. Agency for International Development, 1983.

pared to most temperate soils, and to the nutrient needs of the high-yielding crops used in intensive agriculture. For example, three-quarters

of Puerto Rico is covered by relatively infertile

soils (i.e., soils rated 6 or higher on a 1 to 10—

best to worst–scale of soil productivity) (12).

Not only do infertile soils require greater

amounts of fertilizer per acre for crop and pasture management, but they require more frequent applications. A deficiency of organic material in infertile soils hinders their ability to

adsorb needed plant nutrients. Consequently,

plant nutrients may be lost to leaching and erosion during heavy rains. Much of the land is

not suitable for clean-cultivated crops due to

erosion hazards. However, land management

practices which include soil building through

a good fertility program and erosion control

may increase soil fertility over time.

Moreover, past poor land-use practices have

degraded land resources in the U.S. Caribbean

and Pacific and have resulted in significant

amounts of abandoned land. Colonial histories

of each of these areas contain an era of land

exploitation for agricultural export which resulted in loss of vegetative cover over large

areas and intensive production of only a few

crops. Most of the local soils have minimal fertility. Once cleared, continued exposure to

strong sunlight, heavy rainfall, and erosion reduced their marginal fertility further.

The consequences of this land degradation

are widespread. Erosion rates have increased;

for example, soil erosion rates in the Caribbean

have reached as high as 18 times the U.S. average (14). Land clearing on many islands has resulted in turbid, erratic, and intermittent stream

flow. Erratic freshwater flows and siltation

from land runoff endangers coral reefs and

other nearshore productive marine ecosystems.

Mangrove forests, which serve as natural

filters and as breeding grounds for many aquatic

species, have been overexploited for timber in

many areas and some have been destroyed by

impacts from development activities. The loss

of mangrove forests further exposes marine

ecosystems to degradation. Thus, the physical

potential for local food production may be de-
Ch. 2—Introduction ● 4 3

clining along with the incentives to undertake

sustainable resource development.

Tropical ocean nutrient levels are lower than

in temperate regions and primary biological

production is correspondingly reduced. Conversely, the coral reef environment has high

levels of biological activity made possible by

organisms which increase available nitrogen

and recycle nitrogen and other nutrients within

the ecosystems. Despite seemingly large reef

and lagoon areas, the size of the U.S. islands’

productive nearshore areas is smaller than in

other islands where commercial fisheries have

developed (e.g., the Bahamas). The continental shelf of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands combined is less than 3,000 square miles,

of which less than half is considered highly

productive. The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands

are not associated with continental shelves, but

with steeply sloping drop-offs into deep ocean.

A substantial submerged reef area exists (approximately 14,287 square nautical miles) near

the Pacific islands of Yap and Truk, and has

been the site of a highly productive fishery in

the recent past (18).

Coral reef systems and the associated seagrass beds and mangrove swamp forests are

responsible for much of the islands’ nearshore

fisheries potential. Unlike temperate areas,

nearshore tropical fish stocks tend to be diverse

and diffuse, rarely aggregating in large schools

or beds (for invertebrates). The multispecies nature of most tropical fishery stocks means that

catches often contain a mixture of high-value

and less desirable species.

Perhaps beneficial for sustained populations

of nearshore species, the rugged coral reef topography makes it impossible to use towed,

nonselective gear (e.g., trawls) employed in

many commercial fisheries. However, these

and most other tropical island ecosystems are

more vulnerable to degradation than most temperate systems.

Geographical Factors

Of the U.S.-affiliated islands, only Puerto Rico

contains a population significantly greater than

100,000 inhabitants. Large population centers

in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands characteristically are 10,000 to 20,000. The Micronesia islands are scattered widely over 3 million

square miles of the Pacific Ocean—an area as

large as the contiguous United States, yet, their

total land area is about two-thirds that of Rhode

Island. Modern concepts of mass production,

distribution, marketing, and competition cannot be applied on such small scales. Moreover,

transportation and communications by conventional means is difficult and expensive.

Socioeconomic Factors

All of the island territories exhibit a high ratio of imports to exports, particularly in food.

The high level of imports compared to local production means that funds transferred to the territories have little impact on economic development. These funds leave the economies in

payments for imports. Due to rapidly growing

populations and rising aspirations, reducing

consumer demand for imported products seems

unlikely.

Population growth rates in the U.S.-affiliated

Pacific and Caribbean islands increased considerably faster than the 4.2 percent U.S. population growth between 1980 and 1984 (8). Only

Puerto Rico, with a growth rate of 2.3 percent,

was below the United States for this period (8).

Such population growth rates maybe supported

only by readily available emigration opportunities; for example, 2 million Puerto Ricans live

in the mainland United States (1) and more

American Samoans live in the United States

than in Samoa (7). At the same time, migration

into the islands from the United States and surrounding islands is high.

Present and future human needs and labor

availability are reflected, in part, by an island’s

overall demographic pattern. Population pyramids (figure 2-1) for many islands have a shape

more like those of developing countries than

developed countries. For instance, nearly 50

percent of most island populations are below

15 years of age, creating a large sector dependent on the working age population (2,3,4,5,6,7).

This indicates that each year increasing num-
44 ● Intergrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 2-1 .—Comparison of Typical Population Pyramids

h

85+

80 84

75 79

70 74

65 69

60 64

55 59

50 54

40 44 1

35 39

30 34

25 29

20 24

15 19

10 14

5 9

0 4

i

6

T

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 54321 01 2345 6 654321012 345 6

Percentage of total population Percentage of total population Percentage of total population

Developed

country

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.

bers will enter the work force and the demand

for goods and services will increase significantly.

Such population distributions can be altered

quickly either by in-or out-migration, but where

the people come from or go to poses additional

concerns. The major urbanized centers—most

of which are on coastlines—are growing rapidly whereas the rural population is decreasing. Consequently, the choice of technologies

will be influenced by the changing population

characteristics in island rural and urban areas.

Sustainable renewable resource management

depends not only on the capability of the ecological resources, but also on availability of

skilled labor and willingness to engage in resource management and development activities. Although all of the islands have rapidly

growing populations, many young adults seek

education and employment in the U.S. mainland. Many of those who remain either depend

on extended family relationships or social support programs to supply their needs. Most forDeveloping Region with substantial

country out-migration of the

working-age population

mal labor is captured by local governments and

services for the public sector and its employees. Wages, security, and prestige are higher

in government employment. Skilled labor, training, and interest in the productive sectors of

agriculture and fisheries are low on all the

islands.

Land tenure systems and opportunities for

acquiring land pose considerable obstacles to

commercial development of renewable resources. Traditional values of Micronesians

and Samoans place great prestige on land and

other resource use rights. This results in increasing fragmentation of parcels over time,

as ownership is retained in families that have

increased in size. In addition, land often is communally held in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Acquiring land for commercial use—

where the products of the property are not to

be used for subsistence and sharing—may be

difficult or impossible. For example, a recent

U.S. District Court decision upheld an American Samoan law that communally owned land
Ch. 2—introduction ● 4 5

(90 percent of the land area) can be transferred

only to a person of at least 50 percent Samoan

blood (11). (See app. C for a discussion of integration of modern and traditional legal systems in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands.)

In the more developed—and more westernized—islands of Guam, Saipan, Puerto Rico,

and the U.S. Virgin Islands, fee-simple land

ownership is more common. However, on these

islands competing land uses, such as residential and tourism development, push land values

beyond the reach of many potential entrepreneurs, The price of rural land has come to reflect scarcity rather than productivity. Secondgrowth forestlands in Puerto Rico may cost

$1,000 to $2,000 per acre and land values in

the U.S. Virgin Islands have exceeded $10,000

per acre (14).

Further, rapidly appreciating land values reduce incentives to derive productive use of

lands held for speculation. Consequently, much

land lies idle awaiting development, Puerto

Rico maintains a law against private individuals or corporations holding more than 500

acres and, in general, the land is in small holdings. Nearly 85 percent of the land ownerships

are less than 48 acres (15).

GOALS OF RENEWABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

AND DEVELOPMENT

Increasing the economic self-reliance of the

islands is the most often stated objective of

renewable resource development in the U. S.-

affiliated islands. However, self-reliance should

not be interpreted to mean economic independence, but rather a healthy interdependence

within regional and world economies. Economic

self-reliance can be defined as an economy’s

capacity to produce to meet as many domestic

needs as is economically feasible and to gain

the revenue, through exports, to pay for the

imports required to support an acceptable standard of living. Even with this definition, increasing self-reliance in economies heavily dependent on outside aid and with large (in relation

to resources) and growing dependent populations will be extremely difficult.4

A mechanism for increasing economic selfreliance is to develop a skilled and active private sector, Efforts to undertake such development reflect myriad subgoals, including:

4Unless resident populations are stabilized (through reduction

in population growth rates or continued free emigration), substantial improvements in self-reliance are unlikely, Technologies

directly related to population growth are outside the scope of

this assessment but have been addressed in another OTA assessment, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, World

Population and Fertility Planning Technologies: The Next 20

Years, NTIS order #PB 82- (Springfield, VA: National Technical

Information Service, February 1982),

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

provision of employment, especially in rural areas,

provision of stable incomes for commonly

risk-averse producers,

reduction in consumer food prices,

reduction in rural or outer island to urban

migration,

development of private sector technical

and managerial skills,

stabilization of personal and national revenues through diversification of local production, and

safeguarding valuable human and natural

resources.

Thus, resource development projects and

technologies that can contribute to the achievement of several of these objectives while offering acceptable yields and profitability y are preferred to those designed solely to maximize

yields or profits.

In addition, a number of conditions (which

also can be thought of as goals) under which

renewable resource and other development

must be evaluated for acceptability may be derived. Generally, development policies, programs, and projects are sustainable and, thus,

desirable if they:
46 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

● do not reduce the long-term productivity

of the resources involved;

. do not degrade nearby or “downstream”

environments, be they terrestrial, riverine,

or marine;

● do not irrevocably reduce future development options; and

● do not unacceptably conflict with local cultures and customs.

decision as to which objectives will receive priority, which resources and areas will be developed, and which technologies and technology

systems will be encouraged or implemented depend on far more than feasibility and profitability; they depend on the acceptability of their

economic, social, political, and environmental

impacts.

Few forms of economic development can satisfy all of these objectives and conditions. The

CHAPTER 2 REFERENCES

1. Colon, Rafael H., “The Puerto Rico Government

Position on Section 936,” Puerto Rico Business

Review, special supplement, April 1985, pp. 1-4.

2. Connell, J., Country Report No, 3: Federated

States of Micronesia (Noumea, New Caledonia:

South Pacific Commission, 1983).

3. Connell, J., Country Report No. 12: Northern

Mariana IsZands (Noumea, New Caledonia:

South Pacific Commission, 1983).

4, Connell, J., Country Report No. 6: Guam (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1983),

5. Connell, J., Country Report No. 13: Palau (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1983).

6. Connell, J., Country Report No. 8: Marshall Islands (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific

Commission, 1983).

7. Connell, J,, Country Report No.—: American

Samoa (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1983).

8. Land Use P]anning Report 13(46):365, Nov. 25,

1985.

9. Loftus, S. A., “Impacts of U.S. Military Presence

on U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

10. Ortiz-Daliot, J., Director, Commonwealth of

Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration,

personal communication, September 1986.

11. Pacific Islands Monthly 57(8):9, August 1986.

12. Pico, R. The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co,, 1974).

13. Taitano, C. “Guam: The Struggle for Civil and

Political Rights, ” Politics in Micronesia (Suva,

Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of

the South Pacific, 1983).

14. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest

Resources, OTI%-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, March 1984),

15. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Puerto

Rico, vol. 1, part 52 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1984).

16. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, F’ederaZ Expenditures by State for Fiscal Year 1985 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government printing Office, 1986).

17. U.S. Department of State, 1985 Trust Territory

of the Pacifi”c IsZands, 38th Annual Report to the

United Nations (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, 1986).

18. White, M,, Chief, Marine Resources, Kosrae

State Government, Federated States of Micronesia, personal communication, September 1986.
Chapter 3

Island Structure and

Resource Systems
CONTENTS

Page

Island Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ● . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ● . . . .

High Volcanic Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Atoll Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........

Raised Limestone Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Continental Islands . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ● . . . .

Prevailing Climate . . . .. .. .. ... ... .... .. .. ... .. ...

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......., , . . ........

Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .,....

Precipitation .. ... ... ..... .. ... ... ... . . .90 . + 9 +. - .

Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........

Disturbances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .......,. . . ........

Island Hydrology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . .

High Volcanic Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . ........

Atoll Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Raised Limestone Islands .. ... .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Continental Islands . ............ . . . . . . ........ . . . . .

Island Soils.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Renewable Resource Systems in U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands

Common Characteristics of Tropical Island Resources . . . . . . .

Major Island Resource Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...

Efforts To Sustain Resources on U.S.-Affiliated Islands . . . . . . . .

Efforts To Maintain the Resource Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....

Efforts To Restore the Renewable Resource Base . . . . . . . . . . .

Efforts To Redirect Use of Underused Resources . . . . . . . . . . .

Efforts to Culture Species. . . . . . . . .. .. . ........ . . . . . . . . .

Enhancement of Existing Renewable Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . .

Tables

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

.,..., . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

.... . . . .

.. , ,

..,.0. . . . .

..,.., ...*

. . . . . . ● .*.

. . . . . . ..,,

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

,.,... ...*

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . ...0

49

49

50

51

51

52

52

52

52

54

54

55

58

59

59

59

60

63

63

67

74

75

76

76

76

77

78

Page

. . . . . . . . . . 53

Table No.

3-1. Mean Annual Precipitation Level and Temperatures. . . . . . .

3-2. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant Species With

Historic Range in the U.S.-Affiliated Troical Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3-3. Ecosystems Present on the U.S.-Affiliate Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Figure No.

3-1. Depiction of Island Types....

3-2. The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . .

3-3. Ghyben-Herzberg Lens .....

Box

3-A.

3-B.

. 3-c.

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

..$,... . .

Boxes

Page

.,.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 57

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 58

General Characteristics of Tropical Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 53

EI Nino . . . . . . . . .......... ...., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56

Common Characteristics of Island Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Chapter 3

Island Structure and Resource Systems

ISLAND FORMATION

Islands in tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean

and the Caribbean Sea commonly bring to mind

only white sandy beaches backed with a fringe

of coconut palm trees. Yet, a close examination of the form and geology of the islands

shows that major differences exist between island types that significantly affect opportunities for renewable resource management and

development. These fundamental differences

play an important role in determining what

kinds of technologies can be applied that are

likely to prove productive for island residents

over the long term and which others, though

perhaps leading to short-term gains, ultimately

may produce long-lasting adverse impacts on

the island resource base—the soil, water, vegetation, and wildlife.

Details of the geologic formation of the islands are beyond the scope of this assessment.

Nevertheless, a simple fourfold classification

of island types based on their geology should

assist the reader in assessing potential impacts

to an island’s environment from proposed technological applications. In addition, it should

help to improve understanding of why islanders, past and present, have chosen particular

methods of resource use.

Although many of the islands’ origins relate

largely to volcanic processes, their name classification only partly reflects this. The four categories of islands used in this assessment are:

high volcanic islands, atolls and low coral islands, raised limestone islands, and continental islands.

High VoIcanic Islands

High volcanic islands are the cone-shaped

peaks of volcanoes (perhaps 1,000 feet or more

in altitude) that extend upward from the ocean

floor. The conical shape is preserved best on

young volcanic islands; older islands become

deeply incised with stream valleys because of

erosion from running water (figure 3-1 (A)).

Some volcanoes are still active such as Pagan

Island in the Northern Mariana Islands; some

are dormant such as Sariguan in the Northern

Mariana Islands; and others are extinct such

as Pohnpei or Kosrae. Measured from the sea

floor to the island summits, these volcanoes represent some of the highest mountains in the

world. The predominant rock forming the volcanic islands is basalt, a dark-colored igneous

rock rich in minerals containing silicon, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and iron as dominant elements.

Once volcanoes reach the ocean’s surface,

marine organisms like corals, algae, and

sponges start to grow and reproduce on the bottom of the sunlit, warm nearshore waters that

surround the new island. In the early stages of

growth, the marine organisms of the colony

grow on one another until they reach the surface of the water. Coral structures that are close

to the island (generally within one-quarter of

a mile from shore) and often surround it, are

called fringing reefs. Such reefs may become

barrier reefs if the central island begins to submerge. Barrier reefs generally are 1 to 5 miles

offshore and are separated from the island by

a lagoon which is relatively deep (60 to 300 feet)

(40).

Many volcanic islands over geologic time

have slowly subsided beneath the ocean surface. The living marine organisms of the surrounding reefs in many cases have been able

to grow rapidly enough to keep their surfaces

at or near sea level, thus offsetting the rate at

which the volcanic island subsides. Through

this process, the reefs can maintain their existence even when the enclosed island gradually

sinks below the ocean’s surface. With the disappearance of the central island, the ringlike

reef complex then becomes an atoll.

49
50 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 3-1 .—Depiction of Island Types

A: High Volcanic Island

Ocean surface

B: Atoll Island

Internal

drainage

~

C: Raised Limestone Isiand

Solution Internal drainage

cavities /

Ocea

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986

Atoll Islands

Atolls are low-lying, narrow, ring-like coral

reefs composed of highly permeable coralline

limestone (calcium carbonate) derived from the

remains of marine reef organisms. Individual

atoll islands occur as part of the atoll reef and

rise only a few “feet to a few tens of feet above

mean high tide. For example, the highest point

in the Marshall Islands is 25 feet above sea level

on Likiep Atoll (40). Atolls enclose a lagoon of

several feet to several hundred feet in depth.

Submarine landslides, wave action, currents,

tides, and storms commonly produce or maintain breaks in the atoll thereby providing boats

or ships with passages connecting the open sea

with the shallow lagoon (figure 3-I (B)).

Growth of atoll reefs is greatest on their windward sides where the food supply is highest for

reef organisms. Storm and wave action carry

reef or atoll fragments into the atoll’s lagoon

and pile them on the reef above the water level

to form islands. This sediment source keeps the

waters of the atoll’s lagoon shallow.
.

Ch. 3—/s/and Structure and Resource Systems c 51

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

A low-lying atoll island in the Marshall Islands, built on the inside edge of an encircling coral reef.

Some low coral islands in Micronesia form

on top of coral pinnacles and are not associated with lagoons. These islands, such as Nama

and Kili, otherwise resemble atoll islands.

Raised Limestone Islands

Raised limestone islands consist of nearly

horizontal beds of coralline limestone that originally were formed in the waters surrounding

older volcanic islands. Over geologic time, the

marine limestone beds have been raised above

sea level by upward moving volcanic islands,

or by lowering of the sea level. The extensive

uplifted limestone beds of Guam, for example,

now reach about 500 feet above the sea surface.

Many such islands have prominent wave-cut

terraces carved into the limestone layers indicating times during the Pleistocene ice age

when the sea level was different than it is today,

times when continental glacial ice sheets in regions closer to the poles were thicker or thinner.

Because of their origin, raised limestone islands may contain exposed land surfaces of

older volcanic rocks. Like high volcanic islands,

they are also likely to have fringing reefs along

their coasts.

The porous limestone layers are composed

mostly of calcium carbonate which dissolves

over time as plentiful tropical rainfall moves

downward through the permeable beds. Solution cavities like sinkholes and caves result (figure 3-1 (C)).

Continental Islands

Continental islands are extensions of continents or of certain undersea mountain ranges.

The rocks comprising such islands are of a

much wider variety than those of the other island types and signify a more complex geological history. Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, for example, are part of the Antilles, a
52 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

sea-floor mountain range geologically associ- Continental islands do not have a characterated with the structure of the extreme south- istic form. They may, however, have a border

eastern part of the United States. Similarly, of fringing reefs or lagoons with barrier reefs

Palau is the surface expression of the eastern like those of high volcanic islands and raised

extremity of a continental-type mountain range limestone islands.

running-from west to east in Indonesia.

The majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands lie

in the Northern Hemisphere, with American

Samoa being the only U.S. Territory in the

Southern Hemisphere. All of the islands are

within the tropical marine climatic region, between the Equator and 23.5° north/south latitude. Weather changes in tropical climates are

complex and may occur frequently(4). Further,

considerable climatic differences may exist between island areas. Differences in the amount

and seasonality of rainfall, wind, and tidal conditions exist throughout the Pacific and Caribbean area. While tropical climates are characterized by warm, often wet, fair weather, they

are equally known for producing major disturbances such as cyclonic storms.1

Overall weather patterns may be predictable

(e.g., temperature, rainy seasons, tropical storm

seasons, and afternoon rainstorms), however,

tropical weather also may be highly variable.

The high level of solar radiation received by

tropical areas gives rise to this variability. High

energy levels may allow the rapid formation

of storm systems and sudden rainfall, and may

also affect wind patterns and occasionally

ocean currents. The high energy level of tropical air masses means that even small trigger

mechanisms may produce disturbances (4).

The action of the ocean may compound impacts of sudden storm system formations. The

ocean also may serve to transfer impacts of

weather or other natural events such as earthquakes to islands some distance from the source

of the disturbance. The small size and isolation

1The term cyclonic storms will be used in this text to cover

such weather formations as typhoons and hurricanes.

CLIMATE

of islands increases their vulnerability to disturbances, however, their existence indicates

that these areas possess a highly effective capacity for recovery.

Winds

The northeast and southeast tradewinds prevail upon the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands.

The tradewinds converge in the equatorial

trough of low pressure forming what is known

as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

[4). The low pressure of this area gives rise to

the sporadic cloudiness and frequent rainfall

associated with tropical regions. The ITCZ

shifts during the year accompanied by seasonal

changes in the direction and intensity of the

winds. For example, the islands in the Caribbean experience relatively consistent winds

year round; however, the direction changes

from a slightly stronger northeast wind during

winter months to a southeast wind during summer months. Guam experiences a similar seasonal wind shift, receiving the strongest winds

during winter months. American Samoa, in the

southern hemisphere, also experiences seasonality in winds, receiving the southeast tradewinds with relative consistency for 9 months

of the year (46). The Northern Mariana Islands

receive strong northeast tradewinds for 9

months of the year, November through June,

while July through October is marked by more

variable winds. These islands also lie on the

eastern fringe of the Asiatic monsoon circulation system (47).

Precipitation

Precipitation levels in the tropical climatic

region generally are high, however, variations
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems “ 53

exist among islands (table 3-1). Variation also

may exist in the geographic distribution of precipitation on a single island. The variation in

rainfall amounts among island areas largely is

attributable to topographical differences, island

size, and geographic location. Generally, as latitude increases rainfall patterns become more

seasonal, with annually occurring dry periods.

The seasonality of rainfall patterns is attributed,

at least in part, to the shifting of the ITCZ and

the associated change in the moisture content

of the atmosphere in relation to island location.

High islands generally receive larger levels of

rainfall due to an orographic effect; air is forced

up and over a topographic feature causing condensation of atmospheric moisture and generTable 3-1.—Mean Annual Precipitation

Level and Temperatures

Mean annual rainfall

Polity/island Latitude (inches)

Puerto Rico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18° Na

40-200a

U.S. Virgin Islands . . . . . . . . 18° Na

40- 60a f

American Samoa. . . . . . . . . . 14° Se

l00-200b

Guam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13° Ne

80- 95C

Northern Mariana Islands . . 14° N 75-121d

20.5° Ne

Marshall Islands . . . . . . . . . . 5° N 135g

12° Ne

(Majuro)

Federated States of

Micronesia:

Kosrae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5° 30' Ne 227g

Pohnpei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7° Ne 190g

Truk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5°-7° Ne

139g

Yap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6°-12° Ne

122g

Palau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7° 30' Ne

147g

SOURCES:

a D. Smedley, Climates of the States: Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands, U.S.

Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau, Climatography of the United States

No. 60-52 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961).

b U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, American Samoa Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980.

c U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal Management Program

and Final Environmental Impect Statement, vol. 1, 1979.

d U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands Coastal Resources Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980.

e J.E. Maragos, "Coastal Resource Development and Management in the U.S. Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, Washington, DC, 1986.

f Caribbean Research Institute, Waterplan:A Comprehensive Water Management

Framework for the U.S. Virgin Islands, Virgin Islands Water Resources Center,

June, 1979.

g National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Boulder, CO, rainfall data—

measured at one location for each island area—does not reflect variation in

geographic distribution.
54 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. in.S(dar Areas

ally precipitation. Islands of lower altitude depend in part on the convective force of the air

over the island to promote rainfall; the moist

air is heated over the island and rises to a point

at which condensation occurs.

Guam and the Western Caroline islands of

Yap and Palau are subject to a monsoon-like

pattern with dry spells often occurring between

December and June (15). Other islands such as

Pohnpei experience less variation in rainfall

patterns, receiving generally stable amounts

throughout the year. High average rainfall in

the central Carolines (100 to 130 inches/year)

promotes lush vegetation. On coral islands the

rainfall partially compensates for the inherent

small freshwater storage capacity (2,40).

Considerable variation in precipitation regimes exist between Puerto Rico and the USVI,

despite their proximity. Puerto Rico receives

a mean annual rainfall of 65 to 70 inches, while

the USVI recieves a mean annual amount of

approximately 40 inches. The topographic features of Puerto Rico, larger land mass and

mountain peaks in excess of 4,000 feet, promote

both convective and orographic precipitation.

These features contribute to Puerto Rico’s significant variation in the geographic distribution of precipitation that gives rise to a number of different environments ranging from a

tropical rainforest (Luquillo) to an arid southwest coast. Although the USVI receives both

orographic and convective stimulated precipitation, the much smaller land area and lower

elevations result in a less marked variation in

precipitation distribution. Both island areas experience a relatively dry season that generally

occurs between December and April.

Temperatur e

Island climates are strongly influenced by the

persistently high levels of solar radiation received throughout the year as well as by the

tempering effect of the surrounding ocean

waters. The ocean acts as a heat sink/source

to regulate temperature variation through the

year. During warmer seasons the ocean retains

energy and during the cooler seasons is able

to release energy, resulting in relatively little

seasonal temperature fluctuation. Diurnal temperature changes commonly are greater than

those experienced from one season to the next

(29).

The major climatic disturbances associated

with the island areas take the form of cyclonic

storms. Cyclonic storms, which severely affect

Puerto Rico and the USVI, generally develop

over the southern North Atlantic Ocean east

of the Lesser Antilles (4,36). Those most affecting Micronesia originate in the central tropical Pacific Ocean (4). Prediction of cyclone

paths can prove difficult because of the variability of wind patterns in the tropical region.

The Caribbean islands generally receive fewer

cyclonic storms than the Pacific islands north

of the Equator, which lie in a major path of cyclonic storms (4). Tropical cyclones are frequent

events in the Mariana and Western Caroline

Islands of Yap and Truk (24), but less common

in the Eastern Carolines, the Marshalls, and

American Samoa (7,13). Cyclonic storms are

not considered a severe problem on Pohnpei,

although four cyclonic storms have hit the island in this century, most recently in May of

1986.

Satellite image courtesy of C. Wahle

Cyclonic storms are relatively frequent events for many

U.S.-affiliated islands and often cause severe damage

to island populations and ecosystems.
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 5 5

Cyclonic storms develop from tropical depressions when pressure and temperature conditions are favorable. These storms may produce winds of 60 to 200 miles per hour and

generally are accompanied by heavy rainfall

and thunderstorms. The storm is generated by

the release of energy through massive condensation of water vapor. The bodies of water surrounding the tropical areas experience their

highest temperatures in the late summer months

providing the energy levels necessary for the

generation of a cyclonic storm (30). Thus, such

disturbances generally occur during late summer and autumn when the ITCZ is shifting

towards land south of the Equator. However,

exceptions do occur. For example, on Yap, cyclonic storms are most frequent during the transitional months (particularly November) when

the tradewinds are returning. Cyclonic storms

that pass quite near or over an island can cause

severe destruction. The high winds and torrential rainfall may cause wind damage, flooding,

landslides, and loss of life. Puerto Rico was severely damaged by a cyclonic storm in 1928;

the vortex of the storm moved southeast to

northwest affecting the entire island.

Cyclonic storms may have both primary and

secondary effects on the island ecosystem. Primary effects include physical damage to the reef

and shore areas and land erosion. High winds

and torrential rainfall may cause destruction

on land. Storm wave assault may cause coastal

erosion, fragmentation of corals, slumping of

reef framework, and abrasion and scouring of

the reef (39). Secondary effects include the loss

of biota dependent on the physically damaged

systems (55). Structural damage to the reef

framework was minimal after Typhoon Pamela

passed Guam in 1976, but damage to living coral

and algal communities was intense and widespread on the deeper forereef slope zone (13).

Recovery of the affected ecosystems generally

is slow because the base from which to build

is so small (9).

A less common but equally destructive disturbance of tropical oceans is the tsunami.

Tsunamis, also known as seismic sea waves,

may be produced by earthquakes, landslides,

or volcanic eruptions on the ocean floor and

may reach velocities of up to 500 mph and

heights of up to 115 feet as they hit the shoreline. Both the Pacific and Caribbean U. S.-

affiliated islands are located in seismically active areas. The Pacific Ocean is ringed with

earthquake-producing trenches and active volcanic areas. However, the deep waters surrounding the islands preclude major disruption

by tsunamis (39). The narrow continental shelf

structure of the Caribbean islands generally

does not allow the tsunami to build sufficient

height to cause major disruption. However, the

tsunami remains a potential hazard for islands.

ISLAND HYDROLOGY

Many tropical islands receive high levels of and liquid phases. The components of the

rainfall annually; some, however, exhibit semi- hydrologic cycle important to tropical islands

arid conditions. Even with high levels of rain- are:

fall, islands are not necessarily exempt from ●

surface and groundwater shortages. An island’s

topography and geology largely determine

where rainfall will accumulate and how long ●

it will remain available.

The fundamental, unifying concept in understanding water movement in islands is the

hydrologic cycle (figure 3-2). The cycle is a dynamic, conceptual model that relates the continuous movement of water through the vapor

Precipitation: Water added to an island’s

surface from the atmosphere (e.g., rain, fog,

and dew).

Evaporation: The process by which water

is changed into vapor. In the context of the

hydrologic cycle, the most important form

of evaporation in a quantitative sense is

that from the seas and oceans. Its return

as precipitation is the main source of water

for islands. Because islands surfaces are
●

●

●

●

●

small in comparison to the ocean surface,

evaporation from islands contributes a

small part to overall precipitation.

Transpiration: The process by which

water passes through a living plant and

enters the atmosphere as vapor.

Infiltration: The process whereby water

soaks into the soil layers.

Percolation: The downward flow of water

through soil and permeable rock formations to the water table.

Runoff: The portion of precipitation that

flows downhill on the island’s surface to

reservoirs and catchments and ultimately

to the ocean (l).

Retention: The proportion of water that

is held in the substrate after recharge and

transpiration.

The Sun is the driving force behind the hydrological cycle. It causes the evaporation of water

from the ocean surface. The water vapor may

condense to form clouds and ultimately return

to the Earth’s surface as precipitation. Some

precipitation evaporates again as it falls.

Water reaching the surface of a watershed—

the fundamental geographic unit of hydrology

where an area of geographically low land is

partly surrounded by relatively higher lands—

may follow one of four courses. First, it may

remain on the surface as pools or as surface

moisture that evaporates back into the atmosphere. Second, precipitation reaching the

ground may flow over the surface into depressions and channels to become surface runoff

in the form of streams. Surface runoff expressed
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 5 7

Water table

Figure 3.2.—The Hydrologic Cycle

Condensation

ion

Transpiration

Surface

.

Lake I /

f River.,... AWater passes continuously through this cycle from evaporation from the oceans into the atmosphere through precipitation onto the islands

and eventual runoff into the oceans. Human use of water may modify this cycle at virtually every point.

SOURCE: H Hengeveld and C. DeVocht, Urban Ecology 6(1-4):19, 1982.

as rivers or streams, generally occurs only after evapotranspiration and soil and groundwater recharge have been satisfied or when precipitation is heavy. Third, precipitation may

infiltrate the land’s surface directly and percolate downward to groundwater where it may

be stored. Fourth, it may recharge the soil and

be partly recycled through evapotranspiration.2

Shallow groundwater can move upward to the

soil surface and plant root zone by capillary

action where it is taken up by plants and transpired, or it can move laterally until it intersects

the land’s surface as a spring, or by underground flow into streams, ponds, or the ocean.

—-

2

The combined processes of evaporation of water from the land

and vegetation surfaces and transpiration of water vapor through

plant leaves.

The amount of rainfall that can infiltrate the

soil is determined largely by the permeability

of soil (governed by the size and interconnectiveness of the spaces within the soil or rock

layers) and the amount of water already present

in those spaces. For most soils, infiltration rates

are highest at the beginning of a rainstorm

when the soil is dryest, gradually decreasing

with time. Some infiltrated water will be retained near the surface by capillary forces.

Where percolation and/or infiltration rates are

high relative to annual precipitation, no runoff will take place (e.g., sandy, calcareous soils).

Commonly, the water will percolate downward

where it will enter into groundwater storage.

Water that exists below the surface of the

Earth in interconnected openings of soil or rock
58 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Shallow

... —,,—

Figure 3-3.—Ghyben-Herzberg Lens

Island

wells Water table

Deep well

\

Ocean

NOTE: Diagram is vertically exaggerated for Illustrative purposes,

SOURCE: R.J. Ordway, Earth Science and the Environment (New York, NY: Van Nostrand, 1974),

is called “subsurface water. ” That zone, where

the pores of the sediments and rocks are filled

with water, is called the groundwater zone. The

top surface of this zone is called the water table. Between the water table and the surface

of the Earth is the “zone of aeration,” where

the pores of soil and rock contain some water

but less than total saturation. The water table

commonly rises and falls with time as the availability of water at the surface changes.

Groundwaters storage beneath oceanic islands has certain special characteristics that

differ from continental areas. Fresh water that

has percolated downward through the soil to

a level below which it saturates all of the interconnected pores and openings in bedrock or

in consolidated sediments forms a lens commonly referred to as the Ghyben-Herzberg Lens

(figure 3-3). The groundwater table is the top

of this lens and is situated above sea level because the fresh water is less dense than the

seawater that saturates the rocks below. The

groundwater lens extends a greater distance

below sea level than above in a manner similar

3 —.— While the term groundwater covers all subterranean water,

fresh, brackish or saline, the groundwater that is most limiting

in the island context is fresh water and thus is the focus of interest.

to that of an iceberg. The basal contact of the

fresh water with the seawater is transitional.

For every 1 foot of groundwater that is situated

above sea level, approximately another 40 feet

will exist below. Many small, drier islands and

atolls may have only a 20:1 ratio, and some may

have no fresh water lens (34). Therefore, small

changes in the altitude of the groundwater table correspond to large changes in the thickness of the fresh water extending below sea

level (32).

The lens tapers from being thickest at the island’s center to being thinnest at the island’s

edge. Close to the shoreline the entire lens may

be brackish from tidal induced mixing of seawater and fresh water. As a consequence, salttolerant trees commonly grow near an island’s

edge, above the thinnest part of the freshwater

lens, and salt-intolerant trees, like breadfruit,

grow better toward the center of atolls (40).

High Volcanic Islands

Basaltic rocks forming the main part of high

volcanic islands may be quite permeable because of the numerous joints, cracks, and bedding planes they contain (35). Consequently,

precipitation can be trapped quickly by these
—

Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 5 9

Photo credit: A. Vargo

The steep slopes of high volcanic islands, such as

American Samoa, predispose island communities to

flood and landslide hazards.

rocks and a thin soil cover. Nevertheless, during heavy rainstorms, large amounts of water

still run off such islands quickly because of the

generally steep slopes, the small size of watersheds, and sometimes because of the small total amount of water storage space in the rocks.

Large amounts of erosion are common in such

situations. Flash flooding from high rainfall of

short duration flowing through narrow stream

valleys often is a serious problem.

High islands that are either active or dormant

volcanoes may emit some of the groundwater

as steam and water vapor at holes or fissures

called fumaroles. Groundwater in contact with

rocks having elevated temperatures is likely to

contain large amounts of dissolved solids that

commonly precipitate around hot springs (32).

Atolls

Coralline limestone atoll islands and low

coral islands are highly permeable and, thus,

readily accept heavy rainfall. Most atolls rise

only a few feet to a few tens of feet above mean

high tide and, because of their narrow dimensions, the groundwater lens beneath them is

not large. Storms can drive saltwater onto and

over some atolls thereby contaminating the

fresh groundwater lens with seawater. Salt carried in sea spray can build up in atoll soils, but

where rainfall is heavy over short periods of

time salt will be flushed from the soil (40).

Raised Limestone Islands

Raised limestone islands are lithologically

similar to atolls in composition and permeability. Raised limestone islands generally are

considerably larger than atolls, thus, the freshwater lens beneath is larger. Precipitation on

these raised islands quickly moves downward

through the porous rock and along openings

formed by solution along joints and bedding

planes. The vertical distance from the land’s

surface of raised limestone islands to the water

table may be as much as several hundred feet

depending on the island’s elevation. Contamination of the fresh groundwater lens by seawater is most likely to be limited to nearshore

areas affected by storm surges.

Natural surface-water supplies from streams

and ponds are sparse on limestone islands because of the rock’s high permeability. However,

springs may occur along the shore near sea level

where the groundwater flows laterally into the

sea. Larger solution features like caves and sinkholes are common on such islands.

Continental Islands

Continental islands have the most complex

hydrologic systems of all the island types because of their complex geologic origin. Groundwater infiltration rates, in general, will be much

more variable on continental islands than on

volcanic islands, atolls, and raised limestone

islands. For example, Puerto Rico is a continental island with a wide variety of rock types, each

63-222 0 - 87-3 QL. 3
60 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

with differing porosity and permeability. It is

the composite of these characteristics plus local climatic variations that make up the island’s

overall hydrologic system. As such, continental island hydrology does not lend itself to a

simple description of the sort suitable to other

island types.

Some parts of continental islands have a local geology and lithology similar to the other

island types. In these cases, the workings of the

hydrology will parallel the other island types.

Such would be the case for volcanic and limestone terranes. But where terranes of other

lithologies exist major differences can occur.

Typically, continental islands have a core of

igneous rock with limited aquifer development

in the zones of fracture and faulting. Alluvial

and limestone deposits commonly occur around

the flanks of the island’s core to produce coastal

plains which may be of considerable size (e.g.,

Puerto Rico’s coastal plain extends nearly 4

miles in width). Rainfall is most plentiful in the

mountainous regions and diminishes toward

the coast promoting significant variation in precipitation levels between coastal and mountain

areas. Major coastal aquifers may exist in some

areas, recharged by precipitation on the alluvium as well as by streamflow from upper

watersheds (28).

ISLAND SOILS

Soils form from the chemical and physical

breakdown of rocks and minerals. Limestone

and basalt and the alluvium derived from their

erosion constitute a large part of volcanic and

limestone islands’ surface material, while on

continental islands a wider range of rock types

exist. Chemical weathering processes predominate where precipitation is high and physical

weathering processes predominate where precipitation is low; a continuum exists between

the two extremes. Where chemical weathering

processes predominate, soils largely are depleted of nutrients regardless of the parent rock

type.

Many soils that form in hot, wet tropical areas

have significant fertility problems. This is the

case for most parts of many Pacific islands and

much of Puerto Rico. Under such conditions,

chemical weathering of parent rock materials

is the predominant soil forming mechanism.

High temperatures, high precipitation levels

(approximately 50 inches and above) and the

action of plant roots combine to accelerate

leaching of nutrients from the rock and soil

mineral particles, transforming the primary

minerals to secondary minerals. The secondary soil minerals are composed largely of aluminum, silicon, iron, oxygen, and water (16).

The chemical composition often is imbalance

so that many food or tree crops planted on such

soils will have limited productivity or will not

survive. In some soils, silicon and iron concentrations are so low, and aluminum so high that

the composition of bauxite, an aluminum ore,

is approached or reached.

On islands where the annual rainfall is lower

(southwestern Puerto Rico and much of the Virgin Islands) and where the temperature generally remains high year-round (average of 800

to 850 F), physical breakdown of rocks and soil

minerals plays an increasingly larger role in

soil formation. In this process, the particles become smaller but their chemical composition

is less affected and leaching of soil nutrients

is more limited. Physical disintegration can occur in a number of ways; for instance, salts and

certain minerals in small cracks in rocks and

soil particles expand when wet (hydration) and

contract when dry (dehydration), thus causing

grains to break (5). And, of course, the growth

of plant roots is a powerful agent in breaking

up rock and soil particles.

In drier areas where rainfall is seasonal, nutrients needed by many plants commonly are

in the soil but become available to the plants

only if sufficient water is available (6). If most

of the water evaporates from the soil surface

rather than percolating downward into the soil,

dissolved solids or salts can accumulate as
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems c 61

crusts at or near the land surface in concentrations that few plants can tolerate (21). Similarly,

if the groundwater table is high, evaporation

of the groundwater may occur, which also results in accumulated salts in the soil. Thus, soils

in drier zones tend to be alkaline such that even

with irrigation systems and fertilizer applications, the availability of nutrients, and particularly of important trace elements can be a problem (28).

On high islands where slopes are steep, much

of the rainfall runs off in streams rather than

percolating into the ground. The soils that form

on slopes remain shallow and can be more easily eroded than those on flatter lowlands (6).

The presence of soil organic matter from

plant litter and roots plays a key role in maintaining soil productivity because it:

●

●

●

●

●

contributes to the development of soil aggregates, which enhance root development

and reduce the energy needed to work the

soil;

increases the air- and water-holding capacity (porosity) of the soil, which is necessary

for plant growth and helps to reduce

erosion;

releases essential nutrients as it decays;

holds nutrients in storage until the plants

need them; and

enhances the abundance and distribution

of vital biota (45).

Soils formed from basaltic rocks in their

early stages of chemical weathering can be quite

fertile. Where annual precipitation is below 50

inches such soils can support high agricultural

productivity; above 50 inches fertility decreases

rapidly as leaching increasingly removes soil

nutrients. As the weathering process continues,

soil fertility will decrease even at the lower rainfall levels. Thus, geologically old, inactive volcanic islands generally will have soils with

serious fertility problems and often aluminum

toxicity as they become very acidic (pH 4.0).

Those islands having geologically recent volcanic activity are more likely to have soils of

higher fertility derived from basaltic lava flows

and ash deposits. Where volcanic islands are

still active or where they have been active recently it is less likely that sufficient time has

elapsed for natural vegetation to develop to convert the rock materials into soil especially if precipitation is low.

Where rainfall is heavy the layer of weathered

rock and soil material may become thick. Land-
slides sometimes occur in such areas where

heavy rains saturate this weathered zone and

where the slope of the land is steep. Landslides

of this sort are more common on high volcanic

islands and continental islands than on raised

limestone islands. Puerto Rico, for example, in

1981 and 1985 experienced severe landsliding

on the south side of the island after saturating

rains.

Soils formed from the weathering of limestone even where precipitation is moderate are

composed of the residual insoluble minerals

that have accumulated as the limestone dissolves (32). In this solution process the resulting soils are highly leached and, therefore, have

fertility problems. Maintaining an adequate

supply of organic matter in highly leached, infertile soils is a way of partly offsetting the infertility problem. Soils formed on coralline limestone atolls are composed of sand and silt-sized

particles of limestone and, consequently, are

alkaline (pH 7.5 to 8.5). The soils’ lack of abundant amounts of clay-sized particles results in

their poor water- and nutrient-holding ability.

Decomposition of soil organic matter produces

weak acids that in turn help dissolve the limestone soil particles (40).

Alluvial soils are those formed of eroded

sediments that have been transported by running water. These sediments are deposited

along floodplains and at the mouths of streams.

The composition of the alluvium and, thus, the

soil is a reflection of the eroded and weathered

rocks of the watershed. For example, in a wa-
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems “ 63

tershed comprised mostly of limestone, the alluvium on which the soil forms will be mostly

limestone. Such soils are not likely to have

greater fertility than the watershed soils, but

they will have the advantages of being mostly

on relatively flat land and closer to “significant”

groundwater resources.

In low-lying wet areas, depressions sometimes are filled with a mixture of fine-grained

sediment (clay, silt, and shell fragments) and

decaying plant materials (peat). These dark colored, wet, soft deposits formed under anaerobic conditions generally are called “muck”

soils. They are common beneath swamps and,

thus, are restricted mostly to atolls and to lands

of low relief surrounding some high volcanic

islands, raised limestone islands and continental islands. The organic matter assists in holding added plant nutrients in a form available

to living plant cover and provides other useful

functions (see above). Because of their topographic position and nearness to the ocean,

some have a high salt content. Others, when

drained and exposed to air, become acid as certain sulfide minerals oxidize, adversely affecting plant growth.

Certain atolls, including some of those in the

Marshall and Caroline Islands, are known for

their rich deposits of rock phosphate. These deposits and soils have formed over time from

dung or “guano” deposited on the atoll by fisheating birds. Mild acids formed from the decomposition of organic matter carry the guano

(phosphate bearing organic material) downward in the soil to limestone layers where the

acids are neutralized and the calcium phosphate is deposited (40). Many of these phosphate

deposits have been mined over the years and

exported for agricultural use.

RENEWABLE RESOURCE SYSTEMS IN U.S.-AFFILIATED

TROPICAL ISLANDS

The island ecosystems and the efforts to sustain, enhance, conserve, or restore these resources represent major positive factors of the

U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. Each island ecosystem contributes to the supply and effective

sustained use of island renewable resources (9).

Island biological resources provide both direct

and indirect benefits to the inhabitants. The

small size of islands makes them easier to study

as complete systems, and thus makes it possible to integrate management of island resources

(9)0

Local government efforts to maintain existing resources are numerous, including such actions as the creation of parks and protected

areas, regulation of resource use, and development planning in coordination with sustainable use of local resources. The new entities

emerging under the Compacts of Free Association now will have the opportunity to develop

similar resource management programs. Previously, resource management and regulation,

including protection of endangered species and

critical areas, fell under the jurisdiction of the

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands regulations (47). However, regulatory efforts often

were minimally effective and resources generally were well protected only on islands remote

from human populations (14).

Common Characteristics of Tropical

Island Resources

Endomism of Species

Tropical forests have a history of speciesrichness, and endemism. Puerto Rico has 547

native tree species, approximately the same

number found in the continental United States.

The U.S. Virgin Islands has between 800 and

1,000 native plant species and several hundred

introduced or exotic species (44). The Western

Pacific islands are especially rich in rare endemic species; for some tree species only one

or two individuals are known4 (44). In many

4For example, there are only a few individuals left of a native

Pacific tree Tabernaemontana rotensis (M. Falanruw, pers.

comm., 7/86).
64 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: J. Bauer

Habitat modification has reduced the range of the

Puerto Rican parrot significantly. The only known remaining habitat for these birds, pictured here in an artificial nest, is in the Caribbean National Forest.

cases the insular bird and mammal life also are

endemic. Examples include the Puerto Rican

parrot and the Mariana fruit bat.

The number of species an island can accommodate is proportionate to island size (i.e., a

greater number of species may live on a larger

island); however, the number of species present

on the island also depends on distance from

colonizing sources (i.e., continents or other islands) and diversity of island habitat (9). Islands

tend to develop new varieties and species that

are found nowhere else (endemic species). This

occurs as populations develop characteristics

of adaptation to the isolated island environment. The small size of the island limits the

species populations, thus, any reduction in habitat size, such as by human development, eventually may lead to extirpation or extinction of

some species (table 3-2). Environmental perturbations easily may affect an entire population.

The distance of islands from colonizing sources

affects the probability that an extirpated population will naturally reestablish.

Value to Science

Island ecosystems provide values to science

disproportionate to their small size. Because

of the high rates of endemicity, islands may provide species of particular scientific interest for

botanical and zoological investigation. The

clearly defined boundaries facilitate study of

species migration, competition, adaptation, and

extinction. General principles of evolution can

be derived from island studies (44).

The genetic resource represented by the

unique island biota, although on a smaller scale

than continental areas, represents potential

gene banks of tropical species. Johnston Atoll

is of particular scientific interest because of its

geographic isolation and age (26). It is an ancient reef and, except for Wake Island, is the

only atoll of the Marcus-Necker ridge still surviving in shallow water (app. B), The atoll has

been designated a National Wildlife Refuge in

order to protect the nesting seabird populations

and well-developed coral reefs (26).

Vulnerability to Disruption

The isolation and small size of islands, which

foster species endemicity and limit population

size respectively, contribute to island species’

vulnerability to disruption. Populations that

evolved with limited competition or predator/

prey relationships often cannot survive when

forced to compete; further, small populations

have lower capacities for recovery. Although

isolation offers some protection from natural

introduction of competing species, the importation (intentional or not) of animals, insects,

and diseases has reduced island indigenous

plant and animal populations (12,23). Guam’s

bird population has been declining steadily

since World War II; the main culprit is thought

to be the brown tree snake. The snake is believed responsible for severely reducing avian

populations on Guam. The introduction of the

snake has been estimated to have occurred in

the early 1940s, however the method or reason

for its arrival is not clear.
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 6 5

Table 3-2.—Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant Species With Historic Range in the

U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands

Where

Common name Scientific name Historic rangea

Status endangered

Mammals:

Little Mariana fruit bat

Mariana fruit ba t

Pteropus tokudae

Pteropus mariannus mariannus

Western Pacific (Guam)

Western Pacific (Guam)

(Rota, Tinian, Saipan, Aguijan)

East Africa to southern

Japan, including RMI, CNMI, FSM, and Palau

U. S. A., Caribbean Sea South America

Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico

Hawaiian Archipelago

Oceanic

Oceanic (north latitude)

Oceanic

Oceanic

Oceanic

Oceanic

Oceanic

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

T

E

E

E

E

E

T

E

entire

Guam

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

Great Lakes

watershed in IL,

IN, Ml, MN, NY,

OH, PA, and WI

and Province of

Ontario;

All other range

locations

entire

entire

entire

range in contiguous States

Mariana Islands

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

entire

Dugong Dugong dugon

West Indian Manate e

Caribbean Monk Sea l

Hawaiian Monk Sea l

Blue Whale ...

Bowhead Whale . . . . . .

Finback Whale . . . . . . . . . . ...

Humpback Whale . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Right Whale, . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sei Whale . .

Sperm Whale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,

Birds:

Guam Broadbill .,

Mariana Crow

Micronesia Kingfisher . . . . . . . . 

Mariana Mallard . . ,

Micronesia Megapode

( = La Perouse’s)

Tinian Monarch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mariana Common Moorhen

(= Gallinule) . . . . . . . . . . ..,..,.

Puerto Rico Nightjar

( =Whip-poor-will),

Puerto Rican Parrot . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Puerto Rican Plain Pigeon ., . . . . . . . . . .

Piping Plover . . . .

Trichechus manatus

Monachus tropicalis

Monachus schauinslandi

Balaenoptera musculus

Balaena mysticetus

Balaenoptera physalus

Megaptera novaeangliae

Balaena glacialis

Balaenoptera borealis

Physeter catodon

Myiagra freycineti

Corbus kubaryi

Halcyon cinnamomina cinnamomina

Anas oustaleti

Megapodius Iaperouse

Western Pacific Ocean (Guam)

Western Pacific Ocean (Guam, Rota)

Western Pacific Ocean (Guam)

West Pacific Ocean (Guam, Mariana Islands)

West Pacific Ocean (Palau, Mariana Islands)

Monarcha takatsukasae Western Pacific Ocean (Mariana Islands)

Gallinula chloropis guami Western Pacific Ocean (Mariana Islands)

Caprimulgus noctitherus

Amazona vittata

Columba inornata wetmorei

Charadrius melodus

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico

USA (Great Lakes, northern Great Plains,

Atlantic and Gulf coasts, PR, Vi), Canada,

Mexico, Bahamas, West Indies

Guam Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ponape Mountain Starling. . . . . . . . . . . 

Vanikoro Swiftlet, ., .,

Rallus owstoni

Aplonis pelzelni

Aerodramus vanikorensis bartschi

Western Pacific Ocean (Guam)

Western Pacific Ocean (Caroline Islands)

Western Pacific Ocean (Guam, Rota, Tinian,

Saipan, Aguijan)

USA (Atlantic and Gulf coasts, Mississippi

River Basin), Greater and Lesser Antilles,

Bahamas and Mexico

Western Pacific Ocean

Western Pacific Ocean (Guam)

Least Tern . . . ... Sterna antillarum

Nightingale Reed Warbler . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bridled White-eye . . . . . . . . . . .

Acrocephalus Iuscinia

Zosterops conspicillata

conspicillata

Ponape Greater White-eye . . . . . . . . . Rukia Iongirostra

Reptiles:

Culebra Island Giant Anole . .

Mona Boa ., . . . . .

Puerto Rico Boa, ... ,

Virgin Islands Tree Boa . . . . . . . . . . . . .

American Crocodile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

West Pacific Ocean (Caroline Islands)

Anolis roosevelti

Epicrates monensis monensis

Epicrates inornatus

Epicrates monensis granti

Crocodylus acutus

Puerto Rico: Culebra Island

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico

U.S. and British VI

USA (FL), Mexico, South

America, Caribbean

Southeast Asia, Australia,

Pacific Islands

Puerto Rico

Mona Island

U.S. Virgin Islands

America, Central

Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus Papua New Guinea,

Monito Gecko ., ... .,

Mona Ground Iguana .. .

St. Croix Ground Lizard

Sphaerodactylus micropithecus

Cyclura stejnegeri

Ameiva polops
66 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Table 3.2.—Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant Species With Historic Range in the

U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands—Continued

Where

Common name Scientific name Historic rangea

Status endangered

Sea Turtles:

Green, ... ... Chelonia mydas circumglobal tropical & temperate seas and T entire

oceans

Hawksbill. ., ., ., . . Eretmochelys imbricata tropical seas E entire

Kemps Ridley ( = Atlantic) . . . . . . .Lepidochelys kempii tropical and temperate seas in Atlantic Basin E entire

Leatherback . . Dermochelys coriacea tropical, temperate & subpolar seas E entire

Loggerhead . . . . . . . . Caretta caretta circumglobal in tropical & temperate seas & T entire

oceans

Olive Ridley (= Pacific) . . . .Lepidochelys olivacea tropical and temperate seas in Pacific Basin T entire

Golden Coqui . . . . . . . . . . . Eleutherodactylus jasperi Puerto Rico T entire

Plants:

Prickly-Ash . . Zanthoxylum thomasianum Northern Puerto Rico E entire

Beautiful Goetza, Matabuey . . . . Goetzea elegans Puerto Rico E entire

Vahl’s Boxwood . . . . . .Buxus vahli Puerto Rico E entire

Palo de Ramonb

. . . Banara vanderbiltii Puerto Rico E entire

Hayun Lagu, Trokon guafi c . Serianthes nelsonii Guam, CNMI E entire

Species Removed from the Endangered and Threatened Lists

(for informational purposes only, not codified in the Code of Federal Regulations)

Where Reason

Common name Scientific name Historic range Prior status endangered for delisting

Palau Dove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gallicolumba canifrons West Pacific Palau Islands E entire recovered

Palau Fantail . . . . . . . Rhipidura Iepida West Pacific Palau Islands E entire recovered

Palau Owl .,, , ,,, ,, .,,,,,.., .,, .., .., Pyroglaux podargin a West Pacific Palau Islands E entire recovered

a Historic Range indicates the known general distribution of the species or subspecies as reported in the current scientific literature. The present distribution may

be greatly reduced from this historic range.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, January 1966. [for all but the following]

bEcology USA, “Recent Actions Under the Endangered Species Act, ” 16(3):24, Jan. 16, 1987.

cEcology USA, “Recent Actions Under the Endangered Species Act, ” 16(4):32, Mar. 2, 1987.

A primary method of protecting island fauna

is through the maintenance of appropriate habitat. However, the small size of islands means

that park and protected area designs need to

make optimum use of limited land area and may

need to combine protection of fauna and flora.

Undisturbed sanctuaries may be necessary for

those species that cannot tolerate disturbance

as opposed to those that maybe integrated into

parks with recreational potential. Some extremely vulnerable species may only be effectively protected on islands remote from human

population.

Surveys of many island areas still are needed

to determine the incidence of endemism, and

the status of native species. The importance of

quarantine regulations and enforcement cannot be understated in island areas (23). Local

governments can play a major role in identifying and protecting rare, threatened and endangered species. A native Guamanian plant species, Serianthes nelsonii, while pending Federal

listing as “endangered” already possessed that

status and protection under local law (42).5

Vulnerability to Overexploitation

Island species are particularly vulnerable to

overexploitation, often because the base from

which to build generally is small. Several island species have been exploited to the extent

that they are now endangered (table 3-2). The

Mariana fruit bat, Pteropus mariannus mariannus, is considered a great delicacy in the

Marianas and bat populations on some islands

have been heavily exploited. Overexploitation

of fruit bat populations on Guam resulted in

increased exploitation of fruit bat populations

on other islands, including Yap, to satisfy the

market. Consequently, Yapese fruit bat populations were severely reduced and in 1980 the

hunting and exportation of these animals was

5

S. nelsonii has been listed as Endangered under the Endangered Species Act, effective 3/20187.
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems c 67

Photo credit: E. Petteys

Overexploitation of the Mariana fruit bat has severely

reduced populations in the Pacific. Despite protective

legislation, poaching continues to threaten remaining

fruit bat populations in some island areas.

banned. The species was placed on the Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant list

and given “endangered” status in 1984. Populations in some areas are in recovery stages (22).

Major Island Resource Systems

Upland Forests

The higher parts of most high islands in the

U.S.-affiliated Pacific and Caribbean originally

were covered by dense forests (9). The remaining higher elevation forests are important in

contributing to control of erosion and landslides on steep slopes. The topography generally precludes timber harvesting operations but

may allow some agroforestry practices.

Upland forests are important as wildlife habitat and in maintaining watershed function.

These forests may enhance the watershed by

increasing interception of rainfall, increasing

percolation, improving infiltration, and reducing the rainfall impact on the soil. Upland

forests are not easily reestablished once cleared,

often leading to chronic erosion problems.

Mountainside submontane rain forests are

comprised of predominantly broad-leaved trees

with an even canopy, many epiphytes, and in

some areas with abundant undergrowth including tree ferns and small palms. Forests of this

type are found on several of the U.S.-affiliated

islands. Some of the remaining submontane

forests have been disturbed, such as one present

on Truk, which now covers approximately only

2 acres on the top of one volcanic island.

Cloud forest (also called dwarf, elfin, or moss

forest), a specialized, highly vulnerable upland

forest, has developed on high ridges and mountain tops on some islands. These forests, kept

moist by the constant presence of cloud formations, generally are composed of gnarled

or dwarfed trees burdened with mosses and

lichens. The ground commonly is covered with

club mosses and ferns. Cloud forests are high

in endemic species and are extremely vulnerable to disruption. Endangered status recently

has been proposed for two plant species, Cyathea dryopteroides and hex cookii, endemic

to Puerto Rico’s cloud forests of the Central Cordillera (11). Although cloud forests are present

on several of the islands, their areal extent is

extremely limited.

Implications for Management.—Upland

forests are important for watersheds, contribute to erosion control, provide habitat for wildlife, and often contain many endemic species.

While development of forestland may be necessary for provision of goods and services to

island populations, such activities might be

preceded by objective analyses of the cost of

artificially providing those services which will

be lost because of development. Development
—

68 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Table 3-3.—Ecosystems Present on the U.S.-Affiliated Islands

Island Areas Puerto Rico USVI American Samoa Guam CNMI

Cloud forest Present on May have been Undisturbed forma- Possibly on top of Mount Tapachau,

mountain tops present on tion on top of Ta’u Mount Lamlam Saipan; other ismountain tops lands unknown

Submontane rain. Formerly on higher None Midelevation ridges Non e None

forest mountains and as secondary

growth

Lowland rainforest Little remains None Remains on steep Scattered remains of Lava forest on northslopes limestone, species- ern island

rich forest

Riverine and swamp Limited extent None Limited amount Present along rivers, In ravines on smaller

forest remains present along moist ravines; islands

streams mostly in south

Subtropical moist/ Little remains Limited areas in Non e None None

seasonal forest mountains or remote

areas

Subtropical dry Present, little of Present, considera- None Non e Non e

forest original ecosystem bly reduced from

original extent

Savanna and Considerable man- Present in former Present as early Extensive fire- Extensive natural

grasslands made areas main- agricultural areas sere after dis- adapted areas in formation in northtained as pasture turbance south ern islands, manor ground cover made on Saipan and

others

Scrub Present, often as Present Present on on Mata- On rocky limestone Coastal volcanic

secondary growth fao and Piao moun- coast and some rock in north and

tains, Tutuila southern areas limestone coast in

south

Wetlands Some rivers, and Saltwater ponds in Streams and coastal Some streams and Saltwater and freshmarshes, and some bays behind man- marshes; lakes on rivers; reed swamps; water marshes,

saltwater marshes groves Ta’u and Anu’u saltwater and fresh- freshwater lakes on

occur behind man- water marshes; man- Saipan and Pagan,

groves made lake brackish on Pagan

Mangrove forest 25 mi 2 scattered Forests only on St. Pala lagoon Small areas, particu- Limited areas in

around coast Thomas and St. (stressed) on Tutuila, Iarly Apra Habor southern islands

Croix and on Aunu’u

Atoll/beach forest Present in some Present Widespread, special Common, includes Present on some of

and scrub areas types on Rose Atoll some endemics the southern islands

and Swain’s island

Lagoons/shallow Behind barrier reefs Extensive in bays, Lagoons on Rose Cocos lagoon Shallow lagoon inbottoms and other offshore inside reef and Atoll, Swain’s Island side some reefs on

features along shelf and Tutuila Saipan and Tinian

Coral reefs Barrier, fringing and Bank barrier reef Main islands largely Barrier reef near Fringing reefs compatch reef areas, and algal ridge; also bordered by fringing Cocos island, variety mon in southern ismost damaged fringing barrier and reefs; some of patch and fring- Iands, some

patch reef complex- damaged ing reefs elsewhere, damaged

es; some damaged some damaged

SOURCE: A.L. Dahl, “Tropical Island Ecosystems and Protection Technologies To Sustain Renewable Resources in the U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, Washington, DC, 1986.

could be redirected from areas where forest- forest. The vulnerability of cloud forests to disprovided services (i.e., important watersheds) turbance is so extreme that these forests canare critical to the island and its inhabitants. Fur- not withstand development activities.

ther, additional benefits maybe derived when

required development is done in such a way Lowland Forests as to protect or maintain the natural function

of the-vegetation, thereby maintaining or only Lowland forests, which grow on hillsides and

slightly reducing the services provided by the in coastal plains, are composed mostly of nu-
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems c 69

Table 3-3.—Ecosystems Present on the U.S.-Affiliated Islands—Continued

Federated States of Micronesia

Marshalls Palau Kosrae Pohnpei Yap Truk

None None Present on mountain At highest ele- None None

top vations

None None At midelevations, At midelevations None Limited area on top

some disturbed of one volcanic

mountain

None Limestone, Present with many Present, most areas Species-rich forests, Present, disturbed

species-rich endemics, nearly un- disturbed most are disturbed

disturbed or replaced

None Along rivers and Along rivers and in- Dense along rivers, Present, inland of Present, inland of

inland of land of mangroves inland of mangroves mangroves mangroves

mangroves

None None None None None None

None None None None None None

On smaller islets of Present on clay Present Present often from Now predominant Present

some atolls soils, and where burning on clay soils, or

fire-maintained where frequently

burned

Some on northern Outer edges of Present On rocky coasts and Present in some Present

islands limestone forest, some ravines degraded areas

rocky coasts and

strip mined areas

Freshwater pond on Streams, rivers, Short streams, and Streams, rivers, Freshwater streams, Low swamps and

Lib; tidal saltwater lakes, ponds, other freshwater lakes, ponds, ponds, swamps, and marshes

marshes swamps, fresh- habitat swamps, and marshes

water and saltwater marshes

marshes

In depressions on a 11,513 acres in 3,859 acres around 13,562 acres along 2,894 acres on Yap, 3,315 acres around

few atolls estuaries and along island coast and estuaries, and some on Elato main islands

coasts of archi- some on Pingelap and Woleai Atolls

pelago Atoll

Largely replaced by In a few areas be- Present behind On high islands, On atolls and be- On atolls, islets; and

coconut and bread- hind beaches and beaches largely replaced by hind beaches, often

fruit, except on

in some coast areas

on Kayangel Atoll planted trees replaced by coconut

some northern atolls

Large open lagoons, Lagoons within Some shallow la- Extensive lagoon Some shallow la- Over 2,000 mi2

closed lagoon in barrier reef, also goons inside reef with seagrasses, goons within reef including atoll

Namorik Kayangel Atoll and and atoll lagoons and atoll lagoons lagoons

Helen Reef

Islands built by Barrier, fringing Largely surrounded Extensive barrier Wide, fringing reefs, Major barrier reef

coral reef eco- and patch reefs; by fringing reef reef enclosing la- outer atoll islands with islet enclosing

systems, some rich and diverse; goon with fringing lagoon with complex

damaged also some atolls; and patch reefs, and structures, outer

some areas outer atoll islands atoll islands; condamaged siderable damage

merous species of fast-growing trees. Many of

these reach 80 to 120 feet in height and exhibit

a closed, uneven canopy and little undergrowth.

Lowland rain forests occur on many of the U. S.-

affiliated islands and most of these have been

disturbed, some to great extent. The lowland

forests of Kosrae and Palau probably represent

the least disturbed communities.

Lowland rain forests are important for water

catchment and for building soil nutrients and

humus, often growing on and giving rise to the

best island soils. They have the highest timber

production potential of any island forest, however the land they cover often is under pressure for competing uses such as agriculture and

human settlements. These activities, plus log-
70 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ging, have caused significant genetic resources

and wildlife to be lost. Continuing disturbance,

a lack of seed sources, and competition from

introduced plants impede recovery, which

might take decades under good conditions (9).

The drier Caribbean climate produces a type

of lowland forest not found in the U.S. Pacific

islands. The tree species of subtropical moist

or seasonal forests are more resistant to drought

and may lose some leaves in the dry season.

Sixty percent of Puerto Rico originally was covered with this type of forest; this is down to

15 percent today (54). In the U.S. Virgin Islands,

about 25 percent of the land area was covered

with this type of forest. What remains today

is mostly in mountainous regions with lesser

amounts existing in the dry foothills (27). The

conversion of land to agricultural purposes resulted in the clearing of the majority of this forest type.

Subtropical dry forest, a drought-resistant forest with many species and commonly with an

understory of shrubs, also is found in the U.S.

Caribbean. This type of forest is slower growing than the moist forest type. Sixteen percent

of Puerto Rico was once covered by this vegetation type, mostly on the southern side and

forest communities were distinguished between

those growing on coastal areas and those of

limestone soils (9). Five percent of the original

forest type remains today primarily because of

the conversion of land to agricultural purposes

(54).

In the Virgin Islands this type of forest covered nearly three-quarters of the island (9).

Today few original forest stands remain, most

areas having been once cleared for grazing

lands or other agricultural purposes. Forests

of this type along the immediate coastal strip

may be important in filtering runoff from the

land and thus preventing or reducing coastal

pollution from sedimentation and agricultural

chemicals. Generally, relatively large areas

are needed to maintain production and regeneration making the conservation of such forests

difficult. Smaller areas, if effectively protected,

may be managed to conserve this forest type

(27).

Implications for Management.—These forests are important for water catchment, soil and

humus building, and offer timber production

potential. However, the relatively flat lands occupied by this forest type generally are under

pressure for competing uses such as agriculture. Development and management activities

might be directed to allow profitable use for

timber and agroforestry production while maintaining the natural functions of the forest. Lands

needed for other agricultural pursuits could be

designated, so as to maintain sufficient amounts

of natural and modified forest area. Abandoned

agricultural areas could be reforested to restore

soil fertility.
Freshwater Wetlands

Wetlands and freshwater island environments include freshwater marshes and reed

swamps, lakes, rivers and streams with aquatic

plants, and freshwater fauna. Dense forests of

hydrophytic species also occur along rivers and

in swampy areas inland of mangrove forests.

Forests of this type occur in American Samoa,

Guam, Northern Marianas, Pohnpei, Kosrae,

Truk, Yap, Palau, and Puerto Rico. These forests are important in contributing to erosion

and flood control along streambanks and thus

prevention of pollution of water supplies.

Marsh and stream vegetation slows runoff,

contributing to erosion and flood control and

reducing water turbidity. They also may provide a filtration system which buffers reefs and

lagoons from terrestrial sedimentation and pollution.

Wetland environments have been recognized

as critical areas in island coastal management

programs and as such are accorded some degree of protection (46,47,48,49,50,51). These

environments also provide critical habitat for

many wildlife species, including some that are

federally protected under the Endangered Species Act,

These ecosystems may be very restricted on

small islands and are generally quite vulnerable to disturbance. Some systems have evolved

to adapt to a wide salinity range, or to temporary disappearance, regenerating when conditions permit. However, recovery from severe

stress, such as from agricultural chemicals or

heavy sedimentation, may be very slow even

after sources of stress are removed (9).

Implications for Management.—Wetland

environments provide critical habitat for many

wildlife species and are important in contributing to erosion and flood control. Through mitigation of erosion and flooding they provide for

the protection of nearshore areas from pollution and extreme freshwater discharge. Generally, wetland plant species are quite vulnerable to disruption and recovery may be slow;

wildlife species may be extirpated if alternate

wetland habitat is not available. Development

Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 71

activities could take precautions to protect the

wetland environment, or be redirected to less

vulnerable areas.

Grass and Fern Savanna Lands

Savannas composed of grasses (commonly

Miscanthus, or sword grass) or fern (Gleichenia)

are found on many islands, alone or in association with scattered trees and shrubs. A number of endemic plants may be found in these

areas. Many grasslands are maintained by frequent burning, often to attract game species,

or provide pasture for domesticated animals.

It is believed that the habitat has long been

present in areas such as southern Guam and

Babelthaup (Palau) although to a considerably

lesser extent than at present (15).

Ferns and grasses tend to contribute to erosion control and some areas may be used as

pasture land for livestock. However, improvement often is necessary to allow profitable use

as pasture. Regrowth generally is rapid after

burning, however, repeated burning degrades

the soil by removing the organic content; and

there is risk of fire spreading to adjacent more

valuable forest types.

Implications for Management.—Primary

management attention should be given to fire

control and public education on the ecological

impacts of frequent burning. Management or

development activities could involve active improvement of those areas which might be used

profitably for pasture, or agriculture, or for

urban and residential development; and encourage reforestation of other areas. Such

reforestation schemes could consider using fire

tolerant species.

Strand and Beach

Vegetation comprised of a few widely distributed species of trees and shrubs, including some

endemics, occupies the sand and rubble along

the coastal beach strand close to sea level. This

is the major vegetative formation on atolls and

low coral islands. This coastal fringe contributes to stabilization of the coastline and offers

protection from storm damage and salt-spray
72 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

to inland areas. Strand forest and scrub can be

found to some extent on all U.S.-affiliated islands. In many areas the forest has been cleared

to allow for development. This type of forest

has the capability to recover or recolonize readily when disturbance or stress is removed (9).

In some areas much of the strand and beach

vegetation has been removed and replaced with

more economically profitable plant species. On

many of the Marshall Islands, for example,

areas formerly occupied by beach and strand

vegetation now are planted largely with coconut palms and breadfruit trees.

Implications for Management.—Strand and

beach vegetation contribute to retardation of

coastal erosion as well as protection of inland

areas from salt-spray and storm damage. Development activities could strive to maintain

some extent of this vegetation zone for its protective function, particularly on more vulnerable atolls and low coral islands. Enrichment

of existing stands with more desirable or profitable species may offer an opportunity to preserve some protective functions as well as provide a food or income source.

Mangrove Forests

Mangrove forests are characterized by saltresistant trees, some with stilt roots or pneumatophores, growing in the intertidal range

along ocean shores or estuaries. Nutrients from

terrestrial runoff and the leaves falling from the

trees provide food and shelter for marine life

living among the roots. A significant amount

of mangrove forest area remains in the U. S.-

affiliated Caribbean islands; nearly 25 square

miles of mangrove forest is scattered around

Puerto Rico’s coastline. While scattered mangrove trees occur along the coast of the U.S.

Virgin Islands, mangrove forests only survive
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 7 3

Photo credit: C. Wahle

Mangrove forests, found to some extent on most of the

U.S.-affiliated islands, provide important habitat and

nursery areas for many marine and terrestrial species.

The extent of these forests has been significantly

reduced through human development activities.

at Salt River, St. Croix and Jersey Bay, St.

Thomas; the larger mangrove areas have been

cleared for development (9).

In the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, Pohnpei and Palau have the largest extent of mangrove forests (13,652 and 11,513 acres respectively), followed by Kosrae (3,859 acres), Truk

(3,315 acres), and Yap (2,894 acres) (9,56). American Samoa has limited mangrove forest areas

(130 acres) (56), one of which (Pala Lagoon) is

under stress from nearby development. In the

Northern Mariana Islands there are only small

mangrove areas and they may be threatened

by dredging and development.

Mangrove forests are important in the maintenance of the nearshore coastal water quality. They are important for many marine species that are dependent on the protected habitat

for food and shelter (8). They also trap and stabilize sediment from runoff, thus building land

and protecting the coral reefs and lagoons from

pollution. Mangroves may regenerate after

short-term physical disturbances such as storms,

however longer term disturbances such as

changes in runoff can destroy a forest. Reestablishment of mangroves has been practiced in

Florida and Puerto Rico indicating that, if conditions are appropriate, the forest can regenerate in a period of 10 to 15 years. An oil-damaged

mangrove stand in Guam has been successfully

rehabilitated through a replanting program. The

program involved removing the damaged trees

and replanting seedlings that were harvested

from an undisturbed area of the forest. However, regeneration of clear-felled areas in Southeast Asia has not been successful (9).

Implications for Management.—Mangrove

formations are important for a variety of functions including, filtration of freshwater, wildlife habitat, nutrient provision for nearshore

marine life, erosion control, and limited timber production. Development activities which

would remove mangroves should be redirected

to other areas, and timber harvesting should

be limited to sustainable yields.

Seagrass Meadows

Seagrass meadows commonly are found in

association with coral reefs and provide shelter and nursery areas for many marine species.

Lagoon bottoms and other shallow coastal

waters support seagrass and algal beds. The

sand and mud bottoms create habitat for many

burrowing and benthic organisms (9).

Algal and seagrass meadows are highly productive ecosystems that serve as “pastures” for

many commercially important marine species

(9) and appear to foster an increased variety

of reef fishes (20). They also act to stabilize bottom sediments and thus help prevent coastal

erosion. To some extent they may absorb organic wastes, however heavy sedimentation

can cut off light and smother the bottom (9).
74 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Implications for Management.—Seagrass

meadows contribute to the retardation of

coastal erosion, provide habitat and feeding

grounds, and may absorb some organic wastes.

Destruction of seagrass meadows generally is

a repercussive impact from other actions. For

example, increased sedimentation from development activities may smother bottom communities and boat anchors may remove large

patches of seagrass. Recovery is slow from such

disturbances. Seagrass meadows could be protected through appropriate actions incorporated in development activities, such as efforts

to reduce erosion, or establishment of permanent moorings in frequently used areas.

Coral Reefs

Although tropical waters commonly have low

nutrient levels, coral reef areas are sites of high

biological productivity. Coral reef areas, associated with most of the U.S.-affiliated tropical

islands, are among the most productive of tropical marine areas (55) and represent a highly

valuable resource.

The reef areas provide shelter and habitat as

well as a nursery for many marine organisms.

Hundreds of edible varieties of fish including

jacks and some species of snapper, commonly

are members of the reef community, as are

many mollusks and crustaceans (17,41,52). Harvesting of nearshore marine resources takes

place primarily in the vicinity of coral reefs and

seagrass beds (20) and thus much of the nearshore fishery potential corresponds to the interrelation of the coral reef, seagrass meadow,

and mangrove forest ecosystems.

The nearshore waters of many of the U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands support important subsistence fisheries. A recent survey indicated

that at least 40 percent of American Samoa’s

households exploit the nearshore fisheries for

a part of their food (46). This level is estimated

to be as high as 90 percent in the Caroline and

Marshall islands (17).

The physical structure of the coral reef provides a natural breakwater which retards shoreline erosion (20) and provides for the replenishment of beach sand; as wave action scours the

reef structure, particles break off and are carried to shore. Coral reefs also represent a major tourist attraction and valuable recreational

resource for activities such as diving and snorkeling.

Destructive fishing practices (e.g., dynamiting, bleaching), coastal development activities

that increase freshwater discharge or turbidity

of nearshore waters, or expulsion of thermal

or chemical effluent all may cause reef destruction. Pest outbreaks such as the crown-of-thorns

starfish (Acanthaster plancii) similarly damage

coral reefs. While the values of coral reefs are

well understood, enforcement of protective regulations still poses a problem in some areas.

Implications for Management.—The diverse

benefits provided by coral reefs, including enhancement of fishery potential, marine species

habitat, protection from shoreline erosion,

beach sand replenishment, and recreational

value, clearly demonstrate the importance of

this nearshore marine structure. Activities

which are known to have adverse impacts on

coral reefs should be discontinued through an

effective regulation and enforcement program.

Coral reef management should consider sustainable multiple use of the resource: allowing

recreation (snorkeling, fishing), fishery, and

tourist use of reef areas while affording necessary protection.

EFFORTS TO SUSTAIN RESOURCES ON U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS

The favorable climate of the U.S.-affiliated perience an annually occurring dry period, the

islands of the Pacific and Caribbean contrib- warm temperatures and generally substantial

utes to conditions capable of sustaining rela- rainfall common to the islands allow a contintively high rates of aquatic and agricultural uous growing season. Puerto Rico has features

productivity. Although some island areas ex- that allow cultivation of subtropical crops. The
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems “ 75

climate and esthetic characteristics of tropical

islands also make them prime tourist attractions, and in some cases tourism and related

enterprises comprise a large part of the island

economy.

Tropical island ecosystems offer a wide variety of products and services to island inhabitants. The importance of these ecosystems to

the quality of life has long been understood by

the islanders and traditional practices were inextricably linked to the workings of nature. As

modernization increased and less conservative

practices were adopted, some of the unique island environment was transformed or damaged, Nevertheless, some undisturbed areas remain today.

Efforts to maintain and enhance existing resources have resulted as concerns have increased over adverse trends in resource use,

degradation, and associated productivity loss.

In some cases, these concerns have prompted

the development of resource sustaining management plans which provide for the creation

of parks and protected areas, regulation of resource use, consideration of development’s impacts on the environment, and investigation of

alternatives to heavily exploited resources (see

app. E).

Efforts To Maintain

Resource Base

Traditional subsistence economies embodied

conservation of critical renewable resources.

As economies shift from subsistence to cash

and populations increase, the impacts of rapid

growth on renewable resources becomes evident. Attention is now being given to mechanisms to protect and maintain critical renewable biological resources. Resource areas and

wild populations which suffered past degradation have been examined in order to develop

methods to maintain their viability. In some

areas, resources, although perhaps modified by

human activities, remain in good condition.

Regulatory or conservation actions instituted

at both the local and Federal level have acted

to preserve areas of critical importance. The

Caribbean National Forest, federally established in Puerto Rico’s Luquillo Mountains in

1903, originally consisted of 18,000 acres and,

was the first tropical National Forest (10). Subsequently, additional tracts of land were protected under the Commonwealth forest system.

Today there are 14 protected forests on Puerto

Rico comprising nearly 100,000 acres of protected forestland.

The United Nations Man and the Biosphere

Program (UNESCO-MAB), established in 1971,

works to promote international scientific cooperation and the study of human interaction

with the environment. Biosphere reserves are

part of a worldwide network of protected land

and coastal environments and enfold many

functions including conservation, research and

monitoring activities, education and training,

and cooperative efforts with various scientific

organizations. The design of the biosphere reserve attempts to integrate conservation with

surrounding socioeconomic needs. There are

three designated biosphere reserves within the

U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands: Luquillo Forest (28,112 acres) part of the Caribbean National

Forest on Puerto Rico; Virgin Islands National

Park (15,188 acres) on St. Johns Island in the

U.S. Virgin Islands; and Guanica Commonwealth Forest Reserve on Puerto Rico (9,930

acres). The only designated biosphere reserve

in the U.S. Pacific islands is located on Hawaii

(43,53).

Local and National Wildlife Refuges have

been established on many of the U.S.-affiliated

islands. In some cases entire islands are designated as refuges, such as Howland, Baker,

Jarvis, and Rose atolls in the Pacific. Habitat

loss has been implicated as a major cause for

loss of wildlife species (51), thus, through the

establishment of wildlife refuges native fauna

and flora may be afforded protection.

Similarly, the harvesting of corals and other

sessile marine animals is restricted in the

waters of u. S.-affiliated islands in the Caribbean by various Federal and Commonwealth

statutes. Conchs and four species of sea turtles (hawksbill, green, leatherback, and loggerhead) are protected from harvesting because

of their endangered species status (55).
76 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

The Coastal Management Plans created by

many of the U.S.-affiliated islands contain provisions for establishment of Areas of Particular Concern–areas recognized to fulfill valuable functions (ecological, social, esthetic) in

the island ecosystems. These areas are being

protected on some islands, and uses to which

they are best suited are being encouraged. For

example, the Commonwealth of the Northern

Mariana Islands Coastal Management Program

contains plans to assure adequate water flow,

nutrient levels, and oxygen levels for mangrove/wetland environments. These environments are recognized to be important in natural drainage patterns and as wildlife habitat (47).

In addition, progress has been made in the

last few years in the preparation of resource

inventories in some of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Some are already complete and others

are underway (9). However, a need for biological inventories still exists on many of the islands. Such information can assist in creating

protected park areas that in turn can help reduce resource overharvesting (55).

Efforts To Restore the Renewable

Resource Base

Despite the fact that population needs exceed

the supply of renewable resources on most islands, interest in conservation exists. Many

basic marine conservation measures developed

in the West in the past century were traditionally practiced in the Pacific islands. Examples

include establishing closed seasons and restricting the kinds of fishing gear allowed (15,25),

Federal and local efforts to increase forest

area in Puerto Rico have been quite successful. Since 1981, the Puerto Rican Forest Service, with technical assistance from the U.S. Forest Service, has taken an active role in

promotion of resource conservation and forestry development (10).

Other cooperative efforts involve species recovery programs. For example, efforts focused

largely on the bird population of Guam are being carried out in conjunction with the U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service (23). Similar efforts to recover the Puerto Rican parrot have been ongoing since 1968 (54).

Efforts To Redirect Use Of

Underused Resources

Although many renewable resources have

suffered degradation from overexploitation,

some seem to be underused: exploited at rates

below their maximum sustainable yield. Some

local governments are working to identify these

resources and redirect resource use. For example, current fisheries development policy in

Puerto Rico emphasizes underused resources,

such as swordfish, which may help divert fishing effort from overexploited nearshore stocks

(20).

Many nonfood resources of the U.S.-affiliated

Pacific islands, such as pearl oysters, have been

underexploited since World War II because little effort has been made to develop their potential. The success of the Japanese pearl culture prior to World War II suggests that such

an operation is viable, given proper planning

and management. Although the status of the

species introduced by the Japanese is not

known, several species of pearl oysters occur

naturally in Palau, Yap, Truk, and Pohnpei, and

black-lipped pearl oysters have been found in

high densities near some atolls in Pohnpei State.

Further opportunities exist to develop underused land, plant, and animal resources. For

example, a survey of Guam’s agricultural land

resources indicated that no more than 2 percent of the land is actively cultivated (23); this

percentage may change seasonally and in relation to market and climate conditions (33).

In Puerto Rico, abandonment of coffee plantations and farmlands, particularly on steep

slopes, released 1.1 million acres which are now

potentially available for forestry and agroforestry activities and recreation (44).

Efforts To Culture Species

Another avenue to reduce stress on natural

populations and environments is to develop culture systems for those species currently har-
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems “ 77

vested on a fishing, hunting, or gathering basis. The success of culture systems may depend

on more than just the biological factors of the

desired species. Considerations include the

availability of primary research, development

of appropriate techniques, technical assistance,

and sociocultural and economic factors.

The level of interest in aquiculture of numerous species that already are a part of islanders’

diets is high in all of the islands. Most island

groups have done preliminary work to determine the feasibility of culturing a number of

marine and freshwater species of fish and shellfish (31). Developing culture techniques for such

organisms can transform them from roles of

only subsistence importance to those of economic importance. Of course, if markets expand faster than culture activities, increased

pressure may be put on natural populations due

to their increased value. Despite the growing

interest in and knowledge about aquiculture

of warmwater species, numerous projects have

been unsuccessful.

A number of products currently are gathered

from indigenous and naturalized plants. Development of culture systems for some of these

plants might allow increased yields such that

they could develop economic as well as nutritional significance. For example, a wild variety of cinnamon (Cinnammnum carolinensis)

grows on Pohnpei and is used as medicine and

a tea-like beverage. Similarly, perfume oils can

be extracted from certain plants now growing

wild on Pacific islands (e. g., ambretta oil from

Hibiscus abelmoschus; ylang-ylang oil from

Cananga odorata). Ylang-ylang petals currently

are used for traditional ornamental headwear

(mwarmwars). Research and small-scale production at the Ponape Agriculture and Trade

School indicates that ylang-ylang can be cultured profitably and processed to supply fragrance oils for locally produced coconut soap

and for export.

Finally, native and naturalized plants have,

over time, adapted to a range of environmental

conditions (2). They represent a reservoir of

genetic resources that could be used in plant

selection programs, and might allow expansion

of agriculture to infertile, saline, and degraded

lands. Biological inventories that characterize

plant species composition (e.g., nutritional,

medicinal values) and land race characteristics

are needed in many areas to promote this effort (27).

Enhancement of Existing

Renewable Resources

Programs to enhance existing resources have

developed concurrently with interest in alternatives to heavily exploited resources. For example, in 1984, one-third of Puerto Rico was

covered by forest, mostly in second-growth

forests, fruit tree plantations, and shade trees

for coffee. These forests supply little useful timber, although they provide excellent watershed

protection, wildlife habitat, and recreational

and esthetic opportunities. Enrichment of forests through underplanting of valuable species

offers one method of increasing forest value.

Many larger Pacific islands could sustain timber production to help meet local needs through

similar efforts (44).

In most island areas, efforts have been made

and continuing studies are underway aimed at

enhancing the productivity of reef flats through

the introduction of artificial habitats. Studies

indicate that artificial reef habitat enhancement

can increase local fish abundance and potential harvests (3). Similarly, artificial upwellings,

which draw nutrient rich water to the surface,

may enhance fishery potential. Enhancement

programs, as well as research to determine impacts of reorganization of ecological structure,

will be necessary in order to allow the sustainable production of some species (e.g., trochus)

while maintaining the balance of the associated

natural systems (39).
78 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

1.

2.

3.

4,

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

CHAPTER 3

Alford, D., “Island Water Resources: Technologies for Increased Supplies for U.S. Insular

Territories,” OTA commissioned paper, 1984,

Alkire, W., “Cultural Dimensions of Resource

Definition and Use in Micronesia, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Artificial Reef Development Center, “Reef

Briefs,” No. 3, Washington, DC, spring, 1985,

In: Callaghan, 1986.

Barry, R. C., and Chorley, R, J., Atmosphere,

Weather, and Climate (New York: Methuen,

Inc., 1982).

Birot, P., General Physical Geography (New

York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1968].

Buringh, P., Introduction to the Study of Soils

in Tropical and Subtropical Regions (Wageningen, The Netherlands: Centre for Agricultural

Publishing and Documentation, 1968).

Callaghan, P., “The Development and Management of Nearshore Fisheries in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Cintron, G. et. al., “Mangroves of Arid Environments in Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands,” Biotropica 10(2):110-121, 1978,

Dahl, A. L., “Tropical Island Ecosystems and

Protection Technologies to Sustain Renewable

Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Diaz-Soltero, H., and Schmidt, R., “Forestry in

Puerto Rico: A Case Study in Successful Organizational Change,” OTA Commissioned paper, 1986.

Ecology USA “Recent Actions Under the Endangered Species Act,” 15(20):166, October 6,

1986.

Eldredge, L. E., “Case Studies of the Impacts of

Introduced Animal Species on Renewable Resources in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific Islands, ”

OTA Commissioned paper, 1986.

Eldredge, L, E., Summary of Environmental and

Fishing Information on Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Historical Background, Description of the Islands,

and Review of Climate, Oceanography, and Submarine Topography, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-40

[Honolulu, Hawaii: U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, 1983). In: Smith, 1986.

Falanruw, M. V. C., Director Yap Institute of Natural Science, personal communication, July

1986.

REFERENCES

15. Falanruw, M. V. C., “Traditional Agriculture and

Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

16. Fripiat, J., and Herbillon, A. T., “Formation and

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

Transformation of Clay Minerals in Tropical

Soils,” Soils and Tropical Weathering, Proceeding of Bandung Symposium, Natural Resources

Research XI, UNESCO, Paris, 1971.

Gawel, M., Chief, Department of Natural Resources, Pohnpei State Government, personal

communication, July 1986.

Glantz, M. H., “El Nine: Should It Take the

Blame for Disasters?” Mazingura March, 1984.

Glenn, M., “An Analysis of Black Pepper Production in Pohnpei,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Goodwin, M. H., and Sandifer, P. D., “Aquaculture and Fisheries Development in Puerto Rico

and the U.S. Virgin Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Goudie, A., Duricrusts in Tropical and Subtropical Landscapes (London: Oxford University

Press, 1973).

Guam Environmental Protection Agency, Twelfth

Annual Report 1984-1985, Agana, Guam, 1985.

23. Halbower, C, C., “Forestry and Agroforestry

Technologies: Developmental Potentials in the

U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

24. Holliday, C. R., “Tropical Cyclones Affecting

Guam, ” Fleet Weather Central/Joint Typhoon

Center, Guam (FPO San Francisco, CA: U.S.

Fleet Weather Central Guam, 1975), In: Callaghan, 1986.

25. Johannes, R. E., “The Role of Marine Resource

26.

27.

28,

29,

Tenure Systems (TURFS) in Sustainable Nearshore Marine Resource Development and Management in the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas, ” OTA

Commissioned paper, 1986.

Maragos, J., “Coastal Resource Development

and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986,

Matuszak, J., Virgin Islands Cooperative Extension Service, personal communication, July

1986.

Morris, G, L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal

communication, September 1986.

Morris, G. L., and Pool, D. J., “Assessment of

Semiarid Agricultural Production Technologies

for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” OTA

commissioned paper, 1986.
Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems “ 79

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

Muller, R.A, and Oberlander, T. O., Physical

Geography Today: A Portrait of a Planet, Sd ed.

(New York: Random House, 1984).

Nelson, S. G., “Aquiculture and Maricuhure Development in the U, S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Ordway, R. J., Earth Science and the Environment (New York: Van Nostrand Co., 1972).

Perry, J., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil

Conservation Service, Guam, personal communication, September 1986.

Peterson, F., Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaii at Manoa, personal communication, September 1986.

Peterson, F., “Water Resources,” Hawaii: A

Geography, J. Morgan (cd.) (Honolulu, HI:

University of Hawaii Press, 1983).

Pico, R., The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co., 1974).

Rasmussen, E. M., “El Nino and Variations in

Climate, ” American Scientist 73:168-177,

March-April, 1985.

Rasmussen, E. M., “El Nine: The Ocean/Atmosphere Connection,” Uceanus 27(2):5-12, 1984.

In: Smith, 1986.

Smith, B. D., “Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S. Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Soucie, E. A., Atoll Agriculture for Secondary

Schools, Ponape Agriculture and Trade School,

Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, 1983.

Stile, P. G., “Food and Feed Processing Technologies in the United States Insular Areas of the

Pacific,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

42. Torres, E., Director of Agriculture, Guam Department of Agriculture, personal communication, September 1986.

43. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “Action Plan for

Biosphere Reserves,” Nature and Resources

20(4):1-12, October-December, 1984.

44. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess45

ment, Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest

Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, March 1984).

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Impacts of Technology on U.S. Cropland

and Rangeland Productivity, OTA-F-166

(Springfield, VA: NTIS, August 1982).

46. U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, American

Samoa Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980a.

47. U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands Coastal

Resources Management Program and Final

Environmental impact Statement, 1980b.

48, U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal

Management Program and Final Environmental

Impact Statement, vol. 1, 1979a.

49. U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal

Management Program and Final Environmental

Impact Statement, vol. 2, Igygb.

50. U.S. Department of Commerce, National

51

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, The Virgin

Islands Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1979c.

U.S. Department of Commerce. National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Puerto Rico

Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1978.

52, Uwate, K. R., Chief Marine Resources, Yap State

Department of Resources and Development,

Colonia, Yap, personal communication, September 1986.

53, von Drost zu Hulshoff, B., and Gregg, W.P. Jr.,

54

55

56

“Biosphere Reserves: Demonstrating the Value

of Conservation in Sustaining Society, ” Parks

10(3):1-18, July-September, 1985.

Wadsworth, F., Institute of Tropical Forestry,

U.S. Forest Service, personal communication,

September, 1986.

Wahle, C. M., “Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

Whitesell, C., U.S. Forest Service, Institute of

Pacific Islands Forestry, personal communication, September 1986.
.—

Chapter 4

Island Renewable Resource

History and Trends
CONTENTS

Page

History of the Islanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

U.S.-Affiliated Western Pacific Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

American Samoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . 91

U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Representative Resource Problems of the U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands .. 102

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................102

Terrestrial Resource Damage and Depletion . .........................103

Marine Resource Damage and Depletion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...109

The Island Socioeconomic Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...113

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... 113

Traditional Cultures and Economic Development . ....................115

Education and Out-Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......116

Wage Rates and Unemployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....117

Social Support Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........119

Preference for Government Employment. . . . . ........................119

Shortage of Rural Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................120

Alien Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................121

Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. . . . .. 122

Chapter 4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................123

Boxes

Box Page

4-A. Chronology of Major Events of the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands . . . . . 85

4-B, Chronology of Major Events of the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands . . 93
Chapter 4

Island Renewable Resource

History and Trends

HISTORY OF THE ISLANDERS

Introduction

Although histories of the peoples and settlement of the U.S.-affiliated island areas are diverse, certain common factors exist: 1) at one

time all but American Samoa were colonized

or administered by foreign nations, and 2) at

one time they have been of some strategic importance to the United States. Nearly all of the

indigenous island populations suffered population depletion as a result of colonization. Direct

causes ranged from the introduction of disease

to the active removal or relocation of inhabitants (e.g., decimation of the Caribbean Arawak

population, Chamorro wars in the Marianas).

The majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands

were subject to one or more colonial powers.1

American Samoa is the only island group which

remained independent until the United States

gained authority over the eastern Samoa Islands

in 1899. Guam and Puerto Rico essentially experienced only one colonial authority—Spain.

Both island areas were ceded to the United

States at the close of the Spanish-American War

in 1898. Spain’s authority lasted close to 400

years in Puerto Rico and some 300 years in

Guam. Although several colonial interests developed in the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Danes

had the most extensive interests and authority

lasting nearly 245 years. The United States purchased the Danish West Indies in 1917 after

nearly 50 years of intermittent “negotiations.”

Traditional island cultures depended on a variety of island resources for their sustenance

and they developed many resource management

and conservation techniques (18). Traditional

resource management required supernatural

‘Colonial authority in this report refers to the various powers

who claimed the islands prior to their entering various political

associations with the United States.

sanctions, a harsh discipline, inequality of people, resource apportionment, and curtailment

of individual freedom (25). An ethic of minimal exploitation of necessary resources allowed

for recovery of those renewable resources exploited in the traditional system. Original inhabitants of the islands were essentially selfsufficient; living off the surrounding terrestrial

and marine resources or acquiring necessary

resources through intra- and interisland exchange systems (1,25,46,88).

Although the social organization of individual island groups was unique, some display

common characteristics. Social structure on

most islands was a well-defined hierarchy that

clearly outlined individual rights and duties.

Most of these social hierarchies included a head

or paramount chief, lesser chiefs, clans, lineages, and upper and lower classes (46,61). Although, many variations in social organization

existed, they all contained some mechanism for

critical resource control through social hierarchy (46).

Generally, native island resource-use techniques were not adopted by the colonial powers;

although some colonial agriculturalists did

adopt indigenous cropping regimes (97), the primary impetus for colonization was to secure

high-value goods and minerals to supply the

homeland economy. As such, the colonial attitude was not one of conservation, but rather

exploitation. New production methods and

values were introduced as well as new crops

and livestock. Islands which were heavily exploited suffered land degradation and resource

depletion.

Subsistence agriculture and fishing continued

to be an important part of the indigenous society of the Pacific islands during the colonial

period although, in some areas, cash crops en83
84 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

croached on lands available for subsistence

agriculture (e.g., sugarcane and copra plantations). Traditional production methods slowly

became more restricted to those rural and outlying areas in least contact with the trade centers. Islanders became more accustomed to a

lifestyle involving imported goods, the status

of traditional subsistence methods decreased

and, correspondingly, dependence on outside

sources increased.

The colonial authorities in the U.S.-affiliated

Caribbean islands focused on commercial agricultural production for export purposes. Nevertheless, a subsistence sector developed and persisted in Puerto Rico (97). Although the Danish

West Indies were inhabited by Amerindian

agriculturalists at the time of Columbus, by the

time these islands were colonized in the 17th

century the Indian population had disappeared.

U.S.-Affiliated Western

Pacific Islands

Introduction

Ancestors of Pacific island peoples originated

in Southeast Asia. Western Micronesia—the

Marianas, Yap, and Palau–was first settled by

migrants from the southeast. Ancestors of the

peoples of eastern Micronesia and Polynesia

moved through northern Melanesia and up

through Vanuatu (5). These settlers brought

with them nearly all the food crops that became

their staples (1) and may have introduced animal species as well (46).

Social Organization

The fundamental difference between the ecologies and resource bases of the high islands and

coral atoll islands was reflected in traditional

cultural systems. High islands generally have

larger land mass, better soils, and more abundant freshwater resources than do atoll islands

(46). Despite the number of exigencies of atoll

life, population densities were generally greater

than on high islands.

The stratified social organization which developed in the Pacific islands was designed to

provide for the subsistence needs of the members, settle disputes, and manage essential resources. For most of Micronesia, the systems

of social organization and land tenure were

based on matrilineal descent. Individuals were

members of lineages and several lineages could

comprise a clan; these units were further ranked

within the society. Authority generally flowed

from paramount chief, to lesser chiefs, to commoners. Inmost areas, certain lineages or clans

were in charge, with the lineage chief being

paramount and the junior ranking males serving as lesser chiefs (46). Better quality land went

to higher ranking members of society in some

instances; however, individuals had access to

necessary raw materials (46).

One variation of this structure existed in the

Carolinian atoll islands between Yap and Truk.

In the Carolinian group little stratification existed and each atoll or section of a larger island was a politically autonomous community.

Lineages were ranked according to their arrival

and settlement on the island with the lineage

of greatest antiquity being most senior and its

head being the community’s chief (46).

The matriclans in Yapese society functioned

as in the other Micronesia islands; however,

there was no lower order of landholding matrilineages. Rather each village was comprised of

a number of patrilineages each with its own

head and these were the landholding units of

the society. Village lands were ranked as higher low-caste land and then further subdivided.

High caste villages often occupied the best land

and additionally “owned” the land of the low

caste villages (46).

An exchange system, sawei, once linked the

high island of Yap to all the atoll islands from

Ulithi in the west to Namonuito in the east. This

system provided a mechanism for peoples of

small, vulnerable atoll islands to move freely

between islands, in turn establishing a network

allowing members to request aid from other is-
lands in times of need (e.g., typhoons or food

shortages) (1,2).

Traditional Subsistence Economies

Traditional subsistence economies have been

characterized as “nature-intensive” (25), which

implies the optimum use of naturally functioning ecosystem processes to provide for the

subsistence needs of the population. Islanders

developed production techniques that took advantage of the natural workings of the island

(e.g., stream diversion for irrigation) and the

limited land resources. Atoll dwellers, with little

arable land, focused on improving and increasing marine harvest methods. Trade between

atoll dwellers and high islanders was common

(e.g., the Yapese sawei system). Evidence exists that a form of aquiculture was practiced

on several of the western pacific islands (Pohnpei, Kosrae) (115) and remains of old fish ponds

still exist on Yap.

Most agriculture involved food-bearing trees

and root crops, many of which were imported

with the first influx of settlers. Coconut palms

were of major importance, as well as breadfruit,

papaya, bananas, and pandanus. Root crops included wet- and dry-land tare, yams, sweet

potatoes, and arrowroot. Agricultural terraces

similar to those found in Southeast Asia existed

in the Marianas and Palau (5). Several tree species were used for construction of dwellings

and canoes; pandanus leaves were used for

canoe sails, and thatch for houses. Coconut

fronds, especially Nipa palm, also were used

for thatch.

Marine resources were important, especially

for the atoll dwellers where terrestrial resources

were extremely limited. Coral reefs associated
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 87

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

These Kosraean craftsmen combine traditional skills

with modern tools to carve a canoe from

a breadfruit tree.

with islands and lagoons of atolls supported

a variety of reef fish, turtles, and shellfish.

Pelagic species often were critically important

to meet the subsistence needs of the society.

Canoes were used for trolling in the open ocean

as well as still fishing in protected lagoons. Nets,

traps, weirs, and spears also were used. The

tools and fishhooks were fashioned from locally

available materials such as wood, shell, stone,

and coral. The behavior, movement patterns,

and mating habits of marine species were known

in detail by the islanders. Islanders knew much

about the lifecycle of many organisms and their

patterns of seasonal abundance (42). Mollusks

and crustaceans were gathered within the intertidal area.

Throughout the region, fishing knowledge

was property of great personal value and thus

not lightly shared with others in the community (42). Harvest methods, distribution patterns, and customs differed, but these patterns

resulted in an apparently effective resource

management system. Rights to harvest certain

species or to fish in certain grounds were often

held exclusively by particular families or other

specific groups within the community (93). Recent research in Palau has revealed that the

traditional body of knowledge of marine species and behavior was quite sophisticated and

comprehensive, rivaling that of today’s marine

biologist (42).

These traditional economies comprise three

distinct sectors: a production sector, controlled

and organized to serve individual family needs;

an exchange sector, governed by kinship and

traditional political organization to serve community needs; and an investment sector, through

which the resources were managed (89).

The production sector centered almost entirely around the family unit with individual

members performing specific tasks in providing for family needs. Each family had privileges

to the land and sea apportioned to the clan (89).

The exchange sector was important in the

daily working of the subsistence economy and

served to ensure the flow of goods from the

more productive to less productive members.

This sector became particularly important

when normal family production was insufficient (e.g., sick, injured member), or when there

was a wider community need (e.g., natural disasters). At these times, the paramount chief

could designate other members of the clan, or

of other clans to assist in production, or summon labor for community benefit (89).

The investment sector characterizes the

traditional economy’s sustainable management

of the resource base. It couples minimal exploitation of resources with fallow periods allowing recovery of renewable resources. These

naturally regenerating resource areas were essentially an investment in biological capital to

ensure future productivity. This relative underproduction provided the flexibility necessary

to absorb sudden population immigrations and

natural disasters (89).

Westerm Contact

Western contact in the Pacific began in 1521

with Ferdinand Magellan’s arrival on Guam.

The first Spanish colony established on Guam

in 1565 served as a provisions stop for Spanish

galleons sailing between Florida and the Philippines (67). Spain’s primary interest in the Mariana islands was “saving souls” and little effort

was spent in exploiting the islands’ renewable

resources.
88 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Spain renewed its colonization efforts in the

Mariana Islands nearly a century after the initial colony was established on Guam. With the

arrival of Jesuit missionaries in 1668, Spain

claimed the rest of the Mariana Islands. Missions were established on Rota, Tinian, and Saipan; and “Christianization” of the indigenous

population began in earnest. The Jesuits instituted formal education, primarily of a vocational nature, with an emphasis on religion (67).

Western contact initially reduced the different indigenous Micronesia populations through

introduction of disease (89) and conflicts that

ensued over religious beliefs increased the toll.

While Spain laid claim to most of Micronesia,

they did not attempt to extend actual rule outside of the Marianas until other nations attempted to gain a foothold in the region (46).

American and English whaling vessels began

to frequent the Micronesia islands in the 1830s

and experienced a short-lived prosperity lasting for nearly two decades. Islanders became

involved in world trade as they exchanged local commodities (e.g., sea cucumber, shells) for

imported goods (e.g., iron, glass). During this

period, American missionaries began arriving

on some of the westernmost Micronesia islands (Kusaie–now Kosrae) to offer the Protestant religion to the indigenes. Throughout the

Spanish period, various nations, including Germany, Japan, and the United States were present in the islands as traders and whalers.

The mid-19th century brought the beginning

of the copra (dried coconut) industry. Successful copra operations were established by German

traders in the Marshall Islands. The presence

of the copra traders expanded the exposure of

islanders to world markets and imported goods

and encouraged islanders to develop coconut

palm plantations. Several German companies

were established in Micronesia by the 1860s

and within 10 years copra was the primary export of Micronesia (76). Land remained in indigenous hands and Micronesians entered

what was later to be called the era of the “coconut civilization” (69).

Development of the copra trade led to increasing German encroachment on previous SpanPhoto credit: Office of Technology Assessment

The copra industry still forms the basis of economies

on many U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands.

ish territorial claims, ultimately resulting in a

power struggle between Germany and Spain.

Germany declared a protectorate over the Marshall Islands in 1885; took control of Yap; and

claimed Truk, Kosrae, and Pohnpei. A papal

decision, made in 1885, settled the conflict.

Spain’s authority over the Caroline islands was

reaffirmed. Germany retained authority over

the Marshall Islands and received trade and

fishing privileges within the Spanish islands

and the right to establish fueling stops (67).

The Spanish-American War brought an end

to Spanish authority in Micronesia. Guam was

ceded to the United States in 1898, and Germany purchased the remainder of Spanish

Micronesia, Japanese companies continued to

be active in Micronesia commerce during the

German period until 1901 when they were

barred from the region for selling firearms (69).

The German administration of Micronesia

brought increased commercial activity, primarily in the area of copra trade. However, phosphate mining on Angaur (Palau) was also a successful operation. The Germans instituted a

system of “indirect rule” with the islands being administered by the Germans through the

hereditary chiefs. This period furthered the

breakdown of land tenure practices in favor of

individual ownership. The German administration prohibited alien purchase of Micronesia
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 89

land. Any person or company interested in

establishing a new business was required to negotiate a lease with the German Government,

which in turn negotiated with the native owner.

Mandatory education also was instituted, and

although of a broader scope than Spanish

schooling, the emphasis remained on religion

(69).

Germany’s rule ended in 1914 with the beginning of World War I and Japan seized control of Micronesia. Japan established a military

administration which lasted from 1914 to 1920

when the League of Nations sanctioned Japanese authority by Mandate. Early in the military administration many of the old German

policies were continued (e.g., tax system, mining operations) (89). A civilian government was

established in 1922 and economic development

based on resource exploitation began (89). Copra

trade was further expanded, with islanders continuing to be the major producers, and commercial fishing increased in importance (46).

A sugar industry was developed in the Marianas. Japanese nationals were brought in to cultivate and harvest sugar and soon outnumbered

islanders. By 1940, 80 percent of the total labor force on the islands was Japanese or Okinawan (89).

The Japanese Mandate Period has been characterized as the most economically successful

period in the history of the Micronesia islands.

Fishing, sugarcane, copra, and pearl culture are

a few of the many areas the Japanese developed

(89,91). However, despite the increased economic success of the period, the benefits of the

period went largely to the Japanese. Production skills remained concentrated in the hands

of Japanese nationals. Traditional authority was

greatly weakened and the Micronesians became accustomed to an authority imposed from

outside. The Japanese era in Micronesia ended

with World War II (46).

United States Administration

U.S. administrative involvement with the

western Pacific islands began at the close of

the Spanish-American War when the island of

Guam was ceded to the United States. In 1947,

the United States, in accordance with an agreement with the United Nations Security Council, assumed administration of most of Micronesia as a United Nations Strategic Trusteeship.

The trusteeship allowed the United States plenary control over the islands including the right

to establish military bases and foreclose access.

The United States was to protect the welfare

of the inhabitants and eventually prepare the

islands for self-government or independence

(89).

The U.S. Navy assumed initial administrative responsibility for the islands at the end of

World War II. Administrative policy was a

slow-paced approach to development that extended through the first 15 years of U.S. administration, largely as a reaction to the Japanese

Mandate Period (89). All Japanese were repatriated by the end of 1946, thus removing the bulk

of prewar era production expertise. promotion

of the welfare of the Micronesia people was

the objective of the naval administration.2 Large

development projects were excluded from the

islands on the grounds that they did not promote the welfare of the Micronesia people.

The United States Commercial Company

(USCC) was created within a few months of the

inauguration of U.S. Naval administration in

order to supervise the economic development

of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

(TTPI) . USCC bought produce for export from

islanders and offered a selection of import

items. In an effort to develop the economic potential of Micronesia, the USCC conducted an

economic survey of the territory (89). Rebuilding the copra industry, fishing, and agriculture

activities, which were destroyed in the war,

were the major USCC goals.

The USCC was replaced in late 1947 by the

Island Trading Company (ITC), a corporation

that was capitalized by the Navy and run by

the Deputy High Commissioner. The purpose

of ITC was to promote development by furnish2

Ia a directive issued in December 1945 by Admiral Spruance,

military governor of the islands, the American position was stated

as follows: “indiscriminate exploitation of the meager resources

of the area is to be avoided . . , The establishment, for the profit

of aliens, of enterprises which tend to maintain the island economy at the level of cheap labor and which do not permit the islanders to enjoy the full benefits of their own labor shall not be

tolerated” (40).
90 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ing technical assistance and services to locally

owned businesses. It provided loans and subsidies to island businessmen to stimulate growth

of industry, and provided warehousing and importing services. Under ITC, retail stores proliferated in Micronesia. ITC purchased and

marketed copra, handicrafts, and other exports

much as USCC had done. However, efforts to

encourage production of new crops did not fare

well and numerous enterprises failed. ITC was

liquidated in 1954 and by that time several local import companies were strong enough to

survive on their own. The other functions ITC

performed were dispersed to other organizations (89).

Civilian administration of the TTPI began in

1951 when the U.S. Department of the Interior

assumed the responsibility. Self-sufficiency for

the TTPI remained the goal under the Department of the Interior. The objective was to duplicate the successes of the Japanese era without

the associated exploitation and alienation of

land and labor. U.S. authorities encouraged

government investment in lieu of private capital investment, and government subsidies were

carefully controlled so as not to undermine the

goal of self-reliance. The annual subsidy at this

time remained at a level of $5 to $6 million each

year and the value of exports remained between

$2 to $3 million each year. The system of taxation developed during naval administration,

though largely an insignificant source of revenue, was retained. Municipalities were encouraged to develop tax systems and use the revenue to sustain municipal needs (e.g., teacher

salaries, school repairs) (89).

The direction of U.S. administration changed

in 1963 to a program of intensive development

in Micronesia. U.S. appropriations for the Trust

Territory increased from $13 million in 1964

to over $60 million in 1971 and continued to

rise until the close of the 1970s. Funding during this period was directed largely toward

administration, schools, and health services.

Between 40 and 45 percent of the TTPI government’s annual budget was allocated for

health and education (89).

With increased assistance, the Trust Territory government began to assume many responsibilities formerly handled by municipalities.

The emergence of a bureaucracy was apparent. The government work force tripled during the 1960s and private sector service industries expanded accordingly. Concurrently,

imported goods became available in unprecedented quantities and by 1970 import value had

reached $20 million. Exports, however, remained at the earlier levels (about $3 million)

with only minor fluctuations (89).

Capital improvement projects, with the goal

of developing the solid infrastructure necessary

for self-sufficiency, became a considerable budget item beginning in 1970. Construction of public buildings, roads, airports, and dock facilities, were some of the projects. The impact of

these projects, however, was realized more in

the nature of salaries than in an actual increase

in productivity. Federal program grants also

became available during this time, and much

of this funding was directed toward improving

social services. Total U.S. assistance peaked in

1979 at $138 million (89).

Exports increased notably during the 1970s,

and by the end of the decade export values had

reached $16 million annually. The increase was

due largely to increasing tourism and industries producing tuna and coconut (copra and

oil). Some of these gains were short-lived and,

when considered with the rate of inflation, were

near the 1948 1evels of export income (89).

The Compact of Free Association, which was

approved for the Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands

by the U.S. Congress and the United Nations

Trusteeship Council in 1986, offers an opportunity for the islands as well as the United States

to foster increased Micronesia self-reliance.

The Compact is designed to give Micronesians

control over their internal and external affairs,

and funds to develop a means of increasing selfsupport within a 15-year period; the United

States retains defense and security responsibilities. Local government emphasis is now on

economic development (25).

The United States’ financial support for economic development in Micronesia initially will

increase under the Compact of Free Associa-
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 91

tion, Then, assistance will decline through the

stipulated 15-year period, with decreases occurring every 5 years after the beginning of the

compact. The Republic of Palau elected to

maintain an even spread of funding throughout the 15-year period.3 Funding available for

capital improvements will initially increase

while funding for social welfare programs and

government bureaucracy will decrease. This

represents a major aim of the compact: to provide a base for future local productive industries and prepare Micronesia for increased economic self-reliance. Almost 40 percent of U.S.

assistance is earmarked for infrastructure and

development projects (89).

Micronesia’s cash economy today is roughly

90 percent dependent on U.S. aid, thus, aid reductions stipulated in the compact will have

a pronounced impact on the area. Previous policy trends of rapidly expanding aid largely for

social programs and support of the public sector will change under the Compact of Free

Association. The change in U.S. policy perhaps

will foster development of an independent private sector economy; with increasing importance placed on services, light industry, and

development and sustainable exploitation of local renewable resources (89).

American Samoa

American Samoa is the southernmost U. S.-

affiliated polity. It lies within the region known

as Polynesia and the inhabitants are culturally

and racially related to Hawaiians, Tongans, and

Maori (New Zealand). Archeological evidence

suggests initial settlement of the Samoa islands

occurred before 1,000 B. C., probably from eastern Melanesia (53).

American Samoa is comprised of a group of

seven islands, the largest of which is Tutuila

with a land area of 54 square miles and on

which the capital city of Pago Pago is located.

Ninety percent of the territory’s population reside on Tutuila (106).

3

The compact with Palau has not yet been approved.

63-222 0 - 87-4 QL. 3

Social Organization

The social organization of American Samoa

was more flexible than that found in Micronesia. The largest social unit was the aiga, and

it included all those people who could trace descent from the founder of the group. Descent

could be traced through males or females, and

any given individual belonged to a number of

aiga. The aiga held land in a particular village

and each village had one or more matai (titled

chiefs). The matai were selected by consensus

by the aiga membership. The matai of a village formed its governing council or fono. Individuals could live and work the land of his

or her aiga, and since an individual belonged

to many aigas a choice had to made as to where

he/she would actualize his/her potential rights.

Thus, an individual selected to reside on land

of one aiga to which he/she belonged and localized extended families formed within the aiga

(46). Villages were self-sufficient entities and

generally composed of one or more aigas (106).

The topography of American Samoa encouraged development of coastal settlements. Steep

mountains, the relatively narrow band of flat

lands adjacent to the shoreline, and accessibility of fresh stream water predicated the choice

of coastal area (106). Samoan subsistence agriculture was similar in many ways to that of the

Photo credit: A. Vargo

Cultivation methods for steep hillsides were developed

early in American Samoa’s history; many of these

techniques are still used today.
92 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

U.S.-affiliated western Pacific islands; tare,

breadfruit, yams, coconut, banana, pineapple,

and papaya were cultivated (53).

The Samoans also relied heavily on marine

resources, and were excellent fishermen and

navigators. The large sail-rigged double canoes

in use by the Polynesians could hold nearly 100

people (69). Most fish and shellfish were collected in streams, lagoons, and along reefs. Reef

fish were typically part of the traditional Sunday Samoan Feast called fiafia (106). However,

offshore species such as bonito and tuna were

also collected. Implements used for farming

and fishing were fashioned from wood, stone,

and shell (69).

Western Contac t

American Samoa’s contact with the West began with the Dutch arrival in 1722, nearly two

centuries after Magellan arrived on Guam. By

the 19th century the United States, Great Britain, and Germany had established commercial

enterprises within the island group. Conflicts

arose between the foreign interests and in 1899

the islands were divided with the United States

assuming authority over the eastern Samoa islands (Tutuila, Aunu’u, Tau, Ofu, and Olosega).4

Germany assumed jurisdiction over the islands

of Western Samoa which later became independent. The Cession of Tutuila and Aunu’u,

signed in 1900, allowed for the traditional Samoan land-tenure system to remain in effect

with allowances for government accession of

land as necessary (106). Initial authority over

the islands was held by the Department of the

Navy. The Department of the Interior assumed

oversight in 1951 and continues today in that

capacity. The American Samoa Government

operates under a constitution adopted in 1960.

The firmly established traditional lifestyle and

social structure of American Samoa persevered

throughout contact with western nations and

continues today. This lifestyle, known as Fa’a

Samoa (“The Samoan Way”), places considerable value on group dignity and achievements.

4

Swains Atoll, 225 miles north of Tutuila, was annexed by the

United States in 1925.

The extended family, aiga, remains the keystone of traditional communal lifestyle. Land

tenure is based on the communal lands of the

aiga and the selected chief, matai, manages the

communal economy, and protects and distributes the lands (53,106). Nearly all land in American Samoa is held by indigenous Samoans.

Ninety-two percent of the land is held by aigas,

7 percent by the American Samoan Government and churches, and a fraction of the remaining 1 percent is in a freehold status (106).

American Samoa has experienced problems

similar to those of Micronesia in the shift from

subsistence to cash economies, including a drop

in local agricultural production. Although nearly

80 percent of American Samoan households

practice some form of gardening, Samoans purchase 75 percent of their food requirements

(46,53). This shift has been accompanied by increased economic dependence on the United

States’ for imported goods and services (53).

The largest employer is the American Samoa

Government, followed by the tuna canneries;

a range of retail and service enterprises comprise the third major portion of the economy

(46).

Precontact cultures of the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands share some commonalities with

those of the Pacific. The indigenous populations

were subsistence economies dependent on the

available land and sea resources.

The origin of the early inhabitants of Puerto

Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands still is uncertain.

They have been described as seminomadic peoples; primarily hunters and fishermen, establishing their settlements near the island’s coastline and mangrove forests, Archeological

excavation of settlement sites show no evidence

of agricultural practices (61).

‘In 1980, the American Samoa Government budget was nearly

$73 million, of which $32 million came from Federal sources (30).

94 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. insular Areas

Subsequent migrants were of Arawak culture6

with origins in the Orinoco Basin in South

America. Archeological sites date their arrival

on Puerto Rico in the vicinity of 120 A.D. The

early Arawak settlers also were hunters and

fishermen. Coastal areas were the original settlement sites, however later settlements were

established in the interior of the island. A more

complex social organization had developed

among the Arawak by the time Puerto Rico was

settled by the Spaniards (61).

Arawak culture is characterized as peaceful

and sedentary; energies were directed towards

hunting, agriculture, and fishing. The primary

agricultural tool was a primitive hoe, and crops

such as cassava and arrowroot were cultivated

(61,88). Swidden, or slash and burn, clearing,

was employed and root crops commonly were

interplanted in mounds of soil (knee high by

several feet wide). This method-conuco cultivation—provided soil aeration and maximized

the range of arable land (88).

Evidence exists that fishing played a significant part in the lives of Indians who inhabited

Caribbean islands prior to European settlement,

although it is not possible to assess the relative

importance of fishing compared to other resource use activities (34). Fish, shellfish, turtles,

marine mammals, and waterfowl were harvested from nearshore environments and offshore waters (88). Precontact Indians of Puerto

Rico harvested forest products for a variety of

uses including construction, canoes, fuel, foods,

dyes, and medicines (119).

The social organization of the Indian culture

included a chieftain (caique) who exercised authority over a higher class (nitainos) and a lower

class of workers (naborias). There were regional chieftains as well as a paramount chieftain (61,88).

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were

encountered by Christopher Columbus in 1493.

Juan Ponce de Leon claimed Puerto Rico for

6

The term Arawak shall be used in this discussion to refer to

the Indian population of the U.S. Caribbean area present after

the early inhabitants. This culture has been further divided by

many historians to differentiate various tribes of Arawak culture including Taino, Carib, and Borrinqueno.

Spain in 1509; the first colony was soon established in Puerto Rico. The island of St. Croix,

in what was to become the Danish West Indies,

was first colonized in the 1630s by several European nations.

Puerto Rico was inhabited by Arawak Indians

at the time of colonization, and the population

largely was decimated in the colonization process. The Virgin Islands, although populated by

indigenes at the time of Columbus’ arrival, were

not inhabited at the time of colonization; the

population having been eliminated largely

through Spanish efforts during the 16th century (27).

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico’s forests were modified by the

island’s earliest inhabitants; however, population pressure was low enough to allow recovery of the exploited areas. Thus, essentially all

of Puerto Rico was forested at the time of Spanish arrival (75,88,119).

Spain’s interest in Puerto Rico was enhanced

by the discovery of the island’s gold resources.

Gold was mined efficiently and deposits were

essentially depleted by 1540 (61,75). Despite

considerable outmigration at the end of the gold

mining period, the colony was maintained (75,

97). The colonists that remained turned to an

agricultural livelihood.

Forest clearing increased with the arrival of

the Europeans, largely through efforts to access agricultural lands, although forest products also were harvested for construction and

fuel (119). Highly valued Puerto Rican timber

species became one of the early exports. Timber exports continued to rise and in 1815 the

timber industry accounted for a large part of

total exports.

Coastal areas provided the bulk of harvested

timber, and mangrove species were popular for

boat construction. The majority of forest products exported in the 19th century originated in

coastal forests. Most wood harvested, up to the

early 20th century, was used for fuel or construction; nevertheless, construction wood was

being imported as early as the 1700s.
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 95

The small colonial population of Puerto Rico

pursued an indigenous path of development until the late 1700s. A self-reliant, diversified agricultural economy evolved, geared toward production for domestic consumption rather than

overseas markets. This economy was comprised

of a large subsistence sector located primarily

in the highlands, and an underdeveloped commercial sector concentrated on the coastal

plains (92).

The subsistence sector was dominated by independent, small cultivators, who employed

slash and burn agriculture to produce a variety of crops (plantains, rice, maize, beans, cassava, root crops) for home consumption and

occasional exchange. Few of these peasants

(jibaros) actually owned their land, many were

squatters (desacomodados) on Crown land, or

sharecroppers (agredados) on hacienda land

(92).

The commercial sector consisted of large cattle ranches, plantations, and farms (haciendas),

which produced an assortment of exportable

cash crops, including sugarcane, ginger, tobacco, cacao, coffee, and cotton. Additionally tropical fruits, medicinal plants, and woods of high

commercial value (satinwood, lignum vitae)

were exported (61). While sugarcane, ginger,

tobacco, and coffee each dominated the export

sector at various times between 1550 and 1800,

cattle raising proved to be the most stable agricultural enterprise throughout this period (61,97).

Sugarcane and sugar production became the

island’s major economic activity in the mid-16th

century. The emerging sugar industry received

royal assistance in the form of loans for mill

construction, sugar transport to Spain, and the

purchase of slave labor. Labor shortages, transportation problems, and default on loan payments all contributed to the gradual decline of

the sugar industry (61).

Difficulties encountered by the sugar industry led to increasing cultivation of ginger or livestock raising—primarily cattle. Despite royal

edicts forbidding ginger cultivation and urging return to a sugar economy, ginger became

Puerto Rico’s main crop. Eventually increased

ginger production resulted in market price decrease and production efforts turned to tobacco

and cacao (61). Livestock production remained

an important part of the colonial economy; it

provided for local consumption and hides were

produced for export.

The Puerto Rican economy experienced little change until the end of the 18th century.

Population remained small; external trade was

limited to a few commodities. The constricted

character of the export sector was reflected in

the relatively small slave population, which was

just over 5,000 in 1765 (97). Heavy taxes coupled with trade restrictions contributed to the

island’s limited economy.

Spanish colonial officials attempted to accelerate economic development after 1750. Reforms in existing tax laws and production restrictions emerged in 1813. Through a royal

decree in 1815 (the Real Cedula de Gracias) the

island’s agriculture, industry, and commerce

were promoted and immigration was encouraged. Uncultivated lands were distributed

and some larger estates were divided resulting

in an increase in the percentage of smallholders. Trade with friendly nations was liberalized. The sugar industry experienced a resurgence with increased worldwide demand for

sugar (61).

These government efforts produced modest

results prior to 1825; population increased substantially as did export crops. However, as late

as 1828 less than 4 percent of the land was under cultivation, and the subsistence sector still

dominated the agricultural economy, accounting for 71 percent of all cropland. At least 80

percent of the proprietors engaged in subsistence farming, as did nearly all of the agredados

(92).

Expansion and transformation of the agricultural economy took place during the last seven

decades of Spanish rule. Between 1828 and

1896 the amount of land under cultivation more

than tripled, while pastureland doubled. Acreage devoted to export crops increased dramatically, overtaking acreage devoted to subsistence production (92).

Progression to a commercial economy based

primarily on sugarcane production resulted in
96 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

creation of larger landholdings, displacing

some smallholders who moved into the highlands, and brought new forest areas under cultivation (97). Price fluctuations in the world

sugar market during the 19th century caused

redirection of agriculture exports to coffee. Although generally cultivated on small landholdings, coffee eventually replaced sugar as the

major export crop.

Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States

at the end of the Spanish-American War in

1898. The U.S. Congress established a civilian

government in 1900 and Puerto Ricans were

granted U.S. citizenship in 1917.

In the 1930s, a program was instituted by the

Government of Puerto Rico to provide landless

farmers and farmers living within public forestlands small parcels of land on which they

could cultivate subsistence crops, firewood,

and forest products in exchange for planting

and caring for the public forestlands (78). Once

the forest areas were successfully planted, the

squatters were relocated (118).

Establishment of a forest research station was

authorized by Congress in 1927 and the Tropical Forest Experiment Station was created in

1939 on the University of Puerto Rico at Rio

Piedras. The station was established to provide

technical knowledge for forestry programs

which largely had been unsuccessful during the

previous lo-year period. Reforestation attempts

had produced many failures.7 Agricultural

colonization had reduced forest cover to only

9 percent of its original extent by 1950—4 percent government forests and 5 percent privately

owned forests (99).

7

The Tropical Forest Experiment Station was renamed the Institute of Tropical Forestry in 1961. The Institute’s main research

objective was timber management. Research has been conducted

on: utilization of forest products, secondary forests, wildlife management, growth studies, and identification and description of

promising tree species, Through Institute efforts, a technical base

for forestland planning in Puerto Rico has been established. Various methods for postharvest treatment of timber products have

been developed. The station was of regional significance, developing an information distribution network of more than 1,000

participants within 24 years of its inception. The Institute has

accumulated a tropical forest library. Short courses, graduatelevel teaching, and research planning assignments have been

conducted by the Institute in several Caribbean, and South and

Central American countries.

The 1900 Organic Act contained a resolution

which limited corporate land ownership in

Puerto Rico to 500 acres; however, this provision was not effectively enforced until 1941

(17,71). The Puerto Rico Land Authority was

created in 1941 by the “Land Law” (Act No.

26 of 1941) to reorganize the island’s land tenure. The law’s purpose was to acquire and redistribute lands held in excess of 500 acres. Squatters were relocated on small plots where they

could build homes and cultivate a small garden. Family size farms (15 to 20 acres) were

established and large “proportional benefit”

farms expropriated from large landholdings

were to be managed by the Land Authority with

workers sharing in the profits (17,116).

The program for relocating squatters was successful and most plots have been subdivided

among descendants of the original owners. The

“proportional benefit” farms, however, were

inefficiently run and accumulated heavy losses.

Most of these lands are now leased to private

farmers for sugarcane and rice production

(116). In 1978, the Land Authority owned a total of 94,943 acres of land which were devoted

to various agricultural endeavors and real estate (111).

During World War II, Puerto Rico became

important militarily, with naval bases established there (Roosevelt Roads) and on the nearby

island of Culebra. The influx of military personnel substantially increased the local demand

for fish, spawning the first commercial fishery

development in Puerto Rico. The program was

initiated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Authority for the program was transferred at

the conclusion of World War II to the Puerto

Rican Agricultural Development Corporation

which emphasized offshore fisheries and conducted experimental operations. The program

was terminated in 1947 (34).

A major shift in economic development strategy began in 1947, aimed at industrializing the

island, diversifying agriculture, and providing

full employment for the people (10). Diversification of the Puerto Rican economy was a goal

of the program dubbed “Operation Bootstrap.”

Program goals included: 1) development of intensive and balanced use of the island’s agri-
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 97

Photo credit: W.C. Lowdermilk

Puerto Rico’s agricultural sector developed a substantial smallholder component following the creation of the

Puerto Rican Land Authority in 1941.

cultural resources, 2) improvement of capital

and credit availability for agricultural producers and industry, 3) development of efficient

marketing systems, and 4) reorientation of fiscal policy to achieve these goals (10). Incentives

offered to businesses included tax exemptions,

technical assistance, labor training programs,

and subsidized rental of government buildings

(87). The construction industry prospered and

government grew. This, and a large exodus of

laborers to the U.S. mainland, removed capital and human resources from agriculture (116).

Sugar, coffee, and tobacco contributed 64.3 percent of gross farm income in 1950, and only

14 percent in 1985 (9).

Industrial development led to more attractive employment opportunities in industry than

in agriculture, lower priority for agricultural

programs, and increased abandonment of farm

land. The growth of the tourism industry also

attracted capital and labor away from agriculture. These two factors contributed to the accelerated urbanization of major Puerto Rican

cities.

The Puerto Rican electorate approved the island’s newly drafted constitution in 1952 and

the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico became a

recognized entity. The Commonwealth is an

autonomous government in voluntary associa-
98 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas

Photo credit: William Balmer

The pine plantation in the background shows the timber

production potential of these sloping, abandoned

agricultural lands in the central highlands

of Puerto Rico.

tion with the United States. Internal conflicts

over political status have occurred, with factions divided over the issue of statehood, independence, or continuing as a Commonwealth.

U.S. Virgin Islands

The present-day U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI)

were first colonized in the 1630s when settlements on St. Croix were established by the

Dutch, English, and French. A period of

colonial friction followed these early settlements, with the French finally gaining control

in 1650. France retained sovereignty until 1695

when its colony was relocated to Hispaniola.

The island of St. Croix remained virtually uninhabited until 1733 when France sold it to the

Danish West India Company (DWIC), the exclusive Crown agent for settlement and trade

in the West Indies (55).

St. Thomas was successfully colonized by the

Danes in 1672. The islands represented an opportunity to produce highly valued agricultural

commodities to supplement the homeland economy. Early colonial modification of the land

included clearing of forests, primarily by slash

and burn techniques, for plantation establishment and commercially valuable timber species (72). The early plantations produced a variety of crops, including tobacco, indigo, coffee,

cotton, foodstuffs, and sugarcane. Extensive

forest clearing for agriculture, as well as introduced predators (e.g., mongoose), probably contributed to extermination of some indigenous

fauna (e.g., agouti) (97).

At the close of the 17th century, slave labor

(of African extraction) became increasingly important as Danish interest increasingly focused

on sugarcane production. The population of St.

Thomas rose from about 1,000 in 1691 to nearly

4,000 by 1715 and the proportion of slaves increased from roughly 60 to 85 percent. Agricultural terraces (sugarcane and bench) were

constructed on the hillsides through the use of

slave labor (97). Danish interests expanded in

the early part of the 18th century with the DWIC

acquisition of St. John in 1717, and again in

1733 when St. Croix was purchased from France.

The company focused heavily on sugarcane

production and plantation numbers increased

dramatically. On St. Croix, nearly all arable land

was under cultivation within a decade of its

purchase by the DWIC.

St. Thomas became a free port in 1724 and

the DWIC’s activities—both in colonial staple

exports and European imports—established the

island as a major trade center in the Caribbean.

Slave trade in particular became a thriving business, attracting buyers from America and other

Caribbean plantations (55). However, financial

and political difficulties led to DWIC bankruptcy in 1754. The Danish Crown purchased the

Danish West Indies and continued control of

the islands.

During the 18th century, diversified agriculture gave way to sugarcane monoculture, and

the sugarcane plantations progressively enlarged their control over island resources. By

the end of the 18th century, these plantations

comprised 67 percent of all plantations and

sugarcane accounted for nearly 80 percent of

all cropland. The majority of pastureland was

also held by the plantations (97). Sugarcane was

cultivated extensively on all three major islands

of the Danish West Indies, and at one time or

another nearly all of the land was in sugarcane

production (72,100).
The sugarcane plantations flourished until

the 1830s. Thereafter, falling prices, rising production costs, scarcity of investment capital and

labor problems aggravated by slave emancipation in 1848 combined to debilitate the industry (97). Limitations such as contract wage labor and harsh vagrancy laws were instituted

and effectively tied many newly freed slaves

to the land (56,97).

The postemancipation decline of sugar export in St, Croix was exacerbated by the emergence of intercontinental steamships which

could bypass St. Thomas as a fueling station

(56). However, the sugar industry struggled on

despite declining acreage, primarily by incorporating technological improvements such as

steam mills and central factories.

Many St. Thomas and St. John plantations

progressively were abandoned after emancipation, and their cleared areas were allowed to

revert to brush forest. Nonetheless, on St.

Thomas extensive deforestation occurred during the middle of the 19th century, as secondary forests were cleared to supply the growing

fuel and construction needs of the Port of Charlotte Amalie (97).

The structure of the plantation system changed

significantly after 1848. The emerging system

primarily was one of small-scale, less laborintensive, more diversified agricultural activities (97). Crops such as sea-island cotton, sisal,

fruits, coconuts, and foodstuffs were cultivated

and livestock (cattle and sheep) production increased. Many large landowners who chose to
100 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

discontinue agricultural activity nonetheless

held onto their properties for speculative purposes (20,97). Thus, while the total number of

plantations (units with more than 50 acres) declined only slightly between 1796 and 1915, landuse shifted away from caneland and cropland

toward increased pastureland and woodland.

During the second half of the 19th century

some control over plantation-land resources

was relinquished to ex-slave smallholders. The

number of smallholdings (plots under 50 acres)

rose from 4 in 1796 to 594 in 1915. This process went furthest on St. John, where by 1915

there was a total of 244 smallholdings covering 1,148 acres, or 9 percent of the land area

(98). The St. John smallholders practiced a subsistence economy that combined subsistence

farming, animal husbandry, fishing, charcoal

production, and part-time labor on the plantations (70,98).

On St. Thomas most of the smallholders were

French immigrants from St. Barthelemy (St.

Barts), who settled on the north side of the island during the 1860s and either rented garden plots or entered into sharecropping agreements. Some managed to acquire title to their

land by the beginning of the 20th century. Like

their counterparts on St. John, their subsistence

strategy combined farming with fishing and

charcoal production (62).

St. Thomas increased its specialization as a

point of international commerce and center of

regional finance because of its deepwater harbor, free-port status, political neutrality, and

strategic location (56). A dual economy developed during this period, with St. Thomas emerging as a trade center and extensive plantation

agriculture characterizing St. Croix (56).

Prior to the decimation of St. Thomas’ forests

in the latter half of the 19th century, Danish

colonial authorities showed little concern over

deforestation and its impact on soil productivity

or freshwater supplies. The only law touching

on this subject required Cruzan planters to leave

shade trees, or trees bordering the main roads,

untouched (97). A Danish resource survey in

1903 indicated that there was no forest on St.

Thomas and St. Croix and little forest of commercial value on St. John.

Although fish were an important dietary component, commercial fisheries were slow to develop in the Danish West Indies. More commonly, tropical produce was exchanged for

imported saltfish—a preference that continues

today. There were, however, some local fishing activities. Early 19th century accounts indicate an abundance of marine life near the Virgin Islands (97).

Archeological excavations uncovered shellfish middens on plantation sites, indicating that

some harvest of clams, conch, and mangrove

oysters occurred historically (97). While most

fishing was undertaken to satisfy plantation

consumption needs, descriptions by local visitors during the slave era indicate that slaves

and free fishermen were selling some portion

of their catch in fish markets near the urban

centers (84).

Throughout the colonial period, fishing technology was similar to that of the indigenous

islanders. Shellfish and turtles were taken along

the shorelines (88). Offshore fishing was done

from skiffs and dugouts, Woven fishpots constituted the primary catch technology; however,

handlines, nets, seines, and harpoons were also

employed (84).

Emancipation marked a decline in the number of fishermen employed by the plantations

and corresponding expansion of fishing activity by those persons living outside the plantations. Fishing communities were established

on St. Thomas by French emigrants from St.

Barts. Fishing was a common component of

subsistence strategies in the Danish West Indies.

The Danish Government exhibited some interest in colonial fishery development in the

early 1900s. The first fishery law was passed

in 1908; it regulated the right to fish; protected

fishpots; and prohibited the taking of juvenile

fish, lobsters with eggs, and female turtles in

certain seasons (28).

Negotiations over the sale of the Danish West

Indies to the United States began in 1865 and

the islands were finally purchased in 1917. The

U.S. Navy assumed initial administrative authority over the newly named Virgin Islands

of the United States (USVI). U.S. citizenship
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 101

was granted to most Virgin Islanders in 1927

and within 2 years universal suffrage was

granted (114).

The first 40 years of U.S. administration did

little to alter the prevailing patterns of land distribution or land use. Agricultural policy encouraged sugarcane cultivation for export and

virtually ignored the subsistence sector. Consequently, land resources were consolidated in

the hands of a few plantation owners and land

speculators, with an associated decline in the

amount of land distributed to smallholders (97).

Most privately owned plantations began to

fail in the late 1920s. This led to the formation

of the federally run Virgin Islands Co. (later becoming the Virgin Islands Corp., VICORP),

which held nearly all the sugarcane land on St.

Croix, and operated the only sugar factory. With

its focus on sugar and rum production, VICORP

did little to encourage alternative crops or the

production of foodstuffs for local consumption

(97).

Sugar production experienced a slight resurgence with the repeal of U.S. prohibition and

concurrently the demand for cane cutters rose,

resulting in large-scale immigration from nearby

islands (56). Among VICORP’s later projects

were the development of a small forestry program (118) and the beginnings of the infrastructure necessary to support a tourist industry. Commercial difficulties finally resulted in VICORP’s

dissolution.

A sector of full-time fishermen existed in

1917, but little was done to promote the local

fisheries. The Naval Administration requested

a survey of the local fisheries in 1932 (28) which

included the numbers of local fishermen, technologies employed, and harvest amount. The

survey concluded that the fishery was operating at 50 percent capacity and recommended

various government supports to foster development. Except for promotion of cooperatives

little seems to have been done. A 1950 economic

report noted that local fishermen still relied on

primitive technologies and marketing, and little had been done to take advantage of marine

resources (72).

Administration of the islands was transferred

to the Department of the Interior in 1931 and

a civilian governor was installed. A homesteading program was put into effect. Although many

could not afford the initial downpayment, the

program met with some success, as evidenced

by an increase in small farms (56). Overall, however, activities to promote the viability of a small

farmer sector received little attention (97). The

self-reliant, subsistence community on St. John

declined, many on St. Croix abandoned working their land, and on St. Thomas only the

northside agricultural community persevered.

The First Organic Act for the Virgin Islands

was passed in 1936. St. Thomas became the capital of the USVI (114). A revised Organic Act

was passed in 1954 and contained numerous

fiscal and economic provisions of benefit to the

USVI.

The Virgin Islands Tourist Board was established in 1952, evidence of the beginning of

tourism-focused development. Between 1950

and 1970, the USVI experienced a massive economic boom based on tourism in St. Thomas

and St. John, and heavy industry in St. Croix,

The islands became the fastest growing tourist haven in the Caribbean and the site of the

largest oil refinery in the Western Hemisphere

(Hess Oil in St. Croix) and of Martin Marietta

aluminum processing. During this period 42,000

acres were absorbed by increasing tourist, residential, and industrial development (56),

This period coincided with the phase-out of

commercial sugar production, intense resource

competition from the tourism sector, construction and government employment, and export

manufacturing. To accommodate rising population densities and immigration from surrounding West Indian islands, the territory

experienced a widespread pattern of suburbanization (55).

Tourism has been actively promoted since

the 1960s and is currently the most significant

economic activity. As a result, the current economy is primarily based on tourism and related

enterprises (110). Presently tourism accounts

for approximately 40 percent of the gross ter-
102 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ritorial product and employment while local

government absorbs another one-third of territorial activity (56). Historically, the majority

of desirable land has not been available for

small scale subsistence agriculture. Initially, the

majority of highest quality land was in large

plantations while currently, with the emergence

of the tourism industry, increased real estate

prices have made much of the land inaccessible (97).

REPRESENTATIVE RESOURCE PROBLEMS OF

THE U.S.-AFFILIATED TROPICAL ISLANDS

introduction

The renewable resources of U.S.-affiliated islands in the Pacific and the Caribbean supply

their inhabitants with many important goods

and services as they did in the past. Yet, human activities have jeopardized the renewability of some of these island resources. Despite

their differing histories and cultures, these islands share some common resource problems,

including that of resource overexploitation.

Another major problem is related to impacts

of human activities when a particular resource

is developed or exploited. Such problems and

their underlying causes commonly are more

apparent on small islands than they are on large

continental areas.

Certain naturally occurring hazards, although

not unique to islands, often represent a significant problem. The relatively small size of islands often makes them less able to absorb the

impact of a natural disaster than a large continental area. Agricultural or fishery capacity may

be reduced temporarily, resulting in increased

dependence on imports. Cyclonic storms, associated flooding, and landslides occur on many

of the islands. In American Samoa, for example, flooding is ranked as a major problem. The

majority of development has occurred in the

narrow flatlands which lie between the steep

volcanic mountains and the shore. The watersheds typically are comprised of steep valleys

flanked by sharp ridges with underlying permeable rocks. Although the watershed is heavily

vegetated, landslides still occur, posing a clear

hazard for villages located in the coastal valleys.

Episodic catastrophes have been related to

tidal phenomena. Rainstorms coinciding with

spring low tides killed up to 92 percent of reef

invertebrates at Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands (47). Other natural stresses are less common in the Pacific. Active volcanoes are limited

to the Northern Mariana Islands, where eruptions may severely disrupt intertidal and shallow-water habitats (24). Many of the U.S.-affiliated islands are in or near seismically active

areas and occasionally experience earthquakes

(106,107,108,109,110,111). Shoreline erosion is

another naturally occurring problem. Well-de-
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 103

veloped coral reef, seagrass meadows, and littoral vegetation systems provide some protection; however, where these systems have been

removed or degraded, natural protection is

limited or nonexistent.

Terrestrial Resource Damage

and Depletion

Damage to the terrestrial resource base

largely has been a function of human activity.

Resource depletion is apparent in many of the

islands’ early colonial histories and continues

today, further reducing the islands’ productive

capacity. Loss of forest area on many islands

has adversely affected groundwater resources,

wildlife habitat, soil fertility, and has exacerbated soil erosion. Habitat loss, introduced

competitors and predators, introduced disease,

and overexploitation all have contributed to

depletion of many island wildlife populations.

Island freshwater resources are inherently

limited and on many islands these resources

are threatened by such factors as infiltration

of agricultural chemicals and industrial wastes

into the aquifer. Further, distribution of existing freshwater resources to inhabitants poses

a problem in some island areas. Hazardous

waste from military activities remains a problem on some Pacific islands. Islands in both

the Pacific and Caribbean still are used as impact areas for military weapons,

Flora and Fauna Resources

Past, poor landuse practices have degraded

forest resources in the U.S. Pacific and Caribbean tropical territories and have resulted in

significant amounts of degraded and abandoned land and relatively unproductive secondary forest. Island fauna similarly have been

threatened by such landuse practices. Related

resources (e. g., water supplies and coastal marine resources) in many places are threatened

by forest loss. Reliable information on the original extent of forests of the Western Pacific islands does not exist but forests probably covered most of the islands. The Caribbean islands

were forest covered at the time of European

contact.

Forests.—On many islands, deforestation has

resulted in turbid, erratic, and seasonally disappearing streams (99). For example, older inhabitants of northern Babelthaup (Palau) remember when the streams ran year long. Now, the

forest cover has been destroyed through repeated burning and the streams flow only when

it rains, at which time they often are muddy

and flow very fast (99).

At one time Guam was entirely forest-covered,

but human disturbances, frequent typhoons,

and the adverse impacts during and after World

War II have left little undisturbed forest on the

southern part of the island. Only scattered

patches remain in largely inaccessible areas in

ravines and on steep slopes. Savannas on the

southern part of the island are believed to be

mostly the result of repeated burning. Some of

the open land is barren and actively eroding.

Accelerated clearing and burning of forests

on old volcanic soils in recent centuries have

created a secondary forest in some areas and

much secondary savanna. Erosion and soil deterioration have been accelerated in some areas

by frequent burning, making natural forest

regeneration a slow process (99).

Fire is the biggest technical problem to overcome in rehabilitating grasslands. Fires sweep

through grasses to the edge of the forest, destroying forest along the margin. The Guam Division of Forestry estimates as much as 80 percent of the fires on Guam are caused by arson

(38).

Most abandoned agricultural land revegetates

naturally to savanna or to secondary forest. Little of the secondary forest is suitable for immediate commercial timber exploitation due

to poor quality and low volume of commercial

tree species (99). Nearly two-thirds of American Samoa’s rainforest has been damaged or

destroyed by man’s activities, leaving undisturbed forests only on steep slopes (106). Man

has influenced the vegetation of the Marianas

for at least 3,500 years. Observations in Puerto

Rico indicate that the forest area is increasing

slightly or has stabilized (99).

Vegetation removal during construction activities and the exposure of loosened soil to
104 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

heavy rainfall also leads to soil erosion. For example, the largest part of the erosion problem

in the Virgin Islands is attributable to the clearing of large tracts of land, construction of

homes and roads on steep slopes, and the filling or destruction of natural water courses

(117). After heavy rains on St. Croix, it is common to see a red-brown plume of sediment discoloring the sea at the mouths of streams situated below construction sites (110). Similar

sediment discharge may be observed in Puerto

Rico (63). A critical problem in American Samoa

is the erosion of soils. The sediment is carried

to the nearshore waters where it adversely affects water quality as well as marine populations such as corals (106).

Protected Species.—Several species of island

flora and fauna are on the verge of extinction

or have not been seen in years and thus are presumed to be extinct. This problem is critical

on Guam where recovery programs concentrating on birds are carried out in conjunction with

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (39).

Guam’s avian population has declined rapidly

since World War II. The Guam Division of

Aquatic and Wildlife Resources has identified

several causes for this decline including, loss

of habitat, pesticides, avian disease, and predation. Predation, particularly by the brown

tree snake, appears to be a primary factor. Research on the brown tree snake indicates a

correlation between expansion of the snakes’

range and decline of avian populations (38). The

Philadelphia Zoo, National Zoo, and zoos in

Denver, New York, and San Antonio have begun a “bird lift” and breeding programs to save

several endangered avian species (39). Cur-
rently, seven species of Guamanian birds are

listed under the Federal Endangered Species

Act, An avifauna survey was recently completed by USFWS on Pohnpei and other high

islands of Micronesia (26,31).

USFWS, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), and

Yap Institute of Natural Science (YINS) have

conducted two censuses of the Mariana fruit

bat (Pteropus mariannus mariannus) population on Yap. Yap banned the hunting and exportation of fruit bats in the early 1980s because

of the decrease of the bat population due to its

export to Guam. Fruit bat populations on Guam

were severely reduced during the 1960s; among

the causes were: increased exploitation, loss

of habitat, economic importance of the species,

and lack of adequate protection (38). The Mariana fruit bat and the Little Mariana fruit bat

(Pteropus tokudae 8

) currently are protected

under the Federal Endangered Species Act. The

Yapese ban on hunting and exportation of fruit

bats still is in effect and the fruit bat population is recovering (39).

A high incidence of seabird mortality at Midway is due to air strikes with planes and collisions with radio antennae. The seabird population at Wake Island was severely decimated

during the Japanese occupation. During this

period the Wake rail became extinct. A potentially rare plant species, Lepidium wahiense,

from Wake has been proposed for listing by

USFWS as an endangered species. The monk

seal has been adversely affected by human pres8

The Little Mariana fruit bat (Pteropus tokudae), endemic to

Guam, is believed to have become extinct recently [122).
106 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ence and populations have declined at Midway

and other islands of the Leeward chain (53).

Introduced Species.—Certain introduced

species have had unexpected negative impacts

on island renewable resources. Harmful insects

and plant diseases have been introduced in the

Pacific islands over the last 10 to 15 years as

travel to and from the islands has become easier. Two of the most harmful introductions have

been the Rhinoceros beetle and the Giant African snail which now populate many islands.

The Giant African snail inhibits nursery production for horticulture and forestry. The Rhinoceros beetle causes extensive damage to

coconut palms in several island groups (99), but

does not exist in the Marshall Islands (76), Yap,

Truk, Pohnpei, Kosrae, or on atolls (26).

A recent introduction that threatens some

young Leucaena forests on Saipan, Guam,

Palau, and Yap is the insect Psyllid (39). This

insect seems to be controlled on Yap by the native bird, the bridled white eye (26). On some

atolls, rats significantly damage young coconuts; control efforts have included trapping,

poisoning, and bringing in additional cats to

the affected islands (76).

Tilapia is an exotic species of fish that was

introduced into the wild in Puerto Rico. The

introduced Oreochromis mossambica is now

considered a pest because it is viewed by the

consumer as inferior quality human food and

as such has created consumer resistance to the

consumption of the cultured species Tilapia

nilotica (34).

Some introduced animals have become public health problems in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific

islands. Foremost among these pests are snails

and toads which, in extreme cases, have been

linked to some human deaths. Rats, birds, and

fish are known to carry human and animal parasites (23].

The Giant African snail (A. fulica) hosts organisms which cause human diseases. For example, the rat lungworm (Angiostrongylus cantonensis), which parasitizes the African snail,

has been recognized as the cause of cerebral

angiostrongylosis in humans. The parasite is

most commonly found in A. fulica; however,

it has also been found in some rats, land crabs,

coconut crabs, and freshwater prawns. Infection is acquired by ingesting raw or improperly

cooked meat containing the parasite. The African snail also carries the gram-negative bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila (60).

Toads (Bufo marinus) are another introduced

nuisance and have poisonous parotid glands

behind the head which secrete toxins. The toad

has caused numerous cat and dog deaths and

human deaths have also been recorded (96). Circumstantial evidence indicates that increased

salmonella outbreaks occur in areas of large

toad populations. The high incidence of polluted drinking water and dysentery in American Samoa may be connected to the high densities of toads in areas of human habitation (4).

Freshwater Resources

A major health concern on islands is water

quality. Islands commonly have a limited supply of freshwater and experience an increase

in health problems when water sources are

degraded or contaminated. Water quality may

be affected by many factors, including infiltration of agricultural chemicals and industrial

wastes into aquifers, and insufficient treatment

and inadequate disposal of sewage. Islands with

extremely porous soils generally are more likely

to experience infiltration of undesirable agents,

such as chemicals or sewage, into the aquifer.

As human populations have increased on

many islands, the demand for increased freshwater supplies has grown. Until relatively recently, the quality of surface water and groundwater in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands was excellent. However, unregulated

pumping of water from aquifers underlying the

coastal lowlands has led to saltwater intrusion

into some parts of the aquifers. The resulting

saltwater or brackish water in the wells renders

these parts of the aquifer unfit for human consumption, agriculture, and many industrial uses

(64,73).

In the U.S. Virgin Islands, every structure

must have its own rooftop water-collection system feeding into a cistern. In addition, extensive paved catchments exist on some hillsides

leading to large cisterns that feed public water
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 107

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

This rooftop water catchment system in Majuro (Marshalls)

serves as a supplementary freshwater source. However,

few such rainwater collection systems exist in the U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands, but are commonplace

in the Caribbean.

mains. Rapid population growth, however, has

exceeded the capacity of the public catchments

and cisterns and as a consequence, desalination plants have been built to increase freshwater resources (73). In the recent past, St.

Thomas Island had to import water by barge

from Puerto Rico to supplement local water

supplies.

Nearly all of Guam is served by a piped water

system. Groundwater resources from the northern half of the island supply as much as 70 percent of the island’s potable water. Since 1983

Guam has implemented a comprehensive groundwater management program designed to protect groundwater quality and direct groundwater

extraction to avoid salinization. American

Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern

Mariana Islands (CNMI), the Marshall Islands,

Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), and

Palau are in varying stages of developing similar programs. Salinization is a particularly important problem in the CNMI which relies on

groundwater supplies for 90 percent of its potable water. Catchments are used to supplement

groundwater in areas where salinization or undependable water service is a problem. Many

areas in the former TTPI (FSM, RMI, and Palau)

do not have sufficient infrastructure for comprehensive groundwater management (49),

Puerto Rico’s principal water-supply problem is the deterioration in service from irrigation districts serving 40,000 acres. Deliveries

from the four districts have fallen below half

of their pre-1920 design capacity of 4 inches

per month to the serviced land. The decline continues because of archaic operating rules that

were designed originally to service a sugarcane

monoculture no longer in existance; and because of reduced irrigation demand, and continuing reservoir sedimentation. Declining surface water availability has led many farmers

to rely exclusively on groundwater. Because deliveries from irrigation district reservoirs constitute the single most important source of

groundwater recharge, this trend of changing

irrigation water use eventually will cause an

unfavorable balance and the intrusion of seawater into the freshwater aquifer (64). No action has been taken yet to manage the surface

water system to ensure that adequate amounts

of recharge are provided (64). The irrigation

practices still in use on a majority of the farms

are wasteful, inefficient and costly (73).

Increased population levels or overcrowding

may also cause water quality degradation.

Treatment systems, sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), have been or

are being constructed in population centers in

the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands (49). However,

in some areas sewage systems are still under

construction, or facilities still need to be extended to all structures (49,53). Overcrowded

conditions on Moen, and to a lesser extent on

Tel, Dublon, Fefan, and Uman (Truk) have led

to unsanitary wastewater disposal practices. Although a sewage treatment plant and outfall

on Moen have been in operation for many

years, hookups with residences are few (53).

Through a series of EPA projects (Rural Sanitation Programs) remote areas are now being

provided with basic wastewater and water supply facilities (49).

Coastal Resource Damage

Sand, a renewable resource of beaches, in certain cases has undergone extreme depletion

through mining. Some of the calcium carbonate

beach sands of St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Is-
108 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Hillside mining for construction materials is an alternative

to beach sand mining, however, the associated adverse

environmental impacts to terrestrial and marine

ecosystems may rival those caused by

beach sand mining.

lands came under heavy mining for construction purposes in the early 1960s. The sand was

mined for government and private use, leading

to nearly complete stripping of some beaches.

As more seaside hotels were built it became evident that maintaining beaches was more valuable than using the beach sand for construction. Subsequently, dredged sand replaced

beach sand for construction (114). Mining or

collecting beach sand for personal use has been

a practice among Samoans for centuries. Now,

however, some beaches are being depleted for

commercial construction purposes. On Truk,

removal of beach sand for construction fill has

led to some shoreline erosion (53). Beach sand

mining is a problem in most Pacific areas (49).

Hazardous Waste

Johnston Island has served as a temporary

repository for chemical defoliants and chemical munitions since the early 1970s. Agent

Orange was stockpiled at Johnston after the U.S.

involvement in Vietnam and finally was incinerated at sea away from Johnston in 1976. During years of storage, however, some drums

leaked into the ground. The extent of contamination has been analyzed and remedial actions

have begun (82). Some chemical munitions deteriorated and started to leak as well. This led

the Army to embark on a program to incinerate and destroy the chemical munitions in an

explosive-proof facility to be constructed on

Johnston (53).

U.S. nuclear testing took place on Bikini Atoll

between 1946 and 1954 and weapons testing

took place on Enewetak between 1948 and 1958.

Blast effects and contamination from radioactive materials severely damaged or destroyed

parts of these atolls. Today, plans suggest that

the radioactive soil from Bikini may be removed

and deposited on another atoll, in a lagoon crater, or used for landfill along the shoreline. Agriculture will not be allowed on Bikini for obvious health and safety reasons (53). Enewetak

underwent a similar cleanup during 1976 to

1978. Low-level radioactivity still was present

in the soil of several large islands in the atoll

after the cleanup. Recent radiological tests indicate that coconuts from trees replanted in the

northern islands are not fit to eat due to excessive levels of radiation (53).

American and Japanese military ordnance

from the World War II era still litter some Pacific islands. Unexploded bombs and shells still

are found on parts of Guam, Saipan, the Marshalls (31), Truk, and Peleliu (Palau). The presence of such explosives inhibits the use of certain lands and provides a lingering hazard to

island residents. Recovery of corals in previously blasted or bombed holes that resulted

from air raids on Moen (Truk) seems relatively

minor (53).

Some U.S.-affiliated islands are still used as

impact areas for military weapons. Parts of the

island of Vieques just east of Puerto Rico serves

as a bombing and gunnery range for the U.S.

Navy. In order to offset the negative environmental impacts, the U.S. Navy has recently

reforested 100 acres of abandoned/eroded pastureland on Vieques. The U.S. Navy and the

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Memorandum

of Understanding) cooperatively fund projects

to enhance employment prospects and create

long-term benefits for the inhabitants of Vieques (77). Farallon de Medinilla, a small raised

limestone island north of Saipan, is used as a

bombing and gunnery target by U.S. Pacific na-
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 109

val forces and by the U.S. Air Force tactical

air squadron on Guam. Exercises on this island

are said to be sporadic (48,53).

Marine Resource Damage and

Depletion

Degradation of the marine resource bases of

the U.S.-affiliated islands follows a pattern similar to that of the terrestrial resources. Many

human activities, on-island and at sea, have adversely affected the marine resource base of

many islands, Some on-island development

activities have had adverse impacts on nearshore marine life. Destructive fishing practices

and overharvesting of certain marine species

has adversely impacted the marine resource

base. Despite such damage, however, the marine resource base continues to provide essential products to island inhabitants.

Nearshore Fisheries

Because of past over-optimism as to the commercial potential of nearshore fishing resources,

a rather consistent scenario of fisheries development and depletion seems to be emerging.

The scenario is in various stages of realization

throughout the U.S.-affiliated Pacific and Caribbean islands. Urban center populations grow

with rural or outer island migrations (101,102,

103,104,105). As urbanization continues, the

reef resources are over-harvested in an ever

widening area emanating from the urban center (34,65).

The number of fishermen in Puerto Rico increased from 1,230 to 1,872 between 1976 and

1982 while the number of fishing vessels increased from 865 to 1,449 (8,43). This development pattern has had a striking impact on

Puerto Rico’s nearshore resources. Because of

rising fuel costs, larger “offshore” boats have

tended to fish closer to shore. In 1974, the

waters of Puerto Rico were characterized as

“very nearly overfished” and “heavily exploited”

(43,44). The increase in total effort expended

within the fishery was accompanied by a nearly

50 percent decline in catch per unit of effort;

a classic indication of overfishing (8).

Increases in local population and tourist trade

in the USVI has been accompanied by increased

demand for fish, conch, lobsters, and other

seafoods. Adult fish of the shallow coastal

waters have become increasingly scarce resulting in the decreased effectiveness of fish pots

as a harvest mechanism. In easily accessible

sites, conchs and lobsters are heavily depleted

(114). The USVI Government has deployed artificial reefs constructed of old automobile tires

in an effort to increase shallow-water fish habitat and thereby enhance fishery potential (34).

Destructive Practices.—The history of coral

and mollusk fisheries is one of progressive exploitation leading to chronic depletions (36,37,

51,85,86,121). Conchs and black corals are heavily overfished throughout the Caribbean, including populations among the U.S.-affiliated islands (51,112,120).

Pearl oysters have been important items of

commerce for centuries in certain parts of the

Pacific. The pearl shell industry had a major

impact on some islands as a result of the activities of the foreign traders and fishermen drawn

to exploit the stocks of the Golden Lipped and

the smaller Black Lipped pearl shell (69). As

stocks of pearl oysters were depleted, the top

shell, Trochus niloticus, came to be used as a

source for buttons and other similar items

(66,69). Trochus recovered after World War II

from its pre-war depletion. However, populations began to decline from over-exploitation

again by the mid-1950s, leading to establishment of reef sanctuaries in which no harvest

was permitted (53,59,91). Despite closed seasons, however, trochus populations remain low

from overharvesting in Pohnpei and Truk (31).

Fishing with explosives was contrived by islanders during World War II with the readily

available supply of military ordnance (7). This

type of “fishing” still is widespread throughout the South Pacific. Destructive fishing methods such as dynamiting pose a severe problem

in Truk lagoon (31). The availability of unexploded ordnance on many of the Japanese

sunken ships near some islands and the illegal

acquisition of dynamite from local construction activities are factors which may foster this
110 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

activity. This technique is without question responsible for considerable destruction of reef

corals and reef fish habitat (53).

Chlorine bleach and water purification powder have been and are being used by some islanders to kill reef fish and bring them to the

surface where they can be collected for sale or

for the fisherman’s consumption. Bleach sometimes is used on Yap for such purposes (41).

The bleach has such severe negative impacts

on fish, corals, seagrass beds, and algae that

some populations are permanently reduced (7).

The exploitation of nearshore resources by

subsistence fisheries of American Samoa is

heavy in places and occasionally destructive

methods using dynamite and chlorine bleach

are employed. As human populations continue

to rise, increased fishing pressure and overfishing of preferred species, especially in reef and

lagoon waters, are major emerging problems

in Pohnpei, Kosrae, Truk, and Yap (31).

Tourism has certain inadvertent but direct

negative impacts on marine resources. One

study shows that the trampling effect of corals

by humans is significant. At one site, 18 traverses by individuals reduced living coral from

41 to 8 percent (117). Certain fragile species like

Acropora suffered the greatest damage. Shells,

used extensively in handicrafts in American

Samoa, the eastern Carolines, and the Marshall

Islands, have become increasingly scarce. Supplies of shell and coral are being adversely affected not only by the handicraft industry but

also by builders and divers (117).

Protected Species.—Natural stocks of giant

clam F, Tridacnidae have been seriously depleted in their natural range. Tridacna gigas

populations are believed to be extirpated from

marine habitats of many of the U.S.-affiliated

Pacific islands. Two varieties of giant clam,

Tridacna gigas and Tridacna derasa, have been

placed on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

(IUCN) endangered species list (95).

Currently, the harvesting of corals and other

sessile or sedentary animals is restricted in the

U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands by various

Federal and Commonwealth statutes. Exceptions are made for small-scale collections for

scientific, educational, or personal use (29,120).

Despite this level of protection, the poaching

of corals for the tourist and aquarium trade is

ubiquitous throughout the Caribbean region,

and seems unlikely to diminish. Mollusks are

not protected, with the exception of conchs and

species living within the Federal waters and

parks (112).

The two most common marine turtles among

U.S. insular areas of the Pacific—the green turtle and the hawksbill turtle—have been declared

“threatened” and “endangered” respectively

and are protected under provisions of the U.S.

Endangered Species Act. Harvest of these turtles is prohibited in Guam, the Commonwealth

of the Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa. Despite protected status, hawksbill turtles are killed in some islands, as evidenced by the large number of well-crafted

tortoise shell combs, earrings, and bracelets on

the market. Residents of some U.S.-affiliated

islands are permitted to harvest marine turtles

on a subsistence and traditional basis as a protein resource (91).

Four species of sea turtle occur commonly

in the Caribbean: hawksbill, green, leatherback,

and loggerhead. All are variously protected

from harvesting or molestation by living within

Federal waters or by their status as endangered

or threatened species (112,113). Moreover, strict

import controls apply to the mere possession

of turtle products in the United States. Nevertheless, turtles have been hunted intensely in

the Caribbean and continue to be poached and

sold, even among U.S. islands, for food and fine

jewelry (29,112). Turtles are easily caught in

nets, by hand, or on the beach while laying eggs.

The general availability of outboard motorboats

and synthetic netting exacerbates the problem,

and the economic value of turtles ensures that

low-level poaching likely will continue (120).

In December 1985, a 400-ton ferryboat ran

aground on Mona Island Reef off the coast of

Puerto Rico, a reef that is a marine preserve

and habitat for several protected turtle species

and marine birds. The ship was still aground
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 111

on the reef as of March 1986, breaking up, leaking oil, and crushing the coral (21).

Degradation of Nearshore Resources

Large-scale destruction of coral reef communities from sedimentation is well documented

(25,30). Dredging and filling operations in the

nearshore environment are significant contributors to marine resource destruction. Dredging and filling associated with the military buildup in Guam before, during, and after World

War II resulted in considerable adverse impacts

to reefs in Apra Harbor and other coastal resources; battle activities added to these problems. Centuries of slash-and-burn agriculture

and intentionally set savanna range-fires have

aggravated soil erosion and contributed sediment to riverine, estuarine, and reef systems

(53).

Since 1980, excessive dredging and filling related to an airfield-port construction at Okaht

on Kosrae has caused major sedimentation

damage to coral reefs and seagrass beds. The

fishery catch has declined in Okaht’s coastal

habitats. On Pohnpei, considerable mangrove,

lagoon, reef, and perhaps seagrass habitat has

been destroyed or degraded by recent dredge

and fill operations (26). Sedimentation from upland construction also has contributed to reef

degradation, Part of the reef itself has been used

as a source of fill material, Some of the shoreline filling is to accommodate immigrants from

outer islands because of unavailability of land.

Yap has no exposed limestones or other suitPhoto credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Dredge and fill operations often take heavy tolls on nearshore marine ecosystems: heavy machinery may break up the

coral reef, associated sedimentation may smother bottom communities, and loss of habitat can adversely affect

nearshore fishery potential.
112 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

able rock available for fill, roadwork, and other

construction activities and, therefore, most material must be dredged from lagoon reefs.

Perhaps the single most significant impact

to coral reefs in American Samoa resulted when

the commercial airfield was extended out into

Pala Lagoon, resulting in severe restriction in

tidal circulation, and dredging and quarrying

on once important reefs. In addition, the Government relied on filling of reef lagoons in inner Pago Pago Harbor to expand its landholdings (53).

Dredging and shoreline modification associated with tourist developments are a major

threat to nearshore resources in Puerto Rico

and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Coral reefs in

Puerto Rico are seriously threatened by human

development activities including dredging, land

erosion, oil spills, industrial and thermal pollution, and direct harvest for curios (43). Alteration of the coral reef ecosystem may produce

adverse changes that are essentially irreversible (34).

St. Croix Island has not escaped dredging impacts. Prior to 1968, release of dredging spoil

to Christiansted Harbor damaged coral communities on nearby reefs. From 1968 at least

to 1974, no new dredging permits were issued

in the U.S. Virgin Islands largely because of

negative public opinion about damage to the

marine environment. The retail price of one cubic yard of sand in 1968 was $3.50 but the price

has now reached $50.00. Thus, strong economic

incentives exist to resume dredging (68).

Waste Management.—Damage of nearshore

resources from dumping solid wastes, sewage

releases, thermal pollution, and oil spills are

common on the islands just as they are in the

continental United States. Solid waste management is a serious emerging problem in Pohnpei and the FSM in general and is cited as a

serious problem on Majuro in the Marshall Islands. There seems to be little planning to designate sites and landfill operations, and rubbish

and solid waste is dumped indiscriminately,

commonly at the shoreline environment (53).

Guam has recently instituted a litter control program which sets fines for littering; the funds

will be used to clean up open dumps (49).

Sewage, oil, and cannery waste pollution has

long been a serious problem in Pago Pago Harbor in American Samoa. Sewage treatment

plants at Utulei and elsewhere have largely

eliminated degradation from domestic wastes.

Oil handling and storage facilities also have

been improved although the unauthorized dumping of bilge waters into the bay continues to

be a problem. Presently, no pumpout facilities

exist for ships and yachts calling at the bay (53).

Pala Lagoon on Tutuila has high fecal coliform concentrations presenting a public health

hazard. The construction of the airport runway

over the opening of the lagoon to the ocean has

reduced water exchange with the ocean. This

problem is exacerbated by stream runoff, which

is high in nutrients and sewage tank overflows

(106). A sewage collection system with associated individual dwelling service is currently under construction there to mitigate the adverse

environmental impacts (49). Traditional discharge of raw sewage into nearshore waters

still occurs in some areas, resulting in severe

water degradation.

Similar problems exist in the Caribbean area.

Solid waste on St. Croix was pushed into the

sea at a site near their airport until 1974. This

practice has ceased but the old dump remains

a source of nearshore water pollution. A chance

exists that wave action from a tropical storm

could spread the debris widely. Overflow from

the tailings ponds of a bauxite processing plant

reached the sea in the past during periods of

heavy rainfall. Waste heat and brine are carried into the sea from water used for cooling

purposes.

Oil Spill Hazards.—Oil spills and oil discharges by ships adversely affect nearshore resources in many parts of the world. An oil spill

damaged a section of mangrove on Guam (91);

another in 1971 affected Sandy Point on St.

Croix. In addition, oil and tar from tankers

floats in from the open ocean to the beaches

of Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands (22,81),

Globs of tar floating on the sea in the Carib-
—

Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 113

bean and off Florida mistakenly have been isting laws (e.g., Clean Water Act) is difficult

taken for food by hawksbill turtles. Dead and because of the need to observe the incident or

dying tar-laden turtles are reported on the re- prove guilt through relatively complex procegion’s beaches (22). Oil spills also are problem- dures (49).

atic throughout the Pacific. Enforcement of exTHE ISLAND SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT

Introduction

Sustainable renewable resource management

depends not only on the capability of ecological resources, but also on the availability of

skilled labor and desire to engage in resource

management and development activities. Human resources are critical to renewable resource management, Indispensable human

components include: laborers with special

skills; farmers, foresters, fishermen, and aquaculturists with entrepreneurial abilities and a

knowledge of modern-technology; technicians

who combine scientific training with practical

experience; and strong resource management

leadership with a sense of mission and background not only in natural sciences but also

in cultural and economic areas.

All of the U.S.-affiliated islands have rapidly

growing populations and many have high rates

of out-migration to the U.S. mainland and immigration of mainlanders and foreign nationals.

This has led to heterogeneous island populations with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and

cultures. These groups may have different aspirations, different demands for products, different attitudes towards and values for resources,

and different techniques for resource use.

The level of development of the U.S.-affiliated

islands is considerably behind that of the United

States, with Puerto Rico being the most developed of the islands. While gross domestic product (GDP) and per capita incomes are low compared to U.S. levels, they are generally high

compared to regional levels.

The public sectors are large in comparison

to private sectors on most islands, reflecting

a common preference for the security, prestige,

and fringe benefits of local government employment. Most private sector development has

occurred in service industries; however, industrialization has grown in Puerto Rico and tourism and related enterprises have grown in the

U.S. Virgin Islands. On most islands, agriculture and fisheries have nonetheless declined.

Many island residents are multi-occupational:

they engage in several occupations, part-time

or seasonally. Similarly, island institutions tend

to be multidisciplinary and general in approach

(81].

The common recommendations of economic

development plans have aimed at establishing

more self-reliant economies primarily by expanding agriculture, fisheries, and tourism (and

to a lesser extent light industry), although the

order of preference may vary among island

areas. The prospects for industrial development

in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are almost

nonexistent because of small size of domestic

economies, high wage levels, the lack of natural resources, and proximity to major Asian

competitors. The limited nature of economic

development opportunities is illustrated in

Palau where, as recently as the late 1950s, the

most valuable export was scrap metal, mainly

relics of World War II (14).

Import substitution has become increasingly

important in light of rising transport costs and

desire to encourage private sector development.

A number of plans also have called for a reduction in government employment and expenditure to allow the productive components

of the economies to catch up with consumption and to reduce the trade gap (11).

Pacific

The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are characterized by high population growth rates, in-
114 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

creasing emigration to the U.S. mainland and

to other Pacific islands, and growing numbers

of alien immigrants. The latter group have, to

a certain extent, been encouraged to enter islands such as American Samoa and Guam to

fill jobs for which local residents lack the necessary skills or which they are unwilling to accept. A combination of these factors has led

to the development of bimodal societies, or

trimodal societies—in which a significant subsistence sector still exists. The private commercial sector on most of these islands is small or

nonexistent.

The private sectors that have developed have

been oriented primarily to services supporting

the public sector and public sector employees;

the productive components of the economies—

agriculture, fisheries, and manufacturing—

have declined, or failed to develop. For example, government employment and service industries (general merchandising, transportation, food services, and construction) account

for at least 90 percent of formal employment

in the Federated States of Micronesia while the

labor force employed in direct production accounts for only 1.3 percent (11).

In the absence of a significant productive

component to their economies, the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands have become highly dependent on U.S. expenditure to contribute to

local economies. For example, Palau’s GDP was

estimated to be $20 million in 1979, of which

$9 million was contributed by the United States

in public sector support payments (14). Only

9 percent of the Trust Territory funds for 1980

were derived from tax revenues while U.S.

grant and Federal program funds contributed

87 percent (11).

Unemployment is high—estimates range from

16 (Palau) to 22 percent (Majuro)—but accurate

data on unemployment levels or trends are unavailable, especially for rural areas.

The skills required to develop the productive

sectors of the economies are being lost at a rapid

rate, and few young islanders are seeking education or employment in agriculture or fisheries. Rapid population growth in some places

has accelerated the move away from local food

production. The increased population pressure

on limited resources may eventually preclude

self-sufficiency and necessitate emigration or

family planning (11). This situation has already

been reached by most of the U.S.-affiliated

islands.

Wages also are sharply bimodal. Wages in the

public sector tend to be considerably higher

than those available through the private sector. For example, the minimum wage in Palau

in 1982 was $1.94 per hour. In the private sector, for which there is no legal minimum wage,

some wages were as low as 40 cents per hour

(14). This incentive to obtain government employment results in further withdrawal from

local production. An associated effect is demand for educational opportunities which may

not transfer into employment opportunities, resulting in increased unemployment (11).

Caribbean

Nearly 3.4 million people reside in Puerto

Rico (3,417 square miles) and 107,500 reside

in the U.S. Virgin Islands [132 square miles),

representing some of the world’s highest population densities. As a result of improved health

care, family planning programs, and general

economic affluence, birth rates in Puerto Rico

and the U.S. Virgin Islands have declined in

the past three decades while death rates have

dropped or remained stable (73).

The cultural heritage of the U.S.-affiliated

Caribbean islands is largely influenced by prior

colonial presence as well as cultural influences

from other European, African, and Caribbean

nations. This mixing results in a largely heterogeneous society with varying cultural ties

(79). Further, the close relationship with the

mainland United States strongly affects these

island cultures.

The United States is the primary commercial

partner of the Caribbean islands. The United

States’ purchase of major U.S. Virgin Islands

exports (i.e., tourism, petroleum, rum, and light

industrials) and supply of consumptive goods

comprises a large part of island trade9 (57). The

9During the period of 1970 to 1979, U.S. Virgin Islands’ exports to the United States averaged 89 percent of total exports,

U.S. citizens reached above 85 percent of total tourists and U.S.

goods comprised 72 percent of U.S. Virgin Islands imports (56).
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 115

United States’ investment in the Puerto Rican

economy totaled some $15 billion in 1982 (90).

North American capital controlled the highest

percentage of assets in manufacturing, retail

sales, exported industrial production, marine

and air transport, labor force, housing construction, and banking and finance10 [90), Thus, the

economies of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin

Islands are closely tied with the United States

and react to U.S. economic changes. Similarly,

associated employment sectors react to economic trends within the United States.

Traditional Cultures and Economic

Development

Pacific

Many U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are shifting from a traditional subsistence economy

towards a modern cash economy; in Pohnpei,

70 percent of wages are earned by only 2,120

government employees (no more than 10 percent of the population). Obviously, many people make a living outside the cash economy.

In a properly functioning subsistence economy,

production equals demand and the agent of

both is the family. Family needs in such an

economy can be met with about 3 or 4 labor

hours per day (89). Cash is neither plentiful nor

needed, and consumer goods on the island are

limited (although the number, price, and quality of products have increased in recent years).

On Pacific high islands, most family needs

for food and shelter can be obtained from the

land and surrounding ocean, and available resources seem to be underused. Most farmers

produce just enough products to sell to meet

their immediate cash needs. Farmers have little incentive to increase cash crop production,

such as Pohnpei pepper, even though both land

and labor may be available. Pepper has gone

unharvested when farmers have not needed or

wanted to convert the crop into cash.

In most traditional Pacific cultures, the concept of “borrowing” displaces that of “saving.”

---- .— . .—— 10Percent assets controlled: manufacturing—81 percent, retail

sales—85 percent, labor force—81 percent, housing construction—65 percent, banking and finance—60 percent, exported industrial production—90 percent, most means of mass communication, and virtually all marine and air transport (90).

Those who have are supposed to share with

those who have less, particularly within family and clan. One who accumulates savings may

have to deal with frequent requests from family and friends and contribute to the lifestyle

of less industrious individuals with little likelihood of repayment in cash. This removes personal incentive to earn more than one immediately needs and may be a major deterrent to

development (32).

As traditional economies have shifted toward

cash economies, the lack of a dependable labor

force (in terms of cash economies) has inhibited

economic development. Tropical climate characteristics generally prevent agriculture workers from putting in an 8 hour day; more commonly, 4 or 5 hours constitute a day’s work.

Acquisition of temporary jobs for an immediate monetary goal is common. This complicates training and supervision, and results in

lower than expected productivity. Per capita

income is high compared to regional levels, resulting in reluctance on the part of the workingage population to accept low-paying employment and further influencing the use of alien

labor.

Caribbean

The structure of U.S.-affiliated Caribbean island economies has changed significantly in

the past three decades, from primarily agricultural economies to highly industrialized (Puerto

Rico) and tourism [U. S, Virgin Islands) based

economies. This change in focus has influenced

people to seek employment in fields other than

agriculture and fisheries.

The structure of the agricultural industry and

profile of the present day farmer have changed11

——.—. 11Agriculture is still dominated by part-time workers. Total

amount of farmland in Puerto Rico increased by 4 percent between 1978 and 1982, but was still only half of 1950 levels. There

has also been an increase in the number of farms, largely in the

less than 10 acre bracket; 53 percent of farmland is owned by

operators. The average age of individuals whose primary activity was agriculture was 56.1 years, secondary was 53,7 years.

Puerto Rican agriculture is dominated by small farm units run

by an aging population, A small but growing group of educated

Puerto Ricans farm as a secondary occupation (116). Similar circumstances exist in the U.S. Virgin Islands, with 45.5 percent

of farmers spending 200 days in off-farm employment (57). There

has been an increase in the number of small farms, and increase

in the education level of farmers.
116 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

(73) concurrently with the change in overall economic structure. Puerto Rico has excellent

physical resources, well-trained young people,

required technology, and entrepreneurial ability to create a modern agriculture (116). Skilled

and unskilled labor are available. There are the

necessary professionals in Puerto Rico with approximately 1,500 college-trained specialists in

various fields (of which 800 are employed by

the government); 200 with masters degrees and

80 with doctorates (116).

Several sectors within the U.S. Virgin Islands

have effectively demonstrated over the past decades the viability of small farm and fishery operations. The French herb farmers on the north

side of St. Thomas have successfully grown and

marketed specialty herbs and spices. Similarly,

the south side communities have been successful in small-scale, semisubsistence fishing operations. Presently, migrants from other Caribbean

islands are engaged in successful subsistence

agriculture activities, involving small plots of

intensively cultivated land and organic inputs.

These sectors combine small-scale operations

with a multiplicity of occupations to maintain

successful operations (e.g., French herb farmers

may turn to fishing when crop markets are

poor).

In Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands,

agricultural work generally has a perceived low

social status, partly as a result of the plantation

and subsistence economies. Early plantation

agriculture relied on cheap labor. As economies

boomed in the mid-20th century, landholders

retained their land for speculation rather than

continuing in agriculture and the younger generation generally sought employment in areas

other than agriculture. Additional disincentives

include the more attractive wages paid in government, manufacturing, tourism, and construction. The effect is compounded by farm

operators who remain remote from their workers (116). Consequently, young, well-trained and

motivated farmers are scarce.

Education and Out-Migration

Pacific

The scarcity of certain education opportunities on the islands—primarily vocational training—in combination with primary and secondary education systems which focus on liberal

arts and college preparation have reinforced

a tendency to avoid agriculture and fisheries

in favor of “bureaucratic employ merit.” Currently, however, vocational education opportunities are increasing in the Pacific islands (52).

Westernized school curricula exclude the

teaching of many traditional skills and knowledge in many developing countries, amounting to an underlying assumption that such

knowledge is unnecessary in today’s world (42).

The current education system in this way has

created a desire for urban life and “nonproductive” (i.e., public sector, tourism) employment.

Students entering college also tend to seek

a more general college education. Professionals

trained in public administration, economics,

physical and natural sciences, and engineering are insufficient for many islands’ development needs.

Out-migration from the islands for educational or income purposes is common, and on

some islands, extremely high. For example,

nearly three-quarters of high school graduates

leave Palau for further education (14). Despite

these educational pursuits there exists a rift between available employment opportunities and

local skills. Public, retail, and skilled private

sectors remain the desired employment areas.

In many cases, the off-island residence is con-
.

Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 117

sidered temporary (until education is completed

or until job-holders claim retirement benefits

or save enough to open a business on the home

island). However, many do not return because

local employment opportunities that match acquired skills are scarce; starting a new homeisland business can be difficult, and standards

of living fall below the aspirations developed

off-island (14,16).

The public sector/private sector disparity in

wage levels, moreover, leads to underemployment in the private sector. This increases the

demand for education, encourages the dependence on alien labor, and increases the capital

investment requirements for job creation (11).

Attempts to retain skilled islanders may necessitate bonding students to return (perhaps

to guaranteed jobs or other fringe benefits) or

providing salaries at close to U.S. levels. The

former approach requires careful planning of

the manpower needs of the economy, considerable administrative cost in scrutiny of curricula, and may require termination of financial support for students choosing alternate

educations—a difficult choice when skills are

needed in many fields. It may also be necessary to redirect students from U.S. institutions

towards regional academic institutions, such

as the University of Guam or the University of

the South Pacific (Fiji), which may cater more

appropriately to the needs of small, tropical islands (13).

On the other hand, bringing salaries more

closely in line with U.S. levels may lead to even

greater disparities between the incomes of the

government employees and those of other

Micronesians (11). The remaining alternative

is to provide an environment on the home islands favorable to the satisfaction of the desires

of returning migrants; this will not be easy at

prevailing population growth rates (11,12,13).

Caribbean

The availability and diversity of educational

programs have increased; however a shortage

of skilled labor still exists at all levels. Generally, local educational and training institution

efforts are not directed toward creating a labor force with appropriate skills for the current (or future) direction of the employment

market (33,73). The generally inadequate level

of education and skills among graduates, as perceived by employers, as well as shortage of personnel in particular specialties (33), in turn, exacerbates unemployment problems.

For example, the Tahal Report commissioned

by the Government of Puerto Rico (94) indicated

that the existing agricultural production system lacks adequate knowledge of commercialization required to achieve a reliable and highvolume production and delivery to markets. A

gap exists between the systems of wholesale

marketing and production; while the marketing system has undergone rapid modernization

in the past decades, the production system has

not developed in a parallel manner. Despite numerous government and private agricultural

organizations (including the Agricultural College, Extension Service, and the Agricultural

Experiment Station) which possess professional

personnel, a need still exists for such specialized training. Research and extension personnel rarely have appropriate prior experience

with high yield technology and modern commercialized markets to guide farmers (64).

Rapid development often exceeds the capacity of an education system to supply an appropriately skilled labor force. Efforts to increase

profitability in the productive sector often requires specialized skills and training which

often are not immediately available. For example, increased mechanization commonly is necessary for farms to be profitable, requiring employees with specialized skills (34). Thus, a need

exists to train young, fairly well-educated people for agricultural pursuits; although nearly

one-half of the Puerto Rico’s work force has

a high school education, the approximately

40,000 agricultural laborers average a fourth

grade education and one-half are over 40 years

of age (116).

Wage Rates and Unemployment

The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), which

sets minimum wage and workweek standards,

applies to the U.S. Caribbean and some of the
— —. —

118 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

U.S. Pacific islands. Local economies commonly are tied to regional location. Consequently, these labor laws, while improving

wage rates, may hinder the regional competitiveness of the island. For example, tourism is

more costly in the Caribbean than in neighboring non-U.S. islands; consequently some economy-conscious tourists may avoid the U.S. islands (57,79).

Pacific

In Micronesia, cash and subsistence economies sometimes conflict. In general, the production and distribution of goods in Micronesia and American Samoan subsistence

economies are not determined by wages, prices,

and profits in the western sense, but by such

nonquantifiable factors as satisfaction of fulfilling kinship and other traditional responsibilities, the status and recognition this brings

and the inconvenience that work entails. Production ceases when family needs are met. Total production and consumption may grow with

the population, but per capita production remains constant for long periods.

Thus, many Pacific islanders are usually not

productive in a cash economy unless wages are

quite high (i.e., in government and military employment). It is difficult to attract Micronesians

to lower paying commercial jobs. Such employment is usually short-term and undertaken to

obtain a certain amount of cash for a particular item. Most employers prefer workers who

can be relied onto stay long-term and develop

the experience and skills needed to improve

their productivity; however, the discrepancy

between private and public sector wages does

not promote long-term private sector employment. Often this results in the private sector

turning to alien labor.

The FLSA sets minimum wage rates and

workweek standards on Guam, but not on

neighboring islands or nearby countries. As a

result, Guam cannot offer tourists the prices

and values that its neighbors, with lower wage

rates, can. Guam’s proposed Commonwealth

Act suggests that U.S. labor laws be amendable by local legislative action as deemed appropriate.

Caribbean

Evidence exists that the minimum wage increases in Puerto Rico have strongly affected

local production and employment. The higher

wage rates associated with the FLSA tend to

curb employment of unskilled workers particularly in labor-intensive industries. Since many

economic activities related to renewable resources are labor-intensive, they are especially

affected by minimum wage increases (73).

Higher than regional wage levels, combined

with the capital-intensive industrial development in Puerto Rico, have been postulated as

a factor in the high unemployment on the islands (79,80).

Unemployment increased sharply after 1975

in Puerto Rico; it currently exceeds 20 percent

officially (90,116) and may be as high as 25 to

30 percent in rural areas. Unemployment is

heavily concentrated in ages from 16 to 34 years

(6,35). From 1982 to 1984 the Puerto Rican labor force increased largely as a result of women

and young people entering the work force (6).

Labor force growth currently has exceeded the

local economy’s ability to generate new jobs.

Alternative employment opportunities for displaced workers have not materialized and unemployment remains a large problem despite

out-migration to the U.S. mainland, which continues from Puerto Rico at a fairly rapid pace

despite industrial growth (73).

Historically, immigration to the United States

from the U.S. Virgin Islands has fluctuated with

insular economic changes. During periods of

rapid economic growth, such as the 1960s, there

was widespread immigration to the U.S. Virgin Islands from both the mainland United

States and nearby islands. During the economic

slowdowns of the 1970s and early 1980s, however, these inflows were significantly reduced

and in some cases reversed. Close ties with the

U.S. mainland and easy access to the wide variety of U.S. employment markets has encouraged out-migration, particularly in periods of

economic adversity.
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 119

Social Support Programs

Pacific

Although Federal subsidies to Micronesia,

especially in social services, were carefully controlled in the 1950s so as not to compromise

the goal of self-sufficiency, during the latter part

of the Trustee period (after 1963) this changed.

Federal appropriations rose from almost $7 million in 1963 to at least $60 million in 1971 and

continued to rise steadily throughout the 1970s.

Most funds were channeled into administration, schools, and health services (89).

Even during a time of rapid economic growth

in the early 1970s, the number of welfare recipients steadily increased (14). Nearly onequarter of Guam’s civilian population received

food stamps in 1980, although many of these

may have been aliens. The decline in FSM agriculture and fisheries production has been attributed, in part, toFederal surplus food distribution programs (11). Cases of condensed

milk and cheese were distributed freely in the

Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas

(CNMI) while a dairy ranch on Tinian exported

80 percent of its milk and 92 percent of its meat

to Guam (12). The inhabitants of Agrihan (CNMI)

produced papayas, mango, and coconuts but

were otherwise entirely dependent on U.S. Department of Agriculture supplies (12).

A Nutrition Assistance Program was established in the CNMI in mid-1982 with about 28

percent of the Mariana citizens participating

(819 households). One condition of this program

was that 15 percent of all coupons were to be

used for the purchase of locally grown food.

The ability of local producers to supply the required volume was uncertain at the institution

of the program (12) but, while data are unavailable to indicate the program’s success in increasing agricultural production, indications

suggest that this has been accomplished (74).

Caribbean

Social support programs grew rapidly in the

U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands with the expansion of the “Great Society” programs on the

U.S. mainland. However, this has moderated

since 1981 as the U.S. administration generally

has slowed Federal spending. Federal transfer

payments have recently been providing close

to 30 percent of Puerto Rico’s disposable income and roughly 50 percent of island households have been receiving food stamp payments.

A 1980 U.S. Department of Commerce study

found that approximately two-thirds of Puerto

Rican families lived below U.S. poverty levels

(90). Puerto Rico was removed from full coverage under the Food Stamp program in 1983 and

placed under a special block grant of $825 million. Puerto Rico administers its own nutrition

assistance program with these funds, paying

beneficiaries with checks instead of food coupons (73).

Preference for Government

Employment

Pacific

On most U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, jobs

with the U.S. Government (e. g., military) are

preferred over jobs with the local governments,

which in turn are preferred to employment in

the private sector. Local government wage and

salary levels are nearly twice those of the private sector. (Data from Palau indicate that public and private sector wages and salaries are

increasing; while the differential has remained

the same, the absolute difference in levels has

increased.) Living in more urban centers, in

which most infrastructure development has

occurred, also is preferred to village living. Government employment absorbs at least than onehalf of all wage earners on many islands and

a large proportion of the private sector (devoted

to services) is dependent on expenditure generated by the public sector (14). The large size

of the public sector may, however, reflect hiring because of available funds, irrespective of

necessity, and not necessarily an underdeveloped private sector (11).

Attempts by the private sector to match public sector wages places an economy at a comparative disadvantage for many import-substitution activities and export-oriented development

strategies (11). However, because government
120 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

salaries are subject to much redistribution

through family ties, public sector employment

can be regarded more as a channel through

which public money is distributed than as a

means of increasing productivity and improving public services (15). This may partly justify

low productivity at high wages (15).

Because of U.S. fiscal restraints and the approval of the Compact of Free Association, public sector employment probably will tend to

decline in the next few years on many U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands. This will have a similar impact on some parts of the private sector,

notably general merchandising, transportation,

food services, and construction, which, with

government employment, account for most formal employment in the islands.

Caribbean

Public service comprises the largest employment sector in the U.S. Caribbean islands; this

sector, however, includes some “productive”

services which in other economies maybe provided by the private sector (110,111). Public sector employment in 1977 to 1978 was estimated

to be 25 percent in the U.S. Virgin Islands (110)

and 23 percent in Puerto Rico (111). Recent

figures for the U.S. Virgin Islands indicate that

the public sector comprises over 30 percent of

the total labor force and 33 percent of all employed workers (55). Employment in the public

administration sector alone comprises nearly

33 percent of Puerto Rico’s total labor force;

this percentage does not include those public

employees in health, recreational, transportation, or communication services or public utilities (35). Current fiscal limitations within the

U.S. Virgin Islands Government are expected

to constrain further employment growth. Consequently, increasing concern exists for training the local labor force for private sector employment (79).

Shortage of Rural labor

Pacific

A major constraint to productive rural development is rural labor shortage, especially of

skilled labor. Most rural/outer island residents

have relatives in the urban centers, who provide the reason and means to migrate (14). The

periodic food supplies once sent from rural islanders to urban relatives are superseded by

imports (14). Rural population totals disguise

high ratios of dependent population to productive work force. Rural to urban/off-island migration has left many island rural areas with an

hour-glass shaped population pyramid–a population heavily biased towards the very old and

the very young (14). Moreover, while there may

be many islanders with skills relevant to the

economy, their aspirations generally are directed towards government and retail employment, resulting in a labor constraint to productive employment.

No shortage exists of people, especially young

people, to form a labor pool in U.S.-affiliated

Pacific islands; however, agricultural labor

shortage is a problem in several areas. In general, there is a low esteem for farm work, and

wages and benefits are low compared to other

types of employment. Guam has considered importing foreign labor under the Federal H-2 temporary alien program, but the Labor Department apparently blocked this (54). Since the

Government of Guam was granted the authority to certify and import alien workers in 1984,

they may reconsider this proposal (45). In American Samoa, much of the agriculture depends

on aiga family members from Western Samoa,

and Taiwanese and Koreans who have jumped

ship at Pago Pago (54,83).

Caribbean

Today the social situation has changed significantly in the rural interior of Puerto Rico.

Large numbers of the population have migrated

from the rural interior to urban centers or offisland. The remaining rural population is employed as seasonal labor for coffee harvest and

supplements its income with food stamps and

occasional part-time jobs. The “old timers”

have rapidly disappeared and the younger generation is usually unskilled labor (78). Although

rural unemployment is high (25 to 30 percent

in some municipalities), alternative employment opportunities, food stamps, and social

security from extended families all contribute
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 121

to an underground economy, which, in some

cases, can provide $2,000 per month in nontaxable family income.

Agricultural development in the U.S. Virgin

Islands is constrained by lack of trained personnel and reliable labor and available agricultural labor is generally expensive and unproductive (116]. Perhaps correspondingly, the

percentage of farms with hired labor has declined in the U.S. Virgin Islands from 33.9 percent in 1975 to 27.7 percent in 1983 (57).

Despite the high unemployment rates, Puerto

Rican farmers have reported it difficult to obtain large numbers of part-time laborers (116).

Farmers reportedly locate only 90 percent of

the workers they need; 52 percent of farmers

report difficulty locating experienced workers

and 39 percent say that the shortage of labor

forces them to employ inexperienced farm

workers (123). No migrant labor is available in

Puerto Rico (116).

Alien Labor

Pacific

At the same time islanders are leaving their

islands for education, employment, or other enticements, considerable numbers of aliens are

entering the island economies. Some of these

are U.S. mainlanders or Europeans who enter

local government positions while an increasing number are Filipinos and other Asians filling largely unskilled positions, predominantly

in construction, fishing, and to a lesser extent,

agriculture. For example, alien employees currently comprise at least one-third of the Palauan

private sector and some economic sectors are

almost entirely dependent on Asian labor (14).

Alien workers offer employers substantial advantages in high productivity and reliability,

obtaining overtime work, and in flexibility in

discharging unsatisfactory workers (11). However, the cost of employing U.S. expatriates is

high and there are large costs, and potential

benefits, in the impact of the expatriates on consumption (15). For example, the preference for

“western-style” foods may increase imports but

it can also signal a potential market for locally

grown, non-traditional crops.

The question of whether or not to import foreign labor is a difficult one. Agricultural industries such as Hawaii’s were built with cheap

foreign labor, but there can be resulting social

tension when large numbers of foreigners are

imported into a relatively closed society, as in

many of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Pohnpei has

rejected two development proposals—one to

bring in Vietnamese refugees to grow rice—

for these reasons (83). On the other hand, importing labor may be better than importing

food–the agricultural industry will develop, dependence on imported food is reduced, and foreign workers generate tax revenues through

payment of taxes on their wages (45). Alternatively, agriculture might be made more profitable for local producers and workers through

increased research, development, and extension (83).

Despite the current lack of economic growth

in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, the proportion of aliens in the local work forces probably

will not diminish in the near future (11). In the

FAS islands, it is increasingly likely that local

islanders will seek government employment or

move overseas, while all other sectors of the

economy will become increasingly dominated

by alien workers. Most will come from Asia

and work for lower wages than are offered by

government employment (14).

Substantial out-migration of the few skilled

professionals now in the FSM and their replacement by alien professionals is likely to continue.

Adoption of a wage and salary structure commensurate with the U.S. mainland may reverse

these trends, but goes directly against United

Nations’ recommendations and is likely to exacerbate existing income inequalities, The FSM

is becoming more like Guam, the Northern

Marianas and American Samoa (and also the

U.S. Virgin Islands), where government employment is predominantly indigenous, while

employment in other sectors is increasingly

taken up by lower paid aliens, a situation made

possible only with substantial external financial assistance (11).
122 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Caribbean

While the Puerto Rican labor force is almost

exclusively comprised of residents, the U.S. Virgin Islands has developed a relatively large alien

labor force. Local application of the special

Temporary Foreign Worker Program in the

U.S. Virgin Islands has created a labor base

largely comprised of British West Indians. This

labor force generally increases in periods of

economic prosperity, and decreases only minimally during periods of recession. The net results are: rise of unemployment, increase in

individual’s multiplicity of jobs, increased reliance on savings, and reductions in remittances

(57). Displacement of local workers by aliens

currently does not seem to be a concern in the

U.S. Virgin Islands.

Immigrants from neighboring islands are

accustomed to rural lifestyles and prefer working in agriculture, but often lack capital and

land and generally earn most of their income

from industry or tourism (78). Consequently,

the aliens generally are employed in a large variety of low-level jobs that U.S. Virgin Islanders

have traditionally avoided (79), thereby creating a bimodal society which promotes internal

cleavage in U.S. Virgin Islands society (58).

Conclusions

If the islands are not to suffer a decline in

living standards, they must either find new

sources of aid, reduce government expenditure,

or develop greater self-reliance. Increasing selfreliance means reducing dependence on imported goods and expertise, and probably will

require some changes in consumption patterns

as well as increased local productive capacity

(15).

The small size and limited skilled labor force

of the polities virtually preclude accelerated

socioeconomic development towards a mainland U.S. standard of living without outside inputs of technical assistance and skills (12). Economic development probably cannot be achieved

simply by reallocating resources towards improved infrastructure or agricultural investment. It may also require a fundamental change

in attitudes, demanding such policies as wage

constraints and raised taxation (on imports and

income). This may be extremely difficult to

achieve on small, democratic islands (14). The

combination of relatively high educational

standards and aspirations, limited opportunities for formal sector employment, and the possibility of free movement to the United States,

suggests that out-migration from the U. S.-

affiliated islands is likely to become increasingly important in the future (14).

The application of technologies is many times

hindered by the lack of properly trained personnel. Training in some specialties is not available in local academic institutions and students

must travel to off-island institutions for such

training. Few island residents can afford this.

Those students who attend off-island institutions often remain there, enticed by better jobs,

opportunities for further training, and career

advancement. The lack of trained personnel

may have adverse effects on all aspects of renewable resource management, including research, law enforcement, project implementation, and education in academic institutions

(19)0

Adequately trained, dedicated staff are needed

at all levels. Individuals with appropriate attitudes and aptitudes must be identified and

given technical or professional training and

continuing education, so they may keep abreast

of new resource management and development

strategies and technologies. Short courses could

be organized locally, and key staff encouraged

to travel to conferences and summer programs

abroad. Where human resources are scarce,

they could be directed to the most critical areas

or problems (19).

Suitable working conditions must be provided. Flexibility is needed in personnel regulations and incentives programs, especially of

the insular governments. Salary scales could

be upgraded on a regular basis to remain competitive with the private sector. Public corporations might replace more successful government programs to provide professionals with

secure, well-remunerated positions.

The Federal Government could raise the limit

for exemption from minimum Federal wage
—

Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 123

payment for nonmechanizable agricultural operations. It also could assign a specific proportion of the food stamp funds and/or any increases in these funds to increase employment

and local food production. Increased income

to laborers could reduce payments for food

stamps and for unemployment compensation

and reduce migration to the mainland (116).

Agriculture and other renewable resourcerelated enterprises can be an important source

of employment, but unless production is increased, greater employment may be accompanied by lower wages, higher prices, more government subsidies, losses to farmers or some

combination of these. On the other hand, in

Puerto Rico every job in agriculture is estimated

to create at least one other job in the island’s

economy, considerably more than that created

by industry or construction (116).

CHAPTER 4 REFERENCES

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10,

Alkire, W. H., “Cultural Dimensions of Resource Definition and Use in Micronesia, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Alkire, W. H., An Introduction to the Peoples

and Cultures of Micronesia (Menlo Park, CA:

Cummings Publishing Co., 1977). In: Kiste,

1986.

American Samoa Government, American Samoa

1981 Annual Report, Office of Public Information, Pago Pago, American Samoa, 1981. In:

Kiste, 1986.

Amerson, B. A., Jr., Whistler, W. A., and

Schwaner, T. D., “wildlife and Wildlife Habitat of American Samoa, II: Accounts of Flora

and Fauna, ” U.S. Department of the Interior,

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington,

DC, 1982. In: Eldredge, 1986.

Bellwood, P. S., Man Conquest of the Pacific

(New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).

Calero, H., “Economic Challenges Facing

Puerto Rico,” Puerto Rico Business Review

10(4):6-21, April 1985.

Callaghan, P. C., “The Development and Management of Nearshore Fisheries in the U. S.-

Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

Caribbean Fishery Management Council, Draft

Fishery Management Plan, Regulatory Impact

Review, and Environmental Impact Statement

for the Shallow-Water Reeffish Fishery of

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hato

Rey, Puerto Rico, 1984. In; Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

Castillo-Barahona, F., and Bhatia, M. S., “Assessment of Agricultural Crop Production

Technologies in Puerto Rico,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Colon-Torres, R., “Programming for the Utili11,

12,

13.

14,

15.

16.

17.

18

19.

20.

zation of Agricultural Resources in Puerto

Rico,” The Caribbean at Mid Century, A.C.

wilgus (cd.). Papers delivered at the Conference on the Caribbean, Dec. 7-9, 1950 (Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press, 1951).

Connell, J., “Country Report No. 3: Federated

States of Micronesia, ” South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983.

Connell, J., “Country Report No. 12: Northern

Mariana Islands, ” South Pacific Commission,

Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983.

Connell, J., “Country Report No. 6: Guam, ”

South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New

Caledonia, 1983.

Connell, J., “Country Report No. 13: Palau,”

South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New

Caledonia, 1983.

Connell, J., “Country Report No. 8: Marshall

Islands,” South Pacific Commission, Noumea,

New Caledonia, 1983.

Connell, J., “Country Report: American

Samoa,” South Pacific Commission, Noumea,

New Caledonia, draft report, 1983.

Crist, R. E., “Resources of the Caribbean,” The

Caribbean at Mid Century, A.C. Wilgus (cd.).

Papers delivered at the Conference on the

Caribbean, Dec. 7-9, 19!50 (Gainesville, FL:

University of Florida Press, 1951).

Dahl, A. L., “Tropical Island Ecosystems and

Protection Technologies To Sustain Renewable Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA

commissioned paper, 1986.

Diaz-Soltero, H., and Oxman, B., “Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Development and Management in Puerto Rico

and the U.S. Virgin Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Dookhan, I., A History of the Virgin Islands

63-222 0 - 87-5 QL. 3
124 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

of the United States (Essex, England: Bowker

Publishing Co., 1974). In: Tyson, 1986,

21. Ecology USA “Fate of Reef-Wrecked Ferry Not

Yet Decided,” 15(14):114, July 14, 1986.

22, Ecology USA “International Update,” 15(11):

90, June 2, 1986,

23. Eldredge, L. G., “Case Studies of the Impacts

of Introduced Animal Species on Renewable

Resources in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

24. Eldredge, L. G., Summary of Environmental

and Fishing Information on Guam and the

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Historical Background, Description of

the Islands, and Review of Climate, Oceanography, and Submarine Topography, Technical

Memorandum, NMFS NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC40 (Honolulu, HI: U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1983). In: Smith, 1986.

25. Falanruw, M. V. C., “Traditional Agriculture

and Resource Management Systems in the

High Islands of Micronesia,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

26. Falanruw, S., Director, Department of Resources and Development, Yap State Government, Colonia, Yap, personal communication,

July 1986.

27. Farr, K., Historical Dictionary of Puerto Rico

28

and the U.S. Virgin Islands (Metuchen, NJ: The

Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1973).

Fiedler, R. H., and Jarvis, N. D., Fisheries of the

Virgin Islands of the United States, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries,

Investigational Report No. 14 (Washington,

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1932).

In: Tyson, 1986.

29. Fishery Management Plan, Final Environmental Impact Statement for Coral and Coral

Reefs, Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils, 1982. In: Wahle,

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

30. Galzin, R,, “Effects of Coral Sand Dredging on

Fish Fauna in the Lagoon of the ‘Grand Cul

de Sac Marin,’ Guadaloupe, French West Indies,” Proceedings of the 4th International

Coral Reef Symposium, Manilla, 1981. In:

Wahle, 1986.

31. Gawel, M., Chief, Department of Natural Resources, Pohnpei State Government, personal

communication, July 1986.

32. Glenn, M., “An Analysis of Black Pepper Production in Ponape,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

33. Goldsmith, W. W,, and Vietorisz, T., “A New

34.

35.

36.

37.

38,

39!

40.

41.

42.

43,

44,

45.

Development Strategy for Puerto Rico: Technological Autonomy, Human Resources, A

Parallel Economy,” Program on International

Studies in Planning, Cornell University, Ithaca,

NY, 1978.

Goodwin, M. H., and Sandifer, P. D., “Aquiculture and Fisheries Development in Puerto Rico

and the U.S. Virgin Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Government Development Bank for Puerto

Rico, “Puerto Rico Monthly Economic Indicators,” San Juan, PR, October 1985.

Grigg, R. W., “Fishery Management of Precious

Corals in Hawaii,” Proceedings of the Srd International Coral Reef Symposium, Miami, FL,

1977. In: Wahle, 1986.

Grigg, R. W., “Fishery Management of Precious

Stony Corals in Hawaii,” Sea Grant Technical

Report, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-TR-77-03, 1976.

In: Wahle, 1986.

Guam Environmental Protection Agency,

Twelfth Annual Report 1984-1985, Agana,

Guam, 1985.

Halbower, C. C., “Forestry and Agroforestry

Technologies: Developmental Potentials in the

U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Hezel, F. X., S. J., “Reflections on Micronesia’s

Economy (1973 ),” Reflections on Micronesia:

Collected Papers of Father Francis X. Hezel,

S.J. Working Paper Series, Pacific Islands

Studies Program (Honolulu, HI: University of

Hawaii, 1982). In: Schwalbenberg, 1986.

Johannes, R. E., “The Role of Marine Resource

Tenure Systems (TURFS) in Sustainable Nearshore Marine Resource Development and Management in U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Johannes, R. E., Words of the Lagoon (Berkeley,

CA: University of California Press, 1981). In:

Kiste, 1986.

Juhl, R., Dammann, A. E., and Sylvester, J. R.,

Review of the Status of Fishery Resources and

Management Problems of the Caribbean Fishery Management Council Area, Report to the

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, Southeast

Fisheries Center, Miami, FL, 1976. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

Kawaguchi, K., “Handline and Longline Fishing Explorations for Snapper and Related Species in the Caribbean and Adjacent Waters, ”

Marine Fisheries Review 36:8-31, 1974. In:

Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

Khamoui. T., Agricultural Production Con-
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 125

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51,

52.

53.

54.

55.

55.

56.

58.

59.

lication No. 48, UOG-CALS, 1985. In: Raynor,

1986.

Kiste, R. C., “Implications of History and Culture for Sustaining Development of Renewable Resources on U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986,

Leviten, P. J., and Kohn, A. J., “Microhabitat Resource Use, Activity Patterns, and Episodic

Catastrophe: Conus on Tropical Intertidal Reef

Rock Benches,” Ecological Monographs 50(1):

55-75, 1980. In: Smith, 1986.

Loftus, S. A., “Impacts of U.S. Military Presence on U.S.-Affiliated Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Lovelace, N., Office of Territorial Programs,

Guam, personal communication, October 1986.

Lowry, G. K., “An Overview of Selected Natural Systems Planning and Management Techniques for U, S.-Affiliated Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

MacInnes, A., “Saving the Queen, ” Marine

Biological Laboratory, Science Bulletin 1(1):11-

12, 1984. In: Wahle, 1986.

Manner, H. I., Department of Sociology, University of Guam, personal communication,

September 1986.

Maragos, J. E., “Coastal Resource Development

and Management in the U.S. Pacific Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Mark, S., et al., Development of the Agricultural Sector in the American-Affiliated Pacific

Islands, UOH-HITAHR (Honolulu, HI: October 1982). In: Raynor, 1986.

McElroy, J., Department of Business Administration and Economics, St. Mary’s College,

Notre Dame, IN, personal communication, July

1986.

McElroy, J., Department of Business Administration and Economics, St. Mary’s College,

Notre Dame, IN, personal communication,

September 1986.

McElroy, J. L., and de Albuquerque, K., “Small

Scale Agriculture in the United States Virgin

Islands, 1930-1983,” Proceedings of the 20th

Annual Meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops

Society, St. Croix, USVI, Oct. 21-26, 1984.

McElroy, J. L., and de Albuquerque, K., “Federal Perceptions and Policy Versus Virgin Islands Reality, ” paper presented to the joint

ICLAS/MALAS Conference on the Role of the

Caribbean in Latin America, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Nov. 4-5, 1983,

McGowan, J. A., “The Trochus Fishery of the

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands: A Restraints on Guam, Technical Report, AES Pub60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67<

68!

69,

port and Recommendations to the High Commissioner, ” unpublished draft report, April

1958. In: Smith, 1986.

Mead, A. R., “Economic Malacology With Particular Reference to Achatina fulica in Hawaii,” F.V, Pulmonates and J. Peake (eds.) (New

York: Academic Press, 1979). 1rI: Eldredge,

1986.

Morales-Carrion, A., Puerto Rico: A SociaZ and

Cu]turd History (New York: W.W. Norton &

Co., 1983).

Merrill, W. T., and Dyke, B., “A French Community on St. Thomas, ” Caribbean Studies

5(4):3-11, 1965. In: Tyson, 1986.

Morris, G. L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal

communication, September 1986.

Morris, G. L,, and Pool, D. J., “Assessment of

Semiarid Agricultural Production Technologies for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Munro, J. L., and Williams, D. Mcb., “Assessment and Management of Coral Reef Fisheries:

Biological Environmental and Socioeconomic

Aspects,” Fifth International Coral Reef Congress Tahiti, 27 May -1 June, 1985 (mimeographed), 1985. In: Callaghan, 1986.

Nishi, M., “An Evaluation of Japanese Agricultural and Fishery Developments in Micronesia During the Japanese Mandate, 1914-

1941,” A4icronesica 4:1-18, 1968. In.’ Nelson,

S. G., “Aquiculture and Mariculture Development in the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas, ” OTA

commissioned paper, 1986.

Nufer, H.F, Micronesia Under American Rule:

An Evaluation of the Strategic Trusteeship

(1947-1977) (Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press,

1978).

Ogden, J. C., Director, West Indies Laboratory,

Fairleigh Dickinson University, St. Croix, USV1,

personal communication, September 1986.

Oliver, D. L., The Pacific Islands (Cambridge,

MA: Harvard University Press, 1962). -

70. Olwig, K., Households, Exchange, and Social

Reproduction: The Development of a Caribbean Society, Ph.D. dissertation, University of

Minnesota, 1977. In: Tyson, 1986.

71. Ortiz-Daliot, J., Director, Commonwealth of

Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration,

personal communication, September 1986,

72. Oxholm, A, H., “Report on the Virgin Islands, ”

Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Committee Print, 81st Cong., 2d sess.

(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office, 1950).

73. Oxman, B., and Udall, A, T., “Fiscal Incentive
_

126 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for US. Insular Areas

74.

75.

76.

77.

78,

79.

80.

81,

82.

83.

84.

85,

86.

87,

Social Support Programs, The Caribbean Basin Initiative and the Development of Renewable Resources in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Pangelinan, M., Saipan Farmers’ Cooperative

Association, Saipan, CNMI, personal communication, July 1986.

Pico, R., The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co., 1974).

Poison, S., “The Marshall Islands Coconut Industry: Prospects for Expansion and Development,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Pool, D. J., Tropical Research and Development, Inc., personal communication, September 1986.

Pool, D. J., “Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Development Potentials in U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

Posner, B., “Effects of U.S. Macroeconomic

Policy on Puerto Rico and U.S. Territories,”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Price, R., “Caribbean Fishing and Fishermen:

A Historical Sketch, ” American Anthropologist 1966, In: Tyson, 1986.

Putney, A., Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas

Management Program, West Indies Lab, St.

Croix, USVI, personal communication, July

1986.

Ramsey, C., U.S. Department of Defense, The

Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense,

personal communication, September 1986.

Raynor, W., “Commercial Crop Production

Technologies and Development Potentials for

U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Rolph, T., A Brief Account, Together With Observations Made During a Brief Visit in the

West Indies (Dundas, Upper Canada, 1836). In:

Tyson, 1986.

Salvat, B., “Preservation of Coral Reefs: Scientific Whim or Economic Necessity? Past,

Present or Future,” Proceedings of the 4th International Coral Reef Symposium, Manilla,

1981. In: Wahle, 1986.

Salvat, B., “Utilization and Trade of Coral Reef

Molluscs in French Polynesia, Past and Present, ” Proceedings of the 4th International

Cora] Reef Symposium, Manilla, 1981. In:

Wahle, 1986.

Sanchez-Nieva, F., “Assessment of Food Processing Technologies for U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper,

1986,

88

89

90.

91.

92

93

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

Sauer, C. O., The Early Spanish Main (Berkely,

CA: University of California Press, 1966).

Schwalbenberg, H. M., “The Critical Role of the

U.S. Congress in Fostering Self-Reliance in the

Freely Associated States of Micronesia,” OTA

commissioned paper, 1986.

Simon, L., Statement Before Joint Hearings of

the Subcommittee on Inter-American Affairs

of the House Committee on Foreign Relations

and the Subcommittee on Department Operations, Research, and Foreign Agriculture of the

House Committee on Agriculture, 97th Cong.,

2d sess., July 20 and 22, 1982 (Washington, DC:

U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982).

Smith, B. D., “Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Steward, J. H., et al., The People of Puerto Rico

(Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1956).

In: Tyson, 1986.

Sudo, K., “Social Organization and Types of

Sea Tenure in Micronesia,” Senri EthnoZogy

Studies 17:203-230, 1984. In: Johannes, 1986.

Tahal Consulting Engineers, Ltd., “Programma

Estrategico Para el Desarrollo Itegrado del Sector Agropecuario en el Proximo Decenio,” Report to the Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, San Juan, PR, 1983. In: Morris and

pool, 1986,

Tisdell, C., “Giant Clams in the Pacific—The

Socio-Economic Potential of a Developing

Technology for their Mariculture, ” paper presented at the Australian National University

Workshop for New Marine Technology and

Social Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13,1985.

Tyler, M. J., “The Cane Toad Bufo marinus: An

Historical Account and Modern Assessment,”

Vermin and Noxious Weeds Destruction Board,

Victoria and Agricultural Protection Board,

Western Australia, 1975. In: Eldredge, 1986.

Tyson, G. F., “Notes on Caribbean Resource

Use History, ” OTA commissioned research

notes, 1986.

Tyson, G. F., A Landuse History of St. John,

U.S. Virgin Islands 1718-1950, St. Thomas,

USVI, 1983. In: Tyson, 1986.

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC:

U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1984).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Report of a

Committee of the U.S. Department of Agriculture on Agricultural Resources, Needs, and
Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 127

101.

102.

103,

1 0 4

105.

106.

107.

108.

109.

Possibilities of the Virgin Islands (Washington,

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950).

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1980 Census of Population—General

Population Characteristics, Guam, PC80-1-B54

(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office, 1983). ln: Callaghan, 1986.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1980 Census of Population—General

Population Characteristics, Northern Mariana

]sZands, pC80-1-1357A (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1983). In.’ Callaghan, 1986.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1980 Census of Population—Number

of Inhabitants, Guam, I?C80-1-A54 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,

1982). In: Callaghan, 1986.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1980 Census of Population—Number

of Inhabitants, American Samoa, PC80-1-A56

(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office, 1982). In: Callaghan, 1986.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1980 Census of Population—Number

of Inhabitants, Trust Territory of the Pacific

Islands excluding the Northern Mariana IsZands, PC80-1-A57B (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1982). In: Callaghan, 1986.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, Office of

Coastal Zone Management, American Samoa

Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, Office of

Coastal Zone Management, Commonwealth of

the Northern Marianas Islands Coastal Resources Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, Office of

Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal

Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, vol. 1, 1979.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal

Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, vol. 2, 1979.

110. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, Office of

111.

112

113 .

114 .

115.

116,

117.

118 .

119 .

120 .

121 .

122 .

Coastal Zone Management, The Virgin Islands

Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1979.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, Office of

Coastal Zone Management, Puerto Rico Coastal

Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1978.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, Sanctuar y

Programs Division , “Proposed La Paraguer a

National Marine Sanctuary, ” Draft Environ -

mental Impact Statement/Management Plan,

1983. In: Wahle, 1986,

U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service, Endangered and Threatened

Wildlife and Plants, January 1, 1986, 152-564

0-86-1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office, 1986).

US. Virgin Islands and the Sea, The, report

prepared by the Advisory Committee for the

U.S. Virgin Islands and the Sea, at the request

of the Marine Resources Council of the U.S.

Virgin Islands, Office of the Lieutenant Governor, St. Thomas, USVI, 1970.

Uwate, R., et al., A Review of Aquiculture

Activities in the Pacific Island Region, Pacific

Islands Development Program, East-West Center, Honolulu, HI, 1984.

Vicente-Chandler, J., “Assessment of Agricultural Production Technologies for U.S. Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper,

1986.

Vitarelli, M., “Handicrafts Industry Development and Renewable Resource Management

for U, S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Wadsworth, F., Institute of Tropical Forestry,

U.S. Forest Service, personal communication,

September 1986.

Wadsworth, F., “Notes on the Climax Forests

of Puerto Rico and Their Destruction and Conservation Prior to 1900, ” Caribbean Forester

January 1950, pp. 38-47.

Wahle, C. M., “Non-Food Marine Resources

Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986,

Wells, S. M., “International Trade in Ornamental Corals and Shells,” Proceedings of the 4th

International Coral Reef Symposium, Manilla,

1981. In: Wahle, 1986.

Wiles. G. T.. and Payne, N. H.. “The Trade in
128 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Fruit Bats Pteropus spp. on Guam and Other nornicas de 10S Obreros Agricola en Puerto

Pacific Islands,” BioZogicaZ Conservation 38: Rico, Agriculture Experiment Station, Mayaguez,

143-161, 1986. PR, October 1983. In: Castillo-Barahona and

123. Zapata, J. Z., et al., 131 Mercado de ‘llabajo en Bhatia, 1986.

la Agriculture y las Caracteristicas Socio-Eco-
Chapter 5

Islands As Integrated

Systems
— — — ——

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. .., ... .., ....131

Erosive Energy Buffer Systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,, ,...132

Freshwater and Flood Buffer System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,134

Saltwater and Storm Surge Buffer System. . ..........................136

Biological Interactions—Nutrient Cycling and Faunal Interactions . .......137

Nutrient Transport and Cycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..,.137

Faunal Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..138

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................139

Chapter preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............,140

Figures

Figure No. Page

5-1.

5-2.

5-3.

5-4.

Erosive Energy Buffer Systems on Islands . ................,.,.....133

Resource Degradation Due to Modification or Disruption of Island

Buffer Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............,...134

Relationship Between Topography, Traditional Agriculture, and

Rainfall/Runoff Erosion Buffers on High Carolina Islands . ........ ..135

Relationship Between Insular Species, Island Size, and Distance

From Colonizing Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....,.,.138
Chapter 5

Islands As Integrated Systems

Islands are by definition small areas of land

isolated by water, and it is small size and isolation that make them different from continental land areas (3). The small size of islands

means that many different ecosystems may exist in close proximity. Thus, the interrelationships among ecosystems are critical to the functioning of the entire island’s renewable resource

system. The smaller the island, moreover, the

higher the ratio of coastline to land area and

the more important the land-sea interface in

fulfilling human needs.

Renewable natural resources—water, soil,

vegetation, fish, and wildlife—by definition

have a resiliency to recover from human use.

Their ability to renew themselves makes them

especially valuable in the support of human life,

a fact understood by most people but sometimes

forgotten in their continuing process to improve

their quality of life and supply the desires of

society. Inadvertently, these resources can be

abused and can sustain damage that is slow to

repair.

The various island ecosystems maintain an

equilibrium when in an unmodified state, or

when modification is done in such a way as

to allow the natural flow of energy, freshwater,

1

Ecosystem—sum of biotic and abiotic components of a specific environment.

Photo credit: A. Vargo

Intimately interlinked terrestrial and nearshore marine areas comprise the “island ecosystem.”

131
132 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

and nutrients through the system. Understanding the linkages between the various parts of

the renewable resource base and incorporating them in development activity design is necessary to keep these resources truly renewable

and to allow their sustainable use. The integrated management of island renewable resources is a sound way to enhance their longterm renewability and ensure that benefits derived from the resources will be long lasting.

Sometimes resource renewability is sacrificed to accommodate certain other goals. For

example, certain islands or parts of islands are

set aside for such military uses as practice

bombing sites or the impact areas for artillery

or naval gunfire. Even if such practices were

to cease at these sites and if some renewable

resource systems recovered, it is unlikely that

such lands could be brought back into productivity for decades. Some islands which were inhabited perhaps 40 years ago no longer exist

as a consequence of nuclear bomb testing.

Similarly, colonial authorities of the Pacific

island of Nauru decided to mine the island’s

considerable phosphate deposits quickly, irrespective of effects on the island. Integrated

renewable resource management plays no role

in such cases.

Conversely, some islands have been established as wildlife refuges, such as Rose Atoll

in American Samoa, and Howland, Baker and

Jarvis Atolls. Human interaction with the environment is minimized, renewable resources are

not exploited and thus the need for management is primarily limited to the protection of

the refuge.

The multitude of island resource problems

(summarized inch. 4), however, largely are of

a different nature. They typify instances where

one island resource was exploited without adequate consideration for its impacts on other island resources (cf: 8). In many of these cases,

recognition of the interrelationships between

resource exploitation in one place and unintentional resource damage elsewhere on or near

the island has led to imaginative, sound management approaches that benefit all of the resource users.

Island resource damages have occurred over

long periods of time; many of the corrective

actions have taken place relatively recently.

These recent encouraging actions seem likely

to continue and perhaps expand while certain

of the old causes of resource damage probably

will fade away. To accelerate this process it

seems likely that an increased understanding

of the working components of the renewable

resource systems of islands, including the integrated nature of different resources, is an important first step. Consequently, technologies

and various management practices described

in this assessment have been examined to identify unforeseen adverse impacts that they might

generate; technologies that are likely to foster

numerous serious impacts were omitted. In

such analyses, fresh water and its movement

seem to provide the common link among different parts of islands and their resources.

EROSIVE ENERGY BUFFER SYSTEMS

Islands have at least two major physical

forces acting on them: 1) the flow of water from

higher altitudes to the ocean, and 2) ocean wave

action moving from the ocean onto land. Both

of these forces have strong erosive powers—

abilities to denude the land and nearshore ecosystems of biological productivity. Thus, the

magnitude of these movements of water, coupled with the island’s form, largely determine

the technological options available to its residents to improve the long-term production of

food and fiber.

Natural island ecosystems, however, are arranged in such a way as to buffer the erosive

forces of water movements (figure 5-1). The individual components of the “freshwater/flood

buffer” range from highland vegetation to

seagrass meadows and each may fill several

specific ecological functions. The latter also is
Ch. 5—Islands As Integrated Systems “ 133

Figure 5-1 .—Erosive Energy Buffer Systems on Islands

‘

Y

Freshwater

and

flood buffer A

system A

A

\

\

1

Salt water

and

storm surge

buffer system

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment 1986

true of the “saltwater/storm surge buffer”

which generally is comprised of coral reefs, seagrass meadows, littoral vegetation, and lowland

forests.

Development activities that modify or degrade parts of these buffer systems may result

in repercussive changes to connected ecosystems (figure 5-2). For example, if a part of a reef

is mined, the opening which results will allow

wave energy to impact directly on the shoreline. The previously quiet environment of the

back-reef2 habitat will be disturbed and shoreline erosion may ensue, as well as increased

water turbidity. These changes consequently

may affect the biota dependent on the back-reef

habitat.

Similarly, if upland vegetation is removed

and, thus, terrestrial erosion increases, streams

may become sediment-laden and ultimately discharge sediment into the nearshore waters. Ex-

‘Back-reef—the lagoon/shallow bottom side of the reef.

cessive sedimentation may adversely affect

freshwater communities, smother nearshore

marine bottom communities, and kill corals.

Thus, damage to one part of an island’s renewable resource base easily can adversely affect

others. Though such damage may be unintentional, nevertheless, it may result in the loss of

valuable resources that do not regenerate

quickly.

Island form and composition largely determine the natural communities that develop and

also affect the way these natural systems respond to human stress or disturbance; different island types have different environmental

vulnerabilities. For example, high volcanic islands may be highly susceptible to erosion because of their steep slopes, whereas raised limestone islands may be particularly sensitive to

groundwater pollution and the rapid loss of soil

nutrients. A knowledge of island structure

should help to predict the environmental impacts of various development possibilities (3).
134 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 5-2.—Resource Degradation Due to Modification or Disruption of Isiand Buffer Systems

Flooding. eutrophication, I

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986

Freshwater and FIood

Buffer System

Tropical storms are more violent than those

in temperate areas. More water falls per storm,

quickly saturating the soil. Consequently, a

larger proportion of the rainfall runs off the soil

surface. Furthermore, in tropical storms raindrops commonly are larger, thus having great

kinetic energy and high erosive power (13).

Tropical forests—the common natural vegetation of upland island areas—protect soil and

modulate water flows in several ways. The

canopy of trees, undergrowth and litter layer

intercept rainfall and provide temporary water

storage. Vegetation intercepts rainfall, reducing its energy and allowing it to reach the soil

at slower speed and over a longer period of time

than precipitation striking unprotected soils.

The organic litter in undisturbed, closed tropithick, the majority of organic matter being in

vegetation root systems. Water is stored in the

organic litter on the soil surface and in the porous topsoil. These mechanisms minimize the

impacts of intense rainstorms, reduce peak

stormflows, and help mitigate flooding (13).

The steepness of high volcanic islands promotes the rapid flow of rainfall from uplands

to the ocean. The rapidly flowing water carries nutrients and sediments through a series

of ecosystems that change with elevation. vegetation of the various ecosystems slows runoff,

trapping some of the sediment and nutrients.

Each topographically lower ecosystem is successively less tolerant of siltation (5).

For example, on a typical high volcanic island, the erosive force of torrential rainfall is

first buffered or moderated by highland forests.

Surface water, flowing on its way to the ocean,

cal forests is typically only several centimeters is slowed by and deposits some of its silt in
Ch. 5—Islands As Integrated Systems ● 135

Figure 5-3.—Relationship Between Topography, Traditional Agriculture, and Rainfall/Runoff

Erosion Buffer Systems on High Caroline Islands

I

, - <n

I

Savanna and

I

Cloud forest

open canopy (Pohnpei

gardens and Kosrae)

+ .- . -. -. -. -. .- . - . - .

I

Ravine and I

Lowland and

riverine forests montane

forests

I I I I I

.

b

SOURCE’ M C V Falanruw, “Traditional Agriculture and Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia, OTA commlssioned paper, 1986

coastal plains. Mangrove forests further remove

sediment and seagrass meadows filter out remaining silt. This filtering system serves to

maintain the clarity of lagoon waters necessary

for marine life (figure 5-3) (5). Many plant and

animal species of the intertidal zone are adapted

to certain salinity ranges in the water. Without such mechanisms to control the level of

fresh water discharged to their habitat, damage easily may occur,

Mangroves are sensitive to changes in salinity balance which may occur from increase or

decrease in freshwater input into the mangrove

ecosystem. While mangroves can develop in

freshwater regimes, they generally are outcompeted by terrestrial vegetation, thus mangrove

development primarily occurs in saline environments. Hypersaline environments can be

equally detrimental to mangroves, resulting in

stunted growth and eventually mortality (2). Development activities which alter the periodicity or amount of freshwater input may cause

damage or loss of mangrove forest area with

a concomitant loss of the benefits afforded by

the ecosystem (i.e., nutrients for nearshore

aquatic life, filtration of sediments). Primary

productivity of the damaged mangrove ecosystem declines, providing fewer nutrients for

associated primary consumers (mollusks, crabs,

polychaete worms); the effect continues

through the food web to which the mangrove

is linked (7).

The composition of the buffer system may

vary from island to island depending on geologic structure. However, the system is generally comprised of upland forests (cloud and submontane forests), lowland forests, riverine

forests, swamp and mangrove forests, and seagrass meadows. All of the island terrestrial

vegetation acts to protect island soils from the

impact of rainfall and contributes to soil moisture storage. The highland forests are particularly important in soil moisture recharge, and

contribute to flood and erosion control. River-
136 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ine and swamp forests also play important roles

in flood control and stabilization of water flow

to the ocean. Freshwater flora may serve to filter some sediment from streams, however, large

sediment levels may degrade the habitat of these

plants. While these vegetation formations cannot prevent such natural events as flooding,

landslides, and erosion, they comprise a gauntlet of resistance.

The freshwater buffer system provides a

range of beneficial effects that enhance and sustain the environmental quality of the island. The

individual components are inextricably linked

through the flow of fresh water, each modifying the flow and thus creating viable habitats

for the components further “downstream.”

Saltwater and Storm Surge

Buffer System

Wave action may easily erode large areas of

beach in the absence of any protection. Most

islands possess a natural wave energy buffer

composed of several closely interrelated ecosystems—coral reefs, seagrass meadows, and

littoral vegetation (mangrove communities and

beach strand). These ecosystems are closely interrelated and function not only to reduce wave

energy but also to protect areas further inland

from salt spray.

The coral reef comprises the first physical

barrier to wave energy impacting on the island.

The structure is solid and acts to dissipate the

bulk of wave energy before it reaches the shoreline. Although waves maintain momentum after breaking over the reef, the energy level has

been reduced. An active reef can build islands

like the atolls of Micronesia, provide sand for

beaches, and repair itself after storm damage.

If the reef-building processes are disturbed,

however, marine erosion will take over and the

reef will deteriorate.

Shallow, back-reef seagrass meadows dotted

with individual coral “heads” increase friction,

further impeding the wave’s progress towards

shore. The seagrass meadows capture larger

particles of eroded coral sand and act to stabilize bottom sediments, thus helping to prevent

coastal erosion.

Still, some wave energy reaches the shore.

Here, littoral vegetation acts to stabilize shorelines by holding soils in place through a network of roots. Littoral vegetation, including the

specialized formation of mangrove forests, will

hold sand and soil particles firmly, eventually

allowing for the outward extension of the formation. Mangrove forests are particularly well

suited to this type of expansion, advancing

seeds that germinate while still attached to the

parent tree. Littoral vegetation also acts as a

physical barrier to salt spray released by wave

action on the shoreline, as well as that carried

by wind. Littoral species such as Pandanus,

coconut, and mangroves typically are highly

salt-tolerant.

The wave energy buffer system in its entirety

comprises a valuable resource for islands to

maintain and stabilize a commonly tenuous

shoreline against ocean energy. Where parts

of the system are removed, the remaining components of the buffer may not be able to fulfill

the entire stabilizing function and shoreline erosion and saltwater damage to inland vegetation

may ensue.

Raised Limestone Islands and Atolls

The geologic structure and low surface altitude of atolls obviously makes them extremely

vulnerable to wave action, storm surge, wind,

and salt spray. Raised limestone islands, in part,

have a similar structure although a higher surface altitude. The porous nature of the soils of

these islands allow for ready percolation of rainfall directly through the island’s surface and

through the coralline limestone solution cavities into the freshwater lens or to be discharged

through coastal springs. Although raised limestone islands may have freshwater streams,

they generally do not empty directly into the

ocean. Thus, the freshwater filtration system

of high islands does not exist on raised limestone islands or atolls. However, shallow

coastal depressions and seagrass meadows may

act as filtration mechanisms for sediments discharged by coastal springs.

A wave action buffer system exists, however,

and operates similarly on atolls and raised limestone islands: the reef offers protection from
Ch. 5—Islands As Integrated Systems ● 137

wave energy and shoreline vegetation fosters

soil-building, shoreline stabilization, and

retards shoreline erosion. Vegetative formations also serve as partial barriers to wind and

saltwater spray which present major limiting

factors to plant growth particularly on atolls,

Littoral vegetation on the windward side of

atolls often is maintained to serve as a natural

Terminalia samoensis, Clerodendrum inerme,

and Barringtonia asiatica are some of the more

common Pacific trees and shrubs which provide protection from salt spray. The coconut

palm Cocos nucifera, is a highly salt-tolerant

species which thrives in well-drained, saline

soils common on atolls. While young palms initially may require protection, older plants do

barrier to saltwater spray. Pandanus tectorius, well in areas of

Messerschmidia argentea, Cordia subcordata,

BIOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS-NUTRIENT

FAUNAL INTERACTIONS

high salt spray (11).

CYCLING AND

The U.S.-affiliated islands contain a number

of individual ecosystems which in their entirety

can be considered an “island ecosystem” (3).

Individual ecosystems commonly fill several

ecological functions within the island biotic

structure. The interaction of all of the biotic

components of island ecosystems transport and

cycle nutrients and form a food web which is

of critical importance to the sustainability of

the island fauna and flora and ultimately affects the quality of human life.

Nutrient Transport and Cycling

The vegetation components of the freshwater

buffer system, while ultimately maintaining

clarity of nearshore waters and protecting marine organisms intolerant of high levels of fresh

water, also are integral in maintaining soil fertility. Most tropical ecosystems have little 1ongterm nutrient storage capacity; rather nutrients

are cycled through the biomass of the systems.

Most nutrients are added to the systems through

transport of nutrients in water or by fauna, and

through specialized plants which can fix nitrogen from the air. Seabirds bring nutrients from

the ocean and deposit them on land (guano),

increasing soil fertility; conversely, landderived nutrients enhance fisheries and the

productivity of coastal waters by fertilizing the

macro- and micro-algal base of the food web.

Forest Nutrient Cycling Systems

High rainfall in most tropical areas leaches

out basic plant nutrients, thus, forest canopy

and vegetation is critically important for maintaining soil fertility by returning organic matter and its contained nutrients to the soil

through the natural plant lifecycle (9), Undisturbed tropical forests have an efficient nutrient recycling system. As long as the forest is

undisturbed, the nutrient supply remains stable. Soil shaded by the closed forest canopy is

cool enough for the abundant organic material

to decay gradually. Detrital decomposes such

as bacteria, fungi, and arthropods are important in nutrient cycling within vegetation formations as well as in soil building; the nutrient value of the detrital layer is increased when

it passes through the systems of many of the

decomposes. Thus, the humus content of forest soils acts to hold the nutrients released by

microorganisms until they are absorbed back

into the web of tree roots to be recycled again.

Soils with low humus content hold fewer nutrients and, when rain falls, runoff and leaching deteriorate the soil’s fertility. If land is

returned to forest fallow soon enough after

clearing, a new growth of trees can reestablish

the soil’s humus, the web of roots, and the nutrient recycling system. The successional sequence from pioneer plant species to mature
138 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

forest, which helps restore soil fertility in fallow areas, depends on the presence of nearby

seed sources, and often on animals for seed

transport.

Mangrove forests provide considerable

amounts of organic material to adjacent and

nearby ecosystems. Although obviously dominated by mangrove trees, these forests actually

comprise a complex and diverse association of

marine and terrestrial animals and plants

whose members range from tiny filamentous

algae to epiphytic bromeliads, and from microscopic zooplankton to frigate birds, turtles, and

alligators (10,16). Marine plants and invertebrates, in particular, contribute to the nutrient

cycling function of the mangrove forests generating significant amounts of particulate and dissolved nutrients which augment growth of adjacent seagrass and coral reef communities (16).

Coral Roof Nutrient Cycling

Reef corals and algae extract calcium from

the seawater to make solid calcium carbonate:

the coelenterates build the hard theca or homes

in which they live and the algae form a hard

lime crust, both of which comprise the solid

reef structure. The waves and currents on the

fore-reef 3 carry nutrients to the reef organisms

and thus the reef tends to grow outward (11).

Clearly, the interaction of the biotic components with their environment contribute to the

maintenance and expansion of an ecosystem.

In an undisturbed coral reef ecosystem the

individual components interact to maintain

equilibrium. Proper distribution of trophic

levels is necessary to the efficient maintenance

of the ecosystem. Various species graze on the

coral reefs or in nearby seagrass meadows,

while larger species feed on the grazers. When

activities of one component exceed a sustainable level, the balance of the ecosystem is affected. For example, if primary consumer populations are reduced dramatically the food

source for secondary consumers correspondingly is reduced. Similar adverse impacts may

arise if secondary consumer populations are

3

Fore-reef—the seaward side of the reef.

reduced, allowing overpopulation of primary

consumers.

While tropical ecosystems are among the

most productive in the world (cf: 1), they are

also vulnerable to natural and man-induced disruptions. Because most of the needed and available plant nutrients in the systems are held in

the biomass, a high percentage of nutrients can

be lost rapidly from exploitation.

The number of species an island can support

(species diversity) and species populations both

decrease with decreasing island size. Because

of low population levels, biota on very small

islands are vulnerable to extinction (cf: 4). The

equilibrium of island populations depends on

rates of immigration and extinction and, hence,

indirectly on distance and size (figure 5-4). The

likelihood of an extinct species being replaced

through immigration from a continent or

another island decreases with the distance from

such sources.

The interrelated nature of island ecosystems

is apparent in island faunal behavior. It is not

uncommon for species to migrate among several ecosystems during their ontogeny. For example, the queen conch Strom bus gigas spends

its larval stage sheltered in mangrove forests

and moves to reef environments as an adult (16).

Similarly, larvae of spiny lobster commonly setFigure

isiand

Island

size

increase:

Distance from colonization source increases -

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986.
Ch. 5–lslands As Integrated Systems ● 139

tle among the prop roots of mangroves, move

onto adjacent seagrass beds or shallow reefs

as juveniles and then into deeper reef habitats

as they mature (6). Some fish seek shelter on

the reef, feed in seagrasses, and breed in mangroves. Spawning habits of some species result

in movement between fresh- and seawater environments. The freshwater eel, for example

moves downstream to the ocean to spawn.

Coconut crabs live on the land but breed in the

ocean; turtles live in the ocean but breed on

land. The breeding areas of these animals are

critical habitats (3).

It seems that movement among ecosystems

is the rule and not the exception. Thus, removal

or degradation of an ecosystem may affect not

only those plants and animals which continually reside within it, but also may block a migration pattern other species depend on to complete their lifecycle—thus compounding the

adverse effect.

Interactions of the plant and animal species

within each forest community commonly result in a number of beneficial effects such as

nutrient cycling, expansion of vegetation

through seed dispersal, and biological control

of pests. Birds and bats, in particular, are often

important for plant pollination and seed dispersal.

CONCLUSIONS

Individual island ecosystems are closely interdependent and, while each component may

have unique functions, they are also important

as components of the “island ecosystem. ” Thus,

in many ways, an island is a single system; the

degradation of any part of it may affect the

productivity of the whole (3).

The closely interconnected nature of island

ecosystems can constitute a major advantage

or disadvantage. while the interdependency of

ecosystems may compensate for deficient operation of one biological aspect (e. g., moving nutrients from an undisturbed to a degraded ecosystem), it may also result in disruption of

another to such a degree that damage to the

entire system is compounded. Thus, unwise use

of a particular resource may result in degradation of larger resource areas.

Damaging a single watershed of a large continental area may not be as devastating as

damaging a small island’s watershed where

negative impacts may quickly affect many parts

of the island ecosystem. Additionally, alternate

water sources may not be as easily available

as on continental areas. Clearly, then, islands

cannot be considered scaled-down versions of

continents (12). The difference in scale is too

great, and their very natures differ considerably (3).

Modification of the environment obviously

is necessary to accommodate human populations. However, options exist in the methods

and types of modifications to be enacted. Selection of a development approach which mimics

or acts in concert with the desired natural process will result in fewer impacts on associated

ecosystems. For example, agricultural expansion into previously unused forestland may take

the form of gradual replacement of existing

trees with fruit trees. Potential exists here not

only to improve agricultural productivity but

also to maintain the natural functions of the

vegetative cover in the process. Observations

of the linkages between ecosystems and repercussive impacts are documented in representative management plans. The programs offered

by various plans offer mechanisms to manage

development activities (cf: 14,15).

Traditional island societies demonstrated a

keen sense of the interrelated nature of the island ecosystems. Damaged or degraded areas

were allowed a fallow period in which to recover in order to restore productivity. Present

population pressures coupled with heightened

economic desires preclude most resource uses

which rely on time for recovery. Today, efforts

to reclaim degraded resource areas still require

recovery time. In addition, these efforts often

are costly, sometimes requiring research infor-
140 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

mation and adequate protection or regulation.

However, sustainable management of a resource area offers an alternative to a lengthy

recovery period. Maintaining and protecting

resource integrity from the start would allow

productivity over the long term without the

high-cost inputs of restoring productivity or loss

of productivity “during recovery periods.

Island peoples continue to depend on natural communities for many of their needs. Each

island ecosystem, natural or modified, provides

benefits to the food and fiber production of

islands and contributes to the supply and effective sustained use of island renewable resources. Even areas developed for human use

depend on natural ecosystems for many essential services. The cycles of water and nutrients,

the flows of materials, and the movements of

animal populations therefore require careful

management for the island as a whole (3).

Through application of rational management

activities, these benefits may be sustained over

the long term.

CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES

1.

2.

3,

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Birkeland, C., “Ecological Interactions Between

Mangroves, Seagrass Beds, and Coral Reefs,”

Ecological Interactions Between Tropical

CoastaZ Ecosystems, United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP Regional Seas Reports

and Studies No. 73, 1985, in B.D, Smith, 1986.

Cintron, G., Lugo, A. E., Pool, D. J., and Morris,

G., “Mangroves of Arid Environments in Puerto

Rico and Adjacent Islands, ” Biotropica

10(2):110-121, 1978.

Dahl, A. L., “Tropical Island Ecosystems and

Protection Technologies To Sustain Renewable

Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Eldredge, L. E., “Case Studies of the Impacts of

Introduced Animal Species on Renewable Resources in the U. S,-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Falanruw, M.V,C., “Traditional Agriculture and

Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Goodwin, M. L., and Sandifer, P. D., “Aquiculture and Fisheries Development in Puerto Rico

and the U.S. Virgin Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Hamilton, L. S., and Snedaker, S. C., Handbook

for A4angrove Area iManagement (Honolulu HI:

Environment and Policy Institute, East/West

Center and United Nations Environment

Programme, 1984).

Kramer, W. P,, U.S. Department of Agriculture

Forest Service Report of Forest Investigation of

Virgin Islands and Recommendations (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

1930).

9. Lucas, R., “Assessment of Commercial Agriculture Technologies for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

10. Smith, B. D., “Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U. S.-

Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

11. Soucie, Edward A., Atoll Agriculture for Secondary SchooZs (Pohnpei, FSM: Ponape Agriculture and Trade School, 1983).

12. Towle, Edward, “The Island Microcosm” prepared for the National Park Service under contract to U.S. Agency for International Development (Washington DC: U.S. Department of the

Interior, 1984).

13, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest

Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, March 1984).

14, U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmopsheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, American

Samoa Coastal Management Program and Fina) En vironmental Impact Statement (Washington DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1980a).

15. U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Coastal

Management Program and Final Environmental

Impact Statement (Washington DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1980b).

16. Wahle, C, M., “Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.
Chapter 6

Management of Terrestrial

Resources: Agriculture,

Agroforestry, and Forestry
CONTENTS

Agricultural Development

Affiliated Islands . . . .

Pacific Agriculture . . . .

Caribbean Agriculture .

in the U. S.-

. . . . . . . . . . .

. .....,,. .

. . . . . . . . . . .

Common Constraints to Agricultural

Development in U.S.-Affiliated

Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Biophysical Constraints . . . . . . . . . . .

Social and Cultural Constraints ... ,

Economic Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . .

Infrastructural Constraints . . . . . . . .

Opportunities for Agriculture

Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Import Substitution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Increased Subsistence and

Commercial Production . . . . . . . . .

Export Development, . . . . . . , . . . . . .

Agricultural Development Strategies. .

Page

..143

..144

..151

..155

..155

..156

..157

..159

..159

..159

..160

..160

..161

Characteristics of Sustainable Tropical

Island Agriculture . ...............161

Potential Strategy: Support Nonmarket

Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..166

Potential Strategy: Develop

Smallholder Agriculture . ..........170

Potential Strategy: Integrate

Characteristics of Traditional

Agriculture Into More Productive

Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...173

Potential Strategy: Develop Intensive

Commercial Farming . . . . . . , , .. ...176

Technologies Supporting Agricultural

Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . ........192

Potential Strategy: Minimize Soil

Erosion and Degradation . .........192

Potential Strategy: Enhance

Revegetation Programs . ...........198

Potential Strategy: Develop Local Soil

Amendments . ...................201

Potential Strategy: Reduce

Agricultural Crop Losses . .........203

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...207

Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208

Agricultural Development . .........,208

Potential Strategy: Improve Research

and Extension Services. . . . . . . .. ...209

Page

Potential Strategy: Improve Education

in Agriculture. . . . . . . . , . . , . . . . . . . .210

Chapter 6 References . . . . . . . ..........212

Boxes

Box Page

6-A. Spice Cultivation Research ..,... ..186

6-B. Terracing. . , . ...................195

Figures

Figure No. Page

6-1. Traditional Agriculture on a Typical

Micronesian High Island ... ... ....144

6-2. Main Categories of Land Use and

Vegetation Types on Yap ... 147

6-3. Slopes and Appropriate Conservation

Measures . . . . . . . . . , . .......,....196

Tables

Table No. Page

6-1. Principle Crop and Livestock

Commodities in the U.S.-Affiliated

Pacific Islands ...,.,.. ., ........151

6-2. Trends introduction of Selected

Commodities in Puerto Rico . ......153

6-3. Comparison of Population Density

and Arable Land Acreages in the

U.S. Affiliated Pacific Islands ... ...155

6-4. Comparison of U.S. Mainland and

6-5.

6-6.

6-7.

6-8.

Island Farm Sizes by Acreages . . . . .165

Comparison of Farm Sizes by Sales

Class .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .... ..,.166

Indicators of Subsistence and

Commercial Agricultural Production

in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..,.......167

Comparison of Yields Under Drip

and Conventional Irrigation Systems

in Semiarid Zones of Puerto Rico . .189

Salt Tolerance of Certain Common

Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 203
Chapter

Management of Terrestrial Resources:

Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry

Few areas in U.S.-affiliated islands remain

unmodified by man. Most are or have been

managed to some extent to provide for human

needs, and many land areas have been degraded

in the process through deforestation, soil erosion, and nutrient depletion. Terrestrial resources and resource systems still supply many

subsistence needs on the Pacific islands, but

subsistence agriculture has been declining in

many areas of the Pacific, and has not been a

significant activity on the Caribbean islands in

this century.

Semicommercial and/or intensive commercial agriculture (on smallholder or larger scales)

can play a significant role in the islands’ economic development and progress toward greater self-sufficiency. Development of agriculture

or forestry on any scale must, however, be sustainable and commercial operations will require considerable expertise and probably importation of new technologies. Developmental

research also may be required. Subsistence systems, where they exist, can be protected and

fostered and/or made more productive and dePhoto credit: C. Hodges

Eighty percent of the American Samoan population provides or supplements family nutrition through

subsistence agriculture.

143
144 c Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

veloped to semicommercial scale. Which strategy is selected as appropriate will depend on

the geographic, environmental, economic, and

social characteristics of individual islands.

Terrestrial resource sustainability will depend on several supportive technologies for

minimizing soil erosion and crop losses and

for improving the productivity of nutrient

depleted soils. Revegetation programs (including reforestation efforts) could also be considered.

Pacific Agriculture

The maintenance of an environment meeting the needs of Pacific islanders involved a

complex system of integrated resource management. Rather than rearrange the environment

and expend great amounts of energy, people’s

activities were directed to the most effective

use of microhabitat and natural phenomena.

This “technology” can be classified as being

“nature-intensive,” and can be contrasted with

what might be classified as “Asian labor-intensive agriculture” and “Western energy- and

chemical-intensive agriculture. ” Many traditional practices had conservation value resulting from technological limitations of natural

materials, taboos and religious beliefs, territoriality, and stratified societies (23).

Traditional Agricuture1

The terrestrial activities of early inhabitants

of Caroline and Samoan high islands, whether

by design, necessity or both, seem to have modified the vegetation of the freshwater runoff

filtering systems to meet human needs without

altering their basic functions (figure 6-l). For

example, swamp forests and low areas inland

of mangroves were converted to taro patches

which maintained their function as silt traps.

Traditional agriculture activities further inland

under conditions of low population pressure

probably also produced minimal increases in

1 A review of traditional Micronesia high island practices currently is underway at the University of Guam Water and Energy

Resources Institute (45).

Figure 6=1.—Traditionai Agriculture on a Typicai Micronesia High Voicanic island

Natural I

Modified Traditional

Ecosystems — Agroecosystems

Montane vegetation

on ridges and in ravines

L Open canopy agriculture

v Lagoon agroforest J

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.
.

Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 145

soil erosion (24). Atoll agricultural practices

were developed to protect crops from salt spray

and to place them in proximity to the freshwater

lens.

Traditional agriculture systems still can be

found throughout the Pacific territories, although

some areas have developed these to a greater

extent than others. Common systems are:

● culture of wetland tare,

● atoll pit taro culture,

● mixed “tree gardening, ”

● intermittent tree gardening,

● “lanchos” and backyard gardens, and

● traditional open canopy culture.

The tree gardens and taro patch systems offer stability and the intermittent gardens offer

variety, resilience, and a means of adapting to

each year’s weather conditions.

Taro Patch Systems.—Species and varieties

of food plants in the family Araceae, generally

thought of as “tare,” can be grown in wet or

relatively dry situations. The latter are dealt

with in the section on mixed gardening. Culture of wetland taro generally involves preparation of taro patches and management of water

and is considered here as a distinct system.

Sites chosen for taro patches are mostly

marshy lowland areas such as exist in swamp

forests just inland of mangroves. These are

deepened as needed and water is generally directed to flow through the patch. Cyrtosperma

taro is more shade tolerant than Colocasia

(“true tare”), and is thus more compatible with

tree culture, and is an integral part of the agroforestry system of Yap. Taro patches are generally managed on an individual or family basis,

the individual taro patch having been handed

down from one generation to the next. Where

taro patch habitat is extensive, the area is subdivided into separately tended subplots (22).

Palau appears to have the most highly developed cultural methods for Colocasia tare.

There, the development of a taro patch involves

the clearing of a suitable area, in many or perhaps most instances, the site of a previously

worked patch. The area may be drained and

soil is dug up and leaves, twigs, seagrasses, and

other locally available forms of “green manure”

are laid down and covered with soil. The patch

is then thoroughly mixed and “cultured” to obtain a nutrient-rich muck of desired consistency.

planting material consists of small corms or the

tops of corms which have previously been harvested. These are planted in depressions and

soil is mounded about developing corms to encourage large growth.

A considerable body of expertise exists involving the choice of green manures; choice

of cultivar suitable for the site and intended use;

management of water; and planting and tending the plant in order to obtain the desired

shape, size, and consistency of the corm.

Palauan taro patches are divided into sections

in which the intensity of management is related

to the end product: a fairly intensively worked

area to provide for a families’ caloric needs,

a section with optimal conditions for producing

especially high-quality corms for special people

or occasions, and sections which are worked

less intensively for reserve supplies (107).

Colocasia is harvested from 6 months to a

year after it is planted depending on the variety and other conditions. The harvested product will not keep long, so only as much as can

be consumed is harvested. A continuous supply is provided by successive plantings throughout the year. Once a Colocasia patch has been

established, it is not necessary to repeat the

process of moving soil and adding large amounts

of green manure unless the quality of the growing media declines.

Culture of Cyrtosperma chamissonis is less

labor-intensive than that of Colocasia and seems

to rely more on the natural transport of nutrients in water directed through the taro patch.

Green manure is not commonly added, and cultural methods involve the periodic removal of

fallen vegetative material and debris in order

to maintain the flow of water through the system. Replanting of Cyrtosperma is done at the

same time as harvesting, and there is no hiatus

required to recondition and replant the patch.

Atoll Pit Taro Culture.–Atoll soils are largely

made up of sand and silt-sized particles of limestone and are typically low in organic carbon,
146 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

nitrogen, and potassium. The soil has a low

water-holding capacity because of its coarse

texture, and the activity of soil microorganisms

is limited (102).

Cultivation of giant taro (Cyrtosperma chamissonis) on atolls involves excavating pits down

to the level of the freshwater lens, commonly

several feet, inserting a bottomless basket made

of woven twigs, and filling it with mud mixed

with leaves and other organic matter. Then cuttings of giant taro are planted in the muddy substrate in the basket (41,148). Fertilizers are derived from composted leaves, coconut fronds

and husks, manures, dried starfish or shark, or

rotted sea cucumber (22,102). Thus, taro pit culture is effectively similar to container agriculture, wherein the water and soil management

efforts are concentrated in a small area.

Placing the taro plants in pits allows their

roots closer access to freshwater and provides

some protection from salt spray. Bananas may

be planted on the margins of taro pits to take

advantage of the higher organic content in

nearby soils (102), further protecting taro plants

from sea spray.

Tree Gardens.—One special form of Micronesia agriculture is the tree garden, found

throughout the high islands of Micronesia, and

containing a high proportion of food producing species. In their simplest form, such gardens

consist of a mix of coconut (Cocos nucifera)

and breadfruit (Artocarpus spp.) with occasional other trees. Such areas are extensive in

Truk.

More complex systems developed on other

high islands in the Pacific. Tree gardens on Yap

involve about 50 tree species, including betel

nut (Areca catechu), a wide variety of bananas

Musa spp.), mangoes (Mangifera indica), many

varieties of Citrus spp., cacao (Theobroma cacao), papayas (Carica papaya), guava (Psidium

guajava), and other food trees mixed with timber and wild tree species, and with an understory of shrubs and herbs useful for food, fiber, medicine, condiments, ornamentation, etc.

(22). Animals maintained in Yapese village tree

gardens include penned or tethered pigs and

chickens and feral chickens in the bush. Fruit

bats may forage in these areas at night.

Within the crop and tree species that have

long been cultivated by Yapese, there are numerous locally recognized varieties. There are,

for example, 21 names for coconut varieties,

28 names for breadfruit, and 37 names for varieties of bananas. Such tree gardens represent

a considerable collection of genetic diversity.

Unlike temperate seasonal agriculture, traditional tree gardens are a permanent fixture and

take years to develop. Existing natural vegetation is gradually manipulated into agroforest

(22,94). The likely process on Yap was the planting of food trees and other useful trees about

homesteads, and in the drained areas created

by the excavation of taro patches and construction of paths between homes and villages. Backyard and pathside tree gardens became confluent and today make up about 27 percent of

Yap’s vegetation (figure 6-2).

The objective of traditional tree gardening

systems is to achieve a permanent, long-term,

stable agroforestry system, primarily on poorer/

marginal lands. Tree gardening can be considered a long-term investment, taking up to a lifetime to complete, with large initial labor and

energy inputs for planting and maintenance.

Once a stable-state tree garden system is established, little labor and energy are expended for

activities other than harvesting (99).

Tree gardens recycle nutrients through leaf

falls. They are maintained largely by the pruning activities of their owners, who select for

desired trees by cutting or girdling those trees

that are not desired. Many of the trees propagate themselves by root growth (as with breadfruit), or seed. Fruit bats aid seed dispersal in

some cases. People preserve certain volunteer

species as well as planting other desired varieties and species.

Intermittent Gardens.—Areas around and

generally inland of villages are used for gardens

of yams and other crops generally grown in

mixed, multilayered culture and alternated with

a fallow period in which secondary forest

growth develops. Mixed culture of yams and

other food crops is practiced on most high Pacific islands, especially on Pohnpei where culture of especially large or old yams can pro-
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 147

Figure 6-2.—Main Categories of Land Use and Vegetation on Yap

I

Freshwater wetlands and ponds

Savanna fernlands

(very degraded)

Tall forest

Low forest ~ \

Open canopy cultivation

Urban

Agroforest, coconut grove

Agroforest

Agroforest with secondary

vegetation

Weedy secondary vegetation

Low and secondary forest with

weedy vegetation

SOURCE: M.C.V. Falanruw, “Traditional Agriculture and Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

vide the grower social status. Four general types

of areas are typical:

1. Early second-growth forest fallow: Areas

on the outskirts of villages which have become covered with a characteristic set of

small second-growth trees and often with

an understory of ferns. Such areas are generally the site of a previous garden (and are

indicated as weedy, replacement vegetation in figure 6-2).

2. Advanced second-growth forest fallow:

Areas on the outskirts of villages which are

covered with secondary forest consisting

of a characteristic set of tree species (indicated as low and secondary forest with

weedy vegetation in figure 6-2).

3. Bamboo gardens: Areas on the outskirts of

villages which are covered with a mix of

secondary vegetation and two species of

bamboo. These areas resulted from the

planting of bamboo in earlier days when

the large and small bamboo were needed

in house construction, and the large bamboo was used to build rafts, the most common type of water transport. Now that rafts

are used less, other building materials are

available, and the style of houses built by

young couples is less traditional, areas

of bamboo are often burned to be used as

gardens.

4. Special-purpose yam gardens: Areas

within villages where neat raised beds are

constructed and bamboo poles brought in

to build a series of yam trellises. These

areas generally are the work of a group of

women growing yams to present on a special occasion. Such gardens are limited in

size, more labor-intensive, and do not generally have a variety of other crops planted

in the same site.

Sites chosen for intermittent gardens are relatively well-drained areas of secondary vegetation (often the sites of previous gardens) within

the land available to the family or borrowed

for such use. The soil in areas of secondary forest are richest and there is a nearby supply of

poles for trellises, so such areas are preferred.
148 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

The first step in making a garden is to open

a “skylight” in the canopy by clearing herbaceous vegetation. This is piled about trees and

burned. Sometimes trees may be girdled before

being burned. Standing logs and surrounding

vegetation commonly are left to shade young

plants, or the canopy may be removed gradually so that young plantings are shaded the

first part of their lives.

The major crop grown in such gardens are

yams of the genus Dioscorea. The tops of tubers

which have been previously harvested, as well

as small whole yams are planted. A border of

fallen logs often is formed about the yam plantings and mulch is piled within this area. Trellises of poles, often of bamboo, provide pathways for yam vines to grow up into the sunlight

and produce large tubers. In areas rich in bamboo, trellises may consist of tall “teepees” of

three or more poles tied together at the top. In

Pohnpei, vines are trained to climb trees along

a string, often made of Hibiscus bark, which

is tied to a stone and thrown up to the first

branches of the tree. When the yam vines reach

the first branches, additional strings may lead

the vine to higher branches. The tree may be

injured or killed so that it drops part or all of

its leaves as the vine covers the tree. This new

vegetation forms a canopy similar to that furnished previously by the tree.

After yams are planted in the choicest microhabitat, the rest of the garden area is filled in

with a mix of other crops, generally in a predictable succession: pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.)

and wax gourds (Benicasa hispida) which grow

fast in the ash fertilizer and form a protective

layer of vegetation over the soil. These often

die back by the time the yams and other crops

have made their major vegetative growth. Sweet

potato vines may be planted in raised mounds

although they are more often planted in open

areas.

Pineapples and sugarcane maybe planted in

suitable areas. Other crops include certain taro

species, bush spinach (Abelmoschus manihot),

and winged beans (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus). Banana may be planted and weeds that

are cleared from the garden piled about the trees

as mulch. Papaya, passionfruit, and luffa vines

may grow voluntarily or from old plantings in

the area. Sometimes a few fruit trees from

nearby agroforests may be present.

These crops grow rapidly so that a multistoried canopy of leaves is formed by the time the

rainy season starts. Intermediate crops are harvested as they mature and yams are harvested

at the end of the growing season. The garden

may then be replanted if the soil remains fertile, otherwise it is only sporadically tended to

harvest tree crops and other long-term crops,

and gradually is abandoned. Gardens are seldom used for more than 3 consecutive years.

After gardens are abandoned, they go through

a series of successional stages as the wild

canopy reforms. They are invaded first by her-
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 149

baceous weeds followed by woody species.

Seed dispersal commonly is aided by birds and

fruit bats (21).

"Lanchos" and Backyard Gardens.—Traditional agricultural activities in the Marianas are

not well documented. However, wild food

plants found in the Marianas indicate that the

original inhabitants ate the food found on other

high islands of Micronesia (22). The neotraditional agriculture system of the Marianas was

the development of “lanchos” or “ranches”

where food was grown by people who resided

in village areas. Lanchos were generally located

in rural wooded areas and consisted of a simply

built cooking and sleeping house surrounded

by food trees, chickens, pigs, and gardens.

Although many lanchos still are in use on

Guam (84], they are harder to find in the Marianas where population increases, division of

family lands, economic development, and food

stamp programs result in competitive uses for

land and decrease the need to raise one’s own

food. Fresh local produce remains important

for fiestas, however, and is reflected in poaching of deer and fruit bats and importation of

traditional foods from other islands (22).

Traditional Open Canopy Agriculture.—

Crops grown in openland areas include sweet

potatoes, cassava, and vegetables. Garden beds

are reconditioned by clearing or burning unwanted vegetation from the site. Debris is piled

on the garden, sometimes with additional

mulch such as seagrass. Ditches are dug or

deepened around the garden bed and the soil

piled on top of the mulch. The result is drainage of the garden, suppression of weeds and

development of a “sandwich” of soil, mulch,

soil. Cuttings may be planted directly or in

raised rows (22).

Commercial Agriculture Developmemt

After western contact, traditional agricultural

technologies were modified to varying degrees

by voluntary incorporation of methods or implements introduced by settlers, missionaries,

and colonial governments. Few wholly subsistence farmers remain.

In Micronesia, numerous attempts have been

made to develop commercial agriculture, beginning with the development of the copra trade

by the Germans in the late 19th century. Coconut palms were planted on many islands and

villagers were organized to process dried coconut meat (copra) for export to Germany (86).

The Japanese expanded commercial agriculture through the cultivation of sugarcane in the

Northern Marianas; cassava, sweet potato, coffee, and other crops in Pohnpei; and various

other commercial farming and related industries throughout Micronesia. Agricultural colonies were established, generally with imported

Asian workers. The Japanese provided support

for agriculture through provision of materials,

technical advice and assistance, selection of

technologies that maximized use of local resources, and a comprehensive marketing program. Both the German and Japanese efforts

primarily served the colonial power and natives

were used mainly for unskilled labor.

With the advent of the U.S. administration

at the end of World War II, the Japanese-supported commercial agriculture development—

which had led Micronesia to become a selfsupporting part of the Japanese Empire—quickly

disappeared. Initially, exploitation of existing

island resources was a very low priority with

the new U.S. administration; securing military

interest was a primary goal. Without expatriate managers, shipping services and markets,

most commercial agriculture was soon abandoned and the islands again returned to subsistence food production (94).

Commercial agriculture development in American Samoa, which became a U.S. possession

in 1900, has progressed even less than in Micronesia. Although a small copra industry was developed, most agriculture activity is still at a

subsistence level (94).

Within the last 30 years, there have been renewed efforts to develop commercial agriculture, but progress has been slow and results disappointing. Several crops have been designated

for commercial development in Micronesia,

notably cacao in the late 1950s and early 1960s,
150 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ramie in Palau, and banana on some high islands. More recently, efforts have been directed

to developing a black pepper industry on Pohnpei and introducing vegetables throughout Micronesia (99,103,105). Efforts in American

Samoa have been mainly directed at increasing local food production with some effort

made to introduce commercial vegetable production. All have been introduced as small-scale

projects for limited-resource farmers and many

have been unsuccessful for reasons including:

1) lack of markets or low market prices, 2) technologies dependent on imported inputs, 3) lack

of management skills among farmers, 4) diseases and pests, and 5) a general lack of commitment by farmers and U.S. and local governments (94).

The most persistent efforts of the Pacific island government Departments of Agriculture,

at least during American Administration, seems

to have been the encouragement of open canopy

vegetable gardens involving crops such as Chinese cabbage, green peppers, tomatoes, and

corn, and introduction of western techniques

of clean-field gardening using fertilizers, pesticides, etc. Several farmers successfully operate enterprises on Guam and in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI)

and the numbers are increasing as farmers become more adept at cultivation practices and

techniques (84). However, many attempts have

been unsuccessful due to high ratio of input

cost to output value; soil degradation; and invasion of noxious weeds, such as the spiny Mimosa invisa, which are difficult to clear. Nonetheless, outside advisors continue to recommend

such technology and outside funding continues

to be made available for such efforts (22).

The incidence of soil erosion is probably

greatest in clean-cultivated vegetable gardens

where the soil must be made friable and vegetative growth does not provide adequate protection against heavy rainfall or invasion by weeds.

An increasing number of pests hinder sweet

potato culture, and the repeated burning, depletion of soil nutrients, and changes in soil texture associated with cassava culture results in

soil degradation (22).

The environmental impact of the multilayered

mixed gardens varies with the extensiveness

and intensity of burning. Today, more forest

and secondary vegetation is burned than is

used. Part of this is due to careless gardeners

and part to arson. There appears to be little concern for controlling fires that have gotten out

of hand, and local fire departments tend to respond only when residences or other infrastructure are threatened (22).

The expected result from too many attempts

at open canopy gardening, too frequent burning of garden lands with too short fallow periods is a decrease in forest fallow areas, use of

preferred sites to exhaustion and degradation

of the soil. The end result of prolonged degradation of soils seems to be swordgrass savannas

or Gleichenia fernlands. On Yap, extensive

areas of degraded soil bear the sign of toofrequent burning and over-intensive use, and

the island’s genetic heritage of wild endemic

species is small compared to surrounding islands (22).

Current Status of Agriculture

The diets of Pacific Islanders, in general, consist mainly of starchy foods, probably reflecting the kinds of crops which have been adapted

to the local environments. Principal commodities produced in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are listed in table 6-1. On most islands,

tare, coconut, banana, and breadfruit are grown

in large quantities, primarily for home consumption. In American Samoa and the Compact States, the coconut is used for food, drink,

and for making tools and utensils important in

the household.

In areas such as Guam and CNMI, where

western and Japanese influence has been greatest, meat and vegetables have become more important parts of the diet. Pork and chicken are

popular throughout the Pacific Islands, and are

raised mainly for home consumption. Pigs and

chickens are raised in most rural areas (108).

In most of the territories eggs are produced in

small volume for the market, but per capita consumption is small compared with Hawaii and
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 151

Table 6-1 .—Principal Crop and Livestock Commodities

in the U. S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

Commodity

Islands Crop Livestock

American Samoa . . . . . . Banana, breadfruit, Chicken,

coconut, taro eggs, pork

Marshall Islands. . . . . . . Banana, breadfruit,

coconut, pandanus

Federated States of

Micronesia . . . . . . . . . . . Banana, black Eggs, pork

pepper, breadfruit,

cassava, citrus,

coconut, mango,

pandanus, papaya,

sweet potato, tarot

yam

Northern Marianas . . . . . Avocado, banana, Beef, eggs,

breadfruit, cassava, milk, pork

cucumber, mango,

other melons,

papaya, sweet

potato, tare, yam

Guam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Avocado, banana, Chicken,

breadfruit, cassava, eggs, pork

chinese cabbage,

cucumber, eggplant,

green beans, head

cabbage, melons,

papaya, sweet

potato, tare, tomato,

watermelon, yam

SOURCE: R. Lucas, “Role of Smallholders in Agricultural Development in the U. S.-

Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

continental U.S. consumption. Backyard gardening in urban as well as rural areas is a popular means to supplement the diet and income

of wage earners.

No shortage exists of people in Micronesia,

especially young people, to form a labor pool.

It is likely that the ratio of children to adults

has never been as high as today. However, it

is difficult for mothers of young children to care

for their babies and do the strenuous work of

gardening or gathering. With considerable time

now spent in school, where traditional agriculture is not taught, and with motherhood coming at an early age, young women sometimes

do not learn and experience all that is needed

to be effective gardeners. A number of young

women work in town, and leave small children

with relatives, thus reducing the available work

force of experienced food producers (22).

Caribbean Agriculture

Because of diverse factors, there is relatively

little heritage of traditional, subsistence agriculture in the U.S. Caribbean. In Puerto Rico,

traditional shifting agriculture was adopted by

subsistence farmers of European descent and

later by those of African extraction. This subsistence sector continued into the early 20th

century, but little remains today. The Virgin

Islands were unpopulated at the time of colonization, thus there was no tradition of indigenous agriculture passed onto later inhabitants

as occurred in Puerto Rico (116). In addition,

these areas experienced an extended period of

agricultural production for export to colonial

powers, continuing well into this century.

Puerto Rico

Early in Puerto Rico’s nearly 400-year history

of colonization, the forests were cut and up to

90 percent of the plains and mountains were

tilled, largely for sugarcane, coffee, tobacco

(131) and, to a lesser extent, for bay trees

(Pimenta racemosa) (11). The island was no

longer self-sufficient in wood and paper products as early as 1830 (131).

Even 50 years ago, Puerto Rico had an agricultural economy based primarily on sugarcane

and, to a lesser extent, on coffee, tobacco, and

cattle. With the notable exceptions of rice,

beans, and codfish (dietary staples), most food

was produced locally. Heavy hillside soil erosion severely hindered tobacco cultivation and

contributed to reduction in already economically stressed sugar operations. The sediment

laden runoff silted water supply facilities; seven

major reservoirs lost a total of 32,500 acre-feet

of storage capacity and two were totally filled

and had become grazing areas (131).

Hillside tobacco and sugar land was abandoned as the profit margin decreased. The land

returned to scrub brush and tree cover having

little economic value. Sugarcane cultivation on

flat coastal lands continued. Substantial reduction in damage to land and water resources has

occurred over the last 25 years primarily be-
152 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

cause of natural revegetation of abandoned

croplands, and aided by some adoption of conservation practices such as strip and contour

cropping, drainage, grazing and brush management, and spring development (131).

Harvested land in Puerto Rico declined from

724,000 acres to 283,851 acres between 1959

and 1978 (157). Abandoned farms commonly

belong to persons over 50 years of age who may

farm part-time, but who derive much of their

income from sources outside farming. The

causes of abandonment include lack of working capital, advanced age of the owner, or a

preferred course of income outside the farm

(10). Economic and sociological studies (8,31,

64) have shown that family-sized farms are

rarely profitable due to their limited size; steep,

unproductive soils; and lack of credit, entrepreneurial abilities, and technical assistance with

production and marketing. Sometimes beef

cattle are raised on grass-covered abandoned

lands.

In 1950, agriculture provided 215,000 jobs (36

percent of total employment) and contributed

18 percent of the commonwealth product. There

are now 40,000 jobs in agriculture, which accounts for 5 percent of the commonwealth

product. Production at the farm level is valued

at about $580 million with a retail value of about

$1.2 billion. Sugarcane production has fallen

90 percent since 1952, and tobacco production

has almost disappeared. Coffee producers still

provide for three-fourths of local consumption,

but they are protected from competition with

imported coffee by locally set tariffs (143).

Puerto Rican diets also have changed significantly in recent decades. Despite declining per

capita consumption of starchy vegetables, the

total amount of food consumed per capita has

increased (131). Production of milk, eggs, poultry, and pork has more than doubled since 1952

(table 6-2) (89,90,143). Meat and dairy products

now comprise 60 percent of the value of farm

output in Puerto Rico. Approximately 600,000

acres are used for pasture, however, approximately 500,000 tons of feed for cattle, pigs, and

poultry are imported yearly, mostly from the

U.S. mainland; none is produced locally (143).

The Puerto Rican Government has instituted

a number of measures to increase and improve

local agriculture. Farmers are exempt from 90

percent of local income taxes. Land taxes are

low and land used for intensive agricultural production is exempt. Agricultural land also is exempt from inheritance taxes (143). Of the approximately 1,500 college-trained agriculture

specialists on the island, 800 are employed by

the government in agencies related to agriculture.

The Puerto Rican Government also has made

a number of costly and largely unsuccessful efforts to develop modern, large-scale farming

in several parts of the island. A local rice industry was developed on government lands on
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 153

Table 6-2.—Trends in Production of Selected Commodities in Puerto Rico

Product ion Production Consumption a

1951-52 1981-82 1981-82 Imports

Commodity (thousands) (thousands) (thousands) (thousands)

Sugar (tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tobacco (Ibs.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Coffee (Ibs.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fresh milk (qts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Beef (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pork (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Poultry (lbs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eggs (doz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pineapple (tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plantains (thousands). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bananas (thousands) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tanier (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sweet potatoes (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Yams (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Oranges (thousands) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Grapefruit (thousands) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Citron (lbs.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pumpkins (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tomatoes (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pepper (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cabbage (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pigeon peas (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Taro (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cassava (lbs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Potatoes (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rice (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Beans (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Onions (lbs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Corn (lbs.). ..,... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Grapes (lbs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Garlic (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cocoa (lbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1,360

61,949

52,249

48,305

24,700

18,800

12,600

9,500

22

170

1,120

95,239

61,729

56,438

144

16

16,094

40,124

39,683

17,416

14,550

25,573

25,353

28,660

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

103

3,527

55,115

395,318

38,000

40,000

52,500

21,900

42

330

720

52,910

46,297

70,768

162

7

19,621

100,750

14,991

17,637

17,637

24,251

16,535

13,228

—

22,046

1,764

—

—

—

—

—

140

—

85,979

401,660

114,000

113,000

195,000

39,400

3

330

720

91,491

70,547

70,768

192

9

—

100,750

77,822

30,203

37,478

27,558

16,535

18,739

291,669

683,426

97,002

78,704

992,070

5,100

3,600

—

37

—

30,864

6,342b

76,000C

73,000d

142,000

17,500

—

—

—

38,581

22,046

287

3 1

e

2—

—

62,831

13,228

23,369

3,307

—

5,523

291,669

661,380

94,798

81,570

992,070

5,100

3,600

l0,000f

aExports from Puerto Rico to the USVI and to others account for some of the discrepancies between imports, local production and consumption

b

The equivalent of about 158,550,000 quarts are imported in dry or condensed form.

c

28,000,000 pounds from the U.S. and 48,000,000 pounds from foreign countries.

dPlus 28,000,000 pounds of ham.

ePlus 4,000,000 gallons of concentrate,

fPlus 15,000,000 pounds of chocolate candies,

SOURCE: Vicente-Chandler J., “Assessment of Agricultural Production Technologies for U.S. Caribbean islands;" OTA Commissioned paper 1988.

the north coast in 1978. A rice mill was constructed and the lands were precision-leveled

at considerable cost in time and money (143).

However, the rice project has not become self

sustaining.

Seven years ago, the Government of Puerto

Rico started a modern vegetable industry on

about 5,000 acres on the south coast by leasing

lands and providing credit and facilities to two

large Israeli companies and 13 local farmers.

Approximately 2,500 acres now have drip irrigation systems and two packing plants were

constructed. Crops were grown for both local

and export markets with some success. However, in 1986 one project (April-Agro) reportedly

was foreclosed by the Puerto Rican Government due to nonpayment of a large government

loan although some of its activities are continued. The remaining operation—ISPRAC—

continues operation.

Today, Puerto Rico annually imports about

1.2 billion dollars’ worth of food (with a retail

value of $1.8 billion), and about 400 million

dollars’ worth of wood products. About 29,840

Puerto Rican farms comprise a total of l,259,700

acres (135). Several large processors of agricul-
154 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

tural products exist in Puerto Rico but, with

few exceptions, they depend almost exclusively

on imported materials and are not interested

in processing small periodic agricultural surpluses (143).

Agriculture at present is generally characterized by low yields, high production costs, older

farmers (averaging 55 years of age with a fifth

grade education), and inefficient marketing systems. Attitudes are generally negative toward

farming on the part of technicians, farmers,

leaders, and the general public (143).

Young, well-trained, and motivated farmers

are scarce in Puerto Rico, probably due to the

way agriculture developed on the island. Sugarcane, coffee, and cattle plantations were developed with cheap labor; landholders often

delegated responsibilities to poorly trained

managers. As the island’s economy boomed,

many landholders preferred land speculation

to learning new techniques and investing in

agriculture. Their offspring generally entered

other professions; higher wages are paid in

manufacturing, tourism, and construction.

Children of subsistence farmers went to work

elsewhere or migrated to the U.S. mainland.

Consequently, agricultural work is considered

of low status.

U.S. Virgin Islands

Early colonial land modification in the U.S.

Virgin Islands (USVI) included clearing of forests both for the establishment of export crop

plantations and for their commercially valuable

timber species. Early in this century, St. Thomas

and St. Croix were severely deforested and consisted largely of secondary scrub growth characterized by small woody shrubs. The scrubcovered land consisted of thin soil with many

rock outcropping. The removal of timber species and subsequent burning damaged the soil

further reducing its fertility.

Historically, the majority of desirable land

has not been available for small-scale subsistence agriculture. Initially, the majority of the

highest quality land was held in large plantations and later, with the emergence of the tourism industry, land speculation and increased

real estate prices has made much of the land

inaccessible (117,143).

Since 1930 there have been sharp decreases

in average farm size, harvested cropland, and

agricultural employment and marked increases

in the percentage of operators engaged in offfarm work. In the context of waning farm effort and acreage, there have been three major

adjustments in the structure of USVI agriculture (80 percent of which is concentrated on

St. Croix). First, an increase in mechanization

and use of fertilizers; second, the noticeable

shift away from cropping toward livestock; and

third is a growing bimodal structure in which

there are a large number of small farms alongside a few large commercial farms. Over the

past century, USVI agriculture has adapted to

resource encroachment basically by reducing

farm effort and size, replacing capital-intensive

inputs, and changing the composition of output from export crops to domestic fruits, nuts,

and vegetables. Small-scale holdings largely are

secondary income-earners. The largest commercial tracts now specialize in cattle and dairy

products (56).

There have been some clear increases in the

production of fruits, nuts, rootcrops, sheep,

goats, and cattle since 1970, in part because of

inflation of the prices of imported goods, slowdowns in tourism growth associated with economic recessions, and new farm efforts by

Rastafarians and West Indian migrant workers who have become a permanent component

of the local work force. These gains, however,

occur in the long-term context of continuing

reduction in farm scale and reduction in farm

sales (56). Some landowners among the French

agriculturists of St. Thomas have begun to sell

land for residential development and many

young people are looking to alternative livelihoods (117).
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry . 155

COMMON CONSTRAINTS TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN

U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS

Major constraints to agricultural development which apply to all of the U.S.-affiliated

islands generally fall into the following categories: biophysical, economic, social and cultural, and infrastructural, Major biophysical

constraints are low soil fertility, limited or irregular water resources, and limited arable land

of suitable soil types and level topography. Economic constraints include the small size of domestic markets for agricultural products, availability of high-paying government jobs and

ready emigration opportunities, high cost of imported livestock feed and other inputs and, in

tourism-dominated islands, the relatively low

value of agricultural lands vis-a-vis nonrural

residential or commercial real estate uses. The

arduous nature and declining status of agricultural employment provide social constraints to

agricultural development on some islands (13),

and land tenure systems characterized by fragmented landholdings and clan influence over

use rights can be primary cultural constraints

to commercial development. Constraints posed

by undeveloped infrastructure include lack of

rural farm roads in high islands, scarcity of

transportation from rural and outlying areas

to central markets, and costly and irregular

transportation to overseas markets (43).

The degree to which the above constraints

apply to U.S.-affiliated islands varies but, nevertheless, is significant in all of them, For example, cultivable land is sparse on all islands. However, there is more arable land in Pohnpei and

Palau relative to population than in the Marshalls, Truk, and American Samoa (table 6-3).

In all of these areas, available arable land typically is owned in relatively small parcels, few

areas have flat terrain, and contiguous soils of

a given type (i.e., soils suitable for a given crop)

are not common.

Some constraints tend to apply only to certain of the islands, for example, some islands

have significant dry seasons while other islands

receive evenly spread rainfall. In areas experiencing dry periods, lack of irrigation capabilities compounds limitations on farm productivity. The incidence of destructive typhoons

and other tropical storms, although experienced by the majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands, tends to be much greater in the Marianas and western Caroline Islands (43).

Biophysical Constraints

Biological and physical (biophysical) considerations include availability of land and

Table 6-3.—Comparison of Population Density and Arable Land Acreages

in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

1984 Arable area Population density

Islands Populationa

(acres)bper arable acre

American Samoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,300 14,000 2.45

Guam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119,800 6,900C16.41

CNMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,600 30,000d

0.65

Marshalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,900 n/a

FSM:

n/a

Kosrae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,300 17,900 0.35

Pohnpei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,900 57,700 0.47

Truk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44,600 13,500 3.30

Yap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,600 21,500 0.43

Palau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,000 63,500 0.20

SOURCES:

a

Land Use Planning Report, 13(46):365, November 25, 1985; U.S. Department of State, 1984 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, report to the United Nations on administration of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1985; R Lucas, “Role of

Smallholders in Agricultural Development in the US.. Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986

bData derived from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service tysoil surveys of American Samoa (1984), KOSrae (1983), Ponape (1962), Truk (1983), Yap (1983), and Palau (1983), except where otherwise noted,

cArable area is based on a soil survey of lands designated as potential agriculture lands (9,920 acres) by the Guam Bureau

of Planning, and exclude a large portion of Guam controlled by the military, as well as lands designated for urban and conservation use

dCNMl arable acreage IS based on surveys sponsored by the Trust Territory government and cover only Saipan and Tinian

Most of the acreage would need irrigation to be considered good in terms of productivity for agriculture,

63-222 0 - 87-6 QL. 3
156 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

water resources, soils, topography, and climate.

In general, land is in short supply on all of the

U.S.-affiliated islands, but particularly in the

majority of the Pacific islands and the USVI.

Additionally, the quality of soils, population

density, land tenure, and topographic circumstances determine the degree to which land is

a constraint (43).

Tropical soils in the territories have a number of limitations. Natural fertility is low compared to the nutrient needs of high-yielding

crops. High rainfall in many areas leaches out

basic plant nutrients and erodes the soil. Thus,

conservation methods such as terracing, contouring, and conservation tillage practices become critically important. Maintaining forest

canopy and vegetative cover stems erosion and

maintains soil fertility by returning organic matter to the soil through the natural plant lifecycle.

In clean-tilled crop production, soils are more

susceptible to loss of fertility through erosion,

leaching, and loss of organic matter. To overcome soil fertility problems associated with

clean-tilled crop production, use of compost

and organic fertilizers, return of crop residue

to soil, application of lime, mulching, and crop

rotation commonly are required. On coral atolls

and single coral islands, soils are very porous,

consisting mainly of sand and, while conducive

to growing coconut palms, are not suited for

most other crops (127).

Annual rainfall is generous in many areas,

with a fairly even distribution during the year.

However, in the northern Marshalls and, to a

lesser extent in Yap, Truk, the Marianas, and

the Caribbean, there is a more distinct dry season which can bring drought conditions harmful to crop production. Lack of water is the main

physical factor limiting agriculture in the U.S.

Virgin Islands; there, evapotranspiration greatly

exceeds precipitation (143). The volume of

water supplies, while limiting the potential

growth of the arid agricultural sector of Puerto

Rico, presently does not constrain production

in other areas of the island (61).

Storms and torrential rainfall creates problems as well. Watersheds of high islands typically are comprised of steep valleys flanked by

sharp ridges. Even if vegetated, flooding and

landslides occur posing considerable hazards

to agriculture and populations located in the

coastal valleys. During the rainy season, cyclonic storms frequently occur in some areas.

Atolls and low islands, as well as the coastline

areas of high islands, frequently experience

flooding and saltwater damage to crops caused

by storms and storm surges (43).

The interiors of high volcanic and continental islands are mountainous; much of the land

area consists of steep slopes that preclude cultivation of most crops other than tree crops.

For example, almost all of the land on St.

Thomas and St. John is very steep to strongly

sloping, representing problems for agricultural

pursuits. Many agricultural areas on these islands have been terraced or planted with fruit

trees (143). Land improvement, such as grading of steep slopes, improvement of drainage

and irrigation, is generally quite costly.

Social and Cultural Constraints

Social and cultural factors may provide opportunities or constraints to agriculture, depending on the development strategy pursued.

Those that are commonly perceived to constrain commercial agricultural development include land tenure and clan value systems, acquired tastes for western foods, and attitudes

towards farming as an occupation.

Traditional values of Micronesians and Samoans place great prestige on land and other

resource use rights. Within the clan or extended

family, the cultivation and gathering of crops

such as tare, breadfruit, yams, and coconuts

is determined by communal needs rather than

by the economic return which could be obtained by marketing production. Decisions on

land use are made by the clan or family head,

and land use is an integral part of the social

system. For example, slaughtering pigs for

feasts or social gatherings involving the extended family is part of fulfilling social obligations. The high prestige value placed on land

results in increasing fragmentation of parcels

over time, as ownership is retained in families
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry c 157

that have increased in size (46,47). Acquiring

land for commercial use—where the products

of the property are not to be used for subsistence and sharing—may be difficult or impossible (22). Alternatives, such as making landowners part-owners, eligible for dividends from

earnings from development projects on their

lands, may be required.

High social value placed on land is accompanied by clan system values which require the

sharing of production with clan members. The

sharing extends to individual wage earnings

as well. These traditional values toward land

and the sharing of wealth and income tend to

inhibit individual initiative towards commercial farming. Reluctance to sell or lease land

also makes it difficult to consolidate land into

larger parcels to enable larger scale farm operations (43).

In areas such as Guam and the CNMI, leasing and selling land has become more prevalent, along with western economic values, as

most households have become integrated into

the wage economy (43). However, residents no

longer have access to one-third of Guam’s land,

which is controlled by the U.S. military. Considerable amounts of food could be produced

if areas suited for farming that are not actively

used by the military are opened for short-term

leases with rates comparable to those offered

by the local government (113).

Land reform has long been a matter of great

importance in the Caribbean. The 1940s “Land

Law” of Puerto Rico successfully relocated

squatters on small plots where they could build

homes and cultivate small farms (143). Attempts

at land redistribution in the USVI occurred in

the 1930s with a “homesteading” program, but

the program met with only limited success.

With large increases in public employment

and wage income related to U.S. Government

expenditures in the Pacific Islands, western

consumption standards—particularly for convenience foods—have been increasingly adopted.

Rice, flour, canned meat and fish, sugar, and

beverages such as soda and beer are large import items. Prestige attached to western foods,

convenience in preparation of processed foods,

and lack of education on the nutritional value

of fresh foods have all been contributing factors in the popularity of imported food. In addition, the influence of U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) school lunch and disaster relief

food programs, which have distributed large

amounts of surplus processed foods to the islands, have contributed to preferences for imported processed foods on most islands. Preferences for some imported foods lessen demand

for locally grown crops, and have had a detrimental effect on nutritional status (109).

Farming as an occupation is generally held

in low esteem by the younger generation in

many of the islands. Availability of secure, highpaying government jobs with career advancement opportunities and fringe benefits (e.g.,

retirement pensions, low-interest housing loans,

medical insurance), and education systems

which emphasize white-collar occupations result in little interest by youth in agricultural occupations (43). Well-trained, young, motivated

farmers are scarce in Puerto Rico and the USVI;

many young people opt for more lucrative or

more highly esteemed professions (61,143). In

the CNMI, where young farmers consider agriculture a potentially profitable undertaking,

alien laborers from the Philippines are hired

at $150 per month (80).

Attitudes towards traditional agriculture systems and official and unofficial government

policies range from benign approval to benign

neglect. In the U.S. Pacific, it is commonly considered good to produce as much of one’s food

as possible, although in practice no specific programs are designed to help with traditional agriculture, perhaps because it is so much a part

of Micronesia lifestyles that it is overlooked

(22). Puerto Rico’s attempt to encourage a smallfarm sector through the establishment of family farms (1940s Land Law) largely was unsuccessful.

Economic Constraints

Small domestic markets, high wage structures,

USDA food programs, and lack of appropriate

technology are major economic constraints to

an expanded agriculture (43). Insufficient eco-
158 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

nomic resources also may seriously constrain

sustainable development of renewable resources. They particularly affect research, public education, and project implementation (15).

While development of local food production

and markets may be important to local food supply and nutrition, it is limited by the amount

of local demand and competition with imported

foodstuffs (94). Local markets can absorb relatively little local produce in the Freely Associated States (FAS) and American Samoa as most

consumers also are producers; expatriate workers and urbanized locals make up the market

on most islands. In some areas, a considerable

demand for traditional crops exists, but problems with transport, spoilage, and inconvenience of preparation hinder their marketing (22).

Markets for locally supplied commodities in

the U.S.-affiliated Pacific are situated in the capital areas. However, they generally account for

a small part of total commodity sales. Inadequate marketing facilities contributes to small

volume, but a more basic problem is the lack

of steady supply by farmers committed to growing for the market on a regular basis, i.e., lack

of commercial and semicommercial farmers,

as opposed to subsistence growers (43). Generally, outlets consist of combination retail/wholesale/importer market operations.

Small market size is a major constraint inherent in island economies located at great distance from large population centers (e.g., Honolulu, Tokyo). Territory populations represent

a small market demand for any given commodity;

commercial farmers using modern technologies

can produce all that can be sold on relatively

few acres. For example, in Guam it has been

estimated that with modern farming practices,

including irrigation, only 226 acres would be

required to supply almost 11 million pounds

of fruits and vegetables (19 different commodities) per annum (14). In Guam, however, where

many people buy a large percentage of their

food, most prefer the convenience of imported

produce and food products to local produce.

In addition, locally grown products also must

compete on local markets with products imported from the United States and other developed countries with more efficient agricultural

systems, and with imports from nearby developing countries that have lower labor costs. Imports in the USVI offer almost insurmountable

competition since they are available in large

quantities throughout the year and are generally of good quality although expensive (143).

Puerto Rico is similarly constrained by competition from lower wage areas as well as mainland U.S. imports of commodities such as poultry, eggs, dairy products, and meats (98). In

Puerto Rico, a tax on imported coffee serves

to protect the local industry and increase the

incentive for local production. Similar systems

may be needed to support development of other

agricultural enterprises faced with low-cost import competition (67).

Another disincentive to producing for the local market is the availability of USDA surplus

food, which is free and available to many people through the extended family. In the CNMI

and Guam, food stamp and school lunch programs distribute large quantities of food. For

example, in Guam some 22,600 persons participated in the food stamp program in 1983, and

received coupons worth $18 million in food

purchasing power, The majority of the food

obtained from markets with the food stamps

is processed food imported from the United

States.

Micronesians are focusing efforts on economic development, including agriculture. The

only advice available for development of food

and fiber production, however, refers to nonindigenous systems (22). Many recommended

projects involve large capital outlays on the part

of the farmer or the government, and require

outside expertise, imported energy and chemicals, and technology. These systems commonly

are suited to parcels of land larger than those

generally available to individuals or groups in

the islands. The experts, generally on short-term

assignments, frequently leave before problems

arise from droughts or storms, delay in arrival

of inputs, changes in personnel, lack of markets, lack of cooperation, or vandalism, that effectively end the program (22).
—

Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 159

Infrastructural Constraints

Constraints to development imposed by lack

of infrastructure exist in varying degrees in all

of the U.S.-affiliated islands. The main kinds

of facility shortfalls are: farm roads, irrigation

systems, water storage and distribution, power

generation and distribution, transport facilities

and service, and storage/refrigeration capacity (43),

In the high islands, such as Palau and Pohnpei, farm roads are needed to enable cultivation of areas which currently are underused.

In the CNMI, Palau, Yap and the northern Marshalls, reservoirs, or other sources of water, and

distribution systems are needed to increase

crop yields (43). In the Virgin Islands, provision for water supply infrastructure is necessary for agricultural development (61).

Transportation infrastructure in the Caribbean islands generally is quite good, with welldeveloped roads and regular air and sea transportation to the United States and other Caribbean islands. In those Pacific territories with

populations dispersed over a number of atolls

and islands, however, inter-island surface transportation typically is inadequate to provide

farmers with market access and farm inputs

such as livestock feed and fertilizers.

In remote U.S. Pacific islands, unreliable

shipping has caused shortages of agriculture

supplies, forcing producers to ration imported

products and to substitute local products for

imported supplies, sometimes resulting in reduced production. Because advance orders tie

up cash and inventory can be slow to move,

some suppliers tend to be unwilling to purchase

supplies in advance (80). A combination of the

shortages and unwillingness to advance order

may cause a “shortage mentality,” which results in rationing of these agriculture supplies

even when they are available.

Inter-island shipping services and associated

harbor docking/storage facilities need to be upgraded to enable an expansion of agriculture

in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Likewise,

potential for intra-regional commodity exports

and exports to Hawaii and Asian countries may

not be realized without improved transportation services—particularly in the FAS and American Samoa. There is little or no regularly scheduled surface shipping between the FAS and

Asian-Pacific cities outside Micronesia. The

same situation exists in American Samoa (43).

Storage and refrigeration facilities are scarce

in all Pacific areas, particularly in the FAS.

These facilities are needed to facilitate development by providing for an increased and

steady supply of domestic commodities and to

improve quality (43).

OPPORTUNITIES FOR AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT

The constraints discussed above represent ports averaged $18.6 million in the 1981-83

formidable obstacles to agriculture develop- period (4). The CNMI imports more food per

ment, but potential opportunities exist for in- capita by value than anywhere else in the Pacreased crop production. Opportunities avail- cific despite its relatively low population denable to enhance island economic development sity (13); food valued at $23.2 million was iminclude: 1) import substitution, 2) potential for ported in 1983 (12). Also in 1983, Federated

increased local production, and 3) potential for States of Micronesia (FSM) food imports were

export development for at least a few high-value $11.2 million (26), and in Palau, $3.4 million

commodities (43). (140).

In the Marianas, the USVI, and Puerto Rico,

Import Substitution a wide range of fruit and vegetables already are

grown commercially (34,43). Although tradiFood imports are substantial in every terri- tional local crops still are favored in the FAS,

tory. For example, in American Samoa food im- urban populations are consuming increasing
160 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

amounts of nontraditional fresh fruits and

vegetables. The non-Micronesian population in

the urban centers account for part of this demand, but prestige attached to imported foods

and greater awareness of nutritional benefits

of fresh produce may also be contributing factors (43).

A large proportion of the fresh fruit and

vegetable commodities which are imported

could be produced on most high islands of the

territories. Examples are pineapple, papaya, cucumber, eggplant, bell pepper, citrus, sweet

corn, tomatoes, avocados, green onions, Chinese cabbage, and head cabbage in Pohnpei

(47). The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has

determined on the basis of its soil surveys that

most of these commodities also can be grown

in Kosrae (128), Truk (127), Yap (128), Palau

(129) and American Samoa (125).

Puerto Rico is self-sufficient in plantain,

bananas, pumpkin, and tare, and at least 60 percent of products such as raw sugar, coffee,

freshmilk, eggs, taniers (cocoyam taro), sweet

potatoes, yams, oranges, and grapefruit are locally produced. Opportunities still exist to substitute some locally grown vegetables for currently imported produce (143), but those that

can be imported cheaply from the mainland

United States and that require large acreages

of land are not good candidates for import substitution (78). The USVI is nearly self-sufficient

in egg and milk production (56).

Increased Subsistence and

Commercial Production

In addition to increased domestic production

for import substitution, there is substantial

scope for increasing subsistence and commercial agricultural production of traditional crops,

as well as other crops which are not imported

but could be grown locally if domestic demand

could be developed.

Although semicommercial and commercial

farming can be expected to become proportionately larger given a sustained agricultural development program, initially packages of practices

for traditional crop and livestock commodities

could be developed to raise subsistence productivity. With respect to commercial farming,

modern technology already available in other

tropical areas can be adapted to selected locally

produced commodities.

Export Development

Large export markets potentially are accessible by island producers: primarily Japan for

western Pacific islands and the U.S. mainland

for U.S. Caribbean islands. In order to penetrate these markets, several hurdles must be

overcome. Export marketing requirements include regular, significant volume shipments of

high-quality products; prices competitive with

similar products—locally produced and imported

—in the export market; and, for fresh produce,

pest- and disease-free products that can pass

the commonly strict animal and plant quarantine regulation of importing countries. Depending on the product exported, reliable and cheap

transportation may be a requirement.

Generally, successful export crops are characterized by high value per unit weight, superior quality, low production cost, and low

cost and relative ease of transport. Pohnpei

black pepper, which is characterized by these

qualities, was able to penetrate the U.S. gourmet market (29). Ornamental plants, honeydew

melons, and mangoes are exported successfully

from Puerto Rico. Other high-value commodities which might be grown in the U.S. high islands include coffee, cacao, nuts, spices, and

essential and perfume oils (94,126,127,128,

129,130).

Opportunities for intra-regional trade also are

possible for certain commodities such as sweet

corn, bananas, pineapple, papaya, and selected

vegetables. Coordinated agricultural development planning among Pacific and Caribbean

islands would enable some degree of specialization for areas with a comparative advantage

for particular commodities (43).
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry c 161

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

Commercial agriculture development continues to be emphasized as desirable for the

U.S.-affiliated islands. Goals of such development include increasing employment opportunities in the rural and outlying areas, stemming

migration to over crowded urban centers, building the private sector through development of

local renewable resources, increasing local food

production, replacing imported food items and

build self-reliance, and generating cash for the

island economies (94).

A basic premise underlying commercial agricultural development is that, in every territory,

the private sector must be made more productive to support standards of living to which residents have become accustomed. Further, that

economic development options other than agriculture are sufficiently limited so that territorial

governments cannot ignore agriculture’s development potential. Since imports constitute the

bulk of island consumption, for territories to

improve economic self-sufficiency they must

either produce the goods they consume locally

or generate overseas earnings (through commodity or services exports) to pay for the imports. Given the currently large food imports

in most of the territories, domestic agriculture

can contribute to the ultimate goal of overall

economic self-sufficiency by producing for import substitution or for export—in either case,

agriculture would have to become increasingly

commercialized (43).

However, in view of the pervasive nature and

severity of the constraints to agricultural development, and the present levels of standards

of living, consumption, and expectations, total self-sufficiency or even near self-sufficiency

in domestic food production is unlikely on most

islands. An alternative goal might be optimal

use of lands best suited to crop production taking into account other land use requirements;

large amounts of arable lands may not be farmed

where other uses are deemed more socially important (43).

Characteristics of Sustainable

Tropical Island Agriculture

Successful tropical island agricultural systems generally exhibit ecological characteristics which mimic and extend natural processes

by providing for water and nutrient flow, and

maintaining a canopy to protect and enhance

soil quality at critical periods, especially during times of heavy rainfall. An agricultural system which incorporates a diversity of crop species and varieties strengthens the system’s

resilience to disruption from pests and disease

outbreaks and, further, provides the farmer

with a variety of products throughout the year

even where erratic weather patterns exist. For

such systems to be readily adopted, they may

need to be based on traditionally used systems

and should require minimal exotic nonrenewable inputs such as fossil fuel energy or derived

chemicals (22), Sustainable agricultural systems

commonly:

●

●

●

●

●

●

mimic natural tropical systems;

emphasize or incorporate perennial crops;

emphasize optimization of components

rather than maximization of yield;

emphasize recycling of locally available nutrients;

emphasize incremental changes from extant systems; and

provide farmer and consumer security in

areas prone to natural disasters.

Mimic Natural Tropical Systems

The major mechanism through which sustainable tropical agricultural systems mimic natural tropical systems is through maintaining a

multistoried vegetative soil cover. The vegetation protects the soil from erosion and provides

soil organic matter in the form of leaf fall and

roots. The growth and recycling of organic matter is similar to that occurring in tropical

forests. In agroecosystems, these benefits can

be generated through polyculture systems,
162 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

planting a polyculture—a diversity of plant species and varieties—can increase yields by reducing plant competition, by taking advantage

of differences in microhabitat, by reducing the

intensity of pest and disease infestations, and

through beneficial plant interactions. Thus, sustainable tropical agriculture emphasizes managing biotic interactions within the agroecosystem rather than divorcing the agroecosystem

from natural factors and replacing them with

imported nonrenewable resources.

Monoculture. —The cultivation of a single

crop on a unit of land has been the main commercial cropping technology introduced to the

islands to date. Historically, colonial powers

in the Pacific and the Caribbean have favored

the monoculture approach (e.g., in the Pacific:

the Germans with coconut plantations, the Japanese with sugarcane, rice, cassava, sweet

potato, etc. and the Americans with cacao, rice,

banana, ramie, black pepper; in the Caribbean:

the Danes and Spaniards with sugarcane). Traditionally, however, very few cases of monoculture existed originally in local agriculture practices (94).

Benefits of monoculture are many and, thus,

large agricultural systems have been built around

this technology. The main advantage of monoculture is uniformity—in planting, fertilizing,

cultivating, and harvest—thus favoring intensive use of inputs such as improved and hybrid

cultivar varieties, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and mechanization (94). This uniformity

in product and harvest period also simplifies

large-scale processing. Monoculture systems

also are simpler to research and develop than

polycultures, whose permutations can appear

infinite.

These advantages do not translate easily to

small-scale farming systems with limited available resources. Capital often is not available to

invest in the improved inputs needed to sustain successful monoculture. Labor, needed for

tillage, planting, and harvesting, which tend to

be concentrated into peak periods, rarely is

available to farmers who must depend mainly

on family labor. The uniform harvest and greater

yield requires adequate storage, processing, and

marketing facilities which currently are lacking on some U.S.-affiliated islands. Monoculture also encourages the spread of pests and

diseases in the absence of natural barriers found

in more diverse ecosystems. Also, in monoculture, as in any cropping system that needs total land-clearing and regular tillage, erosion can

be a serious problem, even when terraces and

contour-farming are practiced.

All of these factors can add up to a generally

unlikely and risky prospect for many island

farmers. Few small-scale, limited-resource

farmers, who must depend on their farm for

their family’s food, are willing to take such risks.

Another factor, which planners and agriculturists tend to overlook, is that a small farmer,

faced with decisions on how best to use his extremely limited land resource, is likely to avoid

any technology that will entail tying up a large

percentage of land to grow a single crop (94).

Thus, monoculture are likely to be undertaken

only when markets are guaranteed, when competition is restrained (e.g., if farmers agree to

specialize on certain crops) or if crop harvests

are staggered (80).

Monoculture does, however, hold some possibilities for further development in Micronesia, especially in those areas where landholdings are relatively large (e. g., on government

leased lands). Ponape Agriculture and Trade

School on Pohnpei has been running a 20-acre

mechanized commercial farm for nearly 10

years based on monoculture of sweet potato,

corn, cassava, banana, and beans (94). Farmers

in Guam and the Northern Marianas also have

developed successful vegetable monoculture

systems. Each of these systems depends on excellent tillage and cultivation (generally mechanized), well-planned crop rotation schemes,

and imported commercial fertilizer and pesticides. Also, markets in these areas are fairly

well developed.

New methods of monoculture have been developed in Africa and the United States designed to reduce erosion and/or capital investment by replacing tillage with herbicides.

Proponents of these systems claim that the dead

mulch left after herbicide treatment helps keep
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry s 163

soils cool, suppresses weed growth, encourages

water retention and growth of soil building

organisms, as well as reducing erosion to as

little as 2 percent of that of clean-tilled fields

(151). However, with the extremely high cost

and irregular availability of herbicides imported

into Micronesia, dangers of pesticide misuse

and the general reluctance of farmers to practice monoculture technologies, it is unlikely that

any of these systems will support commercial

agriculture in Micronesia (94).

Polyculture.—Concurrent mixed cropping of

two or more crops on a unit of land is the form

of most traditional agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands. A common form of polyculture

is intercropping, the planting of two or more

crops together at the same time by row, strip,

or in a seemingly random mixture. Another

form is relay cropping, with a second crop being planted into the original crop before the latter’s harvest. This allows growth of a second

crop without tillage.

Agroforestry–a mixture of annual and woody

perennial species, sometimes including animals

—is the basis of traditional agriculture in the

Pacific. Agroforestry systems depend on creation and maintenance of a multistoried, semipermanent stable system. The productivity of

the system is based on the positive interactions

between the plants (and between plants and animals) giving the farmer a continuous food supply over the long term (94).

Alley or avenue cropping is another form of

agroforestry which consists of planting trees,

usually a fast-growing, nitrogen-fixing legume

species in rows, with annual crops planted in

the alleys or avenues. The deep-rooted trees,

which act as nutrient pumps and erosion barriers, are pruned at short intervals and the prunings are plowed into the alleys as green manure.

A complex form of polyculture is “Energy

Integrated Farming” or “Biogenic Farming. ”

These systems incorporate livestock production

with algae and fish ponds, annual and tree crop

production, and a biogas digester, the effluent

of which is used as fertilizer and irrigation

water (see ch. 8). These systems are highly

energy efficient. Systems have been operational

on an experimental level in the Northern Marianas and Yap, but have not been widely adopted

on the U.S. Pacific islands (94). Such systems

are in operation in Puerto Rico (2).

Polyculture systems offer a number of benefits, particularly important in the tropics, that

are not available from monoculture systems.

The mixture of crops and animals tends to discourage the spread of pest and disease infestations, and the multi-story plant canopy decreases erosion, increases capture of solar

energy for photosynthesis, and shades and

cools the soil. The varied geometry of root systems exploits the soil profile and nutrients more

fully than monoculture systems. Overall production per unit of land often is higher than

in monoculture systems, although the yield of

individual crops per land unit may be lower

(30,115).

The increased variety of crops and livestock,

as well as beneficial interactions between different species result in a more sustainable agricultural system than monoculture (94). Also,

because polyculture outputs closely approximate local consumption requirements, there

also is inherent stability in the market or pattern of demand, in contrast to the instability

characteristic of internationally sensitive

monoculture markets (e.g., sugar, copra) (56).

Finally, some farmers may practice polycultures not only because they are traditional in

the islands but because the farmers are willing

to sacrifice some amount of product yield and

quality to save in expenditures on fertilizers and

pesticides (80).

Polyculture has not been developed for largescale commercial agriculture mainly because

it does not lend itself well to mechanization or

increased fertilizer and pesticide inputs. Polyculture systems also require more research,

planning, and management than monoculture

if they are to become fully competitive with

monoculture in the short-term, since several

different crops must be cared for on the same

land unit (94).
164 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Emphasizes or Incorporates

Perennial Crops

In addition to incorporating a number of crop

species and varieties, traditional agricultural

systems commonly are comprised of crops with

staggered planting and harvest periods. Perennial crops, usually shrub or tree crop species,

are typical members of traditional polyculture

systems. Although developing a traditional Yapese agroforest or “tree garden” may take years,

once established relatively little input is required for their maintenance and food and

other products can be harvested essentially in

perpetuity. Developing a modern agroforest, in

which species’ spacing is carefully planned and

individuals are planted rather than allowed to

volunteer, can take considerably less time.

Most major tropical “plantation crops” also

are perennial crops, such as coconuts, coffee,

and cacao. Permanent crops are estimated to

occupy at least 8 percent of the total arable area

in developing countries (69). One of the most

widely grown tropical tree crops is the coconut palm, covering some 15 million acres, although it is mostly grown on smallholdings in

densely populated areas (69). Smallholders commonly intercrop coconuts with annual crops

during the early stages of plantation establishment, but modern plantations generally maintain their traditional characteristics: “monocultural production of an export crop, extensive

and, in some cases, underutilization of land,

and a high manual labour input” (69). With increasing populations and the need for intensification of land uses, planners and policymakers are increasing their attention to the

potential of integrating plantation crops, annual crops, livestock raising, and forestry (69).

Emphasizes Optimization of Components

Rather Than Maximization of Yield

A sustainable tropical agricultural system

places primary emphasis on maximizing agroecosystem stability through managing biotic interactions and minimizing demand for human

and industrial inputs (42). For example, intercropping and crop and field rotations are commonly practiced in tropical subsistence farming

systems to minimize weeds and pest infestation and to maintain soil fertility. This is not

to say that crop yield per land unit cannot be

as high as those in temperate systems, in fact

biomass yields may be higher due to the yearround growing season. However, the primary

goal of these systems is to derive as many benefits as possible from natural actions and interactions, thus reducing input and labor costs of

managing the systems to produce goods for human consumption or sale.

Emphasizes Recycling of Locally

Available Nutrients

Traditional agriculture in the islands relied

heavily on infusions of green manures to provide plant nutrients to infertile soils. Agricultural inputs are derived from composted leaves

and other organic materials and manures, or

even from dried starfish or rotted sea cucumber (22,102). On resource-poor islands such as

atolls, the ubiquitous coconut fronds and husks

are used to supplement the meager organic matter content of soils for crop cultivation (102).

In recent years, introduced agriculture implements and chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides)

also have been incorporated into the traditional

cultivation systems.

Reliable information on the types, amounts,

and availability of various organic wastes useful for improving the productivity of agricultural soils is lacking on many islands. Successful planning and implementation of organic

recycling programs requires such information

as a first step. Several common types of waste

that can be used are: 1) animal manure; 2) crop

residues and cut vegetation; 3) algae, seagrasses

and marine animal products (e.g., starfish, sea

cucumber); 4) sewage sludge; 5) food processing wastes (e.g., rum brewery byproducts); 6)

organic industrial wastes (e.g., some pharmaceutical wastes); 7) logging and wood manufacturing wastes; and 8) municipal refuse. Information is needed on the quantity currently

generated, present and potentially competitive

uses, value as fertilizer, and problems and constraints affecting use.
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and forestry “ 165

Emphasizes Incremental Changes

From Extant Systems

Although farm size, type of technologies applied, and farming goals are not directly related,

agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands can be

classified into four general types that make up

a continuum of farming systems:

1. Subsistence smallholder: Family (or clan)

member(s) producing solely for family consumption, although “surplus” commodities may be sold. Traditional cropping or

gathering techniques commonly are used,

and the number of crops produced is usual1y greater than in commercial smallholding systems.

2. Semicommercial smallholder: Individual

or family members regularly producing

commodities for the market, but only on

a part-time basis. Farming mayor may not

be regularly directed to home consumption

(farmer may have a full-time wage job in

the money economy). Commodities may or

may not be produced using modern2 technology.

2Modern technology is defined to be the package of practices

(agronomic methods and procedures, as well as use of labor and

material inputs) developed by scientifically based institutions

[experiment stations, agriculture departments, specialized institutes) for use in tropical and semitropical areas. A package

of practices relates to a given farm commodity or enterprise,

and tends to be unique to a particular region. Packages of practices based on modern technology enable a farmer to obtain yields

maximized with respect to the scarcest resource (e.g., per acre

per crop, if land is scarce; per manhour, if labor is scarce) (43).

3.

4.

Commercial smallholder: Individual or

family member(s) producing solely or substantially for the market. Commercial smallholders typically are full-time producers

who derive their principal livelihood from

farming. Commodities are normally produced using modern technology. The range

of crops is much narrower than for the subsistence smallholder. The commercial

smallholder may have a few wage employees, but most would rely solely on unpaid

family labor.

Large-scale commercial farming: Usually

is characterized by significant investment

in operation, and use of paid wage and salary workers. Ownership commonly would

be corporate in form, with production

using modern, high-input technology. Output per unit of land or labor would tend

to be much higher than for smallholder

agriculture.

“Large-scale” commercial farming on the islands is not large by U.S. standards (tables 6-4

and 6-5). In the United States, farms average

416 acres acres (132), whereas in the U.S.-affiliated islands large farms can be considered those

with more than 50 acres in the Caribbean and

more than 20 acres in the Pacific. Small farms

in the United States can be defined as those

selling less than $20,000 worth of agricultural

products in one year (119). While 8.5 percent

of Puerto Rican farms exceed this, under this

definition, virtually all farms in the USVI and

the Pacific islands can be considered small.

Table 6-4.—Comparison of U.S. Mainland and Island Farm Sizes by Acreages

Farm size (acres) United Statesa Puerto Ricob USVl c Guamd American Samoae CNMl

f

Less than 10. . . . . . 8.3% (187,643) 45.5% (9,837) 62.4% (189) 93.8% (1,868) 94.7% (1,260) 66.9% (200)

10-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . (included below) 21.1% (4,554) 10.6% (32) 3.2% (63) 3.6% (48) 18.4% (55)

20-49 . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.0% (449,184) 18.2% (3,937) 11.2% (34) 1.8% (36) 1.3% (17) 8.0% (24)

50-99 . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3% (343,715) 7.2% (1,549) 5.9% (18) 1.3% (25)g

0.5% (6)g6.7% (20)g

100-174 . . . . . . . . . . 16.4% (367,734)h

3.0% (658) 4.0% (12)

175-259 . . . . . . . . . . 9.4% (211,384)i

1.7% (372) 1.7% (5)

260 and more . . . . . 30.3% (679,640) 3.3% (712) 4.3% (13)

SOURCES: aU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Summary, vol. 1, part 51, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984).

bU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agrculture; Puerto Rico, vol. 1, part 52, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984).

CU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: U.S. Virgin Islands, vol. 1, part 54, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983).

dU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Censis 1982 Census of Agriculture: Guam, vol. 1, part 53, (Washington DC: US. Government Printing Office, 1983).

eU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: American Samoa, vol. 1, part 55, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981).

fU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: Northern Mariana Islands, vol. 1, part 58, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office, 1981).

gData include farms with 100 to 179 acres.

hData include farms with 50 acres or more.

iData include farms with 180 to 259 acreSs
166 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Table 6-5.—Comparison of Farm Sizes by Sales Class

Value of sales United Statesa Puerto Ricob USVI c Guamd American Samoa CNMI

$1 to $99. . . . . . . . . . . . . . (included below) n/a 2.3% (6) 13.2% (45) n/a n/a

$100 to $499 . . . . . . . . . . . (included below) 9.0 ”/0 (1,964)” 25.7% (68) 31.9% (109)

$500 to $1,199 . . . . . . . . . (included below) 33.2% (7,236) 26.0% (69) 15.5% (53)

$1,200 to $2,499 . . . . . . . . 23.9% (536,437) 20.5% (4,474) 20.4% (54) 12.9% (44)

$2,500 to $4,999 . . . . . . . . 12.4% (278,208) 15.1% (3,293) 10.2% (27) 26.9% (92)f

$5,000 to $7,499 . . . . . . . . 7.50/0 (168,483) 6.0% (1,302) 3.0% (8)

$7,500 to $9,999 . . . . . . . . 5.0% (1 13,319) 3.0% (651) 1.5% (4)

$10,000 to $19,999 . . . . . . 11.5% (259,007) 4.8% (1,043) 10.9% (29)g

$20,000 to $39,999 . . . . . . 11.1% (248,825) 2.4% (529)

$40,000 to $59,999 . . . . . . 6.6% (148,272) 0.9% (190)

$60,00 or more. . . . . . . . . 21.6% (484,859) 5.2% (1,138)

SOURCES:

aU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Summary, vol. 1, part 51 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). bU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture; Puerto Rico, vol. 2, part 52 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984).

cU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture; U.S. Virgin Islands, vol. 1, part 54 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983).

dU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Guam, vol. 1, part 53 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983).

e

lncludes all farms in sales class less than $499.

f

lncludes all farms with sales of $2,500 or more.

g

lncludes all farms with sales of $10,000 or more.

Even the definitions used by the U.S. Bureau

of the Census reflect the wide disparity in farm

sizes between the United States mainland and

the islands. Farms in the States are defined as

a place that produces and sells, or normally

would have sold, at least $1,000 worth of agricultural products per year (132). Enumeration

in Puerto Rico covers:

. . . all places from which $500 or more of agricultural products were sold, or normally would

have been sold, during the 12-month period, . .

[and] places of 10 cuerdas (9.7 acres) or more

from which $100 or more of agricultural products were sold, or normally would have been

sold (135).

Farms in the USVI include all those with 3 acres

or more on which any field or forage crops or

vegetables were harvested, livestock managed

or having 10 or more poultry, and places of less

than 3 acres if agricultural sales amounted to

at least $100 (133). In Guam, a farm is:

a place on which any crop, vegetable, or fruit

was harvested or gathered during 1982, or on

which there was any livestock or 15 or more

poultry at the time of enumeration (134).

The amount of marketed agricultural produce

is small relative to total food consumption in

all the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands; most farming is of subsistence and semicommercial scale.

Approximately 3,000 persons in the Marshall

Islands were estimated to be active in subsistence agriculture, forestry and fisheries in 1980

(49), and 38 percent of gross domestic product

in the FSM was attributable to the subsistence

sector in 1983. In Palau, an estimated 20 percent of the 1976 work force was in subsistence

agriculture and fishing, and many in the wage

economy farmed on a part-time basis for home

consumption (43].

Truly sustainable agriculture probably should

represent an integration of traditional techniques with modern scientific theory and with

modern technologies. Progress will ultimately

depend on the development of technology and

understanding of the fundamental processes

underlying soil fertility (42).

POTENTIAL STRATEGY:

Support Nonmarket Agriculture

Traditional cultural practices are labor- and

nature-intensive, maximizing the use of local

resources and mimicking the local natural environment. In the U.S. Pacific islands, a variety

of subsistence crop cultivation systems are

practiced including root crop cultivation, agroforestry, and backyard or home garden agriculture. These systems have been adapted to

varying island environmental conditions.

Traditional cropping practices in many U.S.

Pacific islands are strongly rooted in the sociocultural practices of the communities. Some
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 167

crops and animals play an important role in

traditional exchanges. In Micronesia, specially

cultivated taro and yams, and pigs are prepared

for significant social and cultural events such

as births, marriages, funerals, dedication ceremonies, and for traditional feasts (22,94,108).

In urban centers these traditional practices are

gradually disappearing.

Although subsistence farming sometimes

may not result in highly uniform yield, it provides a number of benefits:

stable system producing on a sustainable

basis;

ecologic compatibility with the local environment;

beneficial environmental services (e.g., soil

stabilization, habitat protection);

compatibility with local culture and land

tenure systems;

high crop diversity and phased harvest enhance nutrition; and

generally does not depend on costly and

often unreliable imported resources a-rid inputs (e.g., agrichemicals, feed, spare parts,

equipment, experts).

Subsistence farming systems are gradually

abandoned and generally neglected by young

farmers because these systems are considered

inferior and may involve excessive manual

work, However, much can be learned from

these time-tested traditional systems because

they incorporate certain resource conservation

practices and operate on a sustainable basis

suitable for islands (22).

On the other hand, although these practices

are well suited to island conditions, crop yields

may not meet the needs of increasing populations on some islands. Traditional root crop cultivation has been gradually abandoned in recent years because it is labor-intensive and

relatively low returns are no longer compatible with social and cultural aspirations among

young farmers. Because most modern agricultural systems are heavily dependent on imported agrichemicals and have been economically unstable and ecologically unsustainable,

in the long run, subsistence agriculture systems

probably will not disappear on the islands. They

are likely to persist to the greatest extent in situations in which capital is not readily available

to farmers or where islanders consider subsistence agriculture practices a manifestation of

their cultural identity.

No consistent measure of nonmarket production has been derived for the separate territories. Indicators of agricultural production both

entering and not entering the money economies

of U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, are listed in

table 6-6. The terms subsistence and commercial (or market) agriculture are used in a genTable 6“6.—lndicators of Subsistence and Commercial Agricultural Production

in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

Measures of Measures of production

Islands subsistence production for the market

American Samoa .

Guam . . . . . . . . . . .

Northern Marianas

MarshalI Islands . .

. . . . . 1,405 acres (81%) in subsistence 330 acres in commercial

crops crops

. . . . . More than 1,000 family gardens, 85 commercial farms

usually <5 acres <5 acres

. . . . .Approximately 20°/0 of total Approximately 80°/0 of total

production is for home production is for market

consumption

. . . . . n/a n/a

Federated States of

Micronesia. ... , ., . ..$40.59 million is imputed value Market production valued at

of subsistence agriculture and $4.32 million

fisheries

Palau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n/a n/a

SOURCE: R. Lucas, “Role of Smallholders in Agricultural Development in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986
168 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

eral sense, but the specific island context is important. For example, in Guam, nonmarket

production is largely of the home garden variety but, except for scale and use of machinery,

the technology for producing commodities does

not differ substantially from the commercial

grower whose output is marketed. Virtually all

Guamanian households area part of the money

economy, and few depend on farming for the

food they eat. In contrast, in an area such as

Palau, subsistence farming typically not only

means use of a different technology but also,

for many families, is the main source of the family’s food (43).

Little true subsistence agriculture exists in

the U.S. Caribbean. However, rural and urban

backyard gardens are common in Puerto Rico

and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and several groups

practice a sophisticated combination of subsistence and semicommercial agriculture.

Opportunity: Project Currently

Functioning Traditional Agriculture

Systems

Without a conscious effort to retain existing

food producing systems, it is likely some traditional practices and varieties will become rare

or disappear. Because present-day Micronesians have inherited relatively self-sustaining

food production systems developed by more

dense populations of their ancestors, complacency about continued maintenance presents

a danger; without inputs, even relatively stable systems will run down. For example, the

productive lifespan of a coconut tree is about

60 years; under good conditions, breadfruit

trees produce for about 50 years (103). These

plant lifespans are close to the productive years

of each human generation. If present-day island

populations do not do their part to maintain

the systems, the next generation may not realize what it had until it’s gone (22).

Many traditional systems already are declining. On Guam, for example, the percentage of

persons involved in fishing and farming declined from 90 percent in 1941 to 6 percent in

1950 to less than 1 percent in 1970. The traditional lancho system has declined precipitously.

This was accompanied by a concurrent increase

in dependence on food stamps (22).

Without conscious efforts to protect currently

functioning traditional agriculture systems, local production of food can be expected to decrease. With increases in prices and population, nutritional problems may be expected to

result (110,111). Another byproduct would be

the loss of Micronesia’s genetic heritage: the

wealth of adapted varieties of food plants and

other species developed over a great many years

by ancestors of the present generation. Further,

the collective body of traditional knowledge relating to the use of island resources could be

lost (22).

Consideration of development project impacts on currently functioning agricultural systems could be made prior to investment, followed by actions to mitigate adverse impacts.

For example, road construction has altered

drainage patterns and affected water circulation in some taro patches. In some cases the

impact is obvious: the taro becomes buried in

silt. In other cases the microbiology of the substrate is changed, generally towards more anaerobic conditions (22). This is particularly important on islands where government economic

development strategies favor nonagricultural

sectors which will eventually lead to competition for and encroachment on agricultural lands

(56).

Opportunity Support and Increase

Backyard Agriculture

Backyard or home gardens, as the name indicates, are located immediately adjacent to

permanent dwellings. Backyard agriculture is

widely practiced in Pacific and Caribbean islands and it maybe considered as an adjunct

to subsistence and semicommercial agriculture.

Except for scale, many characteristics of subsistence agriculture systems apply to backyard

gardening. Generally it is characterized by

mixed cropping of a variety of trees and shortterm crops, high crop diversity, and labor-intensive cultivation of a small plot of ground

(commonly less than 1 acre). In general, produce from backyard gardening is for subsis-
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 169

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Although more intensive than other traditional

cultivation methods, backyard gardens also commonly

rely on minimal soil disturbance and locally available

materials such as these bamboo trellises.

tence use, although surplus crops or certain

cash crops (e. g., spices and herbs) sometimes

are sold. As in subsistence field cropping, backyard gardening activities have few market constraints. However, in cultures based on extended

family sharing, backyard subsistence gardens

may effectively reduce the market for commercial farmers’ products (63,80).

Backyard gardening in rural areas commonly

is an extension of subsistence cropping and

backyard gardens may serve as a convenient

recycling site for organic wastes. They also may

serve as trial plots of wild plants or new crop

varieties grown under reasonably controlled

conditions (22,110,152). Where space is limited

or when the soil is extremely poor, crops can

be cultivated in containers. When good soil is

not available, chopped up fibers from coconut

husks and fronds mixed with fertilizer, compost, or animal wastes can be used as substrate

in container cultivation for vegetables (46).

Backyard gardening in urban areas may contribute significantly to supplementing diets of

wage earners. It also may improve the nutritional and economic well-being of increasing

numbers of urban dwellers (110). In recent

years, primarily in urban areas, backyard

gardens are becoming commercialized. Some

backyard gardeners use drip irrigation systems,

greenhouses, shadehouses, or even hydroponics (10).

On some islands where agricultural production costs or land values are high, backyard

gardening is popular for part-time, semicommercial cultivation of vegetables and fruits.

Backyard gardening is popular in the USVI because it requires low capital investment, is suitable for small parcels of land, affords little economic risk, and provides flexibility in choice

of crops or cultivation methods to meet changing local market conditions (16).

Backyard gardening, in general, is highly

adaptable and can be implemented under varying environmental conditions and social settings (51). Backyard gardening has a number

of characteristics making it suitable for the U. S.-

affiliated islands including:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

flexible technology adaptable to varying

physical, social, and environmental conditions;

useful for subsistence, semicommercial,

and some intensive commercial ventures;

generally little capital outlay required;

generally little economic risk;

could be applied in rural and urban settings;

little land area needed;

simple agricultural methods are applicable;

varied choices in use of agriculture inputs

(e.g., organic composts, agrichemicals);

variety of crops can be grown; and

provides flexibility in switching crops or

cultivation methods to meet changing demands or market conditions.

Opportunity: Enhance Game Wildlife

Management Practices

Proper management of game may enhance

supplemental food supply and nutrition of island inhabitants. Depending on the island, wild

game may include feral pigs, goats, and deer,

pigeons, fruitbats, and land crabs. Apart from

regulating the harvesting of game, appropriate

resource management such as setting aside

hunting preserves is essential in order to manage and maintain game species populations. In

addition to allowing management and harvest
170 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

of game populations, restriction of some of

these animals, particularly feral goats and deer,

to carefully defined areas can protect indigenous vegetation from overgrazing.

Other methods, such as introduction of certain species to uninhabited islands or wildlife

ranching of certain species, are ways of supplementing local food supplies. Traditional

practices, still adhered to on some Pacific islands, commonly include rules and restrictions

that conserve resources. For example, small

uninhabited islands are set aside as sanctuaries

where turtles and sea birds, and their eggs, can

be harvested at certain times and in certain

quantities. However, these practices are declining in effectiveness as traditional values and

authorities are disappearing (40).

Today, on most islands, local governments

regulate the harvesting and management of

game species. Generally, they cover three areas:

endangered species, hunting laws, and protected habitats. Endangered species protection

laws commonly involve a fine for violation. For

example, the CNMI Endangered Species Code,

based on the U.S. Endangered Species Act of

1973, carries a fine of $2,000 or imprisonment

for a maximum of 30 days or both for illegal

taking of species listed under the act. Hunting

laws may establish harvest quota limits, restrictions based on size or sex for certain species,

and provide for exemptions if it is determined

that curtailment of harvest of restricted fish and

game may result in hardship or malnutrition

to the taker or his/her immediate family. However, such regulations are generally difficult to

enforce. In some cases, especially on small islands where extended family ties remain strong,

violations carry little sanction.3

POTENTIAL STRATEGY:

Develop Smallholder Agriculture

Development of smallholder agriculture

would take advantage of the already existing

3

For example, on one United Nations Day celebration on Yap,

a Palauan fisherman whose catch included a turtle won first prize

in the spear-fishing contest, even though it was against the law

to kill turtles at that time of year (20).

subsistence, semicommercial and part-time

farmers in the U.S.-affiliated islands, and is

likely to be more compatible with the present

land tenure systems than would be a policy of

promoting large-scale farming. Smallholders

also tend to produce a large range of commodities which may mitigate some marketing constraints in small size markets. If increased

market supply were in import substitution commodities that could be profitably sold at lower

prices than the competing products, commodity

prices would be reduced.

Semicommercial farming could provide opportunities to increase income for part-time

farmers or to generate cash incomes for subsistence farmers. Introduction of new technologies or new crops to extant semicommercial

agriculture systems could increase income,

yield, and make more efficient use of islands’

scarce resources. Furthermore, introduction of

semicommercial farming systems may become

an effective method for relatively unsophisticated subsistence farmers to gradually learn the

operation of commercial farming systems.

Among the three types of smallholder agriculture (subsistence, semicommercial and commercial), competition for resources is not likely

to be a concern. Moreover, the three types of

agriculture have many characteristics in common, such as relatively modest acreage requirements per operation, generally heavy reliance

on family labor, and significantly less capital

requirements per operation compared with

large-scale agriculture.

Smallholder development policies could seek

to achieve a gradual transition from nonmarket production to semicommercial and, ultimately, to commercial agriculture. For example, policies could seek to raise productivity in

the subsistence sector, particularly in outlying

areas which have arable land but lack transport and other infrastructure needed for market

access. Concurrently, efforts could be initiated

to strengthen urban markets for the products

of semicommercial farmers, and to develop

more productive packages of practices for

selected import substitution commodities (43).
—

Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 171

Opportunity: Enhance Existing Nonmarket

and Semicommercial Systems

Many constraints to resource management

and development do not limit production to provide for personal needs and sharing, while they

do limit commercial development. This suggests an initial strategy of encouraging production to meet family needs and, once these are

met, surplus production may be marketed. Of

course, should employment in nonagricultural

sectors remain stagnant, then satisfying extended family needs would effectively satisfy

the market (63).

The primary goal of enhancing existing nonmarket agricultural systems would be to increase productivity so that surplus could be

marketed. In this way, the farmer would earn

income and learn the skills needed for commercial agriculture. Methods of increasing nonmarket agricultural productivity include introducing improved cultivars of traditional crops and

assisting women gardeners. In addition to

these, a number of methods and crops have

been introduced successfully on some islands

for semicommercial operations. Methods of enhancing extant semicommercial systems include: improving cultural practices for cash

cropping, promoting underutilized crops and

animals, introducing suitable new crops, and

introducing new technologies.

Introduce Suitable Improved Cultivars Into

Extant Systems.—Specialization in agricultural

systems and in culture of various crops is found

within Micronesia islands and in other tropical areas. Information exchanges among these

groups could provide much useful information

(22). Similarly, although little is known about

ethnobotanical crops or cultivation practices

in the U.S. Caribbean, identification of local

cultivars and information exchange with nonU.S. Caribbean islands could prove beneficial.

In Micronesia, a number of local crop varieties have been introduced from island to island. For example, varieties of coconut are recognized from the size, shape, and color of the

nut; number of nuts per bunch; flavor of the

coconut milk and meat; and tree sizes (86). At

least seven tall and four dwarf coconut varieties are recognized in the Marshall Islands

(104), One high-yielding, tall coconut (“thifow”),

originally from Yap, produces twice as much

copra as the commonly grown variety. This variety has been successfully introduced to other

Micronesia islands including the Marshalls

(86).

Prior to introduction of varieties from outside Micronesia, an effort could be made to collect and maintain existing varieties.4 These varieties may be directly transferable among

Micronesia islands and can provide germplasm for cultivar improvement programs.

Screening systems and facilities for tissue culture probably are needed to ensure provision

of disease-free planting material (22).

New cultivars could be developed that effectively extend the growing season of seasonal

crops. In addition, unusual climatological

events, such as the 1982-83 El Niño, have

been related to gaps in yearly food production

on some islands. With improved predictability of weather patterns, new cultivars and new

technologies might be developed to fill some

of these gaps.

Assist Women Farmers.—Women are the

agriculturists on many Pacific islands. Extension services directed to collecting and disseminating information to these women could complement more traditional technology transfer

systems. Women extension agents might speed

this process. Methods of assisting these women

with childcare also could increase time available for production and for passing on their experience to other women (22).

Improve Culture of Current Cash Crops.—

Most cash crops currently grown on tropical

islands are perennial: coconut, coffee, cacao,

and sugarcane, Research efforts for many of

these tropical “plantation crops” have resulted

in considerable yield increases (e. g., rubber,

“the average yield of which has increased over

seventeenfold in a century”). On the other hand,

the yield of crops like the coconut palm has re4Mechanisms to maintain crop and livestock varieties and wild

plants and animals are assessed in an OTA report on Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversify, OTA-F-330 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1987) (118).
172 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

mained low (69). This is due to a lack of research

attention and, in part, to lack of maintenance

by island smallholders.

For example, although copra production represents the only major cash crop for most Pacific islands, very little regular maintenance

and replanting is practiced. In the Marshalls,

brush growing between coconut palms occasionally is cleared and burned along with fallen

coconut fronds and accumulated husks, although commonly they remain on the ground

for considerable periods of time. These provide

breeding sites for the Rhinoceros beetle, rats,

and mosquitos. Fertilizers are not used, and old

trees are not thinned. New trees are planted

only in conjunction with government programs

which subsidize the planting by providing seednuts and mechanized equipment (86). Inadequate maintenance of coconut palms and replanting programs results in reduced yields.

Since coconut palms have a very long economic life (60 years), understory cover management is critical. Manual clearing or control

using herbicides generally are expensive or impractical. An alternative would be to keep livestock under coconut palms to graze understory

vegetation or to intercrop coconut with other

crops. Well-managed intercropping increases

the productivity of the land, improves income

distribution over time, increases return on investment, and thus may increase farm income

(100). It could also increase employment. In

some instances, pastures under coconuts can

be improved by fertilization or planting nitrogen-fixing plants such as Centrosema pubescens, Desmodium trifolium, and shade-tolerant

grasses.

Although no accurate copra production figures are available for U.S.-affiliated islands, it

generally is lower than yields in Asian countries. For example, about 6,000 nuts are required to produce one short ton of copra in the

Marshall Islands (86) as compared to only 4,000

nuts in the Philippines (35). Low yield is partly

due to improper maintenance or lack of maintenance, and partly due to the use of low-yielding coconut varieties.

—

Many stands of coconuts in the U.S.-affiliated

Pacific islands, and particularly in the Marshalls, were planted during the German administration of the islands and are now senescent.

Little planned replanting is occurring. Although

technologies to improve coconut production

are available, people are reluctant to replant

for several reasons:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Yet,

from a rectangular to a triangular arrangement

may substantially increase yield per acre (86).

the substantial investment of time and effort required,

the length of time before trees bear fruit

(5 to 7 years),

unattended nuts will sprout and grow by

themselves,

the government is likely to provide superior

seednuts and replanting assistance (86),

in some cases it is more lucrative to plant

short-term crops than to plant coconuts

(63), and

substantial migration from outer islands

makes it uncertain whether planters will

be able to collect benefits of replanting (13).

techniques as simple as changing spacing

Promote Underutilized Crops and Animals.–

Every island has indigenous or naturalized species, either gathered from the wild or raised

in small farms, that have been used traditionally for food, fuel, medicine, livestock feed, construction, fiber, and other purposes. These potentially marketable resources may be ignored

by some planners in favor of introduced “western” crops, livestock breeds, and methods (121).

In recent years, however, there is renewed interest in the potential for developing such resources (22,40,76,94).

Many crops and animals now found on U. S.-

affiliated islands were introduced after western contact. Many have adapted to the local

environment and are now considered local resources, including crops such as sweet potato,

cassava, papaya, mango, and soursop; and animals such as goat, deer, water buffalo, and

rabbit.

Systematic introduction of crops reached its

peak during the Japanese administration in
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 173

Micronesia. A total of 157 varieties of plants

producing food, medicinal, and fiber crops

were field-tested in Palau; 88 varieties remained

after World War 11 (53). Crops include cassava,

pineapple, jackfruit, limes, oranges, groundnut,

soybean, coffee, cacao, clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, teak, mahogany, ebony, and others, some

of which are still present today. Mahogany

planted during the Japanese period has largely

replaced native hardwood (ifil) used in traditional woodcarvings (storyboards). Other crops

have potential to provide marketable products

Benefits are obtained from using indigenous

or naturalized plants and animals because they

are adapted to the local environment conditions

and stresses. For example, indigenous crops

have adapted to local soil types, climate, and

terrain and animals have adapted to local food

sources. These indigenous species are efficient

users of minimal available resources, and also

tend to be resistant to local diseases and pests.

Thus, using indigenous crop and animal species adapted to suit the local environment can

effectively replace some inputs (e.g., pesticides)

which are designed to change the environment

to suit the crops or animals (121).

Some indigenous plants offer opportunities

for commercial-scale development if markets

are available. For these, improved cultivation

methods to increase production may be economically justified. However, to develop the potential of native plants, more effort needs to be

devoted to identifying potentially valuable species (121).

Introduce Suitable New Cash Crops.—Cash

crops (i. e., crops usually providing raw materials for processed products and grown primarily to generate income) can be cultivated on islands for either local or export markets. Local

crop varieties generally are preferable to supply local markets, because they are palatable

to the local taste and have a number of advantages over introduced crops (22). However, introduced cash crops can provide the means to

develop export products.

Characteristics of crops providing products

suitable for export markets include: 1) high

value of product per unit weight, 2) ease of cultivation and harvest, and 3) ease of processing

and transport (43). Pohnpei black pepper, which

has these characteristics has been successfully

exported in small quantities to the U.S. gourmet market; potential exists for increased production. Other high-value crops that appear

suitable to the Micronesia high islands include

clove, cacao, cinnamon, nutmeg, vanilla, cashew

nuts, and coffee (126,127,128,129,130). All are

present in the islands (25).

Introduction of new crops and animals must

be carefully weighed against potential undesirable effects on the local environment. For example, introduction of nitrogen-fixing plants

generally is considered favorable because they

provide an essential nutrient usable by other

plants, are fast growing, and can grow on marginal lands. However, giant Leucaena, because

it grows so rapidly, can effectively outcompete

and shade out other, desirable species (22).

POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Integrate

Characteristics of Traditional

Agriculture Into More

Productive Systems

“Neotraditions” of resource use may, in some

cases, be suitable for fulfilling local and extended family needs, thus allowing sale of surplus production in local markets. These would

involve technologies adapted, via a combination of traditional knowledge and experience

and modern science, to today’s conditions (22).

This would require evaluation of existing systems to determine which characteristics enhance their productivity and sustainability. Few

data currently are available on the productivity

or even extent of traditional agriculture systems. One attempt was made to census traditional agriculture production in Micronesia

(116), but the results are unreliable (22).5

Once existing production systems have been

evaluated, they can be compared with other systems and enhanced as needed. Comparisons

of caloric and other inputs and production by

5

Planning for Micronesia agroforestry and subsistence agricultural systems research is underway at the University of Guam

(45).
174 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

extant and introduced technologies could indicate technologies which could be improved

and evaluate needs for new technology. Concurrently, guidelines for development that

would assure at least sustainability of a subsistence base of resource uses and foster sustainability of economic development projects are

needed (22).

Several common characteristics of traditional

systems might be integrated with modern practices to arrive at more productive, sustainable

systems. Two of these are interplanting trees

with crops and incorporating animals in cropping systems.

Opportunity: Incorporate Trees in

Cropping Systems

Agroforestry is a collective name for landuse systems and technologies where woody

perennials (trees, shrubs, etc.) are used on the

same land management unit as nonwoody

crops or animals. In agroforestry systems there

are both ecological and economic interactions

between the different components. The goal is

to achieve an efficient use of space, to optimize

crop combinations so as to maximize overall

productivity, to optimize the ecological balance

of the system and, at the same time, to achieve

a sustainable yield (121). In addition to products derived from agroforests, agroforestry systems serve as sanctuaries for wild plants and

animals and provide recreation areas. Agroforestry also can retain much of the flood and

erosion control services provided by forested

watersheds, thereby protecting the productivity

of the land.

Traditional Pacific agriculture largely is

based on tree crops and on preserving the environmental services of trees in cropping systems.

Commonly, only small areas of land are cleared

at any one time, forest trees and shrubs are

selectively cut, and useful plants (producing

food, medicines, or building materials) are

mulched with leaves and twigs of unwanted

species.

In the Caribbean, Puerto Rico’s shade-coffee

system can be categorized as an intermediate

agroforestry system (121). Several plantings in

western Puerto Rico, sampled in 1959, contained shade, fruit, and valuable timber species

(114). Charcoal, prepared from annual shade

tree prunings had a value of $3 million and accounted for over half of the total charcoal

produced on the island in 1949 (106). The coffee “forest” production system was probably

the start of modern agroforestry practices in

Puerto Rico. Other agroforestry technologies

practiced in Puerto Rico include coconut/pasture in coastal regions, mangoes/papaya, plantains and bananas intercropped with rootcrops

and citron (87).

In the Virgin Islands, with the exception of

bay tree plantations, traditional subsistence

agroforestry incorporated root crops; vegetables; fruit trees; livestock; and forest species

for charcoal, firewood, and construction. The

most prevalent type of subsistence agroforestry is found in backyard gardens, which typically have a mixture of perennial fruit tree crops

interplanted with short-term food crops. A

more specialized agroforestry system is practiced by French farmers who grow herbs and

spices along with fruit trees that serve as windbreaks and mark field (87).

Opportunity: Incorporate Animals in

Cropping Systems

A primary means of increasing and enhancing local food production is by incorporating

livestock in small-scale cropping systems. Island livestock generally are of mixed breed,

resistant to diseases and parasites, and suited

to island environments.

On some islands, particularly in the FAS,

chickens, pigs and, more rarely, goats may be

allowed to roam and forage in or near villages.

On more developed islands such as in Puerto

Rico, Guam, Saipan, and the USVI, free-roaming husbandry of animals other than chickens

generally is not practiced (9,app. F).

Free-roaming livestock require minimal care

and feeding and, thus, cost little to raise. However, productivity of free-roaming livestock is

low compared to yield from more intensively

raised livestock. Free-roaming livestock also

may present a health hazard, by carrying and

spreading diseases.
Moreover, free-roaming animals can seriously threaten endemic flora and gardens. They

also can denude island watersheds, causing

serious degradation of “downstream” habitats

and structures. Most Pacific island vegetation

did not evolve with herbivore pressure and does

not contain defenses such as thorns, bad taste,

or protective alkaloids. Introduced herbivores

may thus feed preferentially on native species

and provide inroads for the loss of native species and spread of exotic vegetation (7).

Penning these animals would permit greater

control of their diets, can provide an easily

accessible supply of manures for comporting

or direct application to soils, and would protect valuable endemic species and natural ecosystems. Considerable labor is required to care

for penned animals (e.g., feed procurement,

feeding, and waste disposal), which may hinder adoption of this technique. Penned animals

currently are fed with leftover food, crop

wastes, and forage such as Leucaena leaves

(108), which might otherwise be used as soil

amendments and conditioners. However, because manures are more decomposed than food

and crop wastes, their nutrients are more readily available to plants.

In addition to penning, the yield and efficiency of livestock production can be increased

by using improved breeds, better feeds, and

more intensive husbandry. Although imported,

improved breeds may increase production,

most Micronesians prefer local livestock over

imported breeds (93). The high costs of both

imported and locally produced feed concentrates hamper widespread adoption of this tech-
176 c Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

nique. Since most livestock raised in the U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands are for subsistence use,

farmers generally will not invest in processed

commercial feed. Little research has been conducted on improving livestock productivity on

those islands and much is unknown about its

performance under intensive management.

Grazing of livestock on pastures grown under coconuts is a major land use activity in

many parts of the tropics, especially the Pacific

islands (69). Cattle or goats can be raised on

natural or managed grasses and legumes. The

carrying capacity of both improved and unimproved pastures varies widely depending on the

type of forage plants, climate, age and density

of the coconut stand, etc. The effects of grazing under coconuts has been studied by the

Coconut Research Station in Sri Lanka, indicating that grazing will have no depressive effects

on nut yields if fertilizers are applied to both

palms and intercrops (69). Primarily because

coconut palms are shallow rooting, the potential competition for nutrients with other, interplanted forage crops is considerable, requiring

careful management to maintain high productivity of both. However, where enough land is

available to rotate the animals among “fields,”

goats, in particular, can help to reduce weeds

that also compete with coconut palms for nutrients.

POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Develop

Intensive Commercial Farming

Conditions in the U.S. Pacific and, to a lesser

extent, in the U.S. Caribbean islands generally

are not favorable for large-scale commercial

agriculture development. Constraints include

relatively poor resource bases, small land areas,

poor and/or expensive transportation services,

and relatively high wages compared to labor

productivity. In addition, land tenure systems

in U.S. Pacific islands and high land prices in

the U.S. Caribbean islands are not conducive

to large-scale commercial development (43,61,

87,143).

Despite these hindrances to commercial agriculture, some opportunities for development

exist. Profitable commercial agriculture develPhoto credit: A. Vargo

Increased mechanization appropriate to small-plot

semicommercial and commercial farms, such as rototillers, is a goal of agricultural development on most

U.S.-affiliated islands.

opment is generally accomplished through the

use of modern technologies and careful selection of crops. Technologies range from intensive field farming to containment of crops in

hydroponics and greenhouse systems. More

specifically, some techniques used in intensive,

large-scale farming can be adapted to the U. S.-

affiliated islands, including mechanization, irrigation, and agricultural drainage.

Mechanization. —Increased mechanization

gives the farmer the ability to prepare farmland

with less labor or to farm larger amounts of

land. Given islanders’ relatively high wage rates

and the difficulties of hard physical labor in

tropical areas, mechanization probably will be

an agricultural goal in the U.S. Pacific (94) and

Caribbean (10). Guam has large areas of flat,

well-drained, cleared, and accessible land, as

do Saipan, Tinian, and Rota, which can support large-scale mechanization. Pohnpei and

Palau and, to some extent, American Samoa

also have such areas.

Primary tillage—loosening the soil surface to

disrupt weed growth–by hand is extremely

labor-intensive and arduous, and is not a common practice in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Animal power has been, for the most

part, bypassed in the U.S. Pacific except for
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry . 177

carabao (a Southeast Asian water buffalo introduced during Spanish administration) which

are used mainly for transport. A project to breed

and train carabao in Palau by the TTPI government did not meet with success despite determination that carabao seemed to be the only

sensible farm power for hilly, shallow soils and

capital-poor farmers (94).

Small-scale rototillers and tractors have met

with some success in the U.S. Pacific islands,

although few farmers own farm machinery.

Several farmers on Guam and Saipan own tractors, discs, and boom-sprayers (84). On some

islands, rototillers and other small machinery

are loaned to farmers. Some FSM State Agriculture Divisions till land for a nominal fee

using government equipment. A Pohnpei State

program provides farm clearing and bed preparation at subsidized rates of $10 and $6 per

hour respectively. This program has been responsible for an estimated 152 farms cleared

and 10 miles of farm roads completed in 1984

alone. Demand is such that farmers may wait

6 months before they receive machine service

(94).

A 12-horsepower rototiller should be able to

handle up to 5 acres of crops per year, more

than sufficient for the average farmer in the U.S.

Pacific, Capital investment in this type of tillage machinery is not prohibitive (about $2,000-

$3,000) and machinery could be purchased cooperatively.

Secondary mechanization—seeders, sprayers,

harvesting equipment, processing equipment,

chainsaws, grass-cutters, pumps for irrigation,

etc. —may need to be tested and made provisionally available as agriculture develops. Private business could eventually be encouraged

to import and sell farm machinery, but the local government could do the initial evaluation

and selection of suitable equipment. Cooperative ownership, as with the black pepper processing machinery on Pohnpei, may increase the

availability of equipment to local farmers (94).

Irrigation.— Irrigation services are needed

for commercial production on islands experiencing a dry season, such as Puerto Rico, the

USVI, Guam, Yap, and the CNMI. In traditional

agriculture, planting usually coincides with the

rainy season, while harvest coincides with the

dry period. Only Guam, the Northern Marianas,

Puerto Rico, and the USVI have developed notable irrigation systems (61,94). In the U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands most irrigation systems

are multiple-user, government-subsidized systems (94), while small-scale irrigation systems

are common in the Caribbean (59).

Major irrigation technologies are flood, furrow, sprinkler, and drip irrigation systems.

Flood irrigation is practiced in level areas and

is well suited to rice and taro production. This

type of system was practiced by the Japanese

in some areas. Of all the systems however, flood

irrigation requires the greatest amount of water,

and is relatively ineffective on rolling lands.

Furrow irrigation involves planting on raised

beds on level or leveled land and irrigating in

furrows on each side of the beds. Furrow irrigation seems applicable to the CNMI with large

level areas of land where sufficient water storage can be developed (94). Furrow irrigation

has two main drawbacks: high operation costs

because more water is pumped than is necessary and low crop yield because water cannot

be applied evenly and at optimum frequency.

However, in southern Puerto Rico, furrow irrigation helps maintain a stable groundwater

balance because excess irrigation water reinfiltrates the aquifer; the only net loss of water

caused by irrigation is due to evapotranspiration (61). Interestingly, infiltration of irrigation

water has provided a greater volume of groundwater recharge than rainfall along most of

Puerto Rico’s south coast (28,59).

Sprinkler irrigation is more suited to sloping

and hilly lands. The system also is suited to annual, perennial, or polyculture systems. This

technology requires a water source, a pumping system and movable pipes with sprinklers.

This system is used to some extent in Guam

and the CNMI, especially where water is available through government irrigation projects

(94).

Drip or trickle irrigation is the most versatile system in that it can be applied to all kinds

of crops or crop mixtures, on sloping or flat
178 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Pboto credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Rainwater is collected from outbuilding rooftops and

pumped to a water tower on this Taiwan-sponsored

agricultural research station on Majuro (Marshall

Islands), using gravity flow to distribute it to the crops

during dry periods.

lands, and even in greenhouses. This system

requires a water source under some pressure

(gravity can be sufficient in some cases) fed into

a series of hoses or pipes that have small openings or drip nozzles feeding water near the base

of the crop plants. Drip irrigation uses much

smaller amounts of water than the other systems, and waters only the crop plants, thus reducing weed infestations between crop plants.

Fertilizer and other nutrients can easily be fed

into the system. No energy or labor is required

to move the system once in place, and a biodegradable drip hose has been developed in Hawaii that can be plowed into the field after crop

harvest. However, drip irrigation systems are

costly, and water flow must be continually monitored to ensure effectiveness (94).

Construction of irrigation systems in the U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands seems limited to largescale farm development projects primarily due

to the high cost of underlying water storage and

distribution systems (94). There are 72 irrigated

acres on government land on Tinian made

available for farmers during the dry season;

Rota has a water system that 20 farmers are

using and Kagman Station on Saipan provides

irrigation to nearly 35 farmers from a well on

the Station grounds. In Guam, municipal water

is available to farmers for irrigation at 25 percent of cost, but supplies are insufficient. No

other areas have irrigation systems operating

at present, although infrastructure—canals and

ditches—are still left from the Japanese occupation on some Micronesia islands. Considering the existing situation in U.S.-affiliated

islands—lack of water storage and distribution

systems, limited capital, and sloping land—drip

irrigation seems to hold the greatest possibility for future development (94).

Agricultural Drainage.—Although a less

common problem than arid lands, some agricultural lands on the high islands, particularly

in the Carolines, are constrained by water saturation. Because the roots of most cultivated

crops will not penetrate saturated soil and oxygen uptake is hindered, poor drainage can result in a shallow root spread and a commensurate reduction in plant size, stability, and

yield. Water-saturated lands also promote surface runoff of rainwater, inducing erosion and

increasing the problem of flooding on downslope land (123).

Surface drainage can channel water through

shallow-grassed ditches and into outlets, reducing erosion on sloping soils and surface ponding on flat soils. To lower the water table, subsurface conduits, or tiles, must also be used.

Drained soils allow surface water to infiltrate

the soil, reducing erosion and can help control

health hazards to man and livestock such as

mosquito and fly-borne diseases. Drainage of

wet cropland also can enhance crop production significantly; wet soils often have high potential productivity because they contain more

organic matter than soils that are not as wet

(123). However, drainage has been specifically
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 179

exempted from most USDA cost-sharing programs, primarily because of its adverse impacts

on mainland wetland wildlife. Adverse impacts

also could accrue to island endangered species

such as the Guam Gallinule and migratory

waterfowl (113).

Opportunity: Intensive SmallhoIder

Commercial Agriculture

Commercial small-scale farms outnumber

large-scale farms in both the U.S. Pacific and

U.S. Caribbean islands. In Puerto Rico, the average farm size is 33 acres with an average of 16

acres for each farm worker (37). Commercial

farm size on Puerto Rico’s south coast varies

from 25 to 2,000 acres, but only 10 percent are

more than 50 acres (135). In the USVI, commercial farm sizes average less than 1 acre per

farm, and only three commercial farms in St.

Croix consist of more than 100 acres (61).

To be competitive in the market place, smallscale commercial agriculture has to be made

highly productive, This can be achieved in several ways:

●

•

●

increased agricultural inputs in field farming and improved pasture systems;

increased efficiency in methods for delivering agriculture inputs (e. g., irrigation,

hydroponics); and

cultivation in controlled environments

(e.g., greenhouses, shadehouses, soil-less

agriculture).

These technologies also are ways to overcome

constraints posed by land scarcity, high land

prices, scarcity of fresh water, unpredictable

weather, and pest and disease outbreaks. The

technologies have several things in common:

capital outlays can be considerable, most require mechanization, and nutrients and energy

have to be continuously supplied or replenished

from outside the system. In addition, to implement the systems successfully, the operator

must have both technical and business skills,

and access to skilled labor and market outlets.

Although increased agricultural inputs commonly increases yields, they may not be sustainable. Yields may suffer if agricultural chemicals are not applied properly or in sufficient

quantities. Furthermore, supply shortages, sudden price increases, changes in credit policies,

or unreliable transportation services may also

contribute to economic instability. High levels

of agricultural chemicals applied to fields also

may contribute to degradation of nearby environments.

Agriculture development may be constrained

by the availability and the willingness of people to work in agriculture. The number and skill

requirements of agriculture workers required

for intensive small-scale commercial agriculture technologies vary and, thus, different systems have different employment-generating effects. Generally, small-scale farming requires

more labor per acre than large-scale farm operations.

Several small-scale commercial agriculture

ventures have been implemented on U.S.-affiliated islands with varying degrees of success.

Technologies tried include high-input, intensive field cropping systems, hydroponics, cultivation in greenhouse or shadehouse, and intensive backyard gardening.

Intensive Field Farming Systems.—A number of improved agricultural practices have

been proven profitable, have increased productivity, have exhibited reduced soil erosion rates

as compared to clean-tilled fields, and have

been successfully implemented on islands. Examples include intensive “sun-coffee” and plantain cultivation systems in the humid mountain

regions of Puerto Rico.

In the past, coffee was cultivated under shade

trees. However, research has shown that high

density plantings of heavily fertilized coffee,

grown without shade, produces higher yields

per acre, and is economically profitable (144). A

government-sponsored rehabilitation program

for the coffee industry, based on intensive cultivation and providing financial assistance for

new plantings, fertilizer, and hurricane insurance has met with some success. About 10,000

acres of intensively managed sun-coffee now

yield 1,200 to 1,500 pounds/acre. On about 20

farms, harvesting is done with plastic nets

rather than by hand; this reduces costs and loss
180 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

of berries and effectively increases production.

Intensive cultivation methods apply to semicommercial as well as commercial development. In recent years, small-scale growing of

coffee on a part-time basis has become popular among public servants in Puerto Rico.

As is the case for sun-coffee, plantain can be

grown in high-density, intensive cultivation,

even on relatively steep slopes, using heavy fertilization and intercropping (143). In the semiarid areas of Puerto Rico, plantains can be

grown commercially year round by employing

drip irrigation systems.

Plantain can also be interplanted as a temporary shade tree and a source of income while

permanent crops, such as sun-coffee and cacao, are being established (143). Vegetables can

also be interplanted between plantain rows, at

least for the first few months after plantain

planting. Using appropriate techniques, plantain cultivation can be compatible with conservation (147).

Plantains are suitable for family-size commercial farms in the humid mountain regions of

Puerto Rico since they provide a high return,

do not require mechanization and are drought

tolerant. About 3.3 million plantains are produced on 15,000 acres, mostly in small farms in

the mountain regions of Puerto Rico, all of

which are marketed and consumed locally

(143).
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources.’ Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 181

While increased yields are achieved in both

sun-coffee and high-density plantain systems,

the high levels of agricultural chemicals required may have adverse effects on island water

supplies. The cumulative effect of this is not

known. It is likely that nutrients levels in rivers

and streams will increase due to fertilizer runoff, increasing eutrophication in ponds and

streams and, possibly, adversely accelerating

spread of aquatic weeds such as the water hyacinth. Increased water hyacinth growth has

been associated with such adverse effects as

hindering fishing and fish culture, clogging

rivers and canals, and increased schistosomiasis infestations, resulting in increased flood

and disease control expenditures (72).

Container Agriculture. -Among the most intensive systems of commercial crop production

are greenhouse, hydroponics, and container

cropping. These production technologies hold

the greatest promise in areas where soils are

not productive, as in urban areas or on atolls

where high alkalinity and saline conditions preclude standard cultivation practices. These

technologies also hold promise for cultivation

of some high-value crops that are limited by

pests and disease.

When yields are calculated on a per-acre basis, yields from container agriculture are commonly very high and sometimes sensational.

A yield of only 3.5 ounces of edible produce

from a 0.1-square-yard pot is approximately

equal to a yield of 4 tons/acre, a good yield in

conventional agriculture. Container agriculture

can be used for subsistence or commercial production of salads, herbs, cooked greens, and

other vegetables for variety in the diet (50).

Small containers suitable for use in urban

areas or on atolls, can be derived from old milk

cartons, plastic garbage bags, cans, tires, and

other receptacles as long as containers are 1

gallon or larger. Containers made from porous

materials lose water through evaporation and

thus, although they may require more frequent

watering, are more suitable for plant growth

in the tropics than nonporous materials (50).

Large, permanently located containers allow

use of more conventional techniques for plants

grown in the ground.

Photo credit” Office of Technology Assessment

Containers for intensive agriculture can take nearly any

form and size, although use of abandoned boats for

container agriculture, such as on Ulithi Atoll (Yap), can

be considered rather unusual.

Soil fertility must be maintained and as much

of the plant as possible must be used to make

commercial container cropping worthwhile

(94). Greenhouses are a special site for container

agriculture. Plants in greenhouses are protected

from wind and driving rain, but may be exposed

to high temperatures, high humidities, and infestations by insects that find greenhouse conditions comfortable (50). If care is taken to ensure that enough water is available in the soil,

excess heat radiated from nearby walls or other

structures can be reduced by shielding the

plants with screen or shade covers.

A friable soil is best for container agriculture

it has good aeration and drainage, may have

a high organic content and is likely to relatively

free of pests and diseases. Coconut husk fiber

can improve aeration and peat and sphagnum
182 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

moss will increase moisture-holding capacity.

Crushed shells (including eggshells), coral or

limestone, and coral beach sand can be added

to neutralize acid soils.

Because relatively small amounts of soil must

furnish the nutrients needed in container agriculture, soil fertility must be enhanced by adding commercial fertilizers, liquid fertilizers, or

compost. Composted organic material is preferable to raw organic material such as garbage

or fresh manure because the latter must deteriorate before they are useful to plants. If the

organic content of the soil is high, it will contain a wide variety of micro-organisms, most

of which are beneficial (50). When plants have

been harvested and removed from their containers, the soil should also be removed and

refertilized. Large containers will be needed to

store soil to be used in pots, soil to be recycled,

and finished compost.

Container agriculture’s main requirement is

water. Plant size, container size, location, and

weather all affect the amount of water needed.

Watering devices can be purchased that can

water a pot continuously for as much as 1 or

2 weeks; or ropes can be used to absorb and

transport water from a basin below the container to any part of the container (50).

plants most suitable to commercial container

agriculture are those that can be harvested frequently over along period of time. Some plants,

such as leaf vegetables, can be crowded and,

thus, profitably planted several to a container.

These tend to produce large quantities of edible materials over a long period of time and

some act as perennials in the tropics. Many

spices and herbs tested also grow well with one

to five plants per container. Others, such as

tomatoes, produce better when planted only

one per pot (and commonly do better outdoors

where they have access to greater root areas).

Weeds should be removed as soon as they are

noticed, before they produce seed or otherwise

spread (50).

Greenhouse and Shadehouse Cultivation

Systems.—Greenhouse systems were developed in temperate zones to produce fruits,

vegetables, and flowers during the cold winter

season. In the tropics the greenhouse allows

farmers to control irrigation and disease. Crops

are cultivated in flats or containers to which

water is delivered. Irrigation systems include

sprinklers, automatic drip irrigation systems

and, for certain ornamental plants, “plant misting” devices. Many crops cannot be grown under heavy rainfall typical of the tropics. By

growing these crops in a greenhouse, foliage

can be kept dry and soil sterilized.

Greenhouses in the tropics usually have only

roofs which are vented to emit excess heat. Materials such as fiberglass, plastic, or polyethylene netting, or saran “shade-cloth” are used

for walls and roofs (10). It also is possible, by

using canvas dark cloth, to simulate short day

lengths, making it possible to grow crops that

are day-length sensitive (94).

Shadehouses also are used throughout Micronesia, especially for tree and perennial crop

propagation. A shadehouse consists of a

wooden or metal frame covered with wood slats

or fine netting or commercially available “shade

cloth” to allow part of the sunlight to enter.

Shadehouses have the dual advantage of subdued light, important for rooting of perennials,

and lower temperatures. Shade houses also may

be used to grow cool-season crops sensitive to

high temperatures and day-length (94).

Although cultivation in greenhouses and

shadehouses requires high initial capital outlays, it has a number of advantages over conventional field cultivation methods. It overcomes the need for large tracts of lands, scarcity

of fresh water, and can ameliorate seasonal and

climatic fluctuations. Types and size of crops

that can be cultivated commercially are dependent on the size of greenhouse. And, as in any

other commercial venture, business and marketing skills are critical for success.

Insular government agricultural experiment

stations in the U.S. Pacific all have greenhouses,

mainly for seedling propagation. At Ponape

Agriculture and Trade School (PATS), a greenhouse was used for growing tomatoes for a

number of years. The project was eventually

terminated because of the high labor requirements (the entire soil of the greenhouse had to
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agrotorestry, and Forestry ● 183

be sterilized after every production run) and

the relatively low demand for tomatoes (94). The

high capital costs of building a greenhouse

probably limits its use to only high-value vegetable crops.

In Puerto Rico, growing ornamental plants

in greenhouses or shadehouses can offer a high

investment return, depending on the building

design, the type of ornamental plant grown, and

the cultural practices used. However, the initial capital outlay for such an enterprise is relatively high, and growing ornamental plants in

greenhouses or shadehouses is labor-intensive

(lo).

Hydroponic Culture Systems.–Hydroponics

are totally controlled systems where plants are

grown in a sterile, artificial media—commonly

sand, perlite, or gravel—with a premixed nutrient solution continually pumped throughout

the system, usually inside of a greenhouse type

structure. Crops are grown in containers which,

for commercial cultivation, commonly are either long troughs covered with wire meshing

or plastic (PVC) pipes with perforations on the

top side. Crops are placed in the holes of the

perforated PVC pipes or held in place by wire

netting that is placed over the containers.

Water, plant nutrients, and other agrichemicals

are circulated throughout the grow-out containers. Foliage and stems above the water may

be treated by spraying.

Most advantages of greenhouse/shadehouse

cultivation methods also apply to hydroponic

cultivation methods. Hydroponically grown

crops commonly are of high quality and crop

yields are higher than conventional field cropping methods. For example, yield of hydroponically grown tomatoes is about 10 times greater

than tomatoes grown under drip irrigation, and

25 times greater than tomatoes grown using

conventional field cultivation methods (10).

Within limits, hydroponic systems are flexible. Varying types and qualities of water may

be used as the substrate for growing crops. For

example, water that was used for aquiculture

can be recirculated and reused for hydroponic

cultivation. Research on such an integrated

hydroponic-aquiculture system is being conPhoto credit: A. Vargo

A highly specialized form of container agriculture is

the hydroponic greenhouse. While greenhouses and

hydroponic systems provide a number of benefits

individually and in combination, the high capital

outlays required largely restrict them to production of

high-value crops unsuitable to field agriculture.

ducted at the College of the Virgin Islands (CVI)

(92,141).

The CVI system, based on tilapia and tomatoes or lettuce (92) recirculates water collected

on a one-quarter-acre plastic rainwater catchment. The water is directed into freshwater tilapia grow-out tanks, channeled through the

hydroponics system, and any surplus is used

to irrigate a nearby garden, Combined fish culture with hydroponics systems probably is more

economically viable than either hydroponics or

fish culture alone (5,91). Because of marketing

constraints, however, this technology may not

be applicable outside of high-demand urban

areas.
184 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Hydroponic systems are technically suitable

for atolls and high islands in the U.S.-affiliated

Pacific, as long as adequate water supplies are

available. Hydroponics were used to produce

food for soldiers stationed on atolls during

World War II (33). Currently, six hydroponic

farms produce vegetables, mostly tomatoes, in

Guam; one hydroponic farm grows tomatoes on

American Samoa and The Gardens Hydroponic

Farm on Majuro (Marshalls) grows cucumbers,

tomatoes, and peppers commercially (94).

Because of high capital outlay and operation

costs, choice of crops is critical for profitability of commercial operations (10). As a result,

hydroponically-grown produce typically is

more expensive than field-grown produce.

Thus, crop choice commonly focuses on a few

very specialized crops and is directed toward

upper-income specialty markets, such as English cucumbers in Puerto Rico (60). In the U. S.-

affiliated islands, crops grown in hydroponic

systems largely are restricted to high-value

vegetables and herbs. While hydroponics probably will not have a significant impact on the

overall produce market, especially in view of

the yield-increasing technologies being applied

to field-grown crops (e.g., drip irrigation), it has

potential for satisfying some specialty market

demands currently fulfilled by imported products.

Opportunity: DeveIop Spices, Essential

Oils, and Other Specialty Crops

for Export

Historically, spices, perfume and flavoring

oils, and specialty crops such as tea and coffee

have been highly sought after crops worldwide

and evidence exists that markets are growing.

For example, the American Spice Trade Association estimates that U.S. annual per capita

spice consumption has risen from 10 ounces

in 1932 to 36 ounces today, growing 33 percent

in the last 10 years (88). Most species are native to warm tropical regions similar to the U. S.-

affiliated Pacific and Caribbean islands. Yet,

few of these islands grow spices for commercial sale.

With the small size of Micronesia landholdings (usually less than 5 acres), relatively high

labor costs compared to the rest of the Pacific,

and general high expectations of farm financial returns, spices, essential oils, and other specialty crops seem to hold potential for future

commercial development. Numerous spice and

specialty crops have been introduced into

Micronesia, among them allspice, nutmeg, pepper, vanilla, ginger, and coffee. Moreover, several local and introduced plants can undergo

extraction to produce high-priced oils which

can be used in soaps, perfumes, etc. (94).

Black pepper was introduced to Pohnpei in

1959 and has become an increasingly important crop for the island’s farmers with nearly

70 farmers growing from one-quarter to 1 acre

or more. Nutmeg also is produced from six trees

growing at the Kolonia Agricultural Station.

Ginger is grown commercially at the Protestant Mission at Ohwa. Coffee is grown in the

Sokehs area, propagated from the remainder

of a Japanese plantation, and the Agriculture

Division is investigating the possibility of introducing high-yielding coffee varieties from

Costa Rica. Japanese and Fijians have expressed

interest in importing sakau (a drink made from

Piper methysticum) from Pohnpei in the near

future. Other local beverages are being investigated for commercialization (94).

A perfume oil from a tree that grows wild

on Pohnpei, Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), has

been successfully processed at Ponape Coconut Products at PATS and samples of the oil

have received favorable reception in Paris and

New York (97). Other crops such as Fragraea

sair and citrus oils also could provide highvalue, low-volume products. In areas with a

considerable expatriate or urban population,

crops such as ornamental plants or Norfolk Island pines (for Christmas trees) may provide

a potential local specialty crop (94).

All of these specialty crops give a high return

to labor and management and can be profitable in small plantings. However, because of the

small volumes each island could produce, development of spices, essential oils, and specialty

crops probably should aim for the gourmet or

health food markets where small quantities of

product can demand high prices.
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry s 185

While there are little or no duties on dried

spices imports into the United States, spice

company quality specifications are among the

highest in the world (88). The U.S. gourmet

spice market is almost entirely controlled by

large spice companies such as Spice Islands

and McCormick & Co. (36). Even through these

companies, however, “gourmet-quality” spices

can sell for as much as five times the price of

standard spices (57).

Production of gourmet-quality spices depends partly on site conditions and cultivation

practices (box 6-A), and partly on handling,

processing, and packaging. Some spices are collected from the wild, others are semicultivated

and still others, like pepper, take careful cultivation and tending. Those spices harvested in

the wild commonly pass through several parties before being sold at the port to a spice company representative. The spice sold at the port,

therefore, is a blend of the harvests of many

smallholder farmers (57). The more a spice is

handled the greater the chance of its contamination with dirt and insects. The final seller

must clean the spice before sale to rid it of foreign matter and pests. The harvests of larger

producers pass through fewer hands and therefore, are likely to be cleaner and more desirable to the final buyer.

Penetration of the gourmet-quality spice market, then, entails strict quality control and processing standards, which may require farmer cooperative, private joint venture or government

oversight during startup. Spice industries also

are especially well suited to vertically integrated

contract farming (see ch. 8).

For example, black pepper exports from

Pohnpei have declined in recent years, partly

due to sale of poor quality product; the PohnPhoto credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Black pepper has become an increasingly important crop for the farmers and economy of Pohnpei (FSM). Because of

its special characteristics, it is estimated that Pohnpei pepper could capture as much as 5 percent of the U.S. gourmetquality pepper market, even though it currently is grown on plots of 2 acres or less. Other spices may have similar potential.
186 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

pei State government has plans to repossess the

government-purchased processing equipment

so that it can be more closely supervised (94).

To date, the centralized dryer on Pohnpei has

provided a check point for quality control but

also has proved to be an impediment to farmers

in outlying regions; research is underway on

solar dryers which would allow initial processing to occur on the farm (38).

Despite the relatively small quantities of product that might be produced on U.S.-affiliated

islands, this could have a significant impact on

the livelihood of the islands’ smallholder

farmers. Under current cultivation practices,

Pohnpei pepper could capture as much as 5 percent of the U.S. gourmet-quality pepper market with product grown on only 80 acres of land

(36), or eight times the acreage currently de-
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry . 187

voted to pepper on Pohnpei. At present an estimated 70 farms ranging from 0.1 to 2 acres produce pepper (38); growth of this industry could

support, at least partially, numerous other

smallholder farmers,

Opportunity: Develop New Products

From Extant Crops

Local processing of crops can provide higher

returns to growers, compared to exporting raw

materials, and can provide import substitution

opportunities. Major opportunities for development of new products from locally available

crops are coconut oil products, fruit juices, and

animal feeds.

The major commercial crop in the U.S. Pacific is the coconut, from which copra is made.

Copra oil processing plants exist on Majuro,

Moen (Truk), Palau, and Pohnpei. Yap is in

process of building a plant, The Pohnpei Coconuts Products plant has developed a line of

products—laundry and bath soap, dish soap,

cooking oil, body oils, and shampoo—for the

local and tourist markets, Plants on Truk and

Yap will offer similar products, mainly for import substitution. Copra oil is a potential substitute for diesel oil, but its cost ($4.00/gallon)

compared to imported diesel oil ($1.50/gallon)

is prohibitive at present (94).

Surplus fruit crops can be made into jams and

jellies, juiced and bottled, or used in production of fruit ices, currently popular in areas having refrigeration, Small-scale juicing machinery, suitable for small quantities, are available

and are employed on other Pacific islands.

Through a successful Yap government sponsored radio campaign, coconut milk has

replaced large amounts of imported canned

beverages; similar campaigns could promote

locally produced juices (94).

Opportunity: Support Large-Scale

Farming Systems

Large-scale field farming operations need

large tracts of uniform soils suitable for the chosen crop. For row-cropping, soil topography

should be fairly level to accommodate mechanization and other farm management practices

necessary for high uniform productivity. Large

parcels of land of uniform type soil are scarce

in most of the Pacific territories. While relatively large parcels of uniform lands are available in the U.S. Caribbean islands, land prices

are exorbitantly high (87,143).

Conventional, mechanized, clean-tilled field

farming that characterizes most large-scale

commercial farming generally requires considerable levels of agricultural chemical inputs,

such as fertilizers and pesticides, to maintain

crop yields. In addition, large-scale conventional field-cropping of short-term crops generally entails greater risks of soil erosion and

other ecological damage than other systems

such as smallholder farming (22,43,94).

Finally, large-scale commercial farming requires large markets to absorb production volume. Since local markets on islands are small

or the local buying power is low, large-scale

producers generally export the products. While

export potential exists, it is difficult to achieve

(43).

Despite these constraints, opportunities for

large-scale commercial farm development exist, particularly in Puerto Rico. Careful selection of technologies and crops is crucial for

profitable large-scale commercial operations.

Business and operational skills, marketing skills

and careful timing (e. g., to supply fruits and

vegetables to the U.S. mainland “winter market”) also are essential.

Increased agriculture yields in field farming

generally is achieved by intensifying agriculture

inputs or using highly efficient input delivery

systems, such as drip irrigation. However, under certain circumstances, improved management of crop production alone will increase

yields. For example, low yield of sugarcane in

Puerto Rico is primarily due to inefficient drainage and irrigation systems, inadequate pest

control, and poorly timed and inefficient harvesting operations (143). In other cases, new

technologies may be needed to increase productivity and product quality (61,143). In addition

to the intensive cultivation of sun-coffee and

high-density plantain, large-scale intensive pasture improvement for commercial cattle rais63-222 0 - 87-7 QL. 3
—

188 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas

ing has been successfully accomplished in

Puerto Rico (9,143).

Conventional Field Farming Systems.–Conventional field cultivation systems are characterized by mechanized operations, clean-tilled

fields, and monocultural crop cultivation. To

maintain high crop yields, chemical fertilizers

and pesticides are used. Gravity (furrow) or

sprinkler irrigation systems are common. In

Puerto Rico, principle crops cultivated this way

include sugarcane, plantains, pumpkin, pigeon

peas, pineapple, and some vegetables (61).

Due to high production costs, conventional

field cropping for most crops is not economical. High production costs are related to high

energy cost, relatively high labor cost (compared to neighboring non-U.S. islands and

countries), low labor productivity, and the application of inefficient agricultural technologies. For example, gravity irrigation is considered inefficient compared to the sprinkler

or drip irrigation systems, in terms of the

amount of water used for irrigation. Although

mechanized, clean-tilled agriculture systems

have several advantages, given the vulnerability of most tropical soils to erosion from heavy

rainfall, the overall effect can be long-term soil

impoverishment.

High-Input, Improved Pasture Technologies.

—Large-scale, high-input improved pastures

have been used in cattle ranching in Puerto

Rico. Pasture improvement is instrumental in

increasing beef and dairy milk production.

Cattle can be raised on unimproved or improved pastures. Ranching on unimproved

pastures is practiced in areas where few alternative land uses exist, such as the semiarid

areas of southern Puerto Rico and the USVI

(9). Raising cattle on unimproved pastures requires little capital investment and labor. Some

landowners in the USVI raise beef cattle on

unimproved pastures for investment and tax

purposes until these lands can be developed for

other uses and sold at a profit (9).

However, raising dairy or beef cattle on improved pastures is considered by some to be

the best land use of idle lands in Puerto Rico’s

mountain regions. Well-managed tropical

pastures in steep mountain regions helps protect soil against erosion (145). Soil losses on intensively managed pastures amounted to only

1 ton/acre/year; the lowest for any current

mountain agricultural practices in Puerto Rico

(101,146).

In Puerto Rico, as much as 100,000 acres of

mechanizable land are in intensively managed

pastures—primaril y for dairy cattle—and an additional 500,000 acres are in less-intensively

managed pastures for beef cattle production.

Five thousand acres of improved pastures are

reportedly being used for dairy in the USVI,

8,000 acres for beef production, and 12,000

acres are in unimproved grassland (9,81,82,

143). However, only part of this pasturage is

truly productive; many smallholders apparently

graze a small number of animals on their few

acres in order to receive tax reduction accorded

to “farms”; when the price of land rises high

enough such land may be sold for condominium development (56).

Cattle pastures occupy about 22,500 acres in

the Northern Marianas (primarily on Tinian),

about 170 acres on Guam, 350 acres on American Samoa, and less then 1,000 acres in various other Pacific islands (12,46,134,135,137).

Considerable opportunity exists to expand livestock production in the CNMI (84).

Drip Irrigation on Semiarid Lands.–Semiarid

lands comprise about 20 percent of the land

area of the U.S. Pacific islands (primarily on

atolls) and about 40 percent of the land area

of the U.S. Caribbean islands, including 60,000

acres in southern Puerto Rico (61,143,150).

Semiarid lands are generally associated with

high salt and alkali levels in soils, brackish

water intrusion into groundwater and, on atolls,

salt spray. These undesirable conditions make

conventional agricultural practices difficult.

One way to make these lands more productive is through irrigation. Drip irrigation is a

particularly efficient and water-thrifty method

of water use for crop production; it is 13 percent more efficient than the sprinkler irrigation, 31 percent more efficient than pipe irrigation, and 56 percent more efficient than
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 189

conventional furrow irrigation systems (10). In

some cases, drip irrigation systems can reduce

fertilizer costs by about 25 percent. Although

total water purchase costs can be reduced from

30 to 50 percent (154), the cost per unit of water

delivered to each plant (which includes preapplication filtration, higher pumping costs to provide higher pressure and equipment amortization, as well as water purchase costs) typically

is higher in drip irrigation than other irrigation systems (59). The systems can be applied

on small or large scales and in manual or automated operations, with varying complexity of

hardware, capital investments, and severity of

freshwater constraints.

Crop yield is higher under drip irrigation than

under conventional rainfed field cropping. In

semiarid lands of southern Puerto Rico, drip

irrigated crops produced two to three times

higher yields than conventional small-scale

commercial field cropping (table 6-7) (61). However, the total net value of products is basically

the same due to the high initial capital investment and high operation costs for drip irrigation systems.

Installation of drip irrigation systems in

Puerto Rico costs between $1,500 to $2,000 per

acre for a typical farm (32) compared to $1,000

to $1,400 in the Western United States (6). Sophisticated and costly filtering and backflushing systems commonly are required to keep the

systems from clogging due to suspended particles in the water. Because of the high costs, only

crops with assured markets can be grown economically.

Opportunity: Develop Commercial

Forestry

Reliable information on the original extent

of island forests does not exist, but forests probably covered most of the islands. Most of the

islands have been largely deforested at some

time during their colonial histories, and some

are naturally regenerating second-growth forest on abandoned lands. Today, at least onethird of Puerto Rico is again under forest cover;

much of this land is too steep for other uses

(121).

Some wood products are harvested on most

U.S.-affiliated islands, such as fuelwood, wood

for charcoal production, poles, and home construction materials. However, most wood products are imported. For example, American

Samoa imports nearly all wood products except fuelwood from nearby independent Western Samoa and from the United States and New

Zealand. In 1981, Puerto Rico produced about

100,000 board feet of hardwood timber with a

Table 6-7.—Comparison of Yields under Drip and Conventional Irrigation Systems in Semiarid Zones of Puerto Rico

Drip irrigation Conventional irrigation

Agricultural

experiment station Private growers Private growers

Crop (Box/Ac) (Tons/Ac) (Box/Ac) (Tons/Ac) (Box/Ac) (Tons/Ac)

Vegetables:

Tomatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 10.0 1,000-2,000 15-18.7 600 7.5

Peppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 10.5 800-1,000 20-30 400 8.0

Eggplant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 13.3 1,000 20 400 8.0

Cucumbers . . . . . . . . . . . 921 18.4 500-1,000 12-25 250 6.0

Squash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 20.0 — 10 6.0

Watermelon. . . . . . . . . . . —

—

12.7 — 2-3 3.0

Cabbage . . . . . . . . . . . . . —

—

15.6 — 10 5.0

Onion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —

—

10.4 — 10 — 5.0

Tree crops:

Plantain a 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,000 21.0 40,000 24 30,000 18.0

Bananas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,200 24.0 1,000-1,300 20-26 700 14.0

Papaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — — — 40 25.0

Avocado. . . . . . . . . . . . . . —

—

3.5-5.0 — 4-5 — 3.0-4.0

aYield computed based on 0.6 lb/fruit average weight since this crop is normally sold on a count basis rather than by weight.

SOURCE: G. L. Morris, and D J. Pool, “Assessment of Semiarid Agricultural Production Technologies for the U, S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, 1966
190 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Although forestry research is being conducted on most

U.S.-affiliated islands, including this experimental plot

at an Agricultural Experiment Station on Pohnpei

(FSM), most wood products continue to be imported

to the islands.

retail value of about $200,000, while the island’s

imports of forest products totaled $410 million

(121).

Until recently, the forests in the U.S.-affiliated

islands have not been managed actively. In fact,

while overexploitation is not now a problem

in most areas, poor land uses in the past have

left the islands with significant amounts of

abandoned agricultural land and relatively unproductive secondary forests. Development and

implementation of appropriate forestry technologies could help alleviate rural unemployment, provide local substitutes for some imported products, and help protect land and

nearshore resources against erosion, floods,

sedimentation, and similar environmental

damage.

One method to derive economic benefits from

forest resources without disrupting their environmental services is to promote the profitable and sustainable use of animals and plant

products other than wood. The potential to develop such products is not large in Puerto Rico

and the USVI, but some opportunities exist,

such as small-scale production of honey, bamboo products, and eucalyptus leaves and oil

(121). Because gathering activities are a normal part of subsistence life on the Pacific islands, this sort of development has considerable potential. With careful management to

avert the threats posed by gathering activities

to indigenous animal and plant life, harvest of

products such as essential oils and mangrove

aquatic organisms can continue on a subsistence and semicommercial scale without causing forest degradation.

Relatively little potential for full-scale industrial logging exists in the U.S.-affiliated islands

due to limited acreages, topographical factors,

competing land uses, small landholdings, high

land prices, and uncertain land tenure. Significant potential for commercial forest plantations exists only for the larger islands of Puerto

Rico, American Samoa, Guam, Pohnpei, and

Palau. However, standard timber stand improvement techniques, such as enrichment

planting (wherein higher value species are underplanted in natural second-growth forests)

could result in valuable future timber stands

on these islands (121). Some of these techniques

are being used in the Puerto Rican National and

Commonwealth forests. Subsequent harvest

provide income for the Puerto Rican Division

of Forestry and supports further management

of the Caribbean National Forest.

Considerable potential does exist for smallscale industries that can serve domestic markets (121). For example, portable sawmills were

introduced to Puerto Rico in 1982. Teak, mahogany, and Caribbean pine have been successfully and economically thinned, milled, and

marketed by the Puerto Rico Forest Service.

portable sawmills, combined with regulation
—

Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry . 191

.

Photo credit C. Whitesell

Small portable or stationary sawmills (shown here on Pohnpei, FSM), combined with reforestation and regulation of

exploitation, probably are the best-suited timber harvesting systems for the U.S.-affiliated islands because they can support

rural industries and yet can be temporarily retired without significant economic disadvantage.

of exploitation; are probably the best-suited harvesting systems for the western Pacific as well,

because they can be used as needed and temporarily retired without significant economic

disadvantages. Because they can be pulled to

the harvest site behind small vehicles, they

cause less harm to thin soils than larger systems. They do not require an extensive road

system and they leave bark and branches on

the site, thus reducing nutrient loss.

Moreover, small-scale sawmills in rural areas

can stimulate development of local workshops

with corresponding effects on rural employment.

These effects could be expanded by introducing facilities such as simple and inexpensive

solar kilns or wood preservation equipment.

This type of forest industry can be upgraded

as workers improve their skills, local management masters the task, and local markets grow

to absorb the increased production.

Even though managed second-growth forest

is not likely to become a major land use in the

U.S. insular areas, it merits consideration as

an improvement over unmanaged, low-quality

brush or forest land unsuitable for agriculture

(121). In Puerto Rico, managed second-growth

forests can provide a first harvest before conversion to plantation forestry or increase the

value of land deliberately held out of intensive

production (e.g., recreation sites).

The most pronounced impacts of forest degradation in the U.S. tropical territories are on

island streams and coastal resources. Deforestation has caused permanent streams on some

islands to disappear and contributes to increased
192 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

runoff, flooding, water shortages, and erosion. agement, and build local forest industries. FurSiltation has harmful effects on lagoons and ther, science and environmental education in

reefs, affecting fish and other marine resources primary schools could direct students towards

important to island people. Increased financial an understanding of the importance of forests

and political support for insular forestry pro- to quality of island life and encourage them to

grams could foster reforestation, development enter relevant fields of study.

of plantation and second-growth forest manTECHNOL0GIES SUPPORTING AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY

Agriculture cannot be a productive sector of

island economies if soils become too nutrientdepleted or if erosion cannot be controlled.

Thus, many technologies supportive of agricultural sustainability are aimed at restoring or

improving soil quality, or at minimizing soil

loss through erosion. Terracing and contour

farming, cultural practices and crop choice,

conservation tillage, and revegetation can all

be used to control erosion. This will have the

additional beneficial impact of reducing sedimentation in shallow coastal waters—probably

the single greatest cause of coral reef degradation around high Pacific islands (40). Soil

amendments and composts, use of nitrogenfixing intercrops, and salt-resistant crops can

increase productivity on infertile soils. Lengthened fallow periods allow natural soil organic

matter recovery and growth of regenerated

vegetation helps prevent erosion. Finally, reducing crop losses from pests can reduce the

extent of land and intensity of use required to

meet a production goal.

POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Minimize

Soil Erosion and Degradation

Before human intervention, most lands in the

U.S.-affiliated islands were forest-covered. Although tropical soils are diverse and variable,

in general, few tropical forest soils can sustain

productive agriculture over the long term. The

presence of either heavily leached soils of low

fertility, thin erosion-prone soils, or dry soils

makes the establishment of permanent sites

extremely difficult. Although soils on certain

deltas, young volcanic materials, and flood

plains may be fertile, most soils in hot, wetlands

have significant fertility problems caused primarily by leaching of nutrients from rock and

soil mineral particles. Often, such soils have

a poor ability to hold common plant nutrients;

if such nutrients are added to the soil as fertilizer they can be expected to be leached away

rapidly (121)

In arid/semiarid areas, such as Puerto Rico’s

southern coastal plain and the USVI, nutrients

needed by many plants commonly are in the

soil, but become available to the plants only if

sufficient water is available. If most of the water

evaporates rather than percolating through the

soil, dissolved solids or salts can accumulate

at or near the land surface in concentrations

that few plants can tolerate (121).

Tropical mountainous soils are, in general,

rocky, thin, and easily eroded (121). U. S.-

affiliated tropical high islands tend to have substantial areas of steep ridges and deep valleys;

mountain slopes are extremely steep. For example, about half of Puerto Rico consists of

slopes of 450 or more (137), and only 30 percent of American Samoa has slopes less than

30° (138). Thus, minimization of soil erosion

and degradation are integral to maintain productive agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands.

Soil erosion is greatest in conventional rowcropping, where soil is loosened and exposed

to weathering. For example, studies of test plots

in Puerto Rico indicate that, on sloping lands,

improved pastures suffer the least (1 ton/acre/

year) and clean-tilled cultivated crops the most

(17 tons/acre/year) soil losses (101,146). Row

crops grown under clean-tilled agriculture commonly do not provide soils with adequate protection against heavy rainfall. Depletion of soil
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 193

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

These degraded volcanic soils on southern Guam illustrate the potential for reduction in development options caused

by uncontrolled soil erosion; few species can survive under these conditions. Revegetation of these lands with more

desirable species will be a difficult, costly, and lengthy process.

nutrients through erosion and leaching and

changes in soil texture associated with cleantilled cultivation methods result in soil degradation.

Soil degradation also can be the result of

shortened fallow periods. Shortening of fallow

periods can “short-circuit” the natural regenerative capacity of the ecosystem. Natural vegetation contributes organic matter to the ecosystem, and gradual accumulation of this organic

matter allows the land to recuperate and become productive.

In Micronesia, degraded lands are characterized by depauperate vegetative cover consisting of savanna dominated by swordgrass

(Miscanthus) or Gleichenia ferns and Pandanus trees. Frequent deliberate burning of

vegetative cover make these lands increasingly

unproductive (22,121).

Ways to prevent land degradation or to improve marginal and degraded lands include the

following:

●

●

●

●

●

lengthen fallowing periods,

restrict and control burning,

implement soil conservation measures,

apply soil conserving cultural methods,

and

enhance reforestation programs.

Opportunity Lengthen Following

Periods and Restrict Burning

It is well known that shortened fallow periods

will degrade tropical soils because organic input into the soil from regenerated vegetation
194 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

is curtailed (121). Furthermore, too frequent

burning of old garden sites, shortened fallow

periods, and open field row-cropping practices

without sufficient addition of organic matter

will rapidly deplete soil fertility (22). Severely

depleted soils will support little vegetative

growth. Soils with little vegetative cover are

prone to erosion and leaching by heavy rainfall and strong wind.

Normal fallowing periods might be shortened

by planting nitrogen-fixing legumes. Woody

species might also provide useful products such

as posts and fodder. However, care must be

taken in choosing varieties; for example, giant

Leucaena can be difficult to control and can

grow tall quickly enough to shade out fruit trees

(22).

Opportunity: Implement Soil

Conservation Measures

Contour cultivation and terracing on sloping

lands and covering freshly prepared soil with

mulch may reduce soil erosion problems (143).

Terracing. —A classic example of soil conservation measures for cultivated lands is terracing of steep lands. One example of terrace

farming is perennial herb cultivation on rock

terraces in the USVI. Herbs and spices are

grown essentially clean-tilled on narrow, irrigated rock terraces along with fruit trees that

serve as windbreaks and also mark field boundaries (52).

Other terraces have been constructed on

steep slopes using contour rows of closely

spaced fast-growing trees. Trunks are allowed

to stand, serving as retaining walls with the new

growth regularly cut and piled horizontally

above the trunks. At regular intervals soil is

piled up on top of the organic debris for gradual formation of bench terraces. Hardy, tall

grasses also have been used to form bench terraces. Both terracing and contours increase

water infiltration and organic matter accumulation as well as control soil erosion (52).

Terraces are earth embankments, channels,

or combinations of embankments and channels

built across the slope of the land at suitable spacings and with acceptable grades (box 6-B and

figure 6-3). They provide maximum retention

of moisture for crop use and reduce soil erosion by removing surface runoff at a nonerosive velocity and/or reducing peak runoff rates

(123). Terraces may also facilitate irrigation and

drainage, as well as cultivation. Benches can

improve drainage by concentrating runoff at

the inside of the bench and then draining it

along a controlled lateral gradient to a protected

waterway. They are suited to annual, semipermanent and mixed crops and can be applied

on slopes up to 300 (122). Through these mechanisms water quality in adjacent streams may

be enhanced.

Terraces may trap up to 85 percent of the sediment eroded from the field, although they cannot stop erosion between terraces. Terrace construction may cause surface compaction and

remove topsoil from large areas of the field. Uneven drying, pending, and severe erosion in

different parts of the same terrace channel are

also common, especially for the first 3 to 5 years

after construction. In addition, misalignment

of terraces may result in problems with maneuverability of machinery and maintenance of

grass waterways.

The design and construction of a terrace system is labor-intensive and often expensive, and

may require skilled professional assistance.

Further costs include loss of land to terrace

backslopes, loss of crops during construction

year, higher labor and energy costs to work terraced fields, and costs of controlling insect

pests that may be harbored in backslope grass

strips. In addition, maintenance is mandatory

to retain an adequate terrace cross section for

proper functioning of the system (123).

The applicability of terracing in island areas

may best be illustrated by example. During the

Danish control of the USVI, the islands were

nearly covered with stone terraces, allowing

extensive cultivation of sugarcane on steep

slopes. This method fostered a sugar economy

that persisted for nearly 100 years. Similarly,

early inhabitants of some of the Micronesia

islands created terracing for agricultural purposes. Remnants of stone terracing still remain

in Palau and the Marianas.
— —

Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 195

Box 6-B.--Terracing

Terraces not only control erosion but also can be used to facilitate irrigation and drainage, as

well as cultivation. Reversed-slope benches, continuous or discontinuous, differ in width to suit different

crops and slopes. Benches improve drainage by concentrating runoff at the inside of the bench and

then drain it along a controlled lateral gradient to a protected waterway. Terraces are suited to annual, semipermanent, and mixed crops and some types can be applied on slopes of up to 300. Variations of conservation structures include:

Bench terraces: A series of level strips running across the slope supported by steep risers. These

can be used on slopes up to 25° and are mainly used for upland crops.

Hillside ditches: A discontinuous type of narrow, reverse-slope bench built across the hill slope

in order to break long slopes into many shorter ones. The width of the cultivable strips between

two ditches is determined by the slope of the land. They are inexpensive, flexible, and can be

built over a period of years. This treatment can be applied to slopes up to 25°.

Individual basins: Small, round benches for planting individual plants. They are particularly

useful for establishing semipermanent or permanent tree plots to control erosion. They should

normally be supplemented by hillside ditching, orchard terracing, and crop covering.

Orchard terraces: A discontinuous type of narrow terrace applicable on steep slopes up to

300, Spacing is determined by distance between trees. Spaces between terraces should be kept

under permanent grass or legume cover. 

Intermittent terraces: Bench terraces built over a period of several years.

Convertible terraces: Bench terraces with the spaces planted with tree crops.

Natural terraces: Constructed initially with contour embankments (bunds) 20 inches high on

slopes not over 7° and on soils having high infiltration rates.

Hexagons: Special arrangement of a farm road that surrounds or envelops a piece of sloping

land treated with discontinuous terraces which are accessible to four-wheeled tractors. This

treatment is primarily for mechanization of orchards on larger blocks of land and on slopes

of up to 20°,

Contour Farming.—The practice of planting

on a line perpendicular to the slope of the land

is termed contour farming. This practice is relatively inexpensive, basically only requiring a

reorientation of planting patterns. The effectiveness of contouring however, decreases as

the inherent potential for erosion increases.

Some climatic, soil, or topographic conditions

may limit the application of contour farming,

A variation of contour farming is contour

stripping in which relatively narrow strips of

crops are interplanted with close growing pasture grasses. The strips are oriented approximately on the contour and perpendicular to the

slope. Similarly, strips of erosion-resistant crops

can be alternated with strips of erosion susceptible crops, The actual width of the strips varies

with the topographic features such as length,

degree of slope, and exposure of the slope to

winds, and with factors affecting field erodibility, e.g., soil texture, roughness, wind velocity, frequency, and direction (122).

Contour strip cropping may significantly reduce soil erosion beyond regular contour farming. The grass strips serve to slow the velocity

of the runoff and further reduce soil loss, Contour strips are relatively inexpensive to install,

however, some acreage is lost to the maintenance of the grass strips, headlands, and waterways, thus reducing productive acreage.

Many tropical areas suffer from severe soil

erosion and implementation of some variation

of these cropping schemes may serve to decrease soil loss. However, rainfall levels and

soil depth may limit the effectiveness of these

practices.

Mulching.—Mulches, nonvegetative, and processed covers can protect areas from severe soil

erosion, and contribute to soil moisture reten-
196 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 6-3.—Slopes and Appropriate Conservation Measures

Undisturbed

Stone-walled

level bench

bench

Limiting slope terraces

for planting on .“ {

contour between

narrow-based

terraces or A

hillside

ditches

SOURCE: H.C. Pereira, “Soil and Water Management Technologies for Tropical Forests,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982,

Terraces can be designed for varying farming scales and systems, and to fit differing availability of labor and capital,

ranging from handmade stone terraces such as on this communal farm on St. Thomas (USVI) to large, grass-backed

bench terraces developed at the Mayaguez Tropical Agriculture Station (Puerto Rico) in the 1930s.

tion. Mulches contribute to retention of soil to reducing soil temperature and thus keep root

moisture by reducing loss by evaporation as systems cool (102, 122). Plastic mulches, while

well as discouraging weed growth. more durable, may increase soil temperature.

Organic (grass, leaves, etc.) and inorganic Fertilizer application becomes more difficult

(plastic) materials may be used as mulch. Soil in mulched fields; fungi growth may be enquality is enhanced by decomposing organic couraged in more moist areas and insect pests

mulches. Further, organic mulches contribute may become established in the mulch requir-
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 197

Photo credit: A. Vargo

Mulching is a common agricultural practice on the U. S.-

affiliated islands to reduce weed infestations, help

retain soil moisture, and provide soil cover. Organic

mulches, which also provide nutrients as they decay,

can be applied by simply cutting weeds on the site and

planting through them after they have dried.

ing some pesticide application or biological

control. However, appropriate mulching techniques, such as leaving space around the stem

of the plants to reduce fungi and pest attack

of the stem, can be employed to offset inherent

problems with mulching.

Costs often prohibit widespread application

of this method of erosion control. However, it

may be appropriate for some open field crop

lands, specialty crop lands, and “hot spot” erosion problems in large dryland agricultural

areas (122) such as the south coast of Puerto

Rico.

Land Leveling.—Land is often leveled or

benched for purposes of water erosion control,

irrigation, and moisture conservation. Land leveling may facilitate drainage and mechanization and reduce wind erosion by shortening

field lengths and reducing slope (122).

However, land leveling is expensive and is

profitable only for high-value crops. Puerto Rico

employed precision land leveling to prepare approximately 5,000 acres for rice production in

1978. The effort was costly in both time and

money. Currently, only 2,500 acres are producing (143).

Opportuntiy: Apply Soil-Conserving

Cultural Practices

Careful selection of crops and cultural practices can minimize soil losses. Well-managed

pastures and, to a lesser extent, certain cultivation methods of plantain, banana, coffee, and

cocoa may offer varying degrees of protection

against soil erosion on sloping lands. Conservation tillage (e. g., no-till farming) can reduce

erosion. However, polyculture is the primary

means to minimize the adverse environmental

impacts of cropping on sloping lands. Interplanted shrubs or trees also can protect crops

from wind damage and salt spray.

Soil-Conserving Crops and Intercrops.—

Groundcover legumes such as Centrosema

pubescens, Desmodium trifolium, and Pueraria

phaseoloides can be grown to provide fast

vegetative recovery on bare soil. These plants

fix atmospheric nitrogen, add organic matter

(green manure and forage), and shield the bare

soil surface from erosion (74). In Papua New

Guinea, winged bean traditionally is grown on

stakes for pods and seeds or grown unstaked

for tubers and as an effective ground cover.

Every part of the plant is edible and contains

high levels of protein (77).

Tree crops are the primary means for limiting soil erosion in tropical agriculture. These

can be intercrops, or as boundary “hedgerows”

on clean-tilled agriculture.

Conservation Tillage.—Conservation tillage

involves allowing approximately one-third of

the mulch from previous crop harvest to remain

above the soil surface after planting (120). This

cropping system is designed to reduce soil erosion and aid in soil moisture retention by absorbing the impact of rainfall and protecting

the soil surface from wind abrasion. Further,

the crop residue contributes to the decrease of

soil temperature.

In addition to erosion control benefits, economic incentives for adoption of this technology exist. Reduced labor requirement—less

time is required to till the fields; reduced preharvest fuel requirement—fewer passes across

the field are required; lower machinery costs—
198 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

lighter, and thus less expensive, machinery can

accomplish the tillage, and benefits of reduced

soil erosion allow expansion of cropping onto

sloping lands.

However, the crop residue which remains

may also offer habitat for insect pests as well

as plant diseases. While disease-resistant crop

varieties may be available, increased pesticide

applications may be required to control insect

pests. In poorly drained soils conservation tillage may prove undesirable.

This tillage method also relies heavily on herbicides for weed control which may have far-

-reaching ecological impacts (120). Most herbicides do not attack the root systems of weeds,

thus in tropical areas where the growing season is year long, frequent application of herbicides may be necessary.

Conservation tillage schemes have proven

successful in reducing sedimentation from agricultural runoff. However, the increased chemical pollutants and nutrients may adversely

affect water quality and aquatic life. Additions

of nutrients accelerate plant growth in aquatic

systems which in turn reduces oxygen concentrations. This accelerated eutrophication

can significantly affect fish survival. Increased herbicide and pesticide applications

may infiltrate groundwater supplies (120). Since

the freshwater lens beneath islands is small,

the contamination can be significant, affecting

the entire island’s freshwater supply. Contaminants contained in runoff and carried to streams

and nearshore waters may damage associated

aquatic life.

The net result of conservation tillage on nutrient pollution of surface water and groundwater will vary under different conditions. For

example, losses for either system can be quite

high if rainfall occurs shortly after fertilizers

or pesticides are applied. Tropical regions generally receive abundant rainfall, thus increasing the chance for higher pollution rates, as well

as necessitating increased fertilizer and pesticide applications since much would be lost in

runoff.

Hedgerows and Shelterbelts.—Hedgerows

(windbreaks) and shelterbelts which reduce

field length and windspeed also help control

soil erosion from wind and water (120,123). Further, they enhance water retention in the soil

and improve associated stream water quality

by capturing sediment from runoff. An early

Danish conservation law (1840) in the USVI involved the maintenance of fruit tree stands as

shelterbelts to enhance water retention. Applications such as this provide both ecological and

economic benefits.

The effectiveness of any barrier depends on

the wind velocity and direction and on the

shape, width, height, and porosity of the barriers. Nearly any plant that reaches substantial height and retains its lower leaves can be

used effectively as a barrier. Tree windbreaks

have most application on sandy soils and in

areas where there is substantial rainfall. Typically, on atoll islands where crops are extremely

vulnerable to wind and saltspray damage, the

beach strand vegetation is maintained on the

seaward side of the island to function as a windbreak. Narrow rows of of tall-growing field

crops, perennial grass barriers, solid wooden

and rock walls also may serve as windbreaks

(121). Windbreaks may interfere with large machinery, however, they should be applicable for

small-scale agricultural operations.

Maintaining vegetated riparian zones along

streams is important for maintenance of water

quality and associated aquatic life. Streamside

vegetation helps moderate water temperature

fluctuations, filters sediments and nutrients

harmful to aquatic life, and may provide habitat for fish spawning and breeding (120).

POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Enhance

Revegetation Programs

A primary cause of land degradation is forest clearing, leaving the cleared land without

6 Degradation of tropical land is a physical, chemical, and biological process set in motion by activities that reduce the land’s

inherent productivity, This process includes accelerated erosion

and leaching, decreased soil fertility, diminished natural plant

regeneration, disrupted hydrological cycle, and possible salinization, waterlogging, flooding, or increased drought risk, as well

as the establishment of weedy plants that displace more desirable plant species. Evidence that the degradation process is advancing includes, for example, a reduction in the water-holding

ability of the soil, a decrease in the amount of soil nutrients available to plants, a reduction of the soil’s ability to hold nutrients,

or soil compaction or surface hardening.
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 199

means to replenish soil nutrients. Because the

major soil nutrient supply is in the vegetation,

productivity of degraded lands could be improved, in part, by revegetation. Methods to

enhance vegetative inputs to replenish soil nutrients include traditional and commercial agroforestry, short- or long-rotation forestry, or

growing ground covers such as grasses or nitrogen-fixing legumes.

Choice of vegetation type for reestablishment

depends on the objectives of revegetation. For

exampIe, if lands are to be used for pasture,

grasses and leguminous groundcovers maybe

most appropriate. If direction of surface runoff into water catchments is a primary goal,

grasses are probably preferable to trees, which

transpire considerable amounts of water. However, if the watershed is steeply sloping, the

greater erosion control afforded by brush and

tree cover may be required to increase the longevity of the catchment. Further, on degraded

lands where weeds easily can outcompete most

smaller species, tree species that can shade

them out may be necessary,

Selection of plant species is critical. Early succession species need to be highly competitive

pioneers, able to outcompete weed species, and

should have a dense and effective root system

to minimize leaching and erosion (7). Many

degraded soils commonly retain less moisture

than protected soils (147), thus, early succession tree species may need to have tap roots—

roots that rapidly grow deep into the soil that

allow them greater access to soil moisture than

shallow-rooted trees. In addition, tree species

chosen to increase organic matter in degraded

soils must be those that allow establishment of

some undergrowth. Therefore, trees such as

certain eucalypts probably should be avoided

as allelopathic chemicals released by the trees

into nearby soils preclude growth of understory

plants.

Opportunity: Establish Forest

Plantations

Rotation ages of tropical forest species vary

and depend on the product to be harvested.

Short-rotation species (first harvest in less than

6 years) like Gliricidia, Leucaena, and Sesbania can be harvested every few weeks for forage or green manure or every 6 months for forage and fuelwood. Harvest of poles from the

Caribbean pine can take place several years after planting. Conventional long-rotation forestry of hardwood timber trees, such as teak

or mahogany, can require 60 to 100 years before first harvest.

Nitrogen-fixing legumes possess favorable

characteristics for both short-rotation forestry

systems and for improving degraded land. Fast

growing nitrogen-fixing shrubs such as Sesbania and Crotalaria (27) or nitrogen-fixing trees

such as Leucaena leucocephala, Casuarina and

Acacia are suitable for planting on degraded

lands (70,71,75). For example, it is estimated

that nitrogen-fixing Leucaena can supply 500

to 1,300 lbs of nitrogen per acre per year (75).

Moreover, a variety of nitrogen-fixing trees can

be used as fuelwood, fodder, nurse trees, timber/pulpwood, food, gum and medicines, or for

shade trees. However, many of the fast-growing

legumes can become pests in certain cases (e.g.,

Guam). This needs to be considered before species introduction is undertaken (7).

Reforestation of degraded lands provides benefits apart from products. Forests provide many

environmental services such as reducing the

force of wind, creating cool understory microclimates, protecting and, in some cases, improving the soil’s productive potential. Foliage

dropped by forest plants provide organic matter which, as it decays, improves soil fertility.

Forests control soil erosion, regulate soil moisture, and mitigate flooding. Furthermore, forests may serve as sanctuaries of wild plants and

animals and, therefore, increase and maintain

greater species diversity.

Opportunity: Improve the Productivity of

Degraded Grass and Fern Savanna Lands

Degraded lands have become quite extensive

in the U.S.-affiliated islands, especially in southern Guam and the western Carolines. These

lands commonly are no longer used for agriculture, although some may be used when more

fertile areas are not available. The grass (Miscanthus) and fern (Gleichenia) species which

predominate on degraded insular lands are ag-
200 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

gressive species. Their dense networks of roots

crowd out many other species and deprive them

of moisture during dry seasons. Plowing and

burning may allow temporary use of these lands

for grazing, but commonly only encourage further grass and fern growth and expansion.

Grass and fern savanna lands could be afforested (or reforested) to increase wood, food,

fodder, and fiber production. Trees protect soil

from the effects of tropical heat, rain, and wind.

Soil temperatures are lower under tree canopies, permitting reaccumulation of organic matter that restores soil structure and microbiota

and enhances moisture- and nutrient-holding

abilities. Bacteria on the roots of some tree roots

can convert soil minerals to useful forms. In

dry areas, trees can help to prevent the rise of

saline groundwater. Where surface soils are dry

or infertile, deep tree roots can tap underground

reservoirs of nutrients and water and bring

them to the surface. Tree species selected for

reforestation of savanna lands should possess

the following characteristics to counter those

factors that allow grass and ferns to dominate:

●

●

●

●

●

●

easy establishment,

rapid early growth in poor soil conditions,

deep rooting,

dense crown to shade out grasses and

ferns,

nitrogen-fixing and soil-improving characteristics, and

fire resistance (122).

Acacia, Calliandra, Gliricidea, and Leucaena

species have been used successfully to reclaim

such lands. Best tree growth occurs if the grass

is cut and burned prior to planting, and if large

seedlings are used to withstand competition

with the grass (122).

Once an area of such species have been established and soil productivity regenerated, enrichment planting and other second-growth forest

management techniques can gradually improve

the economic value of the stand. Eventually,

agroforestry and agriculture maybe introduced

into the area.

Steps involved in reclamation might include:

1. inventory of degraded lands to classify

them into subtypes;

2.

3.

4.

protection of suitable areas of endemic

communities;

development of fire prevention programs,

including construction of firebreaks, public education programs, and improving the

means to fight fires and enforcing fire laws;

and

establishment of reforestation plantings on

selected degraded lands using local species as well as selected exotics and development of plans for controlling aggressive

exotic species and conversion of areas to

more useful species (22).

POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Develop

LocaI Soil Amendments

In traditional systems, nutrients cycle within

the system and few nutrients are removed by

harvest. In commercial technologies, especially

monoculture, these natural cycles are broken

and there is a larger resultant nutrient drain

on the system. Introduction of additional nutrients is needed, either through manure, organic fertilizers (sea cucumbers, seaweed, dead

grass and leaves, compost), or commercial fertilizer. Because most soils in the islands are relatively nutrient poor due to leaching, erosion,

and other factors, the need to use soil amendments to obtain commercially acceptable yields

is imperative (94).

Numerous fertilizer trials have been carried

out in the U.S.-affiliated islands, and the use

of commercial fertilizer is widespread. Most

fertilizer technology has been adopted directly

from the United States, despite evidence that

tropical soils respond much differently to fertilizer than temperate soils. There also is growing concern about the potentially adverse impacts of fertilizer use on insular groundwater

and marine ecosystems (94).

The U.S. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has

completed comprehensive soil surveys for all

U.S. Caribbean islands; similar studies have

been completed for all major U.S. Pacific islands. However, adequate soil testing to determine nutrient deficiencies is limited to Guam

where a soils laboratory was set up by the

University of Guam in 1975. Few other islands

currently make use of this service. Implemen-
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry c 201

tation of this information may depend on further training of agriculture department personnel. Research also is needed on other methods

of maintaining soil fertility such as green

manuring, intercropping with legumes, fallow

periods, and crop rotation (94).

Organic Matter.—Many organic materials

contain components other than nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium which can contribute

significantly to increased crop yields, including secondary and micronutrients and, sometimes lime. The crop yield response to an organic amendment, however, follows the “law

of diminishing returns”; the capacity of organic

matter to elicit yield responses declines with

succeeding crops (83).

USDA has identified a number of ways that

organic matter could be used more effectively

as soil amendments:

1. improve methods of manure collection,

storage, and processing (e.g., comporting)

to minimize nitrogen losses that often occur in these operations;

2. apply wasted manures to lands;

3. apply wasted crop residues to lands;

4. increase use of sewage sludge on land; and

5. increase use of the organic/compostable

fraction of municipal refuse (83).

It is well established that microorganisms are

beneficial to soil structure and that soil aggregation can be increased by the addition of crop

residues presumably due to resultant soil microbial activity during the decomposition process

(19). Burning crop residues in place instead of

comporting destroys much of the nitrogen contained in the residue, Burning may result in soil

erosion problems, destroy any soil-conditioning

effects of the residues, and modify the ecological effects of the residue on the soil microflora.

In some cases it causes the soil surface to become hydrophobic which can reduce infiltration and water storage (19).

It is unlikely that organic fertilizers will totally replace commercial fertilizers, nor should

that be the goal. Evidence indicates that higher

crop yields are possible when organic wastes

are applied in combination with commercial

fertilizers than when either one is supplied

alone. Thus, organic amendments may increase

the efficiency of commercial fertilizers (83),

Soil Microorganisms.—Soil particle aggregation and, therefore, erosion control can be

effected by a range of polysaccharides and other

gums that are produced by soil microorganisms

(44). The size and composition of the microbial

mass present determine the degree of the effect.

Mycorrhizae, a group of fungi associated with

plant roots, often promote more efficient use

of applied fertilizer [62). For example, in several experiments on tropical soils, legumes responded little to the addition of rock phosphate

unless they were mycorrhizal. Uptake of minor

elements with slow soil diffusion rates, like copper and zinc, also can be increased by mycorrhizal presence.

In naturally regenerating degraded tropical

soils, the new vegetation will consist predominantly of nonmycorrhizal plants (62). Finally,

it is well documented that plants with mycorrhizal associations transplant better than nonmycorrhizal.

Composts.—Composting is the biologic conversion of organic wastes to humus, a nutrientconserving process carried out by a complex

of aerobic organisms and microorganisms that

occur naturally in soils. In simple systems, soil,

manure, and plant residues, or a combination

of animal, human and crop wastes, are layered

in a pen or bin. The pile heats as the waste decays and is turned manually and rewetted as

needed. The process commonly is complete in

4 to 12 weeks. More complex systems are more

labor-, material-, and cost-intensive (73).

USDA recently developed a highly successful method for comporting sewage sludge, animal manures, municipal refuse, and pit latrine

wastes called BARC (Beltsville Aerated Rapid

Comporting). This method has been adopted

widely in the United States and in some lesser

developed countries. It is simple, effective, inexpensive, and allows considerable trade-off between labor and capital.

After compost is applied to fields, waste nutrients and nutrients from the organisms themselves are slowly released, allowing long-term
202 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

uptake by plants. Compost also improves the

physical structure of soil and its water-holding

capacity.

Inorganic Soil Amendments.—One strategy

with potentially significant applications to agriculture on U.S.-affiliated islands involves “turning rocks into fertilizers” using naturally and

widely occurring inorganic materials as agricultural inputs.

The potential for agricultural uses of natural

materials like zeolites and rock phosphates, and

for increasing yields by mixing these inorganic

materials with organic manures and composts

containing soil microorganisms is thought to

be considerable (65]. Geologists in Canada and

the U.S. Geological Survey who have been

studying some of the natural fertilization systems are enthusiastic about their potential uses

in a number of countries where the economic

and environmental costs of conventional fertilizers are prohibitive.

Zeolites are a family of common silicate

minerals that often occur in or are associated

with volcanic rock. Zeolite minerals participate

in chemical exchange reactions that have been

shown to increase crop yields in experimental

systems and field trials. These minerals can take

in nitrogen from manures and other sources

and release it slowly in soils in a form plants

can use (i.e., they have a high ion-exchange capacity). They can induce the breakdown of rock

phosphate, making another important nutrient

available to crops. Laboratory tests in Guelph,

Ontario (Canada), have shown that zeolite

treated rock phosphate releases its phosphate

into soils up to 100 times faster than rock phosphate alone (112). Because of their high ionexchange capacity and water retentivity, natural zeolites have been used extensively in Japan as amendments for sandy soils (65).

A variety of microorganisms are known to

solubilize different insoluble inorganic phosphates, permitting their uptake by plants. Although the relation of these organisms to crop

yield has been a subject of much controversy,

recent research (58) demonstrated that yields

of two study crops were higher after application of composts enriched with rock phosphate

than after application of rock phosphate or of

composts alone. Phosphate-enriched composts

were associated with higher yields than even

superphosphate, with its extremely high levels

of water soluble phosphate. This may be because of the the slow release of phosphorus

from enriched composts.

Opportuntiy: Introduce Salt-Tolerant

Crops and Systems

Salt spray and saline soils are a significant

production constraint on atolls and shorelines

of larger islands. Research has been conducted

on Tarawa, Kiribati, on the salt tolerance of

crops and on technologies to minimize salt effects on crops. A variety of strategies, including raised beds, windbreaks, organic matter

amendments, and drip irrigation have been suggested to minimize salt damage to crops. Table 6-8 lists the salt-tolerance of some common

crops. Further, selecting or engineering strains

of highly salt-tolerant crops could permit the

expansion of agriculture onto currently unusable lands.

Photo credit: A. Vargo

Pandanus, or screw pine, is a common beach strand

plant on Pacific islands due to its tolerance of salt

spray and saline groundwater. Fiber for weaving is

derived from the fronds, and the fruit

is eaten on some islands.
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 203

Table 6-8.—Salt Tolerance of Certain Common Crops

Hi ah Medium Low

Arrowroo t Broccoli Alocasia taro

Asparagu s Cabbage, head Banan a

Bee t Cantaloup e Bea n

Coconut Carrot Breadfruit

Kale Cauliflower Celery

Pandanus Corn Colocasia taro

Papaya Cucumber Radish

Spinach Cyrtosperma taro

Lettuce

Onion

Pea

Sweet pepper

White potato

Squash

Tomato

SOURCE E Soucie, Atoll Agriculture, Ponape Agriculture and Trade School,

Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia 1983

POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Reduce

Agricultural Crop Losses

Major crop and livestock losses in the tropics are due to diseases, pests, and weeds prior

to and after harvesting. Accurate data for

postharvest losses are not available for most

U.S.-affiliated islands (99). However, crop losses

probably are similar to estimates given for the

tropics, which is around 30 to 40 percent (155,

156).

Application of appropriate pest, disease, and

weed control may reduce losses, effectively increasing yields. Various control methods have

been applied to combat agricultural pests,

weeds, and diseases in U.S.-affiliated islands,

including: use of pest-resistant crops; chemical, biological and cultural pest and disease control methods; and integrated pest management.

Opportunity: Use of Pest- and DiseaseResistant Crops and Livestock

Cultivation of pest-and disease-resistant varieties of crops and livestock is a common traditional method of protection from pests and disease (94,142). The use of pest-resistant crop

varieties or plants serving as pest repellents

make cultural control methods more effective

in preventing pest and disease infestations.

As with cultivation methods, use of pestresistant crops is effective in avoiding pest and

disease infestations, is inexpensive, easily transPhoto credit A Vargo

Depredation by the imported Giant African Snail

hinders vegetable cultivation on several U.S.-affiliated

Pacific islands. Research to develop an integrated pest

management (1PM) strategy is being conducted at the

American Samoa Community College.

ferable to small-scale farmers, and has little

adverse environmental impact. Although this

strategy holds promise for widespread application on islands, it is constrained by high costs

for research, field trials, and development, Furthermore, little scientific data is available on

the performance of resistant crops and livestock

on islands (142).

Opportunity: Cultural Control

Cultural control is the avoidance or reduction of pests and diseases through the use of

certain cultivation or husbandry methods. Cultural control methods, such as the traditional

cropping systems, provide the most common

method of pest and weed control by subsistence

farmers on the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands

(22,41,94,142). Cultural practices which serve

to control pests and weeds include: polycropping, field and crop rotation, time of planting,

and irrigation methods. Although cultural controls alone may not eradicate pests, they often

can reduce pest populations and enhance other

control methods (124).

In polyculture, some plants may serve as

physical barriers partially concealing or protecting susceptible crops from pests. Other

plants may emit or secrete repellents or provide favorable environments for predators or
204 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

parasites of pest species (3). For example, in

American Samoa, taro armyworm may be controlled by intercropping taro with Coleus blumea which serves as insect pest repellant (142).

Further, low crop density inherent to polycropping may attenuate the spread of diseases.

It is well known that crop and field rotations

may suppress pest and weed infestations. Irrigation and regular flooding in wetland taro

cultivation (55) and drip irrigation system in

semiarid row cropping (61) also reduce pest infestations.

Cultural control methods are effective (especially when combined with the use of resistant

crops), inexpensive, easily transferable to smallscale farmers, and have little adverse environmental impact. However, development of new

cultural control methods is constrained by high

costs for research and development and by lack

of documentation of local knowledge.

Opportunity: Chemical Control

This involves application of chemical agents

to control pests, diseases, and weeds. Chemical biocides are easily applied and generally

have an immediate effect. In the United States,

pesticides play a major role in pest control, increase crop yields and give about a fourfold return on investment (85). However, the presence

of disease, pests, or weeds does not indicate

that chemical application of control is needed,

because many potentially harmful insects can

be controlled by parasites and natural predators. Unnecessary chemical application may destroy the natural balance and lead to further

serious pest outbreaks.

Under certain circumstances, chemical control may be the only effective method of dealing with pest infestations, for example for crop

pests and diseases in greenhouses (10) or cattle tick control (9). However, little is known on

the proper chemical application or formulation

for tropical crops and on the long-term effects

of these chemicals on the environment (142).

Further, on U.S.-affiliated islands, application

of chemical pest control is expensive due to

costly importation of agriculture chemicals

(43,94).

Although chemical control has immediate results, its effectiveness is generally short-lived,

and it is an inefficient way to control pests in

the field. Often, only a small quantity (less than

0.1 percent) of pesticides applied to field crops

reaches target pests and the rest of the pesticides remain in the environment to contaminate the land, water, and air (85). Pests may

acquire resistance and some chemicals may adversely affect nontarget organisms (124). Resistant pests make subsequent application of the

same chemical ineffective. Since extension

workers on some islands are few or inadequately

trained, pest resistance or upset of natural predator balance may not be noticed (99).

On U.S.-affiliated islands, the Environmental

Pesticide Control Act of 1972 requires the registration of agriculture chemicals for sale and extends control to actual application by the user.

Certain restricted chemicals may only be applied by certified personnel, and penalties may

be levied against those who misuse chemicals.

Most pesticides, however, are not registered

for use on tropical crops. Therefore, under U.S.

regulations, special registration is required.

This is done by field trials and monitoring of

biocide residues in compliance with EPA regulations. These procedures require funds and

skilled staff, and thus are beyond the capacity

of most existing island institutions (99).

Since most U.S.-affiliated island are small,

inappropriate application of chemical control

may have very serious adverse environmental

impacts. 7 Contamination of water lenses by the

use of agriculture chemicals on small islands

is of major concern (66); limiting or improving

agriculture chemical applications may reduce

contamination of the environment.

Opportunity: Locally Produced

Pesticides

Certain local products may be able to take

the place of some imported agrichemicals. For

example, soap sprays were principal insecticides during the early 20th century in the

7 A pesticide spill on Truk resulted in a fish kill estimated at

20 tons and another on Ulithi (Yap) may have contaminated the

water supply; however, no tests have been run (24).
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 205

United States (17). Soap sprays are biodegradable, may kill enough pests to prevent serious

damage to plants yet leave sufficient numbers

to provide food and, thus, build beneficial populations of natural predators. Coconut oil soaps

may be an effective pesticide against some insects and are readily available on most U. S.-

affiliated islands. However, little research has

been done on formulations, effectiveness, or

tolerance by various tropical plants.

Pesticides also can be derived from certain

plants that can be locally grown. Crude extracts

from plants have been used as pesticides for

thousands of years, and a recent compilation

of plants used for pest control listed 700 species (l). Twenty-five species possess characteristics making them particularly suitable for

propagation and use by resource-poor farmers

(e.g., perennial species requiring little space,

labor, water, or fertilizer with an easily processed product and possessing complementary

uses).

The neem tree (Azadirachta indica) seems

particularly promising for pesticide production

on the U.S.-affiliated islands. The neem is native to the Indo-Pakistan region but has spread

throughout the tropical world, including the Pacific and Caribbean islands. A group of biologically active constituents found in neem leaf,

fruit, bark, and seed reportedly provide antifeedant, growth regulatory, repellant, hormonal, or pesticidal control in more than 100

pest species (l).

Neem leaves, neem seed oil, and the “cake”

resulting from oil extraction can all be used for

pesticide. The cake can be worked directly into

the soil and neem oil can be spread through

a simple sprayer. A number of other products,

such as livestock feed, soap, and cosmetic oils

can also be produced from the neem. The neem

is salt-tolerant, can be grown on relatively infertile soils, and has been demonstrated effective at improving such soils. Research on neem

tree cultivation and uses is being conducted by

USDA, including the Tropical Agricultural Research Station at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico.

Opportunity: Biological Control

Biological control is a method whereby a

predator, parasite, or disease agent is used to

combat undesirable pests, diseases, or weeds.

Identification of biological agents involves intimate knowledge of both pest and control

agent, requiring considerable research, experimentation, and field trials (66).

Although biological control of pests and

weeds may hold promise, development is costly

and time-consuming. It requires funds, special

facilities, and skilled staff; and thus it is beyond

the capacity of existing island institutions

(99,142).

Biological control works best on long-term

crops, such as trees, which allow the control

agent ample opportunity to become established.

Biological control has been implemented in the

U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands with varying success for eradication of fruitfly (66), the giant

African snail (18), and rhinoceros beetle (79,99,

142).

In 1963, USDA succeeded in eradicating both

the oriental fruitfly (Dacus dorsalis) and the

melon fruitfly (Dacus cucurbitae) from Rota island (CNMI) by a method of “male annihilization” (killing male flies with a toxic attractant)

and the sterile male technique (flooding the area

with large number of sterile males). However,

in recent years, the melon fruitfly has reappeared on Rota (66) possibly due to an ineffective quarantine program. Recently, introduction of an insect (Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata)

has proved effective in controlling a notorious

weed (Chromolaena odorata) on Guam (66).

Generally, biological control is simple to implement once precise control procedures and

control agents have been identified. Sometimes

introduction of biological agents may have

reverberating adverse effects after the target

pest has been controlled. For example, the marine toad Bufo marinus was introduced both

intentionally and accidentally through much

of the Pacific islands during the last 50 years.

The toad was thought to be a good biological
206 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

control agent due to its large size and wide

adaptability. It was introduced to Guam from

Puerto Rico through Hawaii originally for insect and garden slug control and rapidly spread

over the island. Later it was introduced throughout the remainder of Micronesia and American

Samoa. While the toad did reduce slug and

other pest populations, it also reduced populations of beneficial insects; contaminated drinking water; killed freshwater fishes, pets and,

reportedly, some humans (18).

Opportunity: Integrated Post

ManagementIntegrated pest management (1PM) refers to

the management of pest, diseases, and weeds

using a combination of control methods. It relies on a balance of biological and chemical controls, and cultural practices, such as polyculture or timing of irrigation. Its goal is to

coordinate multiple pest management technologies to assure stable crop production and

maintain pest damage below the economic injury level while minimizing hazards to humans,

animals, plants, and the environment (124). 1PM

is considered the best long-term control strategy, both economically and environmentally.

Under 1PM, chemical controls are used only

when a predetermined economic level of damage has been reached.

Effective pest and disease control programs

may increase productivity, quality, and thereby

marketability of crops and livestock. High-quality products can be exported to metropolitan

markets with little difficulty. For example, the

occurrence of melonfly on Rota (CNMI) and

Guam prevent fruit export from these islands

to Japan as well as to other islands (66). For subsistence farmers, where the major bulk of the

crop is consumed locally and little enters the

market sector, reduction of crop losses results

in greater security against lean years.

On U.S.-affiliated islands, the major stumbling block for the implementation of pest management is neither lack of technologies nor lack

of funding, but lack of highly skilled and motivated agricultural staff and good agriculture extension services. Although some pest control

methods, such as cultural control and 1PM, hold

great promise for effective pest control on islands, government subsidies that lower the

costs of agrichemicals may undermine other

pest control methods which have less detrimental effects. Furthermore, islands lack aggressive quarantine programs to prevent reinfestation and reintroduction of pests. Strong policy

commitments of local administrators to implement an effective pest control together with an

effective quarantine program are also absent

(66,142).

Pest control methods will have little effect

on islands without concurrent efforts to prevent reintroduction of pests and diseases from

other areas via incoming cargo such food imports from high risk areas. The USDA Animal

and Plant Health Inspection Program (APHIS)

operates on most U.S.-affiliated islands (43,142)

and is administered by local Departments of

Agriculture. However, the current program

lacks an integrated preventive program (68),

which might include:

●

●

●

●

●

●

public education on the importance of

plant and animal quarantine;

rigorous inspection of incoming cargo,

both by ship and air;

inspection of planes and ships for insects

and other pests;

definitions of which countries are high

risks for new pests;

a list of crops to be protected and from

what organisms; and

continuous education programs to increase

skills of inspectors.

APHIS, the University of Guam, and the

United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) have developed training programs in plant protection and quarantine, and

the FAO project on Strengthening Plant Protection and Root Crops Development in the

South Pacific has recently reviewed plant

quarantine programs in the FSM, Marshall Islands, CNMI, and Palau (39).

Quarantine regulations made along political

rather than geographical boundaries also may

unnecessarily restrict export of some agricultural products. For example, a quarantine on
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 207

export of all citrus products was imposed on ulations, facilities and procedures for each mathe FSM while its cause—the citrus moth—is jor exporting island. Such surveys should result

reported to be found only in the western Caro- in better information for use by both USDA and

line Islands. Thus, although unaffected, exports island governments in their agricultural inspecalso were prohibited from the eastern Caroline tion and quarantine activities. This also may

Islands (39). USDA entomologists and plant open U.S. and other markets to previously repathologists could conduct surveys of pests of stricted agricultural commodities from the iseconomic importance in the U.S.-affiliated is- lands (39).

lands, review quarantine and fumigation regSUMMARY

A variety of agricultural methods are practiced in U.S. insular areas. However, significant constraints hinder application of certain

agricultural technologies and agricultural development in many U.S.-affiliated islands. Factors that support and hinder application and

implementation of sustainable agricultural

technologies for U.S.-affiliated islands are many

and vary between regions, islands, and polities,

Small land areas and population, fragmented

land masses, great distances between islands,

and isolation from major markets are not conducive to modern commercial development.

Land tenure systems characterized by small

parcels also make some forms of commercial

development unlikely. Small farm size, however, does not constrain subsistence agriculture development and some forms of smallholder commercial agriculture.

Additional major constraints for modern agriculture development in the U.S. Pacific islands

are limited arable land areas and low soil fertility. Limited fresh water on low islands and

on semiarid regions of islands is constraining

to conventional cropping methods. Environmental factors such as droughts and typhoons,

and constant threat of pest and disease outbreaks are serious problems for agriculture.

Furthermore, costly and irregular transportation services, poor storage facilities, and small

markets on U.S.-affiliated islands compound

the problems.

Universally high energy costs and expensive

imported goods and supplies make application

of energy-intensive commercial agricultural

technologies

ical islands.

uneconomical for most small tropThis is especially true for adoption of typical U.S. mainland field cropping

technologies which is based on a temperate climate, scarce and expensive labor, large-scale

and highly mechanized operations, and abundant land.

Availability of high-paying government jobs

and generous U.S. social support programs,

make it difficult to find skilled farm workers

at reasonable wages. For some islands, strong

traditional social support and extended family

welfare systems tend to hinder motivation

toward working in low-paying “unprestigious”

agriculture jobs or entering into risky commercial agricultural enterprises. Low labor productivity together with application of inefficient

agricultural technologies make commercial

farming uneconomical.

In U.S. Pacific islands, modern commercial

agriculture development is further complicated

by the heavy influence of traditional customs.

Many islanders are caught between their own

aspirations for higher levels of material living,

which they hope to attain through commercial

development, and the demand for observing

customary kinship and family practices. Commercial agriculture often requires regular and

long periods of work, prescribed schedules, and

also accurate accounting of expenditures and

income, Yet, demands to meet customary obligations to share with relatives are difficult to

ignore, especially when farmers are dependent

on regular reciprocal assistance. Under this system commercial enterprises are likely to operate under suboptimal conditions.
208 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Opportunities

Despite these constraints, most islands have

conditions that are conducive to development

of certain types of crops, livestock, or “agricultural packages” (a combination of resources

and methods that is productive and can be applied profitably at an acceptably low economic

risk) for development.

Sustainable agriculture technologies maximize the use of abundant (inexpensive) or

renewable resources and minimize the use of

scarce (expensive) or nonrenewable resources.

For the technologies to be readily adopted, they

should maximize output per unit input of the

scarcest resource. For example, if labor is expensive or scarce, labor productivity should be

increased (e.g., by use of labor-saving equipment); if land is the most limiting factor, land

yields should be increased through the use of

intensive practices. Similarly, if water is scarce,

water use efficiency should be increased through

water management practices such as drip irrigation systems or hydroponics.

Technology packages should also be tailored

to the local ecological, climatic, and sociocultural conditions. Characteristics of crops

that generally are appropriate to U.S. island

conditions include crops that: 1) are resistant

to pests, diseases, and weeds; 2) thrive in poor

soils; 3) require little or no irrigation; 4) require

relatively little nonrenewable agricultural inputs; 5) require relatively little labor; and 6) produce high yields (48]. Crops should recover rapidly or suffer minimal damage from occasional

adverse weather conditions such as cyclonic

storms and droughts. For export, crops should

be high quality, high value, low weight and bulk,

or have a long shelf life. Characteristics of livestock appropriate to tropical islands include

those that are resistant to diseases, pests, and

parasites; that thrive on poor feed and forage;

require little care; and that can adapt to variable weather conditions.

Few or no crops or livestock are so ideal as

to fulfill each of these requirements. However,

these desired characteristics can serve as objectives in crop, cultivar, and livestock choices.

Because conditions vary among and within islands, ranking of objectives must be made on

a case-by-case basis.

Some intensive, high-yielding farming systems are suitable for the larger islands. However, for the most part, agriculture systems on

smaller and more remote U.S.-affiliated islands

systems should be simple and nearly selfsustaining, including:

●

●

●

●

systems that use minimal mechanization,

thus avoiding expensive repairs, spare

parts, and fossil fuel imports. Where

mechanization is required, use of smallscale or simple equipment should be developed;

systems which require little skilled labor,

but which generate employment;

systems that maximixe use of local renewable resources and minimize use of nonrenewable resources; and

systems which maintain the productivity

of local and “downstream” environments.

Agricultural Development

Great diversity in agriculture systems is likely

to persist on U.S.-affiliated islands. While opportunities for large-scale farming may be exploited by outside investors willing to bear the

high risks for the potentially high returns associated with a successful export commodity, development of smallholder agriculture provides

a greater likelihood of success and breadth of

benefit distribution. Compared with large-scale

farming, the benefits associated with smallholder agricultural development include:

●

●

●

●

●

●

less risk of adverse impacts on traditional

social systems (especially for U.S. Pacific

islands);

less dependence on foreign capital;

larger employment-generating effects;

broader distribution of increased farm

income;

greater compatibility with island ecological conditions;

less dependence on imported production

inputs;
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 209

●

●

more widespread nutritional benefits; and

potentially greater agricultural stability resulting from greater agricultural diversification (43).

Common characteristics of smallholder farming systems include the relatively modest acreage requirements per operation, heavy reliance

on family rather than hired labor, and significantly lower capital requirements per operation compared with large-scale agriculture.

Also, a strategy which is likely to emphasize

import substitution (at least in the early stages

of development) probably is more likely to succeed and be less costly than attempting to promote large-scale export-oriented farming (43).

POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Improve

Research and Extension Services

In order to accelerate agriculture development, research programs need to be directed

to specific goals clearly relevant to island development. Although the need for research is

widely recognized, the capacity of most U.S.

Pacific island institutions is limited. Furthermore, effective research is hampered by inadequate or unavailable baseline data and skilled

research staff. Levels of research needed for

agriculture development include (48):

●

●

●

●

operational research at the farm level to

increase productivity and profitability of

farm operations through monitoring and

experimentation in farms;

field trials at field experimental stations for

testing new varieties, fertilizers, pest management, and new technologies;

strategic research on broad agricultural development issues affecting many areas, including social and economic issues; and

basic research on agriculture problems

with no predetermined practical application in mind.

The on-farm operational research and field

trials are best done onsite at each island institution. However, since the capacity of small island institutions to support complex research

is limited, basic and strategic research maybe

more effectively conducted at large institutions

(48) such as the University of Hawaii or the

University of Puerto Rico. Although agriculture research has been conducted in the U.S.

Pacific islands, many research activities are not

designed to apply directly to the development

needs of the islands. Further, research results

are commonly not presented in a format usable

for development planners or decisionmakers.

Although island governments should focus

on research that is critical to their special local needs, this should be supplemented by taking advantage of research done at similar institutions at neighboring islands. Research

performed by the South Pacific Commission,

Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute, and other regional research institutions may provide useful information (48,

87). It would be to the advantage of small island governments to establish cooperative relationships with international research institutions or major universities who can help broad

strategic and basic research (48). Integrated development planning of island renewable resources cannot be effectively achieved because

research and planning of renewable resources

are not well coordinated in island polities (87),

After appropriate technology and strategy

have been formulated for implementation, extension agents communicate this information

to the farmers. Ideally, extension agents should

be supported by an extension station with

skilled professional staff in various fields. Although this condition may exist on large, welldeveloped islands, provision of agriculture extension services to the widely scattered farmers

on U.S. Pacific islands is extremely difficult

(48]. Lack of trained and motivated extension

staff or the wrong kinds of extension agents

may hinder effective communication with

farmers. In some areas (e.g., Yap and Palau)

where subsistence farmers are women, male

extension agents are ineffective because it is

considered inappropriate for men to teach

women. In such situations, female extension

agents would be more effective and appropriate to convey information to farmers (48).

Although extension services in Puerto Rico

and the USVI are relatively well developed,
210 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

transfer of modern technologies to Puerto

Rico’s farmers remains slow. This may be due

to the relatively small size of the agriculture

sector and scattered geographical location of

farmers, and also because extension workers

rarely have appropriate prior experience with

modern technologies to guide farmers (61).

Research knowledge in certain areas (e.g.,

semiarid agriculture in Puerto Rico) lags significantly behind commercial practice. Generally, the agriculture experiment stations have

made little or no effort to incorporate the results of commercial experience in their technology packages. Furthermore, existing links

between research and extension, and the present level of funding are inadequate to address

the magnitude of the problems which exist in

the U.S. Caribbean islands (61). If research is

to be effective, the gap of knowledge between

researchers and commercial farmers must also

be closed.

One of the ways of overcoming this problem

is to conduct on-farm agronomic research trials.

On-farm research provides documentary evidence of the nature and magnitude of biological, technical, economic, and social constraints.

Moreover, on-farm research can provide baseline data for extrapolation to other farms where

conditions are similar. Finally, on-farm trials

make the process of research and development

more understandable and accessible to other

farmers, decisionmakers, and service organizations.

POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Improve

Education in Agriculture

Apart from agriculture extension services, a

need also exists for education and training programs for future farmers on most islands. On

U.S. Pacific islands, agricultural education is

inadequate. Two schools in Pohnpei offer agricultural education, three island institutions offer programs at the junior college level (Palau,

CNMI, and American Samoa), and the University of Guam offers college-level courses. In the

U.S. Caribbean islands, agricultural education

programs and facilities are adequate. However,

strong negative attitudes toward agricultural

trade hampers participation of people in agriculture development, especially among the

youth. Students also commonly lack hands-on

experience with farming.

Although agricultural education programs exist, improvement is needed to enhance their effectiveness, particularly for the less-developed

islands. In general, constraints to agricultural

education in the U.S.-affiliated islands stem

from lack of funding, qualified teachers, and

of interest on the part of students due, in part,

to the status attached to high-paying jobs with

the government (app. F). Agricultural education effectiveness could be achieved through

improving education in general, providing

training for farmers, and providing public education programs.

Opportuntiy: Improve Education

in General

All island areas have public education systems which can accommodate nearly all school

age children through the secondary level. However, the educational programs generally do not

prepare the students to fill employment needs

for island development such as agriculture.

Generally, emphasis has been on academic pursuits or preparation for white-collar employment. This has led to outmigration of highschool graduates and persistent shortages of

manpower in agriculture trades and other such

occupations. Interest in agricultural occupations might be enhanced if ecology and agriculture courses or on-farm training were

offered at all educational levels.

Opportunity: Provide Training

for Farmers

Low educational levels of most farmers may

pose a problem. In this case, education and

training can be presented through nonwritten

communication methods with audio-visual

aids. Effective education and training may be

accomplished by using local examples and by

showing rather than telling. Workshops and onthe-job practical training for farmers may also

bean effective way to convey information. Involvement of farm organizations in agricultural
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 211

development programs may enhance farmers’

awareness of new agricultural programs and

activities (48).

Opportunity: Provide Public

Education Programs

Public awareness campaigns through the media or agricultural fairs may also be an effective way to convey the importance of the agriculture sector to the general public, and to

counter the general negative attitude young people have toward farming as a trade. Agricultural fairs also can serve to introduce new crops

or new products to the public and a means of

testing public acceptance. The U.S. Virgin Islands holds an annual agriculture and food fair

on the two larger islands, St. Croix and St.

Thomas (153).

Photo credit: USFS-ITF

Youth conservation worker programs can introduce local people to basic principles of ecology and help strengthen

environmental understanding while providing needed labor for such programs as reforestation and protected area

management. Here, Young American Conservation Crops enrollees plant mahogany in a Puerto Rican public forest.
212 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

CHAPTER 6 REFERENCES

1. Ahmed, S., and Grainge, M., “Potential of the

Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica) for Pest Control and Rural Development,” Economic 130tany 40(2):201-209, 1986.

2. Alexander, A. G., “Assessment of Energy-Integrated Farming Technologies for U.S. Insular

Areas,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

3. Altieri, M,, and Letourneau, D., “Vegetation

Diversity and Insect Pest Outbreaks,” Critical

Reviews in Plant Sciences 2(2):131-169, 1984.

In: Vargo, 1986.

4. American Samoa Economic Development and

Planning Office, Statistica]l?zd]etin 1984, Government of American Samoa, 1984. In: Lucas,

1986; Vargo, 1986.

5. Barnaby J. W., and Busch, R. L., “Tropical Production of Tilapia and Tomatoes in a SmallScale Recirculating Water System, ” Aquiculture 41:271-283, 1984. In: Morris and Pool,

1986.

6, Bassett, C.A. “Arid West Trying Drip Irrigation,” New York Times, June 3, 1983.

7. Buck, M., Resource Evaluation Forester, Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife, personal communication, September 1986.

8. Calero, R., et al., “Estudio Socioeconomic del

Programa de Fincas Individuals del Titulo VI

de la Ley de Tierras,” Estacion Experimental

Agricultural, University of Puerto Rico, Boletin 236, 1974. In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986.

9. Caro-Costas, R., “Assessment of Livestock Production Technologies in the U.S.-Affiliated

Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

10. Castillo-Barahona, F., and Bhatia, M. S.,

“Assessment of Agriculture Production Technologies in Puerto Rico, ” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

11. Childers, N, F., et.al., “Bay Oil Production in

Puerto Rico,” USDA Agricultural Experimental Station, Circular No. 30, 1948. In: Pool,

1986.

12. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Planning and Budget Office, Overall

Economic Development Strategy 1984, 1984.

In: Lucas, 1986.

13. Connell, J., University of Sydney Department

of Geography, personal communication, September 1986.

14. Decision Analysts Hawaii, Inc., Agriculture,

Municipal and Industrial Water Demand and

Benefit Parameters on Guam, prepared for the

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean

Division, 1983. In.’ Lucas, 1986.

15. Diaz-Soltero, H., and Oxman, B., “Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Development and Management in Puerto Rico

and the U.S. Virgin Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

16. Dillingham, E. “Agriculture Development

Needs and Opportunities in the U.S. Virgin Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

17. Dorschner, C., “Soap Sprays Can Control Pests

Safely,” Nationa] Gardening 9(6):20-22, 1986.

18. Eldredge, L., “Case Studies of the Impacts of

Introduced Animal Species on Renewable Resources in the U. S,-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

19, Elliott, L. F., and Papendick, R. I., “Crop Residue Management for Improved Soil Productivity,” Biological Agriculture and Horticulture

3(2/3):131-142, 1986.

20. Falanruw, M. V. C., Director, Yap Institute of

Natural Sciences, personal communication,

July 1986.

21. Falanruw, M. V. C., “On the Status, Reproductive Biology, and Management of Fruit Bats of

Yap,” Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (in

press).

22. Falanruw, M. V. C., “Traditional Agriculture/

Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

23, Falanruw, M. V. C., “People Pressure, Management of Limited Resources on Yap, ” prepared

for the World National Parks Congress, Bali,

October, 1982 (appendix to Falanruw, 1986).

24. Falanruw, M, V. C., “Marine Impacts of LandBased Activities in the Trust Territory of the

Pacific Islands,” presented at a seminar on Marine and Coastal Processes in the Pacific: Ecological Aspects of Coastal Zone Management,

Motupore Island Research Centre, University

of Papua New Guinea, UNESCO, July 14-17,

1980, In: Falanruw, 1986.

25. Falanruw, S., Director, Yap Department of Resources and Development, personal communication, July 1986,

26. Federated States of Micronesia, National Plan

Task Force, First National Development Plan,

1985-1989: Working Draft, Federated States of

Micronesia (unpublished draft), 1984. In:

Lucas, 1986,

27. Fosberg, R., Department of Botany, Smith-
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 213

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33,

34.

35,

36,

37

38,

39.

sonian Institution, personal communication,

September 1985.

Giusti, E. V., “Water Resources of the Juana

Diaz Area, Puerto Rico: A Preliminary Appraisal, 1966,” Water Resources Bulletin, U.S.

Geological Survey, Water Resources Division,

San Juan, 1968. In: Morris and Pool, 1986.

Glenn, M., “An Analysis of Black Pepper Production in Ponape,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Goldsmith, W. W., and Vietorisz, T., “A New

Development Strategy for Puerto Rico: Technological Autonomy, Human Resources, A

Parallel Economy, ” Program on International

Studies on Planning, Cornell University, Ithaca,

NY, January 1978.

Gonzalez-Villafane, E., et al,, “Analysis Economico de 151 Fincas Establecidas a Traves

de la Administration de la Explotacion Economica de Fincas de Cafe con un Area Total

de 200 Cuerdas o Mas,” Estacion Experimental

Agricultural, University of Puerto Rico, Pub.

74, 1972. In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986,

Goyal, M.R. “Annual Report No. 3, 1983-1984

Trickle Irrigation in Humid Regions, Puerto

Rico,” University of Puerto Rico Agricultural

Experiment Station, 1984. In: Morris and Pool,

1986.

Gruelach, V. A., Botany Made Simple (Garden

City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1968). In: Raynor,

1986.

Guerrero, N. M., “Natural Resources in the

Northern Mariana Islands: A wealth of Underdeveloped Potential,” Proceedings of the Year

of the Pacific, Saipan, 1983, pp. 48-56.

Hagenmaier, R. D., Coconut Aqueous Processing (Cebu City, Philippines: San Carlos Publications, University of San Carlos, 1980). In:

Poison, 1986,

Hanes, R,, Senior Vice-President, Specialty

Brands Inc., personal communication, September 1985.

Hill, M. T., “A Preliminary Assessment of the

Economic Situation of Puerto Rico’s Agriculture,” Puerto Rico Business Review, special

supplement, 8(5):1-17, May 1983.

Hydeman, M., and Raynor, B., “Research on

Solar Drying of Black Pepper at PATS,” PATS

Agri-Industria] Bulletin, Ponape Agriculture

and Trade School, Pohnpei, Federated States

of Micronesia, May 1986.

Jackson, G., Director, Kosrae State Department

of Conservation and Development, personal

communication. SeDtember 1986.

40, Johannes, R., “The Role of Marine Resource

Tenure Systems (TURFS) in Sustainable Nearshore Marine Resource Development and

Management in U, S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

41. Klee, G., “Oceania,” World Systems of Traditional Resource Management, G. Klee (cd.)

[New York, NY: V.H. Winston& Sons and Edward Arnold Publishers, 1980), pp. 245-285.

42. Lopez-Real, J. M., “Sustainable Agriculture: the

Microbial Potential — the Microbiologist’s

Challenge,” Biological Agriculture and Horticuhure 3(2/3):143-152, 1986.

43. Lucas, R. L., “Role of Smallholder in Agriculture Development in the U, S.-Affiliated Pacific

Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986,

44, Lynch, J, M., “Rhizosphere Microbiology and

Its Manipulation,” Biological Agriculture and

Horticulture 3(2/3):143-152, 1986.

45, Manner, H., University of Guam Department

of Anthropology and Geography, personal

communication, September 1986.

46. Mark, S. M., Development of the Agricultural

Sector in the American-Affiliated Pacific Islands, Hawaii Institute of Tropical Agriculture

and Human Resources, University of Hawaii,

1982.

47. Mark. S. M., and Lucas, R, L., “The Pohnpei

48,

49,

50(

Agricultural Development Plan, ” Pohnpei

State Economic Development Authority, December 1984 (unpublished). In: Lucas, 1986.

Mark, S. M., and Plasch, B. S., Strategy Outline

for Accelerated Agricultllre Development of

American-A ffi”liated Pacific Islands, Hawaii Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, 1982.

Marshall Islands Office of Planning and Statistics, “First Five Year Development Plan

1985-1990: The Initial Phase of a Fifteen Year

Development Program,” (unpublished document), Republic of the Marshall Islands, 1984.

Martin, F, W., and Ruberte, R. M., Growing

Food in Containers in the Tropics, U.S. Depar~-

ment of Agriculture, Agriculture Research

(Southern Region), Science and Education

Administration, Agricultural Reviews and

Manuals, ARM-S-13, New Orleans, LA, January 1981.

51. Martin, F, W., and Ruberte, R. M., Techniques

and Plants for the Tropical Subsistence Farm,

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Science and

Education Administration, Agricultural Reviews and Manuals, ARM-S-8, New Orleans,

LA, July 1980.
214 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

52.

53.

54.

55.

56,

578

58.

59.

60.

61.

Matuszak, J. M., “Terracing in 1984–Building

Soil and Feeding Families,” Proceedings of the

Fourth Annual St. Thomas/St. John’s Agriculture Fair, sponsored by the St. Thomas and St.

Johns’ Farmers’ Association and the College

of the Virgin Islands Cooperative Extension

Service, 1984, pp. 7-8. In: Pool, 1986.

Mayo, H, M., “Report on Plant Relocation Survey and Agricultural History of the Palau Islands,” (Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Trust Territory of the

Pacific Islands, 1954).

McClymonds, N, E., and Diaz, J, R., “Water Resources of the Jobos Area, Puerto Rico, ” Water

Resources Bulletin, No. 13, U.S. Geological

Survey, Water Resources ,Division, San Juan,

Puerto Rico, 1972. In: Morris and Pool, 1986.

McCutcheon, M., “Reading the Taro Cards:

Explaining Agricultural Change in Palau, ”

FoodEnergy in Tropical Ecosystems, D.J. Cattle and K.H. Schwerin, (eds.) (New York, NY:

Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, 1985),

pp. 167-188.

McElroy, J. L,, Department of Business Administration and Economics, St. Mary’s College,

IN, personal communication, July 1986.

Miller, T., Vice President - Procurement,

McCormick & Co., Inc., personal communication, June 1986.

Mishra, M. M., and Bangar, K. C,, “Rock Phosphate Comporting: Transformation of Phosphorus Forms and Mechanisms of Solubilization, ” Biological Agriculture and Horticulture,

vol. 3, 1986, pp. 331-340.

Morris, G. L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal

communication, September 1986.

Morris, G. L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal

communication, February 1986.

Morris, G, L., and Pool, D. J., “Assessment of

Semiarid Agriculture Production Technologies

for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

62. Mosse, B., “Mycorrhi~ae in a Sustainable Agriculture, ” Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 3(2/3):191-209, 1986.

63, Muellm-Dombois, D., University of Hawaii,

Department of Botany, personal communication, July 1986.

64. Muler-Manzanares, L., and Santini, J. E., “Estudio Socioeconomic de 29 Fincas Individuals del Titulo W de ia Ley de Tierras Distribudas de 1967 a 1970,” Estacion Experimental

Agricultural, University of Puerto Rico, Boletin 241, 1976, In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986.

65,

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71,

72.

73.

74.

75.

Mumpton, F. A., “Using Zeolites in Agriculture, ” Innovative Biological Technologies for

Lesser Developed Countries U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-BP-F-29

(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

office, 1985).

Muniappan, R,, Associate Director, University

of Guam Agricultural Experiment Station, personal communication, January 1986,

Munoz-Roure, J. O,, Director, Caribbean Fishery Management Council, personal communication, September 1986.

Nafus, D., “Strengthening Plant Protection and

Root Crops Development in the South Pacific”

(Suva, Fiji: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in association with the South

Pacific Commission, 1985).

Nair, P. K. R., “Agroforestry With Coconuts and

Other Tropical Plantation Crops,” Plant Research and Agroforestry, P.A. Huxley (cd.)

(Nairobi, Kenya: International Council for Research in Agroforestry, 1983), pp. 79-102.

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Casuarina: Nitrogen-Fixing Trees for Adverse Sites

(VVashington, DC: National Academy Press,

1984).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Mangium and Other Fast-growing Acacias for the

Humid Tropics (Washington, DC: National

Academy Press, 1984).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Making

Aquatic Weeds Useful (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984),

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Food,

Fuel and Fertilizer From Organic Wastes

(Washington, DC: National Academy Press,

1981).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Tropical Legumes: Resources for the Future

(Washington, DC: National Academy Press,

1979).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Leu-
Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 215

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88,

89.

caena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the

Tropics (Washington, DC: National Academy

Press, 1977).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Underexploited Tropical Plants With Promising

Economic VaZue (Washington, DC: National

Academy Press, 1975),

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, The

Winged Bean: A High Protein Crop for the

Tropics (Washington, DC: National Academy

Press, 1975).

Ortiz-Daliot, J., Director, Puerto Rico Federal

Affairs Administration, personal communication, September 1986.

Owen, R., former Chief Conservationist of the

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, personal

communication, March 1985.

Pangelinan, M,, Executive Director, Saipan

Farmers Cooperative Association, personal

communication, July 1986.

Park, W. L., and Park, R. L., Potential Returns

From Sheep and Goat Enterprises, Virgin islands Experimental Station Report No.7, 1974.

In: caro-costas, 1986 .

Park, W. L., and Park, R. L., “Profitability of

Beef Production in St. Croix, ” U.S. Virgin Island Agriculture Experiment Station Report

No.3, 1974. In: Caro-Costas, 1986.

Parr, J, F., Papendick, R. I., and Colacicco, D.,

“Recycling of Organic Wastes for a Sustainable Agriculture, ” Biological Agriculture and

Horticulture 3(2-3):115-130, 1986.

Perry, J,, Resource Conservationist, U.S. Soil

Conservation Service, personal communication, September 1986.

Pimentel, D., and Levitan, L., “Pesticides:

Amount Applied and Amount Reaching Pests,”

Bioscience 36(2):86-91, 1986.

Poison, S., “The Marshall Islands Coconut industry: Prospects for Expansion and Developmerit, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Pool, D. J., “Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Development Potentials in U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

Przybyla, A. E., “America’s Passion for

Spices,” Food Engineering 58(6):70-71,74-

76,78, June 1986.

Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, “Anuario Estadisticas Agricolas de Puerto Rico, ”

90,

91!

92.

93,

94.

95.

96.

97

98.

99.

100

101(

102.

Department de Agriculture de Puerto Rico,

1982. In: Vicente-chandler, 1986,

Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, “Consumo de Alimentos en Puerto Rico 19!j0-1974, ”

Department de Agricultural de Puerto Rico,

Publication Especial, 1978, In: VicenteChandler, 1986.

Rakocy, J. E,, College of the Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station, personal communication, July 1985.

Rakocy, J. E., “A Recirculating System for Tilapia Culture and Vegetable Hydroponics in the

Caribbean,” paper presented at Auburn University Fisheries and Aquiculture Symposium,

Sept. 20-22, 1984. In: Morris and Pool, 1986. I

Raynor, W., Ponape Agriculture and Trade

School, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, personal communication, September 1985.

Raynor, W., “Commercial Crop Production

Technologies and Development Potentials for

The U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986,

Raynor, W., and Soumetaw, L., “Report on

PATS Ylang-ylang Project, ” PATS Agri-lndustrial Bulletin, Ponape Agriculture and Trade

School, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, February 1986,

Reynolds, S. G., “The Use of Local Resources

for Vegetable Production in south pacific, ”

Proceeding for Planning and Organization

Meeting: Fertilizer I.N.P. U. T, (Increase Productivity Under Tight SuppZies) Project (Honolulu, HA: Food Institute, East West Center,

1975), pp. 169-180.

Sam, C., Ponape Coconut Products, personal

communication, April 1985.

Sanchez-Nieva, F., “Assessment of Food Processing Technologies for U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper,

1986.

Schreiner, I., University of Guam Agricultural

Experiment Station, personal communication,

February 1986.

Sefanaia, S., et. al., “ A Review of Recent Research on Intercropping Under Coconut, ” Fiji

Agric. Journal 44(1):31-36, 1982.

Smith, R. M., and Abruna, F., “Soil and Water

Conservation Research in Puerto Rico, 1938-

1947, ” University of Puerto Rico Agriculture

Experimental Station Bulletin No. 1241955. In:

Vicente-Chandler, 1986.

Soucie, E. A., S. J., Atoll Agriculture for Secondary Schools (Pohnpei, FSM: PATS Education

Foundation of Micronesia, Inc., 1983).
216 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

103.

104.

105.

106.

107.

108,

109.

110.

1110

112.

113.

1140

Sproat, M. N., A Guide to Subsistence Agriculture in Micronesia, Agriculture Extension

Bulletin No. 9, Trust Territory of the Pacific

Islands Publications Office, Saipan, Northern

Mariana Islands, 1968. In: Falanruw, 1986; Poison, 1986; Raynor, 1986.

Sproat, M. N., “Coconut Varieties in Micronesia,” Agriculture Extension Circular No. 4, Division of Agriculture, Department of Resources

and Development, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Saipan, Marshall Islands, 1965.

In: Poison, 1986.

Sproat, M. N., and Migvar, L., TTP1 AgricuL

tural Development Operations TTPI Agricultural Extension Bulletin No. 1, January 1964,

In: Raynor, 1986.

Stella, C., and Olivieri, J. A., “Costos y Practicas para Elaborer el Carbin Vegetal en la Zone

Cafetalera de Puerto Rico 1952 -1953,” Boletin

124, Estacion Experimental Agricultural, University of Puerto Rico, 1954. In: Pool, 1986.

Sugiura, K. “Taro Culture of Palauans,” Geogr. Res. 1(8):1017-1035, 1942. In: Falanruw,

1986.

Szentkiralyi, M., ~’Assessment of Livestock

Production Technologies in Micronesia and

Feasibility Study for Locally Produced Pig

Feed on Ponape,” OTA commissioned paper,

1986,

Thaman, R, R., Pacific Islands’ Health and Nutrition: Trends and Areas for Action (Honolulu

HA: East-West Center, June 1985). In: Lucas,

1986.

Thaman, R. R,, “Deterioration of Traditional

Food Systems, Increasing Malnutrition and

Food Dependency in the Pacific Islands,” Journa] of Nutrition 39(3):109-121, 1982. In: Falanruw, 1986.

Thaman, R, R., “Food Scarcity, Food Dependency and Nutritional Deterioration in Small

Island Communities,” Proceedings of the I(lth

New Zealand Geographical Conference and

49th ANZAAS Conference, W, Moran, P.

Hosking, and G. Aitken (eds.) (Auckland, New

Zealand: N.Z. Geographical Society Conference Series No. 10, 1979), pp. 191-197. In:

Falanruw, 1986.

Toomey, G., “Agrogeology: Rocks in the Service of Soil,” IDRC Reports, July 1986, pp. 12-13.

Torres, E,, Director, Guam Department of Agriculture, personal communication, September

1986.

Tosi, J. A., Jr., “Forest Land Utilization in Western Puerto Rico, ” Ph.D dissertation, Clark

115.

116.

117,

118.

119,

120,

121,

122.

University (Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms Inc., 1959), In: Pool, 1986.

Trenbath, B. R,, “Biomass Productivity of Mixtures,” Advances in Agronomy 26:177, 1974.

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Office

of Planning and Statistics, “Consumption and

Production in the Traditional Sector of the

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands,” 1981,

pp. 102-116. In: Falanruw, 1986.

Tyson, G,, Caribbean historian, personal communication, July 1986.

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies to Maintain Biological

Diversity, OTA-F-330 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, March 1987).

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technology, Public Policy and the

Changing Structure of American Agriculture,

OTA-F-285 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1986).

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies to Benefi”t Agriculture and

Wildlife, OTA-BP-F-34 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, May 1985).

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC:

U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1984).

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Reforestation of Degraded Lands, Background Paper No, 1, OTA-BP-F-18 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, May

1983).

123. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Impact of Technology on U.S. Cropland

124<

125,

and Rangeland Productivity, OTA-F-166 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,

August 1982).

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Pest Management Strategies in Crop

Production, vol. 1, NTIS PB80-120-017 (Springfield, VA: National Technical Information

Service, October 1979).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the American

Samoa, February 1984.

126, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Island of Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia, March

1983.

127, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Islands of

Truk, Federated States of Micronesia, March

1983.
Ch. 6–Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry • 217

128.

129,

130.

131,

132,

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Islands of

Yap, Federated States of Micronesia, March

1983.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Island of

Palau, Republic of Palau, March 1983.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Island of

Ponape, Federated States of Micronesia, January 1982.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Economic

Study of Puerto Rico, 2 vols., report prepared

by the Interagency Task Force (Washington,

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979).

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census: 1982 Census of Agriculture: U.S.

Summary (Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office, 1984).

133. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Virgin Islands of the United States (Washington, DC:

U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983).

134. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Guam

(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office, 1983).

135. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Puerto

Rico (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983).

136, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of

Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: Northern

Mariana Islands (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981).

137. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: American

Samoa (Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office, 1981).

138. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of

Coastal Zone Management, American Samoa

Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, (Washington,

DC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1980).

139. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of

Coastal Zone Management, Puerto Rico

Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement (Washington, DC:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1978).

140. U.S. Department of State, Thirty-Seventh Annual Report to the United Nations on the

Administration of the Trust Territories of the

Pacific Islands, 1984. In: Lucas, 1986.

141.

142.

143,

144.

145.

146.

147,

148.

149.

150.

151,

152.

U.S. Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment

Station and Cooperative Extension Service,

1983-1984 Report of College of Virgin Island

Land Grant Programs St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, October 1985.

Vargo, A., “Economic Pests and Pest Management Technologies Suitable for U.S.-Affiliated

Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper,

1986.

Vicente-Chandler, J., “Assessment of Agricultural Production Technologies for U.S. Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper,

1986.

Vicente-Chandler, J. Conceptos, Plan y

Programa Para una Agricultural Moderna en

Puerto Rico, Special Report to the Secretary

of Agriculture of Puerto Rico, 1978. In: Pool,

1986; Caro-Costas, 1986; Morris and Pool,

1986.

Vicente-Chandler, J., et al., “Production y utilization intensiva de las Forrajeras en Puerto

Rico,” University of Puerto Rico Agriculture

Experimental Station Bulletin No. 271, 1983.

In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986; Caro-Costas, 1986.

Vicente-Chandler, J., and Figarella, J., “Experiments on Plantain Production with Conservation in the Mountain Region of Puerto Rico, ”

University of Puerto Rico Journal of Agriculture 46(3):226-236, 1962. In: Vicente-Chandler,

1986.

Vicente-Chandler, J., Irrizary, H., and Llorens,

A. A,, “Costos e Ingresos en la Production Intensive de Platanos en la Region Montanosa

de Puerto Rico, ” Estacion Experimental Agricultural, Publication No. 137, 1980. In: VicenteChandler, 1986.

Vickers, M. E. H., “The Cultivation of Taro Cyrtosperma chammissonis Schott.,” Taro Cultivation in the Pacifi”c M. Lambert (cd.), Noumea,

New Caledonia, South Pacific Commission

Technical Bulletin No. 22, 1982, pp. 90-97.

West, N, E., “Desertification or Verification?”

Nature 321(5):562 June 1986.

Wiens, H. J., Atoll Environment and Ecology”

(Brookhaven, NH: Yale University Press, 1965).

Wijewardene R., and Waidyanatha, P., Conservation Farming: Systems, Technologies, and

Tools, Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka

and the Commonwealth Consultative Group on

Agriculture in the Asia-Pacific Region, 1984.

In: Raynor, 1986; Vargo, 1986.

Wilkens, G. C,, “Role of Traditional Agriculture

in Preserving Biological Diversity, ” OTA commissioned paper for assessment of Technologies to Maintain Biological Diversity, OTA-F-
218 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

330 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1987),

153. Williams, P., USVI Commissioner of Agriculture, personal communication, November

1986.

154. World Development Forum, “Dripping Fertilizer, ” World Development Forum 4(2):4, January 1986.

155. Wortman, S., To Feed This World (Baltimore

MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press,

1984). In: Stiles, 1986,

156. Youdeowei, A., and Service, M. W., “Pest and

Vector Management in the Tropics” (New

York, NY: Longman Inc., 1983). In: Vargo,

1986.

157. Zapata, J. Z., et al., “El Mercado de Trabajo en

la Agricultural y las Caracteristicas SocioEconomicas do 10S Obreros Agricola en Puerto

Rico, ” Agricultural Experiment Station, October 1983. In: Castillo-Barahona and Bhatia,

1986,
Chapter 7

Management of

Aquatic Resources:

Nearshore Fisheries

and Aquaculture
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................221

Common Uses of Aquatic Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221

Ecology of Coastal and Nearshore Habitats . ........................,222

History and Present Status of Resource Use . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............225

Common Constraints to Fisheries and Aquiculture Development . ....,...230

Constraints to Nearshore Fisheries Development . .....................230

Constraints to Aquiculture Development . . . . . . . . . . . . .................232

Other Constraints to Marine Resource Development . ..................233

Common Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........,...235

Expanded Use of Underexploited or Migratory Species . ...............235

Collecting and Gathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., ..........235

Aquiculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................236

Potential Strategies for Nearshore Fisheries Development in

U.S.-Affiliated Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............237

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................237

Potential Strategy: Increase Fishery Exploitation Efficiency . ...........237

Potential Strategy: Increase Support for Subsistence and Small-Scale

Commercial Fisheries Aimed at Underutilized Stocks . ...............238

Potential Strategy: Develop Large-Scale Fisheries Aimed at

Migrating Pelagics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................240

Potential Strategy: Manage Nearshore Fisheries for Sustained Yields ....240

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...248

Potential Strategies for Aquiculture Development. . . . . ..................249

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................249

Potential Strategy: Develop Sea Ranching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...251

Potential Strategy: Develop Extensive Culture unnatural Waters . .......251

Potential Strategy: Culture of Marine Fish in Enclosures. . .............253

Potential Strategy: Pond Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....254

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......257

Summary of Marine Resource Status and Potential Resource

Management Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..259

Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................260

Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................263

Regional Coordination and Cooperation . ............................264

Chapter 7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................265

B o x

Box Page

7-A. Culture of Tridacnid Clams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Chapter 7

Management of Aquatic Resources:

Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture

INTRODUCTION

Common Uses of Aquatic Species

Since prehistoric times, coastal and insular

cultures have harvested tropical aquatic organisms for a wide range of utilitarian, symbolic,

and ornamental functions. The sea was traditionally and chiefly important as a source of

food; it was estimated to supply, 90 percent of

the Pacific islanders’ animal protein (81). Fishing was an integral part of traditional high island socioeconomy and essential to life on

atolls. Today, as in the past, consumption of

large quantities of marine organisms, including finfish, algae, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, and turtles is essential to life throughout the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands.

Nonfood resources of the marine environment were traditionally used as fuel; currency;

ornaments; weapons; medicinal; religious,

magic, and funerary symbols; and construction

materials for dwellings, roads, and vessels. Contemporary nonfood uses also include a range

of biomedically and industrially important compounds, including pharmaceuticals and hydrocarbons (48,49,114). Harvesting technologies

range from use of simple dugout canoes to deepdiving, manned submersibles.

The shells of marine mollusks have been valued as ornamental objects since prehistoric

times. Various cultures and societies have attributed powers of magic, religion, and virility

to shells and valued them as currency and

curios (1,38). Shells were also harvested as raw

materials for the manufacture of tools, utensils, weapons, and ornaments. Turtle shells

were used in the manufacture of fishhooks and

other items (106). Pearl shell (mother-of-pearl)

was one of the most important raw materials

for the manufacture of fishing tackle in traditional systems. Hooks and lures were made

from the nacre of several families of gastropod

and bivalves, particularly Pteriidae. Mother-ofpearl was also harvested for use in producing

ornamental items, and was highly prized on the

European market for jewelry, buttons, and

other ornamental objects. Today, souvenir hunters purchase shellcraft at resorts throughout

the world.

221
—

222 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Precious corals have been highly treasured

for millennia. Approximately 95 percent of the

world harvest has come from the Pacific. The

skeletons of precious corals (including Corallium, Gerardia, Lepidisis, Acanella, and Antipathes) are hard and dense enough to be

polished to a high luster suitable for jewelry

manufacture. Stony corals (Scleractinia), although too porous to be polished for jewelry,

are sold as curios and decorations in many parts

of the world (85) and used industrially for building materials and lime production (172). Similarly, the large amount of calcium carbonate

contained in mollusk shells has given them a

number of industrial uses, primarily as constituents of fine pottery glazes, toothpaste, and

poultry food (171).

Marine plants or seaweeds are used for human and livestock food, fertilizer, soil conditioners, and as a raw material for various

chemicals. Many marine organisms produce

compounds that are pharmaceutically active.

Extracts from brown algae have been used as

hypotensive drugs in oriental medicine for centuries (10). Neurotoxins from other algae are

being studied for their potential as anesthetics

(34). Certain marine algae produce polysaccharide thickening agents (phycocolloids) used as

additives in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,

paints, and ink.

A variety of biological and inanimate resources are harvested from coastal waters for

uses as either construction materials (sand and

limestone), fuel for biomass conversion (algae),

building materials (mangrove species, coral) or

food and artifacts. Several mollusks are harvested for shells in the Caribbean including

conchs, helmets, volutes, cones, tritons, spiny

oysters, and scallops. Many tropical fish are

harvested for sale in the aquarium and curio

trade. Colorful fish from coral reefs are prized

by aquarium hobbyists around the world. Several exotic species from the Pacific command

high prices. Pufferfish, for example, are killed,

inflated, varnished and mounted for sale in

curio shops locally or on the U.S. mainland.

In addition to providing an important source

of food and other products, nearshore marine

resources are a vital part of the tourist industry: coastal environments (beaches, sheltered

lagoons, coral reefs) are among the islands’ primary attractions.

Ecology of Coastal and

Nearshore Habitats

The biological complexity and variability of

tropical nearshore environments are exceeded

only, perhaps, by tropical rain forests (168). Taxonomic composition, overall community structure, topography, and oceanographic conditions vary widely within and among islands,

even over short distances (60). Nevertheless,

nearshore ecosystems in the islands commonly

comprise three distinct, but intimately interdependent habitats: mangrove forests, coral

reefs, and seagrass meadows and unconsolidated sand or mud bottoms (60,139,159). Some

atolls, however, may not support mangroves

or seagrass beds (99). The ecological and economic importance of these habitats extends beyond the particular exploitable species within

them.

Corals and Coral Reefs

Corals and coral reefs are a dominant

shallow-water feature of tropical marine environments that are remote from major upwellings or freshwater inflows (118). Broadly defined, a coral reef is comprised of both the

physical structure formed from calcareous secretions of corals and other marine organisms.

Large coral colonies may contain tens of thousands of individual polyps, and reefs can be

hundreds or thousands of years old. It is the

carbonate skeletons of these shallow water marine organisms that form the massive reef structures protecting coastlines and creating habitats

for the associated biota (168).

Coral reef ecosystems are productive biologically and geologically. An active reef can build

islands such as the Micronesia atolls, and

erode by wave action to create sand deposits

and beaches. If the reef-building processes are

disturbed, however, erosion will dominate and

the reef will deteriorate (35).

Reef fisheries are considered highly productive, yielding up to 65 tons of biomass per
—

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture “ 223

Photo credit: C. Wah/e

The coral reef ecosystem is comprised of the physical

coral structure and an array of other marine species.

Interaction among these reef community members

gives rise to the high biological productivity

associated with coral reefs.

square mile per year in American Samoa (170).

Average yields of coral reef fisheries are estimated at nearly 43 tons of biomass per square

mile per year at depths less than 100 feet (99).

The high biological productivity is maintained

by efficient retention and recycling of ecosystem nutrients (35).

Coral reefs serve at least three functions of

profound economic importance. The physical

structures serve as barriers to storm waves and

debris, are an important tourism attraction, and

create complex habitats for a variety of economically important organisms. A species that

contributes measurably to the trophic structure

and energy flow of the reef ecosystem can be

considered a member of the reef community.

Species that feed in adjacent areas (e.g., seagrass meadows) but shelter in or on reefs and

thereby transfer energy to the reef system also

are considered part of the reef community. Secondary consumers which prey on reef animals

but move to other areas when not feeding are

part of the reef system as well (118).

included under this definition of the fishery.

Commonly harvested reef components include

hard corals, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms (e.g., sea urchins), fish, and marine

plants. The dietary preferences and economic

desires of the fishing communities thus define

the nature of the fishery (118).

Representatives of virtually every major animal and plant group are associated with coral

reefs and, in many cases, are exploited (168).

For example, as many as 500 fish species are

found in coral reef areas of Kosrae, some 200

of which are harvested for consumption; at least

300 fish species are found in Puerto Rican reef

areas, of which 180 are harvested for human

consumption (56,61). Also, many reef-dwelling

animals are preyed on by migrating and pelagic

fish which constitute a major portion of worldwide commercial fisheries.

Mangrove Forests

Mangrove forests consist of salt-resistant

trees with stilt roots or pneumatophores growing in the intertidal range along ocean shores

or estuaries (35). Mangroves are an integral

component of coastal ecosystems and fulfill

Coral reef fisheries include activities at a commercial, subsistence, or recreational level,

which exploit aquatic organisms associated

with hermatypic (reef-building) corals. Thus,

all edible, marketable or otherwise “useful”

components of the coral reef community are
224 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

many fundamentally important functions in island ecology and economy (159).

Mangroves supply wood and other forest

products on some islands and contribute to the

productivity of lagoons and reefs. As prop roots

develop and spread, they trap and stabilize terrigenous sediment, building land and protecting reefs and lagoons from agricultural and

urban pollution. Like coral reefs, mangrove

forests protect coasts from storm damage; support an extremely diverse and ecologically important community of marine plants, invertebrates, and seabirds; and provide shelter and

nursery for a range of commercially important

fish. Mangrove detritus provides an important

nutrient base for food webs leading to commercially important food fish and invertebrates,

and augments the growth of adjacent seagrass

and coral reef communities (168).

If mangrove forests are carefully managed,

they can sustain a high fisheries output and

some limited forestry production. Mangroves

are harvested in the U.S. Caribbean and Pacific

islands for fuel and building materials. However, they have been removed in many areas,

often to gain access to sites used for sand mining; navigation channels; waste dumping; and

the construction of buildings, docks, and marinas (35).

Storms may damage mangroves, although

they tend to regenerate quickly. Humaninduced stress can, however, be disastrous.

Mangroves are often killed by changes in land

runoff or water circulation which alter the salinity balance. Oil pollution, as in postwar Truk

lagoon, can degrade mangrove areas for years.

Stressed mangroves will drop their leaves and

may die if stress is not alleviated. If conditions

permit seedling reestablishment, the forest can

regenerate in 10 to 15 years (35,47)0

Seagrass Meadows

Seagrass meadows and mud bottoms within

lagoons and between the shore and reef crest

serve many crucial ecological functions of direct and indirect economic importance to insular peoples. Although the seagrass itself is

of little intrinsic economic value (except perhaps as soil amendments on some islands), the

associated sand, coral rubble, fish, and invertebrates commonly are harvested for materials and food throughout the U.S. tropical islands

(168).

The sand and mud bottoms on which seagrass

beds form create habitat for many burrowing

and benthic organisms. The leaves and interwoven roots provide extensive shelter for small

organisms and grazing surfaces for a variety

of species. Many species migrate to and from

seagrasses either daily or at a fixed stage during their lifecycle. For example, although many

food fish live and are harvested in the coral reef

areas as adults, they pass the critical larval and

juvenile phases in the protection of seagrass

meadows (168). Seagrass beds provide additional feeding areas for species on nearby reefs,

and the variety of fish tends to be higher on

reefs close to these habitats (61).

Seagrasses promote settlement and consolidation of sandy sediments, thus helping to prevent coastal erosion. They accumulate sand on

which mangroves further consolidate the land

(168). To some extent they can absorb organic

wastes and sediment. However, heavy sedimentation can cut off light to bottom communities

and eventually smother them. Seagrasses are

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Seagrass meadows are an integral part of the island

nearshore ecosystem. Like mangroves, seagrasses

may enhance nearshore fishery potential by providing

habitat and organic matter, and contributing to

stabilization of bottom sediments.
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 225

particularly vulnerable to dredging and to anchor and propeller damage; holes cut in the bed

may take years to regenerate (35,153). Under

natural conditions, it takes from 6 to 100 years

for a seagrass bed to recover from a stress once

impact has ceased (153).

The mangrove, seagrass meadow, and coral

reef ecosystems commonly are adjacent and

mutually interactive. Mangroves, for example,

trap sediment from terrestrial runoff that can

be highly detrimental to coral reefs and seagrass

beds. Similarly, coral reefs function as breakwaters, protecting seagrass beds and mangroves from the full impact of sea waves. Moreover, a number of animals of subsistence and

commercial importance migrate among these

ecosystems during their lifecycles (35).

History and Present Status of

Resource Use

Pacific

Despite low nutrient levels common to tropical oceans, the nearshore marine ecosystems

of Micronesia are among the most productive

in the world (119). Since the arrival of the first

inhabitants of the Pacific islands some 3,000

years ago, the marine environment has supplied

most of the food of the islanders as well as many

material needs. (See Lal (97) for an extensive

list of nonfood products.) Subsistence harvests

continue to make a major contribution to the

standard of living even in the most urbanized

islands. Given the limited land mass of the islands, the oceans will continue to play a significant role in economic development.

Pacific islanders have traditionally relied on

the resources of nearshore waters; fishing and

gleaning of shallow water benthic invertebrates

from the reef have been the primary means of

obtaining food from the sea. Traditional fishermen of all islands possessed precise knowledge

of fish behavior, food preferences, spawning

patterns, predator-prey relationships, and climatic and oceanographic influences (82,84,85).

Rich vocabularies for describing fishing and

maritime activities exist within the many languages spoken by Micronesians in the Carolines, Marshalls, Marianas, and by Polynesians

in American Samoa (20).

Seldom in traditional island economies was

fishing practiced for its recreational value

alone, although sport and competition was

sometimes involved, Skilled fishermen enjoyed

social prestige; fishing knowledge was handed

down through generations and was a form of

highly valued property not lightly shared. The

market system did not exist nor did monetary

profit motivate fishermen. Fish were distributed by complex systems of exchange and barter between and among extended families (76).

Today, most fish caught by Pacific island fishermen do not reach monetary markets (96,85,113),

Although the elaborate and diverse tradition

of fish cultivation reported to have existed in

the Hawaiian Islands (93,150) and Nauru (131)

apparently did not develop in this region, evidence of stone structures and fish pens suggest

some fish culture was practiced in the mangrove areas of Yap, in the lagoon at Pingelap,

and possibly near a mangrove area in Guam.

Natural coral reef productivity appears to be

more than sufficient in the aggregate to meet

the subsistence needs of island populations.

Regionwide generalization maybe inappropriate, however, because it fails to consider the

diversity of reef organisms and their dispersion

among widely scattered islands, as well as human population densities on certain islands.

On high volcanic islands, which normally

have abundant freshwater and other land-based

resources, fishing is usually combined with

agriculture. On low coral islands, which have

a paucity of freshwater and arable land, fishing may be the primary source of animal protein. Villages commonly are located on the lee

side of islands at sites with suitable access to

the sea, lagoon, and reef resources. A variety

of village activities may be based on the fishery, including boat building, repair, net and trap

making, processing, and distributing.

Despite great differences in language and culture among island populations, each group

evolved a distinctive set of traditions which reflect a keen awareness of local ecological rela-
226 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

tionships. Harvest, distribution patterns, and

customs differed, but often were designed with

resource conservation as one objective and

functioned as effective resource management

systems (81). The islanders traditionally practiced principles of property and use rights, resource ownership, and limited entry. Exploitation rights were carefully controlled by taboos

to ensure a sustained yield (87).

On Yap, for example, the right to fish nearshore waters was subdivided, with particular

families controlling reef flat areas and tracts

inside the reef. The Yapese considered these

sea resources along with associated land resources (i.e., taro patches, gardens, forests) as

a single unit. The highest ranked “Chief of the

Village” exercised ultimate control over nearshore waters. The second ranked “Chief of Fishing” led communal fishing in the open sea,

while the “Overseer of Fishing” directed communal fishing inside the lagoon (149). Some

areas were closed to fishing until fish populations returned to preharvest levels, and permitted fishing methods were carefully defined

for different social classes. For example, the

lowest ranked Yapese class owned no fishing

grounds, were allowed only the most primitive

fishing gear and were allowed to gather seafood only in streams and estuaries.

Magellan’s landfall at Guam in the 16th century marked the beginning of an era of European exploration and exploitation in the Pacific.

From the 17th through the 19th centuries,

Spain, England, and Germany exerted varying

degrees of influence on Micronesia. Iron was

introduced and quickly replaced natural products as the raw material for everything from

fishhooks to adzes. Traditional tenure systems

were modified or outlawed in favor of ownership, which frequently resulted in uncontrolled

abuse of resources (44,135). For the most part,

these nations were primarily concerned with

land-based resources, agriculture, and trade.

These colonial powers paid little commercial

attention to fisheries.

Important nonfood marine products in early

trade, however, were found in pearls and

mother-of-pearl from shells of the Pteriidae family. Small-scale, hand harvest of pearl shell began in Palau during the German administration. As merchants eagerly sought pearl and

mother-of-pearl for the European market, harvests were unmanaged and stocks were overexploited. By the 20th century, natural populations of pearl oysters were depleted throughout

their Pacific range (123). Exhaustion of pearl

oyster stocks led to a search for methods of improving productivity and for new nacre sources.

The commercial topshell Trochus niloticus

was found to produce nacre suitable for button

material. Japanese scientists successfully transplanted topshells in the Caroline and Mariana

Islands in the 1930s (6,7,8). Truk was the only

area that produced commercial harvest before

World War II suspended the fishery (108),

During the Japanese mandate, four Japanese

companies cultured pearl oysters in Palau, In

1938, these companies produced more of the

introduced gold-lipped pearl oyster, Pinctada

maxima, than any region in which natural populations of the species were exploited (115).

However, pearl oyster culture operations ended

as World War II moved into the Pacific.

Disrupted by war, harvest of pearls and

mother-of-pearl never regained its place of importance in island economies. The culture

methods developed by Japanese scientists in

Palau before the war were regarded as proprietary information. Without transfer of this technology to local inhabitants, natural stocks of

pearl shell were not sufficient to support the

industry.

In the more urbanized district centers and

ports, commercial exploitation of topshell resumed under U.S. Administration. Because the

war prevented commercial harvest, overexploited populations had recovered to some extent, and harvests were greater in the years following the war than they were just prior to its

outbreak (108). However, populations began to

decline again by the mid-1950s, leading to establishment of reef sanctuaries in which no harvest was permitted (109).

The topshell continues to be a major item of

export for several island groups (72). For example, Yap has an ongoing trochus seeding

project for the outer islands (162). Steady in-
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 227

Photo credit: M Vitarelli

Nonfood resources gathered from the islands’ nearshore waters continue to be important in island cultures and economies.

Shown here are Marshall Islands shell necklaces and tortoise shell and mother-of-pearl jewelry from Palau.

creases in market prices in the last decade have

resulted in the trochus harvest becoming an important sector of island economy. It is a principal source of subsistence income, especially

in remote areas, and as one of the few natural

product exports, it is an important source of

foreign exchange for island governments.

Good quality Corallium reportedly was harvested off the southern coast of Peleliu in Palau

and north of Pagan in the Marianas before

World War II (145). A temporary glut of precious corals depressed world markets after extensive new grounds were discovered near Midway in 1980 (63), However, the continued

decline of other stocks and the rapid depletion

of the Midway beds combined to raise world

trade in precious corals to at least $50 million

(U.S. dollars] in 1982.

Excluding whaling, fishing in a commercial

sense began only in the 20th century with the

arrival of the Japanese and Americans. Most

fishermen today are part-time, and almost all

contribute heavily to the nonmarket sector

(84,113,126). Semicommercial fishing is, however, developing. Problems of overcapitalization and habitat and resource degradation are

apparent and become more complex as populations grow and a market economy penetrates

into the lives and cultures of traditionally subsistence people.
228 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Urban development generally has concentrated in coastal areas of the Pacific islands.

Urban centers grow as rural, or outer island

dwellers migrate to them for better education

and employment opportunities. Commercial

fish markets, commonly cooperatives, are established to serve the centers emerging cash economies. Increased subsistence and commercial

fishing, along with habitat degradation, stress

urban center nearshore resources. As marine

products become scarce locally, on a seasonal

and annual basis, market prices are driven upward encouraging even more intensive harvest

efforts.

As urbanization continues, reef resources are

overharvested in an ever-widening area emanating from the urban center (118). The radius

of depletion depends in part on the relative

prices of fish in the district center markets and

on costs of harvest and transport from rural

and outer island areas. When urban fish prices

rise (with depletion of resources), less expensive foreign imports begin to flow into island

fish markets. Urban consumers benefit from

cheap imports, but fishermen are trapped between a fixed price for their product and everincreasing costs of exploitation. Their only solutions are to turn to other occupations or to

harvest more fish more efficiently. If governments subsidize such efforts, the circle of resource depletion widens. If the numbers of fulltime fishermen decrease, part-time fishermen

begin to take over the fishing sector, joined

eventually by recreational fishermen.

In attempts to establish more equitable income distribution, island governments sometimes subsidize shipment of resources from

outer islands to the urban center. The full-time

subsistence fisherman becomes a part-time

commercial fisherman whose efforts are tuned

to rising market prices rather than to traditional

reef tenure systems and subsistence needs. Old

resource management systems are circumvented. With government subsidies for gear, ice,

freezing, and transport, and the lure of participation in a cash economy, the fisherman may

now harvest far more of the resource than he

needs and otherwise would have. Modern, but

often less selective equipment aids this effort.

In the quest for those species most preferred

by the urban dwellers, less commercially valuable resources may be unintentionally overharvested (23].

The above scenario is in various stages of

realization throughout the U.S.-affiliated Pacific

islands. Guam (2), American Samoa (173), and

the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas

(CNMI) (126) find themselves in the later stages

of the scenario. Palau, the Federated States of

Micronesia (FSM), and the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) seem to be in the earlier

stages (23). Legislation has been passed to conserve and manage remaining nearshore resources, and national policies have attempted

to redirect resource use away from the more

heavily exploited nearshore areas toward comparatively underexploited outer reef and

pelagic resources (151).

The number of disputes over access to fishing grounds in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands

also is growing as populations increase and

pressures on resources push yield potentials

to the limit. Unprecedented levels and kinds

of waste discharge (104) pose still more problems. Although some reports exist that population densities of specimen shell species have

decreased where tourism has developed in the

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI),

it is not clear if the reduction is caused by overexploitation or by increased runoff and pollution associated with urban development (70).

Because the tropical environment is near the

upper tolerance limits of temperature for many

reef organisms, thermal effluent from powerplants has disrupted reef communities in some

areas (88,120). Chlorine, used to control biofouling in powerplants, is also very destructive in

tropical ecosystems (14). Toxic chemicals such

as pesticides and herbicides used in agriculture also enter coastal ecosystems via storm

runoff.

Nearshore resources are the social security

reserve and unemployment insurance fund of

many island people. Further damage to these

resources, and/or resource depletion through

overcapitalization of fisheries, may have an

extremely high opportunity cost in terms of
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 229

public assistance and food imports. Social costs

include diminished self-esteem, which accompanies reduced self-sufficiency.

Caribbean

Caribbean waters have supported continuous

subsistence-level exploitation since prehistoric

times (64). There is ample evidence that fishing played a significant part in the lives of

Amerindians who inhabited the Caribbean islands prior to European settlers, though fishing was never a major occupation during the

colonial period (148). Fish was, however, an important food for plantation populations in the

Danish West Indies. Planters and slaves dined

on locally caught fish and shellfish, as well as

on salt fish imported from Denmark and the

United States in exchange for plantation produce (157).

Commercial fishery development in Puerto

Rico began in 1941 under the Department of

Agriculture. Local demand for fish increased

with the influx of military personnel and has

been perpetuated by tourist hotels. After World

War II, the program was transferred to the

Puerto Rican Agricultural Development Corp.

Fisheries Division which emphasized offshore

fisheries; the program was terminated in 1947.

Since then, the Puerto Rico Corp. for the Development of Marine Resources (CODREMAR)

and the U.S. Virgin Islands Division of Fish and

Wildlife have established fishing gear distribution centers, a fishery credit scheme, and constructed facilities for gear storage and landing

of boats (94).

Historically, coastal resources have shown

a consistent pattern of use: exploration, discovery, exploitation, and finally, depletion (64,102).

Between 1974 and 1976 some 30 modern fiberglass boats were introduced to the Puerto Rican

fishing fleet. Between 1976 and 1982 the number of fishermen on the island rose from 1,230

to 1,872; the number of vessels rose from 865

to 1,449 (25,90).

The multimillion-dollar nearshore fishing industry of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) produced some 7 million pounds

of seafood in 1982 (25), Harvest of nearshore

marine resources takes place primarily near

coral reefs and seagrass beds where it is relatively easy to deplete many stocks. Traditional

fishery resources typically are harvested without true knowledge of resource levels so harvests in excess of maximum sustainable yield

may occur (94).

Combined technology transfer and increased

market demand have accelerated harvesting

pressure and pose potentially serious ecological consequences for tropical coastal ecosystems. Fiberglass boats, outboard motors, scuba

apparatus, and (to a lesser extent) deep-diving

submersibles not only have significantly increased harvesting within previously exploited

habitats, but also have led to exploitation of entirely new habitats and organisms. Recent efforts directed toward deep reef resources in

Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands may have

significantly depleted these stocks.

In 1974, the waters of Puerto Rico were characterized as “very nearly overfished” and

“heavily exploited” (90,92). Between 1975 and

1980, catch per unit effort declined at least by

50 percent: a classic indication of overfishing

(25).

Fisheries development efforts have been

much less intensive in the USVI. But even modest increases in fishing effort coupled with technological innovations may have exceeded natural productive capacity, The growth of the

fishing fleets in Puerto Rico and the USVI coupled with a small resource base has had a predictably negative impact on target stocks.

While information is not adequate to permit

definitive evaluation, spiny lobster and shallow

reef fisheries [and possibly conch and some

deepwater fisheries) in Puerto Rico and the

USVI seem to be fully or overexploited. Important Eastern Caribbean fishery species such as

the spiny lobster (Panularis argus) and queen

conch (Strombus gigas) are highly vulnerable

to overfishing. Stocks of spiny lobster in the

USVI and Puerto Rico may depend on production in other locales.

Major habitats, including coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds are threatened by development as well as exploitation patterns not
230 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

consistent with sustained use. The Puerto Rico

Coastal Management Program states that threequarters of the island’s original mangroves have

been destroyed (160). Water contamination and

dredging and shoreline modification associated

with tourist development are also a major threat

to nearshore resources in Puerto Rico and the

USVI.

Levels of harvesting and exploitation of nonfood resources still are relatively low among

the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands as compared to the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands primarily because of the development pressures

accompanying tourism, particularly on the Virgin Islands. However, the future of the habitats

is by no means assured. Poaching in federally

protected parks and recreation areas and smallscale personal collecting continue and ultimately may pose a serious threat to the sustainability of some aquatic populations.

Traditional methods of extracting medicinal

substances from shallow water organisms

(mainly by boiling hand-picked algae) are giving way to large-scale harvesting using snorkeling, scuba, and remote or manned submersibles (168). Although laboratory synthesis of

useful compounds has generally proved more

cost-effective than continued large-scale harvesting, residuals are a problem in synthesized

compounds, and organically grown compounds

are desired at premium prices. Future economic conditions or biomedical demands could

easily lead to large-scale harvesting of benthic

organisms in the Caribbean.

Finally, the tropical western Atlantic Ocean

is only about one-tenth the size of the tropical

western Pacific ocean, and so the Caribbean

has a more regionally integrated marine species pool. The biota of the western Pacific

shows a decrease in species diversity along a

gradient between Indonesia and French Polynesia. Thus, ecological processes in the Caribbean, such as population blooms or die-offs, will

have regional influence on marine resource

management. For example, a recent mass mortality of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum had

a widespread effect on benthic communities

throughout the Caribbean. In contrast, mass

mortality of the urchin Echinothrix in the Pacific remained confined to the Hawaiian Islands (15).

COMMON CONSTRAINTS TO FISHERIES AND

AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

Constraints to Nearshore Fisheries

Development

The major constraints to nearshore tropical

fisheries development include: inadequate

knowledge of complex ecosystems, the inherently limited productivity of waters around

tropical islands, and the vulnerability of tropical fisheries to a variety of natural and human

disturbances. Equipment maintenance and

servicing, and problems of transporting inputs

and exports also hinder development.

Inadequate Knowledge of Coastal

Ecosystems and Species

Although there has been intense interest in

subtidal tropical marine communities for centuries, it has only been in the last three

decades–since the advent of scuba gear–that

rigorous field research was possible. As a consequence, less is known about these ecosystems

than about any other of comparable extent and

importance.

Capture fisheries are based on resources

which are ultimately finite, and no development

strategy can result in an open-ended stream of

benefits. Typically, greater pressure exists to

“develop” than to obtain information on actual

development potential.

The complexity of coastal ecosystems, and

our scant knowledge of the most basic ecological characteristics of their components, virtually preclude successful community manipu-
Ch. 7–Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 231

lations. Before communities or even single

populations of benthic organisms can be

manipulated predictably toward some desired

end, further basic research on abundances, distributions, life history characteristics, diseases,

and ecological interactions must be conducted.

Progress in the comprehensive management of

corals and other sedentary or sessile animals,

for example, will depend ultimately on the acquisition of basic biological information on longevity, reproductive capacity, larval and population dynamics, and environmental stability.

Scientific information on the current status

of nearshore marine resources is fragmented

and inconclusive, and generalizations about

such a vast and diverse geographic area can

lead to faulty conclusions. Concise information

on resource distribution and abundance also

is lacking. In the absence of such data, the concept of optimum sustainable yield is mere technical jargon.

Most research and classical models of marine biological systems have been based on continental shelf areas of the Northern Hemisphere. The physical differences between reef

slopes of oceanic islands and continental

shelves, and the diversity and complexity of

tropical fisheries reduce the applicability of

these biological and bioeconomic models in

tropical areas. The effects of selectively harvesting certain species, of fishing the same species at different depths, and the relationships

between nearshore and offshore stocks, and the

fish population dynamics, are less well understood in tropical than in temperate waters (95).

Inherent Restrictions to Productivity

The nearshore waters of many islands have

high nutrient levels and are highly productive

compared to the surrounding oceanic waters.

The primary productivity of island nearshore

waters is a function of several interacting factors including: island size, island height (influencing rainfall and terrestrial runoff), area of

submerged bank, coastline complexity (e.g., embayments supporting mangrove forest growth)

(111,118), and nearshore bottom communities

(e.g., seagrass meadows). Barring disturbances

(see below), the productivity of potential fisheries is assumed to follow a gradient related

to the factors influencing primary productivity y

of nearshore waters (118).

Harvest in the nearshore marine environments of the U.S.-affiliated islands is also constrained by the limited physical size of productive nearshore areas. Puerto Rico and the USVI

have a continental shelf of less than 3,000

square miles and less than half of this area is

highly productive (116). The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are based on steeply sloping submerged mountains and reef slopes and have no

continental shelves or substantial ledges. Potential harvest is correspondingly small.

Lack of Economies of ScaIe

The nonuniform distribution of highly productive habitats, the immense diversity and

seasonality of reef ecosystems, and the mixture

of high-value and less desirable species in most

fishery stocks require great versatility of capital and labor for harvest and precludes the development of single-species fisheries. The rugged topography and potential for extensive

degradation of coral reefs precludes use of nonselective, towed gear in many commercial fisheries. The need for versatility, coupled with geographic remoteness and small island size,

results in high production, preservation, and

distribution costs which are not easily reduced

through economies of scale (23). Size and isolation are even more constraining in the Pacific than in the Caribbean. With a combined

land mass less than one-half that of the State

of Rhode Island, the FAS are analogous to oases

in an oceanic desert.

Vulnerability to Disruption

Tropical ecosystems are vulnerable to a number of natural and manmade disruptions, and

this vulnerability represents an impediment to

resource management and development efforts.

Natural disturbances result from both physical and biological processes. Physical disturbance agents include: hurricanes, earthquakes,

extreme low tides, extreme water temperatures

(e.g., El Niño), extremes of freshwater runoff
232 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

and terrigenous sedimentation. Biological disturbance agents include predator outbreaks

(e.g., crown-of-thorns starfish), pathogen epidemics (e.g., black band disease in corals), fish

poisoning (ciguatoxins), introduced competitors, and unusual drastic population pulses of

ecologically important species (e. g., the recent

Caribbean-wide die-off of sea urchins and the

resultant destructive bloom of their algal prey).

Coral reef communities are disturbed by natural events, such as the tropical cyclones common in the CNMI and Caroline Islands, so often

that few develop a climax community (32). Episodic catastrophes have also been related to

tidal phenomena (177). Rainstorms coinciding

with spring low tides killed up to 92 percent

of reef invertebrates at Enewetok Atoll, RMI

(loo).

Large-scale biological disturbances have been

generated on coral reefs by population explosions of the coral predator Acanthaster planci,

or crown-of-thorns starfish. Initial outbreaks

of Acanthaster are associated with high islands

and are probably related to increased terrestrial runoff (16). Recovery of the coral communities requires a decade or more, but may be

interrupted by secondary outbreaks (30,31).

Sources of human-induced disturbance include: increased sediment runoff from agriculture and construction; thermal and chemical

effluents from industry; oil spills; ship damage

(grounding and anchors); dredging and blasting during channel construction; nutrients and

toxins from sewage and solid waste disposal;

direct removal of exploited species; and indiscriminately destructive fishing methods

(chlorine, dynamite, grenades, etc.) (168).

Manmade disturbances, including cutting,

clearing, and filling of the mangrove swamps,

can be even more devastating than natural ones.

Regeneration of mangroves in clear-felled areas

of Southeast Asia has not been successful (146).

(Sustained yield mangrove forestry, on the other

hand has been quite successful, for example, in

Malaysia.) The destruction of important fishing

grounds and traditional fish pens has resulted

from dredging and filling for airport extension

in the absence of thorough environmental assessments (86).

Similar patterns and similar potential for

problems affect the Caribbean islands because

of their small size and the small “buffer” capacity of ecosystems like reefs. Few or no adjacent areas exist to which fishermen or tourists

can move when nearshore environments are

seriously damaged.

Although most major disturbances—natural

and human—are relatively rare, virtually any

program of resource exploitation and management will eventually experience their effects

(86). Knowledge is still being collected about

rates or sequences of recovery processes, and

will be essential to management plans dealing

with disturbance.

Constraints to AquacuIture

Development

Despite potential for aquiculture in the U. S.-

affiliated islands, progress in aquiculture development has been slow. Because of the physical and biological characteristics of the small

islands, only certain kinds of aquiculture are

practical, and some of these require a better

base of scientific knowledge and more practical experience than exists today (58). The development of aquiculture in the U.S.-affiliated

Pacific and Caribbean islands faces other common constraints, including:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

dearth of suitable land for pond construction;

small freshwater supply;

high energy costs for pumping seawater;

low levels of nutrients in the sea (and consequent lack of food for filter-feeding

species);

scarcity of protected bays and estuaries for

pen, raft, or rack culture systems;

logistical problems and generally high

costs of supplying inputs (feed, equipment,

supplies, and technical assistance) and distributing the products to distant markets;

potential for serious conflicts between

aquaculturalists and other users of publicly

owned areas (155).

high cost of culture (materials, land, labor)

relative to value of production (43,122), creating difficulty in competing with artisanal

fisheries (162).
.

•

●

●

●

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture “ 233

lack of appropriate tested technology for

many species;

lack of security of cultured stock from

poaching;

lack of social and traditional context for

aquacultural practices; and

lack of trained personnel capable of operating sophisticated systems,

These constraints are particularly severe on

the smaller islands. American Samoa, for example, comprises an area of less than 100

square miles on three mountainous islands.

Freshwater is scarce and lagoon/reef areas are

communally held. Culture systems beyond the

scale of small family or subsistence farms thus

are ruled out in such settings.

In areas like the CNMI, Yap, Pohnpei, Truk,

Kosrae, and the RMI (all small volcanic islands

or atolls with limited land and freshwater, low

populations, and undeveloped infrastructure),

aquiculture potential probably is limited to species which obtain their own food or can be fed

on locally available feeds. The culture of dolphinfish, groupers, or snappers would be technically feasible in those islands with protected

waters, but the cost of importing feeds and of

transporting the product to distant markets

could be prohibitive. (In some cases, fish not

used for human consumption and fish scraps

might be available for economical culture of

these species.) Similarly, aquiculture in the

USVI probably will be limited to marine species raised in the sea (e. g., marine plants, queen

conch, dolphinfish, groupers, or snappers), or

in coastal ponds (e. g., marine shrimp). Since

none of these species have been grown in the

USVI, a period of adaptive research and pilotscale testing would be needed in order to determine applicability of culture methodology

used elsewhere.

Other impediments to sustainable development of aquiculture include technical difficulties in applying the culture system to the

selected site, lack of local sources of juveniles

and post-larvae, prohibitive shipping costs, lack

of aquiculture extension programs and marine

advisory services, lack of regional planning and

coordination, and lack of sustained aquiculture and mariculture research programs and

funding. Cultural settings and levels of technological development, moreover, ‘vary greatly

among island groups.

Increased activities in mariculture may cause

degradation of the reef and lagoon environments from increased boat traffic, physical impacts on adjacent areas, impacts from placing

structures on reefs, and intensive grazing by

fish penned in shallow reef areas. Heavy supplemental feeding required by some intensive

cage or pen culture programs also may increase

the nutrient load in lagoon waters. The increase

of suspended organic matter may have adverse

impacts on adjacent reef areas (118). Further,

there exists the potential for introduction of

disease.

Other Constraints to Marine

Resource Development

Risk

Capture fisheries, based on multispecies resources, are inherently more flexible than aquiculture, which focuses on a particular product.

Aquiculture, however, permits more control

of production and harvest of a particular species, whereas capture fisheries generally depend on natural abundance. Risk is inherent

in both activities, posing a common constraint

to credit and insurance, and both activities are

vulnerable to competition from imports.

Many small-scale fishermen are unwilling to

engage in capital risk-taking in order to achieve

higher profits, preferring the comparative security and familiarity of simple, inexpensive methods even if they yield only subsistence levels

of income. Those few fishermen who are willing and can afford to use improved technology

may come to dominate the fishery, while the

standard of living for the rest may stagnate or

decline (81; app. F). Others may seek more

lucrative or less stressful employment in nonproductive sectors.

Equipment Maintenance and Servicing

Fisheries and aquiculture development commonly are hindered by inadequate supplies and
234 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

high cost of replacement parts (i.e., for freezers,

motors, and other gear). Metal structures deteriorate rapidly in the tropics due to internal

sweating, poor ventilation, corrosion, and electrolytic action (137), In addition, equipment

maintenance sometimes is beyond the operators’ skills.

Transportation

Transportation in general is a problem in the

Pacific islands (see ch. 8). Even routine mail

deliveries are jeopardized at times by the lack

of airline service. The costs of air freight within

the region together with the general lack of airline services greatly hinders development of export fisheries and aquiculture in this region.

In Guam, for example, export operations in the

aquarium trade have been relatively short lived,

primarily because of problems related to the

airlines. Neglect and flight delays have resulted

in losses of entire shipments, and shipping expenses are extremely high.

SmalI Size or Lack of Formal Markets

No formal market structure exists for the nonfood products of the Pacific islands. Collection,

analysis, and dissemination of market information and trends are absent. Usually this means

the islands receive less than market value for

their resources (146).

Although ornamental shell industries already

exist in some U.S.-affiliated islands, most of the

handicrafts sold in tourism centers are imported from the Philippines, where greater varieties of products are available at lower prices.

Carleton (26,27,28) noted poor organization of

handicraft industries in the Pacific. The major

constraints identified were intermittent production and lack of business and financial expertise.

Resource Use and Ownership Customs

Fishing customs and rights are intimately enmeshed in local social and religious practices

on some U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. This creates management impediments as well as opportunities that have often been overlooked by

western-trained fishery managers (81). It is difficult for researchers and decisionmakers to

predict and assess social impacts of development activities and projects objectively, since

these may involve changes in the way of community life, perceptions, and values that are

partly products of history and group culture.

It is particularly difficult to assess the social

impacts of changes in marine resource uses,

It is difficult to observe fishing activities at sea,

data on marine resources are scarce, and relationships between socioeconomic and marine

resource systems are complex.

In areas where traditional ownership and use

systems have lapsed or never existed, it is very

difficult to maintain exclusive rights to production from certain ventures (e.g., sea ranching

and habitat enhancement) because these activities involve resources which are traditionally

considered common property,

Absence of Federal Agency

Representatives

Most Federal agencies with oversight responsibility for development of marine resources

in the Pacific are not actually present. Federal

representatives, usually based in Hawaii, make

occasional visits to the islands, but may have

little understanding of the islands’ needs. The

lack of Federal officials to enforce Federal laws

poses a severe problem for renewable resource

management in many island areas (155). Budget constraints are cited as the rationale for this

situation.

Progress in tropical coastal management is

handicapped by jurisdictional ambiguities created by incomplete and nonspecific laws and

regulatory statutes (50,64,65,159), low levels of

enforcement of current practices leading to

overexploitation, insufficient recognition of the

regional nature of ecological issues, and lack

of scientific cooperation among Caribbean polities, Due to these limitations, many current or

potential levels of exploitation already exceed

the capacity to either analyze, regulate, or enforce resource management programs.
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 235

COMMON OPPORTUNITIES

Significant opportunities exist for aquatic resource development in the U.S.-affiliated islands of the Pacific and Caribbean including:

enhancement of artisanal fisheries, development of pelagic fisheries, development of smallscale collecting and gathering, and aquiculture.

These opportunities result from substantial natural stocks, growing markets for fisheries products, the favorable climate which permits yearround growth of tropical species, and the availability of clean seawater. As with agriculture,

opportunities include the three main categories of import substitution, increased production of domestically consumed products, and

export promotion.

Although clearly significant as a milliondollar industry, the fishing industry of Puerto

Rico and the USVI falls far short of meeting

local demand for fresh seafood. Demand has

increased markedly with expanding tourism in

the region. Nearly 60 million pounds of seafood

valued at $48 million are imported annually to

the islands (25). Some island products, besides

serving a burgeoning domestic market, would

likely find ready acceptance in mainland markets, Because Puerto Rico and the USVI import

more from the mainland than they export,

favorable haul-back rates are possible for island

products.

American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the

Northern Marianas, and Guam also have been

net importers of protein for some time. Guam

annually imports at least 390 tons of fresh and

frozen whole fish (23). The successful Japanese

fisheries in Micronesia during the mandate

period suggests that a great deal of potential

for economic development of marine resources

is currently unrealized.

Expanded Use of Underexploited

and Migratory Species

Because nearshore fisheries of many U, S,-

affiliated islands seem to be near or beyond

maximum sustainable yield, and nearshore marine ecosystems are vulnerable to and already

adversely affected by inappropriate land and

sea uses, developing these fisheries is likely to

have a long-term negative impact. However, potential exists to maintain or enhance nearshore

fishery productivity through such mechanisms

as preservation of mangrove, seagrass bed, and

coral reef ecosystems, placement of artificial

reefs, restocking and reseeding programs, and

development of markets for underused marine

species. Species that currently seem underexploited include sharks, some outer-reef fish,

deepwater shrimp and crabs, and migratory

pelagic species. The latter form the basis for

large commercial fisheries in both regions, but

the islands are little involved in these industries. 1

Collecting and Gathering

The islands of Micronesia and American

Samoa lie within the Indo-West Pacific region

which is characterized by having the most diverse fauna and flora in the world (46). For this

reason the Pacific islands are also in a position

to supply an expanding specimen market with

species of shell and corals that are not available from other sources. However, extreme vulnerability to overexploitation requires harvest

on a small-scale, selective basis. Long-term sustainable exports may not be justified, but coral

and shells have some economic potential for

small-scale, tourist-oriented sales.

Bans on exports of coral and shells, some of

which play a vital role in the health of coral

reef communities (84,86), have resulted from

reef destruction caused by overexploitation in

some areas (27,28,110,172). However, the value

of unprocessed deepwater precious corals

ranged from $33 to $2,200/lb (U.S. dollars) in

1981 (63); thus even small beds of precious coral

could provide important revenues when harvested on a sustainable yield basis.

An examination of historical catch data indicates that the Micronesia reefs are capable

of sustaining far greater numbers of topshell

1An assessment of commercial fisheries development for migratory pelagic species is beyond the scope of this report.
236 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

than presently are harvested. Parkinson (130)

estimated that Palau’s reefs should yield sustainable harvests of some 200 tons/year. However, the few records available for recent years

indicate an average harvest of about 100

tons/year (146).

Current supply does not satisfy demand in

the aquarium fish trade, particularly in the

United States. Demand worldwide is expected

to increase 10 to 15 percent per year in the future (26). The Caribbean islands and those Pacific islands with direct flights to Hawaii or Japan are suitably located to establish small

aquarium fish businesses to take advantage of

this situation. When nondestructive methods

of collecting are used, small-scale fisheries of

this kind can be developed without upsetting

the ecological balance on the reef. Aquiculture

of high-value aquarium species may offer an

alternative to capture techniques; however, the

general constraints to aquiculture would still

apply.

Sea cucumbers offer some export potential

today, as they did under the Japanese administration, although several past attempts to develop export industries have failed. Asian markets require a consistent high-quality product

of a particular species, dryness, size, shape, and

color. It has not proved possible to provide the

required volume of that product; natural abundances may have to be supplemented with mariculture to provide long-term economic viability, but not enough is known of the biology of

commercially valuable species to begin culture.

Aquaculture

While fishing is an important source of jobs

and food protein in the pacific, the supply of

fish is variable and sometimes small (163). Increases in population have resulted in a higher

demand for marine resources than local waters

often can supply on a sustained basis. Under

these circumstances, opportunities to increase

marine harvest become increasingly important

in the Pacific and Caribbean regions. Aquiculture operations have been examined as an opportunity to remove some pressure from nearshore fisheries, reduce unemployment, and

decrease dependence on imported seafoods.

However, many aquiculture projects have been

unsuccessful.

Species that have been identified as having

particular potential for aquiculture development in the U.S.-affiliated islands include

sponges, freshwater prawns, marine shrimp,

giant clams, pearl oysters, rabbitfish, milkfish,

tilapia, and macroalgae (seaweeds). Much aquaculture research has been done on species such

as bait fish which can be more profitably

produced by capture fisheries. Attention also

has been given to species, such as marine

shrimp, that command high prices in foreign

markets. However, the expense and logistical

difficulties of transporting the product to markets may preclude culture of these species.

Other factors that adversely impact on aquaculture include the high cost of imported inputs, difficulty in procuring juveniles, and lack

of marketing and technological assistance.

The potential for development of viable aquaculture also varies with the physical characteristics of the island groups, their location in

relation to sources of inputs and markets, availability of suitable sites, cost of production, investment capital, and quality of project management.

The phycocolloid seaweed industry is rapidly growing and, for the most part, is still

limited by the supply of raw materials (the seaweeds) (39,40). The economic situation and the

growth of the phycocolloid industry have resulted in a worldwide interest in seaweed cultivation, particularly those containing agar or

carageenan. Such cultivation maybe well suited

to remote islands, since the thalli can be sundried and stored for many months (119). The

value of the world phycocolloid industry was

reported to be about $1 billion (U. S.) in 1978,

and gel extracts were estimated to be essential

to some $22 billion (U. S.) in the U.S. gross national product.

Pearl oyster cultivation and edible seaweed

mariculture offer some export potential. The

Japanese administration pursued both of these

endeavors in Micronesia. Japanese technology

and marketing participation would likely be re-
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture “ 237

quired for success in export markets today. Joint transport to market (in comparison with the

ventures may warrant investigation. costs to competitors), considering the cost of

The challenge is to select species and culture alternative uses of the resource, and evaluatsystems appropriate for subsistence or commer- ing the social acceptability of this activity in

cial use in a given area by: evaluating the local view of land and water requirements, It also

environment, analyzing the labor and energy is important to evaluate the environmental imrequirements and the cost of production and pacts of aquiculture projects.

POTENTIAL STRATEGIES FOR NEARSHORE FISHERIES

DEVELOPMENT IN U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS

Introduction

An increase in fishery production in the U. S.-

affiliated tropical islands can be realized in several different ways, including:

●

●

●

●

●

increased efficiency or intensity of nearshore fisheries;

development of subsistence and small-scale

commercial fisheries aimed at underutilized stocks;

development of large-scale fisheries aimed

at migratory pelagics;

management of nearshore fisheries for sustained yields (fish aggregation devices, artificial reefs, restocking, conservation); and

farming (aquiculture) of selected species

(95).

The technical capabilities of fishing communities are major determinants of the appropriateness of technologies. Sociological factors,

such as the nature and strength of extended

family systems, also play major roles in identification of technologies appropriate for development within the region.

Increasing exploitation of marine resources

may be seen by administrators as a method to

alleviate some economic and social problems,

through improvement of exports and balance

of payments, increased local food supply, provision of employment, stemming of rural drift,

increased profits for local entrepreneurs, and

improved welfare of coastal communities.

Thus, the identification and implementation of

fishery technologies may be determined by the

direction and priorities of local government policy objectives. The extent to which the needs

and values of coastal communities are considered depends on the degree of interaction between administrators and coastal communities

on such policy considerations (95).

Potential Strategy: Increase Fishery

Exploitation Efficiency

To increase the efficiency or intensity of fishing efforts in the U.S.-affiliated islands, further

improvements are needed in technology related

to boat and gear design and construction, credit

availability, subsidies for or reduced taxes and

duties on fuel and supplies, landing and storage facilities, and local and foreign distribution and marketing capacity (151), However,

care should be taken not to oversubsidize the

commercialization of nearshore fisheries. An

overcapitalized nearshore fishery will encourage depletion—adding to the income of market participants while reducing the lifestyle of

subsistence participants. Such income redistribution may not lead to desirable long-run results (174,175).

Given the susceptibility of nearshore marine

resources to overexploitation, technologies that

would materially increase nearshore harvesting efficiency can be expected to have a negative long-term impact in the Caribbean and Pacific island areas. In most Pacific island areas,

little potential exists for expansion of nearshore

fisheries beyond that which may occur naturally as island populations increase (127), Increased pressure on the resource will occur if

an increase in harvest efficiency is not met with

a corresponding decrease in harvest effort (95).
238 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

If currently harvested resources are being harvested at or beyond maximum sustainable yield

(as seems to be the case in many localities), effort within the fishing fleet must either be reduced or diverted to other stocks.

Evidence from Puerto Rico and the USVI

strongly suggests that availability of harvest

technology is not a problem. Rather the need

is to apply appropriate technology at a level

suited to the productive capabilities of natural

systems. Continuation of a development style

directed solely toward capitalization and harvest efficiency without regard for sustainable

yields can only result in resource depletion and

adverse socioeconomic impacts.

A large proportion of total fishery production is lost to wastage in many tropical areas.

Thus, methods to reduce waste of current harvest levels can offer an alternative to increased

exploitation levels in boosting fisheries’ production. Avenues to reduce waste include improving storage and processing techniques, increasing efficiency in transportation to markets,

and developing markets for bycatch (see ch. 8).

Potential Strategy: Increase

Support for Subsistence and SmaIlScale Commercial Fisheries Aimed

at Underutilized Stocks

The importance of small-scale fisheries lies

in their income- and employment-creating potential and their use of appropriate forms of

technology. As nearshore resources come un-
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 239

der greater pressure, however, fishermen are

increasingly moving offshore and/or making

more use of migratory pelagic fish sometimes

found in nearshore environments. Pelagic resources probably offer an opportunity in the

U.S. Caribbean and Pacific for the expansion

of small-scale island fisheries—commercial,

recreational, or subsistence. Proper management of these resources can also provide opportunities for economies of scale.

A relatively small number of marine organisms comprise the preferred fishery target in

most countries. Commonly this occurs because

the species are plentiful and easy to catch (e.g.,

a schooling fish which is easy to net), or because a social preference exists for a particular species (95). The identification and development of alternative underused stocks may

be expected to increase economic benefits from

the nearshore fishery.

Current Puerto Rico and USVI fisheries development policy emphasizes underutilized offshore resources (e.g., swordfish) (24) and recreational fishing (61). Although the status of stocks

is not known, it is expected that considerable

amounts of pelagic swordfish can be harvested

(45). This approach has considerable merit, and

might help divert some fishing effort from

stocks that currently are overexploited, thus increasing economic benefits from the nearshore

fishery. However, while an increase in the harvest of underutilized species is possible, these

species can support relatively few fishermen

(94), and there is no reason to suppose that these

stocks are less vulnerable to overexploitation

than others if reliable estimates of sustainable

yields are lacking (61).

Similarly, Pacific island government agencies

have encouraged commercial harvest of identified offshore resources as it has become clear

that there are relatively few, if any, nearshore

resources remaining underutilized in the U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands (23). Further, nearshore

schools of fish provide a food reserve for local

populations in the event of natural calamities,

making underexploitation preferable to commercial overexploitation.

Sharks represent a potentially important and

virtually underutilized resource in the tropical

Pacific. In spite of the seeming abundance of

sharks, Pacific islands supply only a small

proportion of the market. Sharks are harvested

primarily as a bycatch of Taiwanese tuna longliners landing at Pago Pago, and the fins are

the only product currently retained (26).

Markets for shark products are expected to

continue a recent trend of gradual expansion

(26,244). Market growth, particularly for shark

leather, appears to be limited by the supply of

hides (27,135). Novelty products such as jaws

and teeth have a ready market in tourism, while

new products such as artificial skin for burn

victims are still in the development stages (3).

Shark resources also are generally underutilized in the Lesser Antilles, but are particularly

vulnerable to overexploitation because of low

reproductive potential, slow growth rates, and

greater age at maturity than other fishery stocks.

They can quickly be depleted if commercially

developed (61).

Deepwater species beyond coral reefs may

be suitable for development of new fisheries.

The exact magnitude of the resource is not

clear, and large-scale harvest and marketing

problems have not yet been solved (23). Two

species of deepwater shrimp (Heterocarpus

ensifer and Heterocarpus laevigatus) are fairly

abundant at depths of nearly 700 feet on the

seaward faces of fringing reefs and probably

barrier reefs and atolls throughout the U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands. Rough terrain and the

potential for habitat destruction make trawling unacceptable, and trapping has not yet

proven economically viable. Pacific island

fishermen recently have been encouraged to

exploit forereef deepwater snapper (family Lutjanidae). The distance of these fish from ciguatoxin sources make them less likely to be contaminated with ciguatera (95).

The development of new fisheries may require the introduction of new fishing technologies as well as the surmounting of social

prejudices. It may be possible to develop export fisheries for species that have little local
240 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

value but constitute a desirable export commodity, or to develop export fisheries for highly

valued products. For example, holothurians

(sea cucumber or beche-de-mer) are gathered

in several Pacific island areas; a particular species (Microthele nobilis) of this family commands a high price in Southeast Asian markets.

Fisheries based on tropical lobsters also have

been developed on some Pacific islands (95).

Squid and deepwater crab may be underexploited in the Caribbean (124).

Potential Strategy: DeveIop

Large-Scale Fisheries Aimed at

Migrating Pelagics

The Japanese have been lauded for achieving a sound degree of economic progress based

on indigenous island resources in many of the

Pacific islands during the mandate period (121).

After more than 2% decades of Japanese fisheries development in Micronesia, exports from

nearshore fisheries were relatively small. In

fact, during the Japanese administration nearshore production was only sufficient for subsistence needs and supply of local markets for

Japanese immigrants; at least 90 percent of the

exports by weight and value were composed

Photo credit: A. Vargo

Pelagic resources around the U.S.-affiliated islands

form the bases of many foreign commercial fisheries

and could offer an opportunity for increased food

production for the U.S.-affiliated islands. Except for a

few tuna processing facilities in the U.S.-affiliated

Pacific islands, the industry remains largely in the

hands of foreign operators. Shown here, a Korean tuna

boat in Pago Pago Harbor, American Samoa.

of pelagic species, primarily tuna (161). Any significant commercial fishery resource potential

rests with offshore pelagic resources, not nearshore resources.

Highly migratory species—tuna, dolphinfish

(mahimahi), and billfish–are the major commercial offshore resources in the U.S.-affiliated

islands. Most of the world’s tuna stocks probably already are exploited close to maximum

sustainable yields (61). An important exception

are the huge Pacific skipjack tuna stocks which

still apparently are not exploited at levels close

to those they could sustain (80).

Potential Strategy: Manage

Nearshore Fisheries for

Sustained Yields

Although attempts at marine resource management were made as long ago as the Middle

Ages (64), serious scientific concern for the consequences of uncontrolled and unplanned exploitation is a relatively recent development.

Primitive efforts to manage coral and mollusk

fisheries involved rotation of harvesting beds

to allow recovery (64,65). Rigorous scientific

efforts to manage these resources have emerged

only recently.

Management of marine fishery resources

commonly involves regulatory measures to conserve individual fishery stocks and critical

habitats. More recently, attempts have been

made to increase harvestable stock through fish

aggregation devices (FADs), artificial reefs, habitat restoration, and restocking programs,

Opportunity: Develop Fish

Aggregation Systems

One promising technology for augmenting

small-scale, nearshore pelagic harvests is the

FAD; usually an anchored buoy placed a mile

or more outside the reef. Buoys may be constructed of metal, wood, or even bamboo, and

sometimes nets or short ropes are attached to

the buoy and anchor line.

It is well known that pelagic fish are attracted

to and congregate around floating debris in

the ocean (23). Tuna purse seiners commonly
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 241

search out floating logs and other debris and

may stay with a particular log for some time,

setting the net around the log. Floating debris

clearly provide a reference point for excursions

of highly mobile pelagic predators, Hundreds

or thousands of fish may aggregate around a

single log or other floating object,

A variety of mid-water FADs are being used

experimentally in the Lesser Antilles (61).

Studies by the USVI Division of Fish and Wildlife have shown that catch rates are significantly

increased by deployment of FADs. Units installed close to the edge of the coastal shelf are

reported to attract many migratory pelagic species, but the impact of this technology on fish

stocks, and sustainability of high catch rates

have not been evaluated. Because of the limited

nature of nearshore marine resources, the longterm impact of most innovations is likely to be

negative unless implementation is consistent

with the productive capacity of the stocks to

be harvested (61), and unless there is adequate

regulation of exploitation (12)0

Manufactured FADs can be costly, which

may preclude their use in some areas. Materials and placement costs for a raft can be as high

as $8,000; most FADs to date have been installed through government subsidy. Life expectancy currently is between 12 to 24 months

and FADs frequently break loose and are lost.

Many fishing communities are reluctant to replace those initially provided under aid. Research efforts could be undertaken to increase

longevity and lower the fabrication costs, allowing standardization and mass production

of FADs (147).

Other problems with FADs include: difficulties establishing ownership of FADs or of the

fish attracted by FADs, conflicts between competing fishermen, presentation of navigational

hazards, possible interruption of normal pelagic

migration patterns, and attraction of fish away

from customarily entitled nearshore fisheries

(151). As knowledge is gained on the “catchment areas” of FADs, deployment methods that

minimize their adverse impacts on nearshore

fisheries will develop. For example, subsurface

FADs, which do not hinder navigation, maybe

as effective as surface FADs (78).

Opportunity: Construct Artificial Reefs

In recent years, efforts have been made to

enhance the productivity of reef flats through

the introduction of artificial habitats. It seems

that natural production may be enhanced by

the provision of suitable substrates for colonizing sessile species that provide food for nearshore fish, resulting in greater harvests than

would be possible without artificial enhancement (23). Whether artificial reefs in fact enhance overall production or merely increase

local populations by attracting fish from other

areas is not yet known, although evidence exists supporting both theories.

Old automobiles, ship salvage, and other

scrap structures have been placed on Pacific

island reefs over the years in an attempt to increase fish abundance. Wave action and siltation due to steep reef slopes limits the application of this technology beyond natural reefs (23).

Prototype artificial reef projects in Montserrat,

British Virgin Islands, and the USVI suggest

that increased production of shallow-water fish

is possible using scrap automobiles and tires.

Another approach involves the use of structures

designed specifically to increase production

of selected species. A recent study in Florida

indicates that fish biomass on Japanese “designed reefs” was two to six times greater than

on scrap metal “reefs” (141).

Opportunity: Restore Mangroves and

Seagrass Beds

Mangroves and seagrasses constitute important fish habitats and contribute to sediment

stabilization in nearshore ecosystems. In many

areas, including the U.S.-affiliated islands, natural and human perturbations have altered the

species compositions of mangroves and seagrass beds, or seriously damaged and even denuded these habitats, Depending on the extent

of degradation, natural or induced recovery

may or may not be possible.

Mangrove plantings to restore degraded mangrove habitats or to stabilize unvegetated areas

is a management option. Planting large tracts

is expensive; however, natural recovery of partially degraded areas can be accelerated at more
242 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

modest costs by planting in bald spots. Stresses

to the ecosystem must be removed for successful restoration.

An acid sulfate condition may develop in

degraded mangrove area soils that have been

exposed to air and disturbed for agriculture or

aquiculture. This condition further hinders

reclamation of mangrove areas (68).

Nearly three-quarters of Puerto Rico’s mangroves have been destroyed (179), and little attempt currently is being made to restore them,

Replanting mangroves has been practiced in

Florida, however, at costs equivalent to reforestation on land). Successful rehabilitation of

a mangrove area damaged by an oil spill has

been carried out on Guam.

Techniques for artificial seagrass restoration

have been developed and used with some success in U.S. coastal zones. Recovery of seagrass

beds may depend on such factors as cessation

of stress, level of degradation, availability and

quantity of seed or vegetative tissue, and turbulence level of site.

Restoration methods include plugging; seeding; sodding; and planting of seedlings, sprigs,

or shoots. While replanting may be possible,

it is technically difficult to stabilize the bottom

sufficiently to prevent the loss of plantings (35).

However, information necessary for the understanding and use of restoration procedures has

been inadequately reported. Recovery rates,

both natural and artificial (e.g., transplants of

root plugs, shoots, and turf), are poorly documented as are return rates of animal populations. Lack of knowledge about the physical

environmental factors affecting seagrasses may

impede successful restoration efforts (153).

Costs of planting seagrass may vary depending on species selected, experience and source

of labor, and type of equipment needed, as well

as geographical factors. The cost of seagrass

restoration may range from nearly $1,200 to

$12,000/acre and, the success rate of past attempts has been less than 50 percent (153).

From an ecological viewpoint, the best strategy is to protect mangroves and seagrasses from

adverse impacts. They are valuable resources

that take up to 100 years to reestablish naturally

in many locations and may be impossible to

reestablish in others. Where possible, restoration can be costly and success is not guaranteed.

Opportunity: Restock Nearshore

Habitats

Farming of marine organisms (mariculture)

may become important not only to supplement

food resources but to remove pressure from and

replenish depleted stocks of fish and invertebrates. For example, although attempts to

mass-culture pearl oysters in the laboratory

have failed in French Polynesia, recent success

with artificial spat collectors is expected to end

the harvest of wild stocks, permitting recovery

of natural populations (29).

As the nearshore resources of the Pacific and

Caribbean regions are becoming overfished or

degraded, the idea of regeneration and “reseeding” of these resources is gaining attention.

Breakthroughs in the spawning and culture of

trochus (Trochus niloticus) and giant clam (family Tridacnidae) offer the possibility of reef

reseeding (see box 7-A) (71,73). Of course, without appropriate controls on subsequent harvests, a reestablished population may be exploited at a greater than optimal rate and

possibly reextinguished (154).

Giant Clams.—Farming of giant clams for

the purpose of restocking natural habitats has

been compared to resource management in forestry (176). The meat and the large shells of the

Tridacnidae family represent a potential export

if reseeding and grow-out techniques can be

perfected. In some of the Pacific islands, techniques and skills for limited husbandry of clams

already exists and may have useful application

for expanding clam mariculture (154). An Australian government-funded project to develop

and transfer giant clam breeding to Pacific islands coordinated by the James Cook University of North Queensland is nearing completion (43).

Giant clams, sometimes reaching weights of

220 pounds, have been overharvested by both

local inhabitants and poachers from Southeast

Asian countries to the point of extinction near
———

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture c 243

Box 7-A.—Culture of Tridacnid Clams

Considerable interest exists in the Pacific ~cm;~~ tha dams (Tridacnidae

family) in order to r~plenish and manage nktu@ iittockit [II%] and *O ckmsity cultur e

opportunity. Although most dams require adequeta ‘-lies of @mMng cuiture in

the tropical iskmds to cwtain areas with wleq@a tridwmids darive most of their

nutrfents from symbiotic id@ ~8u8 w@hl ~~ ~@#!!!..sWMA the@oN survive and grow on coral

reefs with low populations of dg~e. R@$a_ in @*! ti~~ *m the f@@@W’owinfJ

bivalve mollush; they provide larga quimtitiea uf witb mi@mal input (74 )=

..

Tridacnfd cuhurecurrtmtlyis practkadma pilot scd~~n ~alau, Yap, and Pohnpei and is planned

in Truk and Kusrae. At prwent ody exparimwtxd hwtc~er~ exist; development of local hatcheries

is required for widespread application. ,.

Metlmds for hatchery culture of four of fha six a-”-of Tridacnidao have been developed and

transpkmts have been mada to Guam, Hawaii, M--pi, Yap, and the U.S. mainland; requests hav~ been received from governme nt “h~~~ in American Samoa, Mexico, and the

Caribbean ?egion [74), @tplanting of trial shiprn-ti of j~wniles produced in a hatchery in Palau

appear promising, but the t~chmology far more intmwive of Ttidacnid clams has not yet been

fully developed or tested.

Clams require a suitable s@stmte md ~tM readily in off-bottom culture systems. Therefore clam farming of of cl@m~ VVOU~d ~quire careful site

selection. Nevertheless, cbrnsrnightbegro~h vtmtwwain isolated island area s

and contribute to local food supplies as well as income.

some islands (95). The two largest clams, Tridacna gigas and Tridacna derasa, have been

placed on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

(IUCN) endangered species list (154). Tridacna

gigas still live in the RMI and Palau, but are

no longer are found near Pohnpei or in the

Marianas, although fossil shells have been seen

in these areas (80).

Giant clams are unique among farmed animals in that they are autotrophic—they feed

themselves—through symbiosis with algae

embedded in their mantle. Exposure to sunlight

allows the algae to synthesize food for the clam,

thus they do not require artificial feeding as

do other species (154). This capability also

makes giant clams well-adapted to the sunlit

waters of low nutrient coral reefs, especially

near atolls. The annual production of edible

meat per acre from giant clams exceeds that

provided by tilapia and nearly reaches that of

mussels (75)0

The basic technologies for both intensive and

extensive giant clam farming now exist. Hatchery techniques developed at the Micronesia

Mariculture Demonstration Center (MMDC) in

Palau employ natural spawning of clam broodstock and rear clams to the juvenile stages (0.4-

to 0.8-inch shell size) in seawater raceways. By

using plankton-rich lagoon water there is no

need for feeding, but the success rate in breeding and rearing juveniles to the macroscopic

stages varies. Little capital investment beyond

the cost of juveniles and protective clam cages

for the earliest stages is required for the ocean

grow-out phase of giant clams, This phase

seems technically simple and clams of “growout size” appear to have few predators. Tim-
244 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Giant clams, immortalized incorrectly as “diver-trapping”

denizens of the deep in children’s cartoons, have been

overharvested throughout a significant part of their

range. Research on culture techniques for giant clams

are ongoing in a number of U.S.-affiliated Pacific

islands.

ing of the outplanting of clams to maximize benefits of nonreproductive periods of major clam

predators (e.g., the snail Cymatium muricinum)

and, if required, manual removal of predators

from nursery trays can ensure low predation

mortality rates (145). Still, with a normal growout phase of 3 to 5 years, the effects of giant

clam reseeding efforts will not be apparent for

at least a decade (154).

Trochus.—Technology for mass culture of

trochus also was developed at MMDC (72). It

is being transferred to Pohnpei where it could

be applied to reseed the regions depleted reefs

through a program similar to trout fishing enhancement programs in the United States.

However, reseeding trochus could conceivably

lead to reductions in populations of herbivorous

reef fish as a result of depletion of standing algal crops. Although trochus has been widely

introduced without obvious disruptions, no

data are available on interactions between populations of large herbivorous snails and herbivorous reef fish. Work to gather these data

could be undertaken.

Sea Turtle.—All four species of sea turtle

found in the U.S.-Affiliated islands are listed

as threatened or endangered species; thus, exploitation is prohibited or regulated. At selected

sites during the turtle nesting season, hatchlings could be captured and retained in mesh

pens or tanks, maintained until they pass the

stage of high vulnerability, and then released

to the ocean. Turtles are raised for release at

the MMDC. While wild turtles take between

20 and 50 years to reach sexual maturity, turtles in artificial culture systems may reach sexual maturity in 10 to 12 years (33). The ecological impact of releasing large numbers of young,

sexually mature turtles to the ocean has yet to

be studied.

Queen Conch.–Most reseeding efforts in the

Caribbean have focused on the queen conch.

Natural stocks have declined due to heavy fishing pressure throughout the region. Conch

hatcheries have been established in the Turks

and Caicos, Bonaire, Venezuela, Mexico, and

at the University of Puerto Rico (Mayaguez).

To date, the viability of restocking operations

for queen conch has not been demonstrated,

though it is technically possible to develop

hatchery operations adequate to support a release program (143). Preliminary data indicate

a possible positive impact of stocking, but only

if the stocked cohort has adequate habitat and

is protected from fishing pressure until after

it reaches reproductive age (4,11,79).

Coconut Crab.—Populations of coconut crab

(Birgus latro), highly prized throughout the Pacific, have decreased considerably and may be

extirpated on some islands. The adult crab

spends most of its life ashore, while the larval

stages are thought to be spent in lagoons or

within reefs. Thus, changes in these environments may affect the coconut crab. The mature animal possesses a large claw which it uses

to open coconuts and extract the coconut meat.

An on-going research program funded by the

Australian Centre for International Agriculture

Research (ACIAR), is investigating the potentials of farming this species and reintroducing

it regionally (95).

Opportunity: Conserve Nearshore

Resources

Ultimately, maximum economic yield cannot be attained in an open access fishery (129).

Development efforts directed toward increas-
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 245

ing the catch without regard for sustainable

yield in the Caribbean appear to have resulted

in overfishing of shallow-water reef fish stocks,

and probably of conch and spiny lobster as well,

Black coral fisheries are currently under study

and/or management in the USVI and Puerto

Rico, and harvesting of corals and other sessile or sedentary animals is restricted in these

islands by various Federal and commonwealth

statutes. All four species of sea turtle commonly

occurring in the islands are protected by living within Federal waters, or by their status

as threatened or endangered species. Other

methods of restricting harvest of particular species include:

●

●

●

●

restricting access to fisheries;

restricting efficiency of harvest efforts;

restricting harvest seasons, sexes, or sizes;

and

restricting markets for products derived

from certain species. -

In addition, many critical marine habitats fall

within protected parks and recreation areas

and, thus, certain populations are protected

from overexploitation (168). Identification and

protection of habitats critical to maintenance

of important fishery stocks is a method of conserving nearshore resources to ensure a sustainable yield.

Restrict Access.—Action to prohibit a portion of current fishermen from further participation in local fisheries politically is not realistic; freezing participation at current levels

might be more acceptable. More rigorous constraints such as fishing licenses could be applied to resources not heavily utilized now.

Such restrictions could obviously be modified

from time to time as better information became

available on resource abundance,

Common objections to limited entry measures are reduction in available jobs and possibly reduced supply of seafood due to decreased

numbers of fishermen. These objections do not

apply to the activities proposed here because:

1. the number of fishermen would be stabilized, not decreased; and

2. the supply of seafood should be expected

to increase due to improved management

of overexploited resources and identification of underexploited stocks.

Restrict Efficiency of Harvest Efforts.-The

Caribbean Fishery Management Council has

jurisdiction over Puerto Rico and the USVI, and

has prepared management plans for spiny lobster and shallow-water reef fish fisheries. These

plans place restrictions on types of gear that

may be used for harvest, and establish minimum permissible sizes for harvested individuals of particular species, (Other restrictions,

e.g., closure of seasons or fishing areas, are also

possible, but have not been enacted.) These

plans provide an excellent starting point for sustained development of nearshore marine resources in Puerto Rico and the USVI. Their primary shortcomings have been that they are

intended to focus on single species or groups

of species rather than entire systems, and must

address currently exploited species before consideration can be given to underexploited resources. Also, these plans must be adopted and

enforced by the respective island governments

(94).

Harvest Restrictions.—Experience with overexploitation has also led to measures to conserve marine resources in Micronesia. For example, a few years after discovery of topshell

as a source of nacre, harvests began to decline

in a pattern similar to that of pearl oyster. Island governments attempted to sustain populations at fairly constant levels by imposing regulations that controlled the length of the harvest

season and the minimum size of shells that

could be harvested (107,108).

Although most island governments have regulations on the harvest of edible or other commercially valuable shells, few have enacted protective measures for species involved in the

ornamental shell trade. Monitoring of this trade

among FAS is nonexistent, Additionally, there

is essentially no management of the aquarium

fish trade,

Restrict Market for Certain Species.—Overexploitation of corals and shells in some areas

have adversely affected the associated coral

reefs and resulted in bans on exports of corals

and shells (27,110,172), Most island govern-
246 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ments have legislatively restricted harvest of

coral for commercial purposes, and only a few

small-scale coral specimen enterprises cater to

the tourist industry (70). There is now no commercial export of specimen corals from the

U.S.-affiliated pacific islands.

Harvest of precious corals in American

Samoa and Guam is regulated by a fishery management plan under the Magnuson Fishery

Conservation and Management Act of 1976.

However, enforcement of regulations is rare.

The Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources has established permit requirements

for coral harvesting and harvest site restrictions. Harvesting is monitored as closely as

possible under current manpower restrictions

(155).

Protect Critical Habitats.—Ultimately, some

extremely sensitive areas and critical habitats

may have to be given special status as marine

parks and reserves. Coral reefs, which are

highly vulnerable to degradation, are prime candidates for such protection. Mangroves,

seagrass meadows, and other important fish

spawning and nursery areas are also excellent

site candidates.

The establishment of protected areas for ecosystem preservation has long been applied to

land areas. In recent years, interest in the establishment of marine parks and sanctuaries has

grown. However, definition and protection of

marine parks can be difficult because of the interrelated nature of island ecosystems. Marine

park definition must consider not only the nearshore habitats (coral reefs, seagrass meadows,

shallow bottoms, and mangrove and estuarine

environments) but also the terrestrial habitats

that are inextricably linked to and ultimately

affect the reserve’s quality. Thus, watershed

management becomes highly important to the

integrity of the marine park (140).

Additionally, sociocultural factors, including

traditional use rights and subsistence gathering, may further complicate successful siting

of marine reserves for some islands. Opportunities exist for developing flexible reserves that

may ameliorate these constraints. For example,

a rotating marine reserve has been established

in New Caledonia. Parts of the barrier reef are

closed sequentially for 3-year intervals, thereby

allowing each area a 3-year regeneration period

and continually maintaining an accessible reef

area (36).

Ideally, the marine park core area should be

large enough to be self-replenishing for all species the reserve is designed to protect; the implication then is to establish a core area with

the highest degree of diversity (140). If successfully sited, established, and managed, marine

parks and reserves may not only protect critical habitats but also provide a source of recruitment for restocking exploited surroundings.

As yet few such areas exist in the U.S.-affiliated islands. A wildlife preserve in Palau

(Ngerukewid Wildlife Preserve or the Seventy

Islands Park) contains considerable marine

areas in addition to the Limestone Islands, and

a federally designated marine sanctuary has recently been established in American Samoa

(Fagatele Bay). Trunk Bay (St. John) and Buck

Island (St. Croix) and the Virgin Islands National Park (St. John) have protected marine

areas in the USVI, and several sites are proposed as Federal or State marine sanctuaries

in Puerto Rico (e.g., Mona Island).

Marine parks can serve numerous purposes.

National marine sanctuaries are designated to

serve the multiple purposes of research, public education, recreation, and preservation of

ecological or esthetic values. Sanctuaries are

designed to provide protection and beneficial

use of distinctive marine resources that require

comprehensive, geographically oriented planning and management (158). The Fagatele Marine Sanctuary in American Samoa may have

considerable potential for environmental education and visitor recreation (9).

However, the needs for nearshore ecosystem

protection, public education, and research must

be carefully balanced. Overuse, for whatever

purpose, can degrade nearshore ecosystems.

For example, tourism impacts in Trunk Bay,

USVI, have resulted in severe degradation of

corals. Regulations to control access and activities are extremely important. In the Pacific,

such regulations may be patterned after tradi-
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 247

tional customs that effectively conserved the

environment prior to westernization (81).

While fishing efforts might be limited by any

or all of the above methods, effective policing

of domestic or foreign fishermen is extremely

difficult (151), particularly in tropical areas

where there is an abundance of species, large

numbers of fishermen and boats per unit of

catch (relative to western commercial fisheries),

and a paucity of catch and market data. Biologists also know much less about tropical species than they do about temperate marine food

fish and are thus poorly equipped to make useful decisions concerning their conservation.

Government enforcement of environmental

laws is lax in some U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands

and may be further impeded by fishermen who

may resent the loss of their traditional fishing

rights and the imposition of strange new laws.

In many cases regulatory regimes do exist, but

control of fishing effort may require a more coherent arrangement than the existing pattern

of fishing agreements (151). Establishment of

the Forum Fisheries Agency Regional Register represents a major advance insofar as it has

provided a regional sanction ensuring compliance by foreign vessels with the fisheries laws

of island governments (151).

Opportunity: Learn From Traditional

Conservation and Management

Systems

Fisheries science is a relatively modern discipline in western societies; however, management measures have been traditional village

activities in many Pacific islands (95). Fisheries

regulations in developed countries usually are

directed simply towards protecting the target

species, whereas many traditional measures

were designed to manage the species’ habitat

and ecological relationships (95). Despite attempts to protect overexploited resources, western culture techniques may be inappropriate

for management of multispecies tropical reef

fisheries. Traditional use rights in fisheries

(TURFS) is effectively the principle of limited

entry traditionally practiced by the Pacific islanders. This developed almost certainly because they depended on the sea for most of their

animal protein and because the marine resources around small, isolated islands are so

vulnerable to overexploitation (81).

Basic marine conservation measures associated with TURFS include closed seasons and

areas, and gear size and catch restrictions (85).

TURFS continue to play a major role in some

island cultures (e.g., Yap, Palau, the outer Caroline Islands); a diminished but significant role

in others (e.g., Truk, Samoa); and have lapsed

entirely in others (e.g., Marianas, Pohnpei, Kosrae). Knowledge of these reef and sea tenure

systems is fragmentary and studies performed

as little as 10 years ago may not reflect adequately the state of affairs today because of the

rapidly changing island economies.

Traditional management and conservation

systems have been seriously disrupted by the

introduction of modern fabrication, harvest,

preservation, and transport technologies. New

materials and technologies have obviated the

traditional long apprenticeship period. Consequently, the social status of fishermen has

diminished and traditional teachings on the interdependence of men and the environment

may no longer be passed on. This disruption

has been accelerated by the economic pressures

of commercialization which accompany fastgrowing urbanization. The public property,

open-access philosophy embodied in U.S. marine law directly conflicts with traditional island conservation mechanisms; thus, the effectiveness of modern conservation legislation has

been constrained from the outset and probably

has been diminished in effectiveness (81).

Regulations recognizing traditional marine

tenure in the islands could be established. To

be successful, management schemes must be

socially acceptable. Furthermore, any legislation that weakens marine tenure laws also reduces the ability of the owners to police these

resources—something they do voluntarily at no

cost to the government if their rights are secure. Such legislation therefore would increase

the government’s regulatory responsibilities

and place serious new burdens on already understaffed and underfunded fisheries departments (81).
248 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Management schemes could formally recognize traditional marine tenure in the islands.

Sea tenure and exclusive reef ownership underlie traditional island fisheries management,

and private enterprises, such as seaweed and

giant clam farming, pearl culture, and trochus

fishing, probably would respond appropriately

to exclusive ownership. Further, families, clans,

and communities might be more willing to invest in the protection and acquisition of marine resources and might engage in more innovative resource development efforts due to a

greater confidence in their chances for a return on investment (23).

Where they currently exist, formal recognition of TURFS may contribute to fisheries conservation in the FAS, but they cannot guarantee it. Systems of traditional fishing rights are

very diverse, and some are more useful in fisheries management than others. While TURFS

work against maximizing employment in the

short term, in their absence, employment might

be affected much more severely in the long

term. Where TURFS impede full exploitation

of marine resources, but have strong community support (a characteristic of subsistence

economies), it probably would be politically unacceptable to abolish them. Where weakly held

TURFS impede full exploitation, they might be

modified to facilitate greater harvests, but

hastening their demise would rarely be justified.

TURFS do pose an impediment to commercial tuna fishermen who obtain bait fish from

TURFS. The formalities of requesting and granting permission take considerable time and some

tuna fishermen have become so frustrated they

have left valuable resources unharvested (83).

TURFS also may impede nearshore harvest of

migratory pelagic species. A fisheries “progress

report” for Truk (133) reported that fishermen

did not buy nets to catch abundant mackerel

that traveled in schools in the lagoon because

the ownership of fishing grounds prevented

their pursuing the schools. One possible solution to this is to interest representatives of

different TURFS in cooperative arrangements—

for example, in the joint purchase of a single

net to be used cooperatively to harvest the

migrating fish.

Opportunity: Emphasize Local

Management of Marine Resources

Even in places where traditional authority

does not exist, is faltering, or has disappeared,

local management initiatives, if instituted,

could have a positive impact not only on fisheries, but also on recreational and tourism sectors. Enforcement responsibilities probably

would be assumed by villages and other local

organizations if the groups firmly believe that

the management strategy was beneficial. For

example, village councils in American Samoa

could take a more active role in conservation

and management (170).

Fisheries cooperatives are another possible

means of using nontraditional but still local authority to pursue management objectives. The

Japanese took this route, gradually transferring

TURFS from traditional village leaders to

village-based cooperatives. However considerable expertise—cultural, biological, and

economic—is required to adapt cooperative

forms of enterprises to island social settings

(23).

Of particular relevance are the activities of

the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (cf:139), which is currently involved

with developing management strategies for the

Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve. A variety of

potential benefits to nearshore fisheries are

associated with this activity including improved

information on major stocks and ecosystem

processes, establishment of breeding reserves

for heavily exploited or threatened species, and

provision of information needed for rational

development of underutilized species. Because

of the commonality of marine resources, these

benefits may also be significant to other Lesser

Antillean countries, and prospects for a multisite regional Biosphere Reserve are being investigated.

Summary

Considering the limited extent of nearshore

resources in the U.S.-affiliated islands and indications of probable” overfishing, credit, and

incentive programs for purchase of vessels and
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture c 249

gear (e.g., the program for Fishery Credit conducted by the Puerto Rican Agricultural Credit

Corp.) probably are not conducive to sustainable development of fisheries unless the fishing

effort being capitalized is directed toward underexploited resources or areas (e.g., offshore

banks or seamounts).

The approach to nearshore fisheries development in the Pacific islands also has been

shortsighted. Development has been viewed as

being synonymous with the commercialization

of the subsistence fisherman. Little attention

has been paid to either the long- or short-run

opportunity costs of this “development.” Management and conservation regulations have

usually pursued a species-specific, gear specific, or seasonal format. Enforcement costs

have been high and results negligible,

Introduction

Aquiculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms in fresh, brackish, or marine waters, began at least 2,000 years ago in China and developed into a widely accepted procedure for

producing food in India, Malaysia, Indonesia,

the Philippines, and elsewhere in tropical and

subtropical Southeast Asia (58). A primitive

form of aquiculture—holding juvenile fish in

coastal impoundments, sometimes with supplemental feeds—was practiced traditionally in

various island groups, including Hawaii. The

remnants of early fish traps and impoundments

can be found on many islands, but few are currently in use (58),

Aquiculture can range from the culture of

simple (e. g., single-cell algae) to complex organisms (e. g., sea turtles). Similarly, systems range

from nearly self-sustaining extensive ponds to

high energy-, capital-, and labor-intensive hatcheries and raceways. Markets are as diverse as

products: species may be maintained in ponds

as a means of storing protein for subsistence

consumption, or cultured to supply local demand (e.g., tilapia) or distant specialty markets

(e.g., phycocolloids). Aquiculture’s history and

range of potential uses, however, conceal a considerable number of modern failures; it should

not be viewed as a ready solution for social and

economic problems faced in the islands today

(163).

Most U.S.-affiliated tropical islands have an

active interest in the development of aquaculPhoto credit: Office of Technology Assessment

This experimental giant clam hatchery in Pohnpei

employs culture techniques developed at the

Micronesia Mariculture Demonstration Center i n

Palau. Success of this experimental hatchery may lead

to expanded operations in Pohnpei.

ture. Goals commonly cited for aquiculture development include:

1.

2

3

4.

5.

to increase the availability of animal protein to improve nutrition;

to increase job opportunities and income

generation in rural areas;

to create an additional tax base to generate government revenues;

to generate export dollars; and

to supplement marine resources by providing seed stock for reseeding nearshore

areas that have been depleted by overexploitation (163), and to compensate for decreasing fish catches,
250 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Although benefits in total dollar value would

be greatest on large islands like Puerto Rico and

Guam, and least on the small islands and atolls,

on a percentage basis a small increase in employment or food supply on the small islands

might be of greater relative importance (58).

A large number of tropical and temperate species have potential for aquiculture in the U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands. A Pacific islands mariculture conference (69) was convened some

years ago to advise in the development of aquaculture in this region. Notably, aquiculture has

been proposed for food production, phycocolloid production, water treatment, and bait fish

production. A number of Federal and local

agencies and educational institutions have

funded aquiculture research in each of these

areas. Guam has even completed an Aquaculture Development Plan (52) and funded feasibility studies for the operation of a multispecies hatchery (cf:5,154).

Neither Puerto Rico nor the USVI has an extensive history of aquiculture development, although both seem to have good potential for

aquatic farming. Aquiculture development in

Puerto Rico began around 1970 when research

was initiated with tilapia, catfish (Ictalarus

punctatus), and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). The island has excellent potential for development of viable aquaculture projects involving a variety of species

(59,128). In general, it has a stable, well-developed infrastructure. Materials and services, including research, extension, and skilled and unskilled labor are available.

Overall, Puerto Rico has a number of suitable sites for pond, pen, and raft production

units for freshwater and especially marine species. The USVI seem to have much lower potential for land-based aquiculture development,

being much smaller. In the USVI, research and

development have largely focused on a project

in St. Croix to evaluate the potential of using

nutrient-rich deep ocean waters pumped to

shore to grow algae for feeding to various species of shellfish (138). While technically feasible, the economics of the system and species

were not promising. There does not appear to

be any other significant aquiculture development in the USVI. However, the potential for

development of saltwater hatcheries and cage/

pen culture of fish in coastal waters has not

been adequately researched.

In spite of the long-term interest and previous work, few commercially viable aquiculture

ventures exist in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific islands at present. A few have developed in

Guam, which has a relatively large local market and sophisticated technological base. Significant research efforts are under way to develop cultivation of phycocolloid-bearing

seaweeds (Guam, Kosrae, and Pohnpei), freshwater prawns (Guam), giant clams (Palau), and

rabbitfish (Guam and Palau) (119). Other species identified as having particular potential for

aquiculture development in the region include

marine shrimp, pearl oysters, milkfish, mullets,

tilapia, and bath sponges.

Many aquiculture projects have failed in the

U.S.-affiliated islands. Many efforts were designed as research and development or demonstration projects and, as such, were not designed to show a positive cash flow, Others,

although workable, were poorly executed and

some projects have been supported even when

impractical or when they exhibited a suboptimal use of available resources (33). Most resulting ventures have been unable to market

products profitably, eventually develop cash

flow problems and subsequently fold. Aquaculture projects supported by international assistance agencies commonly are developed by

temporarily assigned, outside consultants. On

their departure, projects may fold due to lack

of follow-on assistance, or lack of local technical

and business management skills (163). Components such as training, economic analysis, commercial development, and technology transfer

often were missing in the failed aquiculture

projects (163).

Local residents who want to grow food or increase their income by raising fish or shellfish

need ambition and a real interest in aquaculture, as well as a simple, thoroughly proven low

capital cost system for growing the selected species, readily available low cost inputs (feed and
.

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 251

labor) and a local market. Commercial-scale

farms require a thorough feasibility study,

sound business and financial management, adequate financing, enough land at an acceptable

cost, identified markets, and adequate technical staff with culture expertise.

The primary adverse impact of past aquaculture activities has been the introduction of exotic species, such as tilapia and the Malaysian

freshwater prawn into the wild in Puerto Rico.

The introduced Oreochromis mossambicus is

now considered a pest because its inferior qualit y as human food has created consumer resistance to the cultured species (Tilapia nilotica).

There may also be ecological consequences

from introduction of exotics, such as the displacement and extinction of endemic species,

particularly since island species generally

evolved under less severe competitive pressures

than continental species.

Such scenarios are even more likely in the

relatively fragile and little understood inland

aquatic habitats of the islands. Pests or diseases

also can be introduced along with the desired

exotics, which can have significant effects on

local related species. Therefore native species

are preferred to introduced species for aquaculture whenever possible (119).

Aquiculture activities require a source of

juveniles for stocking. Juveniles can be supplied

from broodstock matured and spawned in captivity or collected from the wild. Because most

locally available species already are exploited

to some degree by the local populace, hatchery production of young rather than collection

from the wild is desirable for most aquiculture

in the U.S.-affiliated islands. While hatchery,

nursery, and grow out can be integrated for

large operations, commonly hatcheries are centralized to provide juveniles for a variety of

grow-out situations and farms (33),

Potential Strategy: Develop

Sea Ranching

One form of sea ranching involves taking

juveniles or other stock from the wild and growing them under managed conditions (154), Most

species potentially suitable for restocking also

are considered for sea ranching. Tropical invertebrates, mainly mollusks, are candidates for

tropical island sea ranching, in contrast to the

temperate zone where migratory fish (salmon)

are the primary target (12). For example, in Manus (Papua New Guinea), giant clams are collected and held in walled reef areas until fishing is bad, providing a secure food source and

a limited form of conservation. This form of

culture does not promote growth, but it does

establish property rights, which may result in

the mollusks being held longer before harvest

than if they were not in “ranches” (154). A 1982

review of recent conch mariculture efforts (13)

indicated that commercial conch culture was

not a viable proposition, but conch ranching

may offer potential. However, success with this

technology carries with it the risk that natural

stocks will be collected at a rate faster than

otherwise, leaving few for breeding in common

areas (154).

The success of sea ranching depends on the

availability of wild broodstock, accessibility of

individuals to collect and ranch, property rights

to the species within an area, incentives to conserve breeding populations, and enforcement

measures to protect wild and ranched populations from poaching. To foster success, such

programs could be accompanied by strong

measures to control fishery pressure, possibly

with habitat protection and/or enhancement,

Potential Strategy: DeveIop

Extensive Culture in Natural Waters

Low technology extensive culture systems

may be most appropriate where available natural nutrient abundance is adequate, and minimization of capital expenditures and production costs are major concerns. However, the

reduced inputs and lower stocking densities of

extensive culture systems generally is accompanied by reduced yields, In a true extensive

culture system all of the species’ nutritional requirements are derived from natural sources

without human intervention. Thus, islands with

greater terrestrial resources and therefore

greater levels of available organic matter may

63-222 0 - 87-9 QL. 3
252 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

have larger potential for extensive culture systems. A number of species have been identified as appropriate for extensive culture systems including oysters and seaweeds (58).

Opportunity: Bottom and Near-Bottom

Culture of Sedentary Species

Intertidal or subtidal culture of high densities of sedentary species on or off bottom is

attractive, but practical only where natural supplies of phytoplankton provide adequate nutrition—both quantity and quality—for filter-feeding mollusks or substrates that are suitable for

seaweed culture. This generally occurs only in

areas receiving nutrients from the land (58).

Aquiculture on coral reefs, or of reef-dwelling

organisms, is in the early stages of development

and few species of animals or plants are currently cultured on a commercial scale.

At present, a red algae (Eucheuma sp.) is cultivated commercially in the Philippines and a

few other areas for the production of carrageenin (39,40). Techniques for cultivating Trochus

have been developed (72), and hatcheries are

planned or operating on a pilot scale in Palau,

Australia, New Caledonia, and the Cook Islands. Members of the Tridacnidae family can

now be cultivated in sufficient numbers for

commercial purposes (75,117). In the Bahamas,

a significant recent development has been the

recognition that the giant Caribbean king crab

(Mithrax spinosissimus) is herbivorous, feeding mostly on algal turfs, is easily reared, and

grows to at least 2.2 pounds in its first year (134).

Oyster Culture.—The culture of edible oysters

is a traditional form of aquiculture throughout Asia, and methods now in use could be readily applied anywhere that the aquatic environment is satisfactory. Inputs are relatively simple

since oysters obtain their own feed from the

water. In most cases native species can be used,

although some are too small for the market. The

introduction of acceptable species from similar tropical environments may also be possible, although care should be taken to avoid introduction of parasites, diseases, predators,

pests, or competing species.

Oysters require substantial quantities of

phytoplankton, and waters slightly less saline

than those of the high seas. Thus the potential

for their culture is higher in the temperate than

the tropical zone. Nevertheless oysters occur

in isolated tropical locations, especially near

the large mountainous islands which provide

substantial amounts of terrigenous nutrients

and freshwater to nearshore areas. These areas

may have considerable potential for development of family, collective, or commercial oyster farms.

The establishment of oyster farms requires

careful site selection and preferably pilot-scale

tests. Also the method of culture will depend

on the suitability of the substrate, the exposure

to storms, and other biological factors. In some

places, off-bottom culture is used to avoid predators and to increase growth rate. In this case

the oysters can be suspended below fixed racks

or floating rafts (59). Parasite infestations have

terminated most oyster culture projects in the

Pacific islands (162).

Aquiculture in Puerto Rico includes a small

oyster fishery and some low-technology efforts

to develop oyster farming based on research

in the 1970s (169). The limited suitable area,

mainly in Boqueron Harbor, precludes the development of a large oyster industry.

Pearl Oyster Culture.—Potential exists for

profitable farming of pearl oyster species at

various places in the Pacific islands. These species have been important items of commerce

in Oceania for centuries (123). This type of cultivation is especially suited to atoll lagoon environments. Spat are reared in polyethylene net

baskets until they reach 3.5 inches in diameter.

Then, they are affixed to strings suspended

from underwater platforms where they are left

to grow for 3 years (145).

Research was conducted over a period of approximately 3 years by scientists at CNEXO

(now EFRIMER) in Tahiti to develop technologies for the mass production of pearl oyster

spat. However, oyster hatchery technologies developed for other species apparently were not

successful when applied to the pearl oysters,
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 253

so the research was discontinued (119). Since

hatchery techniques for pearl oysters have not

been developed, seed stock is obtained from natural spatfall. One problem with this method is

that spat of the desirable pearl oyster, P. margaritifera, is often mixed with and, at a small

size indistinguishable from, spat of smaller, undesirable species (119).

Although some attempts have been made to

develop this industry in Palau, no pearl culture

activities are ongoing in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands today. The success of this industry in Polynesia, however, and the research under way there indicates that the culture of pearl

oysters has potential to contribute to developmental efforts in other areas of the Pacific, including Micronesia and American Samoa. The

development of this industry in Micronesia or

Samoa would require training in the techniques

of inducing the oysters to form pearls. The Tahitian Government is sponsoring experts to

train culturists in these techniques so, presumably, the technology could be transferred to

other areas (119).

Queen Conch.—The most important edible

mollusk in the eastern Caribbean, the queen

conch (Strombus gigas), is seldom found below

100 feet, and is highly vulnerable to overfishing. There have been several efforts to develop

technologies for conch culture, but a review

of progress in the field (13) concluded that commercialization does not seem economically feasible and a similar conclusion was reached at

the November 1985 meeting of the Gulf and

Caribbean Fisheries Institute (61).

Seaweed Cultivation.—Some 10 species of

marine benthic algae reported from the U. S.-

affiliated islands may have the potential to yield

harvestable commercial products (156). Seaweed cultivation may be particularly well suited

to remote islands, since the thalli can be sundried and stored for many months.

The red algae genus Eucheuma has been

farmed successfully on a pilot scale in Pohnpei (41) and Kosrae (146), but no marketing has

been conducted. Eucheuma is used as a source

of carrageenin gel in the food, pharmaceutical,

and cosmetic industries. As the phycocolloid

industry is limited by the supply of seaweed,

the market situation for seaweed cultivation

seems promising. However, high freight costs

restrain the financial return to growers, and

Asian nations may have an insurmountable

advantage over small Pacific islands in terms

of scale economies and labor costs (95), that may

affect the long-term economic viability of commercial seaweed mariculture. Some attention

has been given to the cultivation of seaweed

as food for other organisms (53) (i.e., rabbitfish

grown in association with algal turfs), however,

this is likely to remain only a peripheral activity.

The Smithsonian Institution’s Marine Systems Laboratory (MSL) has been active in

mariculture research in Caribbean reefs. Research efforts have led to development of techniques for algal turf farming on artificial surfaces. While the harvested algae has a variety

of purposes a primary interest exists in using

it as a food source for the Caribbean king crab

(Mythrax spinosissimus).

The MSL and the Puerto Rico Corporation for

Development of Marine Resources (CODREMAR)

and the University of Puerto Rico (Mayaguez)

will be cooperating in the Caribbean king crab

mariculture demonstration project sited on Vieques. Puerto Rico’s Secretary of Natural Resources has committed funding to the project.

The U.S. Navy has given tentative approval despite the project’s siting in a naval training area

on Vieques. The techniques involved in Caribbean king crab mariculture also maybe applicable to culture of other marine species. Further, the demonstration project may provide

information necessary for increased development of Puerto Rico’s mariculture efforts (134).

Potential $trategy: Culture of

Marine Fish in Enclosures

The culture of marine species in floating net

pens or cages is applicable to any island where

space can be obtained in estuaries or bays protected from storms. This system requires no

pumping of seawater and has low initial costs

(58). This culture method is used in many other

coastal areas (i.e., Japan, Norway, Scotland, the

United States, and Canada], and several tropi-
254 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

cal species might be grown in cages or enclosures in the Pacific or Caribbean islands.

However, the potential for conflict between

mariculture practitioners and other reef and

lagoon users exists (155), and may require development of mechanisms to ameliorate or prevent such conflicts.

Dolphinfish, for example, could be grown at

hundreds of sites on the islands of the Pacific

and Caribbean, since it occurs throughout the

tropical seas. Field trials indicate good potential for growing dolphinfish in large floating

nets or cages. However, the viability of such

culture has not been determined. The chief

unknowns are the availability and costs of

feeds, the feasibility of operating local hatcheries, and the logistics of supplying inputs and

processing and marketing the products.

Several species of grouper (Serranidae family) are grown commercially or for home use

in enclosures or cages in Southeast Asia.

Groupers occur throughout tropical and subtropical seas and are well accepted as food. A

need exists for research to determine if methods used in Southeast Asia are applicable and

to evaluate markets, availability and cost of feed

and other inputs, development of locally produced feed, and wild stock availability.

Puerto Rico has an extensive shoreline of

nearly 300 miles with numerous inlets and

small bays which provide protected waters that

may be suitable for anchoring floating pens or

cages. Guam, surrounded by a surf-swept fringing reef, has few such areas, precluding most

forms of floating net pen cultures there. On the

other hand, hundreds of narrow channels and

bays exist between individual islands of Palau.

There is potential there for floating net pen culture of several species; local experience with

rabbitfish culture would provide a sound basis

for culturing this species. Sites are available,

but to a considerably lesser extent, in the USVI,

the CNMI, FSM, and the RMI. Because of heavy

reliance of some of these islands on fish imports, evaluation of this means of increasing

domestic production could have merit.

Most investigations of cage culture potential

for Caribbean finfish appear to have been done

in Martinique where preliminary results indicate that yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus), permit (Trachinotus falcatus), palmometta

(Trachinotus goodei], and European sea bass

(Dicentrarchus sp.) have commercial potential.

Other species under investigation elsewhere

and deserving attention for the U.S. Caribbean

include redfish, epinephilid groupers, striped

bass and its hybrids, tilapia, dolphinfish

(Coryphaena sp.), and amberjack.

Potential Strategy: Pond Culture

Traditionally, freshwater fish and shellfish

in Southeast Asia were grown in large shallow

ponds supplied with fresh or brackish water.

The modern version of this system is a series

of ponds from less than 1 to as many as 50 acres

each with a depth of 2 to 3 feet, supplied with

freshwater at 10 to 50 gallons per minute per

acre from wells (bore holes), streams, or irrigation canals (58).

Freshwater ponds are used for growing various fish and crustaceans including freshwater

prawns, tilapia, catfish, carp, ornamental fish,

crayfish, etc., in monoculture or polyculture

systems. Freshwater pond culture of eels, carp,

and freshwater prawns has been developed on

Guam and could be expanded (58). Since water

is scarce, several species might be cultured in

the same pond and the water reconditioned or

reused.

In Southeast Asia and in some of the Pacific

islands such as Hawaii, marine or estuarine fish

and some shellfish were grown in shallow

coastal ponds which could be flooded at high

tide. This technology has now been applied in

many countries to provide low-cost ponds for

aquiculture of marine shrimp and various marine or brackish water fish.

Coastal farms should be sited on clay or other

relatively impermeable soil. Many ponds built

earlier in mangrove swamps were found to be

unusable. The swamps’ acid sulfate soil made

pond waters highly acid, which was detrimental to fish health and growth. To avoid this,

ponds must be constructed inshore of mangrove forests, even though ponds must then be
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 255

pumped full (58). Recent studies in the Philippines have developed methods of pond-building

in acid soils (162).

Freshwater Prawn.—The culture of the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii on a small commercial scale has been

accomplished in Guam, and pond production

of the species has proven satisfactory (55). M.

rosenbergii has also been cultured on an experimental scale on Palau. Areas especially suitable

for Macrobrachium culture occur on Pohnpei

and Palau as well as Guam, although freshwater

is in severely limited supply during the dry season. In Pohnpei, freshwater might be adequate

for small-scale prawn farming. Since the development of hatchery techniques for mass production of post-larval stages, interest in prawn

culture has been considerable. However, no

operating hatcheries exist in Guam or Palau at

present, and pond operators have been dissatisfied with Hawaiian supplies of post-larvae.

In addition, past trials have exhibited relatively

poor performance and interest has waned (162).

Although M. rosenbergii occurs naturally in

Micronesia only in streams of Palau (112), several endemic species of Macrobrachium occur

in freshwater habitats of the region, including

another large species, M. lar. Work has focused

on this species with the idea that ponds could

be stocked with post-larvae and juveniles from

local streams. The simultaneous introduction

of predators and competitors poses problems

(166), but to date no other source of the postlarvae exists. This species requires higher salinities than M. rosenbergii and is more aggressive, but is worthy of attention for cultivation

on a cottage scale basis in areas where M. rosenbergii cultivation is not feasible.

Because of rapidly increasing prawn culture

within the Pacific region, prawn culture in

Micronesia probably can be developed only to

fulfill local demand. Prawn aquiculture in the

Indo-Pacific area is predicted to triple by 1990,

which may result in an oversupplied market.

Only 100 tons of the total estimated 140,000 tons

is expected to be produced on Pacific islands

(95).

Two early prawn farms failed in Puerto Rico,

following extensive flood damage in 1975 and

1979 (58); a third discontinued operations in

1982, but was reactivated by Sabana Grande

Prawn Farms, Ltd., and is now in operation

with 86 acres of ponds and a hatchery (57).

There is considerable interest in expansion with

export to the United States and other markets.

Marine Shrimp.—Potential exists in Puerto

Rico for farming marine shrimp (Penaeus sp.),

but few large coastal tracts are available. Farms

would need to include hatcheries with facilities

for maturation of brood stock, since no wild

stocks occur in the area. Adaptive research and

pilot-scale tests to determine the applicability

of Latin American technology for marine

shrimp culture would be advisable,

Technical potential also exists for marine

shrimp culture in the Pacific; preliminary trials

have been conducted in Guam and American

Samoa (119). Juveniles are not available, however, and stocks of the shrimp in shallow nearshore waters are too small to supply a hatchery. There is some potential for growing marine

shrimp on the island of Babelthaup (Palau). Although suitable land is limited, small-scale

farms might be established for the local market and for air shipment to Guam,

The technology of broodstock maturation is

developing slowly for marine shrimp. The development of this technology will stimulate expansion of marine shrimp farming in the Caribbean islands, and possibly in the Pacific islands.

The MMDC in Palau has facilities for marine

shrimp culture and could be activated with new

broodstock maturation technology development (33).

Mangrove Crab.—Another crustacean with

potential for cultivation in the Pacific region

is the mangrove crab Scylla serrata. Potential

for its culture has been examined in Guam, but

no commercial development has been realized

and little interest in the species exists elsewhere

in the region (119). This species is successfully

cultured in Taiwan and Japan (33).

Rabbitfish.—Several species of rabbitfish

(Siganidae), a prized fish throughout the Pacific
256 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

are attractive candidates for aquiculture (98,

103) in ponds, as well as in natural enclosures

or cages, or in association with algal turfs. They

are herbivorous, juveniles can be collected from

reef-flats in large numbers (91), will readily accept and thrive on commercially available pelletized diets, and survive in brackish water as

well as seawater. Research efforts currently are

underway in Guam and elsewhere.

Since the abundance of juveniles is extremely

variable from year to year, the availability of

stable supplies will eventually depend on mass

production in hatcheries; the development of

hatchery technologies is under way and several species have already been spawned and

reared in captivity (89,132,167). Juveniles were

consistently produced on a small scale at a

hatchery of the MMDC in Palau for several

years. Further work on reducing hatchery mortalities, and on the development of grow-out

technologies is warranted since siganids bring

a higher price than most other reef fish.

Milkfish.—Milkfish (Chanos chanos) are

hardy and tolerate a range of environmental

conditions from freshwater to saltwater, although they are most often cultured in brackish ponds. Milkfish have been successfully cultivated in several adjacent regions and are being

cultured in ponds in Guam. However, wild

stocks are too small to support a fry fishing industry. Areas with sufficient wild stock (e.g.,

Palau) have not developed milkfish culture, and

export of fry from the Philippines, where milkfish culture is an economically important industry, has been banned by the government.

Recently, however, aquaculturists have been

able to spawn pond-reared broodstock, hatchery techniques are being developed (42), and

it seems the availability of fry will increase,

removing a major constraint to culture.

Mullet.—Several species of mullet may have

considerable potential for development and

have received some attention in Guam. Growth

rates are slower than those of milkfish, but techniques for induced spawning and grow-out of

the larger species such as the grey mullet (Mugil

cephalus) have been well developed (142). The

culture of juvenile mullet to market size can

be economical because mullet feed largely on

pond biota, requiring only fertilization. Mullet culture in the region deserves further consideration. Sources of fry need to be identified

as an initial step.

Redfish.—The redfish (Sciaenops ocellata) is

attractive as an aquiculture species since it can

tolerate salinities from nearly 0 to as much as

45 parts per thousand. It can be grown in shallow ponds similar to those used for marine

shrimp and prefers temperatures of 68 to 92° C.

Although predacious in nature, redfish can be

conditioned to feed on formulated pellets with

acceptable conversion ratios. The redfish is

highly esteemed as a food fish. Juvenile redfish

could be obtained from a commercial hatchery in Texas and raised to adults at the site

selected for the culture operations to provide

brood stock (58).

Tilapia.—Tilapia, a staple food in many developing countries, are perhaps the easiest fish

to grow in tropical aquiculture systems. They

are extremely resistant to disease; withstand

high density; and tolerate low dissolved oxygen, a wide range of salinity levels, and other

adverse environmental conditions (58).

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Intensive aquiculture systems, employing supplemental

feeding and high stocking density, may increase

production significantly. Shown here is commercial

tilapia aquiculture in Guam; peletized feed is

discharged periodically from a homemade automatic

feeder at the right edge of the pond.
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 257

Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) are cultured fairly successfully on a small commercial scale in Guam and will probably continue

to serve the local market. However, this species can readily establish itself in a variety of

aquatic habitats, and the introduction of tilapia into islands where it does not already exist

may have undesirable consequences (119). Tilapia eradication projects are underway in

Kiribati and Nauru (162).

One commercial venture based on this species was started in Puerto Rico in about 1980

but was unsuccessful because of a poorly designed culture system. Research and development by the University of Puerto Rico has

shown that tilapia culture with well-designed

systems has much potential. Many areas in

Latin America and the Caribbean islands are

ideally located for large-scale culture of tilapia

which might enter the world trade as frozen

boneless fillets (58).

The efficiency of tilapia culture on a commercial scale depends on establishing the natural biota which provides part of the food and

supplementing this with artificial feeds containing about 20 percent protein. Tilapia can be

grown at lower density in family or subsistence

farms without supplemental feeds or fertilization with animal manures. Production can be

increased to at least 6,000 lbs/acre/year by stocking at high density and providing supplemental feed (58).

Ornamental Fish.—Potential for growing

various species of freshwater and marine tropical fish for the aquarium trade exists in the

Caribbean and Pacific regions. While freshwater tropical fish commonly are cultured, marine tropicals usually are collected from the

wild. Species already are imported from Guam,

American Samoa, the RMI, and Hawaii. To be

competitive, such ventures would need to undercut production and shipping costs from

other countries and production costs in Florida.

In practice, most tropical aquarium farms raise

several species and carefully select the best

specimens for breeding purposes to maintain

high quality of the product. This requires considerable expertise and strict procedures. However, this form of aquiculture is attractive because of the high value of the product, the short

time required to reach market size and the small

quantity of feed required (58).

Bait fish.—Extensive efforts to culture bait

fish have taken place in American Samoa with

monies, and in the RMI and Kiribati with milkfish (58). Results of the work in American

Samoa and test fishing at sea show that mollies are acceptable as live bait for skipjack and

yellowfin tuna but culture has been uneconomical under experimental conditions (22,165).

Similar results were obtained from the Kiribati

experimental farm. The milkfish were acceptable for pole and line fishing for tuna, however,

an economic analysis of the project indicated

little or no profit margin existed (163). There

also is the possibility of growing native marine

species such as the nehu or anchovy (Stole@ orus purpureus), the apagons (Apogonidae), and

the white goby (Glossogobius giurus) or other

species which are captured in the lagoons by

tuna fishermen.

The emergence of purse seine fishing as the

dominant technology for pelagic tuna harvest

has reduced the importance of pole-and-line

fishing, for which live bait is essential. If the

technology for culture of native marine species

could be developed, a stable aquaculture industry could be developed in many islands of the

Pacific and the pole and line tuna fishery could

be expanded. Again, this probably could expand only to fulfill local demands as the more

efficient purse seiners are driving down international tuna prices (105). Alternatively, collecting fees for baitfish harvest may provide a

source of income for bait ground owners and

local governments, although this probably is

hindered by difficult negotiations (95).

Summary

Freshwater and saltwater pond culture, culture in net pens, cages, and intertidal or subtidal culture (on or off the substrate) are all applicable to tropical environments and species of

the U.S.-affiliated islands in the Pacific and the

Caribbean. Adaptive research will be required
258 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

to test the applicability of culture systems to

local environments and species. Although seawater is plentiful, site availability is still a problem, and economic feasibility uncertain. Logistical constraints plague nearly all island groups

(58).

Neither the U.S. Caribbean nor U.S. Pacific

islands have the large expanses of low-cost

coastal land and wild seed resources necessary

to support significant “extensive” commercial

pond aquafarms. Extensive aquiculture is characterized by low stocking density, little or no

supplemental feeding, low yields per unit area,

and high labor inputs. These systems are appropriate to Southeast Asia, where many developed, but are less suitable for the Pacific islands

where marine farming is not a common traditional activity (95). Extensive aquiculture on

a family scale may be possible, however, and

could supplement family diets.

Both island areas; however, have sites suitable for “semi-intensive” commercial operations, which are characterized by smaller, more

engineered and managed ponds, supplemental feeding and fertilization, higher stocking

density, and heavy or complete reliance on a

hatchery for supply of seed. Some aquafarm

development of this type is already under way

in Puerto Rico (e. g., Sabana Grande Prawn

Farms, Ltd.), and semi-intensive pond culture

of various species is likely to be a major area

of commercial aquiculture development for the

island in the future.

Intensive culture, involving a high degree of

environmental control (i. e., tanks and raceways), high stocking densities, complete reliance on commercial feeds, high energy inputs,

considerable technical expertise, and very high

productivity per unit area remains in the experimental or pilot phases of development and

probably is not yet feasible for most U.S.

islands.

In Puerto Rico, the lower elevations of the

coastal plains are generally considered primary

locations for aquiculture. Coastal lands near

urban areas commonly are unavailable or prohibitively expensive, but large areas of agricultural and rural lands could be used for aquaculture. For example, property abandoned from

sugar cane production may be suitable for aquaculture. The south and southwest coasts provide the most protected areas for onshore and

offshore culture. Areas below 700 feet generally have high enough temperatures to support

year-round production of certain warm-water

species. More cold-tolerant species such as

channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) could be

reared at somewhat higher altitudes (58).

In the Pacific islands, aquiculture operations

which employ simple methods to culture highly

desired species for local businesses (hotels and

tourist facilities) or species to restock depleted

areas may have the greatest potential. Production costs most likely would raise the price of

products above the financial reach of many local islanders participating in market economies

(95). However, aquiculture as a supplement to

subsistence activities and contributor to nonmarket economies may be practible (33).

It is apparent that the availability of technology itself is inadequate to stimulate development. The technology must be economically

feasible and socially acceptable. Most aquaculture projects that have been initiated in the islands attempted to prove the technology–a

risky proposition—and many did not address

economic or social issues. Thus, even if technical difficulties were overcome, the project

had little chance of developing into a sustainable operation (163). Unfortunately project failures have had an unfavorable impact on the

development of aquiculture: in the long-run,

failures discourage governments and agencies

from going into aquiculture.
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 259

SUMMARY OF MARINE RESOURCE STATUS AND

POTENTIAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT GOALS

Few, if any, nearshore resources remain underused in the U. S.- affiliated tropical islands.

Based on past trends of fisheries development,

future development of nearshore fisheries in

the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands might be

guided by several underlying concepts:

●

●

●

that growth embody the idea of smallness

and technical appropriateness,

that import substitution and long-run selfsufficiency be the foremost development

goals, and

that export of nearshore marine products

be fostered only when it does not have negative impacts on present or anticipated future subsistence activities and only when

such exports result in a significant local

retention of revenue (175).

Management and conservation concerns are

critical. An overcapitalized nearshore fishery

will encourage depletion—adding to the income

of market participants while reducing the

lifestyle of subsistence participants. Such income redistribution may not lead to desirable

long-run results (174,175).

A number of stocks appear to be overexploited in the U.S. Caribbean (61). Little empirical evidence exists of the present status of

marine resources in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific

islands, but circumstantial evidence leads to

the strong suspicion of an ever-growing sphere

of resource stress surrounding population

centers (17,127).

Fisheries development and management

could be carried out more in harmony with

traditional social institutions. Cooperative organizations present a potential mechanism for accomplishing this. However, considerable

expertise—cultural, biologic, and economic—

is required to adopt the western cooperative

form of enterprise to the island social setting.

Optimum use of nearshore marine resources

in the U.S.-affiliated islands probably requires

attention to both aquiculture and capture fisheries. The climate and traditions of the tropical Pacific islands are well-suited to many types

of aquacultural development. Although the potential for such development remains largely

unrealized, a high level of interest exists in

aquiculture and mariculture within the region.

This method of food production is appealing

as a result of the traditional reliance of the islands on the resources of the nearshore waters.

Most island groups have operated experimental

or pilot-scale culture operations of one form

or another.

Aquiculture ventures have had mixed success

in the U.S. Caribbean, but with increasing domestic (including tourist) demand for seafood,

opportunities exist for aquiculture development. While the USVI has little potential for

land-based aquiculture, some sites might be

available for culture of marine fish in offshore

enclosures. Puerto Rico has much greater potential for both land-based and offshore aquaculture.

Wild stocks are needed to supply seed or

brood stock for many aquiculture operations;

some aquiculture operations (sea ranching) are

essentially manipulations of natural processes

in the wild, Aquiculture can provide adjunct

or alternative opportunities to fishing enterprises which currently are marginal, and may

have the potential to rehabilitate overexploited

stocks.

While future development of nearshore fisheries is likely to continue to emphasize small

operations, aquiculture may be developed as

individual or commercial enterprises depending on the species being cultured. Certain economies of scale, for example, make small prawn
260 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

farms less desirable than larger ones. Aquaculture projects have had a disappointing history

in part because of the lack of site-specific pilot

evaluations and logistic difficulties characteristic of small islands. Aquiculture development

largely has focused on proving the technology,

and paying little attention to financial, market,

and socioeconomic aspects. Lack of attention

to these aspects may result in failure of a technologically successful pilot project as it attempts to transform into a commercial operation (162). Adequate planning with thorough

feasibility studies are needed to select appropriate species and sites and to reduce risks in

new public programs or private ventures. Such

planning studies should include sociocultural

and institutional factors which often have a major effect on the success or failure of aquaculture projects.

Positive impacts of aquiculture development

include increased employment opportunities,

strengthening of traditional subsistence economies, reduction of imports, development of

export products, improved use of marginal agricultural land, and potential increases in standing stocks of certain commercial fishery species. The most probable negative impacts are

possible removal of a few coastal areas from

general public access, and introduction or inadvertent release of exotic species. Negative impacts may result from small or even unsuccessful ventures, while the magnitude of benefits

will depend largely on the eventual scale of successful aquiculture operations. Introductions

are best undertaken with caution and only after thorough studies of the potential impact on

the native fauna have been completed. Local

species are preferable to introduced species

whenever possible.

Research

Resource management problems in the U. S.-

affiliated tropical islands are not only very complex at any one place or time, they also vary

greatly with space and time. Resource managers are simply not in a position to solve them

unilaterally; the biological and socioeconomic

knowledge bases are too slim. There are two

general responses to this problem, neither

novel: 1) obtain additional information, and 2)

encourage and support increased local involvement in marine resource management.

Baseline BioIogical, Ecological, and

Technical Research

More baseline research on important marine

resources and on ecological processes in tropical marine habitats is needed, particularly for

resource management in the Pacific islands.

Research projects that may not lead directly to

commercial development still are valuable in

that they may identify constraints to developments or indicate which fisheries or aquaculture activities are not feasible. Consideration

of such information in project design may determine and will increase the likelihood of

project success.

Marine biological research in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands is centered at the University of Guam Marine Laboratory (UGML). This

laboratory has a faculty of seven full-time researchers working in various fields within the

discipline. Environmental impact studies,

studies in aquiculture techniques and species

potential, and resource assessment surveys

have been performed by UGML personnel at

various islands throughout the region. Cooperative research programs have been developed

with Taiwan, Indonesia, and French Polynesia, and visiting scientists from around the

world have conducted research at the facility.

The Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources (DAWR) is active in marine resource

management and to that end performs pertinent

research related to Guam’s marine resources.

The DAWR uses annual fishery statistics to assess pressure on nearshore to offshore bank

aquatic resources resulting from recreational,

subsistence and commercial fisheries (66).

Additional marine research has been performed at the MMDC in Palau. Although there

are no resident scientists at MMDC, a number

of important advances in mass culture of trochus and giant clams have been made by researchers visiting this lab. Most islands of the

Federated States of Micronesia have plans for
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 261

small giant clam and trochus mariculture laboratories which eventually will supply their

reseeding programs.

Fisheries biologists of the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries

Center, Honolulu Laboratory conduct occasional island resource surveys. However, their

work has focused primarily on commercial food

species.

Fisheries officers employed by local governments also have been involved in marine research. Generally these studies have been related to resource assessments of edible marine

organisms and technologies such as artificial

reefs.

Local institutions in Puerto Rico and the U.S.

Virgin Islands have demonstrated capabilities

for undertaking much of the work needed to

realize opportunities related to the sustainable

development of marine resources. The College

of the Virgin Islands through its Ecological Research Station and the U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs

and the Fisheries Research Laboratory in

Puerto Rico have undertaken a number of

studies of local fisheries potential (cf:21,37,125,

152). Several activities of the Caribbean Fisheries Management Council (CFMC), comprised

of the University of Puerto Rico and the Virgin

Islands Marine Resource Management Cooperative are relevant to development and management of nearshore marine fisheries, and

these institutions have the ability to gather information needed for preparation of development and management plans for nearshore marine systems (61).

However, further research is needed. For example, the University of Puerto Rico and Medical University of South Carolina, in collaboration with other agencies and institutions in

Puerto Rico and the USVI could expand the current research programs directed toward developing a field test for ciguatoxic fish (61). Based

on the recommendations of the CFMC, local

government, academic, and nonprofit institutions could prepare proposals to support relevant research activities under applicable funding

programs, and could undertake these activities

in coordination with the CFMC.

Several general areas of biological research

are relevant to decisions involving marine resources in both the Pacific and Caribbean

regions:

● life history characteristics of important

organisms,

● larval ecology,

● ecological interactions among species, and

● role of disturbance in community structure

and development (168).

For planning, even more detailed information is required. For example, in order to determine the potential for development of relevant aquiculture in each island territory or

nation, sufficient information must be collected

to establish a database, including:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

identification of land or site availability and

land use regulations;

assessment of water availability and quality;

recommendations for appropriate species;

identification of current aquiculture projects;

existing tax structures and financial incentives;

availability and cost of transportation;

inventory of local energy supplies and current costs;

identification of legal or institutional constraints;

identification of construction and operating costs;

social, cultural, and environmental impact

considerations;

assessment of potential markets for relevant species;

assessment of local technical capability

and available institutional support; and

consideration of the prospects for manpower training (164). - -

Collection, assembly, and management of this

information probably will require substantial

external assistance (55).

The research priorities of individual islands

rarely correspond to U.S. national priorities.
262 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

For example, research funds for aquiculture

have been difficult to obtain on a sustained basis. Further, it requires several years to develop

a project from the experimental stage to a commercially viable operation. Many Federal granting agencies restrict research proposals to short

timeframes that are unrealistic for establishing

a database, developing management models,

and transferring technology to industry. Facilities are needed that could maintain a long-term

financial commitment to an activity and focus on transformation from pilot to commercial scale (33).

Academic institutions in Hawaii could assist

aquiculture development in the U.S.-affiliated

Pacific islands by conducting adaptive research

to determine the applicability of culture technology used in other areas and by conducting

research to solve problems during production.

The logical roles of academic institutions are

to provide such information and to train aquaculture scientists and operators of aquatic

farms. Centralization of Federal support into

regional approaches and regional research and

development centers would lead to more costeffective expenditures.

In many cases it would be helpful for governments to support pilot-scale tests and demonstrations of aquiculture systems conducted

by local academic institutions. A program of

adaptive research is, for example, needed to determine the applicability of culture methods for

snappers, sea perch, breams, rabbitfish, and

milkfish developed in Southeast Asia to the islands of the Pacific and Caribbean. If successful, this could facilitate the development of family, cooperative, and commercial aquiculture

in many islands which lack adequate supplies

of freshwater.

Social, Cultural, and Economic Research

The management of biological resources demands the expertise of social scientists and biologists, however, there has been almost no direct input from social scientists concerning the

role of social and cultural factors in marine resource management in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific. More needs to be known about the current status of TURFS in the Pacific islands,

especially American Samoa, Truk, and the

outer Caroline Islands. Biologists, geographers,

or anthropologists could carry out such studies.

However, because resources within island fishing grounds are becoming increasingly valuable as human populations increase and transportation to export markets improves, the value

of TURFS is increasing. Under the circumstances it is not surprising to find that villagers

will invent “traditional” fishing rights. Information obtained from villages on their fishing

rights and customs is thus likely to be more

reliable if it is elicited prior to the introduction

of plans for commercial fisheries development

in their waters.

Needed, along with improved information on

the contemporary status of traditional sea rights

practices, is more detailed local knowledge of

the relevant aspects of marine resource use

(locations, species, quantities harvested, methods used, distribution of the catch, the relation

between the size of the fishery and of the resource base, the effects of adjacent or overlapping commercial fisheries, etc.). No substitute

exists for detailed, locale-specific studies of current traditional sea rights and how they fit into

the complex and varied sets of biological, political, economic, cultural, and geographic factors relevant to marine resource management.

Assessment also is needed of the implications

of TURFS for island aquiculture development.

It should involve a review of the literature pertaining to other areas (Southeast Asia in particular) and field research in the islands. One

main objective of field research could be to determine whether past failures or successes in

aquiculture efforts were associated with traditional tenure systems. A thorough examination

of TURFS and their implications for management also could form a part of the training for

resource managers in the Pacific islands.

A number of writers have called for studies

of the causes for the failure of many artisanal

fisheries development and management programs. Today, our understanding of those general causes has increased. More valuable might

be the identification and evaluation of programs
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture “ 263

that have succeeded. Factors supporting success would be directly relevant to management

and extension efforts. For example, it may be

that charisma, empathy, and patience count for

as much as or more than scientific expertise.

Extension

The ultimate value of information depends

largely on the degree to which the affected public, legislators, and enforcement personnel appreciate the major ecological, social, and economic issues involved in management and

development of coastal resources, and on extension of technical and managerial information to potential practitioners. Given the financial constraints on local enforcement (159), it

is likely that public awareness and cooperation

will prove as important as regulation in preventing overexploitation.

The transfer of technology, often as part of

fisheries aid projects, sometimes has not been

successful or appropriate. The term “appropriate” could mean using materials that are locally

available, with a retention of local ways; or it

could mean using the most efficient methods

available and adapting local conditions to these.

Truly appropriate technology transfer may lie

between these extremes.

Introduced technologies should fulfill the requirements of the territory or country and

should not greatly exceed the general technological level of the area (95). Additionally, training of personnel in the use and maintenance

of equipment is integral in technology transfer. Imported technologies generally are more

successful when they can be adopted by artisanal fishermen with a minimum of training.

This is particularly so when the project is of

real interest to the participants and where infrastructure levels are sufficient to allow the

maintenance of imported equipment without

creating an economic burden on the fishermen

(95),

While the technologies developed in Southeast Asia may be more appropriate for the Pacific islands than technologies developed in

Western temperate countries, the Southeast

Asian experience may not provide a good

model for the Pacific islands with respect to

markets and factors of production, Asia has

large populations and markets that are easily

accessible by reliable transportation networks.

In the Pacific islands, small populations mean

small markets with unreliable and expensive

transport links. In Asia, the subsistence-level

market is large, with people facing a real protein shortage. In the Pacific islands, the diet

is nowhere near the crisis level of Asia; there

are few starving Pacific islanders. In addition,

land, labor, and water are abundant and cheap

in Asia. In the Pacific islands, labor and land

are limited and freshwater supplies may be critical (163).

The typical fisheries manager in the U. S.-

affiliated islands, whether indigenous or expatriate, generally has responsibilities too numerous to allow much time to be spent on extension activities. Carefully chosen individuals

whose sole responsibility is to serve as liaison

between fishing communities and the government are needed. Often such work would require living in fishing communities for weeks

or months at a time (cf:83 for a discussion

of some of the practical aspects of such involvements).

Many initially enthusiastic aquaculturists become discouraged as a result of management

problems or inflated expectations. This problem could be alleviated through proper counsel from knowledgeable extension agents and

marine advisory agents. Such services generally are lacking in most of the Pacific region.

The only formal marine extension programs

in the U.S.-affiliated islands are the Sea Grant

Extension Service, at the University of Puerto

Rico and the University of Guam Marine Laboratory (a cooperative project of the University

of Hawaii Sea Grant College Program and the

University of Guam). Staffed by a single agent,

the latter program has concentrated on fisheries

development, marine conservation, and public information and awareness.

Local fisheries officers have been involved

in extension efforts from time to time. A number of fishermen’s training programs have been
—

264 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

conducted through marine resources offices.

If significant development of nonfood marine

resources is to occur, especially in the more

remote islands, marine extension and advisory

programs throughout the region will need to

be strengthened.

Marine extension agents could be established

in major population centers, and could travel

regularly to more remote fishing communities.

Working closely with the islanders, the agents

would transfer new and proven technical information from researchers to the harvest sector and facilitate research by relating problems

encountered in the resource management sector to the appropriate researchers. It would be

useful to educate extension agents as well as

administrators, scientists, and resource managers from outside the area on local customs

and cultures. To perform more efficiently, the

extension agents could receive annual updates

and training programs in technology and market developments. This effort could be coordinated on a regional basis through Sea Grant

programs. The coordinator would be responsible for collection, analysis, and dissemination of this information through the extension

network.

Regional Coordination

and Cooperation

Clear advantages exist in establishing a mechanism to promote active cooperation between

the U.S.-affiliated islands in the Pacific and the

Caribbean, and among islands within each area.

Since both areas rely on assistance from the

United States, especially in technical areas,

joint programs could be helpful.

Regional coordination in the planning and

development of aquiculture within the Pacific

and the Caribbean regions might be highly

desirable. Regional technical conferences could

be convened for these purposes. Many island

groups have common interests in aquiculture

development which enhances the value of such

conferences. These islands are under-represented

at most international meetings dealing with

aquiculture and other marine resources. One

setting where the regional representation could

be strengthened is the Coral Reef Symposium

which is held every 4 years; another is the Pacific Science Congress. The contacts made and

the information gathered at such international

meetings could facilitate the development of

aquiculture within the regions. Representatives

could be sponsored to attend regional technical conferences and appropriate international

meetings whenever possible.

Collaboration with other Lesser Antillean

countries on management and development

activities is also of great potential use to Puerto

Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Such collaboration could provide for improved access to developments in other areas and to regional markets and sources of supply; and help to improve

economic, social, and political ties between the

United States and the strategically important

countries of the Eastern Caribbean.

Many of the potentials and constraints to development of capture fisheries and aquiculture

in the U.S. Caribbean also apply to most of the

other Lesser Antilles. As a result, important opportunities exist for joint marine resource development ventures between the U.S. islands

and the Eastern Caribbean countries.

The U.S. territories might assist and benefit

from efforts in other Caribbean countries to

manage common nearshore marine species.

Some fishery stocks (e.g., spiny lobster), for example, have long larval lives which makes it

difficult to determine the origin of adult populations. Consequently, stocks in Puerto Rico and

the U.S. Virgin Islands may depend on production in other locales. As is the case with dolphinfish fisheries, this potential interdependence offers substantial justification for

collaboration with other Lesser Antilles countries in developing marine resource management strategies.

Further, a regional approach to training for

maritime industries would mitigate costs for

developing territories which lack investment

capital for expensive training facilities and

equipment, and expedite reciprocal recognition

of regional standards. However, difficulties

may arise with this approach because of the

varying levels of development within the region

(101).
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 265

1.

2,

3.

4,

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

144

CHAPTER 7

Abreu, V. B., “Out of the Sea Came Magic, ” Of

Sea and Shore 10(1):23-42, 1979. ln: Smith,

1986.

Amesbury, S. S., and Callaghan, P., Territory

of Guam Fisheries Development and Management Plan, funded under CZM Grant No. NA79-AA-D-CZ098, Mangilao, Guam, Department

of Agriculture, Government of Guam, 1981, In:

Callaghan, 1986.

“An Artificial Skin That Works,” Discover

June 1981, In: Smith, 1986.

Appledoorn, R, S., and Ballantine, D. L., “Field

Release of Cultured Queen Conch in Puerto

Rico: Implications for Stock Restoration,”

Proceedings of the Gulf Caribbean Fisheries

Institute 35:89-98, 1983. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

Aquatic Farms, Ltd., “Multiple-Use Options

for a Prawn Hatchery on Guam,” unpublished

report of the Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, Kaneohe, HI, 1979. In: Nelson, 1986.

Asano, N., “A Report of Survey on Suitable

Sites for Transplanting Trochus (Takasegai) I.

Saipan Island,” Nan ‘yo Suisan Joho 1(5):123-

126, 1937 [in Japanese]. In: Smith, 1986.

Asano, N., “Information on the Fisheries of the

South Sea Islands,” Nan ‘yo Suisan Joho 1(1):22-

29, 1937 [in Japanese]. In: Smith, 1986.

Asano, N., “On the Distribution and Variation

of Topshells in Truk,” Suisan Kenkyushi 32(5):

255-259, 1937 [in Japanese]. In: Smith, 1986.

Auyong, J., and Tabata, R., “Tourism Development and Sustainable Renewable Resource

Management for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Baker, J. T., “Seaweeds in Pharmaceutical

Studies and Applications, ” HydrobioZogia

116/117:29-40, 1984. In: Smith, 1986,

Ballantine, D. L., and Appledoorn, R, S., “Queen

Conch Culture and Future Prospects in Puerto

Rico,” Proceedings of the Gulf Caribbean Fisheries Institute 35:57-63, 1983. In: Goodwin and

Sandifer, 1986.

Bardach, J,, Adjunct Research Associate, EastWest Center, East-West Environment and Policy Institute, Honolulu, HI, personal communication, August 1986.

Berg, C. J., “Report of the Evaluation Team on

Conch Mariculture, ” Proceedings of the Gulf

Caribbean Fisheries Insitute 35:135, 1983. In:

Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

Best, B. R., et al., “Effect of Chlorine on Some

Coral Reef Phytoplankters and Invertebrate

REFERENCES

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

Larvae,” Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila, 1:169-

172, 1982. In: Smith, 1986.

Birkeland, C. E., Professor, University of Guam

Marine Laboratory, Mangilao, Guam, personal

communication, September 1986.

Birkeland, C. E., “Terrestrial Runoff as a Cause

of Outbreaks of Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata: Asteroidea), ” Marine Biology 69:175-

185, 1982. In: Smith, 1986.

Birkeland, C. E., and Grosenbaugh, D., “Ecological Interactions Between Tropical Coastal

Ecosystems (Mangrove, Seagrass, and Coral),”

a review of information for the South Pacific

Regional Environment Program, University of

Guam Marine Laboratory, January 1984.

Bonham, K., “Growth Rate of the Giant Clam

Tridacna gigas at Bikini Atoll as Revealed by

Radioautography,” Science 149:300-303, 1965.

In: Nelson, 1986.

Braley, R., “Reproduction in the Giant Clams

Tridacna gigas and T. derasa in situ on the

North-Central Great Barrier Reef, and Papua

New Guinea,” Coral Reefs 3:221-227, 1984. In:

Nelson, 1986.

Brewer, K., Micronesia: The Land, the People

and the Sea (Singapore: Tien Wah Press (Pte.)

Ltd., Rights reverved Mobil Oil Micronesia,

Inc., 1981). In: Callaghan, 1986.

Brownell, W. N., and Rainey, W. E., “Research

and Development of Deepwater Commercial

and Sport Fisheries Around the Virgin Islands

Plateau,” Caribbean Research Institute, Virgin

Islands Ecological Research Station Contribution No. 3, 1971. In: Goodwin and Sandifer,

1986.

Bryan, P., “On the Efficiency of Monies (Poecilia mexicana) as Live Bait for Pole-and-Line

Skipjack Fishing,” Government of American

Samoa, Office of Marine Resources, Technical Report 4-35-D, 1978. In: Glude, 1986.

Callaghan, P., “The Development and Management of Nearshore Fisheries in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Caribbean Fishery Management Council, Caribbean Fishery Management Council Newsletter, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico, December 1985. In:

Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

Caribbean Fishery Management Council, Draft

Fishery Management Plan, Regulatory Impact

Review, and Environmental Impact Statement

for the Shallow-Water Reeffish Fishery of
266 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

26,

27.

28.

29.

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hato

Rey, Puerto Rico, 1984. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

Carleton, C., “Development of Miscellaneous Marine Products in the South Pacific, ” INFOFISH

Marketing Digest 3:18-21, 1985. In: Smith,

1986.

Carleton, C., “Marketing Studies on the Miscellaneous Marine Resources of the South Pacific,” INFOFISH Marketing Digest 5:28-31,

1984. In: Smith, 1986.

Carleton, C., “The Production and Marketing

of Topshell or Button Shell From the Pacific

Islands,” INFOFISH Marketing Digest 6:18-21,

1984, In: Callaghan, 1986; Smith, 1986.

Coeroli, M., et al., “Recent Innovations in the

Cultivation of Molluscs in French Polynesia,”

Aquiculture 39:45-67, 1984. In: Smith, 1986.

30. Colgan, M. W,, “Succession and Recovery of

a Coral Reef After Predation by Acanthaster

planci (L.),” Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila, Philippines, 2:333-338, 1982. In: Smith, 1986,

31. Colgan, M. W,, Long-Term Recovery Process

of a Coral Community After a Catastrophic Disturbance, Technical Report 76, (Mangilao,

Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory,

1981). In: Smith, 1986.

32. Connell, J. H., “Diversity in Tropical Rain

Forests and Coral Reefs, ” Science 199:1302-

1310, 1978, In: Smith, 1986.

33. Corbin, J. C., Manager, Aquiculture Development Program, Hawaii Department of Land

and Natural Resources, personal communication, September 1986.

34, Curtin, M. E., “Chemicals From the Sea,” Biol

35.

36.

Technology 34:36-37, January 1985. In: Smith,

1986.

Dahl, A. L., “Tropical Island Ecosystems and

Protection Technologies to Sustain Renewable

Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA

commissioned paper, 1986.

Dahl, A, L., “Future Directions for the Oceanian Realm” National Parks, Conservation, and

Development: The Role of Protected Areas in

Sustaining Society, J.A. McNeely and K,R.

Miller (eds.), Proceedings of the World Congress on National Parks, Bali, Indonesia, Oct.

11-12, 1982 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1984).

37. Dammann, A. E., “Study of the Fisheries Potential of the Virgin Islands,” Virgin Islands

Ecological Research Station Contribution, No,

1, 1969. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

38. Dance, S. P., Shell Collecting: An Illustrated

39

40

41

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50

History (Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1966). In: Smith, 1986.

Doty, M. S., “Realizing a Nation’s Potential in

Phycology,” Proceedings of Republic of ChinaUnited States Cooperative Science Seminar on

Cultivation and Utilization of Economic Algae,

R.T. Tsuda and Y.M. Chiang (eds.) (Mangilao,

Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory,

1982). In: Smith, 1986.

Doty, M. S., “Worldwide Status of Marine

Agronomy, ” Proceedings of China-United

States Cooperative Science Seminar on Cultivation and Utilization of Economic Algae, R.T.

Tsuda and Y.M. Chiang (eds.) (Mangilao,

Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory,

1982). In: Smith, 1986.

Doty, M, S., “The Diversified Farming of Coral

Reefs,” Harold L. Lyon Arboretum Lecture

Number Eleven (Honolulu, HI: University of

Hawaii Press, 1981). In: Smith, 1986.

Duray, M., and Bagarinao, T,, “Weaning of

Hatchery-Bred Milkfish Larvae From Live

Food to Artificial Diets,” Aquiculture 41:325-

332, 1984. ln: Nelson, 1986.

Dutton, I., Research and Monitoring Section,

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,

Townsville, Australia, personal communication, September 1986.

Eaton, P., Land Tenure and Conservation: Protected Areas in the South Pacific, Topic Review 17 (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, 1985).

In: Smith, 1986,

Ehrhardt, N. M., Associate Professor, University of Miami, Miami, FL, personal communication, September 1986.

Ekman, S,, Zoogeography of the Seas (London,

England: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1953). In: Smith,

1986.

Eldredge, L. G., University of Guam Marine

Laboratory, personal communication, September 1986,

Faulkner, D, J,, “Biomimetic Synthesis of Marine Natural products, ” International Symposium on Marine Natural Products, R, Thomson (cd.), Aberdeen, Scotland, 1976. In: Wahle,

1986.

Fenical, W., “Marine Plants: A Unique and Unexplored Resource, ” Plants: The Potentials for

Extracting Protein, Medicines and Other Useful Chemicals, Workshop Proceedings, U.S.

Congress, Office of Technology Assessment,

OTA-BP-F-23 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). In: Wahle, 1986.

Fishery Management Plan, Final Environ-
—

Ch. 7–Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture c 267

mental Impact Statement for Coral and Coral

Reefs, Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils, 1982. In: Wahle,

1986.

51. Fitt, W, K., Fisher, C. R., and Trench, R. K., “Larval Biology of Tridacnid Clams, ” Aquiculture

39:181-195, 1984, In: Nelson, 1986.

52. Fitzgerald, W. J., Aquaculture Development

Plan for the Territory of Guam, Department

of Commerce, Government of Guam, June

1982. In: Nelson, 1986.

53, Fitzgerald, W, J., “Environmental Parameters

Influencing the Growth of Enteromorpha clathrata in the Intertidal Zone on Guam, ” Bot. Mar.

21:207-220, 1976. In: Nelson, 1986.

54. Fitzgerald, W. J., and Nelson, S. G., “Development of Aquiculture in an Island Community

–Guam, Mariana Islands,” Proceedings of the

World Mariculture Society 10:39-50, 1979, In:

Nelson, 1986.

55. Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations, Report of the FAO WorZd Conference on Fisheries Management and Development, Rome, June 27 - July 6, 1984.

56. Gawel, M., Chief of Marine Resources, Federated States of Micronesia, personal communication, July 1986.

57, Glude, J, B., Glude Aquiculture Consultants,

Inc., personal communication, August 1986.

58. Glude, J. B,, “Aquacuhure Development in the

U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

59. Glude, J. B., “A Plan for the Development of

Aquiculture in Puerto Rico, ” Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources, Corporation

for the Development of Marine Resources, unpublished, 1980. In: Glude, 1986.

60. Glynn, P., “Aspects of the Ecology of Coral

Reefs in the Western Atlantic Region,” l?iology and Geology of Coral Reefs, O. Jones and

R. Endean [eds.) (San Diego, CA: Academic

Press, 1973). IZI: Wahle, 1986.

61, Goodwin, M. H., and Sandifer, P. D., “Aquiculture and Fisheries Development in Puerto Rico

and the U.S. Virgin Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

62, Grigg, R. W., “Resource Management of Precious Corals: A Review and Application to

Shallow Water Reef Building Corals,” Marine

Ecology 5(1):57-74, 1984. IrI: Smith, 1986.

63. Grigg, R, W., “precious Coral in the Pacific:

Economics and Development Potential, ”

INFOFISH Marketing Digest 2:8-11, 1982. In:

Smith, 1986.

64. Grigg, R. W., “Fishery Management of Precious

Corals in Hawaii, ” Proceedings of the 3rd International Coral Reef Symposium, Miami, FL,

1977. ln: Wahle, 1986.

65. Grigg, R. W., “Fishery Management of Precious

Corals in Hawaii, ” Sea Grant Technical Report, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-TR-77 -03 (Honolulu,

HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1976). In:

Wahle, 1986.

66. Guam Environmental Protection Agency,

TweZfth Annual Report 1984-1985, G. Stillberger (cd.), Agana, Guam, 1985.

67. Gwyther, J., and Munro, J, L., “Spawning Induction and Rearing of Larvae of Tridacnid

Clams (Bivalvia: Tridacnidae),” Aquiculture

24:197-217, 1981. In: Nelson, 1986.

68. Hamilton, L. S., and Snedaker, S.C. (eds.),

Handbook for Mangrove Area Management,

United Nations Environment Programme and

the Environment Policy Institute East-West

Center, 1984.

69. Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, “Pacific

Island Mariculture Conference, Feb. 6-8,

1973, ” (unpublished report), Coconut Island,

Kaneohe, HI, 1973, In: Nelson, 1986.

70, Hedlund, S, E., The Extent of Coral, SheZZ, and

Algae Harvesting in Guam Waters, Sea Grant

Publication UGSG-77-1O, Technical Report 37

(Agana Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory, 1977]. In: Smith, 1986.

71. Heslinga, G. A., “Recent Advances in Giant

Clam Mariculture, ” Proceedings of the Fifth

International Coral Reef Congress, vol. 2, Tahiti, 1985. In: Callaghan, 1986.

72. Heslinga, G. A., and Hillmann, A., “Hatchery

Culture of the Commercial Top Snail Trochus

niZoticus in Palau, Caroline Islands, ” AquacuZture 22:35-43, 1981.

73. Heslinga, G. A., and Perron, F. E., “Trochus

Reseeding and Production of Giant Clams,

1984 Annual Report, ” Republic of Palau,

Micronesia Mariculture Demonstration Center, Marine Resources Division, 1984. In: Callaghan, 1986.

74. Heslinga, G. A., and Perron, F. E., “The Status

of Giant Clam Mariculture Technology in the

Indo-Pacific, ” South Pacifi”c Commission Fisheries Newsletter 24:15-19, 1983.

75. Heslinga, G. A., Perron, F. E,, and Orak, O.,

“Mass Culture of Giant Clams (F. Tridacnidae)

in Palau,” Aquiculture 39:197-215, 1984.

76. Hill, H, B., “The Use of Nearshore Marine Life

as a Food Resource by American Samoans, ”

Pacific Islands Program, University of Hawaii,
—

268 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

77.

78

79.

80.

81

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89

Miscellaneous Working Papers (Honolulu, HI:

Pacific Islands Studies Center, University of

Hawaii, 1978). In: Callaghan 1986.

Hirschberger, W. “Tridacnid Clam Stocks on

Helen Reef, Palau, Western Caroline Islands, ”

Marine Fisheries Review 42:8-15, 1980. In: Nelson, 1986.

Holland, K. N., Marine Biologist, Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawaii,

Kaneohe, HI, personal communication, September 1986,

Iversen, E. S., “Feasibility of Increasing Bahamian Conch Production by Mariculture,” Proceedings of the Gulf Caribbean Fisheries Institute 35:83-88, 1983. In: Goodwin and

Sandifer, 1986.

Johnannes, R. E., CSIRO Marine Laboratories

Division of Fisheries Research, personal communication, September 1986.

Johannes, R. E., “The Role of Marine Resource

Tenure Systems (TURFS) in Sustainable Nearshore Marine Resource Development and Management in U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Johannes, R. E., Words of the Lagoon: Fishing

and Marine Lore in the Palau District of

Micronesia (Los Angeles, CA: University of

California Press, 1981). In: Callaghan, 1986.

]ohannes, R. E., “Working With Fishermen To

Improve Coastal Tropical Fisheries and Resource Management, ” Bulletin of Marine Science 31:673-680, 1981. In: Johannes, 1986.

Johannes, R. E., “Improving Shallow Water

Fisheries in the Northern Marianas Islands,”

(unpublished manuscript), 1979. In: Callaghan,

1986.

Johannes, R. E., “Traditional Marine Conservation Methods in Oceania and Their Demise,”

Annual Review of Ecology and Systematic

9:349-364, 1978.

Johannes, R. E., Improving Ponape’s Reef and

Lagoon Fishery, (unpublished report), September 1978. In: Smith, 1986.

Johannes, R. E., “Traditional Law of the Sea in

Micronesia,” Micronesia 13(2):121-127, 1977.

In: Smith, 1986.

Jones, R. S., and Randall, R. H., A Study of Biological Impact Caused by Natural and ManInduced Changes on a Tropical Reef, Technical Report 7 (Mangilao, Guam: University of

Guam Marine Laboratory, 1973). In: Smith,

1986.

Juario, J. V., et al., “Breeding and Larval Rearing of the Rabbitfish, Siganus guttatus (Bloch),”

Aquiculture 44:91-101, 1984. In: Nelson, 1986.

90.

91.

92.

93.

94.

95,

Juhl, R,, and Dammann, A. E., “Review of the

Status of Fishery Resources and Fishery Management problems of the Caribbean Council

Area,” report to the U.S. Department of

Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Southeast Fisheries

Center, Miami, FL, 1976. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

Kami, H. T., and Ikehara, 1.1,, “ Notes on the

Annual Siganid Harvest in Guam,” Micronesia 12:323-325, 1976. In: Nelson, 1986,

Kawaguchi, K., “Handline and Longline Fishing Explorations for Snapper and Related Species in the Caribbean and Adjacent Waters, ”

Marine Fisheries Review 36:8-31, 1974. In:

Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

Kikuchi, W. K., “Prehistoric Hawaiian Fishponds, Indigenous Aquiculture Influenced the

Development of Social Stratification in Hawaii,” Science 193:295-298, 1976, In: Nelson,

1986.

Kimmel, J., Director, Puerto Rico Corporation

for Development of Marine Resources, personal communication, September 1986.

King, M., Cartwright, I., and Carver, A., “Fisherie; Developmen~in Pacific Islands: Problems

in Paradise, ” paper presented at the Australian

National University Workshop on New Marine

Technology and Social Change in the Pacific,

Mar. 12-13, 1985.

96. Knudson, K. E., “Socioeconomic Characteris97

98.

99.

100.

tics of the Guam Fishery,” paper prepared for

the Symposium on Small-Scale Fisheries, Annual Meeting, American Anthropological Association (Mangilao, Guam: University of

Guam Micronesia Area Research Center,

1985). In: Callaghan, 1986.

Lal, P. N., “Coastal Fisheries and the Management of Mangrove Resources in Fiji, ” South

Pacific Commission Fisheries Newsletter

31:15-23, 1984. In: Smith, 1986.

Lam, T. J., “Siganids: Their Biology and

Mariculture Potential,” Aquiculture 3:325-354,

1974. In: Nelson, 1986.

Laughlin, T., Acting Chief, International Affairs Division, U.S. Department of Commerce,

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, personal communication, September

1986.

Leviten, P. J., and Kohn, A. J., “Microhabitat Resource Use, Activity Patterns, and Episodic

Catastrophe: Conus on Tropical Intertidal Reef

Rock Benches, ” Ecological Monographs

50(1):55-75, 1980. In: Smith, 1986.

101. Lewharn, B., “Human Resource Develop-
Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 269

102.

103.

104.

105.

106.

107,

108.

109.

110.

111.

112.

ments, Training Equipment, Costs, Concepts

and Issues for the Marine Industry,” paper presented at the Australian National University

Workshop on New Marine Technology and Social Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13, 1985.

MacInnes, A., “Saving the Queen,” Marine

Biological Laboratory, Science Bulletin 1(1):11-

12, 1984. In: Wahle, 1986.

Macintosh, D. J., “Fisheries and Aquiculture

Significance of Mangrove Swamps, With Special Reference to the Indo-West Pacific Region,” Recent Advances in Aquiculture, J.F.

Muir and R.J. Roberts (eds.) (Boulder, CO:

Westview Press, 1982). In: Nelson, 1986.

Mates, C. A., Marine Pollution in the South Pacific, Topic Review 11 (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, 1981). In: Smith, 1986.

McCoy, M. A., Micronesia Maritime Authority, personal communication, March 1986.

McCoy, M. A., “Man and Turtle in the Central

Carolinas, ” Micronesia 10(2):207-221, 1974.

In: Smith, 1986.

McGowan, J. A., The Trochus Fishery of the

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands: A Report and Recommendations to the High Commissioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific

Islands, unpublished draft report, April 1958.

In: Smith, 1986.

McGowan, J. A., The Current Status of the

Trochus Industry in Micronesia: An Interim

Report to the High Commissioner of the Trust

Territory of the Pacific ]slands, unpublished

draft report, 1956. In: Smith, 1986.

McKoy, J. L., “Biology, Exploitation, and Management of Giant Clams (Tridacnidae) in the

Kingdom of Tonga, ” Fisheries Bulletin 1

(Nuku’alofa, Tonga: Ministry of Agriculture,

Forestry, and Fisheries, 1980). In: Nelson,

1986.

McManus, J. W., “Philippine Coral Exports:

The Coral Drain,” ICLARM Newsletter 3(1):18-

20, 1980. In: Smith, 1986.

McRoy, C. P., “Nutrient Cycles in Caribbean

Seagrass Ecosystems,” Coral Reefs, Seagrass

Beds and Mangroves: Their Interaction in the

Coastal Zones of the Caribbean, J.C, Ogden

(cd.), report of workshop held in St. Croix,

USVI, May 1982 (Montevideo, Uruguay: United

Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural

Organization, 1983).

McVey, J. P., “New Record of Macrobrachium

rosenber~ii (de Man] in the Palau Islands

(Decapoda, Palaemonidae),” Crustacean 29

(1):31-32, 1975. In: Nelson, 1986.

113. Milone, P,, et al., Potential for Fisheries Development in the Marshall Islands, paper submitted to the Trade and Development Program

(Washington, DC: International Development

Corporation Agency, 1985). In: Callaghan,

1986,

114. Minale, L,, “Natural Product Chemistry of the

Marine Sponges,” International Symposium

on Marine Natural Products, R. Thomson (cd.)

(Aberdeen, Scotland: 1976). In: Wahle, 1986.

115. Motoda, S., “Useful Shells in the Palau Islands,” Journa/ Sapporo Society Agriculture

and Forestry 30(146):315-324, 1938. In: Smith,

1986.

116. Munro, J. L., “Actual and Potential Fish Production From the Coralline Shelves of the

Caribbean Sea,” FAO Fisheries Report 200:301-

321, 1977. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

117, Munro, J. L,, and Heslinga, G. A., “Prospects for

the Commercial Cultivation of Giant Clams

(Bivalvia: Tridacnidae),” Proceedings of the

Gulf Fisheries Institute 35:122-134, 1983. In:

Nelson, 1986.

118. Munro, J. L., and Williams, D. McB., “Assessment and Management of Coral Reef Fishers:

Biological Environmental and Socio-Economic

Aspects,” Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti, May 27-June 1, 1985.

119, Nelson, S. G., “Aquiculture and Mariculture

Development in the U.S. Pacific Insular

Areas,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

120. Neudecker, S., Effects of Thermal Effluent on

the Coral Reef Community at Tanguisson,

Technical Report 30 (Agana, Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory, 1976), In:

Smith, 1986.

121. Nishi, M,, “An Evaluation of Japanese Agricultural and Fishery Developments in Micronesia During the Japanese Mandatef 1914-

1941,” Micronesia 4:1-18, 1968. In: Callaghan,

1986.

122. Ogden, J., Director, West Indies Laboratory,

Christensted, St. Croix, USVI, personal communication, September 1986.

123. Oliver, D. L., The Pacific Islands (Honolulu, HI:

University of Hawaii Press, 1962).

124. Olsen, D. A., et al., “Portunus spinimanus

Latreille, a Portunid Crab With Resource Potential in the U.S. Virgin Islands,” Marine Fisheries Review 40(7)12-14, 1978. In: Goodwin and

Sandifer, 1986.
270 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

125. Olsen, D. A., and LaPlace, J. A., “Demonstration

of Advances in Virgin Islands Small Boat Fishing Techniques, ” Marine Fisheries Review

43:11-15, 1981. In: Goodwin and Sandifer,

1986,

126. Orbach, M. K., “Draft Report on the Social, Cultural, and Economic Aspects of Fishery Development in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands” (mimeographed) (Santa

Cruz, CA: University of California, Center for

Coastal Marine Studies, 1980). In: Callaghan,

1986.

127. Pacific Basin Development Council, Central

and Western Pacific Regional Fisheries Development Plan, Vol. 4: Regional Plan (Honolulu,

HI: Pacific Basin Development Council, May

1983).

128. Pagon-Font, F. A., “Aquiculture: Investment

Opportunities in Puerto Rico,” Proceedings of

the Gulf Caribbean Fisheries Institute 34:73-

75, 1982. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

129. Panayotou, T., “Management Concepts for

Small-Scale Fisheries: Economic and Social

Aspects,” FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No.

228 (Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1982). In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

130. Parkinson, B. J,, “Trochus Resources Survey,”

unpublished draft report, 1980. In: Smith, 1986.

131. Petit-Skinner, S,, The Nauruans (San Francisco, CA: McDuff Press, 1981). In: Nelson,

1986.

132. Popper, D,, et al., “Fertilization and Hatching

of Rabbitfish Sigan us rivu)atus, Aquacu2ture

2:37-44, 1973. In: Nelson, 1986.

133, Powell, R,, “Marine Resource Development

(Truk),” unpublished manuscript, 1972. In: Johannes, 1986.

134. President’s Economic Adjustment Committee,

Economic Adjustment Program for Vieques,

Puerto Rico (Washington, DC: Office of the

Secretary of Defense, November 1985),

135. Preston, G. L., “Market Requirements for Shark

Products,” South Pacific Commission Fisheries Newsletter, No. 30, 1984. In: Smith, 1986.

136, Pulea, M., Customary Law Relating to the Environment, Topic Review 21 (Noumea, New

Caledonia: South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, 1985). In: Smith, 1986.

137. Riley, N. T., “Aid for Maritime Developments

in the Pacific, ” paper presented at the Australian National University Workshop for New

Marine Technology and Social Change in the

Pacific, Mar. 12-23, 1985.

138. Reels, O. A., and Gerard, R, D., “Artificial Upwelling,” Food-Drugs From the Sea Proceedings 1969, 1970, In: Goodwin and Sandifer,

1986,

139. Rogers, C, S., and Zullo, V., “Research and Resource Management Program at Virgin Islands

National Park/Biosphere Reserve,” Park Science 5:3, 1982. In: Goodwin and Sandifer,

1986.

140. Salm, R. V., and Clark, J. R., Marine and Coastal

Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and

Managers (Columbia, SC: State Printing Co.,

1984),

141, Schmeid, R., “Saltonstall-Kennedy Projects

Underway or Completed,” NA4FS Newsbreaker, 1985. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

142. Shehadeh, Z. H., and Nash, C. (eds,), “Review

of Breeding and Propagation Techniques for

Grey Mullet Mugil cephalus L.,” ICLARM

Studies and Reviews 3, Manila, 1980, In: Nelson, 1986.

143. Siddall, S, E,, “Biological and Economic Outlook for Hatchery Production of Juvenile Queen

Conch,” Proceedings of the Gulf Caribbean

Fisheries Institute 35:46-52, 1983. In: Goodwin

and Sandifer, 1986.

144. Slosser, V., A Study of U.S. Shark Markets (St.

Petersburg, FL: National Marine Fisheries

Service, 1983). In: Smith, 1986.

145. Smith, B. D., Marine Advisor, University of

Guam Marine Laboratory, Mangilao, Guam,

personal communication, September 1986.

146. Smith, B. D., “Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986,

147, South Pacific Commission, Fifteenth Regional

Technical Meeting on Fisheries, Meeting Report, Noumea, New Caledonia, Aug. 1-5, 1983

(Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1983). In: Callaghan, 1986.

148, Suarez-Cabro, J. A., and Rolon, M, A,, “La Pesca

en Puerto Rico, ” vol. VI, No, 1 (San Juan,

Puerto Rico: Departemento de Agricultural,

1973). In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.

149. Sudo, K., “Social Organization and Types of

Sea Tenure in Micronesia,” Senri Ethnological Studies 17:203-230, 1984. In: Johannes,

1986,

150. Summers, C. C., “Hawaiian Fishponds,” Bernice P. Bishop Musuem Special Publication 52

(Honolulu, HI: Bishop Musuem Press, 1964).

In: Nelson, 1986,

151. Sutherland, W. M., “Policy, Law and Manage-
—

152.

153,

154,

155,

156,

157,

158.

159.

160.

161,

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 271

ment in Pacific Island Fisheries, ” paper presented at the Australian National University

Workshop for New Marine Technology and

Social Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13, 1985.

Sylvester, J. R., and Dammann, A. E., “Some Observations on the Deepwater Fishery Resources of the Virgin Islands, ” Caribbean Journal of Science 14:163-165, 1974, In: Goodwin

and Sandifer, 1986.

Thorhaug, A., “Review of Seagrass Restoration,” AMBIO 15(2):110-117, 1986.

Tisdell, C., “Giant Clams in the Pacific—The

Socio-Economic Potential of a Developing

Technology for their Mariculture,” paper presented at Australian National University Workshop for New Marine Technology and Social

Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13, 1985.

Torres, E., Director of Agriculture, Guam Department of Agriculture, personal communication, September 1986.

Tsuda, R. T., “Seasonality in Micronesia Seaweed Populations and Their Biogeography as

Affecting Wild Crop Potential,” Proceedings

of Republic of China-United States Cooperative Science Seminar on Cultivation and Utilization of Economic Algae, R.T. Tsuda and

Y.M. Chiang (eds.) (Mangilao, Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory, 1982). In: NeL

son, 1986.

Tyson, G. F., “Notes on Caribbean Resource

Use History,” OTA commissioned research

notes, 1986.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Sanctuaries Status Report

(Washington, DC: March 1984).

U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

Sanctuary Program Office, “Proposed La Paraguera National Marine Sanctuary,” Draft Environment tal Impact Statemen tlibfanagemen t

Plan (Washington, DC: 1983). In: Wahle, 1986.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Puerto Rico

Coastal Zone Management Program and Final

Environmental Impact Statement (Washington, DC: 1978).

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, “Survey of Fisheries of the Former

Japanese Mandated Islands” (mimeographed],

Fishery Leaflet 273 (Washington, DC: 1949). In:

Callaghan, 1986.

162.

163.

164.

165.

166,

167.

168.

169

170.

171.

172

Uwate, K. R., Chief, Marine Resources, Yap

State Department of Resources and Development, personal communication, September

1986.

Uwate, K. R., Aquiculture Assessment

Project—Final Report (Honolulu, HI: Pacific

Islands Development Program, East-West Center, May 1984).

Uwate, K. R., and Kunataba, P., “Aquiculture

Development: The Pacific Way?” South Pacific

Commission Fifteenth Regional Technical

Meeting on Fisheries, Noumea, New Caledonia, Aug. 1-5, 1983.

Vergne, P., Bryan, P., and Broadhead, G.,

“Large Scale Production of the Top Minnow

(Poecilia mexicana) in American Samoa and

the Testing of Their Efficiency as Tuna Bait, ”

Pacific Tuna Development Foundation, Technical Bulletin 1, 1978. In: Glude, 1986.

Villaluz, D. K., “Aquiculture Possibilities in

Some Islands of the South Pacific” (Rome,

Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations, 1972]. In: Nelson, 1986.

Von Westerhagen, H,, and Rosenthal, H., “induced Multiple Spawning of Reared Siganus

oramin (Schneider) (S. canaliculatus Park), ”

Aquiculture 7:193-196, 1976. In: Nelson, 1986.

Wahle, C. M., “Non-Food Marine Resources

Development and Management in the U. S.-

Affiliated Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Walters, K. W,, and Prinslow, T. E., “Culture of

the Mangrove Oyster, Crassostrea rhizophorae

Guilding, in Puerto Rico, ” Proceedings of the

World Mariculture Society 6:221-233, 1975. In:

Glude, 1986; Nelson, 1986.

Wass, R. C., “The Shoreline Fishery of American Samoa—Past and Present, ” Marine and

Coastal Processes in the Pacific: Ecological

Aspects of Coastal Zone Management (Jakarta,

Indonesia: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 1982). In: Johannes, 1986.

Wells, S. M., “International Trade in Ornamental Corals and Shells, ” Proceedings of the

Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium,

Manila, Philippines 1:323-330, 1982. In: Smith,

1986.

Wells, S. M., “International Trade in Ornamental Shells” (United Kingdom: International

Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Conservation Monitoring

Centre, 1981).
272 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

173. Wendler, H. O., “Draft Recommendations for

Fisheries Development and Management in

American Samoa” (mimeographed) (Portland,

OR: Pacific Marine Fisheries Commission, 176.

1980). In: Callaghan, 1986.

174. World Bank, Sociocultural Aspects of Developing Small-Scale Fisheries: Delivering Services to the Poor, World Bank Staff Working Pa- 177,

per No. 490 (Washington, DC: The World Bank,

1981). In: Callaghan, 1986.

175. World Bank, Rethinking Artisanal Fisheries

Development: Western Concepts. Asian Experiences, World Bank Staff Working Paper

No. 423 (Washington, DC: The World Bank,

1980). In: Callaghan, 1986.

Yamaguchi, M., “Conservation and Cultivation

of Giant Clams in the Tropical Pacific, ” Biological Conservation 11:13-20, 1977. In: Smith,

1986; Nelson, 1986.

Yamaguchi, M., “Sea Level Fluctuations and

Mass Mortalities of Reef Animals in Guam,

Mariana Islands,” Micronesia 11(2):227-243,

1975.
Chapter 8

Technologies Supporting

Agricultural, Aquacultural, and

Fisheries Development
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................275

integrated Development of a Food and Kindred Products industry........276

Food Preservation and processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....277

Marketing Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................285

Integrated Production, Processing, and Marketing . ...................288

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................292

Intersectoral Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........296

Integrating Agriculture and Aquiculture With Energy Development .. ...296

Integrating Tourism and Resource Development . .....................302

Integrating Urban Development With Resource Management . ...........309

Chapter 8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................311

B o x

Box Page

8-A. Zeolite Refrigeration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............279

Figures

Figure No. Page

8-1. Modern Food Industry Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..276

8-2. Common Island Food Industry Components . .................,.....277

8-3. Organizations Supporting Food Industry Development . . . . ...........277

8-4. Components of On-Farm Biogas Systems . . . . . . . . . ..................299

Tables

Table No. Page

8-1. Effects of Food Irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......281

8-2. Primary Resources Used in Craft Production in U.S.-Affiliated

Pacific Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................306
Chapter 8

Technologies Supporting Agricultural,

Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development

INTRODUCTION

Consideration of the ecological integration

of island resource systems is integral to island

renewable resource management and development and to optimum use of human and natural resources. Two other kinds of integration

are important as well: 1) integration in the development of the various components of food

and kindred products industries, and 2) integration of resource development with other forms

of economic development.

Little is gained from increasing agriculture

or fisheries production if what is grown or

caught is not purchased, if a substantial part

of it is lost to pests or deterioration before it

can be purchased, or if no means exist to get

it from the producer to the consumer. Thus,

integrated development of food and kindred

products industries requires that attention be

given not only to the modes of production, but

to preservation or enhancement of product

quality and value (preservation and processing),

fulfillment of product specifications determined by consumer demand (marketing), and

product storage and transportation.

Conversely, integration of the provision of

basic human services (e.g., water, energy, and

waste treatment) with resource management

and development is not a required component

of resource development and is not commonly

practiced on continents. However, such integration can provide “double-duty” from government infrastructure investments on small

islands. Airstrips and even roads can be used

as passive water catchments on water-poor islands. Residential wastes can be a source of nutrients for farms or forests. Aquiculture of certain plants can even aid water purification

allowing reuse by humans. Development of

tourist attractions could include efforts to preserve endangered species or habitats of critical

importance to fisheries in multiple-use protected areas, and development of the handicrafts industry associated with tourism can provide a means for rural people to earn income

and to maintain traditional skills.

Agriculture, aquiculture, and fisheries production systems also can be integrated with

energy production technologies. For example,

intensive mariculture farms need large quantities of seawater to supply oxygen to and flush

wastes from ponds, and pumping is an energyexpensive operation. Such farms could be built

around powerplants which pump large quantities of cooling water daily from the sea. In

the future it may also be possible to integrate

aquiculture with ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems, passive seawater energy

systems, biomass conversion systems, and solar pond systems. On-farm production of energy

from animal and/or crop wastes, using digesters,

can reduce energy costs to farmers. Such systems may help islands reduce their reliance on

imported oil.

Both of these forms of integrated development commonly involve comprehensive planning and broad government involvement, For

example, development of the various components

of food industries may require government incentives to entrepreneurs to enter lagging sectors so that their services can be provided to

growing ones. Similarly, determining the potential for investments in large public infrastructure to provide secondary benefits probably will require considerable detail in project

planning, specification of engineering design,

facility siting, etc. Analysis of such factors must

occur on an island-by-island basis.

275
276 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT OF A FOOD

AND KINDRED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY

A commercial food and kindred products industry includes not only food and fiber production activities (see chs. 6 and 7), but also processing (the biological, chemical, or mechanical

transformations of products subsequent to harvest), distribution, and marketing (figure 8-l).

In the United States, before agricultural commodities reach consumers, they must be assembled, processed, packaged, warehoused, stored,

transported, and distributed through the institutional food trade wholesale and retail outlets

(93).

In a well-developed food and fiber industry,

each of these components commonly is undertaken by different private individuals, businesses, or cooperative organizations. With each

successive step, value is added to the product

through transformation or distribution. Prices

are raised, but revenues also are captured

within the local economy. (For example, the

nonfarm activities provide as much as 85 percent of the value added to the U.S. food and

fiber system’s output (93)).

Food and feed processing technologies essentially transform raw materials into higher valued products with uniform marketing characteristics and longer shelf lives than the source

materials. Such technologies tend to augment

interdependence, encourage specialization,

and are subject to economies of scale (82). They

also promote the transformation from a barter

economy to a cash economy. Finally, because

convenience foods are preferred on many islands, increased local processing of foods has

substantial potential to replace products currently imported.

On most U.S.-affiliated islands, fresh food is

marketed directly by the producer (farmer or

fisherman) to the public through roadside or

harborside stands and open air markets. Thus,

the producer is responsible for transporting,

marketing, and maintaining the quality of the

product. Some food may be sold to government

food distribution centers, a small amount is sold

to small retail stores, and still less is distributed to supermarkets or off-island (figure 8-2).

Only Puerto Rico’s food industry approximates that of the United States or other developed countries. In the absence of complementary private sector development of the

components of food industries, the processing,

marketing, and distribution components can

be centralized–through government-supported

cooperatives or organizations—until private

sector entrepreneurs take over (figure 8-3).

Besides raw materials, resources critical to

processing include skilled people, information,

and supporting infrastructure such as energy,

water, and transportation facilities. Marketing,

in particular, depends on reliable transportation systems.

Figure 8-1 .—Modern Food Industry Components

Producing Processing Marketing

In a well-developed food industry different private sector individuals, businesses, or cooperative organizations commonly are responsible for

each segment of activity.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986,
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 277

Figure 8-2.—Common Island Food Industry Systems

On most U.S.-affiliated islands, fresh food is marketed directly by the producer (farmer or fisherman) to the public through roadside stands

In the absence of private sector development of the roles of food industries, processing and marketing components can be centralized, via

cooperatives or centralized organizations, to provide these services until private sector enterprises can take over.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986.

Food Preservation and Processing

Several methods of preserving and processing traditional foods for subsistence use exist

in the U.S. Pacific islands. These include drying or smoking of fish, coconut meat, Pandanus

fruit; fermenting coconut sap for coconut wine;

and, in some areas, preserving breadfruit by

storing it in the soil (2). The primary objective

of traditional food preservation/processing was

to ensure continuous food supplies during warfare, natural disasters, and off-seasons.

Today, the major goals of preservation/processing are to increase product storage life and

quality, to minimize crop wastage and spoilage during peak production seasons, and to ease

shipping and marketing (82). Food processing

also may increase market demand (e.g., by increasing ease of food preparation). Furthermore, local processing of food may provide substitutes for products currently imported.

Primary and secondary processing and preservation methods range from simple and smallscale to complex, large-scale operations. Primary processing involves the preservation of

crops and other products, whereas secondary

processing deals with more complex processes

such as extraction of plant oils, fermentation,

or manufacturing of food products.

Food and feed processing methods throughout the U.S. Pacific territories are generally un-
278 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

developed. In Puerto Rico, the food processing industry is a strong manufacturing sector,

primarily processing raw material imported

from the United States and foreign countries

(77). The strength of this sector may be due,

in part, to the existence of a Food Technology

Laboratory established at the University of

Puerto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station.

Primary Food Processing Methods

Primary processing and preservation methods include refrigeration and freezing; dehydration (sun-drying, smoking, hot-air drying, and

freeze drying); retort processing; irradiation;

and hot-water bath treatments. Several of these

processes can be combined or conducted sequentially.

Refrigerated Storage.—Proper storage facilities are needed to reduce postharvest losses

from spoilage, insects, rats, or other pests. On

most U.S. Pacific islands, storage facilities are

inadequate because it is costly to provide modern storage facilities for the many small islands

that are scattered throughout vast expanse of

ocean. Low-temperature storage can provide

protection from pests and spoilage and extend

the shelf-life of perishable fresh products such

as fruits, vegetables, and fish. However, lowtemperature storage generally is not economical for most island crops because of the high

energy cost. Furthermore, for most Pacific islands the use of cold storage is constrained by

lack of or irregular power supply,

Refrigeration of foods for short-term storage

(freezing for long-term storage) is nonetheless

desirable, as it is safe, maintains flavor, and is

suitable for many foods. Controlled atmosphere

refrigeration (using carbon dioxide gas) can preserve certain fruits and vegetables for up to 21

days (82). Easy processing and packaging and

acceptance of products worldwide make the

potential for frozen tropical food excellent (cf:

Bacardi frozen concentrate tropical fruit mixers).

While refrigeration is common in the U. S.-

affiliated Caribbean, refrigeration and food

freezing facilities other than household refrigerators largely are limited to larger hotels and

restaurants throughout the U.S. Pacific. An

American Samoa tuna cannery has a large,

commercial refrigeration and freezing facility.

Icemaking and refrigeration are essential if

fish are to be sold at other than dockside locations. High temperature is the single most significant factor leading to loss of quality. Fish

that can be stored for 2 weeks frozen may last

only a day or two at 500 F. It is generally recognized that a large part of the growing demand

for marine products must be met through improvements in fish utilization, not just expanded catches (54).

Losses of fish may be heavy even on board,

and in the period after docking and before marketing. Keeping fish alive in “wells” until landing, shaded, or covered with wet seaweed or

other such materials may also enhance preservation. Losses could be reduced from the beginning by keeping vessel surfaces clean and

cooled with seawater, and by careful handling

(48).

If transport to markets is required the catch

is further reduced from exposure as well as insect infestation. For many fisheries use of ice

during transport is not possible; icing can, however, be delayed up to about 6 hours if the fish

is consumed soon thereafter. Rapid chilling can

be efficiently achieved by layering ice (preferPhoto credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Packing fishery products in ice remains a primary

preservation technique on many Pacific islands despite

irregular ice availability. Shown here, fish are being

removed from ice packing and displayed for sale

in a local market.
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development “ 279

ably in flakes or small pieces) and fish in a covered box or hold area. Only sanitary water

should be used to make the ice, and ice should

not be reused once fish have been stored in it.

Ice machines that do not require gasoline,

diesel oil, or electricity are being developed in

some areas. A low maintenance biomass-fueled

icemaker has, for example, been developed at

the Asian Institute of Technology in Thailand.

Ice forms as heat is extracted from water in

a closed container during the conversion of liquid ammonia to gaseous ammonia. A compact

solar refrigeration system uses the same technology but the ammonia-water solution is heated

in the pipes of a solar collector (48). Solar-powered zeolite refrigeration systems are now being developed and may have particular relevance for use in small remote island areas (86).

Dehydration.— Food dehydration is a common, relatively simple, and inexpensive primary processing technology. Depending on the

product, sun-dried items can be placed on racks

or on iron roofs. Sometimes wire netting is

placed over drying racks or platforms to reduce

dirt and insect contamination (82). Although

sun-drying is simple, cheap, and easily transferable, it is limited by the availability of sunny

days. In some areas, in fact, peak crop harvest

coincides with the rainy season. Sun-drying

alone, moreover, frequently will not reduce the

moisture content of products to a level low

enough to prevent fungal or bacterial growth

(82). Thus, while sun-drying is suitable for home

use, for initial preservation, or for nonfood

items, handling and sanitation problems render it less suitable for most volume processing

for sale (65).

Fish commonly are preserved in rural areas

of the tropics by sun-drying, but significant

losses result from spoilage, contamination, and

insects. Drying on raised structures could reduce some of these losses. Solar fish dryers can

be made simply and inexpensively with wood

(to form a frame) and plastic or glass (to provide cover), A wide variety of solar dryers have

been designed with these and other inexpenbut the energy requirements of conventional

absorption refrigeration systems pose a constraint to the application and use of this technology .

Solar coolers, using natural zeolite minerals

as the adsorbant, are now being developed (86)

that show promise for use on small tropical

islands to extend the life and therefore the potential markets for perishable food products.

Because of several unique, properties of zeolites, they can be used to provide efficient refrigeration with low-grade energy such as solar heat. Once fully developed and available

for purchase, zeolite-based solar coolers have

the potential to provide food refrigeration or

freezing; refrigerated transport; and space

conditioning (heating and cooling, depending

on seasonal need) for livestock and for commercial and tourist facilities.

The solar refrigerator and walk-in cooler are

the technologies of most immediate application and widest possible use. Coolers can be

used onsite or installed on flat bed trucks or

on boats for field use. One technology being

developed uses waste heat from internal combustion engines, significantly reducing the

weight of the system as compared to solar

based~systems.

Zeolite solar technology is initially highly

capital-intensive, thus those people who most

need it probably cannot afford it without government or private subsidy. However, where

such technology is used to market more produce than could otherwise be saved and sold,

increased income can be expected to result,

and Low-interst might be repaid in a reasonable time. Nonsolar zeolite systems have

 low initial costs and can be used without subsidies wherever waste heat is available.
280 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: D. Tchernev

This small-scale solar-powered zeolite refigeration system

may be particularly appropriate for remote areas or

roadside markets where energy availability prevents the

use of conventional refrigeration systems.

sive and readily available materials (including

old oil drums, thin metal sheeting, and even

sun-dried mud). Fish exposed to the flow of

heated air in such structures dry very rapidly,

and high temperatures reduce spoilage by mold

and bacteria. Low-cost agrowaste-fueled fish

dryers and combined agrowaste/solar dryers

have also been designed and constructed in the

Philippines (48).

Hot-air drying and smoking are accomplished

by placing the product on drying shelves or

racks in ovens using natural-draft smoke or

forced hot air. Hot-air dryer designs vary depending on the crops, on the types of dried

products desired, and on the type of available

fuel (82). Hot-air drying and smoking may be

limited by fuel availability and cost. Dryers can

be made from simple wooden or bamboo racks,

steel racks, or durable steel drums. Forced hotair dryers have been used effectively for drying various island products such as copra, black

pepper, chili peppers, and herbs.

Smoking is a traditional method of preserving fish products. Smoking dries the product,

and certain substances in smoke kill bacteria,

particularly in the presence of salt. Simple

smokers consist of trays hung in the column

of smoky air above a fire. A variety of ovens

and kilns have been developed in Africa and

the Philippines (48).

Smoking, hot-air drying, and sun-drying may

be used in combination for drying products.

Dehydration also is frequently combined with

other processes such as salting (used for thousands of years to preserve fish) and sugar curing. Spices, seasoning, tropical fruit flavors, and

other specialty products seem to offer primary

areas for expansion of dehydrated products. In

addition, byproducts and waste products of

dried foods can be added to animal feed formulations (82).

Dehydration also may be accomplished by

freezing and drying at the same time. Freezedrying technology may be applied to selected,

high-valued products, provided reliable electric power is available (82). Freeze-drying maintains the flavor and helps protect the cellular

integrity of the food. However, this technology

requires high amounts of energy and skilled labor, and therefore cannot be applied economically on many islands.

Retort Processing.—Retort canning or pressure cooking is a common method of preserving fruits and vegetables, and can be used on

some fish and meats. The goal of such thermoprocessing is to heat the product to microbekilling temperatures of around 100° F. Traditional canning equipment is readily available

and systems have been developed for lesser developed areas of the world (82). Acid fruit products are easily canned without substantial

health hazards as the acid level prevents spoilage by most toxic organisms. Retort canning

of nonacid foods such as vegetables and meats,

however, can be a health hazard if quality-control procedures are not followed.

The retortable pouch–a multilayer adhesively

bonded package that will withstand thermoprocessing temperatures—may maintain higher

quality foods than those retorted in conventional cans and may require less energy due

to shorter cooking times at lower temperatures

(97). Further, retort pouches have an improved
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 281

product-to-package weight ratio compared to

cans, providing savings in transportation. This

saving may be reduced by secondary packaging used to increase product durability in

transport.

Irradiation.— Irradiation for preserving food

and crops has been used both experimentally

and commercially in many countries (69). Irradiation is considered an alternative to chemical preservation of foods and crops, or where

refrigeration and retort processing are not feasible (table 8-l). Low doses of radiation prevent

sprouting of tubers, destroy insects, and inhibit

mold on fruits and vegetables. Medium to high

doses of radiation can preserve foods for long

periods of time (69,70). Low doses of radiation

for spices, hog carcasses, and some fruits and

vegetables have been approved by the U.S. Food

and Drug Administration (83). Use of high doses

of radiation for control of insect pests on produce, and for preserving fruit and vegetables

recently has been approved. Irradiated mangoes have been exported from Puerto Rico to

the U.S. market (60).

Irradiation could reduce the use of pesticides

and inhibit maturation and spoilage of crops,

thus extending shelf life and possibly making

Table 8-1 .—Effects of Food Irradiation

Dose Rads Purposes

Low-dose . . . . . . 1-1oo Control insects in grains

kilorads and flour

Inhibit sprouting in

potatoes

Sterilize trichina worms in

fresh pork

Inhibit decay, control

insects in fresh fruits

and vegetables

Medium-dose. . . 100-1,000 Destroy Salmonella and

kilorads other bacteria in meat

and poultry

High-dose . . . . . 1,000-3,000 Control insects, microkilorads organisms in dried

spices and enzymes

used in food processing;

destroy botulism spore

Dose: Dose is calculated by knowing the energy given off by the radiation source,

the distance between the energy source and the target material (food and its packaging) and the duration of treatment. “Rad” stands for “radiation absorbed dose.”

1 kilorad = 1,000 rads.

SOURCE: S, Sachs, “Q & A Irradiated Food at the Supermarket, ” USDA Food

News for Consumers 3(1): 14-15, 1986.

some foods more available or less expensive.

Application of irradiation technology, however,

requires the availability of electric power,

skilled personnel, and a high initial capital cost

making it an unlikely prospect for use on most

islands.

Hot-Water Bath Treatments.—Hot-water bath

treatments are an alternative to fumigation or

irradiation to eliminate pests, especially fruit

flies, in fruits. It has been used as an alternative to fumigation with ethylene dibromide,

which recently was banned from use on all fruit

and vegetables for trade in the United States.

Fruit, such as papaya, are immersed in water

for 40 minutes at 108° F followed by a 20-minute

immersion in water at 120° F. This treatment

killed all eggs and 99 percent of insect larvae

in commercial-sized lots of papaya in Hawaii.

In general, hot-water bath-treated papaya maintains its quality, including the flavor, texture,

absence of blemishes, and absence of hard spots

on fruits (98). This method holds promise for

wide application on islands because it is simple, inexpensive, and does not depend on expensive imported materials.

Secondary food Processing Methods

Secondary food processing systems, in general, involve more complex techniques, higher

capital investments, and more energy-intensive

technologies than primary processing. On U. S.-

affiliated islands, secondary food processing

systems include fermentation, oil extraction,

and starchy crop processing.

Except for coconut oil extraction, commercial secondary food processing methods are undeveloped in U.S. Pacific islands. However, in

Micronesia a traditional coconut wine (toddy)

is made by cutting the stalk of a coconut flower

and allowing the sap to drip into a container

to ferment naturally. Secondary processing is

common in Puerto Rico; for example, brinefermented citron is one of the oldest fruit processing operations on the island (77).

Fermentation.—Fermentation of fruits is a

common method of preservation and flavorenhancement, and is used in many cultures to

derive alcoholic beverages. Fermentation of fish
282 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

and shrimp was originally developed in Southeast Asia as a means of flavor enhancement.

Since this generally involves hydrolysis in the

presence of high salt concentrations, products

(generally a liquid or paste) have good keeping

qualities. Nutritive quality is maintained, and

the process is simple (48).

Plant Oil Extraction Methods.—Chemical

and physical extraction methods are available

for extraction of oils from plants. Depending

on the products, oil extraction ranges from

simple, inexpensive, small-scale techniques to

complex, capital-intensive extraction methods.

Basically oil extraction involves drying the

product, chopping it into small pieces for pressing and/or chemical extraction and fractionation to obtain the desired oil (82). Coconut oil

can easily be extracted from dried coconut meat

(copra), by pressing or boiling. This can be accomplished using common kitchen implements

or in a factory setting with proper quality control and precise extraction procedures (67,82).

Oil from the ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata)

flower is extracted through similar procedures.

Starch-Crop Processing Methods.—A number of relatively simple processing technologies

for making flour, chips, and pellets from common starchy island crops such as rootcrops,

coconuts, breadfruit, plantain, and banana are

available. These are relatively simple technologies which basically involve chopping and/or

shredding the crop into small pieces and drying it or grinding it into flour. Flour may be

processed into pellets and packaged in various

ways (21,77).

A simple cottage-scale flour-grinding operation has been in operation for several years at

Macheweichun Xavier Society in Truk. It involves the use of wood-fired dryers, a flour

grinder, a drum shredder, and miscellaneous

hoppers, trays, and containers (21).

Summary

Although U.S.-affiliated islands offer opportunities for food processing development, the

pacific islands in particular are constrained by

high energy costs, small markets, and relatively

small and unreliable domestic production of

raw materials. The energy requirements for certain processing technologies, such as freezedrying, refrigeration or freezing, irradiation,

and retort processing, can be substantial. This

may seriously handicap application on U. S.-

affiliated islands where energy is costly and irregularly available. Availability of fresh water

may also be a constraint for resource poor islands such as atolls.

Although Puerto Rico has the capability for

processing most food products, it is constrained

by the limited quantities and the high prices

of raw materials produced locally. Hence, food

processing industries are forced to import raw

materials from neighboring islands or from the

mainland United States (77).

Establishment of regional or local cooperative food processing centers may overcome the

constraints provided by the small size and fragmentation of islands of the U.S. Pacific territories. A processing center could provide a strong

link between processing and production, and

may provide technological support to producers and marketers thus facilitating commercialization of local products (82).

Cooperative processing and preservation

centers could absorb crop surplus not taken by

the fresh produce market, preventing waste and

providing intermediate products for further

food and feed formulations. Local producers

might be encouraged to expand crop production if processing facilities guaranteed a market for excess products: sustained levels of production above local subsistence needs can take

place when a stable cash market exists to absorb the surplus (70). It is estimated that between 30 to 50 percent of fruits and vegetables

produced in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) have been discarded

because they have no market outlets (87).

Development of cooperative food processing

facilities will require coordinated development

of marketing services, island infrastructure,

agriculture production, and managerial skills.

Government cooperation and support probably

is necessary.
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development w 283

Opportunity: Expand Research

in Postharvest Technologies

for Island Products

Postharvest technology research commonly

is biologically or physically oriented, thus complementing production research. Some postharvest technology research focuses on the biological or chemical properties (e. g., composition,

quality, safety, nutritional value) of products

that affect the handling, storage, transportation,

preservation, and effective use of such products. Other postharvest technology research focuses on the mechanical technologies used to

assemble, process, package, warehouse, store,

transport, and distribute products.

A 1983 OTA assessment concluded that public sector research in postharvest technology

and

1.

2.

3.

economics can be justified because:

benefits are distributed beyond those who

bear the costs, and substantial social advantages are derived from both public and

private research;

in the absence of public sector support and

guidance, postharvest research might be

biased strongly toward mechanical and

chemical technologies, since economic

returns can be extracted in the short run;

and

for those situations where private research

might be detrimental to industry competitiveness, a mix of public and private research may best preserve competition or

reduce market power.

Some areas of research, such as:

1.

2,

3.

new food sources and their development,

naturally occurring food contaminants,

and

yields in relation to productivity versus nutritional components, might best be undertaken by joint public sector/private sector

organizations.

Three research agencies in the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA] conduct and fund

postharvest research: the Agricultural Research

Service (ARS), Economic Research Service

(ERS), and Agricultural Marketing Service

(AMS). Although ARS conducts some postharvest research, including some in Puerto Rico

and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI), it is not organized to manage, conduct, or be responsive to

regional research needs (93). ERS has International Economics Divisions which identify

trends in food demand in foreign countries (on

a regional basis) and draw implications for export markets in those countries. Its National

Economics Division primarily assesses the

organizations and performance of the major

U.S. commodity subsectors (animal products;

crops; and fruits, vegetables, and sweeteners).

AMS is an action agency primarily devoted

to distribution of market news to the agricultural community, inspection and grading of

food products, and other regulatory activities

and some research. AMS has responsibility for

the conduct of studies of the facilities and methods used in the physical distribution of food

and other farm products; for research designed

to improve the handling of all agricultural products as they move from farm to consumers; and

for increasing marketing efficiency by developing improved operating methods and facilities (93)0

The Agricultural Experiment Station of the

University of Puerto Rico has developed a Food

Technology Laboratory devoted to fostering the

development of processing industries. An associate degree in Food Technology is offered at

the University’s Utuado Regional College. Product research since its inception in the late 1940s

has included: canned sweet potatoes, canned

fruit nectars, frozen fruit concentrate, canned

soups, frozen root crops, jams, jellies, and marmalades. Although many of these efforts failed

to reach commercialization, and others failed

to survive (primarily due to economic reasons),

the food processing industry showed rapid

growth between 1960 and 1970 in diversification and sales volume (77). However, because

quantities of acceptable quality fruits and vegetables were not reliably available from local producers, the Puerto Rican food processing industry shifted to the processing of imported raw

materials.

63-222 0 - 87-10 QL. 3
284 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Opportunity: Develop New Products

From Extant Crops and Catch

Local processing of crops can provide higher

returns to growers than exporting raw materials, and can provide import substitution opportunities. Major opportunities for development

of new products from locally available crops

are coconut oil products; fruit juices, jams, jellies, and marmalades; and animal feeds.

Coconut Products.—The major commercial

crop in the U.S. Pacific is coconut, from which

copra is made. Copra oil processing plants exist on Majuro, Moen (Truk), and Pohnpei. Yap

is in the process of building a plant. The Pohnpei Coconuts Products plant has developed a

line of products—laundry and bath soap, dish

soap, cooking oil, body oils, and shampoo—for

the local and tourist markets. Plants on Truk

and Yap will offer similar products, mainly for

import substitution. Copra oil also is a potential substitute for diesel oil, but its cost ($4.00/

gallon) compared to imported diesel oil ($1.50/

gallon) is prohibitive at present (73).

Fruit Products. —Surplus fruit crops can be

made into jams and jellies, juiced and bottled,

or used in production of fruit ices, currently

popular in areas having refrigeration. Smallscale juicing machinery, suitable for small

quantities, are available and are employed on

some Pacific islands. Through a successful Yap

government-sponsored radio campaign, coconut milk has replaced large amounts of imported canned beverages; similar campaigns

could promote locally produced juices (73).

Animal Feed.—Another major avenue for

substitution of imports with locally produced

and processed products is animal feeds. Feeds

for livestock come from a variety of sources depending on the kinds of livestock raised and

the husbandry methods. Livestock feeds include green forage, pasture grasses, hay, silage,

feed concentrates and, for some livestock such

as pigs and chicken, left-over food or crop

wastes, In Puerto Rico and the USVI, most cattle are raised on improved or unimproved pastures. Dairy cattle are supplemented with feed

concentrates (5), and silage and green forage

such as Leucaena leucocephala are used occasionally to supplement cattle feed. In Puerto

Rico, hay is fed to horses and calves during the

dry season. About 10,000 tons of hay are produced yearly on about 2,000 acres and another

4,000 tons are imported (101).

Although the demand for animal feed is high,

practically all feed concentrates are imported

to U.S.-affiliated islands. Pohnpei imports about

400 tons of pig feed concentrates annually (85)

and Puerto Rico imports about 500,000 tons of

raw materials for livestock feed concentrates

annually. None of the latter incorporate ingredients that can be produced locally (5).

High costs of imported feed concentrates constrain development of livestock industries on

most islands. Imported feed concentrates are

expensive and may represent one-half to twothirds of the total cost of producing meat and

dairy products in the U.S. Pacific territories

(38). Furthermore, unreliable shipping has

caused shortages of feed forcing farmers on

small islands to ration and substitute feed. Rationing and substituting local materials for feed

have resulted in decreased livestock production and reduced feed conversion efficiency.

Shortages may also cause a “feed shortage mentality” on the part of unsophisticated farmers

resulting in rationing of feed even when an adequate supply of concentrates is available on islands (5).

Establishment of plants that process local raw

materials for feed may minimize crop waste,

provide a market for crop surpluses during peak

production seasons, and make use of currently

underutilized resources. Such plants could also

provide substantial benefits to farmers by increasing market demand and absorbing supply not taken by the fresh produce market (38).

Development of alternative markets can moderate supply fluctuations and contribute to increased market efficiency.

Many attempts have been made to produce

feed concentrate from local raw materials. For

example, a feed processing plant on Palau,

using copra meal, fish parts, and imported rice

hulls, grain, and vitamins, was established in

1976. However, the plant was forced to close

when the copra oil mill closed down (45). In
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 285

general, ingredients such as fish meal, vitamins,

and mineral supplements still must be imported

(5,85). An animal feed processing plant currently is operated on Guam, but low-quality feed

hinders its ability to compete with imported

products (65).

On U.S. Pacific islands, a variety of local raw

materials offer potential as feed components,

such as copra meal, breadfruit, banana, rootcrops, and various agriculture wastes. Leucaena leaves, which contain up to 30 percent

protein (49), can be dried and used as an ingredient of feed concentrate. Excessive feeding of

Leucaena to nonruminant animals can cause

hair loss and ill health and poor feathering in

poultry, because it contains a harmful chemical called “mimosine” (49). However, the toxic

effects of mimosine are reversible and can be

neutralized when certain micro-organisms are

inoculated into cattle feed (79). Mimosine content in Leucaena leaf meal also can be reduced

by adding ferrous sulfate to rations, soaking it

in water overnight, or boiling it for a few

minutes.

In Puerto Rico, byproducts from local pharmaceutical companies, tuna or pineapple canning plants, rum breweries, and sugarcane

refineries can be used as ingredients for animal feed concentrates (72). Quantities of these

byproducts, however, are limited and only

seasonally available. These products could substitute for only about 10 percent of currently

imported feed concentrates (5) and are not sufficient alone to support a feed processing facility.

Although the use of local produce for ingredients in animal feed is technically feasible, it

is seriously constrained by the high production

costs for small-scale operations and by the unreliable and seasonal availability of local raw

materials (5,67,82,85). Because of these constraints, local raw materials generally can only

be used as an extender for imported animal

feeds (67). However, in most cases it is cheaper

to import finished feed from large foreign operators than to blend imported and domestic raw

materials (5,67,85). High fuel costs, costly maintenance of equipment, and difficulty in getting

spare parts are also major hindrances to operation of local processing plants in most U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands.

Marketing Development

Opportunities for market development exist

despite small local markets and highly competitive export markets. In addition to the small

size of local markets, marketing on U.S.-affiliated islands is constrained by low levels of production, lack of marketing skills, and for small

producers primarily on U.S. Pacific islands, by

the inability to meet marketing demands (e.g.,

consistency in quality, quantity, and pricing).

Under certain circumstances, however, cooperatives may overcome these constraints (102).

Another way to facilitate marketing, is linking

small-scale “satellite” farmers and fishermen

to large-scale, well-established, producers. This

system has been effectively instituted for ornamental plant producers in Puerto Rico (6).

Although increased penetration of export markets is possible, it is considerably more difficult than developing local markets. In either

case, government intervention may be needed.

Development of Local Markets

Farmers and fishermen use a variety of marketing methods to sell their product. In general,

local markets are small relative to agriculture

production potential. The absence of alternative market outlets, such as export markets and

food processing plants, and inefficient distribution and marketing of fresh produce, lead

to unstable prices, unnecessary product losses

and spoilage, and inability to meet the demands

of institutional buyers.

The local market in Puerto Rico, although

relatively small for most commodities, is stable.

Although local marketing methods in Puerto

Rico are not as advanced as in the mainland

United States, they appear adequate. Local produce such as plantains, bananas, pineapples,

and others are sensitive to market fluctuations;

even small surpluses can depress prices, since

surplus crops cannot be readily exported offisland. Thus, some crops, such as coffee, are

protected against competing imports by local
286 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Large open-air markets, where the majority of locally produced agriculture and fishery products are sold directly from

the producer to the consumer, are typical of many island areas.

regulations (47). On the other hand, the local

market for some crops is, in a sense, “protected” by relatively high transportation costs

of imports from the mainland United States

(about 2.5 cents/lb for grain and 6 to 7 cents/lb

for refrigerated products) (101).

About half of the food tonnage consumed in

Puerto Rico is produced locally (100). The percentage of the local food market that can be

captured by Puerto Rican food producers is

limited by local production potential and by

consumer preference for supermarket convenience food produced mainly by mainland U.S.

food processing corporations (40).

In the U.S. Pacific islands, food imports are

substantial. However, imported commodities

are mainly sold in the major urban centers (38).

Only a small fraction of the urban populations

consume imported fresh food. Therefore, only

a small amount of imports can be substituted

by locally produced fresh food. Opportunities

to develop the local markets on U.S.-affiliated

islands and reduce imports are based on the

potential for supplying various sectors of the

local markets such as government-sponsored

programs (e.g., school lunch, food stamp, and

old age programs), tourist, and military markets.

Currently, most food products for the military and tourist markets in the Pacific are imported from suppliers outside Micronesia, thus,

the potential for import substitution is great,

However, hotels and military facilities require

regular supplies of high-quality produce currently unavailable on the islands. Even if only

part of the fresh produce requirements can be
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development “ 287

supplied locally, it could make a significant

difference to local economies.

Opportunity: Substitute LocaIly

Produced Food for Imports in FederaIly

Funded Food Assistance Programs

In American Samoa, Guam, and the CNMI,

opportunities exist to increase gradually the use

of locally produced commodities in federally

funded food assistance programs. Part of block

grant funds (e.g., for school lunch or old age

programs), could be used to purchase locally

produced commodities, including processed

items, instead of imports. The CNMI Food

Stamp program requires that 25 percent of food

stamp expenditures go to the purchase of locally produced commodities. These requirements increase the use of local products and

benefit local producers (38), Gradual increases

in the required percentage could result in additional benefits to producers and consumers.

Opportunity: Develop the

Tourist Market

Tourism represents potential demand for

agriculture and fisheries products where significant tourist industries have developed, such

as in Guam, Palau, the CNMI, Puerto Rico, and

the USVI. For Puerto Rico, the impact of tourism on agriculture development is not known.

In the USVI, however, certain small-scale agriculture ventures are directly dependent on the

tourist industry (13). Tourism in the Freely

Associated States (FAS) and American Samoa

is hindered currently by weak airline linkages

with major Asian/Pacific markets and relatively

expensive fares (38), but has the potential to become a significant market as it develops. In

Guam and the CNMI, tourism provides the major private sector income generating activity;

about 450,000 tourists visit Guam and Saipan

annually (38) and prospects for continued growth

in visitors is high (3).

Although large numbers of tourists visit the

CNMI and Guam, local producers can take little advantage of this market because of the

monopolistic practices of tourist facility (e. g.,

hotel) operators. Japanese interests control most

of the tourist industry and have set up a number of barriers for local suppliers to access this

market. Only small amounts of commodities

such as food and locally made handicrafts enter into the tourist market (102).

Opportunity: Supply Military Markets

The military presence on Guam and Kwajalein represents potential demands for local agriculture and fishery products. Military personnel and dependents in Guam make up roughly

20 percent of the resident population. In the

Marshall Islands, the Kwajalein Missile Base

has a population of about 7,500, most of whom

are Marshallese employees and dependents living on nearby Ebeye Island (35]. Although these

populations represent potential markets for

fresh produce, most food is currently imported

from suppliers outside Micronesia.

While local farmers could supply at least part

of the fresh produce requirements, irregular

and limited supplies of local produce make it

impractical for satisfying the military markets

(see app. c). In addition, accounting advantages

accrue through military dependence on centralized supply of warranted products. Only if

the centers do not carry a particular commodity, or fail to meet minimum quality standards, are local commanders encouraged to procure locally. A Department of Defense team

recently was sent to Guam to evaluate prospects

for greater reliance on local markets, particularly of fresh foods. However, only small

amounts of local products are likely to be

bought by military employees, dependents, and

civilian employees in the near future (35).

Opportunity: Develop

Interisland Markets

Trade in selected agricultural commodities

within Micronesia also is possible. The potential for intraregional trade depends both on coordinated development planning and strengthening surface and air transportation services

among the islands (38), The most direct step

to developing markets for Micronesia crops

would be to conduct a pest and disease survey

of Micronesia to provide a basis for U.S. Fed-
288 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

eral quarantine regulations affecting Guam and

other potential markets. If quarantine regulations were revised, some traditional crops could

be exported to Guam and other areas where demand for traditional foods is unfulfilled (15).

Development of Export Markets

Export potentials for the U.S. Pacific differ

from that of the U.S. Caribbean islands, due

to differences in geography, and the socioeconomic conditions. Puerto Rico and the USVI

have ample opportunity to export fresh produce

due to the cheap and frequent ocean transport

to major east coast markets (60).

Currently Guam and CNMI have the best

prospects for agriculture exports outside of

Micronesia. Guam and Saipan islands have

good air transportation links to Japan, a potential overseas market. Wide-body passenger aircraft serving Micronesia have the capacity to

ship air freight containers. Japan seems to be

the most promising export market, because of

its high per capita income and already large

volume of imported fresh produce. A recent

study concluded that avocados and papayas

had the best export potential in the Japanese

markets, with other possible exports being

tomatoes, sweet corn, bell pepper, melons, and

ornamental plants (12). However, Japan’s strict

quarantine regulations preclude most fresh produce exports from Micronesia. Until the fruit

fly is eradicated on Guam and the CNMI and

effective methods for treating fresh produce are

found, Japanese markets will remain closed to

Micronesia exports. At present, only copra

and green bananas can be freely exported into

Japan (app. F, 65).

Removal of U.S. import tariffs on produce

from Caribbean Basin countries as a result of

the Caribbean Basin Initiative, has not seriously

affected the local market for Puerto Rican products. However, import tariff reductions seriously

hurt the potential for export of fresh produce

from Puerto Rico (101). Exporting Caribbean

countries have a competitive advantage in

lower wage structures ($2 to $4 daily as compared to $16 to $26 in Puerto Rico), which results in lower product prices even after addition of transportation costs. To increase food

exports, Puerto Rican producers must both reduce production costs and improve the quality of their produce, thus reducing competition

between Puerto Rican products and foreign

substitutes.

Integrated Production, Processing,

and Marketing

Neither production nor marketing can be developed in isolation and one cannot be successfully developed without attention to the other.

Without viable markets, production will stagnate or decline. Without regular and reliable

sources of product, market development and

expansion cannot occur. Many opportunities

exist for integrating production and marketing

to make these activities more efficient and

mutually supportive. Such integration can remove certain constraints that affect each sector in isolation. For example, commercial smallscale operations may be handicapped by small

and unstable markets or inadequate transportation services; small producers commonly are

not able to produce uniform quality products,

do not have access to adequate capital and, generally, lack marketing skills. Cooperatives and/

or vertical integration of agricultural systems

(linking smallholder farmers with large producers or processors) may help mitigate such constraints and provide enterprises capable of capturing economies of scale.

Cooperatives

1

Cooperatives are known to be a useful way

of organizing and mobilizing capital and people in developing communities. Cooperatives

offer an alternative when conventional corporations are unable or unwilling to enter markets because of inadequate return, high risk,

or lack of capital. A producer cooperative provides some economic benefit to individuals as

they earn a livelihood. A consumer cooperative—in essence, a buying club—helps individ1

This section is summarized from N. Nathanson, “The Suitability of Cooperative Enterprises for the Production of Food

on the Territorial Islands of the United States, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 289

uals pool their resources to obtain products not

otherwise available on acceptable terms. The

return on the member’s investment is almost

always of secondary importance; the desire for

a particular type or quality of product is

paramount,

While small farmers face real difficulties purchasing small quantities of supplies competitively, and can ill-afford expensive equipment,

farmer co-ops can competitively purchase supplies, services, and equipment and market produce for the benefit of the entire group. Groups

of farmers may even purchase a sizable tract

of land and work it together, either by subdividing the land or sharing in the production of the

entire tract. The more highly organized food

producer cooperatives provide fully integrated

programs for their members. These may arrange bulk purchases of supplies, lease planting and harvesting equipment to individual

members, process and market the finished

product, provide financing for members, and

even conduct research and development in new

crops or techniques. Other co-ops are more

limited in purpose.

Advantages and disadvantages to co-ops exist relative to capital enterprises. One major

advantage is the built-in incentive for members

to use services offered, increasing the cooperative’s revenues, However, members generally

lack incentive to purchase more than one share;

this limits cooperative capital and can ultimately necessitate debt financing. There also

is a danger of short-sighted decisions by members with diverse interests or limited knowledge of market economies. Some argue that not

enough profit motivation exists in a cooperative organization to assure sufficient earnings

for future growth. Nonetheless, the cooperative structure seems, in some cases, to be encouraging increased agricultural production on

the islands.

In Puerto Rico and the USVI, some tradition

of market-oriented agriculture exists, but there

is little modern, competitive agriculture in the

Pacific under the control of indigenous populations. Exceptions occur with the help of cooperative enterprises, whose member-investors

have a direct need for the produce or service

supplied.

A Successful Small-Scale Cooperative:

SFCA.—Only about 5 percent of the land in the

Northern Marianas is suitable for agriculture,

and much of that requires irrigation. Public resources and private capital directed at the preparation of farmland have been very limited.

Nevertheless, the Saipan Farmers’ Cooperative

Association (SFCA) is demonstrating that, with

competent management, and a modest amount

of public and private capital, small-scale agricultural co-ops can have a measurable impact

on food supply. With nurturing, SFCA could

become a model for agricultural development

in other Pacific islands.

SFCA has 85 producing farmers as members.

Its principal activity is the retail sale of member produce; a secondary activity is the procurement of supplies and animal feed for sale to

members. Chartered in 1972, SFCA was nearly

bankrupt by 1980, but since new management

took over in 1982, it has been far more successful. Sales have increased from $133,000 in 1982

to $575,000 in 1984. The co-op has little capital

but a $10,000 line of credit allows it to pay members cash for products.

SFCA does not guarantee members a fixed

price, or purchase products that are below a

market standard, but it has been able to purchase most of what its members produce, Most

products sold are fresh fruits and vegetables

along with some locally processed and baked

goods, eggs, and honey. No meats or fish are

sold. A major problem in earlier years was spoilage, but with more attentive management and

a higher sales volume, this has been greatly

reduced.

SFCA sales, while growing, still represent

only a small fraction of the market potential.

To serve more of Saipan’s dispersed population, SFCA will need more retail outlets.

A Struggling Multiservice Cooperative:

FEDA. —The Federation Para El Desarrollo

Agricola de Puerto Rico (FEDA) is a complex

federation of some 20 producer associations in

Puerto Rico. It operates a tropical fruit juice
290 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

processing and marketing plant and provides

financial and technical assistance to 600 regularly participating and 600 intermittently participating member-farmers who supply the

fruit. FEDA has developed all the elements of

a fully integrated agribusiness program, including a modern processing plant, new techniques

to raise productivity, a revolving loan fund to

finance plantings, and a functional organizational and management structure. The average

member earns about $4,000 per year farming,

and through FEDA can increase the farm’s income by at least 50 percent.

The primary product of the federation plant

is passionfruit juice, but seven fruits are processed. FEDA also raises rabbits and pigs for

sale as food, using the waste from the juice plant

for animal feed. FEDA also has spawned a nonprofit institute which conducts botanic research

to improve productivity and trains farmers to

grow tropical fruits.

FEDA enjoyed considerable success in its

early development years, but with an enormous

debt load and high overhead costs, it is not yet

financially self-sustaining. FEDA’s obligation

to purchase the product of participating farmers

places a tremendous demand on its financial

resources. Member farmers who set policy

through their elected directors tend to set the

price they receive above market price, further

taxing FEDA’s resources.

To assure financial success and to use the

plant fully, new off-island markets for fruit juice

must be developed. Major U.S. distributors require enormous quantities of product, more

than FEDA can now provide. Ultimate success

will depend on the ability to market an estimated 10 million pounds of fruit annually.

FEDA is attempting to market to local distributors in South Florida and New York where

large Caribbean populations live. It may be,

however, that greater returns to the farmers

could have been realized by concentrating on

locally used foods rather than specialty export

products.

Cooperatives That Failed: USVI Fishery

Cooperatives. —The Farmer Cooperative Service of USDA, between 1975 and 1978, partially

financed fishery cooperatives in St. Thomas

(with 44 fishermen) and St. Croix (with 51

fishermen). The cooperatives were formed to

provide a more organized and sanitary method

of selling catch and to help members purchase

supplies such as fuel and ice. Most members

were part-time fishermen who had been selling their catch on street corners. Spoilage and

fish poisoning were common.

Each proposed cooperative called for the

eventual construction of a waterfront supply

and receiving facility with a cooler, freezer, fuel

pumps, cleaning area, and retail sales area. The

co-ops would also sell fish to hotels and restaurants. Both co-ops appear to have been wellplanned technically, but both failed. Several factors contributed:

●

●

●

members were required to sell their catch

to the cooperative at a price well below

street market price, and the volume available for sale was consistently below projection due to overfishing, theft, and damage to the fishermen’s traps;

both operations were substantially in debt

as a result of their financing structures, expensive overheads, soaring fuel prices, and

inflation; and

the fishermen’s association never became

a strong, cohesive organization and had difficulty setting operating policy, maintaining market discipline, and selecting competent management.

A Potential Cooperative in Koror, Palau.—

At least one-half of Palau’s population lives in

the capital city of Koror, where traditional foods

largely have been replaced by canned imports.

Although consumers seem to prefer fresh local produce, interest in farming has declined.

Residents of some outlying communities recognize the market potential of island crops, and

have steadily increased production of fruits and

vegetables since 1977. Primary factors limiting

further growth in local food production appears

to be related to distribution problems: bad

roads, lack of refrigeration during shipment,

rats, and handling all take their toll.
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 291

All farming is done on individual plots, but

some rudimentary cooperative associations

have formed. One group of Melekeok farmers

shares the cost of shipping produce from their

island to Koror. Two small retail outlets have

developed to market the produce of certain suppliers on an informal cooperative basis. With

some assistance, these associations could develop a formal cooperative similar to the Saipan Farmers’ Cooperative Association.

Opportunity: Support Cooperative Organizations.—Few local government agencies or

private organizations on the islands actively encourage the development of agriculture or fisheries cooperatives. Although the Government

of Puerto Rico has established financing and

technical assistance programs to encourage the

development of cooperatives, the emphasis has

been in housing development and retailing. Despite attempts for at least 3 years, FEDA was

unable to obtain local financing, although it secured almost $3 million off island. Only after

FEDA obtained considerable mainland attention was it able to obtain local support.

Local governments can encourage development of cooperatives by investing in infrastructure (e.g., roads) and providing tax benefits and

technical assistance. Production and marketing specialists may be particularly needed.

Guaranteed contracts for the purchase of locally produced items by schools, welfare and

social service programs, or tourist facilities

could provide market stability. The CNMI government’s preparation of a 56-acre plot of land

for lease to local farmers has contributed to the

success of SFCA; continuation and expansion

of such actions could bring the local economy

sizable benefits.

A number of mainland-based organizations

could become involved in development of cooperatives on U.S.-affiliated islands. The National Cooperative Bank chartered by Congress

in 1978 provides financing and development

assistance for cooperative business and housing. A nonprofit subsidiary, the Consumer Cooperative Development Corporation (CCDC)

has the specific mission of assisting low-income

development cooperatives. CCDC will provide

“advances” to promising organizations to develop business plans or marketing programs,

and could provide term financing for projects

like SFCA or FEDA, but probably should not

be considered a primary source of startup or

development capital. The National Cooperative

Business Association provides education and

information-sharing services to cooperative

businesses through publications, conferences,

seminars, and direct technical assistance.

The Agricultural Cooperative Service (USDA)

helps farmers maintain successful cooperatives

by performing studies on the production, marketing, financial, organizational, legal, social,

and economic aspects of cooperative activity.

The service also provides technical assistance

(based on applied research findings) in running

cooperatives, organizing new cooperatives, cooperative merging, and in developing strategies

for growth. The service collects and publishes

statistics on cooperative activity in U.S. agriculture, and its monthly “Farmer Cooperatives”

magazine reports on developments in the field

of cooperative development and management.

Verticality lntegrated

"Contract" Systems

The formation of integrated food production/processing/marketing systems is likely to

be a successful method of increasing food production on U.S.-affiliated islands. Contract

farming is one method of vertical integration

which extends benefits to small farmers as well

as to large producers.

Under this system, businesses contract with

small farms to raise a specified amount of raw

materials at a guaranteed price (and may produce materials themselves]. To coordinate this

system, the company determines product quantities required to fulfill identified consumer demands and maintain desired market prices,

Commonly, the company provides farming inputs (e.g., fertilizer), some production assistance

(technical and financial), and central processing facilities and marketing services. Thus, the

farmers own and operate their farms, the central operation unit buys, processes, and sells

the product, resulting in an integrated enter-
292 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

prise capable of capturing economies of scale

(6).

Integrated contract farming provides significant benefits to both producers and consumers:

●

●

●

●

●

small farmers can capture the benefits of

economies of scale in processing and marketing and so obtain greater returns than

as independent producers;

because pricing decisions are made prior

to delivery of the product to market, price

uncertainties are shifted from farmers to

consumers;

farmers receive greater access to markets,

which may be expanded through advertising and promotion underwritten by the

central company;

consumers are assured of more standardized product quality and, perhaps, access

to a range of product quality at varying

prices; and

consumers receive relatively stable product availability and price (71).

Numerous examples of successful vertical integration of agricultural enterprises exist in

Puerto Rico (71). For example, the Puerto Rico

Department of Agriculture provides financial

assistance to both the processing and distribution facilities and to “satellite farmers” supplying the broiler and ornamental plant industries

(6).

Black pepper production on Pohnpei initially

was similarly integrated, although farmers were

not under contract and the central processing

and marketing unit was a government-run agriculture station. Since high quality is essential

to market Ponape pepper successfully, the state

government subsidized quality control by supplying staff and processing equipment to the

Agriculture Station. Farmers brought mature

pepper to the station for weighing and processing by agriculture division staff. The close

control of the drying process and prompt packaging by agriculture division staff helped to

ensure a uniform, high-quality product (19). After sale of the processing equipment to a nongovernmental organization, pepper quality and

exports have declined. The Pohnpei State government plans to repossess the processing

equipment (73) and, presumably, return to the

integrated production/processing/marketing

system originally established.

Transportation

Good transportation services are essential for

marketing produce as well as for agricultural

and aquacultural development. In the Pacific

islands, sea transportation services are inadequate to provide farmers with access to markets within Micronesia or to Hawaiian or Asian

export markets (38). Inter-island transportation

problems most often exist in the frequency and

expense of transportation services, as well as

the absence of any scheduled transportation

service to some outlying islands. Intra-island

shipping services are few and roads connecting outlying areas to urban centers commonly

are unpaved and irregularly maintained. Scattered location of islands, great distances between producers and markets, and small volume

of product constrain increased transportation

services. Because of inadequate road systems,

farmers from remote villages are unable to bring

their products to markets in the urban centers

(19,38).

The U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands generally have adequate and regularly scheduled,

reliable transportation services. Puerto Rico

and the USVI have close contacts with the U.S.

mainland and many island residents frequently

travel there (101). The Caribbean islands have

long been a tourist haven and thus airline and

cruise ship transportation is readily available.

Additionally they lie within major shipping

routes and historically have been transshipment

points between South and Central America to

Europe. Transportation related difficulties in

these islands are more often related to expense

rather than availability.

Even where sea transportation services are

adequate, e.g., between the U.S. mainland and

the U.S. Caribbean islands, the costs are high.

This is partially due to U.S. Federal regulations

requiring the use of U.S. carriers for interstate

commerce and Federal Government negotiation of air routes between the United States (in-
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development “ 293

eluding U.S.-affiliated islands) and foreign

countries.

The availability or frequency, quality, and

cost of transportation in island economies is

generally dictated by: distance and geography,

market size or demand, and technology. In the

Pacific, the general pattern is one of substantial distance, small markets, and technologies

that make transportation an expensive service

(25).

Technological advances have increased the

transportation options available; however, costs

and investments required to use these technological opportunities also have risen substantially. For example, with increases in aircraft

size and carrying capacity providing greater

passenger/cargo and distance capabilities, operating costs have risen and larger airport facilities are required. Newer aircraft are cheaper

to operate than older designs when fully loaded,

but can be significantly more expensive if not

full. If cargo carrying capacity is to be increased, vessel/aircraft size and/or trip frequency must generally move upward. with this

increase, freight costs and attendant business

risk would likely also be higher (25).

Economic risks for transportation businesses

are compounded in small markets where the

potential for local fluctuations are greater.

Maintenance and enhancement of international

transportation infrastructure is a particularly

difficult economic development task. The major capital assets of transportation providers,

ships and aircraft, are unlike other corporate

capital assets: airplanes and vessels can be rapidly relocated to other markets. Even when a

transportation company is financially solvent

or is making a modest profit, the level of business success is often measured against standards other than local or corporate gains. Profitability and business risk are measured not only

within the local economy, but also are compared with other markets (25).

Many producers will assume transportation

costs in order to become or remain competitive in a market: this is frequently the case for

outlying producers. It should be noted that these

outlying producers begin with a cost disadvantage, attributable partially to transit expenses

for inputs. where production cost, including

transportation, is a key determinant in the success of a producer, the transport equation is

a major factor in economic development. The

value of the products needing transportation,

and their perishability or sensitivity to transport risks must be carefully assessed prior to

investment. In a large transportation market,

a canceled flight may mean a delay of several

hours, while it could well mean a several day

delay or total loss of goods in a small market.

Intra-island and Inter-island

Transportation

In many Pacific islands, inter-island and intraisland surface transportation typically is inadequate to provide producers with reliable market access and inputs, such as animal feed and

fertilizers, are difficult to obtain. Inter-island

shipping services and associated harbor docking/storage facilities need to be upgraded to enable an expansion of renewable resource-based

enterprises. For example, the general logistical problems of supplying feed, equipment, and

supplies and transporting the products to markets, as well as expense imposed by current

transportation systems, hinder aquiculture development (20) and often preclude significant

commercial livestock production (38) in many

of the U.S.-affiliated islands.

Intra-island Transportation. -Lack of farm

and other secondary roads on many Pacific

high volcanic islands inhibit accessibility to currently unused agricultural land and hinder market access from existing farms. Fostering of

agricultural and aquatic enterprise development will necessitate construction of secondary roads where this deficiency represents a

significant constraint, such as in the Federated

States of Micronesia (FSM) and Palau (38) and

the south side of Pohnpei (19). Although infrastructure development generally is given high

priority in development plans, the amounts allocated to road construction may not be adequate to address farm needs.

The dirt and coral roads of Micronesia are

notoriously poor and heavy rains result in im-
294 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

passable mud, ruts, potholes, and sometimes

washouts. In addition, poor roads result in high

vehicle repair costs and can reduce the productive lifetime of vehicles already shortened due

to salt-air corrosion. The expense and expertise required to maintain roads in good condition may be beyond some local government ca-

 pabilities (19). In addition, while roads bring

access to markets, they also expose formerly

traditional communities to outside influences

and accelerate the departure from the traditional lifestyles to which some people prefer

to adhere (27).

In some cases alternative transportation

might be considered. For example, for several

years, a locally built shallow-draft barge has

transported lumber successfully from Pohnpei’s southern mangrove forests into Kolonia.

while the use of draft animals for transportation is not a viable alternative for most islanders, the practice exists in some rural areas.

Carabao (a Southeast Asian water buffalo) are

used by some rural families for transport of

such items as building materials. The number

of carabao—130 in the FSM islands in 1983,

and 16 on Palau in 1982—is so small that use

trends cannot be determined (85).

Inter-island Transportation: Remote Islands

to Population Centers.—The remote or small

coral islands and atolls provide a special set

of management problems. The infrequency and

often unpredictable transportation service sometimes result in occasional food and supply

shortages in the outer Marshall Islands (67).

Many outer islands, and particularly atolls, lack

basic infrastructure and transportation facilities necessary to future economic development

activity such as medium-draft docks or harbors

for export and import trade, to support fishing

fleets, or airstrips to facilitate emergency evacuation in case of storms, injuries, or epidemics.

A dilemma in interisland transportation is the

cargo capacity limitation imposed by airstrip

size. The length of most outer island runways

precludes economically efficient cargo airplanes; conversely, the short-takeoff and landing (STOL) craft used have minimal cargo capacity and, thus, the cargo space tends to be

relatively costly (25).

Many development activities on outlying islands currently are determined by the availability and frequency of sea-going transportation

services. On many small atolls and remote islands, boat visits are infrequent and often unpredictable. Part of the frequency problems are

attributable to the lack of appropriate ocean infrastructure compounded by the natural roughness of the Pacific Ocean’s high seas. Relatively

loose scheduling of calls is commonly required

because narrow, dangerous channel passage

or anchorage/cargo handling often is achievable only at certain tides (25).

Some islands within this category rely on

copra production, which requires little support

infrastructure. Copra transportation within the

Marshall Islands is well organized, though

logistically it is not a simple task. Sailing canoes or small boats (20 to 30 feet) with small

outboard motors or inboard diesel engines

transport the copra to a common collection

point within each atoll (67).

Copra from the outer islands is transported

to Majuro for processing by small transport vessels which carry trade goods, cargo, and passengers throughout the Marshalls. Four “field

trip ships” currently are operated by the Republic of the Marshall Islands Government and privately owned ships have occasionally provided

similar services in recent years. A typical roundtrip voyage from Majuro lasts 2 to 3 weeks and

includes stops at four to six atolls. The length

of each stop and duration of the entire trip is

unpredictable because departure and arrival

times and transit of reef passes must be adjusted

daily to tides and weather conditions. This unpredictability can compromise the quality of

the copra, since it deteriorates if it is stored too

long, and may prevent the product from reaching buyers in a timely manner (67).

Opportunity: Upgrade inter-island

Air Links

Each of the FAS governments has devoted

considerable efforts to upgrading inter-island

air links. For example, 19 runways have been

constructed on the outer Marshall Islands since

1980. These can accommodate small 14- to 16-
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 295

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

This Airline of the Marshall Islands (AMI) aircraft and

airfield on Ailinglaplap (Marshall Islands) are typical

for those remote atolls having airfield facilities.

passenger planes operated by the Airline of the

Marshall Islands (67). Recently, a missionary

organization, Pacific Missionary Aviation, organized villagers in the outer atolls of the FSM

to construct short airfields for emergency air

evacuation, improved communication, and

mail service. Today, airfields have been completed on Pingelap and are being constructed

on Mokil and Ngatik in Pohnpei (39). The construction of small airstrips on other outer islands (that can afford the loss of productive

copra land) could help to stimulate economic

activity, tourism, and communication, and facilitate government administration (39).

lntraregional and International

Transportation

potential for intraregional and international

commodity exports in the Pacific islands are

hindered by inadequate transportation services,

particularly in the FAS and American Samoa.

Little or no regularly scheduled surface shipping exists between the FAS or American

Samoa and Asian-Pacific markets (38). Even

where transportation services are available, the

expense often hinders tourism and export potential of certain commodities. Rates for air

cargo from U.S.-affiliated islands are based on

international schedules rather than domestic

rates, making shipping expenses extremely high

(80).

An additional factor is the nature of most Pacific markets. Generally, the markets are importheavy, with very limited out-bound cargo. The

one-way traffic is a contributing factor to high

cargo carrying costs; in Pacific markets, these

rates must amortize the costs of virtually empty

cargo holds on the out-bound voyage (25).

Opportunity: Coordinated Regional

Transportation Development

Strategies to increase resource industry development would necessarily involve developing adequate land and water transportation

and, in some instances, air shipment (30). The

potential for intraregional trade depends on

strengthening surface and air transportation

services among the territories and on coordinated development planning (38). Quarantine

and inspection services must be upgraded concurrently with transportation to reduce the risks

of accidental introduction of harmful pests into

the islands (88).

Coordinated regional development of the

transport network is one means to address the

problem of virtually empty back-haul. Experience in the deregulated air industry has shown

that focus of commercial carriers on the more

lucrative parts of the Pacific regional market

has generally left the smaller Pacific points with

reduced service (25).

Another strategy for increasing cargo capacity and reducing freight costs is a passenger/

freight mixed load approach. Dedicated air

cargo services have had little success in the pacific due to the economic context. The mixed

use approach probably would increase revenue/

load potential while reducing business risk.

This strategy, however, does not overcome the

problems of converging seasonal peaks of passengers and cargo.
296 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Opportunity: Subsidization

of Air Transport

General transportation problems in the Pacific islands may restrain development of certain enterprises which require imported inputs

or export capacity. For example, the high costs

of air freight within the region, together with

the general lack of airline services, make it difficult to obtain needed equipment and supplies.

The high cost of transportation also reduces

or eliminates the profit margin on products destined for export. Some form of government subsidy for the shipment of supplies and products

(56), or government-sponsored identification

and/or research into more cost-effective forms

of transportation for the U.S.-affiliated islands,

could be considered to help remedy this situation.

Another approach would be to amend the Essential Air Services program, which guarantees a minimum level of service to small communities, to include cargo movement needs in

the service level determination process. Although this would increase Federal liabilities

by raising minimum guarantees, carriers may

fulfill minimum requirements without subsidy

as island economies develop.

INTERSECTORAL INTEGRATION

Some basic human services required by island people as by those elsewhere are clean

water, energy, and safe disposal of wastes. In

addition, development trends of U.S.-affiliated

islands require that the services required by

tourists and increasingly urban populations be

provided. These services commonly require

large government investments in infrastructure

and dedication of land and other resources to

their operation. However, these forms of economic development are not necessarily competing with resource management and development. In many cases, they can be designed

and developed to provide long-term secondary

benefits to agriculture, aquiculture and fisheries. For example, the airstrip on Majuro (RMI)

also serves as a passive water catchment, collecting the rainwater that falls on the cement

surface and directing it into a holding pond that

can be tapped for use. Roads can be similarly

designed.

Although analyses of the potentials for combining such developments with renewable resource development must be performed on an

island-by-island, and probably case-by-case basis, which is beyond the scope of this report,

a number of means to derive benefits for resource development from infrastructure development can be suggested, including:

● integrating agriculture and aquiculture

with energy development,

● integrating tourism and resource development, and

● integrating urban development with resource management.

Integrating Agriculture

and Aquaculture With

Energy Development

Energy is a major limiting factor to economic

development, particularly in the U.S.-affiliated

Pacific islands. Fossil fuels must be imported

and the operating and maintenance costs for

oil and gas energy production systems are high.

Thus technologies conserving imported fossil

fuels or using renewable energy sources are preferred.

The energy demands in Micronesia are small

but increasing; in aggregate 5.8 million barrels

of petroleum fuels (excluding jet fuel) are imported annually. The cost to local governments

is high. Metered rates, where they exist, usually have little correlation to the cost of production. Local governments often subsidize use

by at least 50 percent (91). Given policies of not

actively collecting bills, this can rise to 100 percent (24).

Puerto Rico and the USVI have well-developed networks for electricity production and

distribution. It is unlikely that development of
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 297

renewable resources (e.g., for processing plants)

may be hindered by the lack of electricity. The

cost of electric power, however, is high (77).

In the past, the rural poor in Puerto Rico depended on cheap, accessible wood for cooking,

but today that demand has diminished considerably and firewood is only used occasionally

(68). However, charcoal commonly is used for

backyard barbecues and roadside food stands,

Energy availability and cost will continue to

be a major economic development problem in

the Caribbean and the Pacific. In the short run,

energy conservative activities and technologies

not dependent on expensive fuels are needed.

In the long run, renewable sources of energy,

based primarily on the sun and the oceans, must

be developed. Although this energy has been

considered “free,” establishment and maintenance of the infrastructure required to tap it

are costly and can require long payback periods. Alternative energy sources are being explored in all of the island areas. These sources

include energy from biological processes, thermochemical processes, ocean-related energy

generation, and hydropower.2 Each of these can

be developed to include components mutually

beneficial to agriculture, aquiculture, and

energy.

Agriculture and Energy Development

Agriculture can be integrated with several

other technologies to conserve and recycle

resources and energy, increase production efficiency, and improve island environments. Opportunities exist for generation and use of biomass for energy generation and biogas energy

from animal and crop waste and residue.

Energy from the conversion of wood and

other plant matter represents an important, potentially underexploited resource for the islands. As renewable domestic energy resources,

these can help the islands reduce their dependence on imported oil. Energy could be derived

from numerous types of biomass, including

wood, grass and legume herbage, crop residues,

animal manure, food-processing wastes, oil2A complete analysis of these technologies is beyond the scope

of this assessment. For further information see (50,51,52,53,

55,94,96).

bearing plants, seaweed, and many other materials (50,95).

Wood Fuels.—Fuelwood, including coconut

husks and shells, is the most plentiful and least

expensive source of energy in Micronesia, and

on most atolls the only source. Most of this fuel

is used for cooking and sometimes for creating smoke to repel insects from homes and

gardens. Fuels used in cooking largely are byproducts of the food production system: dried

husks of mature coconuts, husks of Inocarpus

nuts, and wood from secondary vegetation generally from fallowing garden sites (15). Charcoal is not widely used, though species that

make high-quality charcoal (Leucaena spp.,

casuarina, and mangroves) occur commonly on

the high islands (24).

Conversion to wood-fired electric plants in

Micronesia is not foreseeable in the near future. Labor and capital investments are generally higher for fuelwood plantations than for

conventional stands due to higher stocking densities (often 20 to 40 times as high) which in

turn affect the cost of seedling production.

More mechanized harvesting and processing

methods are also required. Converting electric

plant facilities and adjusting existing grid sizes

also would be costly.

Coconut-Derived Energy Products.—A number of coconut palm products traditionally have

served as primary fuel sources in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Coconut husks and shells

have been the major Marshallese cooking fuel

for centuries. Husks and shells also fuel copra

dryers; distillation of salt from seawater; melting of lead for fishing weights; and bleaching

of the Pandanus leaves used in woven sleeping

mats and fine handicraft items (67).

Coconut shell charcoal has been considered

as a possible byproduct of copra making in the

Marshall Islands. High shipping costs, relatively high labor costs, and small potential

output would make centralized processing prohibitively expensive, although decentralized

processing on the outer islands (where there

is excess labor) might be possible (67).

The use of coconut palm biomass to fuel

larger scale activities such as steam generation
298 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

is technically possible (16). Difficulties lie in

in collecting, storing, and handling the quantities needed for such uses. In the Marshall Islands, husks could be gathered in large quantities on Majuro Atoll. However, husk shipments

to Majuro from the outer islands are not possible given current shipping capacity; the sheer

volume of whole nuts or husks would be 10

times greater than the volume of copra from

an equivalent number of nuts. The costs of expanding service and of acquiring new ships

probably would be prohibitive. If husks were

gathered in large quantities for fuel, moreover,

they would not be available for decay and return to the soil. Atoll soils are very sandy and

organically poor, and loss of this nutrient input overall could have a negative impact (67).

The use of coconut oil as a substitute for diesel

fuel is being examined in a number of countries. Tests conducted in Western Samoa have

shown that coconut oil can be used alone or

in a blend with diesel fuel without affecting engine power. Particulate matter in the coconut

oil, however, clogged fuel filters after a few

hours of operation. Injector coking and residue accumulation on other internal parts were

expected to be serious problems (63). Further

research may reveal a way of avoiding these

by pretreatment of the coconut oil, modification of engine design, fuel blending with petroleum products or ethanol, or a combination

of approaches (67).

Successful coconut oil-fueled engines also

could be used for power generation, thus eliminating the supply problems inherent in basing petroleum-fueled generating systems on remote islands. A 1983 cost comparison in the

Marshall Islands showed that a 10-kW coconut oil-fueled, generator-expeller combination

would be cheaper than a photovoltaic system

of the same size (28). Neither system, however,

is affordable by outer island standards, and they

were not compared to standard diesel-powered

systems. Moreover, the comparison did not account for fluctuations of coconut oil prices or

declining costs for photovoltaic systems as the

efficiency of that technology improves. These

factors could drastically affect the comparison

(67).

Biogas. —Considerable interest exists in enhancing agriculture production through new

and sometimes innovative integration of diverse technologies into one production system.

These include waste recycling by anaerobic

digestion to derive energy and nutrients—

energy-integrated farming. By adding simple

components, this system also can be integrated

with aquiculture or residential waste disposal.

This innovative system has not been used

widely for commercial application, perhaps due

to lack of support by local practitioners, continuity in technical assistance, or social or economic analysis.

The major objective of energy-integrated

farming systems is to transform animal or crop

wastes cheaply into useful products and, thus,

effectively recycle a wasted resource. The core

of the system is a digester: an oxygen-free container in which organic matter is fermented by

micro-organisms producing “biogas” and a

thick slurry (l). Biogas is comprised of about

60 percent methane and 40 percent other gases

principally carbon dioxide. The same fermentation process occurs in nature whenever organic matters decompose in the absence of oxygen, e.g., in animal digestive tracts or in swamp

muds. The organic matter for recycling need

not be animal wastes. Crop residues, leaves,

grasses, straw—virtually any organic material

suitably prepared—can be used independently

or in conjunction with manures to produce biogas. Induced fermentation processes in digesters can be made more efficient by controlling

the variables such as quantity and quality of

organic materials and temperature (l). The

quantity of biogas and residue produced in the

digester depends on the amount and types of

organic matter, the capacity of digester, and

ambient temperature.

Completely fermented slurry has reduced

harmful organisms, is virtually odorless, and

retains the fertilizer value of the original material. Solids can be manually or mechanically

separated from the liquid. The resulting sludge

can be processed and used for various purposes,

such as potting soil or as an animal feed additive (1,11). Slurry and sludge also can be used

for fertilizing agricultural lands or to fertilize
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 299

Figure 8-4.—Components of On-Farm Biogas Systems

Conversion and products

I t d

I

● Kitchen refuse Y

I I i

1 J

Slurry cleanup Water

subsystem Aquiculture Irrigation

t

I

t

Solids

Fertilizer

Aquiculture

Feed recycle

SOURCE A.G. Alexander, “Assessment of Energy-Related Farming Technologies

for U S Insular Areas,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986

aquiculture ponds. Biogas can be used to fuel

a variety of gas burning appliances such as

lights, stoves, refrigerators, or even to run modified gas-fueled engines (1,32).

Although each system is different, the basic

components of an energy-integrated farming

system are the same, with three basic units (figure 8-4) (l): 1) a collection and blending system

in which organic matter (manure and wastes)

is collected and mixed with water before fermentation, 2) a biogas digester wherein anaerobic fermentation of organic matter takes place

and biogas is produced and stored, and 3) slurry

and wastewater storage or separation. Effluent

can be used directly or the solids can be separated from the liquid and used separately.

Social, economic, and environmental benefits derived from the digester system include:

●

reduced fuel, fertilizer, and/or animal feed

use;

avoided costs of waste disposal to achieve

compliance with Environmental Protection Agency regulations;

●

●

●

●

●

sales of farm products which are otherwise

wasted;

increased yield and quality of traditional

farm commodities;

reduced production costs;

decreased purchased fuel or fuelwood use

through substitution of biogas; and

reduced health hazard and environmental

pollution caused by improper treatment of

wastes (l).

In addition, water is needed to wash wastes

into the system on a daily basis. Thus, a program to build biogas systems could result in

improved water systems for families as well as

improved sewer systems which could help alleviate health problems (15).

Biogas production lends itself to a broad scope

of applications ranging from single-household,

manually operated digesters with little need for

high efficiency, to huge, costly, corporationsustaining complexes totally reliant on high

technology and having closely calculated “payback” scenarios that dictate their ultimate success or failure (1). Currently, a viable biogas

plant requires a minimum of four to five confined pigs or cattle (53). Development of energy-integrated farm technologies in the near

term (6 to 7 years), probably will affect comparatively few farmers having existing large

manure supplies and pressing need for its disposal. In the longer term (8 to 20 years), smallfarm and household-level biogas units could be

implemented that could contribute to the general welfare of insular communities.

Small-Scale Operation. —In small farm operations or rural family farming, biogas can be

used for lighting or cooking. The solids can be

separated from the residual liquids by coarse

sieving or merely by gravity separation in a

small settling pond designed for periodic draining and cleaning (l). Wastewater can be used

for garden irrigation, or can be cleaned by an

inexpensive aquiculture of organisms such as

tilapia and water hyacinths that thrive on the

rich suspended organic matter still contained

in the digester effluent. The major constraint

for increased application of small-scale operations is the strong cultural resistance of many
300 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

islanders to handling animal wastes. Furthermore, the initial capital cost is outside the capacity of most small farmers.

Large-Scale Operation.—Although opportunities for large-scale integrated farming systems

exist, implementation and widespread application are seriously constrained by: 1) lack of

large livestock operations that can produce

enough recoverable wastes, 2) lack of expertise in design, installation, and operation, and

3) lack of capital support (1). The largest commercial application of energy recovery of wastes

using fermentation principles was recently installed by the Bacardi Corp. in Puerto Rico (84).

Benefits derived from large-scale operation include potential direct substitution of purchased

utility power and periodic sales of excess power

to local utilities. Indirect substitutions include

the recycled mineral nutrients contained in the

digester solids and wastewater, in protein recycled to farm animal feed, in imported dry-feeds

and feed concentrates substitution with greenfeed, and on-farm production of plants and

aquatic organisms produced in the aquiculture

subsystems (l).

Aquaculture and Energy Development

Aquiculture can be integrated with irrigation

and other agricultural support systems, as well

as with wastewater treatment and energy development, to the mutual benefit of each development component. Because power is a

basic commodity in developed and developing

economies, and most power-producing plants

are constructed in coastal zones, powerplants
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development . 301

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Slurry derived from this large-scale biogas system is

directed through aquiculture tanks containing tilapia

and water hyacinth before being discharged through

an irrigation system, thus, providing several benefits

in addition to energy generation.

and mariculture systems could be designed to

be mutually beneficial.

The oceans of the world, and the Pacific in

particular, are a reservoir of potential energy.

There currently is no available low cost and

simple means of exploiting this potential in substantial quantity. Numerous technologies being

researched may one day change this situation

although, with the exception of wind-powered

shipping, this does not seem likely to occur for

several decades. Major ocean energy systems

potentially suitable for the tropics are ocean

thermal energy conversion (OTEC), passive seawave energy systems, and biomass and solar

pond systems. Integration of aquiculture with

these technologies may improve their economic

feasibility and make productive use of ocean

energy “wastes.”

OTEC systems use large quantities of cold

water pumped from deep ocean areas to the

surface, similar to natural upwellings of cold

waters along some continental coasts (94,96).

OTEC uses the surface water as a heat source

and the cold deep water as a heat absorber. The

“fuel” is free, but low efficiency means that very

large volumes of warm and cold water must

be circulated through the system. The energy

and material cost of pumping large volumes of

cold water from considerable depths effectively

precludes the development of small-scale OTEC

systems.

A byproduct of OTEC schemes is artificial

upwelling of deep, cold waters. Tropical surface waters are nutrient poor, but the deep

water is nutrient-rich. Such water, after its temperature change has been used to generate

energy, can be used for mariculture. The culture systems use the upwelled, nutrient-rich

water and abundant sunlight for primary productivity (mainly phytoplankton) on which

other organisms are cultured in sequence. Such

technology may be applied wherever the land

borders deep seas (e.g., atolls and volcanic islands) primarily along the equatorial belt, where

solar radiation is plentiful.

Artificial upwelling mariculture systems have

been demonstrated on St. Croix and in Hawaii.

The USVI project has since closed and is considered a failure due to a need to supplement

upwelled water with additional nutrients and

rapid spread of infections and disease within

the monoculture organisms (59).

Since 1981, a number of mariculture experiments have been conducted at the Natural

Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (NELH), an alternate energy research, development, and demonstration center. Some species demonstrated

higher growth rates in comparison to natural

rates or those in other aquiculture systems. Currently kelp and abalone are being commercially

cultured using NELH’s “artificial upwelling,”

and plans are underway to grow algaes to produce a nutritional additive, pharmaceuticalgrade biochemical, pigments, vitamins, and

fertilizers. Indications are that development of

artificial upwellings do not need to be involved

in power generation to be financially attractive

(9).

Wave energy systems are a more steady and

predictable energy source than the winds from

which they draw their energy, yet variations

in wave size and energy are substantial. Wave

energy is concentrated at the sea surface, consequently a wave energy collection device needs

to be of substantial extent, hindering its applicability to small islands (14). However, sedentary
302 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

species can be cultured in much of the area

otherwise reserved for energy generation.

Biomass energy generation systems have primarily focused on using kelp, a large, coldwater

seaweed. Submerged reef areas and lagoons are

probably available near the U.S.-affiliated islands where other macroalgae could be grown,

but the nutrient-rich water required is largely

lacking in tropical areas.

In several places in the Caribbean, including St. Croix, pilot programs have studied the

feasibility of converting raw algal biomass into

methane gas and other sources of cheap, nonpolluting energy (17). Algae are grown on enclosed (often floating) artificial substrates, harvested periodically, and converted chemically

to gas. Two major problems influence the success of this process: 1) the relative scarcity of

large, fleshy algae in island waters, particularly

in light of intense fish grazing; and 2) the cost

of nutrients and processing chemicals (103).

This technology probably is more suitable for

open ocean culture rather than nearshore systems (14).

Solar ponds use a strong salinity gradient to

suppress convective mixing of a body of water

heated by the sun (55). A substantial supply of

salt is needed to maintain the required highly

saline bottom layer. Hypersaline ponds in Puerto

Rico and the USVI and Pacific atoll lagoons

may lend themselves to solar pond energy generation. The cleanliness of the air on small islands and the clarity of the sea water would

greatly reduce one of the problems with landbased ponds: heat-absorbing leaves, dirt, etc.,

accumulate in the surface layer reducing the

heat collected by the highly saline lower layers.

Certain salt-tolerant species, such as brine

shrimp (used in livestock and fish feeds) probably can be cultured in these ponds with little

detriment to energy generation.

Integrating Tourism and

Resource DeveIopment

Tropical island environments not only encompass a variety of economically important renewable resource systems, they also attract tourists.

The integrated development of renewable resource uses and of tourism will require careful

planning, but is preferable to isolated and possibly conflicting approaches to these two opportunities for economic development on the

islands.

Economic benefits and negative environmental

and social impacts as well have been attributed

to tourism in developing countries (33). Whether

the former outweigh the latter has been a matter of some debate among economists and social scientists. While small tropical islands may

be particularly vulnerable to tourism’s negative

impacts, with proper planning and management,

tourism development may be paced and integrated with resource management in ways that

maximize the economic and environmental

benefits of a tourist industry and mitigate its

adverse impacts (3). For example, tourism can

provide both the need and the capital means

(as well as one rationale) for protecting natural areas, as well as the impetus for repairing

environmentally degraded areas. Tourists represent potential consumers of island products,

and their presence creates jobs in a variety of

production and service sectors.

Local governments can set objectives for integrating tourism into island economies and decide what environmental and social changes

can be tolerated and what resources can be

committed. If the scale of development exceeds

the limits of change acceptable to the environment or community, a tourist destination could

quickly “peak out” and stagnate or decline in

popularity.

Impacts of Tourism

Tourism research to date has primarily focused on economic and social impacts (3). The

potential benefits of a tourist industry include

increased job opportunities, improvements in

infrastructural services, and increased tax revenues and foreign exchange earnings. Income

from tourism can help offset deficits created

by imports of raw materials and manufactured

goods.

The quality of the environment, which is what

attracts tourists to the islands, however, can
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 303

be compromised by tourists themselves. Demands for land, water, and waste disposal generated by tourism may stress the limited resource base of small islands. Waste disposal,

especially from large development, can be a particular problem if effluents are discharged into

lagoons or other nearshore areas with limited

circulation. Other potential contributors to

environmental stress are construction and recreational activities (66). Tourists may disturb

wildlife, trample coral, and collect live shells

and corals. It has been estimated that 1 live coral

head was collected for each 230 visitors to

Hawaii—equivalent to about 19,000 to 24,000

specimens in 1 year (3). All of these environmental impacts will vary with the character and

intensity of tourist site-use and development,

and resiliency of the ecosystem (7).

Some of Caribbean tourism’s most visible impacts are on the environment. In the space of

one generation, natural coastal and beach areas

have been displaced by hotel and marina expansion. Mountain faces and pristine landscapes have been etched with condominiums

and roads. Large developments have alienated

vast land areas from traditional uses and even

modified climatic features (41). Sensitive ecosystems like swamps and mangroves have been

irreversibly disturbed and lobster and fish beds

have deteriorated (43).

Tourism may also have negative socio-cultural impacts, including changes in demography, lifestyles, consumption patterns, work and

leisure habits, and loss of traditional values and

customs, These effects vary with the numbers

of tourists (relative to native population), and

with the extent of the cultural and sociological

differences between the tourist and indigenous

populations (89), Their impact can be large on

island territories with small populations.

Finally, some of the positive economic benefits of tourism may have been overstated. Tourism can function as a seed industry if profits

are reinvested in other sectors of the economy.

This does not happen as often as expected;

much of the income from tourism goes off island to purchase imports, many for the tourist

industry (3).

The failure of tourism to benefit the local

economy on a greater scale, and the imposition of burdens on the local population to the

benefit of the industry (e.g., loss of public

beaches to resorts) has, in some cases, contributed to a sense of resentment by the resident

population. Tax incentives encouraging to tourism development means loss of revenue for local governments. Local people become frustrated because, while they are employed in a

range of jobs from low service positions to middle management, top managers and owners are

usually foreign (10). It has been argued that potentially negative impacts of tourism on a host

country are primarily a concern and responsibility of government (26), since private sector

involvement is likely restricted to financial and

economic considerations.

Pacific Tourism. —Tourism has developed

only on certain Pacific islands; vast stretches

of ocean separate destinations. Statistics on

tourism in the Pacific are scattered among

myriad sources and are not presented in a consistent or standardized format. The Pacific Area

Travel Association annually compiles one of

the more complete and detailed compendiums

of statistical information on tourism, but does

not cover Palau or the Marshalls.

Tourism development is a stated goal of each

of the U.S.-affiliated island governments. Guam

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

The natural beauty, unique cultural settings, and historic

sites of the U.S.-Affiliated tropical islands attract

growing numbers of tourists.
304 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

and Saipan have reached the intermediate

stages of the tourist development model proposed by Butler (4), as defined by: 1) increasing external influence on tourist infrastructure,

2) large numbers of tourists who use the services of travel agents and other organized infrastructure, 3) declining rates of increase in tourist numbers, 4) heavy advertising and marketing

to attract visitors and extend the tourist season, 5) the presence of major franchises and

chains, and 6) some local opposition to tourism. The more remote islands of Micronesia

attract considerably fewer visitors than do those

of the Marianas chain. In 1981, only 20,981 visitors were recorded for Palau and the FSM combined, most from the United States (44,61,62).

American Samoa also receives few tourists.

Many of the same factors that constrain

renewable resource development also constrain

the development of the tourist industry in the

Pacific region. These include lack of reliable,

inexpensive, frequent air service; lack of developable land for transportation and facilities;

insufficient infrastructure; a reliance on imported foods, materials, and energy; and lack

of trained personnel. Availability of transportation is often cited as the primary limiting factor in the development of an island’s tourist

industry (64). The distance between service

points necessitates large aircraft, but lack of

market populations prohibits reasonable operating cost structure (62). Carriers, routes, and

timetables change frequently. Water supplies

critical to tourism also are small on many islands. Depending on the nature of development,

potable water requirements could vary from

100 to 500 gallons per person per day (22,99).

Finally, in some areas, cultural traditions inhibit acceptance of tourism as a viable option

for earning a living (29,31,90). Even where tourism employment is acceptable, avoidance of

hostility among local people is linked to the provision of good jobs, not menial employment

only, and to local ownership (66). Management

jobs, however, are primarily filled by expatriate personnel rather than local people, possibly leading to frustration.

Caribbean Tourism.—Many attractive

beaches, an ideal climate, and proximity to major markets have given the Caribbean an advantage in competing for international tourists.

However, only with the advent of mass tourism of the 1950s and early 1960s did tourism

become a major economic activity in the region

(81). The Caribbean region captures almost 3

percent of world tourism. As a result, the importance of tourism has become pervasive, and

it has become the leading sector for the majority

of Caribbean microstates (42).

Puerto Rico and the USVI depend largely on

visitors from the urban populations of the

United States and Europe. In the USVI, tourism is the base of the private economy and the

major economic activity contributing to the

gross domestic product (GDP) and employment

generation (43). Tourism is economically, socially, and physically pervasive. The territory

has received over a million tourists annually

since 1972 and, in 1979, total visitors outnumbered local residents by a factor of 13. Their

gross expenditures were double the entire operating budget of the Virgin Islands local government. Because it is so labor-intensive, the tourist

industry has a considerable impact on employment, generating nearly one-third of all island

jobs. Tourist infrastructure dominates the insular landscape. The islands’ tourist economy

makes the territory a major growth center

within the eastern Caribbean; however there

is no consistent, reliable, quantitative base from

which to assess the economic contributions and

performance of the tourism industry (81).

In Puerto Rico, which is economically more

diversified, tourism accounts for a smaller portion of the GDP and total employment (81). Although tourism accounts for only about 5 percent of GDP, it creates linkages throughout the

economy which result in increased total output by nearly all other economic sectors. Thus,

for every tourist dollar spent between 1970 and

1980, GDP increased by an estimated average

of $1.25 and total gross output by an average

of $2.08. In all, 142 jobs were created in Puerto

Rico in fiscal year 1980 for every $1.0 million
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 305

spent by tourists, including an estimated total

of 1,442 jobs in agriculture (75).

Caribbean tourism appears to face a challenging period ahead. A new recognition exists

within Caribbean governments of the costs and

benefits of tourism, and of the need for longterm planning with accurate market information (81). Long-term tourism viability will probably require a more focused marketing strategy, and it may depend on the industry’s linkage

potential with domestic sectors, such as agriculture and fisheries (43).

Local governments may need to insist on substantial local shareholding and participation in

tourism-related companies. Residents could be

trained as tour leaders in a program similar to

the intensive summer training at the University of Hawaii School of Travel Industry Management.

Opportunity: Create Linkages Between

Tourism and Island Producers

Systematic management to promote increased

use of local agricultural produce in hotels and

restaurants could help encourage regularity of

supply and quality (18). Similarly, increased use

of island handicrafts for decor in tourist facilities, and sales of handicrafts to tourists can

foster this resource-based productive sector.

Whereas large, “industrial tourism, ” characterized by hotels and infrastructure meeting international standards, require substantial investments in support facilities, and largely

depend on imported foods, smaller scale, economy-class tourism, and “craft tourism” with

“homestays” can make more use of island products. The islands could strive to attract more

tourists of the second type, including “explorers” and “adventurers” (3). Educational tourism

also is becoming popular as upscale travelers

seek opportunities to learn about the culture

and environment of remote areas. Promotion

could be approached from the islander’s perspective. What is special and important to the

person who lives there? What would they like

the tourist to see to get a true sense of the place?

Handicrafts Industry Development3

Island peoples have traditionally used fibers,

shells, wood, and other local materials to make

a wide variety of implements and decorative

objects (table 8-2). Although some loss of skills

has become evident on some islands in recent

years, considerable interest in and demand for

island handicrafts exists, mainly on the part of

expatriate and tourist populations. Handicraft

industries, if developed with attention to efficient production, marketing and quality control, could contribute significantly to island

economies; attract more tourists; foster preservation of traditional art forms and pride in

indigenous skills; and make productive use of

some natural resources that might otherwise

be left unused.

Many contemporary handicrafts in the islands are derivatives of traditional forms, in

some cases miniaturized and standardized for

sale to tourists. Other are innovations, fashioned with newly imported tools and materials, and geared to the tastes of tourists and other

nonnative buyers, Few handicrafts today are

integral to life and culture on the islands.

Pacific.—The rich variety of traditional handicrafts in Micronesia reflects the cultural

diversity of the islands. Basketry and handweaving of natural fibers was the most widely

spread skill, developed to a fine art in eastern

Micronesia where wood was scarce. Containers

with elaborate shell inlays were characteristic

of Palau, and pottery was made where clay was

available in Palau, Yap, and Saipan. Loom

weaving was practiced in the central Carolines

and tapa cloth (made from tree bark) was made

in Samoa. The Trukese were skilled in both

woodwork and fiber arts.

3This section is summarized from M. Vitarelli, “Handicrafts

Industry Development and Renewable Resource Management

for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper,

1986; and from D. Sheehy, “Traditional Crafts in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands: An Addendum to Handicrafts Industry

Development and Renewable Resource Management for U. S.-

Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.
306 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Table 8-2.-Primary Resources Used in Craft Production in U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

Type of material

Name of raw material Where used (and part used) Crafts made from materials

Coconut (tree) . . . . . . . . . all islands fiber (leaves) 

wood (trunk)

husk, shell of nut

Pandanus (tree) . . . . . . . . . all islands fiber (leaves)

wood

Banana (tree) . . . . . . . . . . . most islands

Mangrove (tree) . . . . . . . . . high islands

Breadfruit (tree) . . . . . . . . . low islands

Ivory nut palm (tree) . . . . . Pohnpei

Mahogany (tree). . . . . . . . . high islands

lronwood (tree) . . . . . . . . . most high islands

some low islands

Dort (tree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Palau

Ifil (tree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . many islands

Paper mulberry (tree) . . . American Samoa

Hibiscus (bush) . . . . . . . . . all islands

Bo-jo-bo (vine) . . . . . . . . . .Saipan

Tumeric (herb) . . . . . . . . . . most islands

Bamboo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . high islands

Trochus Shell . . . . . . . . . . most islands

Pearl oyster . . . . . . . . . . . . most islands

Turtle shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . most islands

Cowrie & other shells . . . most islands

fiber (leaf sheaths)

wood

wood

nut

wood

wood

wood

wood

fiber (inner bark)

fiber (inner bark)

wood

nut

root

woody fiber

shell

nacreous shell

tortoise shell

entire shell

baskets, purses, mats

spears, bowls

twine, ladles, jewelry, belts

mats, fans, purses, baskets, pillows, hats, wall

decorations, cigarette cases, woven sails for model

canoes, etc.

lava-lava skirts, cordage, wrapping used in other crafts

wood carvings, statues

carvings, model canoes

carvings, jewelry

carvings

carvings

carvings

carvings

tapa cloth

fiber Ieis, mwarmwar, ropes, nets, “grass” skirts,

carvings

bo-jo-bo dolls

yellow dye for fibers

fish traps, hair combs, navigation charts

jewelry (exported for use as buttons)

jewelry, inlay for wooden bowls, carvings

jewelry, combs, women’s “money plates”

jewelry, purses, ornaments, parts of decorative wall

hangings

Coral (red & black) . . . . . .W. Carolines coral jewelry

SOURCE: M. Vitarelli, “Handicrafts Industry Development and Renewable Resource Management for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986

While the range, diversity, and variety of

form; quantity; and quality of handicrafts have

all decreased, only certain traditional skills have

disappeared. Many interesting new forms of

handicrafts have emerged in part because tourists, foreign museums, and shops all express

an interest in purchasing island crafts. Market

surveys have shown that Pacific island handicraft products are readily salable within and

outside the territory, for example, to major outlets in Hawaii, the U.S. mainland, and Canada

(78). However, production at reasonable prices

must be stimulated and the success of the

industry currently depends on tourism, not

export.

Development of handicrafts as a small industry has not yet occurred within the Pacific islands for a number of reasons. Local products

often lose out in competition with cheaper imports. In some areas, tourist demand for handicrafts outstrips local supplies of quality products offered at consistent prices. Guam, for

example, attracts many tourists and has numerous outlets for sale of handicrafts, yet few are

locally produced. The lure of a steady income

through government employment may be largely

to blame. Handicrafts are normally home-produced and marketed on an individual basis, and

in one’s spare time. Production is rarely an

organized group effort, although exceptions occur (e.g., museum-employed draftspersons on

American Samoa; a National Endowment for

the Arts project on Palau; the Small Industries

Workshop on Truk; Ponape Coconut Products

packaging; crafts groups at Kolonia, Pohnpei;

and a few government-sponsored projects).

Few producers have marketing skills and no

cooperatives or intermediary marketing agencies exist to supply these and help assure regular quality production. Also lacking are mechanisms for the preservation and transfer of

handicraft skills; a guaranteed market in some

areas; and an assured, constant supply of raw

materials, some of which must be prepared for
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development • 307

Photo credit” M. Vitarelli

Traditional crafts, although gaining importance as

commercial items, retain their practical application in

everyday island life. Shown here, coconut leaves are

being woven into a utility basket by an

island draftsperson.

use. Even today, periodic depletion of resources,

and delays in getting materials to draftspersons

sometimes hampers production.

Caribbean.— As in the Pacific, traditional

crafts until recent decades played a vital role

in the daily lives of most Puerto Ricans and Virgin Islanders. Historically, most were dependent on traditional craft skills for many of their

everyday necessities.

The traditional handicrafts currently found

in Puerto Rico clearly reflect three major strains

in the island’s cultural history. Woven hemp

hammocks were common to the local Arawak

Indians and are still fabricated locally. The

bomba drums and painted coconut husk masks

and maracas are clearly of African derivation.

Certain musical instruments, carved wooden

animals, and santos (religious icons) are

uniquely Puerto Rican but draw from Spanish

prototypes. Other prominent Puerto Rican craft

forms are pacemaking; jewelry made from local seeds, shells, and coconut shell; basketry;

machetes; wooden furniture and caning; tinwork; and pottery and papier mache masks.

As the modern technology and factory-made

goods of the United States were increasingly

imported by the islands from the 1920s to the

present, three general trends of change were

observable. First, many handicraft skills were

eclipsed or were forgotten through disuse, as

foreign-made or factory-made items were imported. Skills at roof thatching, for example,

were all but lost as corrugated tin and other

ready-made materials were used to cover people’s homes; brooms, vine baskets, palm hats,

hand-hewn wood furniture, fish traps, and

other common necessities were increasingly of

foreign origin.

Second, as society became more commodityoriented and the dictates of the marketplace

played an ever-increasing role in the production of handicrafts, crafts that were not competitive as commodities fell into desuetude. As

the set of esthetic criteria that determined quality shifted from those of the local, primarily rural and agricultural community members to

those of the city-dwelling consumers of urban

San Juan and foreign lands, traditional crafts

that could find a niche in the marketplace commonly suffered an esthetic disjuncture. In some

cases, the change in the process of crafts production from the craftsman devoting great attention to each individual piece to the craftsman having to maximize the number of pieces

produced in order to meet the demand resulted

in greater standardization, reduced artistic

diversity, and miniaturization.

Finally, the burgeoning tourist industry,

hand-in-hand with underemployment, created

an economically appealing situation for those

interested in producing and selling handicrafts

for foreign tourists. Many (if not most) of these

craft items were made and marketed as souvenirs or “hand-made” crafts and did not draw

on local traditional craft skills or esthetic ideals.
308 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo cradit: M. Vitarelli

Traditionally used raw materials such as pandanus and coconut leaf fibers and shells still are used today in many fine

island handicrafts. Clockwise from top left 1) Marshall Islands’ place mats, 2) Trukese wall decoration with cowrie shell

accents, 3) Marshall Islands’ sewing basket with cowrie shell accents, and 4) Trukese decorative tray.

Although Puerto Rico’s crafts have clearly

suffered a decline in this century, in many cases

there has been a renewed vitality since the

1950s. The Institute of Puerto Rican Culture,

created in the 1950s, began a policy of stimulating the practice of indigenous traditional arts

through contest, local and islandwide crafts

fairs, exhibits, and education programs. More

recently, the Office of Crafts Development of

the Administration de Fomento Economico

provides technical assistance and some tools

to traditional craftsmen. It also has instituted

an annual recognition program of Master Craftsman of the Year and Young Craftsman of the

Year, bringing prestige, recognition, and greater visibility to Puerto Rico’s craftsmen. In addition, several crafts items have been consciously

promoted as symbols of insular identity, such

as the omnipresent carved wooden coqui (a

small frog).

Traditional crafts of the U.S. Virgin Islands

suffered a similar decline as did the crafts of

Puerto Rico, but have not enjoyed a similar

renewal of vitality. Few traditional craft items

have been converted successfully to commodities for the tourist or local market. Some crafts

traditions continue, such as fishnets, fish traps,

and the woven grass hats of Frenchtown, but

they are to be found at the margins of daily life.

Traditional crafts have not received the governmental recognition and support in the USVI

as they have in Puerto Rico. The Virgin Islands

Council on the Arts and the multicultural edu-
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultual, and Fisheries Development • 309

cation divisions of the local public schools have

given some attention to local traditional culture, but to date there has been no comprehensive survey to inventory local crafts and assess

the needs of local traditional craftsworkers, nor

has there been any focused government effort

at conserving local handicrafts.

Opportunities to Encourage Handicraft Industry Development.–Several measures can

be taken to mitigate these constraints and to

encourage the growth of a handicrafts industry in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Producers, for

example, can cooperate for specific purposes

(advertising, participation in fairs) and standardize prices for handicrafts. Island hotels,

restaurants, and offices can make more use of

handcrafted items in place of imported glass

and plastic decorative items. Perhaps with Federal Government support, island governments

could:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

aid in the provision of tools, materials, and

workplaces;

help establish vocational training in

schools and master-apprentice programs

for transfer of skills from elders;

provide publicity, sales promotion, and

sales agents;

establish museums and cultural centers

(with handicraft sales shops) on major

islands;

provide funding for filming or other documentation of crafts being made to aid skill

transfer and educate visitors;

where export is feasible, compile a trade

index or list of overseas products, producers, and retailers for distribution overseas;

create tax incentives for organizations and

businesses who support local handicrafts,

or culture and the arts; and

prepare handicraft development plans.

In the latter, planners must choose between

emphasis on limited production or mass-production; indigenous handicrafts or innovative

derived forms; local consumption or export. Except in unusual cases, in the near-term handicrafts are likely to remain a source of supplemental income to small-scale artisans, thus

programs to increase the earnings potential of

handicrafts must be long-term (56). A wise approach to development might be cautious stepby-step expansion, building on existing skills

and focusing on quality and organization before mass-production is attempted.

If a systematic effort is made to improve and

expand the handicraft industry, methods of

conserving and/or replenishing supplies of raw

materials must be researched and implemented

to avoid depletion. As limited rural lands continue to be developed in the U.S. Caribbean,

and as certain crafts grow in popularity, resource depletion may hinder development of

some crafts. Reforestation programs could be

initiated to ensure a continuous supply of wood,

laws enacted and enforced regulating the collecting of shells and coral, and neutral lands

set aside for cultivation of fibers (40).

Integrating Urban Development

With Resource Management

Renewable resource management can be integrated into urban development in a number

of ways, including: wastewater treatment and

reuse to protect nearshore ecosystems and for

land fertilization, and development of urban

forestry to provide noise reduction and other

environmental services and a source of highvalue wood for small-scale artisans.

Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

Providing safe drinking water and protection

of groundwater supplies are important goals

in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Solid waste management, including controls over littering and

centralized refuge collection and disposal, is

also needed. Sewerage linkups to appropriately

designed treatment plants and outfalls are

needed by many urban subdistricts and villages

(39).

Most U.S.-affiliated islands are facing problems in ensuring safe water supplies and adequate sewage disposal. For example, reports

from diving groups suggest that Truk lagoon

is becoming so polluted that, unless waste disposal in the lagoon is minimized, divers may

venture elsewhere in the future, reducing tour-
310 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ist income (39). In July 1982, sewage pollution

in Truk lagoon activated a cholera outbreak

leading to loss of life (8).

Although EPA is constructing outfalls and

treatment facilities for domestic sewage on the

islands, funds are inadequate for hookups to

individual houses and businesses. Thus, sewage pollution remains a serious problem. Construction of sewage outfalls and treatment

plants has been accomplished or is planned for

Pohnpei, Kosrae, Yap island, and Falalop on

Ulithi (Yap). Solid waste disposal and landfill

management continue to be challenges (39). The

need to manage wastewater discharges and

solid waste disposal will continue to grow with

the populations unless remedial actions and

novel approaches which reduce construction

and maintenance costs are identified and initiated.

Integrated Aquiculture/Wastewater Treatment Systems.—Seaweed or aquatic plant cultivation might also be used for water treatment

(57,58). Aquatic plants effectively strip much

of the nutrients from wastewater, thereby reducing eutrophication effects in the receiving

water body (46). The use of aquatic plants for

wastewater treatment has considerable potential for use in the tropics because of the stable

environmental temperatures. Aquaculture systems for water treatment have been instituted

in several areas of the continental United States

(23,76) and this concept deserves more attention for application on the islands (56).

Land-Application of Sewage Sludge and

Wastewater.—Treated wastewater is not now

used for irrigation on the U.S.-affiliated islands.

On St. Croix, use of a saltwater flush system

in some areas makes wastewater too saline (47).

However, wastewater blended with impounded

runoff can be used for irrigation.

Some wastewater facilities plans in Puerto

Rico call for the land disposal of some effluents

via irrigation (34). However, there is declining

interest in this since irrigation demand has diminished (47).

Adequately digested and disinfected sewage

sludge could be valuable as a soil conditioner

and fertilizer in many areas. On Guam, treated

sludge is used to a very limited extent by local

farmers. In other areas, cultural beliefs would

have to be overcome and facilities constructed

to yield safely treated sludge. An increasing

concern is the extent to which heavy metals

and toxic substances enter sewer systems and

concentrate in sewage sludge (37). Only the

Umatic/Merizo waste treatment facility on

Guam employs land treatment on a relatively

large-scale, but the success of this operation has

been hampered by operating and maintenance

difficulties. These, plus land availability and

public acceptance constraints are major obstacles to land treatment of wastes.

Urban Forestry

Urban forests have a number of influences

on the quality of the residential and urban environment in addition to contributing to an esthetically pleasing environment. Although little

information exists on the effects of open-grown

trees and 30 to 50 percent tree canopy cover

applicable to urban forest situations (74), urban trees can reduce the kinetic energy of raindrops thus protecting parks, lawns, and unpaved

roads and may help regulate water runoff. Trees

shade buildings, thus reducing ambient air temperatures and, perhaps, reducing energy consumption by air-conditioners. On the other

hand, trees can restrict air flow around buildings and reduce the cooling effect of wind on

the buildings. Urban noise can be ameliorated

by woody vegetation, which serves as a barrier

to sound waves, and dense litter layers, which

absorb sound (74).

Forests and forest soils in and around urban

areas can serve as “sinks” for air pollutants

such as carbon monoxide although, of course,

they also can be a source of allergens. Urban

forests also commonly are inhabited by birds,

some of which are insectivorous and reduce

insect populations perhaps reducing the need

for pesticides. Finally, urban forests can serve
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development . 311

as a source of valuable woods. Urban and roadside trees that must be removed for other reasons supply much of the raw material for a

small wood crafts and specialty furniture industry on St. Croix (USVI). This use of available wood could be a model for economic use

of wood where large-scale commercial forestry

is not feasible (92).

CHAPTER 8 REFERENCES

1. Alexander, A. G., “Assessment of Energy-Integrated Farming Technologies for U.S. Insular

Areas, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

2. Atchley, J., and Cox, P. A., “Breadfruit Fermentation in Micronesia, ” Economic Botany 39(3):

326-335, 1985.

3. Auyong J., and Tabata, R., “Tourism Development and Sustainable Renewable Resource Management for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986,

4. Butler, R. W., “The Concept of a Tourist Area

Cycle of Evolution: Implications for Management of Resources, ” Canadian Geographer

24(l): 5-12, 1980. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1986.

5. Caro-Costas, R., “Assessment of Livestock Production Technologies in the U.S.-Affiliated

Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

6. Castillo-Barahona, F., and Bhatia, M, S., “Assessment of Agriculture Production Technologies

in Puerto Rico, ” OTA commissioned paper,

1986.

7. Cohen, E., “The Impact of Tourism on the

Physical Environment, ” Annals of Tourism Research 5:215-237, 1978. In: Auyong and Tabata,

1986.

8. Connell, J., University of Sydney Department

of Geography, personal communication, September 1986.

9.

10.

11,

12.

13.

14.

15.

Corbin, J., Manager, Hawaii Department of

Land and Natural Resources’ Aquiculture Development Program, personal communication,

September 1986.

Coulianos, K. E., “Concepts for Ecodevelopmental Tourism for Small Caribbean Islands, ”

thesis, Landscape Architecture Program, School

of Natural Resources, University of Michigan,

April 1980. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1986.

Day, D. L., “Processing Manure for Use as Feed

Ingredients, ” Animal Wastes Treatment and

Utilization, Chung Po (cd.), Taiwan, Council

for Agriculture Planning and Development,

1980. In: Alexander, 1986.

Decision Analysts Hawaii, Inc., Agriculture,

Municipal and Industrial Water Demand and

Benefit Parameters on Guam, prepared for the

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean

Division, 1983. In: Lucas, 1986.

Dillingham, E. “Agriculture Development Needs

and Opportunities in the U.S. Virgin Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Ellis, M. “Ocean Energy Developments: Prospects for Island Communities, ” presented at

the Workshop for New Marine Technology

and Social Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13,

1986, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.

Falanruw, M. V. C., “Traditional Agriculture/Re-
312 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

source Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986,

Feinstein, R. D., “Wood-Fired Cogeneration for

Rural Pacific Communities: Taveuni Case

Study,” Pacific Islands Development Program

and Resource Systems Institute, East-West

Center, Honolulu, HI, 1984. In: Poison, 1986.

Fenical, W., “Marine Plants: A Unique and Unexplored Resource,” OTA workshop proceedings, Plants: The Potentials for Extracting Protein, Medicines, and Other Useful Chemicals

(Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office, September 1983).

Gee, C. Y., Dean, University of Hawaii School

of Travel Industry Management, personal communication, September 1986,

Glenn. M., “An Analysis of Black Pepper Production in Ponape,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Glude, J., “Aquiculture Development in the

U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986

Graham, D., “Report on Breadfruit Flour Production,” Truk State Industries Center, FSM,

unpublished report, no date.

Groves, T., “Tourism Plant Expansion,” presentation at the 3rd Pacific Islands Coastal Zone

Management Conference, Kahuku, Oahu, HI,

Sept. 17-19,1985. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1986.

Haines, K. C., “Growth of the Carrageenan-Producing Tropical Red Seaweed Hypnea musciformis in Surface Water, 870 m Deep Water,

Effluent From a Clam Mariculture System, and

in Deep Water Enriched With Artificial Fertilizers or Domestic Sewage,” Proceedings

10th European Symposium on Marine Biology,

vol. 1, 1975, pp. 207-220.

Halbower, C., “Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Developmental Potentials in the U. S.-

Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

Imamura, C., Director of Planning and Programs, Pacific Basin Development Council,

personal communication, September 1986.

Jenkins, C. L., and Henry, B. M., “Government

Involvement in Tourism in Developing Countries,” Annals of Tourism Research 9(3):229-

249, 1982. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1986.

Johannes, R., Chief, CSIRO Marine Laboratories Division of Fisheries Research, personal

communication, July 1986.

Kasper, S., “Cost Comparisons for Different

Systems of Producing Electricity on Outer Is29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35,

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

lands (Atolls),” Technical Bulletin No. 2, Majuro,

Marshall Islands: Office of Planning and Statistics, 1983. In: Poison, 1986.

Kent, G., “Development Problems of Pacific Islands,” New Pacific 6(6):21-25, 1981. In: Auyong

and Tabata, 1986.

Kiste, R. C., “Implications of History and Culture for Sustaining Development of Renewable Resources on U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Kiste, R. C., “The Policies That Hid a NonPolicy (A View From Honolulu),” Pacific Islands Monthly, October 1983, pp. 37-40. In:

Auyong and Tabata, 1986.

Koh, M. T., et.al., “Trial Use of Biogas as Fuel

for Gasoline Engines” Animal Wastes Treatment and Utilization, Chung Po (cd.), Taiwan,

Council for Agriculture Planning and Development, 1980, pp. 133-139.

Latimer, J., “Developing-Island Economies—

Tourism v. Agriculture,” Tourism Management 6(l): 32-42, March 1985.

Lizardi, Gonzalez, and Maldonado Consulting

Engineers, “201 Facilities Plan: Lajas-Boqueron

Region,” report to the Puerto Rico Aqueduct

and Sewer Authority, San Juan, 1975. In: Morris

and Pool, 1986.

Loftus, S. A., “Impacts of U.S. Military Presence on U.S.-Affiliated Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Lopez, B., Executive Director, Consortium of

Pacific Arts and Cultures, personal communication, September 1986.

Lovelace, N., Chief of Territorial Programs,

Environmental Protection Agency, personal

communication, October 1986.

Lucas, R. L., “Role of Smallholder in Agriculture Development in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Maragos, J. E., “Coastal Resource Development

and Management in the U.S. Pacific Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Martin, G., Trade and Economic Consultant,

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Federal Affairs

Administration, personal communication, October 1985.

McEachern, J., and Towle, E., “Ecological

Guidelines for Island Development,” International Union for Conservation of Nature and

Natural Resources, Merges, Switzerland, 1974.

McElroy, J., Department of Business Administration and Economics, Saint Mary’s College,

IN, personal communication, July 1986.

McElroy, J. L., “A Note on the Tourism Dem-
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development “ 313

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54,

onstration Effect, ” prepared for the IX ArznuaZ

Caribbean Studies Association Meeting, St.

Kitts, West Indies, May 30- June 2, 1984.

Micronesia Regional Tourism Council, AnnuaZ

Report, Agana, Guam, 1983. In: Auyong and

Tabata, 1986.

Migvar, L., formerly with TTPI Department of

Agriculture, personal communication, September 1986.

Morris, G., Consulting hydrologist, personal

communication, September 1986.

Morris, G. L., and Pool, D. J., “Assessment of

Semiarid Agriculture Production Technologies

for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, “Fish

Processing and Preservation,” prepared for

Innovative Marine Technologies for Lesser Developed Countries (Washington, DC: National

Academy Press, in press).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Leucaena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the

Tropics (Washington, DC: National Academy

Press, 1984).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Diffusion

of Biomass Energy Technologies in Developing Countries (Washington, DC: National

Academy Press, 1984).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Alcohol Fuels: Options for Developing Countries

(Washington, DC: National Academy Press,

1983).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development Producer Gas: Another Fuel for Motor Transport

(Washington, DC: National Academy Press,

1983).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Food,

Fuel, and Fertilizer from Organic Wastes

(Washington, DC: National Academy Press,

1981).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Post55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60,

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

harvest Food Losses in Developing Countries

[Washington, DC: National Academy Press,

1978).

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Energy

for Rural Development: Renewable Resources

and Alternative Technologies for Developing

Countries (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1976).

Nelson, S., “Aquiculture and Mariculture Development in the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Nelson, S. G., and Tsutsui, R. N., “Ammonium

Uptake by Micronesia Species of Gracilaria

(Rhodophyta),” Western Pacific Technical Report No. 23, University of Guam Water and

Energy Research Institute, 1981,

Nelson, S. G., Smith, B. D., and Best, B., “Kinetics of Nitrate and Ammonium Uptake by

the Tropical Freshwater Macrophyte Pistia

stratiotes L., ” Aquiculture 24:11-19, 1981,

Odgen, J., Director, West Indies Laboratory,

personal communication, September 1986.

Ortiz-Daliot, J., Director, Commonwealth of

Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration,

personal communication, September 1986.

Pacific Area Travel Association, “Truk: A

Study of Tourism Development,” San Francisco, 1977. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1985.

Pacific Basin Development Council, “Essential Air Service in the American Pacific Islands,” PBDC Staff Study, Honolulu, HI, 1985.

Pacific Energy Programme, “Energy Mission

Report, Western Samoa,” East-West Center,

Honolulu, HI, 1982, In: Poison, 1986,

Pacific Island Development Commission, Pacific Islands Cooperative Tourism Development Study, prepared for PIDC by Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., Honolulu, HI, 1978.

Pangelinan, M., Director, Saipan Farmers Cooperative Association, personal communication, July 1986.

Pearce, D. G,, Tourist Development: Topics in

Applied Geography (New York, NY: Longman

Publishers, 1981). In: Auyong and Tabata,

1986.

Poison, S., “The Marshall Islands Coconut Industry: Prospects for Expansion and Development,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Pool, D, J., “Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Development Potentials in U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

Porter, D. V., and Hoffman, M. K., “Preserva-
314 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

tion of Food by Irradiation,” (Washington, DC:

Library of Congress, Congressional Research

Service, June 1983).

70. Potter, N. N. Food Science (Westport, CT: Avi

Publishing Co., 1973). In: Stiles, 1986.

71. Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, Program Agricola, September 1985. In: CastilloBarahona and Bhatia, 1986.

72. Randel, P. F., “Feeding Lactating Dairy Cows

Concentrates and Sugar Cane Bagasse as Compared With a Conventional Ration,” Journal

of Agriculture, University of Puerto Rico 50(4):

255-269, 1966. In: Caro-Costas, 1986.

73. Raynor, W., “Commercial Crop Production

Technologies and Development Potentials for

the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

74. Rowntree, R. A., “Ecology of the Urban Forest—

Introduction to Part I I,” Special Issue on Ecology of the Urban Forest, Part II: Function, Urban Ecology 9(3/4):229-244, 1986.

75. Ruiz, A, L., “Tourism and the Economy of

Puerto Rico: an Input-Output Approach,” Tourism Management 6(1):61-65, March 1985.

76. Ryther, J, H., et al., “Physical Models of Integrated Waste Recycling—Marine Polyculture

Systems,” AquacuZture 5:163-177, 1975.

77. Sanchez-Nieva, F., “Assessment of Food Processing Technologies for U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper,

1986.

78. Schultz, W. G., Trade Development of South Pacific Handicrafts: A Project Study, United Nations Development Advisory Team, Fiji, 1973.

79. Science News, “Goat-to-Steer Cud Transplant, ” Jan, 18, 1985.

80. Smith, B., “Non-food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated

Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper,

1986.

81. Spinrad, B. K., Seward, S. B., and Belisle, F. S,,

“Introduction,” Tourism in the Caribbean: The

Economic Impact, International Development

Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada, 1982.

82. Stiles, P, G., “Food and Feed Processing Technologies in the U.S. Insular Areas, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986,

83. Swientek, R.J. “Food Irradiation Update, ”

Food Processing 46(6):82-90, 1985. In: stiles,

1986.

84. Szendrey, L. M., “The Bacardi Corporation

Digestion Process for Stabilizing Rum Distillery Wastes and Producing Methane” IGT Symposium: Energy From Biomass and Wastes VII,

Orlando, FL, January 1983. In: Alexander,

1986).

85. Szentkiralyi, M., “Assessment of Livestock

Production Technologies in Micronesia and

Feasibility Study for Locally Produced Pig

Feed on Ponape, ” OTA commissioned paper,

1986.

86. Tchernev, D,, “Applicability of Zeolite Refrigeration Systems to Small Tropical Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

87. Tenorio, J. A., Chief, Plant Industry and Extension Services, CNMI Department of Natural

Resources, personal communication, March

1986.

88. Torres, E,, Director, Guam Department of Agriculture, personal communication, September

1986.

89. Travis, A. S., “Managing the Environmental

and Cultural Impacts of Tourism and Leisure

Development,” Tourism Management 3(4):256-

262, 1982. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1986.

90. University of Hawaii, School of Travel Industry Management, “Tourism Services Manpower

Development Study of the American Pacific

Islands,” prepared for the Pacific Basin Development Council, Honolulu HI, 1983. In: Auyong

and Tabata, 1986.

91. U.S. Congress, General Accounting Office,

“The Challenge of Enhancing Micronesia

Self-Sufficiency,” 1983.

92. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest Resources OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC:

U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1984).

93. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Agricultural Postharvest Technology

and Marketing Economics Research OTA-TMF-21 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, April 1983),

94. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Recent Developments in Ocean Thermal

Energy, Technical Memorandum, NTIS PB80-

201825 (Springfield, VA: National Technical

Information Service, April 1980),

95. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Energy from Biological Processes OTAE-124 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office, July 1980).

96. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Renewable Ocean Energy Sources: Ocean

Thermal Energy Conversions, NTIS PB-283104

(Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service, May 1978).

97. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess-
Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 315

ment, Emerging Food Marketing Technologies:

A Preliminary Analysis OTA-F-79 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, October 1978), 101.

98. U.S. Department of Agriculture, “Papaya Get

Into Hot Water, Leave Hawaii, ” Agriculture

Research Service 33(2):12, 1985.

99. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic 102.

and Atmospheric Administration, Office of

Coastal Resources Management, Final Environmental Impact Statement and Coastal Resources Management Plan for the Common- 103!

wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands,

Washington, DC, 1980.

100. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economic

Study of Puerto Rico report prepared by the

Interagency Task Force, 2 vols. (Washington

DC: Government Printing Office, 1979).

Vicente-Chandler, J., “Assessment of Agricultural Production Technologies for U.S. Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper,

1986.

Vitarelli, M., “Handicrafts Industry Development and Renewable Resource Management

for U.S.-affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

Wahle, C. M., “Non-food Marine Resources Development in the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

63-222 0 - 87-llQL. 3
Chapter 9

Resource Development

Planning for U.S.-Affiliated

Islands
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................319

Resource Planning Goals for U.S.-Affiliated Islands . .................320

Planning Needs and Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. ...321

Resource Data Collection and Information Management . .. . . ............324

Ecological Baseline Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..324

Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................325

Data Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................325

Analytic Techniques for Resource Development Planning .. . . . . . . . . . .. ...326

Environmental Impact Assessment . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .................326

Resource Suitability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................327

Carrying Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..329

Benefit-Cost Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ..............329

Multi-Objective Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..329

During and Post-Project Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...330

Implementation of Resource Planning Programs . . . . .. . .................330

Participatory Approaches to Planning and Management. ..............331

Special Application: Parks and Protected Areas. . ...................332

Special Application: Coastal Resource Management. ..................337

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................340

Guidelines for Information Management . . . . . . .. . . ...................340

Chapter 9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................342

Figure

Figure No. Page

9-1. Typical Siting of Land Uses on U.S.-Affiliated High Islands . .........342

Tables

Table No. Page

9-1. Selected Socioeconomic and Resource Conservation Issues Suitable

for Inclusion in Future CRM Initiatives in the FAS .. .. .. ... ... . ..339

9-2. Potential Implementation of Planning and Management Technologies

To Address Selected CRM Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...339
Chapter 9

Resource Development Planning for

U.S.-AffiIiated Islands

INTRODUCTION

The small size of islands, and consequent

scarcity of land and resources makes it undesirable and probably infeasible to concentrate

human populations and activities on ever

smaller areas of land, Similarly, although some

resource recovery efforts are needed, small populations and economies disallow expense of

large amounts of scarce capital and labor on

artificial provision of environmental services

or continuous reclamation of degraded areas.

Clearly, the preferred alternative is to prevent

degradation of the island ecosystem, Through

application of rational management activities,

ecosystem benefits may be sustained over the

long term.

Resource management refers to decisions of

policy or practices regarding how resources are

allocated and under what conditions (or arrangements) resources may be developed (30).

Resource management includes both planning

activities in which resource management objectives and techniques for achieving those objectives are systematically identified and implementation activities in which specific

management techniques are used to allocate resources among uses (and users) (25)

Planning processes typically involve several

steps:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

identification of some goal to be achieved

(or problem to be mitigated),

identification of alternative ways in which

the goal can be achieved,

evaluation of these alternatives,

choice of a strategy, and

specification of how that strategy is to be

implemented (25).

In the development of resource management

programs, there are three levels of planning:

policy, program, and project. Policy planning

refers to the broad choices that must be made

among multiple and frequently competing resource management objectives. At this level the

questions to be answered are explicitly value

choices. In practice, such policy choices commonly are expressed in terms of 5-year development plans, State policy plans, or similar documents. Such policy statements provide some

indication of a general awareness of resource

management problems as well as the emphasis that such problems should receive. There

are, however, no guarantees that resource management problems will receive systematic management attention (25)

Program planning refers to the identification

and evaluation of alternative ways to achieve

some resource management objective. A partial list of such techniques includes zoning, tax

incentives, or direct subsidies to resource

owners to maintain certain resource uses (e. g.,

agriculture, protected habitat), outright purchase of development rights to lands, and performance standards for certain uses. All of

these management techniques have been or are

currently being employed in a number of U.S.

continental States (25).

Project planning is sometimes used to describe the detailed administrative guidelines

and procedures for implementing a particular

management strategy, or the detailed specification of a particular resource use consistent with

resource management program objectives (25).

Policy, program, and project planning require

different kinds of information and analysis. Policy planning must address a mix of value and

empirical questions. As planning becomes

more specific there are fewer explicitly value

issues and more empirical questions (25).

319
320 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

La

Photo credit: J. Bauer

ndslides, a common hazard on tropical high islands, may be promoted by inappropriate land use such as hillside

construction or agricultural cultivation in erosion-prone areas.

Basic information and the appropriate technologies for analyzing that information are

widely agreed to be a fundamental requirement

for successful resource management (3). However, the types of information collected and

stored, the types of analysis performed and how

these activities should be integrated into resource management programs depend on the

nature of the resource management problems

confronted by an island, the degree of geographic specificity in planning and management efforts to deal with these issues, and the

particular management techniques that are being employed for problem mitigation.

Resource Planning GoaIs for

U.S.-AffiIiated Islands

Island resource systems exist in close proximity and are strongly interrelated. Decisions

that affect one resource are likely to affect other

“downstream” resources. For example, conversion of island forests to agriculture, or removal

of mangrove habitat for the purposes of coastal

development can lead to degradation of reef

areas through increased siltation. Conversely,

mining of reefs, which act as natural wave

energy and storm surge buffers, may lead to

increased erosion or other damage to coastal
—

Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 321

areas, Integrated management of natural systems requires thorough knowledge of the interrelationships between resource systems.

These interrelationships are often critical to the

functioning of the whole island system (11).

Natural systems management problems are

usually perceived in two ways: 1) as the consequences of particular resource uses, or 2) as

conflicts over alternative resource uses. Accordingly, two general approaches exist to resource planning:

1. A use in mind; where to do it or put it?

2. A particular resource or an area of land;

what to do with it?

The first approach is a frequently used, singlepurpose planning methodology, After having

established need and other socioeconomic considerations, the process involves translating use

requirements into biological and physical (biophysical) site-selection criteria. As perceived

resource values change, this has increasingly

become a question of “where not to put it?”

Overlay maps showing areas of high economic,

social, or cultural value plus physical impediments commonly are used in a technique advocated by McHarg (29) to show where development would adversely affect the least number

of community-determined values (18).

The second approach is relevant where a

landowner, administrator, or manager wants

to assess the resources under his jurisdiction

and determine if an area is allocated to the most

productive sustainable uses. To a limited extent, this planning approach may be taken by

a private landowner who has flexibility in his

operation, surplus resources, and usually substantial areas of land. It is not characteristic

of tradition-bound agriculturists or pastoralists

living at or near subsistence levels, nor of corporate landowners with a narrow mandate and

large plant investment to protect through using

products from the land (e.g., pulp and paper

company). It does, however, often characterize the planning and management of public

lands (excluding military lands or nature reserves). Countries undergoing rapid increases

in population are adopting the approach of looking at the limited land estate and asking what

to do with it to promote national economic and

human well-being (18).

Both approaches are predicated on concerns

about the long-term ability of the resources to

provide goods and services efficiently and

safely. Efficient resource uses are keyed to the

natural constraints of a site. Such uses generally are efficient in maintaining a flow of goods

(e.g., crops) and services (e.g., watershed protection), although there are exceptions where

a higher flow may be provided efficiently by

overcoming minor physical limitations (e.g., by

improving drainage in soils). Safe uses build

in an avoidance of ecological backlash (e.g.,

avoid unstable slopes, flood-prone areas—

unless one wants to take a risk or alter the site

by making corrective investments) (18).

Planning Needs and Constraints1

Each U.S.-affiliated island government has

designated a planning office. In general, these

offices are responsible for compiling information on factors affecting the economic development of these islands, presenting a framework for decisionmaking by island leaders,

planners, and the public and advising their governments on rational development planning.

Some of these planning offices also are responsible for maintaining libraries and bibliographies of information for use by government

personnel and the public. For example, the

Guam Bureau of Planning has established a cataloged Planning Library to assist people conducting research on Guam. A Coastal Planning

Bibliography was produced in 1978 in association with the development of the Guam Coastal

Zone Management Plan, and a “Guam Inventory of Planning Information” was prepared

in 1976 and updated in 1981 (17).

1The Office of Technology Assessment conducted a survey of

resource development planning and management offices in U. S.-

affiliated islands in April 1986. Respondents were asked to comment on how important they perceive the planning constraints

identified by Lowry (25), whether their office uses any of the

analytic techniques described, and the actions they think would

do the most to improve resource development planning on their

island. Of the 80 surveys sent out, only 8 were returned.
—

322 c Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

A number of plans analyzing resource management and impacts of development activities

have been prepared in each island area either

by internal planning offices, in cooperation

with the Department of Commerce through development of Coastal Zone Management plans,

or by the United Nations. Unfortunately, different plans are rarely centralized or aggregated.

The Freely Associated States (FAS) were required to prepare 5-year comprehensive development plans under the terms of the Compact

of Free Association. These plans commonly describe goals and problems, but tend to remain

so general that they provide little guidance for

island decisionmakers to evaluate potential

projects.

Although ample evidence exists that improved

resource management is unlikely in the absence

of planning, it cannot ensure sustainable resource management. Planning processes may

go awry for a number of reasons, including:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

lack of resources for planning,

inadequate planning expertise “in-house”

and heavy demand on existing island

planners,

lack of data for planning,

lack of understanding of natural processes,

lack of understanding of the social and political contexts in which plans are to be implemented.

inadequate problem specification,

inadequate specification of management

alternatives, and

use of planning as a substitute for management.

Lack of Resources for Planning

Lack of resources for planning is a common

constraint on U.S.-affiliated islands. Planning

requires a substantial amount of skilled personnel, information, and time. Those resources frequently are not available for resource system

planning or, when they are available, they may

be diverted to other planning enterprises that

show more promise of immediate payoffs.

Inadequate Planning Expertise

The number of people involved in planning

on the islands and their total years of experience are limited. Resource planning and management offices in the FAS, for example, are

understaffed; they lack resource data and exercise little regulatory authority (app. F). Environmental protection boards in the FAS have

not effectively compelled developers to evaluate alternate sites and procedures. Outside expertise is needed, at least initially, to help train

planners and to plan and evaluate specific development proposals.

Lack of Data for Planning

A further constraint is posed by the lack of

reliable data on almost all aspects of the economic and population structures of the islands.

Census data commonly are suspect and many

other data have not been collected. The unavailability of such data presents considerable problems for development planning (8).

While some insular polities have gathered extensive data and developed data management

systems, others are still in need of basic information. Regardless of the island’s level of data

management development, an overall need still

exists for further information gathering and research on basic biological systems, as well as

improved data management and communication systems (app. F).

Detailed economic development planning, including identification of manpower and manpower training needs, is required to instigate

any significant movement towards self-reliance

(8). However, collection and analysis of many

data are largely beyond the current capabilities

of many insular government planning offices,

especially since each government agency commonly collects information specific to its own

functions. These data may not be collected for

each island or island region within a territory,

may not be standardized to allow aggregation,

and may not be integrated into one system (5,6,

7,8,9,10).
Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 323

Lack of Understanding of

Natural Processes

Designing a resource management program

requires a basic understanding of cause and effect relationships of biological and physical

processes. Ignorance of such relationships can

give rise to unexpected and sometimes severe

unintended impacts. In addition to inadequate

baseline biological data for organisms or resources to be managed, this appears to be an

important constraint confronting island planners and resource managers.

Lack of Understanding of the Social

and Political Contexts in Which Plans

Are To Be Impemented

A central problem in the evaluation of management alternatives is the question of which

values (or whose values) will be used to assess

the worth of proposed management strategies.

If the management alternatives do not reflect

the values of those who are most affected by

the plan, the effectiveness of management efforts are likely to be undermined. The evaluation of alternatives is particularly critical in island environments in which the values of the

planners may be different from those of wouldbe “clients.”

One way of ensuring that the choice of management strategies reflects the values of clientele is to involve them more intimately in planning processes. However, such involvement

need not take the form of public hearings at

which clientele may respond to a completed

plan—a conventional strategy of “citizen participation” used in U.S. community planning

processes of the 1960s and 1970s. To the extent that resource management programs do

not reflect island values regarding man/environment relationships or cannot, through a

process of community education, be shown to

be consistent with those values, they are not

likely to be successful (25).

Inadequate Problem Specification

In developing a resource systems management program, the possibility of inadequate

problem specification always exists—of focusing on the wrong problem. For example, rather

than identifying a problem as its underlying

cause (e.g., overpopulation), it maybe more useful to define the problem by its adverse effects

related to the underlying cause (e. g., resource

overexploitation). In specifying resource management issues to be addressed, the central

question should be: what adverse conditions

need to be avoided or reversed?

inadequate Specification of

Management Alternatives

Many contemporary resource management

programs are “technique-driven” rather than

“issue-driven.” Often some particular management technique is touted as the management

technique to be employed with particular resource management problems. Too little attention is paid to other alternatives or to the particular political and social context within which

a resource management technique will be employed.

Use of Planning as a Substitute

for Management

Planning sometimes becomes a substitute for

management because it was hoped that the

activity would be a catalyst for generating public support for resource management activities

that would be socially or politically divisive.

When that support fails to materialize, the

“plans” are left unimplemented. Planning activities also may be encouraged as symbolic activities to reassure people that “something is being done” about some problem or condition,
324 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

RESOURCE DATA COLLECTION AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

Most resource planning techniques require

a number of “sub-assessments” each requiring

different types of information necessary to the

formation of effective management plans, including:

1. Biophysical assessment—requiring information on factors affecting the physical and

biological suitability of a site for various uses,

including climate, geomorphology and geology,

soils, flora, and fauna. This information can

be used directly for site selection; after identification of the desired resource activity, the

planner identifies constraints that could inhibit

that resource use and looks for sites where the

constraints do not exist or are manageable (36).

2. Land classification-the objectives of land

classification are to identify the resources of

a given area, determine appropriate management practices for existing resource uses, and

predict the consequences of proposed changes

in land use and policies (36). Overlay mapping

techniques commonly are used to select sites

for particular land uses. One such technique

is to produce maps using white, black, or shades

of gray to show the suitability of locations for

specific types of development. The suitability

ratings are combined by superimposing the

maps, either manually or by computer, and

examining the distributions of shading intensities.

Land classification techniques assume natural system relationships are determined by land

physiography. Such techniques can be helpful

in resource development planning, but they

have limitations. Some systems are oriented

toward a particular land use such as agriculture and, therefore, tend to assess suitability

for that use rather than overall resource suitability. No single land classification system

measures resource productivity directly; this

would be too costly and time-consuming. Some

techniques are more appropriate for use in ecological studies than for helping decisionmakers

with land management questions. None of the

techniques identifies the direct or indirect biophysical impacts of land use conversions.

Moreover, the techniques neglect gradual

changes in biophysical factors that can eventually limit various resource uses. Unless combined with simulation modeling, these techniques do not reflect changes in the magnitude

of types of impacts over time (36).

Data on tropical ecosystems, both terrestrial

and marine, are insufficient for many planning

needs. Resource management and development

for sustained yields requires up-to-date baseline data on current resource use patterns and

the distribution and status of natural ecosystems. without such information, it is impossible to determine the capabilities of each resource for supporting various types of uses, or

to predict the consequences of various resource

use decisions on island ecosystems and populations.

Ecological Baseline Surveys

Many jurisdictions rely heavily on environmental impact statements to provide basic

information about the condition of natural

systems at a given time. However, when subsequent developments are planned in the same

area, a new environmental impact assessment

is made and much of the same information is

gathered again, with resultant duplication of

effort (and waste of scarce resources) (2). One

alternative would be to design and manage environmental assessments so as to contribute to

a central database which could then be used

to prepare future EISs, thus minimizing duplication. However, care must be taken to ensure

that the information in the central database is

updated to reflect changes in land use or resource systems.

A second alternative would be to put increased emphasis on development of ecological baseline surveys which incorporate a “comprehensive appraisal of important natural

systems parameters at a given time” (2). Resource inventories which identify natural resources in specific geographic areas and indicate their quality and variety commonly are part
Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 325

of an ecological baseline study. The principal

uses of such information are in the preparation of land and water use plans and other

program plans, project assessments, environmental impact assessments, area plans, and permit decisions.

The primary obstacle to development of ecological baseline surveys is cost of data collection, storage, and retrieval. The greater the

number of variables and the greater the geographic scope, the more expensive it is to measure comprehensive resource data. One way to

analyze cost-effectiveness of collection procedures and data parameters is to proceed with

a “test case” by: 1) seeking interagency agreement about what parameters to collect, and 2)

collecting information for a well-defined geographic area where resource use is high. This

makes it possible to examine the utility of the

information collected as well as the costs and

skill requirements for collection.

Data storage and retrieval systems also may

be costly. To avoid costly duplication, a scale

must be chosen for mapped data that is appropriate for different users. Detailed mapping of

the sort that is useful for permit decisions may

result in maps that are too cumbersome for

other uses. Some information may be stored

and exchanged electronically, but a great deal

of advance preparation may be needed to develop formats for storage (25).

Monitoring

Environmental monitoring refers to periodic

measurements of natural resources and environmental quality parameters to allow analysis of trends or departures from a standard (usually predevelopment) which result from either

natural causes or human activities (2). For many

projects, the preproject planning phase is the

only time when a substantial effort is made to

determine how the project’s products and services will contribute to larger development goals

(36) and when data are collected on the resources and resource uses that are likely to be

affected by the project. Monitoring, on the other

hand, takes place during implementation and

is intended to meet the needs of day-to-day

project management. It can indicate a need to

change the timetable, scale, geographic location, resource allocation, or staffing of activities (36). The difficulties in developing and

maintaining a monitoring system are comparable to those of developing and maintaining

ecological baseline studies.

Data Management

Within many governments, data are collected

by more than one agency, sometimes leading

to unnecessary duplication. Further, such information commonly is not centralized and

may not be exchanged between agencies in the

government. Data may be collected in different formats and at different scales, making use

of the information difficult without expensive

reformatting, In some cases, mapping and data

collection are not comprehensive (app. F); and

scales are not consistent within a territory, or

even within individual agencies in the same territory (31).

An institutional Structure for

Data Management

Some opportunities exist for alleviating the

problem by reorganizing responsibilities for

environmental data collection. A separate department or ministry might be responsible for

the environment including setting standards for

uniform methods of data collection, scales, and

formats, which all other departments would be

obligated to follow. The environmental ministry would also be responsible for obtaining and

maintaining a national or territorial database,

as well as conducting the needed monitoring

of key data elements. A second possibility is

to organize all environmental data collection

under one agency responsible for national mapping. Ministries concerned with specific projects requiring baseline data would then request

the national mapping organization to carry out

the needed surveys. A third alternative is to

leave organizations as they are now but ensure

coordination among them and uniformity of

environmental information by forming a coordinating committee. It would probably be

wise for the coordinating committee to have
326 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

its own separate staff of a small number of qualified environmental scientists who would advise on methods, techniques, scales, precision

standards, and time intervals for collecting

data.

An organizational structure that assures that

needed data are collected and made available

to all agencies, without duplication or nonuniform methods and standards is needed for sustainable resource management. Environmental

data are too important and expensive to collect,

to let duplication, incompatible formats and

scales, and other obstacles hinder the most efficient use of information (31).

Resource Data Management Systems

Almost every Federal policy statement,

whether legislation, executive orders, or agency

guidelines, contains some requirements for data

collection and monitoring (l). Most regulatory

permit programs also contain data collection

requirements. However, few provisions exist

for updating or aggregating data. Comprehensive resource planning systems, such as geographic information systems, can centralize the

storage and processing of spatial data reducing duplication, and thus, costs (20).

Many States have adopted the map overlay

system developed by McHarg in 1969, in which

resources important to the decision to be made

are identified, located, and mapped. By superimposing maps, areas containing many valued

resources show up as dark-colored areas and

areas whose resources are less affected by the

proposed development show up as light colored

areas. This system, however, depends on the

planner’s judgment as to which resources are

valued and assumes that all are equally important. Much labor, time, and money also are required for map preparation and minor changes

in methods or values may often necessitate

complete redrafting (24).

In recent years, many local governments have

graduated to computerized systems in which

the maps are transformed to databases linked

to a spatially divided base map. Thus, data can

be updated easily, and a great number of variables can be considered in analysis. From these

computerized geographic information systems,

maps can be “overlain” by the computer with

relatively little difficulty to produce composite maps (cf: METLAND system). A computer

model can also be used to weigh the various

land factors according to some measure of their

importance to development to produce a capability map (20)

Feeding inventory and monitoring data into

the physical and economic planning process

can be relatively simple; in fact, there is a danger of imposing procedures that are unnecessarily cumbersome for island communities.

Ideally, a microcomputer could be programmed

to process data and present it in simple form

to island planners (11).

ANALYTIC TECHNIQUES FOR RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

Analytical techniques for resource develop- on land tenure, needs, skills, available resources

ment planning are methods of manipulating to invest, cultural constraints, political goals,

data to generate and analyze information for and other factors besides biophysical suitability.

resource management. Given the current

dearth of data and skilled personnel on some Environmental Impact Assessment U.S.-affiliated islands, analytical resource planning techniques should be inexpensive, should The National Environmental Policy Act renot require a great deal of baseline data, and quires the preparation of environmental impact

should not be too complicated or sophisticated statements (EISs) for “significant” Federal ac-

(18). In addition, the technique should make it tions such as the construction of ports and airclear that resource use decisions will depend fields. Some States have additional EIS require-
Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 327

ments covering certain land and water uses

and/or all uses in select geographic areas.

EISs are preproject reports on possible positive/negative short- and long-term impacts resulting from some public or private policy, program, or project. The central assumption of EIS

requirements is that cause and effect relationships between project activities and resource

conditions can be identified with sufficient certainty to make them a valuable tool for analysis and decisionmaking. Continuous monitoring and evaluation provide mechanisms for

EIS-based planning to deal with uncertainty

(14), but these are only rarely practiced in the

islands,

Environmental impact statements usually

emphasize potential impacts on natural systems, but some jurisdictions require more extensive analysis including potential impacts on

publicly funded infrastructure, historic and archeological resources, and demographic and

other social and economic conditions. Most

environmental assessments contain at least the

following elements:

1. a description of the proposed project or

activity;

2. identification of selected alternatives to the

proposed project or activity;

3. description of the existing conditions (natural, social) at the proposed project site;

and

4. identification of the nature and magnitude

of possible project impacts at the proposed

site.

Some jurisdictions also require identification

of trade-offs or possible mitigative actions.

Environmental impact analysis is a shortterm investigation of the likely impacts of previously identified policy or project options and,

thus, does not permit evaluation of the full range

of development alternatives (14). If resource

planning began by incorporating the appropriate environmental and resource capability information, EISs might be rendered redundant

(18),

Resource Suitability Analysis

Resource suitability or capability analyses

provide information about the supply of resources at various levels of suitability for various uses. Such analyses generally involve

delineating landscape (or seascape) units on a

map, or an air photo and assessing the capability of these areas to sustain an array of potential uses without unacceptable degradation and

given certain levels of management and technology (18) (see fig. 9-1 on p. 342). Land suitability analyses, the most common form, include

agricultural classification systems and hazard

maps charting flood zones or landslide areas.

More complex suitability maps have been developed using multiple land characteristics, but

the costs of developing such information are

high and the results frequently are mixed.

Resource suitability analysis usually involves

several steps:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

identification of the uses for which suitability is being determined (e.g., agriculture,

low-density housing);

identification of the biophysical attributes

of the area in question that significantly

affect suitability (e.g., soil type, slope, depth

to bedrock);

identification of the significant categories

of each attribute (e. g., slopes less than 10

degrees, between 10 and 30 degrees, over

30 degrees);

determination of the degree of importance

of each biophysical attribute and each subcategory of that attribute to suitability of

the resource uses in question;

development of a rating system that makes

it possible to combine biophysical attributes into an index of suitability for potential land uses on different land or sea areal

units; and

expression of these indices on maps,

The areal units identified should be part of

a hierarchical system of land classification, so

that they can be aggregated for general planning purposes, or subdivided for detailed on-
328 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas

site work. In predicting response, and then

suitability, levels of most likely management

inputs are assumed, and these can be varied

for any socioeconomic situation with a cultural

context (18).

A central problem in constructing resource

suitability maps is in developing methods for

combining resource attributes in ways that are

practical, technically correct, and easy to understand and communicate. Three basic approaches are used: mathematical combination,

regional identification, and logical combination

(21). Mathematical combination involves assigning weights to each biophysical attribute

and then calculating weighted averages. Because underlying relationships among attributes commonly are poorly understood and do

not, in practice, lend themselves to easy application in standard resource management, the

mathematical approach generally is not applicable to island resource management. The regional identification approach involves identifying subregions within a larger geographical

area that are homogeneous with regard to important attributes, and then identifying the

suitability of each type of subregion for various resource uses.

The logical combination approach assigns

suitabilities to sets of attributes (rather than single attributes) which are expressed in terms of

verbal logic rather than in quantitative indices.

For example, a set of simple rules can be derived that take into consideration the interdependence of slope, soil permeability, and subsurface material in determining suitability for

hillside residential development. The logical

combination approach to suitability analysis

would seem to offer the most promise in island

contexts; the rules are explicit, can be developed on the basis of known interdependent attributes and are easy to communicate (25).

The task of predicting suitability for an array of uses is the most difficult part of the process. At this stage, it is necessary to incorporate

information on prevailing or likely resource

management practices of the future users, and

the resulting likely output for each array of potentially feasible uses. Assumptions must be

made as to the likelihood of remedial measures

being instituted to modify land attributes (e.g.,

terraces to “correct” steep slopes). Such things

as custom, economics, skills, innovativeness,

likely technology, and institutions come into

play in making the rating. Although based in

science, these interpretations are certainly

partly intuitive (18).

No judgments are made as to which use is

the “best” or most appropriate for a given planning unit. No master plan results. Rather, there

may be several uses that can be easily sustained

on a given unit of the landscape. The decision

as to which use will depend on many factors

such as resource tenure, needs, skills, available

resources, or political plans for development.

A change in technology (e.g., a new method of

making terraces) may alter the suitability rating as would development of a new market.

Thus, resource suitability rating is specific to

the general area under planning scrutiny, and

may be quite different for similar biophysical

units in different watersheds or for ones close

to urban centers as opposed to ones in remote

areas (18).

Ecologically based planning, if properly done,

indicates an array of uses which are suitable

and an array of uses which are not sustainable

and, hence, not suitable. The specific sustainable use for a unit of land, and the mosaic of

uses on several units or an entire watershed

will be determined by those close to the land

who have more detailed knowledge of their own

goals and lifestyles, whether the land is managed by a government office, a cooperative, or

a group of individual landholders (18).

Although developing land suitability maps for

island resource management may be appropriate and useful, a more immediate application

may be ocean and nearshore suitability analyses. The same principles of logical combination of interdependent attributes might also be

used for mapping nearshore areas suitable (and

unsuitable) for various types of ocean-dependent uses.
Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 329

Carrying Capacity

Carrying capacity analysis, when extended

from its original use in determining the number of range animals capable of surviving on

a piece of land to the optimal human population that can be supported at given levels of

technology and amenity, has been infrequently

applied. Islands would seem to be ideal contexts for application of the carrying capacity

concept because the analyst is dealing with relatively closed natural systems.

The basic steps of carrying capacity analyses include:

1. identification of major systems necessary

for regional development;

2. identification of geographic areas for application of carrying capacity analyses;

3. definition of limits of “critical systems”

(i.e., those systems with capacities that

have been exceeded or are close to overload conditions);

40 measurement of current use of critical systems; and

5. determination of the margins for growth.

Carrying capacity studies were performed in

Hawaii in the 1970s in response to a legislative

resolution requesting that the governor and the

Department of Planning and Economic Development establish criteria which could then be

used to limit, restrain, or redirect the State’s

growth (25). In general, these studies were complex and expensive without revealing the “critical thresholds” for resource use. Carrying capacity was not particularly useful in providing

a scientifically determined population limit for

particular geographic areas although it was

somewhat useful in substantiating critical resource use decisions (19,26).

Benefit-Cost Analysis

Benefit-cost analysis originated in connection

with the assessment of U.S. Federal flood control projects in the mid-1930s. The technology

has since developed to handle more than merely

the direct costs and direct benefits of water resources projects. Under the name of extended

benefit-cost analysis, the methodology now attempts to encompass the array of secondary

and intangible benefits and costs (22). Proponents of extended benefit-cost analysis claim

that it can (13):

1

2

3

4

5

6

provide an orderly, systematic way to analyze a problem;

provide a “neutral” approach;

illustrate the benefits and costs of alternative land uses;

clarify the question of determining project

boundary;

attempt to include the benefits and costs

of unintended beneficial or adverse effects

of the proposed action (externalities);

attempt to include intangibles; and

7. raise questions of provision of goods, services, and development options between

current and future generations (intergenerational equity) (13).

This method incorporates value judgments

regarding unquantifiable variables (e.g., esthetics) and social preferences, thus requiring

participation by potentially affected groups as

well as experts and decisionmakers. Few guidelines exist for implementing this kind of participatory planning because of the great variation in forms of economies and government,

cultural backgrounds, and traditions.

Multi-Objective Analysis

Once information is available on the likely

biophysical, economic, and sociocultural aspects of a development project, decisionmakers

need some way to judge the relative importance

of the findings. Too frequently, decisionmakers

avoid confronting trade-offs among conflicting

objectives and only consider the most obvious

or serious effects. Considerable progress has

been made in the last two decades in developing multi-objective techniques that address

these trade-offs (4,32).

Multi-objective planning is broader than

more traditional single-objective approaches,

such as benefit-cost analysis, which require that

all the effects of alternative projects be measured in terms of a single unit, usually money.

Multi-objective planning attempts to compare
330 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

effects within categories, but does not force effects into the same measurement units. The

techniques also provide formal means for decisionmakers to assign relative values to each category (e.g., number of people employed, reduction in reservoir capacity).

Using multiple objectives in the planning

process can improve resource development in

at least three ways. First, value judgments are

determined by decisionmakers rather than by

the analysts. Second, a wider range of alternatives usually is identified, and the relationship

between alternatives can be described clearly.

Third, the analyst’s perceptions of a problem

probably will be more realistic if the full range

of objectives is considered (4).

During and Post-Project Evaluations

Despite EISs and other preproject assessments, projects sometimes generate unanticipated negative impacts. Ongoing evaluations

measure a project’s outputs and impacts on intended beneficiaries and assess the project’s

unintended impacts. Evaluations begin with

preproject documentation of potential impact,

such as EISs, to assess the predictions of impacts. However, they should be sufficiently

broad in scope to examine adverse impacts not

revealed in preproject assessments and to trace

causal sequences linking project activities with

such adverse impacts.

Evaluations performed before project completion can be used to formulate recommendations for changes in objectives, strategies, techniques, institutional arrangements, priorities,

and government policies. Their effective use

depends on the project’s flexibility-i. e., whether

it can respond to recommended changes. Such

evaluations have a secondary purpose of facilitating communication among persons concerned with the project. Evaluations conducted

after a project is complete can:

●

●

●

●

identify a need to compensate people adversely affected by environmental impacts,

suggest followup or complementary projects that build on the original project,

assist in reformulating broader policies and

strategies, and

provide lessons for planning other projects

elsewhere (36).

Post-project assessments frequently are regarded as a luxury that most jurisdictions cannot afford. However, they should be regarded

as a necessary supplement to preproject analyses, particularly to environmental impact assessments, to provide information needed to

revise and reformulate EIS requirements (25).

IMPLEMENTATION OF RESOURCE PLANNING PROGRAMS

A complex array of resource management

programs already exist in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Existing management programs are characterized by four basic approaches: activity

management, area management, sectoral management, and integrated management.

Activity management refers to those programs that seek to ensure specific resource use

activities are conducted in ways that minimize

dredging permit from the U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers before dredging can be undertaken.

Similarly, the Environmental Protection Agency regulates the discharge of wastewater effluents under Section 402 of the same act. One

form of activity management important to island resources is management of activities related to tourism, e.g., siting of hotels and resorts,

and tourist transportation facilities.

adverse impacts on resources. ‘Dredging, for ex- Activity management is a reactive type of

ample, is regulated in the U.S. States, common- management. Developers propose specific rewealths, and territories under Section 404 of source uses or activities at a specific site and

the Clean Water Act. A private developer or regulatory agencies must decide whether the

government agency is required to apply for a proposed uses are appropriate at that site or,
Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 331

if not, whether they can be modified to make

them acceptable, In this approach to implementation, the types of resource impacts likely to

be associated with the proposed use commonly

are well known. The degree and type of analyses associated with activity management vary

greatly. However, regulation of activities usually requires some sort of environmental assessment, including formal environmental impact

statements.

Area management refers to natural systems

management programs that focus on specific

geographic areas deemed worthy of special protection. The most common area management

programs are parks and protected areas (see

“Special Application: Parks and Protected

Areas”). Many special area management programs are intended to achieve a single resource

management objective, although “multiple-use”

and “dominant-use” (in which an area is

“zoned” for primary uses) plans are being developed for some protected areas in the mainland United States. Special area management

usually requires detailed analysis and planning.

Once the purposes of special area management

are agreed on (e. g., watershed and habitat protection), the major analytic tasks involve resource surveys, mapping, boundary setting, and

the development of standards governing uses

of be regulated. Such tasks may require resource specialists.

Sectoral management refers to the management of a single resource such as forests or fisheries. The U.S. Forest Service and the National

Marine Fisheries Service are examples of Federal sectoral resource management agencies.

At local government levels, sectoral management is exemplified by water management

agencies. Sectoral management usually involves substantial analysis of the supply and

demand for specific resources. Hence, analytic

techniques that provide information on sustainable yields and resource carrying capacity

are likely to be most useful.

Integrated resource management refers to

multisectoral, multidisciplinary resource management efforts, Integrated resource management plans are anticipatory in the sense of seeking to identify optimal uses of specific resources

at specific sites in advance of actual development proposals. They are most frequently expressed in terms of resource maps and detailed

use guidelines. Thus, they frequently require

a full range of resource analysis techniques.

At the national level, perhaps the best example of an attempt to create an integrated natural systems management program is the Coastal

Zone Management Program. The program focuses on a specific geographic area—the coastal

zone—and seeks to harmonize multiple management objectives within that zone by providing incentives to States to develop programs

that incorporate both resource development

and resource protection strategies (see “Special Application: Coastal Resource Management”). Comprehensive community planning

efforts at the municipal level have the same multiple objectives and methods.

Participatory Approaches to

Planning and Management

The need for public participation is based on

several factors. First is the understanding that

the local knowledge of an area’s natural systems often exceeds or complements scientific

knowledge and is needed for decisionmaking.

Another is the desire to design actions that respect people’s priorities, which requires understanding of those priorities. And finally, the success of any action depends on public support,

which is best marshaled by local involvement

throughout the course of a project (15), Intensive regulation and enforcement are undesirable because of the adversary relationship they

create and also are financially impossible on

many islands (16).

Sound resource management requires good

understanding of ecological and human use systems. The depth and quality of local knowledge

of these can be considerable. Gathering this

knowledge can be a cost-effective means for

providing the information base needed for resource management projects. In addition, lack

of necessary biological and social information

is an opportunity to begin to achieve participation objectives by involving local people in

the identification, design, and implementation
332 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

of research activities. Data gathering also is a

way to improve the resource users’ understanding of the natural systems and processes on

which they depend, which can give them

greater control over their livelihoods and help

them be better able to make informed decisions.

For example, a project supported by the Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management Program in St. Lucia had secondary school students carry out, as part of their regular

curriculum, a study of charcoal production in

the project site (a mangrove area), in which they

interviewed the charcoal producers. This simple project provided:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

information on which to base preliminary

decisions about the management of the

mangrove and determine additional data

needs;

an educational lesson for the students in

which they learned more about social, natural, and economic systems;

a way to inform the resource users about

the project, gauge their needs, and solicit

their involvement;

an experiment in alternative educational

techniques for project personnel and the

students’ teachers; and

information which influenced decisions on

activities in the mangrove area (15).

Generating public participation in resource

management projects can be extremely timeconsuming. Because of the common lack of

organization of island resource users communities, simply calling public meetings, putting

up posters and preparing radio programs is generally insufficient (15; app. F). Considerable

effort must be expended in meeting resource

users, showing interest in their problems, gaining their trust individually, and bringing them

into project activities. Generally resource users

are interested in finding viable solutions to local social and resource problems, but are “tired

of enthusiastic plans that promise much and

do little.” Further, projects involving many diverse actors can create dissention and chaos

rather than lasting linkages between resource

users; the importance of diplomacy to the success of the project cannot be underestimated

(15).

In order to tap local sources of information,

it usually is necessary to give equally in return.

projects that are based on people’s priorities

and fulfill their needs create trust and cooperation. Commonly those whose needs, as well

as dependence on natural resources, are greatest are usually the most “marginalized” from

the local society and so the hardest to reach.

For these people especially, the need to build

confidence and to demonstrate a project’s tangible benefits is important. The following conditions have been suggested as guidelines for

public participation in resource management:

1.

2.

3.

4.

A long-term presence to understand a

community’s structure, build rapport, and

foster mutual respect.

Local involvement in all aspects of a

project from design to implementation, as

well as a respect for local input. Seeking

ideas and advice and then ignoring them

creates animosity rather than cooperation.

In order to get active local involvement,

project objectives must coincide with or

at least include objectives of local users and

groups.

Local participation in concrete activities

from which people can gain tangible

benefits.

Education and research activities in

which local people are equal partners

with government, project staff, and professionals. When knowledge and information

are freely shared, everyone learns and disparate groups gain respect for one another.

The final responsibility for the environment

falls on the shoulders of governments and of

resource users and the general public. Therefore, to be effective, resource managers must

understand local human needs and cooperate

with government and community groups to ensure that valuable natural resources are used

wisely (16).

Special Application:

Parks and Protected Areas

Introduction

Protected areas like national parks and reserves are one approach to the conservation of
Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 333

species and ecosystems. The establishment and

maintenance of parks and protected areas may,

in fact, be necessary if life-support systems and

essential ecological processes are to be maintained, genetic diversity is to be preserved, and

use of species and ecosystems is to be sustainable.

Different kinds of protected areas are adapted

to different requirements for the use and conservation of resources. In traditional Pacific island cultures, access to scarce resources was

restricted through taboo areas (reserves) and

temporary closed areas, among other means.

Today there is a range of options for designating and managing protected areas. Which option is taken depends on the nature, status, extent, and potential uses of the resource or

ecosystem in question.

In a broad sense, setting aside natural areas

need not imply setting aside development: it

may be a part of the development process, especially when development’s objective is to sustain society. Where a species or ecosystem is

sensitive to any human interference, however,

a strict nature reserve may be appropriate.

Large and small areas where conservation is

compatible with recreation and education can

be made into national parks and natural monuments, respectively. Where some management

is necessary to protect a species or maintain

its habitat, managed nature reserves or wildlife sanctuaries can be created. The scenic

beauty and traditional resources or lifestyles

of inhabited areas can be maintained through

designation as protected landscapes, anthropological reserves, or customary protected areas.

Temporary resource reserves can be established in areas where decisions on development

must await further study.

Marine reserves permit protection and management of important coastal resources. Strict

controls over activities in the coastal zone and

in adjacent watersheds, together with careful

fisheries management and a network of protected areas should permit sustained use of

some protected areas such as reefs. The Australian Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has been successfully pioneering the balPhofo credit Office of Technology Assessment

Multiple use protected areas integrate traditional

resource uses, such as traditional subsistence

gathering, with conservation.

anced use and protection of coral reef areas.

Other areas requiring the careful balancing of

different resource requirements such as watershed protection, hunting, and gathering of traditional forest products can be made into

multiple-use management areas. The kind and

degree of protection can vary to fit almost every

local circumstance (11)

Protected areas with suitable resources to

generate tourism can stimulate the economy

and provide employment. In many cases, protected areas result in increased government employment and private sector investment,

Need for Protected Areas and

Selection Criteria

On some of the U.S.-affiliated islands only

fragments of undisturbed natural areas remain,

and many species are endangered. Natural

areas serve a variety of economically and ecologically important functions. Forests, for example, provide watershed protection and water

catchment, control soil erosion, and contain

useful predators that control mosquitoes and

other insect pests. While lowland rain forests

once covered one-quarter of Puerto Rico, little
334 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

of this forest remains today. Two-thirds of

American Samoa’s lowland rain forests have

been destroyed, Pohnpei’s and Yap’s are mostly

disturbed, and in Truk no undisturbed areas

exist, Only scattered and inaccessible remnants

remain on Guam and there are none remaining on the Marshall Islands or the U.S. Virgin

Islands. Where such forests remain, some portions could be preserved. Forests might be managed to include protected natural areas, areas

used for local wood production and/or agroforestry, and fallow areas where appropriate.

Despite unclear legislation and policies related to protected areas in the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), some protected areas have been established in the region

(Bikar and Pokak in the Marshall Islands,

Ngerukewid in Palau, and Maug and Sariguan

in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands) (23). Protected areas have been created in Guam and American Samoa through

various Federal agencies. A number of National

wildlife Refuges have been established in the

Pacific, including Howland, Baker, and Jarvis

Atolls, Midway Island, and Rose Atoll in American Samoa. protected areas in the Caribbean

are well developed. For example, Puerto Rico

alone contains 14 State forests and the Caribbean National Forest (Luquillo Biosphere Reserve), and nearly two-thirds of St, John (one

of the three major U.S. Virgin Islands) is designated as both a national park and a biosphere

reserve.

The concept of the biosphere reserve was introduced in 1971 by the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s

(UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere program.

Biosphere reserves are part of a worldwide network of protected environments with a primary

intent of promoting international scientific cooperation and the study of human interaction

with the environment. Ideally, the biosphere

reserve integrates conservation with research,

environmental monitoring, education, training,

traditional landuse, and surrounding socioeconomic needs. Local participation and acceptance is particularly important to the concept

of the biosphere reserve (39).

The typical biosphere reserve contains specific areas to accomplish a variety of research,

monitoring, and conservation tasks. These

areas generally are:

●

●

●

●

●

core area—strictly protected from human

disturbance, ideally containing much of the

biological diversity of the area;

experiment] research area—manipulative

research is performed on managed ecosystems;

rehabilitation area—demonstration of recovery of degraded lands;

traditional use area—conservation and

study of sustainable resource development

practices; and

area of cooperation—managed to foster understanding of the biosphere reserve, such

areas may include human settlements, forests, and rangelands.

Ideally, research performed within an individual biosphere reserve can provide important

information on natural and managed ecosystems for local use in resource development.

There are three designated biosphere reserves

within the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands: Luquillo Experimental Forest (Caribbean National

Forest) (28,112 acres); Guanica Commonwealth

Forest Reserve on Puerto Rico (9,930 acres); and

Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve (15,188 acres)

on St. John Island in the U.S. Virgin Islands.

The only designated biosphere reserve in the

U.S. Pacific islands is located on Hawaii (35,38).

The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands would

likely benefit from creation of biosphere reserves in the region. Sustainable resource development research performed on biosphere reserves could provide useful information for

local resource development planning. Potential sites suitable for biosphere reserves would

need to be identified and technical assistance

probably would be required initially. Although

strong local land- and sea-tenure customs in

some Pacific islands may pose a major constraint to reserve development, extant parks

may prove to be appropriate sites. A regional

cooperative effort in developing biosphere reserves may mitigate some of the economic,
Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 335

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Ngerukewid Wildlife Refuge (Seventy Islands Park) in Palau, containing considerable open marine areas and unique marine

lakes, may offer a potential biosphere reserve site.

staffing, and technical constraints that exist in

the islands. The Hawaiian Islands Biosphere

Reserve might serve as a model and a source

of technical assistance in the development of

Micronesia biosphere reserves.

The Virgin Islands National Park was formally designated the Virgin Islands Biosphere

Reserve (VIBR) in 1983. The reserve covers

nearly two-thirds of the island of St. John and

represents many of the areas ecosystems. The

U.S. National Park Service (USNPS) manages

VIBR and has a declared commitment to institute research, management, and education programs and further to coordinate these programs

with other Lesser Antillean institutions. Ongoing VIBR educational outreach activities include environmental programs extended to primary and secondary schools, field trips, and

workshops for educators (33).

The Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC), established in 1982 through

an initiative of USNPS, has a primary goal of

bringing local and regional expertise together

to solve resource management problems. VIRMC

is active in carrying out the objectives of the

biosphere reserve on St. John and has performed relevant resource inventories, monitoring, and characterization studies towards that

goal. Long-term projects of VIRMC include

monitoring of St. John’s coral reefs, fisheries

resources, and vegetation (33).
336 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Constraints to Designation of

Protected Areas

On small islands it is often impossible to

maintain an adequate physical separation between damaging human activities and natural

systems. Certain activities (i.e., use of pesticides

and other toxic chemicals, and certain types

of industrial development) may simply have to

be strictly regulated, avoided, or prohibited.

The establishment and effective management

of protected areas certainly can contribute

significantly to sustainable use of renewable

resources, but may be constrained by such factors as: extreme vulnerability of island ecosystems, lack of trained manpower and money,

weak local institutions, increasing demand for

limited resources by growing populations, lack

of information on the dynamics of island ecosystems, and the deep spiritual and cultural ties

of island peoples to ancestral lands (making

public acquisition difficult).

Relatively few protected areas exist in many

of the U.S.-affiliated islands, suggesting that

Federal agencies responsible for establishing

protected areas have not been very active or

effective in the islands. Part of the problem may

be the difficulty of adapting U.S. law concerning different types of protected areas to situations prevailing in smaller islands (11). U.S. provisions for protected areas lack a strong role

for local people in planning and management

such as would be necessary in many island situations. Primary responsibility for creation of

protected areas may have been left to local governments with neither expertise or means to

pursue such goals. Flexible programs, such as

the National Marine Sanctuary Program, may

prove more adaptable to island needs (11).

Local Participation in Protected Area

Designation and Management

Modern attempts to protect or preserve island resources, whether through establishment

of protected areas or through other means, must

consider traditional factors as much as possible. Resource management technologies that

reinforce traditional ways or ideas will have

a better chance of success than those imposed

from outside. For example, resistance exists in

the Pacific islands to anything that interferes

with traditional cultural practices, such as hunting native birds. On islands where land is

limited and has been held in customary ownership for generations, protected areas that exclude people and their activities probably will

be difficult to implement. This is even more difficult if populations are approaching or exceed

island carrying capacity.

Resource protection will succeed only if it

has the support of local populations, particularly resource users, traditional leaders, and the

heads of land-owning families. This support can

be generated if local people participate from

the beginning in their planning and definition.

Benefit-sharing arrangements with landowners

may also help ensure public support. If enforcement can be left to landowners, protection

might be achieved without actual government

acquisition.

Protected areas may gain local acceptance

more readily if they are carefully chosen and

developed to demonstrate the value of parks

and preserves to the public and decisionmakers.

Interpretive materials can be developed to explain what is protected and why. Parks could

become environmental education laboratories

for school groups, and increase in number as

public understanding and support increase.

Traditional knowledge of resource use, management, and conservation remains in many

island areas and could form a base for public

support of park and protected area development. Parks and protected areas could be demonstrated as a method to preserve island heritage, culture, and traditional practices while

protecting island ecosystems. Direction of this

type may foster local support for and participation in protected area establishment and

management.

The need for protection in some cases can

be identified by local people rather than governments. Techniques that allow untrained local people to monitor coral reefs have been developed (12), and similar approaches could be

developed for other resources. When local people see for themselves what happens to a resource, they may be motivated to modify their

own behaviors if they have options to do so.
Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 337

Experience in both the Pacific and Caribbean

demonstrates that no substitute exists for public support and involvement (15,34).

Conclusion

Without effective protection, further species

extinctions and the disappearance of some ecosystems where damage has already been severe

are likely on the U.S.-affiliated islands. The

broader use of protected areas for resource

management will depend on comprehensive

island planning and management and on practical experience with different management

technologies. There will inevitably be conflicts

between measures for the sustainable use of resources and desires for more rapid or immediate development. The resolution of such conflicts will, in part, determine whether the

islands maintain a sustainable base for their

populations, or slowly decline in productivity

and become increasingly dependent on outside

sources of support.

Special Application:

Coastal Resource Management

Coastal resource management (CRM) is a

holistic form of planning and decisionmaking

that aims to maximize sustainable multiple uses

of coastal resources (28). Little land in the U. S.-

affiliated islands can be termed noncoastal, so

that coastal resources management is, in effect,

island resource management.

Although there is no set procedure for CRM,

planning in this context consists of several components:

● a government commitment to CRM;

● a geographical inventory of important resources and resources uses, demands,

values and functions; and

● development of policies and guidelines for

resource allocation.

Management involves:

● assigning responsibilities for CRM to lead

and participating agencies,

● evaluating proposed development and use

options for coastal resources against the

plan,

●

●

assessing the environmental consequences

of a range of options for each development

proposal, and

selecting the alternative that best maximizes economic development and conservation of coastal resources (28).

The planning process should be iterative and

open to ensure that communication, understanding, and eventually agreement is established among all individuals with information,

claims or interest in the resources.

Under the Coastal Zone Management Act of

1972 (CZMA), the United States provides a maximum of four annual “incentive” grants (Sec.

305) to eligible coastal States and territories to

promote timely development of plans. After

technical, policy, and legal review and approval

by the national office (now the Office of Ocean

and Coastal Resource Management of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA]), areas with approved plans become eligible for additional funds (Sec. 306) to

implement and operate the plan, subject to annual reviews. Grants may also be made to areas

to carry out research studies and training required to support CRM programs (Sec. 310).

Regional (State or territorial) governments are

charged with the responsibility to develop and

administer the CRM plan. This usually involves

a geographic inventory of resources; one or

more analyses; and preparation of implementation plans, guidelines, or policies applicable

to the region designating preferred uses of resources. The CZMA required that an inventory

of natural and manmade resources be undertaken and requires that resource use determination be based, in part, on “the capabilities

of each resource for supporting various types

of uses and the impact of various resource uses

upon the natural environment” (37). Other analyses, such as legal-institutional analysis, public attitude-value surveys, and economic and

social needs-demands studies also may be performed to fulfill information requirements for

developing a coastal resources management

plan.

Regional programs may sponsor participation of other State or local government agencies

in research and development projects, and
338 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

plans for areas of particular concern. Also, regional governments review proposed Federal

or other development projects to determine

consistency with the approved State CRM plan.

Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the

Pacific flag territories of Guam and American

Samoa became eligible for Section 305 funds

under CZMA. (The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands became eligible in 1978.)

By 1980, each of these areas had approved CRM

plans and became eligible for Section 306 funds.

All continue to receive Section 306 funds to help

operate and manage their programs. Annual

evaluations by NOAA and continued Federal

support indicate that all five existing management programs are operating satisfactorily and

in compliance with CZMA policies and regulations.

The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands was

not eligible for funds under the original authorization for CZMA. When the act was reauthorized in 1980, the TTPI was made eligible for

Section 306 funds but not for Section 305 funds

(28). The TTPI could not take advantage of its

eligibility for Section 306 funds because they

had neither the technical nor financial resources to develop the plans in the first place

without Federal assistance. Because of the size

of land and ocean areas comprising the TTPI,

an acceptable CRM plan would have cost an

amount comparable to what was spent on the

Section 305 studies for the three Pacific flag

territories and Hawaii. Even if initial efforts

were limited to district centers, funding would

have exceeded the TTPI budget (28). The Compact of Free Association does not include or

mention funds specifically directed to development of coastal resource management plans

although it allows for provision of technical

assistance by U.S. Federal agencies (Article II;

Sec. 226).

Under the TTPI, key coastal permitting responsibility was with the U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers in accordance with Section 404 of

the Clean Water Act. The Corps historically relied on other Federal agencies (e.g., U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service, National Marine Fisheries

Service, EPA) and territorial offices for information and advice. Some large construction

and piecemeal landfill projects approved in the

U.S. Pacific islands have caused significant adverse impacts which could have been avoided

with better planning (28).

Freely Associated States’ environmental protection boards have had principal environmental responsibility, but their authority appears limited to water quality, sanitation, and

the effects of earthmoving. They have been ineffective in compelling applicants to evaluate

alternative sites and procedures, and lack authority over aspects of development not strictly

dealing with earthmoving. Similarly, planning

and marine resource management offices have

had little impact on CRM: staffs are small, data

are limited, and permitting and project approval

authority is essentially nonexistent. Although

development plans are prepared and updated

periodically for major islands, comprehensive

land-use planning and controls (e.g., zoning)

are lacking (28).

Provide Financial and Technical

Planning Assistance to the FAS

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has sponsored a number of coral reef and coastal resource inventories in the tropical pacific since

1978. These projects, with one exception, were

supported by Section 22 (Planning Assistance

to States) of the Water Resources Development

Act. A Corps-managed American Samoan coral

reef inventory was sponsored by CZMA funds

transferred to the Corps by the American Samoan Government, at the latter’s request. The

Corps has received further requests to initiate

resource inventories in the U.S. Pacific, but continued use of Section 22 funds for original data

collection is in doubt.

Coastal resources planning and management

might offer a sound means of addressing a number of important socioeconomic and resource

conservation issues facing the FAS (table 9-1).

These might include identification of important subsistence fishing grounds; planning for

small dock, airfield, and water catchment

projects in the outer islands; and means to

evaluate potential agriculture or aquiculture
Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 339

Table 9-1. —Selected Socioeconomic and Resource

Conservation Issues Suitable for Inclusion in

Future CRM Initiatives in the FAS

1. Socioeconomic issues

A. Outer islands

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Population density and out-migration

Conservation of subsistence lifestyles

Small dock and airfield development

Water supply and catchment facilities

Copra industry development or rejuvenation

Other cash crops and handicrafts

Commercial fishing

Tourism management

Aquiculture development

B. Urban centers

● Population growth, immigration, and redistribution

● Land ownership disputes

● Landuse planning and management

● Water supply and quality

● Self-reliance in energy generation

● College and university facilities or assistance

● Agricultural and aquiculture development

● Tourism management

● Controls over Iandfilling for houselots and other

residential and urban uses

● Commercial fishing, facilities and permits

Il. Conservation of natural resources

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Conservation of subsistence resources

Historic preservation

Protection of endangered and threatened species

Fishing with explosives and poisons

Landfilling of important coastal habitats

Water pollution and degradation of important

habitats

Controls over dredging, filling, and construction

in coastal waters

Ill. Waste management

● Wastewater and sanitation facilities

● Solid waste control and management faciIities

● Cleanup of hazardous materials and war explosives and debris

● Contamination from nuclear testing and oil

pollution

SOURCE: J. Maragos, “Coastal Resource Development and Management in the

U.S. Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986

ventures. In urban centers, CRM planning initiatives could help to identify priorities and sites

for future public works projects, especially

water supply, wastewater management, energy,

and solid waste management facilities. Landuse planning supported by a CRM program

could mitigate ecological and public health impacts of urban development. Table 9-2 presents

technologies for fulfilling the planning and

CRM needs of each area.

In light of the Compact of Free Association,

technical assistance for development of coastal

resource management plans could be requested

by the governments of the Federated States of

Table 9-2.—Potential Implementation of Planning

and Management Technologies To Address Selected

CRM Issues (identified in table 9-1)

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Public meetings, hearings, and workshops to evaluate

needs for CRM in the FAS

Legislative endorsement and commitment to CRM by

legislatures of new countries

Administrative reorganization to establish a CRM lead

office or agency in each new country

Coastal resource inventories of valuable resources and

their uses

—Urban centers—first priority

—Outer islands—second priority

Draft CRM plan development

Public review and final CRM plan approval

Implementation of approved plans to meet following

goals:

—promote economic development

—promote conservation of important resources

—waste management

—research and management of areas of particular

concern

—others (e.g., development of institution or facilities

for higher education and research)

Education and training programs on CRM within each

new country

Publication and telecommunication of CRM activities

in native languages

SOURCE: J. Maragos, “Coastal Resource Development and Management in the

U.S. Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Micronesia, the Republic of Palau, and the

Republic of the Marshall Islands. Each program

could be subdivided to address separately the

needs of the urban centers and outer islands.

Each nation would require a centralized coordinating and planning agency to develop, manage, and enforce CRM programs. Existing planning offices, marine resources offices, and

environmental protection boards need substantial upgrading, reorganization, training, and

staffing to assume that role, An alternative

would be to establish new coastal offices, drawing on the resources of the other offices for support and coordinating with them to develop

plans.

Outside expertise probably will be required,

at least initially, for resource inventories, research and development projects, manpower

training, planning, and evaluation of specific

development proposals. Considerable assistance could come from outside universities with

tropical coastal experience, such as the University of Guam, the University of Hawaii and

University of the South Pacific (Suva, Fiji).
340 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas

Resource planning is a means of strengthening the ecological foundation for future resource management and of putting this information into the decisionmaking process along

with economic, social, cultural, and administrative information (18). Planning for sustainable use of resources is not only a scientific technology but has to do with the basic topics of

economic development strategy, land distribution and tenure, interagency rivalry in control

of resources, peoples’ wants and needs, and so

forth. It is a “people-problem,” extremely political in nature, and must be dealt with from

the outset in a manner in which education and

training are important, although slow-acting ingredients (18).

Planning and implementation require information and analysis in order to make optimal

resource use decisions. Specific analytic techniques have been developed to assist those who

make resource use decisions.

In the short run, EISs are likely to remain the

primary technique used by island resource

managers for natural systems assessment because activity management is currently the

dominant approach to resource management

and of several “off-the-shelf” approaches to impact assessment make it relatively cheap and

easy to implement. A review of current procedures for conducting EISs could help planners

identify and develop more “island relevant” EIS

procedures. Post-project evaluation would be

one way to reveal the strengths and weaknesses

of current EIS procedures.

Resource capability assessments have some

promise but, because they usually require high

levels of expertise and because their value is

questionable in the context of small islands,

they are less likely to be adopted by island planning offices in the near term. However, the possibility of constructing capability analyses for

nearshore waters has considerable potential

and should be explored further.

Carrying capacity analysis also has limited

immediate potential because of high costs and

skill requirements. However on some islands

carrying capacity analysis of certain systems,

such as water supply, may be useful. -

GuideIines for Information

Management

The selection of specific techniques

gathering and analyzing information for

for

resource management could be based on several

guidelines.

1. Identification of specific information

needs and analytic techniques for resource

assessment should be based on analyses

of current and projected planning and regulatory information needs.

A detailed survey should be performed for

each island covering what types of resource use

decisions are currently being made, the type

and quality of information and analysis on

which these decisions are based, availability

of advisory services, and access to databases

in other agencies. Detailed information also is

needed about the present scope of data collected, methods of data acquisition, frequency,

geographic scale, format of presentation, accessibility, and costs of collection (2).

Current resource management programs

sometimes reflect Federal requirements or the

availability of funds for management rather

than locally perceived management needs.

Hence, the survey of planners and resource

managers also should address the issues of current resource use problems that are undermanaged and anticipated resource use problems for which information will have to be

gathered for management efforts.

2. Opportunities for sharing existing Federal

and local data should be considered prior

to gathering more data.

Agency personnel frequently are unfamiliar

with data collected by personnel in other agencies or, if they are aware of data acquisition

efforts, commonly there are questions about the

quality of the data and difficulties in receiving

data on a timely basis, An island-by-island
Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 341

assessment of data collection could be a first

step toward identifying opportunities for sharing data and collaborating on the acquisition

of additional data. A preliminary study also

should identify current incentives and constraints for sharing data. A long-term goal could

be interagency protocols for acquisition and

sharing of data useful to several agencies in

their resource management efforts.

3. Priorities should be established for the acquisition of new data or the development of

an interagency information clearinghouse.

Few islands can afford a major data acquisition effort. An initial priority for data collection would be to ensure that essential data—

those which, if lacking, prevent program

implementation—are being collected. After ensuring this, an incremental approach to collecting desirable data can be established. Rural island residents commonly are the best source

of information based on intimate, long-term

familiarity with an area’s resources and trends.

Information from these sources can be compiled through interviews, surveys, workshops,

and other techniques.

By gathering data on a case-by-case or areaby-area basis, managers can determine what

the costs of data acquisition are, what ecological and social parameters are most useful, and

what the requirements are for a larger scale data

collection effort, Initial data collection efforts

could be concentrated in areas where development pressures are the greatest in order to

identify baseline conditions from which trends

in resource conditions can be determined, and

on undisturbed or nearly undisturbed areas

which may have species or ecosystems of particular value.

4. Data acquisition, storage, and retrieval

should be based on appropriate technologies.

The availability and continuing improvement

in remote sensing and electronic data processing pose a dilemma for island natural systems

managers. These technologies commonly require

high levels of skill, and are being modified so

rapidly that determining which technologies

are most appropriate for island management

should be addressed on a case-by-case basis (25).

However, satellite information and computerized geographic information systems soon may

be cost-effective methods of data collection,

analysis, and display (31). The Natural Systems

Assessment for Development ecological surveys and monitoring program can be effective

in assisting countries to make optimum use of

available modern technology (31). Local residents can be used to provide observations

which can be used as ground truth data for remotely sensed data, and can provide detailed

knowledge about specific areas (27). Again, an

incremental strategy of focusing on training

and demonstration projects probably is warranted.

5. Emphasis should be placed on dissemination as well as acquisition of data.

Distribution of data to users may be encouraged through preparation of data lists and

inventories, reproducing reports, air photos,

topographic maps, sponsoring workshops and

seminars, and adopting an “open files” policy

for other agencies (25). If participatory approaches to planning are adopted, dissemination of information can be more direct.

6. Training of local data collectors/mappers

should be part of basic resource information acquisition.

Short-course training in resource information

collection and mapping techniques is needed

to ensure usefulness of resource planning efforts on many U.S.-affiliated islands. Such

courses are provided by many U.S. universities. An example of this kind of program is the

International Land Use Planning Training Program; its first phase was held by Cornell University in 1983. Perhaps more appropriate for development of land assessment and mapping

skills would be on-island training sessions—a

traveling workshop. A collaboration of Department of the Interior-U. S. Man and the Biosphere program in training for land assessment,

classification, mapping, and suitability rating

could be initiated using the East-West Center

assessment manual (3).
342 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 9-1.— Typical Siting of Land Uses on U.S.-Affiliated High Islands

1.

2.

Interior Coastal

Flatlands

SOURCE: N. H. Cheatham,

Mangroves

Reefs Ocean

quarter, 1975, pp 7-11

CHAPTER 9 REFERENCES

Aspen Systems Corp., “Land and Natural Re- 3. Carpenter, R., et al., Preliminary Report of the

sources Management: An Analysis of Selected Workshop on Ecological Baseline Surveys and

Federal Policies, Programs, and Planning Mech- Monitoring, East-West Center unpublished reanisms. ” Report to the President’s Interagency port, February 1985. In: Lowry, 1986.

Task Force on Environmental Data and Moni- 4. Cohon, J. L., Multiobjective Programming and

toring Programs, prepared for the Council on Planning (New York Academic Press, 1978).

Environmental Quality and the Resource and 5. Connell, J., “Country Report No. 3: Federated

Land Investigations Program of the U.S. Geo- States of Micronesia,” South Pacific Commislogical Survey, Department of the Interior, 1979. sion, Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983.

Carpenter, R. (cd.), Natural Systems for Deve]- 6. Connell, J., “Country Report No. 12: Northern

opment: What Planners Need To Know (New Mariana Islands,” South Pacific Commission,

York: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1983). Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983.
Ch. 9–Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 343

7. Connell, J., “Country Report No. 6: Guam, ”

South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New

Caledonia, 1983.

8. Connell, J., “Country Report No, 13: Palau, ”

South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New

Caledonia, 1983.

9. Connell, J., “Country Report No, 8: Marshall Islands, ” South Pacific Commission, Noumea,

New Caledonia, 1983.

10. Connell, J., “Country Report: American Samoa,”

South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia, draft report, 1983.

11. Dahl, A,, “Tropical Island Ecosystems and Protection Technologies To Sustain Renewable Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

12. Dahl, A., CoraZ Reef Monitoring Handbook

(Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1981). (Reprinted as Reference Methods for Marine Pollution Studies No. 25, UNEP,

1984). In: Dahl, 1986.

13, Dixon, J., Pricing the Unpriced, Using 13enefit/Cost Analysis to Value the Environment,

East-West Center Seminar (unpublished), Honolulu, HI, 1982. In: Hamilton, 1982.

14. Dutton, I., Research and Monitoring Section,

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,

Townsville, Australia, personal communication,

September 1986.

15. Geoghegan, T., “An Experiment in Participatory Resource Management: A Case Study From

St. Lucia, ” West Indies Lab, Christiansted, St.

Croix, USVI (unpublished draft) 1986.

16. Geogehan, T,, “Public Participation and Managed Areas in the Caribbean, ” Parks 10(1):12-

14, January-March 1985,

17, Government of Guam, Bureau of Planning, Plan18<

19.

20.

ning Information Program, “Guam Inv-entory

of Planning Information, ” 1981.

Hamilton, L. S., “Land Use Planning Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest and Woodlands,” 1982, paper commissioned by the Office

of Technology Assessment for Technologies To

Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, 1984,

Hawaii Environmental Simulation Laboratory,

Carrying Capacity AnaZysis in Context (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii, 197.5). In: Lowry,

1986.

Hess, A., “Land Capability Analysis Technologies,” OTA working paper (unpublished draft,

1984),

21. Hopkins, L, D., “Methods for Generating Land

Suitability Maps: A Comparative Evaluation, ”

Journal of the American Institute of Planners

43(4):386-399, 1977, In: Lowry, 1986.

22<

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

Hufschmidt, M., et al., Environment, Natural

Systems and Development: An Economic Valuation Guide (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins

University Press, 1982). In: Hamilton, 1982,

International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN Directory of

Protected Areas in Oceania, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, IUCN Commission on

National Parks and Protected Areas, Third

South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference, Apia, Western Samoa, June 1985.

Laird, R. T,, et al., “Quantitative Land-Capability

Analysis: Selected Examples From the San Francisco Bay Region, California, ” U.S. Geological

Survey professional paper No. 945 (Washington,

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979).

Lowry, K., “An Overview of Selected Natural

Systems Planning and Management Techniques

for U. S,-Affiliated Islands, ” OTA commissioned

paper, 1986.

Lowry, K., “Reflections on the Concept of Carrying Capacity, ” WP74-002 (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Environmental Simulation

Laboratory, December 1974), In: Lowry, 1986.

Makap, N. N., “Papua New Guinea: Natural Systems Baseline Surveys and Monitoring, ” Ecological Surveys and Monitoring Data Needs in

Asia and the Pacific, Morgan, J.R, (cd,) (Honolulu, HI: East-West Center, 1986).

Maragos, J, E., “Coastal Resource Development

and Management in the U.S. Pacific Islands, ”

OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

McHarg, I. L., Design With Nature (Garden City,

NY: Doubleday/Natural History Press, 1968).

Mitchell, B., Geography and Resource Analysis (New York: Longman Publishing, 1979). In:

Lowry, 1986,

Morgan, J. R. (cd,), “Introduction,” Ecological

Surveys and Monitoring Data Needs in Asia and

the Pacific, East-West Center Working Paper,

Honolulu HI, 1986,

Nichols, R., and Hyman, E., “An Evaluation of

Environmental Assessment Methods, ” Journal

of the Water Resources Planning and Management Division, American Society of Civil Engineers 108, No. WR1, March 1982.

33. Rogers, C., “Toward a Lesser Antillean Biosphere Reserve, ” Parks 10(3):22-24, JulySeptember 1985.

34. South Pacific Regional Environmental Program,

Proceedings Third South Pacific National Parks

and Reserves Conference held in Apia, Western Samoa, June 24-29, 1985 (Noumea, New

Caledonia: 1985). In: Dahl, 1986.

35. United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cul-
344 ● Integrated RenewabLe Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

36.

37.

tural Organization (UNESCO), “Action Plan for 38.

Biosphere Reserves,” Nature and Resources

20(4):1-12, October-December 1984.

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest 39.

Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, March 1984).

U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, The

Virgin Islands Coastal Resource Management

Plan and Final Environmental Impact Statement, Washington, DC, 1978.

von Drost zu Hulshoff, B., and Gregg, W. P., Jr.,

“Biosphere Reserves: Demonstrating the Value

of Conservation in Sustaining Society,” Parks

10(3):1-18, July-September 1985.

Wood, J. (cd.), Proceedings of the Workshop on

Biosphere Reserves and Other Protected Areas

for Sustainable Development of Small Caribbean

Islands, May 10-12, 1983, Virgin Islands National Park, Cancel Bay, St. John, USVI, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service,

1984.
Chapter 10

Issues and Options for

the U.S. Congress
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................,....347

Congressional Oversight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........348

Coordination of Federal Agency Activities . ............................349

Extension of Technical Assistance to the Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ..351

Federal/Insular Information Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....351

Data Collection, Information Management and Planning . . . . . . . . .........352

Agriculture and Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................354

Aquiculture and Nearshore Fisheries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......357

Issue: Traditional Knowledge and Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...,357

Issue: Environmental Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...,357

Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............,358

Agriculture and Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....359

Aquiculture and Nearshore Fisheries. . ..............................360

Local and Regional Cooperation in Research . ...................,....361

Extension and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............362

Agriculture and Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........362

Aquiculture and Nearshore Fisheries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363

Issue: Species Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......363

Incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........................364

Issue: Marketing Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................364

Issue: Conservation Cost-Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....364

Issue: Impacts of Income Support and Food Programs . . . . . . . ..........365

Chapter IO References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............366
Chapter 10

Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress

INTRODUCTION

In addition to being part of the United States,

the U.S.-affiliated islands of the Pacific and

Caribbean are of importance to the United

States for strategic, economic, and diplomatic

reasons, Because of their geographic (small size

and isolation) and economic characteristics,

economic sectors dependent on the islands’ natural resources—agriculture, aquiculture, fisheries, and tourism—have the greatest potential

to form the basis of their economies. Growing

economies are required to support the islands’

growing populations and aspirations, and to

assist those that are becoming independent to

enter the international economy.

The U.S. Congress, as the primary policymaking body for the U.S.-affiliated islands, has

considerable latitude to assist with the sustainable development and management of the islands’ renewable resources. Numerous Federal

agencies already house expertise and programs

that are extended to the islands and others that

could be tuned to their needs. However, potential exists for Congress to modify the structure

of certain committees/subcommittees in such

a way that opportunities for Federal assistance

are readily apparent and easily available, In

addition, the Department of the Interior’s Office of Territorial and International Affairs,

which has been designated as the major point

of contact between the insular governments and

the U.S. Congress, could strengthen its role in

agency coordination and technical assistance.

These underlie the first options for the U.S.

Congress.

Further options are categorized by major area

of public sector involvement in management

and development of renewable resources:

● data collection and information management,

● planning,

● education,

● research,

● extension and training, and

● regulations and incentives,

Little can occur without the necessary information: both problems and opportunities may

be overlooked. Not only is the appropriate data

necessary, management systems that allow easy

access and manipulation for various needs are

necessary to put that information to use. Planning of resource and economic development

takes that information one step further—social,

cultural, and political considerations must be

integrated.

Education provides the personnel interested

and, perhaps, skilled in the disciplines and technologies needed for sustainable resource management on islands. Research is the source of

those technologies and extension and training

provide the means to deliver them to the eventual practitioners. Finally, regulatory measures

and incentives are needed (or disincentives

need to be removed) in order to encourage those

practitioners to adopt new technologies and

activities,

Within the above categories, opportunities exist for improved and expanded Federal agency

support for agriculture, forestry, aquiculture,

and nearshore fisheries development appropriate to the tropical insular environment. While

the structures of both Federal and local government agencies tend to follow the separate

resource-related divisions (agriculture, etc.),

tropical insular resources need to be viewed

as a single system in order to make resource

development and management productive and

sustainable. Thus, programs designed to develop and manage island resources would benefit from improved coordination of those agencies dealing with single resource systems.

347

63-222 0 - 87-12 QL. 3
348 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

This study shows the importance of renewable resource development to increasing selfreliance on U.S.-affiliated islands and the important linkages that exist among renewable

resource use, environmental protection, island

cultures, population growth, political systems,

and economic development. These relationships or linkages underlie integrated renewable resource management on U.S.-affiliated insular areas. In addition, it is clear that the

picture that develops from these relationships

is not typical of the 50 U.S. States, especially

because all of the islands lie within tropical

climates.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and Department of the Interior

(USDOI) probably comprise the agencies having the greatest number of Federal programs

bearing on integrated renewable resource management and planning within the islands, although some resource-related activities are undertaken within other Federal agencies such

as the Departments of State and Energy. However, activities related to the U.S.-affiliated

islands are spread among a large number of programs within these institutions, hindering congressional oversight of Federal agency activities specifically designed for or conducted

within the islands.

Today, no single subcommittee of the House

Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs or

of the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources is structured to deal with all of

the related aspects of integrated renewable resource management as they relate to the U. S.-

affiliated islands. Further, the emerging Freely

Associated States have no direct representation

in Congress. For Congress to take advantage

of the OTA study and to oversee the network

of diverse activities and efforts underway in

executive branch agencies dealing with island

renewable resource issues, mechanisms to facilitate congressional oversight probably are

needed.

Option: New Congressional Subcommittee(s)

Congress could establish new subcommittees in the House and Senate committees

listed above that would focus on improving

self-sufficiency in the U.S.-affiliated islands

through an integrated renewable resource

approach.

l

Positive responses have been common from

U.S.-affiliated island residents to the leadership

Congress has shown in requesting this study.

Having new subcommittees designed to deal

specifically with these island resource issues

probably would expedite congressional actions

for taking advantage of opportunities to work

toward increasing island self-sufficiency. Island

officials would have focal points within the two

congressional committees where integrated approaches to island resource development could

be handled easily and effectively.

In addition, convictions are growing that the

U.S.-affiliated islands are likely to become increasingly important in matters of national

security in the next decade. Having subcommittees accustomed to dealing with island resources, and their associated cultural, economic,

and political aspects, and capable of dealing

with issues of overall U.S. security might

strengthen existing links between the U.S. Government and the U.S.-affiliated islands.

Reorganizing committee structures would

take time from other committee activities and

the new subcommittees may require additional

staff. Thus, this reorganization might be viewed

unfavorably.

1Moving in this direction the House Interior and Insular Affairs Committee recently established the Subcommittee on Insular and international Affairs, chaired by the USVI delegate

Ron deLugo.
Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 349

Option: Joint Territorial Policy Study Group

Congress could establish a Joint Territorial Policy Study group to produce analyses

of island matters to require congressional

action related to the U.S. insular areas and

could provide initial territorial impact analyses of current legislation affecting the

islands.

The Joint Territorial Policy Study Group would

be composed of congressional committee staff

who have demonstrated a continuing interest

and knowledge of the U, S.-affiliated Pacific and

Caribbean islands. This group could request

assistance from two very active bipartisan congressional caucuses serving the House and Senate: the Congressional Clearinghouse on the Future and the Environmental and Energy Study

Conference, both of which address long-term

issues and the impacts of possible new legislation.

Option: Review Effectiveness of Federal Island Programs

Congress could direct USDA, NOAA, and

USDOI each to evaluate the effectiveness

of its own agency’s programs related to integrated renewable resource management

and planning designed for the islands and

implemented therein. Congress could have

the three executive agencies appear at oversight hearings related to island resource

management and planning issues.

Alternate Option: Federal Island Program Reviews by the General Accounting Office

(GAO)

Congress could direct GAO to conduct the

above reviews that could be used later in

congressional oversight hearings related to

island issues.

Many individual programs of these agencies

receive favorable comment from island resource

managers, planners, and government representatives; some do not. Agency reviews could be

useful to Congress and the agencies themselves

in determining which approaches have worked

best in the islands and which ones might be

modified to improve their chances of success.

The agencies know the details of their programs and could probably conduct the review

with minimal delay. Congress on the other hand

may feel that outside eyes may be the most revealing and, therefore, choose GAO to conduct

the evaluations.

COORDINATION OF FEDERAL AGENCY ACTIVITIES

The Department of the Interior’s Office of

Territorial and International Affairs (OTIA), under the Assistant Secretary, is responsible for

promoting the economic, social, and political

development of the U.S.-affiliated islands. In

addition, OTIA is responsible for analysis, development, coordination, and review of the department’s policy and programs pertaining to

international activities and opportunities for

support of U.S. foreign policy through the use

of the department’s natural resource and environmental expertise.

The extensive mandate of OTIA may hinder

regular coordination of Federal agency activities in the U.S.-affiliated islands. No other formal mechanism exists to coordinate the large

number of Federal programs and policies extended to the islands. Oversight hearings might

provide an initial means of evaluating OTIA

capabilities to coordinate Federal activities and

to review new island activities that any of the

executive agencies plan to undertake. These

hearings may indicate where alternate or supporting coordinating activities are needed.

Option: Designate an Interagency Coordinating Group on Resource and Economic Development in U.S.-Affiliated Islands

Congress could authorize the creation of

an interagency coordinating group on U. S.-

affiliated islands, designating the Department of the Interior as the lead agency, that

would provide policy guidance to Federal

departments and agencies on extension and
350 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

modification of programs to assist in island

resource management and development.

Members of the interagency coordinating

group should represent USDOI/OTIA; Department of State; and resource-related offices of

NOAA (e.g., Offices of Sea Grant and Coastal

Resource Management, National Marine Fisheries Service); USDA (e. g., Soil Conservation

Service, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service, Forest Service); USDOI (e.g.,

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Reclamation,

Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service); Department of Energy; Environmental Protection

Agency; Small Business Administration; and

Economic Development Administration.2 This

group should be closely associated with the Interagency Group on Freely Associated States’

Affairs authorized in the Compact of Free Association (Public Law 99-239).

The first responsibilities of the interagency

coordinating groups might be to: 1) identify programs for which the islands are currently eligible and their rates of participation, and 2) to

solicit information regarding the suitability of

Federal programs to the islands. Second, the

interagency y coordinating group could identify

means for integrating programs within and

among the agencies into packages that might

allow for simultaneous or sequential development of: 1) insular resource management and

planning institutional capabilities; and 2) private sector activities in management, production,

processing, and marketing of insular products,

Third, the coordinating group could suggest

funding priorities for the agencies’ technical

assistance programs to the Territories, Commonwealths, and Freely Associated States (see

Public Law 99-239, Sec. 105(1)). Fourth, representatives from these agencies to the interagency

coordinating group could serve as insular government contact points to the Federal agencies.

Such an interagency coordinating group probably would need one or more full-time staff from

each office, and a budget allowing travel to each

of the island areas. These additions seem prob2This list is not intended to be exhaustive, but only representative of the types of agencies, bureaus, and offices that might be

involved.

lematic during the current period of budget reductions.

Alternate Option: Designate U.S. Man and the

Biosphere program (U.S. MAB) as Lead Coordinating Agency for Federal ResourceRelated Activities on Islands

Congress could identify the U.S. MAB in

the Department of State as a lead coordinating agency for Federal resource-related

activities in the U.S.-affiliated islands,

appropriate funds specifically for the U.S.

MAB program and encourage increased coordination between U.S. MAB Islands Directorate, the Department of the Interior’s Office of Territorial and International Affairs,

and other appropriate Federal agencies.

Federal agencies already supporting U.S.

MAB include the Department of State, U.S. Forest Service, National Park Service, National

Ocean and Atmospheric Administration, and

the National Air and Space Administration.

U.S. MAB also collaborates on a bilateral and

multilateral basis with other MAB national programs as well as the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s

International MAB program, the U.N. Environment Program me, and the U. N. Conference on

Trade and Development. However, funding for

U.S. MAB has been low, and the U.S. MAB Pacific Islands Directorate has been inactive.

In 1985, the U.S. National Committee for

MAB identified small island ecosystems as a

priority for U.S. MAB support, emphasizing

“ecology and rational use of island ecosysterns.” U.S. MAB has funded such research

projects as oil spill contingency planning for

small Caribbean islands, a workshop on Management of Marine protected Areas in the Caribbean and one on Planning for World Small

Islands Environmental Management and Development. U.S. MAB also has organized a

global meeting known as “Interoceanic Workshop on Sustainable Development and Environmental Management of Small Islands” (3). Issues such as environmental and socioeconomic

changes associated with tourism and industrial

development also are being examined. A major U.S. MAB Caribbean Island Ecosystems ef-
Ch. 10—issues and Options for the U.S. Congress . 351

fort has been to encourage the designation of

a Decade for Small Islands (1990-99) to organize

a lo-year concentrated program of studies related to development of small islands (l).

Increased support for the U.S. MAB islands

program could allow them to expand their research, coordination, and training functions in

the U.S.-affiliated islands, especially in the Pacific, and might improve coordination of federally supported resource-related island activities. Increased coordination between U.S.

MAB and USDOI/OTIA might assist U.S. MABsupported research and training projects designed for Caribbean and Pacific Basin countries to be applicable to U.S.-affiliated islands.

To undertake such a leadership role, the U.S.

MAB program would need to be upgraded and

strengthened substantially. In addition, identifying the U.S. MAB as the primary coordinating group could be seen to be in conflict with

the mandate for OTIA.

OTIA’s Technical Assistance program has

responsibility for extension of technical assistance grants to insular governments and individuals to support the development of local

institutional capability and private sector enterprises. This program has been referred to

as “the most effective utilization of United

States dollars in the Pacific Basin” (2). The staff

is competent in its island-related work, but is

small and its budget is declining.

Option: Strengthen OTIA Technical Assistance

Congress could direct the OTIA Technical Assistance program to prepare reports

on development of local institutional capability to foster private sector development

in renewable resource enterprises (production, processing, and marketing) in each island area, and to establish priorities for its

technical assistance program that reflect

insular needs. In addition, Congress could

appropriate additional funds as needed to

allow expanded technical assistance to insular resource management institutions

and entrepreneurs.

Preparation of the “Capability Reports” should

be carried out in close coordination with the

insular governments and should be readily available to insular governments and entrepreneurs.

Regular updating of these reports could allow

continued modification of technical assistance

programs to match insular needs.

These reports could be used to redirect Federal agency programs as well as to provide

guidelines for technical assistance. Further,

technical assistance programs developed from

these reports could be used to link production,

processing, and marketing enterprises on the

islands.

Data needed for preparation of the Capability Reports may be difficult to collect or unavailable, requiring that this effort be postponed until improved statistical collection programs are

implemented. Further, preparation of such reports does not guarantee that future grant proposals submitted to OTIA will reflect identified insular needs or that coordinated resource

development follows.

U.S.-affiliated islands have difficulty in iden- it is scattered through the various Federal agentifying what Federal data/information and pro- cies and sometimes is not associated directly

grams exist that are relevant to island needs with island needs. An examination of agency

in integrated renewable resource planning and data/information and programs, an assessment

management. Much information does exist but of their relevance to island needs, and making
352 w Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

this information known to island governments

would be an important step in improving island natural resource planning, management,

and development.

Option: Interagency Task Force on Federal

Information

Congress could direct the Department of

the Interior to lead an interagency task

force charged with assessing the data/information and programs that exist in each

relevant Federal agency related to integrated

renewable resource management and planning that is likely to be of benefit to island

governments.

The task force would make a summary of this

information available in published form to Congress in one year to serve as the substance for

a congressional hearing on the topic. Island representation would be included in the task force

activities. Each agency could establish an “island desk” that could act as a contact point for

island liaisons during and after the task force

activities.

Identification of such data/information and

programs in existence could eliminate the possibility of unwanted duplication and could

make Federal information (such as the Pacific

Island collection housed in the Smithsonian

Institution—currently an unorganized, largely

inaccessible library) more readily available. In

addition, it could help expedite island activities that rely on such data/information and assure the island governments that Federal programs that could be applied appropriately to

the islands are not overlooked. Nevertheless,

a task force of this sort can consume a significant amount of time at each participating Federal agency as well as initiate additional associated costs.

Option: Establish Regional Information Clearinghouse(s)

Congress could establish or support one

or more existing regional island centers to

act as a clearinghouse for relevant island

information produced at national and international levels.

Such information could include: Federal Government announcements on new programs pertaining to the islands; island government announcements; similar international program

information; market information on agriculture,

mariculture and aquiculture; and information

on island experts, their specialties, backgrounds

and availability. Such a clearinghouse(s) would

gather such information, assess, and disseminate it to island governments. In addition, the

clearinghouse(s) could maintain directories of

Federal, regional, and international programs

related to island resource development and provide assistance with grant proposal preparation. Congress might choose to strengthen and

broaden the scope of one or more of the following centers to handle this role: Pacific Basin Development Council, East-West Center,

Micronesia Area Research Center’s Information System, Island Resources Foundation or

Eastern Caribbean Center.

Communications among U.S.-affiliated islands

and with the continental United States are slow

but particularly so in the Pacific. A clearinghouse(s) for island information is very likely to

improve this situation and may in fact improve

communications between the Pacific and the

Caribbean islands. However, establishing a new

center(s) or strengthening others will require

additional funding at a time when such funding is scarce. Further, startup costs for establishing a new center(s) will be higher than

strengthening an existing institution(s).

INSULAR DATA COLLECTION, INFORMATION MANAGEMENT,

AND PLANNING

Insular governments, like governments any- for future actions. Clearly, adequate data for

where, need a natural resource database on these purposes seems wanting on most U. S.-

which to base their land-use plans and decisions affiliated islands. In addition, no consistent
Ch. 10—issues and Options for the U.S. Congress “ 353

source of economic and social data exists from

which informed judgments on future island development and conservation can be made. It

is important to have not only adequate and appropriate data but also the technology for effective data management and analysis and the

skilled staff to carry out these tasks. The dayto-day needs of local governments necessitates

that the data are easily accessible and that they

can be manipulated in useful combinations

quickly and accurately.

Many of these data will pertain to the island

locality whereas other data may have a Federal, regional, or international flavor. All of

these data types are useful to island planning

and terrestrial and marine natural resource

management, monitoring of environmental

changes, and development of strategies for sustainable development. With the modern, reasonably inexpensive, computer systems available today, data storage, analysis, synthesis, and

dissemination no longer seem insurmountable

problems. Still, many of these problems exist

in the U.S.-affiliated island governments.

Option: Analyze the Adequacy of Island Information Management Systems

Congress could direct the Department of

the Interior to take the lead role in an interagency task force including island representation to determine the adequacies and

inadequacies in natural resource, economic,

and social databases for the various U. S.-

affiliated islands as well as the means to

handle the data.

The task force should prepare a report for

Congress on the status of these databases as

well as an assessment of the island needs to

manage this information resource effectively.

The assessment should include an analysis of

the adequacy of local government computer facilities and the personnel to maintain, manage,

analyze, and interpret such data. Consideration

should be given to ongoing training for government users of these data, training quality, and

needs. This report should be produced in an

expeditious manner and should serve as the basis for congressional hearings wherein Congress

can determine appropriate further actions.

Such an analysis could provide an islandwide

basis for a coordinated, effective action on improving island data needs and data management, thus, filling a long overdue gap. The process would raise the awareness of the islands’

needs, problems, and opportunities and may

provide improved linkages between the Federal agencies and island governments. Conversely, this may be viewed as just “another

study” and further wasted time. Such an assessment may take one year or so to complete,

whereas some people may feel that direct action to collect the needed data on the islands

should begin now,

Option: Training Programs for Data Managers

and Users

Congress could direct the Department of

the Interior in cooperation with the Department of Agriculture to arrange for periodic

training programs on manual and computerized data management techniques and

analysis for the islands.

The training programs could be held at the

land-grant institutions on U.S.-affiliated islands

in the Caribbean and Pacific and on Hawaii

for appropriate data managers and users from

the island governments. USDOI and/or USDA

could provide technical assistance grants to

eligible island governments for the integration

of currently held databases.

Where no local data collection expertise is

available, U.S. agencies also could allocate

funds for a local person to work side-by-side

with Federal data collectors to provide some

on-the-job training and improved understanding of eventual interpretations of data,

Such courses could expand the usefulness of

island databases as well as the number of data

users in government service, Carrying out such

training at island land-grant institutions in turn

may help strengthen the institutions’ training

and education programs. Such training could

begin even as extant computerized data management systems were being evaluated for improvement, although for training to be effective, the computer hardware and software

systems used in training and on-island should

match. In order for a government employee,
354 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

however, to take advantage of such training

he/she will be required to be away from his/her

job and probably off-island for certain periods.

During the initial training periods, data management in the island government, therefore,

may be slowed down.

An on-the-job association would increase the

understanding of technical data collection techniques, increasing the potential for future updating of data. In addition, eventual usefulness

of data in decisionmaking may be improved.

Conversely, this may slow data collection efforts and increase the costs of data provision

to the islands.

Agriculture and Forestry

To accelerate agriculture development, there

is a need to understand the socioeconomic situation of small farmers and to diversify islands’

agricultural bases to avert the “boom-and-bust

syndrome. ”

Option: Reactivate USDA Minor Economic

Crops Computer Database

Congress could direct USDA to reactivate,

update, and maintain their computer file

on minor economic crops.

A summary of the contents of the database

could be made available to island governments

so they can use the information in agricultural

activities. Further, island governments should

contribute suggestions on how to improve the

database for their use by identifying crops not

yet included, as well as important measurable

properties and characteristics of plants and

environmental aspects needed to assure crop

success.

USDA previously maintained a computer database on minor economic crops, many of which

would grow in tropical climates, but no longer

keeps this computer database active. Data included in it cover important and diverse topics:

the climate and soil conditions necessary for

growing various crops, yield information, the

climatic range over which a plant would grow,

nutrition data, medicinal use, pesticidal properties, food crops that grow well when intercropped with others, and agroforestry. This

database contains important agricultural information relevant to ecosystems of the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. No other similar database is known to exist.

The information included in USDA’s minor

economic crops database has taken many years

to accumulate and check and, therefore, is a

valuable resource. The database also provides

a mechanism of linking island agricultural data

from the Caribbean with that of the Pacific,

thus, providing both with additional important

information. Should USDA reactivate this database, it would incur additional operational costs.

Because maintaining this database historically

was of small cost to USDA, it seems unlikely

that the cost of reactivating it would be prohibitive.

Option: Have USDA Develop Small-Scale Island Farmer Profiles

Congress could direct USDA Extension to

gather the necessary data to prepare “smallscale island farmer profiles” for U.S.-affiliated islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific to be used in the process of identifying agricultural technologies that will be

economically beneficial to the farmer and

will sustain the productivity of the natural

resource base.

In order to determine which food/fiber/fish

technologies have the greatest possibility for

ready and profitable adaptation, a need exists

for additional specific information on:

• how smallholder subsistence and semicommercial farmers actually distribute

their labor and capital resources in their

farming effort,

● which activities are part-time v. full-time,

and

● how much output is consumed, etc.

Farm economic information is needed on, for

example: the farmer’s sources of income and

labor effort; patterns of planting, cultivating,

fertilization, harvesting, and storage; nonfarm

resources used; and home consumption v. market sales, in order to assess the farmer’s adaptability to change, and the system’s openness
Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress . 355

to modification, Access to such information

may help farmers and others avoid mistakes

made in past technology selection. Technologies were promoted in certain instances which

were not accepted by the farmer because the

technology did not readily and profitably fit the

existing agricultural system,

Introduction of inappropriate agricultural

technologies can be economically detrimental

to the farmer and ecologically detrimental to

the farmer’s land. Minimizing such failures obviously is cost-effective over the long term, Yet,

to minimize these costs requires the expenditure of funds for developing the needed database to develop the small-scale island farmer

profiles. While such profiles are being developed, agricultural technologists on the island

may have a tendency to slow down the rate of

new technological implementation, Then too,

there is the question of the future role of the

Extension Service at a time when it is under

possible severe budget cuts. It seems likely that

the Extension Service’s new role may be largely

in assisting the small and part-time farm operator. This may be an opportune time to have

them expand their work with the U.S.-affiliated

island governments.

Aquaculture and Nearshore

Fisheries

In the U.S. Caribbean, local departments of

marine resources collect aquatic and fisheries

data, and share it regionally through the Gulf

and Caribbean Fisheries Association and the

Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program. The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, however, have no such data collection and aggregation structure.

In 1974, a private nonprofit corporation—

the Pacific Fisheries Development Foundation

(PFDF)–was established to carry out the directives of the Central, western and South Pacific

Fisheries Development Act (authorized in 1972),

The Western Pacific Fishery Management Council was created by the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976, to manage the fisheries within the 200-mile zone around

U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. In 1983, the National Marine Fisheries Service acknowledged

that the island fisheries differ significantly from

mainland fisheries and established a special set

of priorities for Saltonstall-Kennedy funding of

projects in the Pacific Basin.

The PFDF, the Pacific Basin Development

Council, and the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council subsequently established a set

of priorities for fisheries development in the

Pacific, based around:

●

●

●

●

stabilizing island fisheries,

emphasizing and improving quality in island seafood production,

expanding domestic harvesting of underutilized species and stocks, and

developing fisheries resources in harmony

with non-American Pacific island neighbors.

The emphasis is on coordination of nearshore

and offshore fisheries development, considering both conservation and development objectives, and development of an ordered, incremental program of assistance.

Option: Fisheries Statistics Collection

Congress could provide funding to the Pacific Fisheries Development Foundation for

Freely Associated States island fisheries

statistics collection programs.

Collection of statistics should focus on determination of stock levels and estimates of

maximum sustainable yield for economically

important fisheries, as well as identification of

current catch levels. Funding could be appropriated under either the Saltonstall-Kennedy

grant program or appropriations to the Central, Western, and South Pacific Fisheries Development Act, This information should be integrated with the WESTPACFIN database on

fisheries maintained for Hawaii, American

Samoa, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the

Northern Marianas by the Southwest Fisheries

Center.

Collection of baseline data often is costly. Because most insular nearshore fisheries are artisanal, and markets are informal, collection of

catch statistics may be difficult, Data collection might be facilitated by development of

small fish-markets to centralize sales and sta-
356 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

tistics collection. Similarly, identification of

particularly favored fisheries areas near islands

(such as near fishery aggregation devices) could

aid collection of subsistence fishery statistics.

Development of such a program also will require development of a local institutional capability to collect, organize, and manipulate

data requiring skilled individuals who may not

be available on some islands.

Option: Develop Sea Resource Atlases

Congress could direct the U.S. Army Corps

of Engineers and the Sea Grant Marine

Advisory Service to develop sea resource

atlases for each of the U.S.-affiliated islands.

Sea resource atlases (similar to land capability assessments) could identify marine areas

with particular fisheries or tourism value, areas

of current or probable future resource degradation, and areas suitable for certain forms of

marine development, such as marinas, marine

parks, or mariculture enterprises.

Funding could be derived from Section 22

of the Water Resources Development Act, although changes in legislative language maybe

required to allow this. Atlas preparation should

be closely coordinated with or performed jointly

with insular Coastal Zone Management programs. For most effective use of atlases in marine resource development, the Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service could conduct training

programs for marine resource managers following completion of the effort on each island or

island area.

Development of atlases may represent a reorganization of information already available

to some U.S.-affiliated islands, requiring little

effort or funding and potentially little additional

benefit. In other cases, particularly for remote

outer-islands, little baseline information or

maps may be available, requiring substantial

and potentially costly data collection programs.

Option: Artisanal Fisheries Profiles

Congress could direct the Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service to develop Artisanal

Fisheries Profiles.

These profiles, similar to the smallholder

farmer profiles described above, would characterize artisanal (subsistence and semi-commercial) fisheries in the islands. They could be

used, in conjunction with sea resource atlases,

fisheries statistics, and estimates of maximum

sustainable yield, to determine technologies potentially suitable for introduction to the islands.

Unless this effort is coordinated with extension of the Sea Grant Advisory Service to U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands beyond the current representative on Guam, this will require increased

funding to the University of Hawaii Sea Grant

Program to cover travel and other costs.

Option: Marine Resource and Aquiculture

Database

Congress could direct USDA’s National

Agriculture Library to provide assistance

to the Micronesia Area Tropical Agriculture Data Center (MATADC) at the University of Guam to include appropriate tropical aquiculture information developed

locally and culled from USDA’s Aquaculture Information System. Similar information on warmwater aquiculture could be

provided to the University of Puerto Rico.

MATADC maintains a computerized database of published and unpublished documents

produced in Micronesia concerning tropical

agriculture and related subjects, and provides

bibliographic information retrieval and document dissemination services. In addition,

MATADC maintains a database of scientists

and current research to assist with location of

experts in various resource-related fields. Expansion of these databases to include information on warmwater aquiculture, tropical marine resources and resource uses, and scientists

with expertise relevant to the islands could provide valuable, additional benefits from this program in supporting local research and resource

development.

Because bibliographic information on aquaculture already is collected and organized in

USDA’s Aquiculture Information System, this

effort should be inexpensive and readily accomplished. To maintain its usefulness, regular information updates should be provided under

a continuing program.
Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 357

Future development of sustainable, renewable resource development programs and projects and maintenance of esthetic, productive

environments depend heavily on: 1) the availability of an ecologically aware public, 2) technologically capable practitioners, and 3) scientifically skilled entrepreneurs and managers.

Education underlies the development of these

cadres of people.

Issue: Traditional Knowledge

and Skills

Traditional knowledge and skills are eroding

as older generations cease to teach younger islanders and as island youth increasingly look

to emigration or professional education for

“white-collar” employment opportunities.

Many traditional island renewable resource

uses and products can be considered manifestations of cultural identity and, thus, their preservation is of importance to island cultures.

Some traditional resource use systems, when

incorporated with modern techniques, may

form the basis for development of sustainable

technologies. In addition, traditional insular

resource-related knowledge could be of considerable value to island renewable resource management and development. Traditional products might form the basis of local industries,

such as handicrafts industries. Similarly, traditional skills could provide the basis for nontraditional small industries development, such

as carpentry.

Option: USDOI Historic Preservation Evaluation

Congress could direct USDOI to reexamine its historic preservation activities on

the U.S.-affiliated islands, especially regarding the preservation, oral or otherwise,

of islanders’ knowledge of resource systems

and of skills related to sustainable uses of

renewable resources.

USDOI could evaluate and report to Congress

the effectiveness of current historic preservation activities in fostering local awareness of

the importance of maintaining traditional knowledge and skills and on making use of the information and skills in resource and economic development.

Option: Preserve and Support Traditional

Skill Education Programs

Congress could support National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) educational programs designed to transfer traditional knowledge and practices using island renewable

resources to island youth.

The Palau Museum’s Master-Apprentice program, supported by a grant from NEA, allows

master carvers to pass on their knowledge to

unemployed but talented youth. A second NEA

project in American Samoa supports master

carvers in rotating employment. Tapa artists

visit schools on the island to instruct students

in their craft. Other traditional skill studies are

occasionally inserted into school curricula, but

this varies with administrative policies and

funding, and such studies are considered secondary to academic studies. Through NEA, the

Federal Government could encourage more of

this activity throughout the Pacific and Caribbean regions.

While the island areas each have well-developed educational systems, few curricular materials are available for primary and secondary schools developed specifically to educate

students on island land and sea ecology, on the

relationships between environment and development, or on the relationship of traditional

culture to resources. In addition, most U.S. Pacific colleges are 2-year institutions, necessitating study off-island to complete graduate-or

college-level educations.

Option: Develop Environmental Education

Programs

Congress could direct the U.S. Department

of Education’s Office of Education Research

and Improvement, in cooperation with lo-
358 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

cal government Departments of Education,

Coastal Resource Management programs,

and other programs already interested and

involved in environmental education, to assess ecology curricula materials for island

environmental education programs.

Educational materials developed by regional

and international organizations for small tropical islands (e.g., the South Pacific Regional

Environment Program) should also be assessed.

where appropriate, financial assistance could

be provided for dissemination of identified materials, and for development of materials suitable for primary and secondary schools.

Improvements in ecological education programs in primary and secondary schools could

assist development of an island environmental

ethic, that eventually could reduce the need for

regulatory and incentives programs and could

contribute to the maintenance of environmental

quality. In addition, such programs could increase students’ scientific knowledge and interest and stimulate them to seek further education in resource-related areas.

Option: Assess Island Manpower Needs and

Skill Requirements for Resource Development

Congress could direct USDOI to assist island governments in analysis of manpower

needs and subsequent education requirements to fulfill insular development plans.

These analyses could be carried out in cooperation with local government agencies, and

reports made available to Congress for consideration annually or with evaluation of each 5-

year development plan required under the Compact of Free Association (Public Law 99-239).

RESEARCH

Improvement in the fit between present and

future Federal programs for U.S.-affiliated islands relating to integrated renewable resource

management and planning and island economic

development is a key element to a program’s

success. Many Federal programs extended to

the u. S.-affiliated islands are based on research

conducted in the temperate continental U.S.

environment. This environmental misfit in

some cases causes programs to fail and may

even cause hardships to island inhabitants. Yet

research results potentially applicable to the

U.S.-affiliated islands are housed in certain Federal, regional, and international agencies and

opportunities exist for improved transfer of that

information to the islands.

Programs exist in certain Federal agencies

that commonly are designed with a tropical

environment in mind; these programs relate

mostly to renewable resource management in

tropical developing countries. For example, the

U.S. Agency for International Development

(AID) supports resource-related research and

development in many developing countries. In

certain cases, this AID research as well as other

U.S.-funded research conducted by the Food

and Agricultural Organization of the United

Nations, and the World Bank, is directly applicable to tropical insular resources. The islands

benefit little from this relevant agricultural and

renewable resource research.

Option: Screen U.S. Development Assistance

Research for Its Application to U.S.-Affiliated Islands

Congress could direct USDA’s Office of

International Cooperation and Development,

and Forestry Support Service, which work

closely with AID, to screen U.S.-funded research results on agriculture, forestry, and

other renewable resources in tropical developing countries for its applicability to

U.S.-affiliated islands, and to provide the

information for island use in an appropriate published form.

AID has had about 25 years of on-the-ground

experience in working with the developing

countries of the tropics worldwide. This wealth

of experience and the associated research pro-
Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 359

vide a storehouse of information on renewable resource management, planning, and development in the tropics, large parts of which

may benefit the island governments. USDA,

with its great diversity of technical skills, would

be in a position to adapt this information for

island needs. The cost to the United States for

this development assistance information is large,

yet the cost for making it available to the islands would be small.

Agriculture and Forestry

Option: Link Tropical and Nontropical LandGrant Institutions

Congress could direct AID to develop a

mechanism whereby nontropical U.S. landgrant institutions could link their research

activities, funded under Title XII of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1966, with the research activities of tropical land-grant institutions on U.S.-affiliated islands.

Such arrangements would allow for testing

of the applied research of the continental landgrant institutions for suitability in a tropical

environment prior to transfer to developing countries, This linkage would very likely strengthen

the island land-grant institution’s activities in

integrated renewable resource planning and

management.

This Title XII-funded research arrangement

ultimately could improve U.S. development

assistance efforts in developing countries. In

addition, it should strengthen overall U.S.

competence in tropical natural resource management.

Because of the travel that would be required

from the continental research institutions to the

islands, larger amounts of the overall Title XII

funds would go for travel, thus reducing the

funds for research.

Option: Extend Section 406 Programs and

Funding to All Tropical Land-Grant Institutions

Congress could extend Section 406 of the

Food for Peace Act of 1966 to cover all tropical land-grant institutions and provide the

necessary funding to pursue the goals of the

section.

Tropical land-grant institutions are: the

University of Guam, American Samoa Community College, the College of Micronesia, the College of the Northern Marianas, the University

of Puerto Rico, and the College of the Virgin

Islands.

Section 406 of the Food for Peace Act of 1966

directs USDA to develop research contracts and

agreements with American institutions in the

field of tropical and subtropical agriculture, and

that USDA should make the results available

to friendly developing nations. The goals of Section 406 are twofold: 1) to provide USDA and

land-grant scientists with tropical experience

and training, and 2) to provide foreign nationals

with a place to learn techniques and methodologies from U.S. specialists under tropical conditions. The University of Hawaii and the University of Puerto Rico were the two original

tropical institutions to receive research funds

under Section 406. Today, five additional tropical land-grant institutions exist in Guam, American Samoa, the Federated States of Micronesia,

the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas,

and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

This congressional action would very likely

result in a substantial increase in the total tropical agricultural research in the United States

and its territories. Island residents and particularly college-level students would have access

to training that they commonly have to travel

thousands of miles to obtain. Many of these institutions are small and will need funds to equip

research and training facilities to complement

Section 406 funds. Population growth rates on

most of the islands are high and, therefore, it

seems probable that the new tropical agricultural research will quickly show benefits in expanding sustainable agriculture on the islands.

Because of the proximity of foreign countries

to many of the island land-grant institutions,

it may be likely that these institutions will

strengthen linkages between the United States

and countries neighboring the islands.

Education and research are costly, and providing funding at the early stages of develop-
.

360 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ment of many of these institutions may be

viewed as wasteful. It may take many years for

these schools to reach productivity levels comparable to the Universities of Hawaii and Puerto

Rico.

Option: USDA Island Screening Committee

for Agriculture Research

Congress could direct USDA to establish

a small screening committee within USDA

charged with reviewing USDA-funded proposals, and research results for their applicability or possible applicability to agriculture on U.S.-affiliated islands.

The screening committee could use USDA

Current Research Information System computer data on research being planned or research that is underway to identify points of

opportunity for the research to benefit the islands. The screening committee could suggest

to appropriate researchers possible ways that

the research projects might incorporate certain

aspects of importance to U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. The individual researcher would

make the final decision whether the research

design should be modified or not.

The USDA funds important, major agricultural research across the United States. However, much agricultural research sponsored by

USDA does not specifically consider its applicability to the tropical environments of the U. S.-

affiliated tropical islands. Inadvertently, opportunities to apply the results of the research to

this special environment may be missed. Certain small modifications made in research plans

at the start of projects designed for continental, temperate lands may have significant payoffs later to tropical island agriculture if the

researchers have kept island agricultural problems in mind.

This probably is an inexpensive way to “piggy

back” island agriculture research. Because the

researcher would have the final decision, it

seems unlikely that having a screening committee suggest possible changes would adversely

affect the researcher or his/her project. Researchers like challenges and some might welcome

the chance to approach the research in a different light. Because tropical agricultural scientists probably are few overall in USDA, it may

bean unduly heavy additional load to place on

these few specialists.

Option: Expand Tropical Agriculture and Forestry Research Stations

Congress could direct USDA to evaluate

research priorities and increase support for

applied research in agriculture and forestry

development on U.S.-affiliated islands conducted by the Tropical Agriculture Research

Stations, and Institute of Tropical Forestry

in Puerto Rico, and the Institute of Pacific

Islands Forestry in Hawaii.

Examples of areas in which applied research

might be expanded are:

●

●

●

●

●

research on traditional farming systems;

crop interactions and mechanisms governing productivity and stability in tropical

agriculture systems;

identification, maintenance, and increased

use of superior varieties of local cultivars;

sustained-yield mangrove forestry practices; and

stable agroforestry systems for montane

watersheds.

Aquaculture and Nearshore

Fisheries

While insular research centers in tropical

agriculture and island forestry have been established, no corresponding organization exists for

warmwater or tropical aquiculture. The universities of Puerto Rico and Hawaii have been designated as Sea Grant institutions, and a Sea

Grant representative is based at the University

of Guam. However, funding for Sea Grant research has been declining and the representatives have little capability to direct research

towards the needs of other islands.

Option: Establish an Institute of Tropical

Aquiculture Research

Congress could direct NOAA to establish

one or more Institutes of Tropical Aquaculture Research, based in the U.S.-affiliated

islands, which could serve as a center of

excellence for tropical aquiculture technology development.
Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 361

The Institute(s) might profitably be associated

with established Sea Grant institutions, but

should have the mandate and capability to serve

other U.S.-affiliated islands. Like the other federally funded tropical research institutions

based on the islands, the Institute(s) would be

a relatively small cadre of experts performing

relevant research and could serve as a facility

supporting graduate and post-graduate study.

It also could serve as an information clearinghouse and assist in identification of U.S. warmwater aquiculture experts for private firms,

tropical universities, or government agencies

interested in collaborative work and by identifying sources of funding for these kinds of exchanges.

Development of such an Institute would require funding for development of facilities and

probably would take several years. Increased

support for development of Sea Grant Program

and/or insular government research capabilities

might achieve virtually the same goal, potentially in a shorter time. Thus, alternatively, Congress could increase support for NOAA Sea

Grant basic and applied research in such areas

as aquiculture, fisheries, marine biotechnology,

seafood quality, and seafood processing and

marketing.

Local and Regional Cooperation

in Research

While U.S. Federal research organizations

have considerable expertise in resource-related

fields and technologies, little of this research

is expressly oriented to tropical environments,

and still less is aimed at the social and cultural

conditions found on the U.S.-affiliated islands.

In addition, island governments have limited

capability to conduct research on other than

critical local needs.

Local and Federal research could be supplemented by taking advantage of research performed by regional and international organizations, and at similar institutions on neighboring

islands. Research conducted by the South Pacific Commission, South Pacific Regional Environment Program, the Caribbean Agriculture

Research and Development Institute, and other

regional research institutions can provide useful information.

Option: Increase East-West Center Activities

in U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

Congress could direct the East-West Center to increase resource-related research

and analysis for the U.S.-affiliated Pacific

islands and provide increased funding for

such activities.

Activities could include increased support of

the Research and Information Network of the

South Pacific Regional Environment Program,

which includes the U.S.-affiliated islands.

The East-West Center, established by Congress in 1972, is mandated to provide analysis

of social, political, and other issues for Asia and

the Pacific. However, the Environment and Policy Institute often has to work where the larger

populations and matching resources can be

found (i.e., Southeast Asia and South Asia). Similarly, the Pacific Islands Development Program

research and training activities in Micronesia

might be expanded.

Option: Support Development of the Eastern

Caribbean Center

Congress could extend continued support

and appropriate funds through the Department of the Interior and/or the Department

of State to accelerate development of the

Eastern Caribbean Center.

A regional research and information dissemination center for the eastern Caribbean, based

at the College of the Virgin Islands, has been

modeled on the East-West Center. The Eastern

Caribbean Center was proposed to serve as a

link between the United States and the island

nations of the eastern Caribbean. The center’s

areas of study include:

●

●

●

●

●

●

agriculture and aquiculture technology

needs assessment,

insect and disease distribution,

food production research,

food processing,

water research inventory,

data systems improvement,
362 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

● professional and midmanagement training, and

. telecommunications.

This center would expedite two-way exchange

of information relevant to sustainable resource

management on small Caribbean islands.

Option: Establish Cooperative Relationships

With Regional and International Research

Organizations

Congress could direct the U.S. Department

of State to assist the insular government research organizations in establishing cooperative relationships with regional and international research institutions or major

universities that can help with broad strategic and basic research.

For the most part, Department of State assistance could take the form of identification of

such organizations and of expertise relevant

to islands within the organizations. For the

Freely Associated States, assistance also could

include funding for informal participation in

international conferences or meetings relevant

to sustainable resource management and development on the islands.

These efforts would cost little, but may require that Department of State staff be increased

or redirected to allow timely response to insular requests, potentially detracting from other

programs.

EXTENSION AND TRAINING

Even where research has been conducted,

where information is available, and technologies have been deemed appropriate to island

conditions, few technologies will be widely

adopted without: 1) extension of that information to potential practitioners, 2) demonstration

of the associated technologies, and 3) training

of the practitioners to develop any new skills

needed for implementation. Most local government departments of agriculture and marine

resources have designated extension staff, but

these offices tend to be small, underfunded, and

to have numerous responsibilities, hindering

their effectiveness in transferring technology

to practitioners.

Option: Joint Extension Programs

Congress could direct USDA, NOAA, and

USDOI to have the major Federal resourcerelated agency extension programs—Cooperative Extension Service, Marine Advisory Service, State and Private Forestry,

and Fish and Wildlife Service—in cooperation with local department extension services to hold jointly conducted training

workshops for field extensionists in the

islands.

Goals would be to improve local extension

skills and to assist extensionists to understand

the assistance opportunities offered by Federal

agencies and local departments of agriculture,

marine resources, and fish and wildlife agencies. This could improve the efficiency of extension on limited budgets.

They might also establish regular joint programs to assist island practitioners in locating

and communicating with island resource extensionists, given that most islanders are not

solely farmers or fishermen, but engage in multiple enterprises.

Agriculture and Forestry

Each island area has a designated Land Grant

college or university with an associated joint

USDA Extension Service/Land Grant College/

territory government Cooperative Extension

Service. While this system is a uniquely in3The College of Micronesia, with headquarters on Pohnpei,

serves the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of Palau

(the Micronesia Occupational College) and, when the Nursing

School is relocated from Saipan to Majuro, the Republic of the

Marshall Islands.
Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 363

tegrated Federal Government/local government/

academic system designed to educate and assist agriculturists, the isolation of populations

and travel difficulties create special conditions

in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, Neither the

local colleges nor the local governments can

supply adequate funds to maintain the extension staff needed to reach remote rural and outlying populations.

Option: Increase Support for Island Extension

Services

Congress could direct USDA to increase

support of insular agricultural extension

programs to allow expansion of programs

to reach remote populations.

This would coincide with the emphasis in the

1985 Farm Security Act on support for smallscale farms. However, this would require that

monies be increased despite the current Administration’s efforts to eliminate the program,

or that funds be diverted from other extension

programs for the continental United States during a period of decline in moderate- and smallsized farms, and may only be achieved within

the framework of a general reorientation of the

USDA Extension Service.

Aquaculture and Nearshore Fisheries

The University of Hawaii and University of

Puerto Rico Sea Grant programs have established Marine Advisory Services to extend to

practitioners information and technology for

aquiculture, fisheries, and related marineresource management, While these organizations have had a long-term interest in working

with the other islands in their regions on problems pertaining to marine resource development, staffing and funding levels hinder the

extension of Marine Advisory Service to U. S.-

affiliated islands other than Guam.

Option: Expand Sea Grant Marine Advisory

Service Activities in Islands

Congress could appropriate funds and direct NOAA to increase Sea Grant assistance

in training and extension for aquiculture,

fisheries, and marine resource management

for islands having Sea Grant representatives and to make such services available

to the other U.S.-affiliated islands.

Additional Marine Extension Agents could

serve the various island groups, either as onisland Sea Grant representatives or from bases

at the Universities of Puerto Rico and Hawaii

with travel funds provided to allow extension

of information and technologies to other islands.

The infrastructure for the administration of

the program already exists, but appropriate new

personnel need to be identified and funded to

serve islands presently without Sea Grant representatives, These people could be immediately tied into the existing Sea Grant System

at universities that have the expertise to address

the various problems, Training in key areas

could then be more readily accessible to islanders

wishing advanced technology or degrees.

Issue: Species Introductions

A need exists on the U.S.-affiliated islands

for expert advice on proposed species introductions for aquiculture development and biological pest control and their likely impacts on island ecosystems, Without such expertise the

islands run the risk of inappropriate species introductions with possible harmful effects on

resources.

Option: Resident Fish and Wildlife Service

Scientists

Congress could direct the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service (perhaps jointly with NOAA

Office of Sea Grant) to provide a resident

scientist to the regions.

The scientist could provide advice on ecological aspects of agriculture and aquiculture,

especially on introduction of aquiculture and

biological pest control species and recovery of

endangered species, and to conduct the necessary research to backup the advice. The resident scientist could be located at a certain landgrant institution within the islands, and provided with a budget to allow extension of this

service to islands throughout the regions,
364 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

INCENTIVES

Some amount of regulatory measures and incentives are needed to prevent resource and

environmental degradation in the short term

until island residents become predisposed

towards maintenance of resource productivity

and environmental quality. In addition, incentives may be necessary to encourage people to

undertake new or potentially high economic

risk activities.

Initial incentives are availability and knowledge of potentially profitable technologies (provided by research and extension) and ability

to implement them (provided by training). In

some cases, where the social benefits are perceived to be higher than the private benefits,

incentives or removal of disincentives maybe

needed to encourage undertaking of appropriate activities. Incentives can be technical (e.g.,

marketing assistance) or financial (e.g., costsharing programs).

Issue: Marketing Assistance

Increasing agricultural productivity and establishing new island crops for export is important but only part of what is needed. Agriculture producers must have accurate, thorough

information on markets for their products, and

may need assistance in accessing those markets. Identifying markets and potential markets

needs improvement in U.S.-affiliated islands.

Option: Agricultural Marketing Service Assistance

Congress could direct USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service to assist insular

governments through three major programs:

1) the Federal-State Marketing Improvement Program, 2) provision of market news,

and 3) agricultural product grading.

The Federal-State Marketing Improvement

Program provides funds to States to solve marketing problems at the State and local level

through Federal-State cooperation. Market

News provides timely information on prices,

demand, movement, volume and quality of all

major agricultural commodities. Agricultural

Product Grading provides the producer and

marketer of agricultural commodities with

meaningful grades indicative of product quality.

Although the Federal-State Marketing Improvement Program probably has the greatest

latitude for serving insular needs, Marketing

News and the Agricultural Product Grading

programs can be directed to provide information on major tropical agricultural commodities, such as fruits, to the insular governments.

This may require expansion of their current

programs.

Option: Sea Grant Evaluation of Aquacultural

Marketing and Economics

Congress could direct the Department of

Commerce to have NOAA’s Office of Sea

Grant programs conduct an assessment of

aquacultural marketing and economics issues for island aquiculture development.

NOAA does not have a marketing assistance

program corresponding to that of USDA described above. However, identification of potential markets is integral to the development

of successful aquiculture enterprises. An

assessment of local and export markets for

aquiculture products that could be grown on

the islands could provide an improved basis

for estimating the potentials for aquiculture development on the islands, and might serve as

an indicator of research needs (e.g., if a substantial market is identified but the present culture technology is unsuitable for implementation in the islands). Such an assessment might

also identify barriers and means to overcome

the barriers to exporting products into non-U.S.

islands and nearby countries, such as Japan.

Issue: Conservation Cost-Sharing

Programs

In recent years, cost-sharing and other incentive/assistance programs have been reduced in

favor of U.S. Federal income tax incentives.

However, such incentives programs have, in

some cases, formed the basis for local government activities to develop resource enterprises.
Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 365

Because the islands do not participate directly

in U.S. Federal income tax structures, tax-based

incentives are an ineffective means to encourage

participation in sustainable resource-related

activities. For example, despite a recent resurgence in forest planting and management in

Puerto Rico, further reduction or elimination

of the USDA Forestry Incentives Program (FIP)

(which offers up to 70 percent of forest establishment costs) may bring local planting to a

standstill.

Option: Establish Insular Resource Management Cost-Sharing Programs

Congress could authorize and appropriate for a new USDA program to provide

cost-sharing and technical assistance to insular individuals undertaking approved

agriculture, soil and water conservation,

forestry activities (such as those offered by

the current Agricultural Stabilization and

Conservation Service’s Agricultural Conservation Program and Forestry Incentives

Program), and fisheries and aquiculture

activities.

To ensure that activities are appropriate to

maintain island resource sustainability and

productivity, individuals’ development plans

might require approval by an appropriate Federal agency representative (as FIP participation

requires plan approval by the U.S. Forest Service). Local government agencies, regional centers of excellence or similar agencies might be

designated to administer the programs to mitigate travel costs and similar problems.

Issue: Impacts of income Support

and Food Programs

A high percentage of island populations are

eligible for and participate in U.S. income support programs. Some analysts argue that this

reduces the incentives to invest money and labor in resource-related enterprises.

In addition, USDA and the Department of

Health and Human Services (DHHS) food programs operate in most U.S.-affiliated islands.

For example, some 1 million pounds of food

is imported each year into the U.S. Pacific islands under the School Lunch Program. Locally

grown island commodities, in some cases, account for 15 percent of program lunches. Increased use of locally grown foods in such programs could provide markets and incentives

for expanded island agricultural activities and,

as such, increased economic benefits to the

islands.

Option: Analyze Income and Other Support

Programs

Congress could direct USDA and HHS to

perform a joint analysis of eligibility formulae, nutritional and other impacts of

U.S. income and other support programs.

Should such an analysis indicate a high level

of “marginal participants” (i. e., those participating in but not substantially benefiting from

such programs), support funding could gradually be reduced or a proportion of such funding could be redirected to cost-sharing assistance programs.

Option: USDA Analysis of Island Contributions to the School Lunch Program

Congress could direct USDA to prepare

a report assessing the current and potential role of locally grown island food in island School Lunch Programs.

USDA should address questions of nutrition,

and the beneficial or adverse economic impacts

on the island economies from increasing locally

grown food in the program. Also, USDA should

recommend a target level for incorporation of

island grown food in the program and in proposing the target level, examine whether the

locally grown food’s contribution to the program should, for example, be measured as a

dollar percent, a weight percent, a volume percent, or as a percent of the total nutritive value

of the lunches. Other USDA/DHHS food and

nutrition programs such as Women, Infants and

Children; Nutrition Program for the Elderly and

derivatives of the Food Stamp Program could

also be assessed.

Locally grown island foods may find greater

acceptance among school children than certain

imported items because of the familiarity with
366 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

the local crops. However, local storage and refrigeration facilities may not be adequate to assure schools of delivery on a regular basis. Increased purchase of local food to supply these

1.

2.

CHAPTER 10

Beller, W., Director, U.S. Man and the Biosphere Program Caribbean Islands Directorate, personal communication, September

1986.

de Bruin, O., Hearings, statement before the

Subcommittee on the Department of the Inprograms may have deleterious effects on the

availability or price of food available on open

markets.

REFERENCES

terior and Related Agencies, Committee on

Appropriations, Apr. 29, 1986.

3. U.S. MAB Bulletin, Highlights From the

Directorates: Caribbean Island Ecosystems

(MAB-7), 8(1):5, July 1985.

Appendix A

Maps of the U.S.-Affiliated Islands

●

10”

Figure A-l. -U.S.-Affiliated Islands in the Western

 Pacifi c

Anatahan.’ Sarigan MARIANA

I

.Merir PALAU I

obi o . Helen I (BELAU) FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA

I

• Kapingamarangi

‘ . .

. . .’:

I

a Nukuoro I

I

4

, , ,- Hawaii Department of Planning and Economic Development,

369
370 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure A-2.— Island of Guam

Ritidian Point

Harbor

-

Agat Bay 7

Agat~

Fac

\

_ Pati Point

Jr,. Pacific Ocean

Island of Guam

r Inarajan

21 0 2 4 6 8 1

Philippine Sea . i.

I

Pago Bay

I Talofofo Bay

1

Cocos Island

Scale in miles

Legend

● Municipal village center

— Major roads

SOURCE: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division, Honolulu, HI

in J. Maragos, “Coastal Resource Management and Development in

the U.S. Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1966.
App. A—Maps of the U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 371

Figure A-3.— Islands of American Samoa

Pacific Ocean

1 0123 4

Scale ~ Mile

SOURCE. U S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, American Samoa Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, Office of Coastal Resource Management, NOAA, Washington, DC, 1980
372 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure A-4.—Major Islands of Puerto Rico

Camuy Hatillo

SOURCE: Adapted from R. Pico, The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chicago IL: Aldine Publishing Co, 1974)

Figure A-5.—Major Islands of the U.S. Virgin Islands

SOURCE: Adapted from President’s Economic Adjustment Committee, Economic Adjustment Program for Vieques, Puerto Rico (Washington DC: Office of the

Secretary of Defense, The Pentagon, November 1985).
Appendix B

Other U.S. Island Possessions in the

Tropical Pacific1

Introduction

There are eight isolated and unincorporated islands and reefs under U.S. control and sovereignty

in the tropical Pacific Basin. Included in this category are: Kingman Reef, Palmyra and Johnston

Atolls in the northern Line Island group; Howland,

Baker and Jarvis Islands in the southern Line Island group; Midway Atoll at the northwest end of

the Hawaiian archipelago; and Wake Island north

of the Marshall Islands. Evidence indicates that

some of these islands were not inhabited prior to

“Western” discovery; and today some remain uninhabited.

These islands range from less than 1 degree south

latitude to nearly 29 degrees north latitude and from

162 degrees west to 167 east longitude. The climate

regimes range from arid to wet and equatorial to

subtropical. Wildlife resources are similarly varied,

with endemic threatened and endangered wildlife

species existing on several of the islands. The geographic area covered by these islands has made

many of them nesting areas for seabirds and habitat for some rare mammal species such as the Hawaiian monk seal. Several of these islands are of

extreme scientific interest because of their age, with

origins in the Mesozoic era, and the majority are

designated wildlife refuges or contain designated

wildlife refuges.

Both Wake Island and Midway Island figured

prominently in World War II, as did many other

U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. The Battle of Midway

frequently has been called the “turning point” of

World War II. Today, military installations remain

on Midway, Wake, and Johnston. Johnston Atoll,

an important site during the era of nuclear testing,

remains a storehouse for chemical munitions and

defoliants. During the storage period, some of the

storage drums leaked chemicals into the ground;

the U.S. Army is currently taking remedial actions

to restore the island.

1 Condensed from ‘‘Coastal Resource Development and Management

in the U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” J.E. Maragos, OTA commissioned paper,

1986.

Howland, Jarvis, and Baker Islands

Howland, Jarvis and Baker are arid coral islands

in the southern Line Island group (figure B-l). Aside

from American Samoa, Jarvis Island is the only

other U.S.-affiliated island in the Southern Hemisphere. These islands lie within one-half degree

from the equator, in the equatorial climatic zone.

During the 19th century the United States and

Britain actively exploited the significant guano deposits found on these three islands. Jarvis Island

was claimed by the United States in 1857, and subsequently annexed by Britain in 1889. Jarvis, Howland,

and Baker Islands were made territories of the

United States in 1936, and placed under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior. The islands currently are uninhabited.

These atolls were used as weather stations and

military outposts during the World War II years and

debris from military presence during the war remains on the atolls. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers presently is investigating whether to clean debris, drums, and discarded fuel from the islands as

part of its responsibilities under the new Defense

Environmental Restoration Account. Presently, all

three are National Wildlife Refuges administered

by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Kingman Reef

Kingman Reef is in the northern Line Islands; its

land area is exposed only at low tide and is essentially a coral reef and shoal. The U.S. Navy currently

has jurisdiction over Kingman Reef.

Midway Atoll

Midway Atoll is at the northwest end of the Hawaiian archipelago and consists of two main islands, Sand and Eastern, and surrounding reefs (figure B-l). There is no evidence of prehistoric human

occupation at Midway prior to its discovery in the

last century. Midway was claimed for the United

States in 1867. Soon the atoll became important as

a link in the first global communication system; later

as part of a trans-Pacific flight route and as a quarantine station to control the introduction of exotic and

pest species to Hawaii.

373
374 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure B-1 .—Other U.S.-Affillated Pacific Islands

30

20

10

0

1600 180 “ 1700 1600 150 0

NOT

S O

E: Names in parenthesis depict individual or chains of seamounts far below sea surface and therefore lacking living reef corals.

URCE: J. Maragos, “Coastal Resource Management and Development in the U.S. Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986

Midway was bombed by the Japanese in 1941 on

the return from the Pearl Harbor raid. The successful U.S. defense of Midway during World War II

was a turning point in the war and arrested the Japanese attempt for broader control of the Pacific.

Presently, the Navy maintains a Naval Air Station

at Midway, including airfields and a deep draft

harbor.

The severe reduction of Midway’s seabird population by plume and feather hunters resulted in the

designation of the Leeward Hawaiian Islands, including Midway, as part of a National Wildlife Refuge. Large populations of migratory and nesting seaand shorebirds remain one of Midway’s most important natural resources; at times the seabird populations approach one million birds, and over 60

species have been recorded. Fishery and coral reef

resources have also been the subject of study in recent years, and for a time commercial fishing interests were allowed access to the island for refueling; however, this arrangement was terminated

after a few years. Several rare or endangered species inhabit Midway including the Hawaiian monk

seal, short-tailed albatross, green sea turtle, and possibly the hawksbill sea turtle.

Significant environmental issues at Midway include: 1) the high incidence of seabird mortality due

to air strikes with planes and collisions with radio
App B.—Other U.S. Island Possessions in the Tropical Pacific ● 375

antennas; Z) the continued vulnerability of the monk

seal to human induced disturbances; and 3) the

occurrence of ciguatera fish poisoning which is believed to be linked to dredge and fill activities.

Wake Atoll

Wake is an isolated atoll island located north of

the Marshall Islands and consists of three islets and

a reef enclosing a shallow lagoon (figure B-l). The

written historical record provides no evidence of

prehistoric populations on Wake Atoll. Marshall Islanders occasionally visit Wake, have given it a Marshallese name (Enenkio), and also occasionally

claim it, The atoll was claimed by the United States

in 1898, and annexed in 1899. Prior to the 1930s

the only visitors to Wake were scientists and survivors of shipwrecks. The Navy received administrative control of Wake in 1934, and a Naval air base

was established on the atoll in January 1941.

Wake Atoll was bombed at the beginning of World

War 11 by the Japanese on their return from the Pearl

Harbor raid. Shortly thereafter the Japanese invaded

and took control of Wake after heavy fighting. Heavy

bombardment by United States forces throughout

World War II neutralized Wake’s strategic importance. Considerable damage to the resource base

occured as a result of bombing and port dredge and

fill activities. Seabird populations were severely

decimated during World War II and an endemic

bird (the Wake rail) became extinct during this

period as well.

The United States reoccupied the atoll after the

war and administrative authority was held by the

Federal Aviation Administration until 1962, At that

time, authority was transferred to the U.S. Department of the Interior which in turn assigned authority to the U.S. Air Force.

Significant coastal resources include nesting seabird populations and coral reefs. Periodic storms

have shaped the geomorphology of the atoll considerably and the lagoon is very shallow, having a

maximum depth of 15 feet. The green sea turtle and

the hawksbill turtle occasionally may visit Wake to

feed but there is no documented nesting activity,

Lepidium wahiense, a rare plant species found on

Wake, has been proposed for listing as an endangered species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The nesting seabird populations are protected

under the Air Force base regulations,

Palmyra Atoll

Palmyra is a wet atoll located in the central Pacific and is comprised of three sub lagoons and over

50 separate islets totalling some 1,800 acres (figure

B-1), Palmyra was discovered by Western man in

1802 by Captain Sawle, and in 1859 it was claimed

by the American Guano Company. Palmyra officially became part of the Hawaiian Kingdom in

1862, and in 1911 became privately owned. When

Hawaii became a U.S. territory in 1899, Palmyra

was officially included; however the island was explicitly excluded from the Hawaii Statehood Act of

1960. All land titles (except those for a few small

islands at Palmyra) were transferred in 1922 to private ownership, which still continues. Although

there is no direct evidence of prehistoric occupation of Palmyra, the presence of coconut palms on

Palmyra and a Polynesian ceremonial platform on

nearby Fanning Atoll suggest the early Polynesians

may have visited Palmyra.

A seaplane base and other defense facilities were

constructed on Palmyra in the late 1930s in preparation for possible war. The extent of World War

II involvement was the Japanese bombing of the

atoll in December of 1941. The atoll was continuously occupied by the U.S. Navy or other Federal

installations after the war until 1949 and was also

occupied during nuclear testing programs in 1962.

The Navy attempt to regain control of Palmyra after World War II ended with a U.S. Supreme Court

decision to return the atoll to the present owners.

Palmyra has some unique ecological resources

due to its wet climate and equatorial location. A variety of seabirds nest there, and coconut crabs, and

land crabs are common. The marine populations,

though only partially sampled, seem large. The lagoon is brackish and estuarine, Construction activity has resulted in major impacts on reefs and lagoon

environments, which to date have only partially recovered.

Johnston is an open atoll in the north central Pacific Ocean approximately 800 miles southwest of

Honolulu. The atoll platform and lagoon measure

about 15 miles east-west and 7 miles north-south.

The atoll’s islands and most shallow reefs are found

in its northwestern quadrant. Until the 1940s there
376 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

were only 2 islands (Johnston and Sand), but by 1964

massive dredge and fill operations had expanded

Johnston Island to over 600 acres, doubled the size

of Sand Island, and created two rectangular fill islands, Akau and Hikina, of approximately 20 acres

each.

Johnston Atoll was formed in the late Mesozoic

era, and aside from Wake is the only shallow-water

atoll along the Marcus Necker submarine ridge. A

barrier reef is located along the northwestern quadrant rim which in addition to the islands and shoals

to the south partially protect Johnston lagoon from

heavy wave action. Elsewhere the lagoon is semior heavily exposed, and subject to open seas.

Johnston was discovered in 1796 and claimed by

Hawaii and the United States in 1858. When Hawaii became a U.S. territory in 1898, authority over

Johnston clearly belonged to the United States. Early

scientific expeditions indicated that only two species of plants originally grew on the islands and that

the atoll had never been inhabited. Guano deposits

found on the island were exploited for a short period

in the 19th century. An Executive Order (No. 6935)

in 1934 transferred jurisdiction over Johnston Atoll

to the Department of the Navy, where it remains

today.

Johnston played a central role in the U.S. atmospheric nuclear testing program. In 1963, when the

atmospheric nuclear test ban Treaty was signed, it

retained the basic capability to resume key atmospheric testing on the atoll. This Safeguard “C” status was further relaxed, and Johnston has been reduced to a caretaker status. It now serves as a

refueling stop for air traffic between Hawaii and

Micronesia.

Johnston has served as a temporary repository

for chemical defoliants and chemical munitions

since the 1970s. Some of the storage drums have

leaked, possibly contaminating both the ground and

groundwater with dioxins. The extent of contamination has been analyzed and remedial actions have

begun. 2 The Army is constructing an explosiveproof facility on Johnston and upon completion,

plans to incinerate the stored chemical munitions.

Johnston was designated as a bird refuge in 1926

and later upgraded to a National Wildlife Refuge

administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Johnston’s principle protected resources are

nesting seabirds and coral reefs, and the green sea

turtle, Johnston’s extreme geographic isolation and

age make it of scientific interest. Recent expeditions

have yielded a greater understanding of the ecology, geology, and marine environment of Johnston.

2Ramsey, C., U.S. Department of Defense, personal communication,

September 1986.
Appendix C

U.S. Military Presence in

U.S.-AffiIiated Islands1

The U.S.-affiliated islands are of considerable importance to national security, and the United States

is committed to their defense and to maintaining

lines of communication to and through them. Individual islands vary in strategic importance.

Military Installations and Activities

in the U.S.-Affiliated Islands

Pacific

Military installations occupy about one-third of

Guam. Military personnel and their families comprise about 20 percent of Guam’s population. Andersen Air Force Base (AFB) is a major Strategic

Air Command (SAC) transport hub between Hawaii

and the Philippines and a base for weather surveillance units and satellite communications. Guam

also houses naval facilities such as a naval air station and a submarine tender (to be phased out when

the Trident submarines are deployed).

Currently, about 200 active duty military personnel are employed in the former Trust Territory, most

at the 3,500-acre Kwajelein Missile Range (KMR)

and making up five Civic Action Teams (CATS)

operating in the Federated States of Micronesia

(FSM) and Palau. The CATS are modeled after the

Navy Seabees of World War II, and began operating in Micronesia at the request of the Secretary

of the Interior in 1969, to help in the construction

of public infrastructure, mainly schools and roads.

CATS have been a tremendous success in Micronesia, both politically and economically. Although

these teams probably cannot make a significant difference in the pace or ultimate progress of economic

development on the islands, they do provide excellent training for local apprentices and are a strong

symbol of continued U.S. interest in the welfare of

the Micronesians. Under the Compact of Free Association and subsidiary agreements, the Department

of Defense (DOD) will continue to make CAT services available to the FSM and Palau at shared costs.

Navy, Marine, and some Army and Air Force

units also are active in the Commonwealth of the

Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), Units totaling

less than a brigade in strength conduct periodic maIThis section was summarized from S. Loftus, ‘‘Impacts of U.S. Military Presence on U.S.-Affiliated Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

neuvers on Tinian, where DOD has nonexclusive

use of some 18,000 acres—about two-thirds of the

island. Marine Engineer and other tactical units

periodically exercise there and conduct certain

civic action projects. These have included repair

and renovation of local buildings, assistance in the

installation of water lines, and installation of power

distribution to the Marpo farming area. Finally,

Farallon de Medinilla, an uninhabited, small volcanic island north of Saipan, is used sporadically

as a bombing and gunnery target by U.S. naval

forces in the Pacific and by the U.S. Air Force tactical air squadron on Guam.

Caribbean

The U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands are of special significance because of their close proximity

to the United States and the importance of achieving a stable security situation in the Caribbean. Most

of the major Air Force and naval units operating

or available for operations in the Caribbean are

based in Florida, Virginia, Panama, or at Guantanamo, Cuba. Puerto Rico, which is situated on major routes of communication, also has a major naval installation at Roosevelt Roads with permanent

air and surface forces. Roosevelt Roads supports

the bombing gunnery range of Vieques Island and

provides the principal backup for the U.S. base at

Guantanamo. There are no permanent military installations in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI), and

only sporadic naval or air surveillance or training

activities in nearby waters or airspace,

Projected or Planned New

Installations or Activities

All of the above described bases and activities are

scheduled to continue through the foreseeable future, Military patrols in the Caribbean may intensify if DOD gets more deeply involved in anti-drug

operations. Otherwise, there are no known plans

to expand or radically change the U.S. military presence there,

Three potentially significant changes may affect

the western Pacific:

1. Approval of the Compact of Free Association

between the United States and Palau may give

377
378 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

2.

3.

the United States rights to convert certain welldefined areas in Palau into bases or training

areas. Implementation of such plans presumably depends on the evolving situation in the

Philippines and/or the pace and level of Soviet

military activities in the area.

A major air base for dispersed operations may

be constructed on Tinian as a backup to Andersen AFB on Guam. However, there are no

indications of any serious moves by DOD to do

this over the next several years.

KMR might be expanded or an alternative

range developed to allow testing of the MX missile. preliminary surveys during the late 1970s

identified the CNMI as a possible site for a

“mini-KMR.” As yet there is no evidence that

DOD plans either action.

Ecological and Economic Effects of

the Military Presence

Views regarding the effects of the U.S. military

on the islands are mixed. Many islanders welcome

the economic and job benefits derived from the

presence of military bases. Others cite the loss of

valuable lands, negative cultural impacts (e. g., undermining of traditional values), attraction of undesirable elements, inflation, overcrowding of schools,

degradation of water quality, and restrictions on

economic growth,

Pacific

Guam’s local government concedes the critical

importance of bases thereto U.S. security interests,

but contends that much of the land presently occupied is redundant to principal missions. U.S. military authorities strongly disagree, citing the need

to be prepared for several major contingencies, including the phasing down or replacement of key

facilities in the Philippines, DOD currently is reassessing its land requirements on Guam, but is unlikely to recommend a reduction of these requirements, However, some lands held for military

purposes contain large areas of natural habitat, for

which DOD ownership has provided de facto protection to wildlife populations.

The operations at KMR have a profound effect

on local inhabitants and ecology. Water availability, quality, and wastewater disposal all pose problems, The concentration of 8,000 Micronesians on

the 66-acre island of Ebeye is an extreme example

of the U.S. military’s impact. Ebeye is severely overcrowded; acute socioeconomic problems and substandard housing, medical facilities, schools, and

related amenities have resulted.

Most of the residents of Ebeye migrated there

from the “outer” Marshall islands, drawn by wellpaying jobs at KMR or because relatives work there.

Most are denied access to base facilities, although

these restrictions have been relaxed over the past

several years, Ebeye has been the recipient of a number of U.S. programs and funds, most of which have

been funneled into infrastructure such as a desalinization plant and a sewage treatment facility.

Naval forces in Puerto Rico have been extremely

helpful to local authorities during and after major

storms and flooding by providing transport, medical assistance, and earth-moving equipment. Naval

forces at Roosevelt Roads also conduct a number

of civic action projects locally. DOD also increased

defense contracting in Puerto Rico from $187 million in fiscal year 1983 to $417 million for the first

11 months of 1985.

Under a memorandum of understanding between

the U.S. Navy (USN) and the Government of Puerto

Rico, DOD has undertaken a number of measures

to improve the welfare of the people of Vieques,

through the provision of medical equipment, supplies for local hospitals, assistance in public works

construction, and a concerted effort to attract American industries to the island resulting thus far in

366 new jobs. In addition, it contracted with the

Smithsonian Institution to provide a major study

of the mariculture potential of that island. This has

led to the creation of some 400 jobs.

Most environmental problems resulting from U.S.

military activities on U.S.-affiliated islands appear

to have resulted from the lack of understanding or

awareness of procedures, or from insensitivity on

the part of individual military officers, rather than

from the absence of relevant policies or directives.

Military officers generally lack the time, staff, and

training to handle resource protection responsibilities, and the military has been slow to comply with

some local environmental regulations.

Procedures To Consider Environmental

and Land-Use Issues in Extant MiIitary

Installations and Activities

The U.S. military has a variety of procedures to

consider environmental and land-use issues in its

island operations, including the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) and three DOD
App. C—U.S. Military Presence in U.S.-Affiliated Islands . 379

directives. In general, the same directives, regulations, and instructions that apply to current military activities and extant installations also apply to

any plan to expand land use, initiate new and expanded activities, or acquire new sites.

1.

2.

3.

Directive 6050.1, “Environmental Effects in the

U.S. of DOD Actions,” covers all U.S.-affiliated

islands, and is based on NEPA, Council on

Environmental Quality implementing regulations, and several pertinent Executive Orders,

It specifies several goals related to the protection, restoration, and enhancement of island

environments; resource recycling; and preservation of important historical, cultural, and natural aspects of the island’s national heritage.

It requires assessment of the environmental

consequences of proposed DOD actions that

could affect the quality of the environment; the

use of ecological and sociological information

in planning and decisionmaking where there

may be an impact on the environment; and consideration of presently unmeasured environmental amenities in decisionmaking, as well as

of reasonable alternatives to recommended actions that would involve conflicts concerning

resource use.

Directive 4700.1 covers natural resource conservation and management, prescribes DOD

policies and establishes a program for multiple use management of renewable natural resources on DOD lands, consistent with military

missions.

Directive 4710.1 calls for integrating the legal

requirements regarding archeological and historic preservation with the planning and management of DOD activities. It requires each

DOD installation to scientifically evaluate the

likelihood that significant archeological or historic properties are present. If so, these must

be inventoried and evaluated.

All three military departments (Army, Navy, and

Air Force) have issued their own directives or instructions reflecting the contents of these directives.

The USN, for example, has issued a detailed instruction to its components which provides for a navywide program of compatible management, protection, and nondamaging recreational use of renewable land and water resources. Engineering Field

Divisions (EFDs) administer the program in the

U.S.-affiliated islands and, with staff biologists, soil

scientists, and agronomists, review plans that might

have an impact on local renewable resources, They

may direct the preparation of environmental impact

statements or contract necessary studies.2 The EFD

on Tinian is now reviewing the island’s flora and

fauna. A companion study covering Guam is scheduled for 1987.

Likewise, Department of Army regulation AR200-

2 covers Army policy, procedures, and responsibilities for the conservation, management and restoration of land and renewable resources consistent with military mission and national policies.

Chapter 2 of this regulation calls on local commanders to actively cooperate with local, State, and

Federal organizations to carry out national land-use

and conservation policies for all management operations. Each major command and installation with

jurisdiction over substantial acreage must provide

technically qualified personnel to oversee all natural resource management activities, Land management plans must be reviewed every 5 years. USAF

instructions are virtually identical to the Army’s and

Navy’s, but also address such problems as noise

abatement and the protection of birds from aircraft.

Potential Mechanisms To Increase

the Role of the Military in Sustainable,

Environmentally Sound Island

Economic Development

The U.S. military could do more to promote environmentally sound economic development on the

islands, including greater information sharing with

local authorities, procurement of local foods and

other resource-related products, and support of the

local tourism industry (military transients can be

considered long-term “visitors”).

The U.S. Military as a Market for LocaI

Food and Other Renewable ResourceRelated Products

DOD is reassessing its overseas food procurement

policy and recently sent a team to Guam to evaluate prospects for greater reliance on local markets.

The USN now relies primarily on the Defense Procurement Supply Center in Philadelphia, a guaranteed source of warranted products with instant

credit and refunds for substandard products. Only

if this center does not carry a particular item, or

fails to meet minimum standards, are local commanders encouraged to procure locally. The base

2Recently a proposal from the Utah National Guard to hold maneuvers

on Tinian was rejected because the Guard has failed to produce an acceptable preliminary environmental impact statement.
380 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

commander at Andersen AFB is permitted to procure some fresh, indigenous produce, but there is

no consistent or substantial reliance on local food,

in part because local sources are not completely

reliable.

Without cogent incentives, greater reliance on local markets by the U.S. military is unlikely. Factors

that could increase local procurement include improved relations between the military and local governments and citizens groups, more competitive local prices, and more reliable local sources. None

are likely to materialize substantially soon.

U.S. Military Contributions to

the Tourist Industry

The USN of Guam puts much time and effort into

“beautification” work in and near the Naval Air Station at Agana, as part of the “COMNAVMARIANAS”

civic action program, and conducts a “sister village”

program with some local communities involving

small public works and beautification projects. The

Navy also conducts civic action work on Tinian

and, less frequently, at the Memorial Park area of

Tanapeg Harbor, Saipan. In the Caribbean it has

reportedly done a superb job in maintaining the natural beauty of Vieques Island, although this is not

a major tourist attraction. Navy Seabees from Roosevelt Roads engage in various civic action projects,

mainly at the request of local village leaders, and

distribute brochures from Puerto Rico’s Tourism

Company to its personnel. The naval command

there is considering a request to transport spent

rockets from the mainland to the city park of Bayamon, and has already transported cannons from the

El Morro fortress for needed repairs and restoration at no cost.

However, the military is committed to its primary

military missions, and few tactical units are

equipped and inclined to assist civilian authorities

with development programs. Exceptions include

CATS and various construction and engineering

units in the islands. DOD might be persuaded to

press Congress for the authority and measures to

increase these units’ current levels of effort on behalf of island populations. Military commanders on

the islands could be directed to provide more assistance to local authorities and/or give higher priority

to the improvement of on-base ecological systems.

Military groups would be unlikely to comply, however, without being given more resources for such

a purpose.
Appendix

Integration of Traditional and

Modern Law1

As emerging Pacific nations enter the world order as independent sovereigns, they turn increasingly to the Anglo-American concept of the role of

law to maintain social order, resolve disputes, and

distribute resources. There is, however, a danger

that western law will undermine traditional practices and culture, as occurred in Hawaii. A genuine attempt was made during westernization of the

Hawaiian Islands in the mid-19th century to recognize and preserve important cultural prerogatives

and customary privileges associated with the native way of life. These attempts failed.

After the division of the King’s lands in the 1850s,

less than 1 percent of land remained in the hands

of commoners. Many did not understand the foreign concept of private ownership, or were never

aware of the law giving them the right to own land

that they had cultivated. Even those who did exercise their rights, through claims and exercise of resource access, found that the rapid evolution of the

islands’ social and economic structure left lifestyles

associated with the land almost without viability.

The ground rules for the interpretation of claims

of native rights were established the first time the

newly formulated western-style courts of Hawaii

were confronted with the issue. In 1959, when a

tenant claimed the traditional right to pasturage on

the undeveloped lands of the landlord, the claim

of custom was rejected as unreasonable, uncertain,

and repugnant to the spirit of the present laws (Oni

v. Meek, 2 Hawaii 87, 90 (1898)). It was made clear

that in the absence of explicit instructions to the

contrary, the system of private ownership would

be treated as preeminent. Traditional prerogatives

simply ceased to exist except to the degree they were

explicitly preserved, and rights became applicable

only when they did not effectively interfere with

western concepts of law and property.

Today, despite recent efforts to give new vitality

to native rights and custom, the law of Hawaii is

virtually devoid of meaningful retention of native

Hawaiian culture, and Hawaii’s native people occupy nearly the lowest rung of the socioeconomic

ladder. Their rights and privileges have not been

1This section is summarized from W. Chang, “The Integration of Customary and Traditional Renewable Resource Practices in a Modern Legal Framework,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

permitted to evolve in relation to contemporary

privileges in a way that ensured their continued vitality, nor was the genuine value of these rights ever

demonstrated or insisted upon. No comprehensive

scheme emerged to satisfy a long-term vision of how

the culture was to evolve.

Custom is a valued asset of U.S.-affiliated island

communities. Anglo-American law can, but need

not, follow the Hawaiian example and be destructive of that asset. Movement toward self-government in Micronesia presents an opportunity to

merge the best of traditional practices with the

democratic system of law.

Advantages From Adoption of

the Rule of Law

The traditional practices of a community (i.e., custom) are often so engrained in belief and behavior,

and so well-known to the populace that they require

no legislative decree, no police, no judge, and no

law library to exist and to shape social life. This

raises the question of why anyone would want to

import western law to displace or supplement an

existing regime of customary law. Historically there

are several reasons why human beings move to law.

For emerging nations, the primary impetus for

adoption of western legal systems is to establish

sovereignty and achieve legitimacy in the Westdominated world order. The emerging Micronesia

nations have adopted wholesale various comprehensive American codes, such as the Federal Rules

of Evidence and the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, The appropriateness of these codes for use

in Micronesia may not be as important as their

legitimizing function. A nation with American rules

of procedure “looks” more like a democracy whose

sovereignty deserves respect. The use of codification and adoption of western law to achieve sovereignty is familiar to Pacific legal historians.

Law also serves to promote economic development, The rise of legalism throughout history is correlated with economic growth, industrialization,

and the emergence of a class-differentiated society.

U.S. legal historians, for example, study the use of

legal doctrine and legal systems to promote railroads

and other large industries. While critics charge that

381
382 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

the rule of law can be a tool to increase production

while concentrating wealth in a few hands, the instrumental value of law as a promoter is obvious

to government leaders, particularly where economic self-sufficiency is seen as a key to political

autonomy.

The rule of law provides a stable, predictable environment for economic growth. The adoption of the

uniform commercial code in Guam, for example,

assures business investors that familiar rules apply

to transactions there. Law can actively promote certain business activities by subsidy, tax advantages,

and limited grants of privilege. If a Pacific island

decides, for example, to promote development of

ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), it can offer these advantages to OTEC developers.

A corollary to the power to promote is the power

to deter through the power of criminal law to punish, or regulatory law to prohibit and of eminent

domain to take. Obvious uses of coercive legal rules

in the realm of natural resource use include zoning

laws, endangered species laws, pollution control

laws, and building code laws. All are used by governments to shape development.

Advantages of Rule of Custom

As the Hawaiian example reveals, however, law

has a tremendous power to dislocate and eventually destroy culture. This is particularly true when

western systems of law are imported into a community in which citizens are unfamiliar with legal

rules and unaware of the need to assert their rights.

Given this danger, it is important to recall the reasons for preserving custom. Custom is typically the

ordering mechanism used in communal cultures

such as those found in the islands of the Pacific.

Custom has maintained order, provided for the general welfare, created unity, and preserved a way of

life. Custom also is the ordering mode of choice:

citizens are proud of their culture and traditions

and express genuine sorrow at the passing of custom and dismay at the incursions of westernization.

A sudden displacement of custom by law is likely

to cause anxiety, cultural dislocation, and disorder.

Customary rules of resource management often

have an ecological basis. Fishing taboos help preserve fish populations, use restrictions preserve

delicate reef systems, and clan rights allocate scarce

water resources. These restraints are accepted and

observed while restraints by law are often ignored.

As one islander commented on an endangered species law: “How does some man in Washington

know how many turtles there are in Yap?”

Integration of Custom and

the Rule of Law

Pacific island lawmakers have been careful to

state explicitly their intent to preserve custom within

the context of the rule of law (e.g., see Constitution

of the Federated States of Micronesia). This will require explicit recognition of the value and fragility

of custom, coupled with a formalized system for incorporation of custom into a new system of law

appropriate for use in societies rich with custom.

Explicit recognition in constitutions, statutes, and

case law of the value and primacy of custom can

result in the preservation of custom and traditional

values, Custom can be recognized and acknowledged whenever a new law is adopted, providing

a legislative reminder to courts interpreting statutes.

Given the constitutional and legislative mandate for

preservation of custom, the role of the courts would

be to develop rules of interpretation that follow the

mandate. Judges would look first at the system of

customary rules and derive underlying values and

principles of custom, then use those principles to

create legal rules within the system of the rule of

law,

For example, there may be a rule on one island

that strangers approaching a village at night must

carry a lighted torch. The underlying principles represented here is that strangers must respect the

peace of the village and make their presence known.

The judge may have to decide whether a flashlight

can be used in lieu of a torch; whether an unfamiliar

light is potentially disruptive of community peace;

or whether the light from the flashlight was conformable with the underlying principle of the customary rule. The point here is that the judge, using

his knowledge of the village and taking testimony

from traditional leaders and community members,

strives to find and preserve the essence of custom.

The reason for this process of the distillation of

the underlying principles behind customary rules

is that, while custom is fluid and adaptable to changing circumstances, certain underlying values remain unchanged, Values such as respect for traditional leaders, consensus-based dispute resolution,

and significance of clan membership have survived

the impact of colonialism and modernization, and

form a significant part of the identity of island

peoples.

To the western-trained lawyer, such a judicial system seems to invite imprecision into a system of

law that values precision. The western insistence

on precision, however, tends to denigrate custom

which, by definition, is unrecorded, internalized,

and integrated with culture. If precision is valued,
App. D—Integration of Traditional and Modern Law ● 383

the written statute or case will always defeat custom. If preservation of custom is the goal, judges

must reach beyond the demand for precision, and

experience the cultural milieu of custom.

The search for analogies between island customs

and Anglo-American experience may prove fruitless. As one judge noted in a Marshallese property

dispute:

. . . there is no analogy between the common American idea of an absolute owner and the Marshallese

idea of the holder of any one of the levels of rights

in the Marshalls.

The concept of property and natural resource

ownership is dramatically different in emerging Pacific nations. Ownership is frequently communal,

and characterized by layers of use rights rather than

fee-simple ownership. Access to reefs, landing

areas, surface waters, and fishing grounds may each

follow different sets of customary rules,

Judges must recognize that in island communities where access to resources is a part of the livelihood of the people, complex systems of ownership

and use have evolved that are very different from

western concepts of ownership, In resolving disputes over resource use, access, and ownership, the

courts may wish to delay intervention until traditional leaders are consulted and customary methods of dispute resolution are exhausted. In western law, this idea is incorporated in the doctrines

of abstention and exhaustion. Encouraging citizens

to rush to court with disputes will be destructive

of consensus-based systems that have effectively

maintained peace and allocated resources in the

past.

Appellate courts could defer to findings of custom made by trial judges who are familiar with a

community and not lightly overturn a local judge’s

finding of custom unless it is clearly erroneous. If

courts use custom as a guiding principle, they may

be able to avoid the destruction of traditional values.
Appendix E

Organizations Dealing With Renewable

Resource Management in the U.S.-

Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands

A growing number of organizations are concerned with the development and management

of renewable resources and with environmental quality in the U.S.-affiliated islands. These organizations represent a multiplicity of efforts to maintain, restore, and enhance the resources both

to their benefit and to the benefit of the populations that depend on them. Organizations cover

a spectrum from private voluntary organizations to Federal regulatory agencies to international

development assistance institutions. Tables listing the organizations, their area of operation,

field of interest, and type of activity are divided between the two regions:

Table E-1: Selected U.S. Government Agencies in the U, S.-Affiliated Caribbean

Table E-2: Selected U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Island Government Agencies

Table E-3: Selected Academic Institutions in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean

Table E-4: Selected Non-Governmental Organizations in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean

Table E-5: Selected International and Regional Organizations Operating in the U.S.-Affiliated

Caribbean

Table E-6: Selected U.S. Government Agencies in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Table E-7: Selected U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Island Government Agencies

Table E-8: Selected Academic Institutions in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Table E-9: Selected Local Non-Governmental Organizations in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Table E-10: Selected International and Regional Organizations Operating in the U.S.-Affiliated

Pacific Islands

This list of organizations (derived from a commissioned paper), reviewers additions, and

a survey conducted by OTA, is by no means all-inclusive, but only suggestive of the types and

variety of organizations dealing with renewable resources in the U.S.-affiliated islands.

384
App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands . 385

(u

0

c c’ 0 0

.- .-

. u

c

0

. -

4-I

j

n

w-

+80,

u:

n

c

0

0

u

0

4-

L

al 2

w

u-
386 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

c’

o

.

a’

c

o0-

u)

c

o,-

.

u)

@

.

>VJ

=

L

0u

08 ‘M

0

LJ

.-

lx

0

+J

L

W) 2

mc

u

u

L1
App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands ● 387

:C, 0-

01L

, !-

0

n

u

.

,.

I(A

:;

:C C , .-

0

m

c

o

.-

.-

.-

al L

n

>In

3

Cu

>

c

0

*

0m

, .-

L

2

mc

o

co
388 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

.

Iu

L

3

44

0

u

.

w- 0

>c

UJ
App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands ● 389

al (n

u)- gl c

0 0 .- .-

.

ul c

0.-

b

ij

L

0 !-

E

(u

w

al

zm

1-

o

u !-

.-

.- w-0

c0

2
390 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

,=

,.

.

+,

01

, .-

0

+-

0

-,

1A 01

$.C

,“

.

g

0

s

0

g

u-l

to

- 0

0 - 0

.-

N

u

al
App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands ● 391

c-0.-

(/)

VI m

$4- 0

c

0

(n

c

.-

y

. -

>

(/Y

fj
392 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

‘% w-0

w- 0

h

(Am
App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands ● 393

2

al fn

,-

.-

0

laJ

c.-

01

L

. -

>

, .-

I s

O c

&la

au)

&

&t-
394 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

c.-

ol L

mCJ >

In(n

aJ

ii+

0

k

“m

c

.-

C&

L

c1

0

.-

uc

0

. -

0)

al L

c

0

..-

0)

0

L

cm

4

.-L

2

in

L’

cm

4

!.-

k

v

0)

al

~

L

t!! .c

44

.-

.
Table E-6: Selected u.S. Government Agencies in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Name Address Region Covered Field of Interest Type of Activity/Service

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....-- ------- .--.... ------ ------ ------- ------- ------- ------ ------- ------ ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------ -

ACT1(M

Micronesia Desk

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Agricultural Research

Service (ARS)

District Offic e

Tropical Fruit and Vegetable

Research Laboratory

Forest Service

Institute of Pacifi c

Islands Forestry

Soil Conservation Service

Micronesia Commumity development Volunteer technical assistance,

demonstration grants and programs

806 Connecticut Ave., N.W.

Washington, DC 20525

800 Buchanan Street

Albany CA 94710

PO BOX 2280

Honolulu, HI 96804

CA, Hawaii

Tropics

Agricultural research Management of research

programs

Fruit and vegetable Research, cooperative programs

research

Pacific region Forestry research International forestry,

collaborative projects

Southwest Forest and

Eperiment Station

Range

1151 Punchbowl St., ROOM 323

Honolulu, HI 96813

Resource conservation and Management of regional

development, environmental programs

education

Soil and water conservation, Technical assistance, soil

resource management consultation, support soil

conservation districts

District Offic e

Guam Office

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Economic Development Admin.

-- Regional Office

4316 Kuhio Federal Building

Honolulu, HI 96850

UOG Station

Mangilao, Guam 96913

Hawaii and Guam

Guam and CNMI survey

and water

American Samoa, Guam, Growth of economically

and Western States distressed areas

Public works, planning and community

grants; Loan guarantees, feasibility

studies, technical assistance

1700 Westlake Avenue North

Seattle, WA 98109

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

National Marine Fisheries Service

-- Western Pacific Fisheries PO BOX 3830

Management Council Honolulu. HI 96812

Western Pacific Manage regional fisheries; Research, grants, technical

habitat conservation assistance

,
Table E-6 (continued): Selected U.S. Government Agencies in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Name Address Region Covered Field of Interest Type of Activity/Service

----- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ------- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ------ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (continued)

Office of Ocean and Coastal Pacific islands

Resources Management

-- Pacific Region

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

Army Corps of Engineers --

Pacific Ocean Division

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service --

Pacific Area Office

2001 Wisconsin Ave., N.W.

Washington, DC 20235

Coastal resource

management

Research, grants,

technical assistance

Building T-1

Fort Shafter, HI 96855-5440

U.S. Pacific islands Civil works related

to water resources

Agency operations, permits,

advice, marine surveys

PO 60X 50167

300 Ala Moana Boulevard

Honolulu, HI 96850

Hawaii and Pacific

islands

Protect endangered species

habitat management

Research, surveys, grants,

in-kind services

Office of Territorial and

International Affairs

18th and C Streets, NW

Washington, DC 20240

All U.S. territorie s Promote economic, social,

and political development

Representation to Federal Government, grants, technical

assistance

Technical Assistance Program Technical assistance

-- American Samoa Office

c/o Office of the Governor

Territory of American Samoa

American Samoa Economic development

Pago Pago,

American Samoa 96799

PDN Building

Agana, Guam 96910

Technical Assistance Program

-- Guam Office

U.S. Geological Survey --

Pacific District Office

Guam

Hawaii

Economic development Technical assistance

PO Box 50166

300 Ala Moans Boulevard

Honolulu, HI 96850

and Pacific Water resource and minerals

management, cartography,

planning systems

Research, mapping, technical

assistance, information

dissemination

islands

DEPARTMENT OF STATE

Man and the Biosphere Program

-- Pacific Directorate

OES/ENR/MAB, SA-9, Suite

U.S. Department of State

Washington, DC 20520

Resource management and

development; habitat and

species conservation

Foreign policy development

and management

506 Pacific region

Pacific basin

Inactive

Office of Pacific Island

Affair s

2201 C St., NW, Room 5210

Washington, DC 20520

Guide diplomatic establishments; direct, coordinate and

supervise interagency matters

in the region
App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands ● 397

?(UJ) 0. . .

u

u

a

u

L

0w,-

.

.-

.-

0

L
398 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

n

i

03

al

;“

w

al

.

4-(U Ovl

I/l

0

(J

L m

c.-

C

c

50

no.-

+ -

0 0

al c!-

L

:

.-

(.I

2 Cu .-

.-

IL

.,-
App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands . 399 —

c

o

c

o

v)

w

%-

..-

acO-J

al

0’ L

3

.-

2

okLa

c

0

App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands ● 401

m’

Iu

>L

al W .

c’c- 0 0 .- .-

t-l

!!Q

.

h

m

0

v-

(u

-0

L

s

u

.

*-* X

m

c

o

0

m

.-

5
402 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

c’ o

c

o.-

.

.c

w-, 0.

u: -,

al

.- ,

LL.

0

.,-

+-

C c

86L

.

a

-m44

.-

c

0
App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands ● 403

L1

L

c

m.-

0
404 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

U)

.i- w-

<

.

(/)

u.

c1 ,-

u- u-

.

w

In

:

n

n.

w

z

n

m
App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands ● 405

m.-

(J

0

03

+J

c

L1
Appendix F

Summary of Regional Workshops

Introduction

Three regional workshops were conducted to collect information from local island resource managers, planners, and educators. A total of 55 persons representing various aspects of terrestrial and

marine resources participated in the workshops and

are listed at the end of this summary. Interests in

sustainable resource use ranged from scientific research, to food and fiber production for enhancement of self-reliance, to developing and sustaining

tourism based economies,

Within each workshop participants were divided

into three working groups covering agriculture, marine resources, and education and planning. The

individual workgroups addressed a list of issues

identified by the Assessment Advisory Panel at its

initial meeting. Work group participants were

charged with identifying the applicability of these

issues to the various islands, the extent of resulting

problems, efforts attempted to ameliorate problems,

and the potential transferability of these efforts to

other islands. Participants also identified Federal

programs extended to the islands that mitigate or

aggravate the situation. Options suggested by workshop participants were not restricted to those pertaining to Congress or U.S. Federal agencies; but

include some suitable for local governments, regional or international institutions.

Despite varying degrees of development among

island areas, many problems, issues, and opportunities are shared. The workshops provided an opportunity for participants to discuss local issues and

share possible solutions. The following is a summary of the major points discussed at the three

workshops,

Agriculture and Forestry

Information Availability and Sharing

An effective and readily accessible baseline

data/information system is integral to planning,

management, and development of island resources.

However, baseline data on island resources, and information on potentially suitable agricultural technologies are inadequate or unavailable to many

island governments, Baseline data on island resources and information on technologies are welldeveloped in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands,

but systems for delivering technical and marketing

information to practitioners and planners need improvement. Effective mechanisms and systems for

sharing data/information among international, regional, inter- and intra-island agencies and practitioners are needed in most of the U.S.-affiliated

islands,

Factors that hinder development of organized

data/information systems in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands include: 1) inadequate island infrastructure to support a computerized storage/retrieval system; 2) inability to fund and maintain such a system,

3) a scarcity of on-island experts to interpret technical data, and 4) lack of or inadequate systems for

easy access of available baseline data.

Substantial improvement is needed in some information areas (e.g., timely updating of marketing

information, increased computerization of information for easy access and manipulation). Increased

technology transfer may be accomplished through

improving extension services, public education

programs, and providing demonstration and pilot

projects.

Except for some Freely Associated States (FAS)

archives, essentially all baseline resource data for

FAS islands are furnished by U.S. Federal agencies,

off-island educational institutions, or private organizations. The University of Guam’s Micronesia

Area Research Center Information System and the

Micronesia Area Tropical Agriculture Database

Center have effective information storage and retrieval systems, however, development of complementary centers is needed.

suggested Options:

Establish regional information clearinghouse(s)

for acquisition, storage and dissemination of

information,

Increase federal funding and/or technical assistance in data interpretation, dissemination and

technology extension.

Strengthen and broaden the scope and services

of the existing local and regional research centers’ information systems.

Develop or improve on-island expertise for data

interpretation.

Current Agriculture Technology

Traditional agricultural technologies remain suitable for certain FAS polities, however, these tech406
App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops . 407

nologies generally are undervalued or ignored by

decisionmakers, developers, planners, and donor

agencies. Few government agencies are involved

in the planning and marketing of traditional crops

or in extension of traditional agriculture practices.

Hence, little effort is directed toward assessment

or improvement of traditional agriculture technologies. Increased consideration of low input, smallscale technology development and implementation

is needed. Extension, public education, and demonstration projects may increase public awareness

of available alternative technologies.

Semi-commercial, small-scale agriculture is widely

practiced in the U.S. Pacific Flag territories, except

in American Samoa where subsistence farming

predominates. The strong traditional agricultural

practices in American Samoa hinder successful introduction and application of commercial agriculture production technologies. Small-scale farming

requires sophisticated management and marketing

techniques to be competitive.

A strategy of improving traditional agriculture

technologies and encouraging transformation of traditional agricultural practices to semi-commercial

practices and (ultimately) into commercial farming

may hold promise. Reliable markets must be created concurrently to absorb farm produce.

Most introduced commercial agriculture technologies have proven unsuccessful due to various factors. Major constraints to successful application of

commercial agriculture technologies include sociocultural (e.g., techniques incompatible with local

custom/culture), ecological (e.g., technology unsuitable for island ecology or size), and economic factors (e.g., small intra-island and inter-island markets, fluctuating world markets). Factors such as

efficient technology, good management, minimal

adverse environmental impacts, and selection of

high-value crops are important considerations in

agriculture development. Suitable agricultural production technologies that overcome the various ecological, social, and economic constraints of small

islands are needed.

Full-time commercial farming employing currently available technologies is considered a high

risk activity and uneconomical due to high agricultural production costs. Many enterprises have failed

despite government subsidies and support. In the

U.S. Caribbean islands, some farmers have either

stopped farming or now engage in part-time family

farming because of low returns. Consequently, large

1U.S. Pacific Flag territories include Guam, the Commonwealth

of the Northern Mariana islands and American Samoa.

areas of agricultural lands are left idle, or are used

for non-agricultural purposes. A number of farmers

in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI)

now are practicing semi-commercial family farming.

High wages, compared to regional averages, and

low productivity are the major constraints to agriculture development in US. Caribbean islands. Productivity might be increased by selecting improved

technologies and high yield crops. Currently, mechanization and/or intensification of agricultural practices is a preferred method to increase agricultural

productivity while low-input technologies commonly are ignored. Although this approach might

increase productivity, it may not solve unemployment problems in rural areas.

Viable commercial agriculture is restricted to

small-scale operation in the USVI because of the

small land area and limited freshwater resources.

Some small-scale farming of selected crops (e.g.,

sun-coffee, herbs and spices, passionfruit, ornamental plants) is profitable in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands. Precise identification of high value

markets may improve the profitability of this type

of farming.

Selected large-scale commercial agriculture using

suitable technologies and management may be economically viable in Puerto Rico under certain conditions. A large-scale drip irrigation farming system designed by Israelis and developed on the

semiarid lands of southern Puerto Rico seems potentially economically viable, despite a large initial

capital investment and management problems.

However, some intensive large-scale farming technologies are not profitable, as evidenced by the failure of the rice project on the northern Puerto Rico

coast.

Post-harvest technologies (processing, storage,

and transportation) of agriculture products are poorly

developed in many of the Pacific islands. Although

a number of post-harvest technologies could be applied, they are generally not cost effective. Island

institutional capacity to develop and implement

suitable technologies is limited.

Application of available processing technologies

is constrained by a variety of factors, including the

high cost of processing; irregular availability and

relatively small quantity of local raw materials;

small-sized local markets; distance between processing centers and potential export markets; and

poor island infrastructure that make transportation

and storage costs prohibitive.

Although simple post-harvest technologies such

as sun-drying are practiced, local markets for such

products are limited, These products could not com-
408 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

pete with lower priced items in export markets, and

commonly do not meet stringent Federal quality or

labeling standards.

In Puerto Rico, post-harvest processing technologies are available and many have been researched

and tested. However, as yet, few have been applied

commercially. This is due primarily to high labor

costs, small markets, and the limited quantity and

irregular supply of local raw materials. These factors increase production costs, hence products of

the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands are not competitive with those produced in countries having

either cheap labor costs or more efficient production technologies. In Puerto Rico, products using

simple processing technologies, such as plantain

chips, supply local markets and have entered some

export markets.

Success of commercial export crop development

depends not only on appropriate production and

post-harvest technologies, but also on accurate market identification and forecasting. Organized marketing information generally is inadequate in the

U, S.-affiliated Pacific islands and this problem is

exacerbated by lack of island experts to interpret

available information. Although marketing information is available from Federal agencies and through

the Hawaiian Marketing Information Center, high

cost and lack of on-island experts to interpret the

information effectively prohibit its use. Further, island government institutions largely are unable to

identify and create off-island markets, Mechanisms

for effectively obtaining, interpreting, and transferring marketing information to planners are needed.

Suggested Options:

Local governments should formally recognize

the merits of those traditional agricultural technologies which sustain island renewable resources.

Assess current and potential roles of traditional

agriculture in overall economic development,

and support research for improving suitable

traditional island agriculture technologies.

Assess small-scale commercial agriculture development for applicability to the U.S.-affiliated

islands considering the technological, management, economic, environmental, and social

factors,

Identify island commodities with good market

value that can be profitably produced, processed, and transported.

Market economists should participate in island

agricultural development planning.

Establish a new regional marketing information clearinghouse for U.S. Pacific islands or

●

●

strengthen and broaden the scope and service

of the existing Marketing Information Center

in Hawaii,

Federal agencies could make appropriate marketing information available to island institutions or to a regional depository, and assist in

information interpretation.

Develop on-island expertise in data interpretation.

Education, Training, and Skills

Education, research, training, and extension programs related to island resource bases generally are

inadequate and not well coordinated on many islands. Curricula on island resource development

and environmental impacts need strengthening at

all educational levels on many of the U.S.-affiliated

Pacific islands. Consequently, labor skilled in renewable resource management is scarce on many U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands. A lack of public awareness of the importance of resource development issues and concomitant lack of government support

for education and training on resource related subjects hinder the development of a cadre of skilled

resource managers. Although current programs in

the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands generally are

adequate, further improvement and emphasis is

needed to enhance education in environmental

issues.

Research on island resource development in the

U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands is inadequate and

needs coordination. Few research and training opportunities are available and many island governments only can afford to finance research on particular development needs, Research activities are

further hindered by lack of experts, funds, and baseline information, Moreover, many research activities are beyond the capacity of some island polities.

Results of research projects conducted by island

organizations commonly are presented in a format

unusable by planners or practitioners,

Suggested Options:

●

●

Provide practical training opportunities in collaboration with other institutions in the Pacific

region or with established institutions in

Hawaii,

Support focused and coordinated research

projects designed to fulfill island development

goals, Encourage and make available experts

from Federal agencies and other institutions

to assist in research project formulation and

execution.
App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops “ 409

Develop and provide curricula and educational

materials that emphasize island resource related topics at all educational levels.

Strengthen and improve existing educational

programs on the environmental consequences

of resource development.

Resource Development Planning

Island institutions have limited capacity to develop integrated resource-use plans. Planners

knowledgeable on island developmental issues and

resource capability and qualified to develop integrated development plans or to forecast the likely

impacts of development are needed in the U.S. Pacific islands. Planning processes are hindered further by fragmentation of governmental jurisdiction

over island resources, political interference in planning and implementation of resource use and management, inadequate baseline information, lack of

mechanisms to coordinate resource management

on islands, and lack of mechanisms to identify

appropriate sustainable resource development technologies.

Socio-cultural and political aspects of islands

rarely are considered by decisionmakers and offisland planners in resource planning and development, Commercial resource use practices may conflict with customary lifestyles particularly in areas

where traditional exchange and sharing obligations

and tenure systems are strong. Agriculture development planning for U.S. Caribbean islands similarly is hindered by social, technological and economic characteristics unique to these islands.

Much research undertaken on the islands is not

designed to fulfill the information needs of local

planners or practitioners, and commonly is not presented in a format suitable for local needs. Development is complicated by Federal regulatory compliance requirements, and by the inability of most

U, S.-educated planners and decisionmakers to adapt

their skills to local conditions.

Private sector involvement in commercial development of island resources is rare. An increased

number of private entrepreneurs (on or off-island)

are needed in the commercial agriculture sector.

Private (especially off-island) participation in commercial agriculture development on these islands

is constrained by factors such as complex landtenure systems, inability to acquire ownership of

lands, islanders’ attitudes toward commercialization, relatively high wages compared with labor productivity, limited markets, and great distances between islands and large markets.

Even though large-scale farming may be attractive to those off-island investors who are willing to

bear higher risks, constraints for such undertakings

are severe on small islands. Smallholder farming

systems, on the other hand, may be more likely to

succeed, thus yielding increased socio-cultural, ecological, and economic benefits.

Although financial incentives for private sector

involvement in commercial resource base development exist in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific Flag territories, many island social and cultural practices,

and decisions driven solely by political considerations can negate the effectiveness of these incentives.

Government agencies in the U.S. Caribbean islands have the capacity to formulate integrated

resource-use plans. However, political goals commonly overshadow island resource-use management and development plans. Politically motivated

decisionmaking results in uncoordinated resource

planning and development and, consequently, in

resource-use conflicts and mismanagement. Proponents of resource development plans generally have

little influence or political clout in the decisionmaking process.

While incentive schemes may have beneficial effects, indiscrimate cash subsidies may lead to uneven local development. Incentive schemes that

have immediate cash benefits are attractive for private investors, yet certain management programs

that have no immediate and visible cash benefits

(e.g. erosion control) may have long term benefits

which may not be readily appreciated by practitioners or decisionmakers. Complex formulae and

application procedures for obtaining subsidies may

constrain the average farmer from applying.

Tax incentives or land leases for overseas investors may be an effective way to stimulate development of the private sector. Development financed

by foreign investors also may transmit considerable

indirect benefits to the island economies.

Suggested Options:

●

●

●

●

Local governments should hire qualified consultants to assist in resource development planning, and increase coordination of agencies

now overseeing island resource management

and development.

Coordinate integrated development planning

and improve island resource information management capabilities.

Develop on-island expertise in integrated development planning.

Provide regular training and education to development planners, resource managers, and
410 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

practitioners on island resource use and management technologies.

Develop public awareness programs and supply training programs on integrated resource

management for decisionmakers.

Include social scientists in development planning and decisionmaking processes to assure

that views of traditional island leaders are incorporated.

Encourage the U.S. private sector to develop

and implement technologies that not only sustain island renewable resources, but also are

compatible with the islanders’ social setting.

Institute incentives that are conducive to offisland investors.

Encourage private sector involvement in commercial development of resources through attractive incentives.

Institute a flexible and simple incentive scheme

designed to meet the needs of local practitioners and incorporate tight control and management of these programs.

Simplify assistance program application procedures and provide assistance to farmers in

form completion.

Information Availability and Sharing

Knowledge of tropical marine ecosystems and

current baseline information on marine species is

inadequate for sustainable island marine resource

development and management in the FAS polities;

biological inventories, evaluation, and monitoring

of marine resources are needed. Absence of baseline data makes identification of suitable resource

management technologies difficult. Local universities address mostly basic biological questions and

local marine divisions conduct little applied research on production-oriented issues. Immediate

demands on limited personnel and funds hinder investigation of new and/or more appropriate technologies for specific island areas and resources.

Competition and isolation hinder access to information in the FAS, Local fishermen are hesitant to

share catch data, sites, and methods with expatriates and local island resource managers for fear of

increased fishing competition at preferred fishing

sites. Many also have a general distrust of governments, Local markets could serve as information

collecting points but owners also are uncooperative, Much U.S. government information is inappropriate for tropical islands, and existing information is difficult to obtain. Information from regional

organizations is useful but takes months to receive.

Outside consultants commonly do not share their

findings with local resource users.

Considerable resource information exists in the

Pacific Flag territories, but it is not readily accessible and is not presented in a way useful to local governments or resource managers. Data commonly

are collected only on selected aspects of marine resources and resource uses (e.g., data from Hawaii

is collected primarily to determine maximum sustainable yields and U.S. National Marine Fisheries

Service information is primarily focused on offshore fisheries), and data collection is not designed

for management purposes. Catch data (species,

sizes, and numbers) and nearshore ecosystem carrying capacity information are particularly inadequate for sustainable resource management.

National fishery databases exist in the Pacific Flag

Territories, but no system integrates the information into a regional database. National and international fisheries management is hindered by lack of

a regional information system. Examples include

the WESTPACFIN database developed by the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council at the

University of Hawaii and the database Resource

Assessment Marianas Archipelago database, which

contains primarily maximum sustained yield information.

Overall, information on the nearshore marine resources of the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands is

adequate, but knowledge of pelagic fisheries is insufficient for sustainable management. Management plans often are based on short-term goals and

in some instances rely on data from temperate regions. (e.g., maximum sustained yield estimates for

pelagic fishery management plans are based on temperate fisheries data). Current government efforts

focus on developing artisanal fisheries, but local interest exists in developing pelagic fisheries,

Data on weights and size are available, but life

history data on economically-important species is

needed for development of appropriate resource

management plans. Puerto Rico’s Corporation for

the Development of Marine Resources (CODREMAR)

collects fisheries statistics but they are not used in

management plans and programs. Fisheries management research, although primarily focused on

groupers, has initiated new mesh-size standards

which have been applied to all species and islands.

Although local information systems exist (Sea

Grant, CODREMAR, Caribbean Fisheries Management Council, and the USVI Fish and Wildlife Service), lack of inter- and intra-agency coordination
inhibits dissemination and thus affects local decision-making capabilities. Commonly, data are research oriented instead of application oriented.

Local governments in all of the U.S.-affiliated islands need improved methods for identifying and disseminating information to practitioners. CODREMAR

currently is developing programs to extend information directly to the fishermen but implementation is hindered by lack of funds.

Suggested Options:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Increase funding and personnel for fish-tagging

and statistics-gathering programs to include local fish markets, boats and docks, and island

governments as well as commercial United

States and Japanese sources.

Collect catch information from American Samoan tuna canneries to improve monitoring of

pelagic fish harvest. Legislation or incentives

may be needed to overcome their reluctance

to share such information,

Study effects of closed seasons on fish populations.

Create incentives for village representatives to

monitor marine species.

Increased research on life history data and recommendations on appropriate mesh size restrictions specific to Caribbean fisheries could

be carried out by such agencies as the Caribbean Fisheries Management Council,

Increase the monitoring components of the

environmental impact assessment process,

Local resource organizations could organize informal interviews and workshops for resource

managers and local practitioners to promote

communication and to collect and disseminate

information on local resources and resource

uses.

Designate a person or create a program within

marine divisions to screen potential fisheries

technologies developed or used in other island

areas.

Develop computerized information management systems to facilitate data collection, monitoring and information dissemination.

Create information exchanges mechanisms

among the Pacific Fisheries Development Foundation, the Pacific Islands Development Program, the Pacific Basin Development Council,

and the Aquiculture Development Program, all

of which are based in Hawaii.

Develop inter- and intra-agency information

systems coordination with greater emphasis on

dissemination of information and exchange

with the public sector.

App. F —Summary or Regional Workshops ● 411

● Develop a network of information sources to

include universities, government agencies, and

private organizations.

• Develop an information management system

accessible to both islanders and outside experts

incorporating both written and computeroriented information.

• Standardize existing databases to facilitate exchange of information and allow regional fisheries management.

• Develop a centralized regional database and

disseminate information and analyses to contributors.

Current Marine Resource Development

and Management Technologies

Current fishery technologies in the FAS are designed for short-term harvesting goals and not as

sustainable systems. Fish aggregating devices are

being instituted widely to increase fish catch per

unit of effort and island organizations are testing

different designs through pilot projects. Concerns

have increased, however, over potential adverse impacts of increased fishing activity.

Exploitation of pelagic and of reef fishes require

different technologies. Significant differences in

scale and in fishing ability exist among certain island groups. For example, small boats may be suitable in Truk because most fishing is within a large,

protected lagoon. Pohnpei, Kosrae and Yap, however, are isolated high islands without large lagoonal

fishing areas, and the Marshalls are dispersed

widely and require fishing boats that are suitable

for long-distance travel.

In the U.S. Caribbean islands, there is concern

that nearshore fish populations are declining because currently available exploitation technologies

restrict harvesting to the continental shelf, Current

technologies have promoted harvesting at or above

maximum yield within the narrow continental shelf

where potentials are limited.

Management schemes have been employed in St.

Johns Park, VI which demonstrate the positive effects of protected nearshore areas on fish populations, Similarly, fish populations increased with the

closing of Vieques, Puerto Rico waters to fishermen,

Suggested Options:

● Develop new projects and technology based on

the comparative advantages of different island

environments. Expand feasibility analysis of

potential projects (e.g., vertical mariculture in

Truk Lagoon, giant clam culture in Kosrae).

● Increase training and technology transfer from

63-222 0 - 87-14 QL. 3
412 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

mariculture institutions such as the Micronesia Mariculture Demonstration Center in

Palau and the International Center for Living

Aquatic Resources Management in the Philippines.

● Devote more land grant funding to development of aquiculture programs.

● Redirect fishermen to exploitation of pelagic

stocks to relieve pressure on nearshore stocks.

• Zone areas for fishing, recreation, and protected areas.

Storage, processing, and transport systems are inadequate in the FAS, largely restricting resource

development to subsistence and small commercial

scales. Poor storage and transport facilities and variable catches currently inhibit full-time fishing efforts and, thus, the development of local and outside markets. Expansion of the fisheries industry

into new markets cannot be considered until extension programs develop local expertise in marine

product processing, storage facilities are made

available, and transportation is assured.

Similarly, storage and transport technologies are

poorly developed in the Pacific Flag territories.

Export of marine products between islands and to

off-island markets is constrained by high airline

cargo costs and shipping times. Lack of funds

hinders development of processing and storage facilities, although some progress has been made. Increased frequency and improved reliability of cargo

transportation services could significantly expand

markets.

In the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands, lack of

infrastructure creates storage and transfer problems; refrigeration, processing, and transport technologies need improvement. Because the whole fish

is demanded in local markets,2 processing does not

pose a problem, however, what is not sold commonly cannot be stored or refrigerated. Facilities

are not available for processing or storing excess

catch which constrains development of pelagic fisheries. Potential mechanisms to overcome these constraints are being considered by CODREMAR, including establishment of a fishmeal processing plant

to make use of fish by-products, and a public education program on fish processing, home storage,

and use.

Suggested Options:

● Encourage training and technology transfer

from private sector entrepreneurs operating enterprises in the island areas to those interested

people lacking such skills.

2

Fear of ciguatera poisoning has initiated a trust between customers and individual fishermen.

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Investigate on-board freezing technologies suitable for container ships for islands able to undertake large-scale fishing.

Investigate joint-venture opportunities to facilitate development of post-harvest facilities.

Develop storage facilities and increase frequency of pick-up from outer islands,

Investigate the potential for reducing cargo

charges for marine products on local airlines.

Encourage development of small frozenproduct processing enterprises.

Increase processing technology transfer from

Hawaii,

Increase storage capacity on outer islands to

allow larger harvests.

Education, Labor and Skills

Traditional resource use methods may be the most

appropriate for fostering development of certain resources in the FAS polities. A need exists to identify special local knowledge and to incorporate this

with further development of local technical skills,

Local knowledge also plays a role in maintaining

island traditions and cultural identity. Sea Grant

and the Historic Preservation Program, for example, are Federal programs which have been active

in recognizing traditional skills.

Assistance to the islands should be redirected

from increasing island government bureaucracies

to developing technical expertise for island practitioners. Sea Grant can be an effective education

organization, but it commonly focuses on recreational and environmental education and not on development of exploitation or management skills,

Outside assistance is needed to develop island management skills.

Little traditional knowledge remains in some of

the Pacific Flag territories, but it should be considered in conservation technology implementation

activities. Local technical training is needed for all

aspects of marine resources development including: project planning, start-up, operation, and maintenance. Business management skills need further

development. Development and implementation of

new technologies is hindered by lack of education

in needed fields.

In the U.S. Caribbean islands, traditional knowledge and cultural characteristics need to be given

higher priority in recruiting resource managers and

practitioners. Little credit is given to local people

possessing traditional knowledge of resource exploitation and management technologies. In St.

Thomas, for example, resource skills are disappearing as most employment is found in tourism. This
App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops “ 413

is due, in part, to an economic development emphasis on capital-intensive technologies in all sectors. The importance of personalities and cultural

differences between groups are underestimated in

project feasibility considerations.

A better understanding of island ecology by the

public, and improved exchange of knowledge between groups is needed in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands. The major goals of public education

should be to expand and influence consumer markets and to develop an appreciation of local ecology and resources. Emphasis should be placed on

informal education techniques, such as is provided

by the park naturalist/guides that are being trained

in the USVI.

Pressure to meet U.S. mainland standards in formal education programs hinders creativity and discourages activities focusing on island ecosystems

and cultures, Text books currently in use are developed for mainland classes. Some teachers are initiating field activities but they are receiving little support. The Sea Grant program has programs to train

teachers in the field, but these have suffered under

recent budget cuts.

Suggested Options:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Recognize value of traditional methods of resource use and management.

Develop island ecology curricula and materials for primary and secondary schools.

Encourage school systems to support innovative island-oriented economic development and

ecology education activities.

Use community college programs to enhance

local skills.

Offer classes in higher learning institutions that

are directed to management of resource-related

enterprises.

Develop education programs in local schools

that encourage information exchange with government resource managers and incorporate

traditional values and practices with new technology development.

Use volunteers and students for short-term

assistance rather than consultants.

Sponsor “fish festivals” oriented towards creating markets for resources and teaching understanding of local ecology.

Extension, Marketing, and Incentives

Changing social values and island economic

structures make extension difficult in the U. S.-

affiliated Pacific islands. Conflicts between communal and individual interests hinder extension

services effectiveness, especially in American

Samoa. The Pacific Fisheries Development Foundation is fostering the development of fishery cooperatives in part to increase transfer of information

and technology to practitioners. However, cooperative management systems in the U.S. Pacific have

historically failed due to mismanagement and irregular cash flows.

Extension programs in the U.S. Caribbean islands

are helping planners to identify resource opportunities through increasing contact between fishermen and representatives of government agencies.

However, these programs need to consider both formal and informal information channels, and variability of technologies needed for different ecosystems, as well as increase their emphasis on the

technological aspects of small-scale fisheries.

Organizational structures for development of

small-scale fisheries exist, but they are underused.

Only one of the 17 government-subsidized fishing

cooperatives in Puerto Rico is self-managing, and

it alone is considered successful. Key people in

managerial roles are important. Formal organizations may interfere with marketing links between

fishermen and customers.

There are informal marine extension agents and

training programs for island managers, but more

technical assistance is needed to extend fisheries

and aquiculture technologies. The U.S. Soil Conservation Service (USSCS) gives advice on pond irrigation technologies, yet this does not incorporate

opportunities for aquiculture in irrigation ponds.

CODREMAR is trying to create Fisheries Centers

with facilities to store gear and clean and sell fish.

It also is providing grants for equipment and giving seminars on small-scale fisheries management.

Suggested Options:

Develop legislation authorizing the use of local foods in federally funded programs (e.g.,

school lunch and aid for the aging), to increase

markets and to develop local capability to supply nutritional needs in the event of a decline

in income subsidies and free food programs.

Analyze successes and failures of existing joint

venture projects to guide development of future agreements, and develop legislation to ensure that an appropriate part of the profits remains within the island areas.

Expand and improve community college capabilities to teach technical skills.

Increase media outreach efforts by Sea Grant

extension services.

Encourage appropriate nonprofit organizations

to contribute to extension of information and

transfer of technologies.
414 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

●

●

●

Increase cooperation between U.S. mainland

universities researching warm water aquiculture

(e.g., the University of Mississippi) and U.S.

Caribbean academic institutions, CODREMAR

and Sea Grant services.

CODREMAR could undertake demonstration

aquiculture projects.

Establish community foundation funds for pilot aquiculture projects and direct extension

activities at coastal farmers.

Marketing Information

Current marketing information does not effectively address fisheries catch and consumer demands in the U.S. Pacific Flag territories where demand for fishery products exceeds supply. Because

so few fishermen supply local markets, they easily

can influence retail prices; surplus catch flooding

local markets causes significant price fluctuations.

Alternative markets are needed to absorb surplus

fresh catch and to stabilize prices, The large military populations on some islands may provide untapped markets for local fresh catch, but they have

not been developed because of variability in the

quality and quantity of local catch. Market potential also could increase with better air transport

services.

Marketing overall needs improvement in the U.S.

Caribbean islands. Marketing information is oriented toward commercial and trade associations

rather than the fishermen or public. Government

marketing strategies need to incorporate new resources and consider both fishermen and consumers

as clientele. Government marketing assistance is

provided mainly for the manufacturing and service sectors—aimed at promotion of island products

in the U.S. market—and little assistance is given to

small-scale fishermen in marketing their products

locally. Local government agencies are looking for

new resources and markets. Tourism development

provides a significant opportunity for creation of

new markets. Hotel markets currently purchase

only certain species of fish; creating tourist demand

for native fish could be part of tourism promotion.

Suggested Options:

Continue to investigate development of cooperatives to coordinate and regulate fish catch to

stabilize local markets.

Develop hotel and military markets to absorb

excess products and, thus, to prevent price fluctuations in local markets. This may require special programs and support from upper levels

of the military hierarchy.

• Investigate reduction or subsidization of cargo

fees for transport of fish products on local

airlines.

Incentives

Development of cash economies in the FAS has

altered perceptions of acceptable employment and

expectations of goods and services. Subsidies and

remittances from off-island relatives have created

a false sense of security and further disincentive

for local conservation. Increased market demand

for fresh fish has encouraged small-scale fishing and

local marketing efforts, yet full-time fishing is not

considered economical or secure compared to government jobs.

Local governments have increased efforts to develop joint venture arrangements. Such projects

provide a profit motive and a guaranteed market.

Most tuna processing and on-board fish-freezing are

examples of joint Micronesian/Japanese ventures.

Politics, limited profits, and government subsidies are major disincentives to fisheries and aquaculture development in the Pacific Flag territories.

There are no economic incentives to devise or employ sustainable resource development technologies. Interest in reef fishing is declining because

of low and uncertain returns and availability of

alternative employment or income (e.g., U.S. social

support programs). Minimum wage standards in the

Pacific Flag territories translate into high product

prices that are not competitive in export markets.

Disincentives for expansion of local fishing opportunities in the U.S. Caribbean islands include:

limited funds, monopolistic families, former project

failure, and government politics. Individual families have acquired dominance over some fishing

areas by virtue of owning larger equipment and discouraging other individuals from expanding their

enterprises. Local incentive programs are nonexistent. The U.S. Department of Agriculture

(USDA) provides production and conservation incentives for farmers; there is no similar agency for

fishermen.

Outside entrepreneurs have eliminated local incentives for aquiculture development. Project viability must be proven before any local entrepreneur

will attempt aquiculture. Currently, the perceived

risks outweigh economic incentives. Further, most

outside investments have been extremely capitaland skill-intensive and, thus, have not demonstrated

technologies suitable for local enterprises.

Suggested Options:

● Provide financial help for initial investments,

perhaps through Community Development
App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops . 415

●

●

●

●

Block Grants from the Department on Housing and Urban Development (HUD).

Inland sport fisheries could be developed on

St. Croix.

Encourage hotels to promote local resources

through “catch of the day” offerings on menus

or weekly local food festivals.

Provide incentive programs for small-scale

fishermen similar to those of USDA directed

at farmers.

Provide low interest loans for aquiculture pond

construction (corresponding to the USSCS

funds for irrigation ponds).

Planning and Enforcement

Integrated ecosystem management and marine resource development generally are given insufficient

priority in island planning and are ignored in longterm management plans in the FAS. Currently, few

island people fish full-time. Governments are increasing efforts to change this because of a recogized need to reduce imports and increase employment. Priority ranking in planning and project

funding is given to marine resources only during

identified crises (e. g., the recent Acanthaster plancii “Crown of Thorns” outbreak). Marine resources

receive less attention in planning than other development sectors such as tourism or agriculture. No

mechanisms to facilitate integrated management exist in the Freely Associated States.

Incompatibility of local tenure systems in the FAS

with western development principles and technologies hinders identification of potential resource

management techniques. Local marine resource

tenure systems are incompatible with western ideas

and technology based on free access to marine resources. Leasing does not seem to be an effective

alternative to ownership.

Mechanisms to increase local participation and

flexibility are needed in the planning process in the

FAS, Appropriate planning can help direct effective information acquisition and appropriate use of

outside assistance, Individual projects must be

specified in development plans in order for them

to gain support in budgetary determinations. Federal programs commonly are not flexible enough

for application to the islands, therefore, funding for

marine resource development will be limited if sources

beyond the United States are not considered,

The importance of marine resources to economic

development needs wider recognition in planning

in the Pacific Flag territories. The potential of marine resource development to create employment

and generate income is not recognized and subsistence fisheries are ignored in overall plans. Fisheries managers have little input in the planning

process, although plans are becoming more comprehensive (e.g. the plans for Guam included local,

Federal, academic, and private interests). There is

a need to reconcile short-term activities with longterm goals.

Economic development planning is fragmented

among economic sectors, and resource agency

plans rarely consider impacts on or from other

agency activities. Tourism, in particular, is considered to be overemphasized in planning. Coastal

Zone Management programs are trying to to integrate tourism and fishery development. The Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council has developed integrated planning methods. A new data

base has been developed to aid in fisheries planning (Western Pacific Fisheries Information

Network—WESTPACFIN), but it has not yet been

used in the U.S.-affiliated islands.

Politics and limited funds inhibit planning and

enforcement capabilities in the Pacific Flag territories. Regulations are rarely appropriate management mechanisms for island areas. Despite regulations to the contrary, many nearshore areas are

overfished and subjected to bleaching and dynamiting (primarily by Tongans), The few well-accepted

regulations include the laws on harvest of sea turtles and black corals: occasional harvest is acceptable for traditional purposes but not for commercial sale. However, enforcement of these regulations

is weak, and both turtles and black corals are being

harvested commercially.

Recognizing marine resource ownership as a management mechanism is extremely difficult when

traditional boundaries are no longer recognized,

and marine resource tenure is often incompatible

with western style development. Permitting and

zoning programs can help to sustain resources in

the long run.

Marine enforcement capability is increasing in

the flag territories; some areas are now able to confiscate boats. However, local enforcement authorities generally cannot handle unlicensed fleets. Because of reduction in Coast Guard presence in the

islands, there is no enforcement capability over Korean boats poaching along island shorelines and no

longer any monitoring of the 20()-mile zone. Village

level conservation pressure exists, but commonly

enforcement of resource conservation laws is hindered because of extended family relationships between judicial agents and resource users.

Marine resources similarly receive low priority

in development planning in the U.S. Caribbean islands due to politics, lack of planning funds, and

63-222 0 - 87-15 QL. 3
416 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

planning focused solely on generating maximum

income. Existing fisheries are considered to be developed to capacity in the Virgin Islands. However,

Puerto Rico probably could meet the domestic fishery market from their marine resource base. There

is a need for more long-term planning which commonly conflicts with short-term goals.

Enforcement of fisheries regulations generally is

weak in the U.S. Caribbean islands. One positive

example is enforcement of laws prohibiting setting

of unmarked (and therefore unlicensed) fishing pots.

Informal tenure—perceptions of territories—already

exists and makes government enforcement of restricted access difficult. Informal tenure also complicates coastal planning. Formal recognition of marine area ownership would be virtually impossible

to implement and might not improve the sustainability of resource exploitation.

Politics and lack of funds hinder effective resource planning and enforcement. Limited funding

has further effects on the development of a cadre

of skilled resource planners in resource agencies

or planning offices. Political changes make implementation of long-term planning difficult: each admininstration has to be re-educated and lobbied for

program support. Fishermen provide virtually no

input for planning.

Although food self-sufficiency must be derived

from a combination of terrestrial and aquatic resources, planning in Puerto Rico is primarily concerned with terrestrial development. Adverse impacts

on marine ecosystems from terrestrial sources, except those affecting mangrove areas, often are not

considered. Consequently, terrestrial influences on

marine resources are underestimated.

The primary interest of Virgin Island developers

and planners is generating income and employment, and tourism is given high priority. The USVI

Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs

gives equal treatment to terrestrial and aquatic interests. Coastal zone management appears to be ineffective in St. Thomas. Federal coastal zoning laws

and management plans are poorly accepted by local inhabitants. Local input is needed at all levels

of planning to increase local understanding and

acceptance.

Suggested Options:

Develop a local coastal resource management

program (perhaps based on the U.S. Coastal

Zone Management model) or initiate more

coordination between regional and Federal

programs.

Managers of Federal assistance programs should

deal directly with the agencies.

Develop formal mechanisms for inter-agency

coordination.

Collect employment, income, and revenue data

generated by fishery and tourism sectors on a

comparative basis to illustrate the importance

of fisheries management and development.

Evaluate and compare the potentials of marine

resources development and agricultural opportunities, by island groups, in order to improve

planning and implementation of both marine

and agricultural programs.

Increase communication between resource

managers and resource users.

Establish links between conservation services

and enforcement agencies.

Initiate monitoring and ecosystem recovery

programs that are buffered from political

changes and are consistent with enforcement

capacities.

Educate local judicial agents in renewable resource problems and conservation.

Planning, Education, and Commerce

Information Availability and Sharing

Some information is available on biophysical resources in each of the FAS island areas, however,

more is required in order to manage and develop

resources sustainably. Collection of baseline biophysical information is extremely costly on the islands. Although U.S. agencies have provided useful biophysical information, it commonly is not

timely and, often may not be presented in a format

useful for local implementation.

Few people within either resource or planning

agencies know how to interpret or use biophysical

information. Although training opportunities are

available from outside organizations (U.S. agencies,

regional organizations, etc.), some changes are

needed to increase participation.

The information that is now available to the local

FAS governments commonly is not centralized. A

system to identify what type of information exists

within resource agencies and to increase sharing

within and among sectoral areas in governments

is needed. Further, little of this information is available to planning offices.

Information sharing among governments could

be increased. A major hindrance to information

sharing among governments is the possibility of creating competitors and of freely sharing information

which may have been purchased by just a few orga-
App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops ● 417

nizations, Regional cooperation depends on the perception that each government wins by sharing.

Despite the efforts of the U.S. Department of Interior’s Technical Assistance Program in the Office

of Territorial and International Affairs (OTIA), there

is considerable difficulty locating and acquiring

appropriate technical expertise in the FAS. Further,

governments may not know what outside assistance

(financial, technical assistance, etc.) programs are

available to them, or specific eligibility criteria for

those of which they are aware.

While resource data and information are available to the Pacific Flag territories, commonly it is

not centralized, organized, or readily accessible.

Baseline resource information in Guam and the

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

is good; American Samoa needs a basic lands survey. However, in general, inadequate or discontinuous funding hinders resource census and monitoring activities by local resource agencies. Further,

in American Samoa, information traditionally is

considered proprietary and sharing can be difficult.

Each government has access to regional information-sharing mechanisms such as Pacific Basin

Coastal Zone Management Conferences and South

Pacific Commission conferences. Government operations on the Flag islands are beginning to be computerized; this needs to be extended to resource information. Assistance is needed with archive

management and mechanisms to integrate and analyze information.

Information relevant to island resource management developed by international and bilateral assistance agencies is not directly available to the Pacific Flag territories and can be difficult to acquire.

Local government agencies in the Pacific Flag territories have little capability for data interpretation

and impact monitoring or integration of information which hinder planning. Some areas may have

experts to interpret data but few who can translate

it to the public.

Impact monitoring is performed when mandated

by Federal regulations, although both Federal and

local environmental impact statements are especially obtuse. Data interpretation provided by Federal agencies commonly is too technical for local

use or fails to consider local development concerns

or issues. Guam is developing a monitoring capability, but it is hindered by unstable funding. The

CNMI Coastal Zone Management program also

monitors projects.

Data collection, integration and presentation to

decisionmakers pose no apparent problem in Puerto

Rico, however, basic data are not readily available

in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI). The University

of Puerto Rico (UPR), Puerto Rico Department of

Natural Resources and Puerto Rico Department of

Agriculture maintain major resource-related databases. Information produced by these organizations

is used in development planning and other decisions.

Government data collection is directed towards

special goals and tends to be aggregated and presented for the entire territory and not by specific

island or island subregion, which may hinder effective use of information.

Limited funding hinders the USVI planning office in data collection and analyses, and makes it

difficult to maintain a cadre of skilled people. A facility is needed in the USVI where data could be

centralized, aggregated, made accessible, and analyses could be provided that extend beyond line

agency immediate needs. Such a facility could

house a mechanism to screen outside information

for applicability to the island.

Some mechanisms to identify technologies that

have the potential to sustain island resources are

available in the U.S. Caribbean islands, but these

probably do not screen the full extent of information available outside the islands. In part, this is due

to problems in identifying appropriate people in

Federal agencies with whom to maintain contact.

“Shared” employees, such as USDA Agricultural

Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension

Service staff bridge this gap to a considerable extent in some areas. There is some sharing with nonU.S. Caribbean organizations (e.g., Puerto Rico with

the Caribbean Development Bank; USVI with the

Economic Commission on Latin America), but this

probably should be increased.

Suggested Options:

● U.S. agencies could give high priority to establishing baseline information for island use by

providing assistance (financial, personnel,

equipment, etc.) in data collection and training in data interpretation, manipulation and

management. Local governments could contract out for information needed to supplement

this information and local education institutions could encourage students to collect such

information in the course of their education.

• Each government should develop an archival

system to centralize, manage, and control hardcopy information on resources and resource

systems. This system should have copy distribution capacity, storage and retrieval capacity,

and mapping and statistical systems.

• A computerized system needs to be developed
418 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

to assist with data management and to assist

in data manipulation for planning. This system

should be centralized for each government.

Federal data of relevance to resource management in the islands should be made available

both to the hard-copy archival systems and to

the statistical computerized systems.

A curriculum could be added to the College of

the Virgin Islands directed towards producing

graduates skilled in data collection, data manipulation and analysis and resource development planning.

The United States could duplicate international

assistance programs applied in neighboring

areas to equalize the benefits; or it could provide a mechanism to channel internationallyderived information to the islands. This could

be done through domestic programs or through

a special fund to the U.N. to provide such

services.

The United States could permit direct representation of islanders to U.N. conferences so

that information can be collected first-hand.

Provide local people the opportunity to work

with Federal data collectors to provide some

on-the-job training and better understanding of

data for eventual interpretation. Most Federal

agencies touch base with local experts.

The University of Guam could provide training in critique and performance of environmental impact statements, and other data interpretation and planning methods.

One or more “Regional Clearinghouses” could

be maintained to share relevant information between governments. These clearinghouses

could scan literature produced outside the local governments (U.S. agencies and international) and share relevant information with the

governments, and could maintain a “Directory

of International Programs” that contains information on assistance programs, contact people, regulations, and procedures.

Current Planning Technologies

The FAS largely are unable to develop technologies for resource management. Island organizations can provide basic research to determine which

technologies are potentially suitable, and conduct

applied research to adapt technologies developed

outside of the areas and to upgrade those traditionally used in the islands. An organization or organizations are needed to identify potentially suitable

technologies from the “outside pool” of technologies.

Deficiencies exist in the capacity of island institutions in the Pacific Flag territories to develop and

implement needed technologies and programs. This

largely is due to a lack of skilled employees. Some

efforts are underway to ameliorate this. The CNMI

is opening a 2-year agricultural program in their

new land-grant college. Guam and American Samoa

have had Land Grant programs for some years.

However, Guam reports a need to develop expertise outside of the biological sciences in areas such

as physical sciences, engineering, business administration, marketing, finance, and accounting.

While small-scale fisheries may be reported as important in development plans, this does not translate into importance in terms of budget. Government officials may think that fishing requires little

support; or they may not wish to encourage fishing

as a commercial enterprise. Small-scale fisheries

tend to be overwhelmed by large, outside fisheries

issues. Competition among U.S.-affiliated islands

hinders commercial development of small-scale

fisheries. Development of small-scale deep-sea fishing enterprises would support tourism and thus may

be a type of small-scale fishing on which to focus.

American Samoa’s economy and food consumption

largely are based on its marine resources; CNMI's

falls somewhere in the middle, and Guam’s are least

based on marine resources.

In the U.S. Caribbean islands, local interest exists

in ethnobotany and other areas related to development of “new” renewable resources with potential

commercial applications, but present activities are

small. These activities depend strongly on university staff and programs, and have been hindered

by Federal budget cuts. The CVI Agriculture Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, along with the Island Resources Foundation,

are studying local versions of commercial crops and

ethnobotany. The Puerto Rico Medical School is researching ethnopharmacology.

Suggested Options:

●

●

●

Regional Information Clearinghouse(s) might

collect and provide information on potentially

suitable technologies to the islands in addition

to such services provided by OTIA and the

South Pacific Commission (SPC).

Federal agency “loaners” through the Intergovernmental Personnel Act from the Environmental Protection Agency and other agencies

would help with immediate problems. Military

liaisons with local agencies and access to Naval Ocean Command Center expertise would

also provide needed skills and information.

Perform economic impact statements of smallscale fisheries to provide good estimates of their

current importance to local economies.
App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops . 419

● Research small-scale fisheries technologies to

determine which may be appropriate for local

enterprises.

• Marine resource conservation laws would assist with managing inshore areas to support

pelagic fisheries. Also, definition of traditional

fishing areas would prevent pelagic fishermen

from hindering local catches,

Education, Labor, and Skills

FAS need curricula development on resources

and development for primary, secondary, and

college-level programs. Efforts are being undertaken

by a variety of organizations to provide needed materials. The public should be made aware of the

value of education, and programs should be developed to promote early student interest in fields most

integral to the islands.

All island areas need to develop a cadre of skilled

resource managers and planners. Students educated

off-island in resource-related fields frequently return to jobs which do not allow them to use their

skills. In fact, some students decide not to return

at all. The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

(TTPI) Manpower Council identified island development skills priorities and gave scholarships based

on those analyses. Similar attempts have been made

by local governments by contracting with students

to pursue certain fields in return for financial support, There is no enforcement of “contracts” with

students because it is too difficult and costly to monitor their course choices and undesirable to withdraw support for education altogether for non-compliance (changing course plans) when educated

people are needed in so many fields.

Mechanisms to identify suitable technologies will

require development of skilled islanders, which in

turn will depend on development of educational institutions. The University of Guam priorities currently are determined not by island needs but by

the availability of U.S. matching funds. Students

seeking skills from U.S. mainland universities frequently do not return to the islands. Further, mainland expatriates have greater freedom to operate

as professionals within the political/cultural island

systems,

Development of educational programs, particularly in science, is problematic, Much locally relevant, resource-related information may be traditional proprietary knowledge and, therefore, may

be largely inaccessible to formal educational programs. There also is a distinct lack of continuity

in school programs.

Primary and secondary school level programs and

materials designed to show the links between development and its ecological consequences need

substantial improvement for applicability to the Pacific Flag territories. The Government of Guam, in

association with the U.S. Department of Education

is developing a curriculum and textbook on environment and development, and the American Samoa

Coastal Zone Management program is providing

environmental education materials and training in

field research techniques. However, these programs

are seen as piecemeal efforts.

Immigration is causing stress on existing infrastructure, distorting labor markets and adversely

affecting some resources in the Pacific Flag territories. Foreign nationals may displace local labor

and their paychecks are often remitted to families

at home. (For example, 70 percent of the labor in

American Samoa tuna canneries are foreign nationals.) However, reducing the availability of foreign labor would result in economic dislocations.

Related to resources, foreign nationals may take

resources beyond acceptable or legislated amounts

(e.g, land crabs in the CNMI) and may use inappropriate methods of resource capture. Foreign

fleets are a significant cause of harbor pollution,

largely by crashing on reefs and discharging bilges

in harbors.

Colleges in the U.S. Caribbean have resourcerelated programs, however, primary and secondary

school level programs and materials (e. g., textbooks), designed to show the links between development and its ecological consequences need substantial improvement. Some materials are being

developed by the Coastal Zone Commission on St.

Thomas and at the CVI as well as at the Puerto Rico

Department of Education. In addition, there is a distinct lack of vocational education curricula to provide basic agriculture and fisheries (and small business management) skills. Puerto Rico has ample

2-year vocational education programs, but the proposed Hess Oil program focusing on mechanics and

agriculture has not materialized in the USVI.

Both island areas have difficulty attracting and

retaining skilled personnel. In the USVI, the problem lies primarily in locating and attracting skilled

staff for government agencies. Mid-level managers

are scarce and local businesses do not train them,

In addition, outside companies investing in the islands rarely hire local islanders. Local talent probably already is captured by the government because

extra-government jobs generally are not higher

paying.

In Puerto Rico, the problem is not in keeping people in the government specifically, but in keeping
420 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

people on-island. Skilled personnel commonly are

attracted to higher-paying jobs in the mainland, although they frequently return. Despite UPR’s poor

salary system, its retirement system encourages

long tenure. Managerial training opportunities—

both on-island and off-island—are considered more

than adequate for island resource managers. In the

USVI, however, methods to upgrade skills are

strongly needed to replace costly outside experts.

Suggested Options:

A Human Resource Development study is

needed to help island governments identify

skills needed in the future; this information

should be used to direct current educational

and curricula development programs.

Local governments should ensure continuity

of local government personnel in order to promote environmental education, and continuity

of educational programs despite changes in

personnel.

A program encouraging the elderly to teach

young people in formal school systems to transfer resource-related information and skills

should be instituted on each island.

Village “monitoring” of resource status should

be instituted to supplement college/university

monitoring of resources in their research

programs.

Local governments could invest in scholarship

funds to encourage college education in target

areas.

The University of Guam could provide increased substantive courses for secondary

school teachers, mostly in the areas of math and

science. To do this, they need to develop appropriate curriculum materials.

Support and assistance should be provided to

include planning curricula in university-level

education in the islands.

Provide increased training opportunities in the

USVI and provide incentives to increase longevity of tenure in the government agencies

(probably security incentives rather than financial incentives).

Directories of local resource management expertise might be a first step to identify which

skills are available, which can be shared, and

which are needed.

Coast Guard surveillance of navigable waterways should be returned to former levels or increased.

Extension, Marketing, and Incentives

Lack of marketing information is a serious problem in each of the FAS island areas. While systems

to deliver marketing information are available, the

delivery of such information is inadequate.

Incentives systems and programs are a problem

in the FAS. Payment incentives are seen as disincentives to manage and follow-through on projects.

Participants felt that independent initiative was the

best incentive to manage and follow-through on any

project. Wage disparities are perceived as the major disincentive in investment in resource management and development. Favorable government salaries affect education choices, increasing selection

of fields such as political science and law, and leaving fields such as agriculture and fisheries, lacking.

Lack of needed marketing information hinders

planning and resource development in the Pacific

Flag territories. Although some marketing studies

are being performed, these are not as yet adequate

to take advantage of expected appropriate markets.

The local tourist market, in particular, needs to be

assessed and developed to support local production.

Cooperatives as a mechanism to guarantee required

quality and quantity to fit into modern markets have

not been very successful.

Marketing information is not perceived as a problem in American Samoa, but educated marketers

are needed to work in the government and to monitor market trends. Needs exist to reduce competition in exported products among neighboring islands. And surplus goods must be marketed to fulfill

plant capacity and achieve economies of scale.

American Samoa hopes to develop as a major transshipment port with some on-island processing.

Few incentives exist in the islands for resource

conservation. All governments have resource management incentive systems but these tend to be oriented to development. These also focus on management of government-owned, leased land much more

heavily than for management of private lands.

Technology identification and transfer mechanisms are needed at all levels: international/bilateral/

Federal to local organizations, and local organizations to practitioners.

While technical information is available in the

U.S. Caribbean islands, marketing is a major problem to development. In the USVI, four Small Business Administration (SBA)-type organizations help

practitioners with marketing, but this is not available to planners. In Puerto Rico, the current focus

is on selling Puerto Rico to big business; these efforts probably have not been extended to small producers.

Although traditional fisheries and landholding

systems are aggregations of small-scale activities,

the small entrepreneur often is overlooked in favor

of large, mainland subsidiaries. Scale is perceived

as the major source of divergence between traditional systems and contemporary systems.
App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops . 421

Several organizations provide information and

assistance to the small entrepreneur, The Cooperative Extension Services is one source of information applicable to varying scales of enterprise. In

addition, the SBA has programs designed to help

entrepreneurs/innovators/inventors go to market

with new products, Other, similar groups exist to

help small businesses. However, little of the training is directed towards small agricultural and fisheries businesses.

Resource management incentive programs at a

local government level are weak in both island

areas. In Puerto Rico, priorities vary among departments and fluctuate widely over time. In the USVI,

economic development is given almost consistent

priority over resource management, which is reflected in low budgets for resource programs.

Suggested Options:

● The Regional Information Clearinghouse could

provide marketing information collection and

dissemination services.

● Old TTPI “2-pagers” on research projects relevant to potential island development projects,

including marketing information, should be located, updated, and redistributed,

• Governments could swap developable lands

(determined by land suitability analysis) for

“resource-valued” land as a means of preserving certain resources or resource uses (e.g., protection of critical habitat or creating agricultural districts),

● Land Grant and Sea Grant organizations may

provide some of these services, and should receive continued support.

● Under Internal Revenue Code 936, large banks

in Puerto Rico are holding up to $6.5 billion

for investment in development of private firms

in Puerto Rico. Although this has been used for

renewable resource-related development in the

past, it has been used conservatively. Creation

of a “Caribbean Research Institute” could support renewable resource development as well

as other technology development making use

of these 936 funds.

Planning for Resource Management

and Development

Resource development and land use planning in

the FAS is extremely problematic largely due to land

tenure systems and local perceptions of land as a

family heritage rather than a commercial resource.

Land tenure is fragmented, hindering development

of economies of scale in most undertakings. The

implementation of land use guidelines or restrictions will be the task of local governments. However, U.S. government agencies could assist with

information collection, landowner education, and

transfer of information on suitable development

projects.

Local governments have not had enough experience with the impacts of development to reliably

forecast the likely impacts of future projects. Guidelines for analysis and training of people to perform

analyses are required. Some suggested analyses are:

(1) benefit/cost analysis or other appropriate decisionmaking aids; (2) tourism impact assessment or

carrying capacity analyses.

Currently, resource management and development (and other) programs are not directly chosen

by local islanders in the FAS. The U.S. Department

of the Interior (USDOI), OTIA sends a list of programs “chosen“ in Washington, DC and asks governments if they wish to sign up for any of them.

Although some of these programs have been very

good, this system is perceived as inappropriate:

1. Federal agencies rarely respond to further island communications about programs,

2. island governments may never hear again

about programs in which they have interest,

and

3. island governments are given no more choice

by the USDOI than “yes” or “no.”3

Long-term planning of resource development is

rarely accomplished in the Pacific Flag territories.

Although the information base is strong, it is rarely

used in long-term planning of land uses. Further,

contemporary use and management principles sometimes are not compatible with existing island landand sea-tenure systems.

The Pacific Flag territories do not have the history of experience with the development impacts

to adequately consider them in development studies

and planning. Planners commonly focus on immediate economic concerns, sometimes to the detriment of the sustainability of resource uses. A major

problem is presented by the nature of development

and its impacts; economic development occurs in

tangible indivisibilities while resource impacts tend

to be gradual and diffuse, making it less easy to identify the causes.

Historically, resource management and development planning in the U.S. Caribbean has not adequately considered maintenance of natural resources

that underlie economic development activities, but

3

[Statement potentially made obsolete by the Compact of Free

Association]
422 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

this has changed during the past decade. The regulatory power of the governments is capable of dealing with adverse impacts under leasing, zoning,

permitting, and other systems. Still, monitoring capabilities need strengthening.

While fragmentation of jurisdiction over island

resource management and development is irrelevant to Puerto Rico, where agencies are well-coordinated, it is a major problem in the USVI. This is

particularly acute due to the division in jurisdiction between the Coastal Zone Commission (which

regulates only the 200 foot contour) and the rest of

the islands covered by the planning office and other

agencies. Permitting and other activities need to be

centralized.

Coastal Zone Management (CZM) and other Federal programs supporting local government activities require consideration of environmental, social,

and political consequences of activities. However,

private undertakings may not consider these or even

respond to mandates that they consider the consequences of their proposed actions. Environmental

Impact Statements (EISs) and economic development impact analyses are common and well-understood, but social impact analyses are not. Developers commonly are “outsiders” investing in the

islands and so do not have a feeling for public hearing issues.

Despite considerable public scrutiny of both public and private developers in the islands, there is

no format or standardized measures for social impact analysis available to either public or private

groups. One participant suggested that the Oak

Ridge National Laboratory has a methodology/model

for conducting a social impact analysis. This methodology is reported to be simple, requiring some

adaptation to the islands but otherwise readily applicable. Still, the model does not include cultural considerations. It was suggested that formal mechanisms had not been applied because they were not

perceived as necessary to derive adequate analyses.

Carrying capacity is theoretically understood, but

there is not enough experience or political clout to

oppose private developers on this basis. Skilled people hired by the local government are commonly

“captured” by the private sector. Further, political

criteria overshadows the use of scientific information in decisionmaking.

Suggested Options:

. Planning offices need to review proposals from

corporations interested in investing in island

activities to ensure that local environmental,

social, economic, and political considerations

are incorporated in island development.

Further assistance with planning through the

HUD A-76 Comprehensive planning program

would be beneficial to all planning efforts.

Encourage students with planning expertise to

take employment with government agencies.

To promote this, government agencies could

provide such perquisites as guaranteed jobs,

homes, and program continuity.

Environmental impact studies and monitoring

should be regularly performed and systematically conducted to determine which development projects may be reducing future productivity in immediate or nearby ecosystems.

Encourage all Federal and local studies to incorporate social impact analysis, as well as

environmental impact analysis.

CZM programs provide the basis for integration of resource management and development

information, and their development should be

encouraged. However, there is an occasional

need to redirect funds going into local CZM

programs to respond to local needs; a mechanism to do this should be determined.

The Federal government should assist with ecosystem simulation models for the islands to allow greater certainty in review of environmental

impact statements, and to provide planners

with a simple mechanism to educate the public and decisionmakers,

Enforcement

Federal programs, designed for mainland ecologies and communities, sometimes are not appropriate for the islands and may not be adaptable to island needs. Local regulations in the U.S. Caribbean

tend to be more flexible than Federal programs; policies are becoming stricter, but methods to waive

them are available if it is clearly beneficial. However, waivers from Federal regulations are much

more difficult to achieve.

A dilemma exists: stricter regulations are needed,

but this tends to increase regulatory rigidity, A public resource constituency is needed to force issues

to political attention to help determine when

waivers are appropriate.

Although aid to the islands already is evaluated

for its impacts to some extent, review panels of

Federally-funded programs rarely include a local

islander, perhaps reducing their adequacy in pointing out applicability to the islands.

The Pacific Flag territories lack a strong conservation ethic and enforcement of conservation laws

is hindered by extended family structures. A con-
App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops ● 423

servation ethic was not really needed until recently,

however, the development of a conservation ethic

may be hindered by a long-running perception of

“plenty.” In some cases, police will overlook infractions of environmental regulations and focus arrests

or fines on criminal laws.

Regulation is perceived as useful only until education catches up. Thus, environmental education

should be a high priority for local educational institutions.

Suggested Options:

● Local representation could be required for review of federally funded projects in the islands,

perhaps by law. Local governments could also

create project proposal evaluation teams with

which Federal agencies must cooperate.

• Because environmental education priorities are

designated by Federal agencies, a program

should be developed to fund and assist local

environmental education.

● Guam courts directed a public awareness program of the potential prison sentences and fines

given to law-breakers. This might be useful in

other islands.

● Having circuit court judges (judges not part of

local extended family structures) impose sentences may reduce the perceived need to ignore

laws in order to “maintain good feelings.”

Resource Development Focii

In all three Pacific Flag territories, “new” resources are the resource-related planning focus.

Guam is looking into eucheuma and rabbitfish culture; CNMI is studying tangan-tangan charcoal; and

American Samoa is researching traditional pest

control methods such as coleus intercropping,

Medicinal plants are an area overlooked in this

thrust. Although “new” resources are important to

future development, they are not as important as

keeping up with major current developments such

as tourism.

For example, tourism is perceived as creating a

mixture of beneficial and adverse resource impacts,

It can be beneficial insofar as it increases public

awareness of resource values. On the other hand,

foreign labor commonly is brought in to fill higher

positions due to a lack of local skilled labor; local

labor commonly fills lower-wage positions, reducing potential local economic gains, Unfortunately,

tourism development in Guam and the CNMI occurred too rapidly for effective control. A better system would have been to have locals trained to support development, thus slowing the “brain drain. ”

Tourism is not seen as a distorting force in the

U.S. Caribbean islands, but certainly as the driving

force behind many activities and issues. Tourism

is seen as a primary method of deriving gross domestic product and employment, although jobs

often are filled by mainlanders and there is a public drive in St. Thomas (USVI) to restrict tourism

development such that land remains privately

owned/used. In addition, tourism is perceived as

a mechanism to spread stress on resources from

more developed areas (e.g., St, Thomas) to less developed areas (e.g., St. Croix).

Because of the determination to derive income

from tourism, participants suggested that the real

need of the islands was not to increase their selfsufficiency in terms of increased local food production, but to reduce the high cost of food. Methods

of achieving this are to:

1. increase local processing of imported raw materials (taking advantage of the historical use

of the islands as Caribbean-mainland transshipment points), and

2. restore barriers to importation of lower-cost

down-island products reduced by the Caribbean Basin Initiative,

Suggested Options:

● First, governments need to rank the possibilities for economic development in order to: 1)

rank research priorities, 2) direct Economic Development Administration-type promotion

strategies, and 3) direct planning focii.

● Second, a study (or studies) should be performed for each area to uncover already known

information about local resources; requiring a

major literature search (including the Micronesian Area Research Council and PBDC). Then,

governments should fund cooperative scientific/resident surveys of local practices to determine which resources may have potential

for commercial development (e.g., raw materials for industrial use) and which resource management practices may be transferable to

larger-scale use.

● Third, regional herbaria or germplasm storage

centers need to be created to save opportunities offered by local plants. (The Waimea Botanical Gardens have a collection of Pacific island plants, but this may not cover the entire

range of local species available,)

● Fourth, for those resources which appear to

have the potential for commercialization, there

needs to be university/college faculty research

and publications to tap into international

knowledge (e.g., the South Pacific Commission
424 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

may collect such information). Perhaps a regional information center could perform the archival search and extend into an international

literature search.

Finally, governments need to give continuing

attention-to the most promising products so that

the “boom-and-bust” syndrome does not occur.

Grassroots scrutiny of and participation in local

government activities is growing, but remains rare

in the Pacific Flag territories. Guam holds public

hearings on zoning variances and on specific development projects, and provides a weekly “LandUse” column for the local newspaper. Private organizations such as the Marianas Parks and Recreation Council, Guam Science Teachers Council and

a local chapter of Audubon may respond to proposed government activities, but these groups have

little continuity. In the CNMI, the public land planner presents projects to the public but there is commonly little response. American Samoa has not developed much in the way of public participation.

Hearings are held in Pago Pago and they are often

felt unnecessary. No environmental groups have

chapters in American Samoa.

Suggested Option:

. The media probably is the best form of introducing the public to the planning process, to

methods of public participation and to the potential impacts of proposed projects.

Summary of Meeting With

Representatives of Paku4

Palau’s development plans are directed toward:

1) development of a tourism industry, and 2) increasing export of island products. However, tourism impact or carrying capacity studies have not yet been

performed. Although it is estimated that current

fishery production can provide for approximately

16,000 tourists annually, current agricultural production is insufficient to support the additional

demand.

A major constraint to development is the lack of

essential air/surface transportation to the islands.

Infrequent air carrier schedules inhibit tourism

travel and the current airline service structure results in higher fares for the consumer. Lack of regular air cargo services inhibit the island’s ability to

become an effective exporter. Certain clauses of the

4Due to logistical problems, representatives of Palau were not

able to attend the workshop sessions on September 26 and 27,

as planned. OTA staff subsequently met with them on September 28.

Jones Act exacerbate this problem. For example, the

aircraft noise restraint is applied equally to the island as to major airports in the continental United

States, resulting in infrequent air schedules to the

island. “Noise reducers” can curb engine noise to

comply with the regulation, however, aircraft power

also is reduced which prevents certain types of aircraft from using the short island runways. Currently, aircraft noise is not considered a problem

in Palau compared to the economic benefits expanded air service would provide.

Foreign carriers that do service Palau are not permitted to carry local traffic between Palau and other

U.S. ports (e.g., Guam, Hawaii). Clauses related to

shipping contained in the Jones Act defines

Micronesia as a “foreign” territory, thus, hindering the islands’ export potential.

Suggested Option:

. Congress could grant an exemption or waiver

of certain clauses (i.e., aircraft noise restraint,

definition of Micronesia as “foreign”) of the

Jones Act for the islands.

Interest exists in encouraging foreign investments

in agriculture. Currently, Palau imports approximately 75 percent of their agricultural products. An

increase in the island’s capacity for food production in conjunction with providing essential transportation would sustain tourism, The Palauans have

made investigations into possible markets in Japan

for island products. Discussions are planned between the President of Palau and the President of

Japan regarding potential Palauan exports to Japan.

Suggested Option:

● Congress could influence Japan to be receptive

to island exports.

No foreign vessels are permitted to fish in territorial waters without a permit, however, Palau

lacks the capacity to enforce this law over their 12-

mile zone. Coast Guard vessels could provide the

needed protection although it was recognized that

enforcement of harvest limits would be difficult.

Some local enforcement exists on a limited basis

in some marine areas, although several marine species are virtually unprotected (i.e., lobster, red snapper, mangrove crab). Poaching remains a serious

problem from both the local population and foreign

poachers. Restocking species in reef areas is futile

unless these areas can be adequately protected and

poaching laws can be enforced. The Japanese International Cooperative Agency has funded research and protection of the hawksbill turtle.

Conservation regulations are a recognized need

not only for nearshore resources but also for species considered “highly migratory. ” It was noticed
App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops “ 425

that nearshore tuna population declined when the

Japanese began fishing Palauan waters. A local tuna

canning plant owned by Van Camp went out of business due to the decline of available tuna, However,

approximately two years after the cessation of the

Japanese harvest, the tuna reappeared in nearshore

waters indicating that regulation of pelagic harvest

could help assure a sustainable yield.

The local government needs the flexibility to allocate funds for conservation programs which agencies

have the resources to enact. Strong and numerous

family ties between local offenders, enforcement

forces and the judiciary make enforcement of conservation regulations difficult.

Suggested Option:

● Circuit rider judges could conduct trials and

impose fines and sentences for convictions in

cases where there are family ties between the

judiciary and the defendent.

Methods to integrate the resource development

analyses provided to Palau by various multi-lateral

and U.S. governmental agencies are needed. Resource analyses are necessary to allow local planners to make wise decisions on local development

projects and maintain a sustainable resource base.

A number of resource assessments have been made

by various US. agencies and regional organizations.

However, many of these analyses were not designed

for the needs of the local resource management

agencies and some of the information collected has

not become available to the local government.

Suggested Option:

• Integration of this type of information and provision of baseline data on other resources

would allow local planners to identify techniques to minimize environmental damage

from development projects.

Analyses of marine resources are particularly

deficient, although the SPC supports good fishery

projects. Necessary baseline information on marine

resources (e.g., red snapper, grouper) could be

gathered by a U.S. ocean research vessel and assistance for a mariculture assessment has been requested. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources could

provide assistance in developing management plans

for protected areas.

No mining legislation exists for Micronesia islands and waters. Legislation is needed on Palau

to control seabed mining, extraction of manganese

and gold, and their associated impacts on ecosystems.

Suggested Options:

● Make technical assistance grants available to

the islands to integrate available information

in resource management plans. Five years was

the suggested length of the grant which would

allow time for development of the on-island expertise.

• Lack of recognition for local science experts

results in a disincentive for local people to become educated in science fields. Outside studies should incorporate the expertise of local scientists and give credit for their contributions.
Appendix

—.

Commissioned Papers1

Assessment of Energy-Integrated Farming Technologies for U.S. Insular Areas (NTIS PB87

142691/AS)

Alex G. Alexander

Energy Cane, Inc.

Everett, WA

Cultural Dimensions of Resource Definition and

Use in Micronesia (NTIS PB87 142675/AS)

William H. Alkire

Department of Anthropology

University of Victoria, B.C.

Tourism Development and Sustainable Renewable Resource Management for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands (NTIS PB87 142725/AS)

Janice Auyong

Raymond Tabata

Sea Grant Extension Service

University of Hawaii

The Development and Management of Nearshore

Fisheries in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

(NTIS PB87 142691/AS)

Paul Callaghan

University of Guam

Assessment of Livestock Production Technologies

in U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands (NTIS 1%87

142691/AS]

Ruben Caro-Costas

USDA Agricultural Research Service

Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico

Assessment of Agricultural Crop Production

Technologies in Puerto Rico (NTIS PB8 7

142691/AS)

Fernando Castillo-Barahona

Plantas Tropicales de Puerto Rico

The Integration of Customary and Traditional

Renewable Resource Practices in a Modern Legal

Framework (NTIS PB87 142725/AS)

Williamson B.C. Chang

Mari J, Matsuda

Brian K. Nakamura

‘Microfiche or paper copies of collections of commissioned papers may

be purchased from the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA 22161. The NTIS order

number following each title indicates in which part of Volume 11: Commissioned Papers the paper appears:

Part A: The Setting for Resource Development NTIS PB87 142675/AS

Part B: Agriculture - Pacific NTIS PB87 142683/AS

Part C: Agriculture - Caribbean NTIS PB87 142691/AS

Part D: Agroforestry and Forestry NTIS PB87 142700/AS

Part E: Aquatic Resources NTIS PB87 142717/AS

Part F: Development Planning Considerations NTIS PB87 142725/AS

Wm. S. Richardson School of Law

University of Hawaii

Tropical Island Ecosystems and Protection Technologies to Sustain Renewable Resources in U. S.-

Affiliated Islands (NTIS PB87 142675/AS)

Arthur L. Dahl

Ecological Advisor

Plomodiern, France

(formerly with South Pacific Commission]

Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource

Development and Management in Puerto Rico and

the U.S. Virgin Islands (NTIS PB87 142675/AS)

Hilda Diaz-Soltero

Nature Conservancy, Washington DC

(formerly Secretary, Puerto Rico Department

of Natural Resources)

Boris Oxman

Special Adviser, Coastal Zone

Management Program

Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources

Forestry in Puerto Rico: A Case Study in Successful Organizational Change (NTIS PB87 142700/AS)

Hilda Diaz-Soltero

Nature Conservancy, Washington DC

(formerly Secretary, Puerto Rico Department

of Natural Resources)

Ralph Schmidt

United Nations Food and Agriculture

Organization, Rome

(formerly Chief, Puerto Rico Forest Service

Agriculture Development Needs and Opportunities in the U.S. Virgin Islands (NTIS PB8 7

142691/AS)

Eric Dillingham

Farmer, U.S. Virgin Islands

Case Studies of the Impacts of Introduced Animal

Species on Renewable Resources in the U. S.-

Affiliated Pacific Islands (NTIS PB87 142675/AS)

Lucius Eldredge

University of Guam Marine Laboratory

Traditional Agriculture and Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia

(NTIS PB87 142683/AS)

Marjorie V.C. Falanruw

Yap Institute of Natural Science

An Analysis of Black Pepper Production in

Ponape (NTIS PB87 142683/AS]

Meredith Glenn

Consultant, New York

426
App. G—Commissioned Papers “ 427

(formerly with Pohnpei State Department of

Resources & Development)

Aquiculture Development in the U.S.-Affiliated

Islands (NTIS PB87 142717/AS)

John Glude

Glude Aquiculture Consultants, Inc., Seattle, WA

Aquiculture and Fisheries Development in Puerto

Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (NTIS PB87

142717/AS)

Melvin Goodwin

Paul D. Sandifer

Environmental Research Projects, Rhode Island

Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Developmental Potentials in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Islands (NTIS PB87 142700/AS)

Craig C. Halbower

Consultant, Colorado

(formerly with Yap State Department of

Resources & Development)

The Role of Marine Resource Tenure Systems

(TURFS) in Sustainable Nearshore Marine Resource Development and Management in U. S.-

Affiliated Pacific Islands (NTIS PB87 142717/AS)

Robert Johannes

CSIRO Marine Laboratories, Division of Fisheries

Tasmania, Australia

Implications of History and Culture for Sustaining Development of Renewable Resources on U. S.-

Affiliated Pacific Islands (NTIS PB87 142675/AS)

Robert C. Kiste

Pacific Island Studies Program

University of Hawaii

Impacts of U.S. Military Presence on U. S.-

Affiliated Islands (NTIS PB87 142725/AS)

Stephen A. Loftus, Jr.

Consultant, McLean, VA

An Overview of Selected Natural Systems Planning and Management Techniques for U. S.-

Affiliated Islands (NTIS PB87 142725/AS)

G. Kern Lowry

Department of Urban and Regional Planning

University of Hawaii

Assessment of Commercial Agriculture Technologies for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands (NTIS

PB87 142683/AS)

Robert Lucas

Robert L. Lucas and Associates

Honolulu, HI

Coastal Resource Development and Management

in the U.S. Pacific Islands (NTIS PB87 142725/AS)

James E. Maragos

Pacific Ocean Division

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Honolulu, HI

Assessment of Semiarid Agricultural Production

Technologies for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands (NTIS PB87 142691/AS)

Gregory L. Morris

Consulting Hydrologist, Puerto Rico

Douglas J. Pool

Tropical Research and Development, Inc.

Puerto Rico

The Suitability of Cooperative Enterprises for the

Production of Food on the Territorial Islands of

the United States (NTIS PB87 142725/AS)

Neal Nathanson

National Rural Development and

Finance Corporation

Washington, DC

Aquiculture and Mariculture Development in the

U.S. Pacific Insular Areas (NTIS PB87 142717/AS)

Steven Nelson

University of Guam Marine Laboratory

The Marshall Islands Coconut Industry: Prospects

for Expansion and Development (NTIS PB87

142700/AS)

Skip Poison

University of Hawaii

Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Development Potentials in U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands (NTIS PB87 142700/AS)

Douglas J, Pool

Tropical Research and Development, Inc.

Puerto Rico

Effects of U.S. Macroeconomic Policy on Puerto

Rico and U.S. Territories (NTIS PB87 142725/AS)

Ben Posner

College of the Virgin Islands

Commercial Crop Production Technologies and

Development Potentials for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Islands (NTIS PB87 142683/AS)

Bill Raynor

Department of Agriculture

Ponape Agriculture and Trade School

Assessment of Food Processing Technologies for

U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands (NTIS PB87

142691/AS)

Ferdinand Sanchez-Nieva

Chemical Engineer, Puerto Rico

The Critical Role of the U.S. Congress in Fostering Self-Reliance in the Freely Associated States

of Micronesia (NTIS PB87 142675/AS)

Henry M. Schwalbenberg, S. J.

West Side Jesuit Community, New York

Traditional Crafts in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands: An Addendum (NTIS PB87

142725/AS)

Daniel Sheehy

Folk Arts Program, National Endowment

for the Arts

Washington, DC

Non-Food Marine Resources Development and
428 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

(NTIS PB87 142717/AS)

Barry Smith

University of Guam Marine Laboratory

Food and Feed Processing Technologies in the

United States Insular Areas of the Pacific (NTIS

PB87 142683/AS)

Philip G. Stiles

Division of Agriculture

Arizona State University

Assessment of Livestock Production Technologies

in Micronesia and Feasibility Study for Locally

Produced Pig Feed on Ponape (NTIS PB87

142683/AS)

Miklos Szentkiralyi

Animal Husbandry Department

Ponape Agriculture and Trade School

Applicability of Zeolite Refrigeration Systems to

Small Tropical Islands (NTIS PB87 142717/AS)

Dimiter Tchernev

The Zeopower Company

Natick, MA

Fiscal Incentive Social Support Programs, the

Caribbean Basin Initiative and the Development

of Renewable Resources in Puerto Rico and the

U.S. Virgin Islands (NTIS PB87 142675/AS)

Alan T. Udall

Technical Resources of Puerto Rico, Inc.

Boris Oxman

Special Adviser, Coastal Zone

Managment Program

Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources

Economic Pests and Pest Management Technologies Suitable for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

(NTIS PB87 142683/AS)

Agnes Vargo

Agricultural Experiment Station

American Samoa Community College

Assessment of Agricultural Production Technologies for U.S. Caribbean Islands (NTIS PB87

142691/AS)

Jose Vincente-Chandler

USDA Agricultural Research Service

Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico

Handicrafts Industry Development and Renewable Resource Management for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands (NTIS PB87 142725/AS)

Margo Vitarelli

Consortium of Pacific Arts and Cultures

Honolulu, HI

Non-Food Marine Resources Development and

Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands (NTIS PB87 142717/AS)

Charles Wahle

Stone Harbor Marine Laboratory

Lehigh University, NJ
Appendix H

Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

ACIAR

ADP

AID

AMS

ARS

CARDI

CATS

CCDC

CFMC

CNMI

CODREMAR

COE

CRIS

CRM

CVI

CZMA

CZMP

DAWR

DHHS

DOD

DWI

DWIC

EFD

EIS

EPA

ERS

FAD

FAO

Acronyms

—Australian Centre for

International Agriculture

Research

—Aquaculture Development

Program

—U.S. Agency for International

Development

—Agricultural Marketing Service

(USDA)

—Agriculture Research Service

(USDA)

—Caribbean Agriculture Research

and Development Institute

–Civic Action Teams (U.S.

Army)

—Consumer Cooperative

Development Corporation

—Caribbean Fishery Management

Council

—Commonwealth of the Northern

Mariana Islands

—Puerto Rico Corporation for the

Development of Marine

Resources

—Army Corps of Engineers

—Current Research Information

System (USDA)

—Coastal Resource Management

—College of the Virgin Islands

–Coastal Zone Management Act

—Coastal Zone Management

Program

–Guam Division of Aquatic and

Wildlife Resources

–U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services

—U.S. Department of Defense

—Danish West Indies

—Danish West India Company

—Engineering Field Divisions

(U.S. Army)

—Environmental Impact

Statement

—Environmental Protection

Agency

—Economic Research Service

(USDA)

—Fish aggregation device

—Food and Agriculture

Organization (United Nations)

FAS

FEDA

FIP

FLSA

FSM

GAO

GDP

1PM

ITC

ITCZ

ITF

IUCN

KMR

MARC

MATADC

MMDC

MSL

MSY

NEA

NELH

NEPA

NOAA

NPS

OTEC

OTIA

PBDC

PFDF

PIDP

–Freely Associated States (FSM,

RMI, and the Republic of

Palau)

—Federation Para El Desarrollo

Agricola de Puerto Rico

—Forestry Incentive Program

(USDA)

—Fair Labor Standards Act

—Federated States of Micronesia

—U.S. Government Accounting

Office

—Gross domestic product

—Integrated pest management

—Island Trading Company

—Intertropical Convergence Zone

—Institute of Tropical Forestry

—International Union for the

Conservation of Nature and

Natural Resources

—Kwajelein Missile Range

—Micronesian Area Research

Center—University of Guam

—Micronesian Area Tropical

Agriculture Data Center—

University of Guam

—Micronesian Mariculture

Demonstration Center

—Marine Systems Laboratory

(Smithsonian Institution)

–Maximum sustainable yield

—National Endowment for the

Arts

—Natural Energy Laboratory of

Hawaii

—National Environmental Policy

Act

—National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration

(USDOC)

–National Park Service (USDOI)

—Ocean thermal energy

conversion

—Office of Territorial and

International Affairs (USDOI)

—Pacific Basin Development

Council

—Pacific Fisheries Development

Foundation

—Pacific Islands Development

Program

429
430 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas

RAMA

RMI

SAC

SCS

SFCA

SPC

SPREP

TURF

TTPI

UGML

USAF

USCC

USDA

USDOC

USDOI

USFS

USFWS

USGS

US-MAB

USN

USNMFS

USVI

VIBR

VICORP

VIRMC

—Resource Assessment Marianas

Archipelago database

–Republic of the Marshall

Islands

–Strategic Air Command

—U.S. Soil Conservation Service

(USDA)

—Saipan Farmer’s Cooperative

Association (CNMI)

—South Pacific Commission

—South Pacific Regional

Environmental Programme

(SPC)

—Traditional use rights in

fisheries

—Trust Territory of the Pacific

Islands

—University of Guam Marine

Laboratory

—U.S. Air Force

—United States Commercial

Company

—U.S. Department of Agriculture

—U.S. Department of Commerce

—U.S. Department of the Interior

–U.S. Forest Service (USDOI)

—U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

(USDOI)

–U.S. Geological Survey (USDOI)

—U.S. Man and the Biosphere

Program

–U.S. Navy

—U.S. National Marine Fisheries

Service (USDOC)

–U.S. Virgin Islands

—Virgin Islands Biosphere

Reserve

—Virgin Islands Corporation

—Virgin Islands Resource

Management Cooperative

WESTPACFIN—Western Pacific Fisheries

Information Network

YINS —Yap Institute of Natural

Science

Terms

Agouti: A rabbit-sized rodent indigenous to the

U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands; believed to have

been extirpated during the colonial period.

Agredados: Puerto Rican sharecroppers on hacienda land.

Agroecosystem: An ecosystem manipulated for

agricultural purposes.

Agroforestry: Collective term for a number of agricultural production systems that incorporate a

mixture of annual, perennial, and woody perennial species, sometimes including animals, on the

same land management unit.

Aiga: A social landholding unit in American Samoa.

Algal ridge: An algae-covered ridge that forms on

the shallow surface of coral reefs.

Algal turf: A flatbed of densely growing algae; also

used to describe macroalgae-covered screens

used as part of crab mariculture in the Caribbean.

Alley cropping: A form of agroforestry involving

planting tree species in rows, with annual crops

planted in the alleys or avenues. Also called Avenue cropping.

Alluvium/ Alluvial soil: Clay, silt, sand, gravel, or

similar detrital material deposited by running

water.

Aquifer: A water-bearing stratum of permeable

rock, sand, or gravel; often used to refer to the

Ghyben-Herzberg lens common to islands.

Artificial reef: An artificial structure placed in

nearshore waters to encourage the settlement and

growth of reef community species such as hard

corals, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms (e.g.,

sea urchins), fish, and marine plants.

Avenue cropping: A form of agroforestry involving planting tree species in rows, with annual

crops planted in the avenues or alleys. Also called

Alley cropping.

Back-reef: The nearshore side of the reef.

Bauxite: An impure soil mixture of aluminum compounds largely devoid of common plant nutrients.

Bedding planes: Flat surfaces in sedimentary rocks

along which adjacent beds tend to separate

Benthic: Of, referring to, or related to, the bottom

of a body of water, such as the ocean.

Biophysical: The natural (biological and physical)

attributes of a site and their interrelationships;

a biophysical assessment involves assessing these

attributes for their suitability for various uses.

Biosphere reserve: A form of protected area designed to integrate conservation efforts with research, monitoring, and education activities,

traditional landuse and local socioeconomic

needs. The typical reserve is comprised of a

highly protected core area, an experimental research area, a rehabilitation area, a traditional use

area, and a cooperative development area.

Boom-and-bust syndrome: A cyclic process in

which: 1) a new resource or market for a resource

is discovered offering opportunities for profit, 2)

numerous entrepreneurs begin to produce the

desired product eventually flooding the market
App. H—Glossary of Acronyms and Terms . 431

and driving down the price, and 3) the subsequent

loss of profit-making opportunities results in entrepreneurial flight and collapse of the industry.

Bund: An embankment used to control the flow of

water.

Bycatch: Miscellaneous marine species caught in

addition to the desired species at which primary

fishing efforts are directed.

Caique: Caribbean Indian chieftain.

Capillary forces: Surface tension force that acts to

draw water upward in small openings.

Ciguatoxins: Toxin found in nearshore tropical marine fish, currently believed to be linked to sediment discharge from nearby terrestrial areas.

Copra: Dried coconut meat yielding coconut oil.

Conuco: Traditional Caribbean cultivation system

involving interplanting of root crops in mounds

of soil.

Convective precipitation: Precipitation generated

from condensation of moisture laden air that has

risen due to surface heating,

Corm: A common name referring to the tuber of

a number of root crops including yam (Dioscorea

spp.) and taro (Colocasia spp.).

Cruzan: Inhabitant of the island of St. Croix, U.S.

Virgin Islands.

Curio: Something considered novel, rare, or bizarre.

Cyclones/ cyclonic storms: A system of winds or

storm that circles around a center of low atmospheric pressure clockwise in the southern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the northern

hemisphere, advances at a speed of 20 or more

miles per hour, and often brings abundant rain;

also called a hurricane,

Desacomodados: Squatters on Crown land in 18th

century Puerto Rico.

District Center: Administrative centers established

for the government of the Trust Territory of the

Pacific Islands, which now comprise the major

urban centers of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Republic of the Marshall

Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and

the Republic of Palau.

Diurnal: Of, relating to, or occurring in the daytime; having a daily cycle.

Ecosystem: The sum of biotic and abiotic components of a specific environment.

Endemic: Having evolved in or restricted to a locality or region.

Epiphyte: A plant that derives its moisture and nutrients from the air and rain and usually grows

on another plant.

Evapotranspiration: Removal of water from the soil

through the combined processes of evaporation

and transpiration.

Externalities: A direct, commonly adverse, effect

of an action (e.g., pollution) that affects another’s

welfare but that is not reflected in market prices

or is not taken into account by the individual,

firm, or group causing the externality in deciding to undertake the action.

Extinct: No longer existing.

Extirpate: To remove completely from a particularly area or region, but not completely removed

from the Earth.

Fa’a Samoa: Traditional lifestyle and social structure of American Samoa (“the Samoan Way”).

Fiafia: Traditional Samoan Sunday feast.

Fissures: A narrow opening or crack in rocks.

Fono: Governing council of American Samoan

village,

Fore-reef: The seaward side of the coral reef.

Free association: A form of legal association between the United States, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and expected in the near future between the

U.S. and the Republic of Palau, in which the

Freely Associated States have full control over

their internal and external affairs and will receive

U.S. funding over a specified period while the

United States retains security and defense responsibilities.

Fumaroles: A small opening in rock associated with

recent volcanic activity from which hot gases and

vapors issue.

Ghyben-Herzberg lens: The lens-shaped freshwater-saturated zone formed as freshwater percolates down through island soils. This freshwater zone is confined in a general lens shape

by the surrounding denser seawater.

Green manure: Green plant material that is incorporated into the soil as a means to enhance soil

fertility.

Groundwater: Water that occurs in pores and

cracks of rocks and sediments in the wholly saturated zone below the Earth’s surface.

Guano: A phosphate-rich substance composed

chiefly of the excrement of bats or seafowl and

used as a fertilizer.

Hacienda: A large estate, often devoted to such agricultural pursuits as cattle ranching.

Hermatypic coral: Reef-building corals able to grow

to a maximum depth of approximately 150 feet

below sea level.

Humus: A complex soil resulting from partial

decomposition of plant or animal matter and

forming the organic portion of soil.

Hydrophyte: A plant growing in water or in soil

too waterlogged for most plants to survive.

Hydroponics: Culture of plants in nutrient solutions
432 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

with or without an inert medium to provide mechanical support.

Intercropping: The planting of two or more crops

together at the same time by row, strip, or in a

seemingly random mixture.

Interplant: To plant a crop between plants of

another kind.

Intertidal: Of, relating to, or being part of the littoral zone between the high- and low-tide marks.

Jibaros: Puerto Rican peasants in late 18th century

colonial agricultural economy.

Lancho: A rural, generally wooded, farm that urban dwellers in the Mariana islands traditionally

used to cultivate a number of food crops and

maintain livestock such as chickens and pigs.

Lithology: The study of rocks, or the character of

a rock formation.

Littoral: Of, relating to, or situated in or near a

shore, especially the shore zone between low and

high water marks.

Macroalgae: Large, chiefly aquatic, nonvascular

plants, especially seaweeds.

Matai: Titled chiefs in American Samoa.

Meristematic tissue: Plant tissue capable of forming a replicate of the original plant given appropriate growth conditions.

Microhabitat: The environment immediately surrounding the organism of interest.

Midden: A refuse heap; commonly analyzed in archaeology to provide information on prehistoric

lifestyles.

Mongoose: Predator introduced to the U.S. Virgin

Islands in the early colonial period and presumed

responsible for extermination of local fauna, particularly the agouti.

Monoculture: The cultivation of a single product

to the exclusion of other uses of a unit of land.

Muck: Highly organic, wet soils; typical of taro pits

and mangrove swamps.

Mwarmwar: Head ornaments similar to leis and

typically made of fragrant flowers and leaves,

such as ylang-ylang, worn in the Caroline islands.

Naborias: Caribbean Indian lower class, generally

laborers,

Neo-tradition: An elaboration or adjustment of a

traditional practice.

Nitainos: Caribbean Indian higher class.

Ordnance: Military supplies, including weapons,

ammunition, combat vehicles, and maintenance

tools and equipment.

Orographic precipitation: Rainfall generated as

moisture laden air is forced to rise over a topographic feature, most commonly mountains.

Overexploitation: Exploitation of a resource at

greater than sustainable levels.

Pelagic: Of, related, to or living in the open sea;

oceanic.

Pneumatophores: A root often functioning as a respiratory organ in marsh or swamp plants such

as mangroves.

Polyculture: Agricultural production system incorporating a diversity of plant species and varieties

concurrently on a unit of land.

Reef flat: The shallow reef area between the coral

reef and shoreline.

Relay cropping: Planting a second crop prior to the

harvest of the initial crop on a unit of land.

Savanna: A tropical or subtropical grassland containing scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth.

Sawei: A historical socioeconomic exchange system between Yap and nearby outer islands.

Scuba [self-contained underwater breathing apparatus]: Apparatus used for breathing while swimming under water.

Sedimentation: The process of deposition of usually

fine-grained sediment; settling. Excessive sedimentation in nearshore waters can smother nearshore marine bottom communities and kill corals.

Slumps: Small landslides in sloping areas of highly

weathered soils, common to degraded insular

lands.

Snorkeling: To swim partly submerged and breathing through a tube.

Solution cavities: Various sized openings in rock

formed through the dissolving action of water.

Subsistence farming: A system of farming that provides all or almost all the goods required by the

farm family usually without any significant surplus for sale.

Swidden: A form of land clearing involving slashing standing vegetation and, commonly, burning

it onsite to provide soil nutrients (also called slashand-burn clearing).

Terrane: The area or surface over which a particular rock or group of rocks is prevalent.

Thalli: The fleshy portions of a plant, especially marine macroalgae.

Theca: The solid structure formed by reef-building

coral polyps.

Traditional: Relating to indigenous, pre-western

contact systems.

Trusteeship: Supervisory control by one or more

countries over a trust territory.

Tsunami: Seismic sea wave; a great sea wave

produced by submarine earth movement or volcanic eruption.

TURF [traditional use rights in fisheries]: Systems

of limited access to marine resources practiced

traditionally in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands.
App. H—Glossary of Acronyms and Terms ● 433

Underutilized/underused: To utilize less than fully ticular watercourse or body of water; a fundamenor below the sustainable maximum yield. tal ecological unit for resource development

Water table: The top surface of the groundwater planning,

zone. Weir: A fence or enclosure set in a waterway for

Watershed: A region or area draining into a par- taking fish,

Index

Agriculture

agroforestry and tree gardens

ecological advantages of, 12, 16, 174

potential for future, 12, 16, 174

shade coffee and, 174

tradition of, 11-12, 13, 146, 163, 174

aquiculture, integration with, 27, 163, 296, 299, 300

attitudes toward farming, 14, 116, 154, 157

commercial

development, history (See Agriculture, history)

large-scale commercial, 15-16, 17, 143, 152-153,

165, 176-179, 187-189, 407

potential for commercial agriculture, 12, 16, 17,

160, 173

semi-commercial, 15, 16, 143, 158, 165, 168, 170,

407

small-scale commercial, 13, 15, 165, 179-184, 407,

408

constraints to development, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16,

17, 41-42, 44, 45, 115, 120, 121, 155-159,

292-294, 176, 179, 187, 207, 407, 409

container agriculture (See Agriculture, technologies)

conventional field farming (See Agriculture, technologies)

cooperatives (See Cooperatives)

crops

cash, 12, 13, 14, 18, 149-150, 151, 159, 160,

171-172, 173, 179-181, 184-188 (See also Markets

and Market Development, export)

import substitution (See Markets and Market Development, local)

new, introduction of, 16, 170, 171, 173

subsistence, 13, 86, 145-149, 150, 171

underutilized, 172-173

deforestation, role in, 143, 151, 154

decline (See Agriculture, farm acreage, decline in;

subsistence, decline of)

disease control (See Agriculture, pest and disease

control)

energy development, integration with (See Energy,

integration with agriculture)

extension agents and services (See Extension)

farm acreage, decline in, 152, 154

farm sizes, 165-166, 179

fertilizers, 13, 23, 42, 150, 164, 182, 188, 200-202

(See also Agriculture, soil amendments)

history of agricultural development

Caribbean, 84, 95-97, 98-100, 101, 151-154

Pacific, 83-84, 88, 89, 149-150

incentives, 36, 152, 409 (See also Renewable

Resource Development and Management, incentives)

irrigation (See Agriculture, technologies)

labor, 114, 115, 117, 120-121, 123, 151, 152, 154,

157, 162, 171

livestock

animals, 6, 150, 152, 154, 172-173, 174-176,

187-188

feed, 155, 222, 284-285

markets (See Markets and Market Development)

mechanization (See Agriculture, technologies)

monoculture, 13, 98, 162-163, 188

opportunities for agricultural development, 11, 12,

76, 77, 159-211

pest and disease control

post-harvest (See Food Preservation and

Processing)

preharvest, 21-22, 163, 188, 203-207

plantation agriculture

history of (See Agriculture, history)

modern, 164

polyculture, 21, 22, 161-162, 163, 203-204 (See also

Agriculture, subsistence, characteristics of)

production (See Agriculture, commercial; Agriculture, subsistence)

research, 18, 33-35, 209-210, 359-360

small farmer profiles, 33, 354-355

soil

amendments, 23, 200-203, 310

conservation, 23, 156, 193, 194-198, 365

degradation and erosion, role in, 42, 111, 150,

162, 188, 192-193

drainage, 178

fallow periods and, 193-195

subsistence 432 (defined)

agroforestry (See Agriculture, agroforestry)

backyard gardens, 13, 16, 149, 151, 168

characteristics of, 13, 15-16, 21, 86, 144-145, 163,

164, 165, 166-167, 168-169, 174, 203

conservation value of, 13, 15-16, 167

crops (See Agriculture, crops, subsistence)

decline of, 16, 143, 167, 168

enhancement of, 160, 170, 171, 173-174, 407

need to protect, 16, 168

production, 166, 167-168

social value of, 16

technologies, 13, 145-149

sustainable, characteristics of, 161-166

technologies

agroforestry (See Agriculture, agroforestry)

container agriculture, 17, 18, 169, 179, 181-184

conventional (intensive) field farming, 179-181,

187-189

energy-integrated farming (See Energy, integration with agriculture)

improved pasture, 17, 179, 187, 188

interplanting (See Agriculture, polyculture)

irrigation, 13, 17, 107, 177-178, 182, 188-189

mechanization, 13, 17, 176-177

subsistence (See Agriculture, subsistence)

437
438 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

tourism and (See Tourism, market potential of)

vertical integration of, 22, 23, 288, 291-292

wastewater treatment and, 28, 310

Aquiculture

agriculture, integration with, 163, 296, 299, 300

constraints to development, 10, 11, 21, 232-235,

292-294

energy, integration with (See Energy, integration

with aquiculture)

extension agents and services (See Extension)

interest in, 7, 20-21, 77, 249

juveniles for (See Aquiculture, constraints)

opportunities for development, 11, 21, 76-77,

249-258, 236-258

research, 21, 33, 34-35, 233, 236, 250, 253, 257-258,

260-263, 360-362

site selection, 233, 250, 254

species

algae, 236, 250, 252, 253

aquarium fish, 21, 236, 257

baitfish, 21, 236, 257

food fish, 20, 236, 250, 254, 255-257

giant clams, 242-244, 250, 253

pearl oysters, 226, 236, 242, 250, 252-253

prawns, freshwater, 236, 250, 255

shrimp, marine, 233, 236, 250, 255

technologies (See also Energy, integration with

aquiculture)

bottom culture, 20, 252-253

extensive, 251-253, 258

intensive, 258

marine enclosures, 20, 253-254

pond culture, 20, 21, 254-257

sea ranching, 20, 251

semi-intensive, 258

wastewater treatment and, 28, 310

Buffer systems

freshwater/flood buffer, 9, 71, 132, 134-136

saltwater/storm surge buffer 9, 71, 72, 132, 136-137

Coastal Resource Management, 7, 76, 337-339, 356,

415, 416, 417, 422

Coastal Zone Management (See Coastal Resource

Management)

Colonial Era (See History)

Compact of Free Association, 4, 40, 63, 90-91, 120,

338, 339, 358

Cooperatives, 22, 248, 259, 282, 288-291, 413,

Cyclonic storms 52, 54-55, 102

Deforestation (See Forests and Forestry)

East West Center, 32, 34, 341, 352, 361, 403

Eastern Caribbean Center, 34, 361

Economic self-sufficiency

defined, 6, 45, 122

role of renewable resources in achieving, 6,

45-46, 102, 113, 161

414

13, 30,

Education

availability of college and graduate education in the

U.S. islands

Caribbean, 34, 359, 419

Pacific, 34, 357, 359, 401-402

ecology and resource issues, need for in school curricula, 35, 357-358, 408-409, 413, 419-420

liberal arts emphasis of higher education, 11, 116,

157

off-island pursuit of college and graduate education, 11, 35, 116, 419

public environmental education programs, need for,

211, 408, 413, 422-423

training for careers in agriculture and fisheries,

need for, 117, 210-211, 347, 408-409, 412-413,

419-420

El Nine, 56

Employment (See also Agriculture, labor)

alien, 118, 157, 121-122, 419, 423

government, preference for, 114, 119-120, 157

in resource-related careers, 114

part-time, 113, 115, 120, 152, 227, 228

unemployment, 114, 117-118, 120

wages, 114, 117-118, 414

Energy

biomass, 302

integration with agriculture, 26, 27, 163, 296-300

integration with aquaculture, 27, 28, 296, 300-302

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, 28, 300, 382

solar (hypersaline) ponds, 28, 302

wave energy systems, 28, 301-302

Environmental Protection Agency, 204, 350, 386, 397,

418

Extension Services

agriculture, 209-210 (See also USDA, research and

extension)

aquiculture and fisheries, 263-264

need for additional, 35-36, 206, 209-210, 263-264,

351, 363, 413

Fisheries

artisanal fishery profiles, 33, 356

catch data, need for, 355, 410, 411

commercial (See also Renewable Resource Development Planning, neglect of fisheries in)

large-scale, 229, 237, 240

small-scale, 20, 227, 236, 237, 238-240, 413, 418,

419, 420

conservation

practices, traditional, 24, 25, 76, 246, 247-248

technologies, modern (See Fisheries, technologies)

constraints to development of, 10, 11, 19, 20,

230-232, 233-235, 412

economically important species, 221-222, 226-227

(See also Reefs, ecological and economic importance of)

fish aggregation devices (See Fisheries, technologies)

fishery cooperatives (See Cooperatives)
Index ● 4 3 9

history

Caribbean, 18, 96, 100-101, 229

Pacific, 18, 89, 221-222, 225-227

importance of, 18, 19, 20, 23, 86-87, 221-222, 225,

228-229, 415

markets (See Markets and Market Development)

opportunities for development of, 20, 76, 235-249

overexploitation of, 6, 7, 20, 26, 109, 110, 226, 227,

229-230, 235, 237, 239, 245, 259, 411

pelagic, 20, 235, 237, 239, 240, 248, 411, 412, 419

reef (See Reefs)

research, 20, 33-34, 231, 260-263, 360-362, 411

restocking (See Fisheries, technologies)

subsistence, 20, 237, 238-240

technologies

artificial reefs (See Reefs, artificial)

conservation, 24, 110, 228, 237, 240, 244-248, 411,

416, 424-425 (See also Protected Areas; Reefs,

protection of)

fish aggregation devices, 26, 237, 240-241, 411

restocking, 26, 235, 237, 240, 241-244, 249, 258,

424

traditional, 87, 100

tourism and (See Tourism, market potential of)

TURFS and (See Tenure systems)

underutilized resources, 7, 228, 235, 238-240

Food preservation and processing, 21, 22, 187, 238,

276-282, 283, 284, 407-408, 412

Forests and Forestry

cloud forests, 67

commercial development of, 18, 70, 154, 189-192

deforestation, 6, 69, 70, 72, 94, 98, 100, 103, 143,

151, 191-192, 333-334

lowland forests, 68

mangrove forests, 42, 72-73, 135, 138, 223-224,

229-230, 241-242, 246

montane forests, 67, 135, 136

protection of, 75, 334

reforestation, 7, 18, 26, 70, 71, 73, 76, 96, 192, 193,

198-200, 309, 365

secondary forests, management, 103, 191

submontane forests, 67

watershed value of forests, 26, 67, 68, 70, 77, 133,

134, 199

urban, 310-311

General Accounting Office, 31, 349

Ghyben-Herzberg lens, 58

Handicrafts (See Traditional Island Cultures and Customs, handicrafts]

History (See also Agriculture, history; Fisheries,

history)

Caribbean, 6, 18, 83, 92-102

Pacific, 6, 18, 83-92

Intertropical Convergence Zone 52, 53, 55

Introduced Species, problems of, 103, 106, 251, 173,

206

Island characteristics

climate, 7, 8, 52-55, 156

geography, 3, 4, 43, 369-376 (maps)

hydrology, 7, 55-58

political status, 39-41

renewable resource ecosystems, 9, 10, 19, 43, 63-74,

131-140, 222-225, 231-232, 320-321

socioeconomic, 43-45, 113-123

soils, 8, 60-63, 156, 192

types

atolls, 7, 8, 49, 50, 59, 84, 136-137

continental islands, 7, 51, 59-60

defined, 7, 49

high volcanic islands, 7, 49, 58-59, 84, 225

raised limestone islands, 7, 51, 59, 136-137

Markets and Market Development (See also USDA,

Agriculture Marketing Service)

export markets, 22, 160, 185-187, 235, 236, 237,

288, 364, 408, 420, 424

local markets, 17, 22, 155, 158, 159-160, 170, 259,

284, 285-287, 291, 364, 379-380, 413, 414, 420

(See also Tourism, market potential of; School

Lunch Program, island products, potential use

in)

regional markets, 22, 287-288, 408

Micronesia Area Tropical Agriculture Data Center,

33, 356

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (See Energy,

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion)

Out-Migration 7, 113, 118, 122

Pacific Basin Development Council, 32, 33, 352, 355,

411

Pacific Fisheries Development Foundation, 33, 355,

404, 411, 413

Pollution and Contamination, 6, 7, 103, 106, 108,

112-113, 181, 204224, 228, 232, 373, 376

Population Growth and Distribution

Caribbean, 6, 43-44, 113

Pacific, 6, 43-44, 113

Protected areas, 24, 332-337 (See also Fisheries, technologies, conservation; Forests and Forestry,

protection of; Reefs, protection of)

Reefs

artificial, 7, 26, 77, 235, 240, 241

buffer capacity of (See Buffer Systems, saltwater/storm surge buffer)

damage and destruction of, 7, 74, 102, 109-110, 111,

112, 192, 222, 233, 235, 246, 320, 375

defined, 49, 222

ecological and economic importance of, 43, 74, 223

productivity of, 11, 43, 74, 222-223, 225

protection of, 75, 226, 246-247

traditional use rights of in the Pacific (See Tenure

systems, sea)
440 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Renewable Resource Development and Management

(See also Agriculture; Aquiculture; Fisheries)

existing programs, basic characteristics of, 330-331

goals, 13, 45-46

incentives, 36, 364-366, 414-415, 420-421

intersectoral integration, potential for, 26, 27, 28,

163, 275, 296-311, 415

local participation in, 29, 30, 237, 248, 331-332,

336-337

planning (See Renewable Resource Development

Planning)

Renewable Resource Development Planning

analytical techniques, 326-330, 340, 421, 422

approaches to 28, 29, 30, 321, 330-331

Coastal Resource Management (See Coastal

Resource Management)

components of, 319-320

Environmental Impact Statements, role in, 29,

326-327, 340, 422

information and data availability and needs, 28, 29,

30, 32-33, 261, 320, 322-323, 324-326, 340-341,

347, 351-356, 406, 410-411, 416-418, 425

interrelatedness of island resource systems and,

131-132, 139-140, 320-321, 347, 415

local participation in, 29, 30, 237, 248, 331-332,

336-337, 410, 415, 416, 424

needs and constraints, 28, 321-323, 409, 415-416,

420, 421-422

neglect of fisheries in, 415, 418

organization of, on U.S.-affiliated islands, 28,

321-322

regional coordination of 264, 295

tourism, planning for (see Tourism, planning for)

Renewable resource ecosystems (See heading under

Island characteristics)

School Lunch Program

impacts, evaluation of, 36, 157, 158, 365-366

island products, potential use in 36, 287, 413

Small Business Administration, 350, 397

Tenure systems

communal, 44-45, 383

land, 14, 44, 88, 155, 176, 207, 334, 421

sea, 25-26, 226, 234, 246, 247-248, 262, 334, 383,

415

Tourism

Caribbean, 101, 115, 304-305, 380

impacts of, 12, 110, 246, 302-303, 423

market potential of, 12, 235, 239, 258, 259, 286,

287, 302-309

Pacific, 303-304, 380

planning for, 12, 75, 415

role in island economies, 115, 304-305

Traditional Island Cultures and Customs (See also Tenure systems)

authority structure of, 83, 84, 91-92, 94, 156, 226

conservation value of 75, 83, 333, 382 (See also

Agriculture, subsistence; Fisheries, conservation)

extended family systems, 67, 91, 92, 156, 158, 237,

415, 422

handicrafts, 235, 305-309, 357

research on, need for 33, 247, 262-263, 361

resource knowledge and skills, 10, 75, 87, 225-226,

331, 336, 357, 412-413

retention of under new legal systems 25, 30,

247-248, 381-383

subsistence economies, nature of, 84, 86, 87,118,

225

westernization, effects on, 87-89, 92, 115, 157 226,

227-228, 414

Transportation Systems, 292-296 (See also Agriculture, constraints to development; Aquiculture,

constraints to development; Fisheries, constraints to development)

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), 4, 30,

90, 338

UNESCO Man and The Biosphere Program, 31, 75,

334, 341, 350, 351, 386, 396

U.S. Agency for International Development, 34,

358-359

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 33, 338, 356, 373, 395

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Agricultural Cooperative Service, 291

Agricultural Experiment Station, 417

Agricultural Information Service, 283, 385, 395

Agricultural Marketing Service, 36, 283, 364

Agricultural Research Service, 283, 385, 395

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

(APHIS), 206, 385

Beltsville Aerated Rapid Comporting (BARC) System, 201-202

Current Research Information System, 34, 360

Economic Research Service, 283

Farmer Cooperative Service, 290

food programs, 157, 158 (See also School Lunch

Program)

Forest Service, 34, 105, 350, 385, 395

Minor Economic Crop Computer Database, 354

National Agriculture Library, 33, 356

Office of International Cooperation and Development, 34, 358

pest control, and, 205, 207

programs related to island renewable resources,

evaluating, 31, 36, 348, 349, 365-366

research and extension, increased support for U. S.

affiliated islands, 33, 34, 35, 362, 363, 417

Soil Conservation Service, 350, 395, 413

U.S. Department of Commerce

Economic Development Administration, 386

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

31, 33, 35, 36, 337, 338, 348, 349, 350, 356,

360-361, 362, 363, 364, 386, 395

U.S. Department of Defense, 41, 287 (See also U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers; U.S. Military)

U.S. Department of Education, 35, 357-358

U.S. Department of Energy, 348, 350
Index ● 4 4 1

U.S. Department of the Interior

extension, 33

Fish and wildlife Service, 35, 76, 104, 338, 350,

362, 373, 375, 376, 386, 396

Office of Territorial and International Affairs, 31,

32, 35, 347, 349, 350, 351, 386, 396

programs related to island renewable resources,

evaluating, 31, 32, 349, 352, 417, 418, 421

U.S. Geological Survey, 350, 386

U.S. Department of State, 34, 348, 362, 386, 396

U.S. military, 7, 41, 108, 109, 157, 287, 337, 373, 374,

375, 376, 377-380, 418

wildlife

diversity, 7, 64

endangered, 67, 75, 104, 105, 110, 170, 179, 243,

244, 374, 375

endemism, 7, 63-64, 66

game species, 16, 169-170

habitat on islands, 6, 66, 71, 76

protection of, 66-67, 75, 104-106, 132, 373, 374, 375,

376, 421, 424-425 (See also Protected areas)

value to science, 64

vulnerability of, 8, 64, 66, 103, 375

Waste Treatment and Management, 28, 112, 164, 275,

309-310