Biological Effects of Power Frequency

Electric and Magnetic Fields

May 1989

NTIS order #PB89-209985
Biological Effects of Power Frequency

Electric and Magnetic Fields

Background Paper

This background paper was performed as part of OTA’S assessment of

Electric Power Wheeling and Dealing:

Technological Considerations for Increasing Competition

Prepared for OTA by:

Indira Nair

Department of Engineering and Public Policy

Carnegie Mellon University

Pittsburgh, PA 15213

NOTE: OTA makes this background paper available for the use of readers desiring a more detailed or technical discussion

of the issue than can be accommodated in OTA’s final report. As an OTA background paper, it has not been reviewed

or approved by the Technology Assessment Board. The findings and conclusions expressed in this report are those

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of OTA, the electric power project advisory panel, or the Technology

Assessment Board.
Recommended Citation:

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Bilogical Effects of Power

Frequency Electric & Magnetic Fields—Background Paper, OTA-BP-E-53 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, May 1989).

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 89-600708

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325

(order form can be found in the back of this report)
Foreword

This background report responds to a request by the Subcommittee on Water

and Power Resources of the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. The

subcommittee asked that OTA review the health effects of high-voltage transmission

lines. To provide background information for its assessment on electric power

wheeling, OTA contracted with the Carnegie-Mellon University. This report was used

in the preparation of OTA's final assessment Electric Power Wheeling and Dealing:-

Technological Considerations for Increasing Competition.

For about two decades, there has been some concern about the health effects

of electric and magnetic fields produced by transmission lines. Recent studies have

heightened this concern. Health effects research is still preliminary and inconclusive,

but a growing number of studies suggest that under certain circumstances even

relatively weak electric and magnetic fields can produce biologic changes. This report

discusses the present state of knowledge on the health effects of low-frequency

electric and magnetic fields and describes current U.S. funding levels and research

programs. Also, the report provides information on regulatory activity, including

existing and proposed field exposure standards.

OTA acknowledges the generous help of the reviewers who gave their time to

ensure the accuracy and completeness of this report. In particular, OTA thanks the

project’s distinguished advisory panel and workshop participants.

iii
OTA Project Staff—Electric Power Wheeling and Dealing: Technological

Considerations for Increasing Competition

Lionel S. Johns, Assistant Director, OTA

Energy, Materials, and International Security Division

Peter D. Blair, Energy and Materials Program Manager

Alan T. Crane, Project Director

Karen Larsen, Senior Analyst

Robin Roy, Analyst

Joanne Seder, Analyst

Administrative Staff

Lillian Chapman Linda Long Phyllis Brumfield

Contributor

Hellen Gelband

Reviewers

Daniel Driscoll, Department of Public Service, State of New York

William W. Lowrance, The Rockefeller University

Joseph Norton, Department of Environmental Regulation, State of Florida

Lee Rosen, W/L Associates

David Savitz, University of North Carolina

Nancy Wertheimer, Boulder, Colorado

iv
Table of Contents

Sectionl.introduction and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Section 2. Sources and Nature of Fields and Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.1. Power Delivery Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.2. EIectric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.2.1. Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2.2. Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.2.3.Shielding of Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......16

2.3. Electrilc and Magnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......16

2.4. Contact Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......19

2.5. Measuring ’’Dose” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... ... ... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......19

2.6.Comparing Human Exposures From Different Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......20

2.7. Sources of Exposure at Non-Power Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..21

Section 3. Cellular Level Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. ... ... ......24

3.1.Modulation of Ion and Protein Flow Across the Cell Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......25

3.2. Chromosomal Damage and interference With DNA Synthesis and RNA Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......29

3.3. interaction With Response to Hormones and Effects on Endocrine Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .....29

3.4. interaction With the Cell Response to Neurotransmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......30

3.5. interaction With immune Response of Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......30

3.6. interaction With Cells Relevant to Cancer.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..31

3.7. General Observations on Cell Level Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......33

Section 4. Whole Animal Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... .....35

4.1. Detection, Behavior Learning and Avoidance Responses ln Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......36

4.2. Effects on Hormone Levels and the Central Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......37

4.3. Effects on Blood and lmmune System Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......39

4.4. Effects on Reproduction, Growth and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......39

4.5. Effects on the Circadian Systems of Animals and Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......48

4.6. Exeriments With Human Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......50

Section 5. Comparing Laboratory and Human Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... .....52

5.1. Laboratory Animals-Electric Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......52

5.2. Laboratory Animals-Magnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....52

5.3. ln Vitro Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......54

5.3.1. Pulsed Magnetic Field Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......54

5.3.2. ELF-Modulated Radio frequency Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......55

5.3.3. Calcium Efflux From Chick Brains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.4.Comparison of Exposures in Bioeffects Studies to Common Human Exposure Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .......55

Section 6. Cancer and Electromagnetic Fields: Epidemiological Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

6.1. Childhood Cancer and ELF Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...58

6.2. Residential Exposure and Adult Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......62

6.3. Occupational Exposure and Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......62

6.3.l.Leukemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......63

6.3.2. Brain and Central Nervous System (CNS) Tumors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......64

6.4. General Conclusions on the Status of Understanding of

the ELF Fields-Cancer Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......65

Section 7. General Conclusions About Biological Effects of ELF Fields

and Their Implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....67

7.1. Central Nervous System Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......67

7.2. Cancer Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....67

Section 8. Major Programs and Funding Levels for ELF Bioeffects Research .. .. .. .... .... ....69

Section 9. Regulatory Activity and Exposure Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....73

Section 10. Policy implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ......75

10.1. Policy Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......76

10.2. Strategies for Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......80

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ... ... .....82

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... ......95

v
1

1. Introduction and Overview

Electric and magnetic fields produced by electric power systems have recently been added to the

list of environmental agents that are a potential threat to public health. This paper describes peoples’

exposures to fields from power systems and other sources (Section 2), reviews existing scientific

evidence on the biological effects of these fields (Sections 3 through 7), presents a history of research

support and of regulatory activity (Sections 8 and 9 ), and discusses problems and alternatives in

regulatory action (Section 1 O).

The electric power that is used in our homes, offices and factories uses AC or alternating current.

This is in contrast to the DC or direct current that is produced by batteries. An alternating current does

not flow steadily in one direction. It alternates back and forth. The power used in North America

alternates back and forth 60 times each second. This is called 60 hertz (Hz) power. In Europe and some

other parts of the world the frequency of electric power is 50 hertz rather than 60 Hz.

There are electric and magnetic fields wherever there is electric power. This means that there are

fields associated with large and small powerlines, wiring and lighting in homes and places of work, and all

electrical appliances. These fields are created by the electric charges that are pumped into the power

system by electric power generating stations. Electric fields arise from the amount of that charge and

magnetic fields result from the motion of that charge. Taken together, these fields are often referred to as

electromagnetic fields. The electric and magnetic fields created by power systems oscillate with the

current. That is why fields around power systems are called power-frequency or 60 hertz fields. A more

complete description of the electromagnetic fields from power systems is presented in Section 2.

Public concerns about power-frequency fields first emerged in the late 1960s as power companies

turned increasingly to extra high voltage (EHV) transmission lines to handle large increases in electricity

use. EHV lines carry electric power with lower energy losses and with smaller land usage than multiple

lower-voltage lines with the same power-delivery capacity. Public attention to EHV transmission lines

focused first on the aesthetic impact of their large towers, on the aesthetic and ecological impacts of their

rights-of-way, and on various nuisance effects created by their strong electric fields. These nuisance

effects include audible noise, TV/radio interference, and induced shocks that can occur when a person

standing beneath an EHV line touches a large ungrounded metal object such as a truck or farm vehicle.

By the early 1970s, the American National Standards Institute had issued voluntary standards to address

nuisance effects. The first evidence that power-frequency fields might have a direct effect on human

health appeared in 1972 when Soviet investigators reported that workers in Soviet EHV switchyards

suffered from a number of nonspecific ailments [Korobkova 72]. Although these reports were greeted

with much skepticism by western scientists, they served to stimulate public concern. By the midseventies, health effects had become a central issue in transmission line siting hearings in several states.

There are two reasons why conventional wisdom has until recently held that the fields associated

with power systems could pose no threat to human health. First, there is no significant transfer of energy

from power-frequency fields to biological systems. Unlike X-rays (i.e. ionizing radiation), powerfrequency fields do not break chemical bonds. Unlike microwaves (i.e. non-ionizing radiation), powerfrequency fields cannot cause significant tissue heating. Second, all cells in the body maintain large

natural electric fields across their outer membranes. These naturally occurring fields are at least 100

times more intense than those that can be induced by exposure to common power-frequency fields.
2

However, despite the low energy of power-frequency fields and the very small perturbations that

they make to the natural fields within the body, studies over the last fifteen years have demonstrated

unequivocally that under certain circumstances, the membranes of cells can be sensitive to even fairly

weak externally imposed low frequency electromagnetic fields. Extremely small signal changes can

trigger major biochemical responses critical to the functioning of the cell [Adey 81, Adey 84, Adey 87].

This should perhaps have come as no surprise, as cells, especially those in the nervous system, make

use of complex electrochemical processes in their normal function. The ability of some animals including

eels, sharks, and pigeons to detect extremely weak ELF fields and use them for homing and finding prey

clearly demonstrates that at least some specialized cells can be exquisitively sensitive to such fields.

[Fessard 74, Gould 82]. Among the responses demonstrated in laboratory studies using animal cells and

tissue are:

● modulation of ion flows;

● interference with DNA synthesis and RNA transcription;

● interaction with the response of normal cells to various agents and biochemical such as

hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors;

● interaction with the biochemical kinetics of cancer cells.

Even when effects are demonstrated consistently on the cellular level in laboratory experiments, it

is hard to predict whether and how they will affect the whole organism. Processes at the individual cell

level are integrated through complex mechanisms in the animal. When a process in the cell is lightly

perturbed by an external agent such as an ELF field, other processes may compensate for it so that there

is no overall disturbance to the organism. Some perturbations may be within the ranges of disturbances

that a system can experience and still function properly. This difficulty in extrapolating cellular level

effects to predict the existence or severity of possible public health effects, together with the absence of

any large-scale and obvious public health effect associated with electrification, are two arguments

advanced during the last decade in support of the claim that there is no need for concern about possible

public health effects from exposure to power-frequency fields.

Another problem in deducing possible health effects from cellular level effects has been the lack of

a theoretical model to explain and understand the detailed mechanism of interaction. ELF fields affect the

cell via the cell membrane. Cell membrane biology is still in its infancy although this area of molecular

biology has made great strides in the past few years. Until recently, there was not enough understanding

to even advance hypotheses on the potential mechanisms by which ELF fields may cause significant

perturbations in cell and organ functions. Hypotheses are now being advanced but are still at a

speculative stage [Adey 86, Smith 87, Liboff 86].

As we discuss in Section 3, findings at the cellular level display considerable complexity including

resonant responses (or, “windows”) in frequency and field strength, complex time dependencies, and

dependence on the ambient DC magnetic field created by the earth. For these reasons, ELF fields

appear to be an agent to which there is no known analog. Many lessons learned from environmental

hazards such as chemical agents (PCB, vinyl chloride, benzene, etc.) or physical agents (ionizing

radiation, asbestos etc.) may not directly apply to ELF fields. This is because in the case of fields it is not

yet clear what measures of exposure or “dose” are relevant. In contrast to more familiar environmental

agents where “if some of it is bad, more of it is worse”, it may not be safe to assume that if ELF field
3

exposure leads to health risks, exposure to stronger fields or exposure for longer periods is worse than

exposure to weaker fields or brief periods.

In addition to cellular studies, whole animal and human experiments have examined five general

categories of effects:

1.

2.

3.

4,

5.

General effects such as detection, avoidance and behavior response and development and

learning of animals, and moods of humans;

Effects on externally measured physical parameters such as growth and birthweight,

respiration, heartbeat rate, and temperature rhythms;

Effects on specific biochemical such as hormones that are responsible for the

maintenance, regulation and control of general physiological and psychological functions ;

for response to environmental stressors; for growth and development; and, for triggering

special responses such as sexual function, and fetal and newborn nourishment;

Effects on circadian rhythms of animals and humans; and,

Effects in the epidemiology of cancer, particularly leukemia and brain cancer.

Several authors and scientific advisory panels have reviewed the effects literature. [Adey 86, Adey

87, AIBS 85, Carstensen 87, Florida 85, Grandolfo 86, Lee 86, NYSPLP 87, Sheppard 83, West 86, WHO

84]. In summary, the results are complex and inconclusive. There have been many “negative”

experiments, that is, experiments that have looked for effects but not found any difference between

biological systems that have been exposed to fields and those that have not. However, the growing

number of positive findings have now clearly demonstrated that under specific circumstances even weak

low-frequency electromagnetic fields can produce substantial changes at the cellular level, and in a few

experimental settings, effects have also been demonstrated at the level of the whole animal.

Epidemiological evidence, while controversial and subject to a variety of criticisms, is beginning to provide

a basis for concern about risks from chronic exposure. Some observers find this epidemiological evidence

more persuasive in light of the clear evidence of effects that is available at the cellular level, but others

insist on treating the evidence from these two areas as separate.

As recently as a few years ago, scientists were making categorical statements that on the basis of

all available evidence there are no health risks from human exposure to power-frequency fields. In our

view, the emerging evidence no longer allows one to categorically assert that there are no risks. But it

does not provide a basis for asserting that there is a significant risk.

If exposure to fields does turn out to pose a health risk, it is unlikely that high voltage transmission

lines will be the only sources of concern. Power-frequency fields are also produced by distribution lines,

wall wiring, appliances, and lighting fixtures. These non-transmission sources are much more common

than transmission lines and could play a far greater role than transmission lines in any public health

problem.
4

2. Sources and Nature of Fields and Exposure

2.1. Power Delivery Systems

Power lines are characterized by voltages and currents. Voltage is a measure of the electric

potential energy that makes electric charges flow through a circuit. Current is a measure of the rate at

which electrical charges flow in a power line or wire. The amount of power that a line transmits is simply

the product of its voltage and current. Power systems are designed so that line voltage is held relatively

constant over time while currents are permitted to rise and fall with power demand.

The various stages of the system that is used to move electric power from the electric generator to

the end user are depicted in Figure 2-1. Electric generators in power stations produce electric power at

about 20,000 volts (20 kilovolts or 20 kV). Large “step-up” transformers are used to increase the voltage

for efficient long distance power transfer over high voltage transmission lines to load centers.

Transmission lines operate at voltages up to 785 kV and carry current of up to 2000 Amperes (or Amps).

They are usually mounted on metal or wooden structures up to 50 meters in height. Transmission lines

terminate at substations where step-down transformers transfer power to lower-voltage distribution lines.

Distribution lines deliver power locally through load centers to individual users. Residential distribution

systems are comprised of two different circuits: 1) a high voltage (5-35 kV) or “primary” circuit that

aelivers power from the substation to a local pole-mounted or underground distribution transformer and 2)

a low voltage or *’secondary” circuit that delivers power from the local transformer to the home. The

voltage of the secondary side is low enough (1 15/230 V) to allow appliances, lighting, and other electrical

loads in the home to be operated safely. Commercial and industrial installations often have their own

step-down transformers and so obtain their power directly from distribution primaries. Distribution

primaries carry currents of up to 900 Amps. 115/230 volt wall-wiring in homes is typically designed to

carry currents of up to 30 Amps.

The amount of power lost in the wires during transmission and distribution can be reduced by

increasing the voltage at which these lines operate. Transmission and primary distribution voltages have

therefore increased over the years as rapidly as high voltage technology has allowed. Figure 2-2 shows

this trend for transmission lines.

The length of transmission and distribution lines in service have also increased steadily over the

last century in response to increases in population and per capita demand for electricity. Today, there are

about 350,000 miles of transmission line and about 2 million miles of distribution line in the U.S. [Minner

87, USDOE 83].

2.2. Electric and Magnetic Fields

Although “electric and magnetic fields” may sound mysterious or ominous to some people,

scientists have had a good understanding of them since the nineteenth century. Electric and magnetic

fields arise from many natural sources. They appear throughout nature and in all living things.

Electromagnetic forces are responsible for holding atoms together in molecules of chemical compounds.

Processes in the atmosphere produce large static electric fields at the surface of the earth, thunderclouds

produce lightning as they discharge stored up charge, and processes in the earth’s core give rise to a

magnetic field which makes navigation by compass possible. Modern devices such as TV, radio, and

microwave ovens depend on electric and magnetic fields for their operation. There are numerous

technological uses for electric and magnetic fields.
trans

bution

I

Generation Step-up

20 kilovolts transformer

Distri

Distribution

step-down

tra n

Distribution n

secondary

115/230 V

u

Figure 2-1: Schematic illustration (prepared by the authors) of the stages in the system used to transfer

power from the generator via transmission and distribution lines to an end user. Power on

transmission Iines and distribution systems is delivered using sets of three wires. While the

voltages on all three wires oscillate at power-frequency, the oscillations are not “in phase”

with one another. As the voltage on one wire is peaking, the voltage on one of the others is

one-third of a cycle ahead and the voltage on the other wire is one-third of a cycle behind.

For this reason, the three wires are referred to as the three phases of the power network.

Although commercial and industrial facilities use three-phase power to run large motors and

other heavy loads, the 115 V power in homes is generally supplied by just a single phase.

Utility a)companies try to connect equal numbers of houses to each phase of a residential

distribution network in order to balance the load across the phases.
6

1000

500

200

VoItag e

100

(kV)

50

20

10

1880 190 0 192 0 194 0 1960 1980

Yea r

Figure 2-2: Highest 60 Hz transmission voltage in North America. From [Ellert 82].

There are two types of electric and magnetic fields, those that travel or propagate long distances

from their source (also called electromagnetic waves) and those that are confined to the immediate

vicinity of their source. At distances that are close to a source compared to a wavelength, ’ fields are

primarily of the confined type. Confined fields decrease in intensity much more rapidly with distance from

their source than do propagating fields. Propagating fields dominate, therefore, at distances that are far

from the source compared to a wavelength. The fields to which most people are exposed from radio

broadcast antennas are examples of propagating fields since these source are generally much more than

one wavelength (1-1 00 meters) removed from inhabited areas. The power-frequency fields that people

encounter are of the non-propagating type because power lines and appliances are much closer to

people than one 60 Hz wavelength (several thousand kilometers). Only a very miniscule portion of the

energy in power lines goes into propagating fields. Because the power-frequency fields of public health

concern are not of the propagating type, it is technically inappropriate to refer to them as “radiation”.

1A wavelength is tie dis~nce Mat a propagating fielcf travels during one oscillatory ~cle. For fields in ~r this distance is ~

where c is the velocity of light and f is the frequency of the osallating field.
7

2.2.1. Electric Fields

Many fundamental particles such as electrons and protons carry an electric charge. Protons carry

a positive charge and electrons carry a negative charge. Charges of the same sign repel one another

whereas charges of opposite sign attract each other. Most of the time most objects have almost exactly

the same number of electrons as they do protons. So the effect of the charges cancel and the object has

no overall charge. The “static electricity” of clinging clothes is an example of the electric forces that result

when objects acquire a small excess of positive or negative charges (this happens in the drier when

clothes pick up or lose electrons from one another as they rub together). The “electric field” of a charged

object is merely a description of the electric force that the object is capable of exerting on other charges

brought into its vicinity. The intensity of the electric field is proportional to the magnitude of this force.

Electric fields are represented graphically by sets of “field lines”. The direction of the field lines indicates

the direction of the electric force at any point. The density or spacing of the lines corresponds to the

intensity of the field. Figure 2-3 shows the electric field that exists between two equal and opposite

electric charges. Electric field intensity is measured in units of volts per meter (V/m). One thousand volts

per meter is a kilovolt per meter (kV/m). Field intensities are sometimes referred to as “field values” or

simply as “fields”.

Figure 2-3: The electric field of two equal but opposite charges. A small positively charged particle

placed somewhere in this field will experience a force in the direction-of the-local field line

(note arrows). The strength of the force is proportional to the spacing between the field

lines (field lines closer together means a higher field and thus a larger force on small

charged particle).

The electric fields of power lines, wall wiring, and appliances are produced by electric charges that
8

are “pumped” onto the wires by electric generators. Because the charge in the wire changes from

positive to negative at power-frequency, the associated electric fields are dynamic. Dynamic fields can be

depicted by taking some time-average measure of their intensity and direction. The most common

convention is to use the “root-mean-square” field. Figure 2-4 is a representation of the power-frequency

electric field of a household coffee maker obtained using the root-mean- square.

As with fields from other power-frequency sources, the electric field from a coffee maker loses

intensity rapidly with distance. Figure 2-5 shows how electric field strength changes with distance for

electric fields from EHV transmission lines, distribution lines, and typical appliances.

2.2.2. Magnetic Fields

In the nineteenth century, scientists discovered that a current-carrying wire exerts a force on any

charged particle moving nearby. This force was called the magnetic force. Its magnitude is proportional

to the current in the wire and the velocity and charge of the moving particle. The magnetic field is a

mathematical means of representing the magnetic force. Like electric fields, magnetic fields are

represented graphically by sets of lines as shown in Figure 2-6.

There are several different units used to describe magnetic fields. The proper unit of magnetic field

intensity is the Ampere per meter (analogous to the V/m for electric fields). Often, magnetic field strength

is indicated by a related quantity called the magnetic flux density which is the number of field lines that

cross a unit of surface area. The unit of magnetic flux density that is encountered most often in the

power-frequency literature is the gauss (G). Sometimes, the magnetic flux density is given in tesla (T).

There are 10,000 gauss in each tesla. For fields in air or in biological tissues, the magnetic flux density in

gauss is l/80th of the magnetic field intensity in A/m. The gauss and tesla are large units. Sixty hertz

magnetic fields are commonly reported in thousandths of a gauss or milligauss (mG).

Like power-frequency electric fields, magnetic fields from power systems are dynamic and are

generally described by some time-averaged quantity such as the root mean square. Figure 2-7 shows

the root mean square field of a household coffee maker.

Magnetic field intensity drops off rapidly with distance. Figure 2-8 shows this relationship for

magnetic fields from EHV transmission lines, distribution lines, and typical appliances. The magnetic

fields around many appliances are stronger than the magnetic fields under either transmission or

distribution lines. Appliance fields typically fall off faster with distance, however, than do fields from

overhead powerlines. This results from the fact that appliances are less extended in space than are long

power lines.

Electric and magnetic fields produced by power lines and other sources can be either measured

using a “field meter” or calculated given information on voltage and current. For transmission lines, such

calculations can be quite accurate. Published reports describing fields from various sources are listed in

Table 2-1.

Recent epidemiological studies relating the incidence of certain cancers to magnetic fields in the

household environment [Wertheimer 79, Wertheimer 82, Savitz 87a, Stevens 871 have created a growing

need to understand the various sources of magnetic fields in the home. These sources include 1 )

appliances, 2) wall wiring, 3) ground currents in plumbing, gas lines, and steel girders, and 4) overhead

and underground distribution wires [Barnes 87]. The most intense magnetic fields in the home are found
9

I

1 0

50

I

GROUND

Figure 2-4: Time averaged (root mean square) electric field of a 115 V coffee maker (solid lines).

Dotted lines show surfaces of equal field intensity. These differ from equipotential surfaces.

Adapted from [Florig 86].
10

4 I

2

10

w

0.1 1.0 10 100 1000

Distance from source (meters)

Figure 2-5: Illustration of how the electric field intensity at ground level changes with horizontal distance

from three common sources of power-frequency electric fields. The bands represent

variation across individual sources in each group. Adapted from [Florig 87a].
11

current-carrying

Figure 2-6: The magnetic field of a long straight wire produces a force, F, on a positively charged

particle that is moving nearby. The strength of the field is proportional to the spacing

between the lines (closer spacing means stronger field). The direction of the magnetic

force on a charged particle moving in the field is perpendicular to both the field lines and the

particle’s direction of motion, V.
2-7:

0.3 mG

B 0.1 mG

Time averaged (root mean square) magnetic field of a coffee maker (A) and top view (B)

showing lines of equal flux density. Adapted from [Gauger 85].
13

10,000

1000

100

10

1

0.1

0.1 1.0- 1.0

Distance

I

10 100

from source (meters)

Figure 2-8: Illustration of how the magnetic field intensity at ground level changes with horizontal

distance from three common sources of power-frequency magnetic fields. The bands

represent variation across individual sources in each group. Adapted from [Florig 87a].
Table 2-1:

14

Summary of published references which contain data on power frequency fields associated

with various sources.

Study Field: Electric (E) Measured (m) Sources

Magnetic (M) Computed (c)

[Bowman 88]

[Caola 83]

[Chartier 85]

[Deadman 88]

[Deno 78]

[Deno 82]

[Deno 87a]

[Deno 87b]

[Enk 84]

[Gauger 85]

[Florig 86]

[Florig 87b]

[Harvey 87]

[Heroux 87]

[IEEE 88]

[Jacobs 84]

[Kaune 87]

[Krause 85]

[Lovsund80 80]

[Male 871

[Miller 74]

[Norris 871

[Savitz 87a]

[Sendaula 84]

[--- 85]

[Silva 88]

[Stuchly 83]

[Tell 83]

[Tomenius 86]

[Valentino 72]

[Wertheimer 79, Wertheimer 82]

E, M

E

E

E,M

E, M

E, M

E

E, M

E, M

M

E

E

E,M

E, M

M

E

E, M

M

M

E, M

E, M

M

E, M

E, M

E

M

M

M

M

E, M

M

m

m

m

m

c, m

c, m

c

m

m

m

c, m

c

m

m

c, m

c, m

m

m

m

c, m

m

c, m

c, m

m

m

m

m

m

m

m

m

I,w

T

w

I,w

A, T

A, T

T

1,0

1,0

A

A, B, T

B

1, T

D

D, T

T

I

I

w

1, w

A, 1,0, T

A, B, D

D, I

T

1, T

I

A

I

D

A, 1, T

A, D

Key to source column: T - transmission lines B - electric blankets

D - distribution lines I - ambient indoor

A - appliances 0- ambient outdoor

W - work environment
15

near appliances (particularly those with small motors or transformers such as hairdryers and fluorescent

light fixtures). Because appliance fields fall off rapidly with distance and since people generally spend

only brief amounts of time very close to appliances (with the exception of electric blankets and a few other

appliances), appliances are usually not dominant contributors to time-averaged magnetic field exposure.

However, since it is not known what aspect of the field, if any, is biologically important, care must be

taken in making inferences about “exposure” from this fact.

Magnetic fields from wall wiring can be quite small because the field created by the current in the

“hot” side of the line is canceled by the field created by the equal and opposite current in the parallel

“neutral” (or ground) wire. This cancellation is greatest when the hot and neutral conductors are close

together as they are in ROMEX cable or when both conductors are run through the same conduit. Many

older homes have ‘knob and tube*’ wiring in which the hot and neutral conductors are separated by many

inches. Wall wiring of this type can make significant contributions to the average magnetic field in homes.

Ground currents arise because the neutral (or grounded) wires of distribution lines are usually

physically connected to the earth at many points along the line. These connections are made either

through metal rods driven into the ground or by direct connection to water lines. Connections to earth are

generally made at every distribution transformer and at every service drop (the point where electric lines

enter the home). These ground connections provide alternate paths for distribution currents to return to

local transformers or substations. This leads to power-frequency currents in water and gas plumbing.

Because ground currents are not balanced by equal and opposite currents in parallel conductors, the

magnetic fields that they produce can contribute substantially to the overall magnetic field in homes.

Barnes and colleagues found that houses in the Denver area were often close enough to overhead

or underground distribution lines that the magnetic fields produced by the lines could account for a large

fraction of the fields measured in the homes [Barnes 871. Their estimates of the contributions of

appliances, house wiring, ground currents, and distribution lines to magnetic fields in houses is shown in

Table 2-2. Again, because it is not clear what, if any, aspect of the field is biologically important, care

should be taken in making inferences about “exposure” from these numbers.

Table 2-2: Sources of 60 Hz magnetic fields in residences. Adapted from [Barnes 87]

Source Magnetic Flux Density

Appliances 6 mG to 25 G

House wiring .01 mG to 10 mG

Ground currents up to 5 mG

Distribution lines .01 mG to 10 mG
16

2.2.3. Shielding of Fields

Trees, tall fences, buildings, and most other large structures provide shielding from electric fields.

The presence of these structures can, therefore, have a significant effect on the electric fields to which

people are exposed. Houses, for instance, attenuate electric fields from nearby power lines by roughly

90°/0 [Florig 86]. Shielding by other objects can be equally great [Deno 87a]. Magnetic fields are shielded

only by structures containing large amounts of ferrous or other special metals. Houses, trees, and most

other objects, therefore, do not provide appreciable shielding of magnetic fields.

2.3. Electric and Magnetic Induction

The human body contains free electric charges (largely in ion-rich fluids such as blood and lymph)

that move in response to forces exerted by charges on and currents flowing in nearby power lines and

appliances. The processes that produce these body currents are called electric and magnetic induction.

In electric induction, charges on a power line or appliance attract or repel free charges within the

body. Since body fluids are good conductors of electricity, charges in the body move to its surface under

the influence of this electric force. For example, a positively charged overhead transmission line induces

negative charges to flow to the surfaces on the upper part of the body as shown in Figure 2-9. Since the

charge on power lines alternates from positive to negative many times each second, the charges induced

on the body surface alternate also. Negative charges induced on the upper part of the body one instant

flow into the lower part of the body the next instant. Thus, power-frequency electric fields induce currents

in the body as well as charges on its surface. A number of investigators have studied the surface charges

and internal currents that are induced by power-frequency electric fields in both people and animals. A

review of the electric induction literature has been written by Kaune [Kaune 85].

Magnetic fields are intimately related to electric fields. This relationship was first fully described by

physicist James Clerk Maxwell in the nineteenth century. Among other things, Maxwell showed that

changing magnetic fields produce electric fields. Because power-frequency circuits contain alternating

currents, they produce changing magnetic fields. The electric fields produced by these changing

magnetic fields exert forces on electrical charges contained within the body. This process is called

magnetic induction.

Magnetically-induced currents flow in loops which is why they are sometimes referred to as “eddy”

currents. The nature of magnetic induction is such that currents induced in the body by magnetic fields

are greatest near the periphery of the body and smallest at the center of the body (see Figure 2-10).

Because magnetic fields have only recently become a human health concern, data on the detailed

distribution of magnetically-induced currents in humans and animals is quite sparse compared to the

information available on electric induction. Studies of magnetic induction include the theoretical work of

Spiegel [Spiegel 76, Spiegel 771 and Kaune [Kaune 86] and measurements by Guy and colleagues [Guy

76]. The lack of detailed data on magnetic induction makes it difficult to compare the body currents

induced by the electric and magnetic fields of any given source.

The magnitude of surface charge and internal body currents that are induced by any given source

of power-frequency fields depends on many factors. These include the magnitude of the charges and

currents in the source, the distance of the body from the source, the presence of other objects that might

shield or concentrate the field, and body posture, shape, and orientation. For this reason the surface

charges and currents which a given field induces are very different for different animals.
1 7

Figure 2-9: A schematic representation of the surface charges and internal currents that are electrically

induced by the charges on an overhead power line in a person under the line whose feet are

well-grounded. The total current induced to flow from each foot to ground is about 8

microamps per kV/m of applied field (1 microamp is 1 millionth of an ampere). The density

of electrically-induced current is the amount of current that passes through a body crosssection perpendicular to the direction of current flow. The current density induced by a 1

kV/m vertical electric field is about 30 nanoamps per square centimeter averaged over the

entire volume of the body. One nanoamp is 1 billionth of an ampere.
18

Figure 2-10: A schematic representation of the pattern of currents induced in the body of a person

standing under a transmission line by the alternating magnetic field set up by the current

flowing in that line. A 60 Hz magnetic field with a flux density of one gauss will induce

currents in the periphery of the body with a current density of about 100 nano Amps per

square centimeter. The current density at the center of the body is zero.
19

2.4. Contact Currents

Besides direct electric and magnetic induction, another source of power-frequency exposure is

contact currents. Contact currents are the currents that flow into the body when physical contact is made

between the body and a conducting object carrying an induced voltage. Examples of contact current

situations include contacts with vehicles parked under transmission lines and contacts with the metal

parts of appliances such as the handle of a refrigerator. Contact currents are important because they

often produce high current densities in the tissue near the point of contact. Although contact currents

result in exposure to some of the most intense currents, they are also among the briefest, usually lasting

only as long as it takes to open the door of the car or refrigerator.

If a person touches a vehicle parked under an overhead power line, the body provides a path to the

ground through which charge induced on the vehicle by the electric field of the power line can flow. The

magnitude of contact current depends on a number of factors including the local field intensity, the size

and shape of the contacted object, and how well grounded the contacted object and the person are. The

largest contact currents are drawn by well-grounded persons who touch large metal objects that are

well-insulated from ground. The most common contact currents are imperceptibly small (less than .2

milliamps). Under the right circumstances, however, contact currents can be annoying or even painful.

To protect the public from life-threatening contact currents, the American National Standards Institute

(ANSI) has recommended that overhead lines be designed so that contact currents from even very large

vehicles do not exceed 5 milliamps [ANSI 77]. Because 5 milliamps delivers a very unpleasant shock to

an adult and is above the “let-go” threshold for some children, there is some concern that the ANSI limit is

not conservative enough. The let-go threshold is the current above which a person loses voluntary

muscle control and cannot “let go” of a gripped contact.

Contact currents associated with appliances are also usually imperceptibly small. An upper limit on

appliance contact current is given by the appliance short-circuit current, which is the contact current that

would flow into a person who has wet hands and is well-grounded. Measurements indicate that typical

appliance short-circuit currents lie in the range of 1-100 μA (1 μA = 1 millionth of an Amp) [Florig 86].

Short-circuit currents for new appliances are currently limited by ANSI standard to .5 mA (1 mA = 1

thousandth of an Amp) for portable appliances and to .75 mA for stationary units. It is apparent from

available data that appliance manufacturers have no trouble meeting these requirements. While contact

currents typically flow for only short periods of times (for example, while your hand is on the refrigerator

door), the currents involved and the associated fields in the body can be quite high compared to those

induced by the fields of overhead power lines.

2.5. Measuring “Dose”

Although it is possible to measure or compute the fields and induced currents to which people are

exposed, scientists do not know which, if any, of these quantities might be related to human health

impact. Scientists do not know whether we should be concerned with the strength of the field, the change

in field strength over time, the currents induced in the body, or some other variable. Uncertainty is

common when dealing with environmental risks, but the case of electromagnetic fields differs from that of

most environmental agents. For most known of potential hazards, such as chemicals, one can safely

assume that if some of the agent is bad, more of it is worse. Unfortunately, as we explain in later

sections, much of the biological experimental evidence about power-frequency fields suggests that the

more-is-worse assumption cannot always be justified.
20

The problem involves the definition of dose: identifying which, if any, aspect of the field can affect

health. With a chemical, dose is typically defined as the amount that gets into people, or, if the body is

able to metabolize or get rid of the chemical, the rate at which the chemical enters the body. Although

some human epidemiological studies of the bioeffects of power-frequency fields have suggested a dose

measure that is proportional to the long-term average of peoples’ magnetic field exposure, other studies

have suggested very different measures of dose. Examples, described in detail in Section 3 include:

. Frequency and intensity “windows”: Experiments in which biological effects are seen only in

specific narrow ranges of field intensity and frequency, [Bawin 76, Blackman 85a].

. Time thresholds: Experiments in which field effects are observed only after several weeks of

exposure [WiIson 81, Wilson 83],

. Transient responses: Studies in which field exposure induces a biological effect for only a

short time after a change in the exposure [Byus 86].

● Field threshold: Effects that appear only when the field strength exceeds some threshold

value [Liboff 84].

Although each of these experiments involves a different protocol and biological system, together

they suggest that one may be unjustified in making the simple assumption that dose is proportional to

field strength or to time spent in the field.

2.6. Comparing Human Exposures from Different Sources

As explained in Section 2.5, there is no accepted measure of the biological effectiveness of powerfrequency fields. Comparisons of peoples’ exposures to different sources of power-frequency fields,

therefore, cannot be made on the basis of relative contribution to effective dose. Given the current state

of the health effects science, comparisons between sources can be based only on those physical

quantities that are amenable to measurement or theoretical estimates. These include electrical quantities

such as induced surface charge and internal currents as well as quantities that describe exposure

duration, how often an exposure occurs, and the numbers of people exposed. Although these quantities

may not relate in any simple way to the possible public health impact of a given source, one can use them

to get some idea of how similar or different peoples’ exposures to various sources are. In the next few

pages, peoples’ exposures to power line fields and appliances are compared in six ways using 1) bodyaverage current density, 2) body-average surface electric field, 3) body-average magnetic field, 4) peak

current density, 5) typical exposure duration, and 6) the fraction of the total population exposed. Eight

different exposure situations, each involving electric and magnetic fields from just one type of source, are

chosen for comparison. These are:

1. Induction from transmission line fields in a person standing on the right-of-way (RoW) of a

500 kV line.

2. Induction from transmission line fields in a person inside a house located between the edge

of the RoW and 100 meters from the centerline of a 500 kV line.

3. Contact current from an automobile parked within 100 m of the centerline of a 500 kV line.

4. Contact current from a typical appliance (e.g. toaster, refrigerator)

5. Induction from an electric blanket.

6. Induction from an electric shaver.

7. Induction from indoor background fields that arise from appliances

wiring.

plumbing, and wall
21

8. Induction from distribution line fields in a person standing beneath a 35 kV distribution line.

Exposure comparisons for these eight situations are presented in Figures 2-11 and 2-12. Exposure

estimates are calculated from information in many of the sources referenced in sections 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4

as well as other data [Florig 87b, ICRP 75, Juster 79]. The range of values indicated for each of the

entries in these figures represents both uncertainty in the various factors needed to estimate the dose

(dosimetric factors) and variability across the exposed population. Note that the scale in each figure is

logarithmic.

The most important message that these figures convey is that a ranking of different exposure

situations along one dimension can look quite different from the ranking along another dimension.

Exposures in transmission line rights-of-way, for instance, score high on the intensity-related dimensions

but low on the duration and prevalence dimensions.

2.7. Sources of Exposure at Non-Power Frequencies

Power-frequency fields are only one component of the non-ionizing electric and magnetic fields that

people regularly encounter. Electric and magnetic fields at higher frequencies are produced by a wide

variety of modern devices such as stereo headphones ( about 1 kHz), TV sets (about 20 kHz), AM radio

transmitters (about 1 MHz), CB radios (about 30 MHz), FM radio and TV transmitters (about 100 MHz)

and microwave ovens (about 2 GHz)2

.

Scientists do not know whether fields at these higher frequencies are either more or less

biologically effective than power-frequency fields. There is evidence that VLF-modulated high frequency

fields can produce effects similar to those of ELF fields. Many of these higher-frequency sources induce

more intense currents in the body than are induced by most power-frequency sources. For example, the

20 kHz electric field at 1 meter from a television set, induces body currents that are comparable in

magnitude to those induced by a power-frequency electric field of 3 kV/m.

21 kHz = 1 ~ousmd cycles per second, 1 MHz. 1 million cycles per second, 1 GHz = 1 billion WckM Per se~nd.
22

A

I l----l----l----l----l----l ----1---- 1

------------------------------ --- -

 Exposure Situation I I

I l-On RoW of 500 kV line I <------> 1

< ------> 2

I 3-Car contact near 500 kV <------------------ > 3

I 4-Appliance contact I <---------- - > 4

I 5-Electric blanket I < -------- - > 5

I 6-Electric shaver I <--------------- - > 6

I 7-Household background <-------------- > 7

 8-Beneath distribution line ---- 8

------------------------------ --- -

.1 .3 1.0 3 10 30 100 300 1000

Body-Averaged Current Density

(nA per sq cm)

B

I l---l---l---l---l---l---l--- 1--- 1

------------------------------ -- -

[Exposure Situation I I

 1-On RoW of 500 kV line I <--------- > 1

 2-In house near 500 kV line 1<---------------> 2

 3-Car contact near 500 kV < --------------- > 3

 4-Appliance contact I <----> 4

 5-Electric blanket I <-------- > 5

 6-Electric shave r I

--------- > 6

 7-Household background 7

 8-Beneath distribution line --------- > 8

------------------------------ -- -

.001 .003 .01 .03 .1 .3 1 3 10 30

Body-Averaged Surface Field

(kV/m)

c

I l----l----l----l----l---- 1----1---- 1

------------------------------ --- -

 Exposure Situation I I

 l-On RoW of 500 kV line I <------------- - > 1

 2-In house near 500 kV line <---------- > 2

 3-Car contact near 500 kV n.a.* 3

 4-Appliance contact I 4

 5-Electric blanket I

----- > 5

 6-Electric shaver I < ----------------> 6

 7-Household background I <--------- > 7

 8-Beneath distribution line <--------------- - > 8

I l----l----l----l----l---- 1----1---- 1

------------------------------ --- -

0 .3 1.0 3 10 30 100 300 1000

Body-Averaged Magnetic Flux Density (nG)

*contact currents themselves produce negligible magnetic field. Of

course the magnetic fields from the nearby 500 kV line would be

comparable to those of exposure situations C1 and C2.

Figure 2-11: Three different exposure measures applied to 8 exposure situations. Exposure measures

are A) the density of electrically and magnetically-induced currents averaged over the

body, B) the induced electric field averaged over the body surface, and C) the average

magnetic field within the body. Ranges represent the span of typical values.
D

I

------------------------------ -- -

 Exposure Situation I

 l-On RoW of 500 kV line I

I l------ l---l ---l ---i--- l

--- -- -

I

- - - 1 

 2

<-------------> 3

< -------- > 4

 2-In house near 500 kV line 1<------------>

 3-Car contact near 500 kV

 4-Appliance contact current 

 5-Electric blanket <-------------------------- - > 5

 6-Electric shaver I <---> 6

 7-Household background I <----> 7

 8-Beneath distribution line I <------> 8

I l---I---l---l---l---l---l--- 1--- 1

------------------------------ -- -

.001 .003 .01 .03 .1 .3 1 3 10 30

Peak Current Density (uA per sq cm)

E

I l---l---l---l---l---l---l--- 1--- 1

------------------------------ -- -

 Exposure Situation I I

I l-On RoW of 500 kV line I < ---------------- > 1

 2-In house near 500 kV line <-----> 2

 3-Car contact near 500 kV ]<------> 3

 4-Appliance contact 1<----------------> 4

 5-Electric blanket I <------- - > 5

 6-Electric shaver I <-----> 6

 7-Household background I <----- > 7

 8-Beneath distribution line I

--------------- - 8

------------------------------ -- -

.1 1.0 10 100 1000

Duration (minutes per day, 1440 max.)

F

----------------------------- -

Exposure Situation

 l-On RoW of 500 kV line

 2-In house near 500 kV line

 3-Car contact near 500 kV

 4-Appliance contact

 5-Electric blanket

 6-Electric shaver

 7-Household background

 8-Beneath distribution line

------------------------------

.00

I l----l----l----l----l---- 1---- 1

---- --- -

I

<----------- - > 1

<--------- - > 2

<----------- - > 3

--> 4

<--- -> 5

<---- - > 6

<-> 7

<--> 8

I l----l----l----l----l----l ---- 1

---- --- -

1 .001 .01 0.1 1.0

Fraction of Population Exposed

Figure 2-12: Three more exposure measures applied to 8 exposure situations. Exposure measures are

D) peak electrically or magnetically induced current density anywhere in the body, E) the

duration of the field encounter and F) the fraction of the population that regularly

encounter the exposure situation. Ranges represent the span of typical values.
24

The previous sections have described what is meant by fields, and how exposure to fields is

measured in actual and laboratory settings. The understanding of what the effects of this exposure may

be comes from three kinds of studies.

1. Laboratory experiments using animal or human tissues or cell cultures exposed to fields.

These experiments are termed ‘in vitro” (in glass) experiments.

2. Laboratory and field experiments using live animals and people exposed to fields. These

experiments are termed “in vivo" (in a live state) experiments.

3. Epidemological studies involving human populations exposed to fields at work (occupational

studies) or at home (residential studies).

The following sections describe these in order.

3. Cellular Level Experiments

Until the mid-1970’s few conjectured that there could be any effect on a biological system from

electric or magnetic fields of the strengths usually present in the environment. This was in part due to the

fact that these fields can transfer only minute amounts of energy to the cell, and hence can not disrupt

chemical bonds in the cell as ionizing radiation can. There is not even enough energy in 60 Hz fields to

heat the cell to any significant extent as microwave or radiofrequency radiation does.

A considerable body of evidence has emerged that points to the cell membrane (the membrane

enveloping the cell) as the primary site of interaction between ELF fields and the cell [Adey 86]. In

addition to sewing as the boundary and maintaining the structural integrity of the cell, the cell membrane

is responsible for some of the critical functions of the cell such as controlling the flows of material and

energy signals into the cell and transmitting information arriving at its surface to the interior of the cell so

that appropriate life processes can take place. It is a highly selective filter that maintains an unequal

concentration of ions (charged atoms) on either side and allows nutrients to enter and waste products to

leave the cell. This is made possible by very specialized components of the cell membrane.

Unequal concentrations of ions are used by the cell for transmitting external signals to the interior;

and for allowing or preventing the entry of selected molecules and ions into the cell. The most important

ions are potassium (K+), sodium(Na+

), chlorine (Cl-), hydrogen (H+), and calcium(Ca+2). The actual entry

of many molecules and ions occur through channels in the cell called ‘*ion channels”. These close or

open in response to the ion concentrations and thus regulate the flows. There are also some enzymes

that are attached to the membrane. These “membrane-bound” enzymes take part in the synthesis of

molecules as well as in controlling initial actions of external molecules such as drugs.

ELF field experiments on the cellular level have concentrated on examining how some of the

specific processes governed by the membrane change as a result of exposure to the ELF fields. When

reading the results, it is important to understand that even when an effect is observed at the cellular level,

it is still hard to extrapolate what, if anything, that effect implies for the organism as a whole.

In this section, experimental results on effects of ELF field exposure on cell cultures are discussed

under six classes:

1. modulation of ion flows [Bawin 76, Bawin 75, Blackman 82, Blackman 85a];

2. interference with DNA synthesis and RNA transcription [Liboff 84, Goodman 86, Goodman

87]
25

3. interaction with the cell response to different hormones and enzymes including those that

are involved in cell growth processes and stress responses [Luben 82, Lymangrover

83, Lymangrover 87];

4. interaction with the cell response to chemical neurotransmitters [Vasquez 86];

5. interaction with the immune response of cells [Lyle 83]; and

6. interaction with cancerous cells [Cain 86, Winters 86]

The observed effects have certain peculiarities. Some effects described below occur at some

frequency and intensity values but not at others. Some effects depend upon the duration of the exposure.

Some effects persist only for a brief period of time after the exposure is discontinued. These peculiarities

make it difficult to extrapolate experience from the more familiar chemical and ionizing radiation toxicology

to the realm of ELF exposure and effects.

Many of the studies described below have been carried out in single laboratories and, with a few

exceptions, have not been replicated in other laboratories. Although a number of high quality experiments

have been performed in the last decade, we still do not have enough robust, replicated results to build a

coherent scientific or phenomenological picture of the spectrum of effects and we are far from having a

good theoretical model. Generally, when the background science is clear and developed, experimental

research on a new phenomenon proceeds by a series of steps usually referred to as “the scientific

method”. The first step in this method is to make a hypothesis (educated prediction) of the expected

result. Experiments are then designed and conducted to “test the hypothesis*’. In the field of biological

effects of ELF fields, there are not yet theories to make firm hypotheses and test them. Therefore, some

of the experiments described in this paper are attempts to see if there are any effects at all. Other

experiments examine if there are simple hypothetical connections between experimental observations

and possible health effects. We are not at the stage where experiments can be designed to test

hypotheses based on a coherent framework.

The most concerted of the studies on cellular level have been conducted by an interdisciplinary

group of biologists, biochemists, physicians, physicists and psychologists at the Jerry L. Pettis Memorial

Hospital at Loma Linda. This group has examined the various aspects of the interaction of ELF fields with

the cell, paying particular attention to understanding the role of the cell membrane in the interaction.

Because of the rapidly evolving nature of this subject, a few of the results we discuss have been

reported only in professional meetings and have not yet appeared in refereed journals. These distinctions

are made clear in the references.

3.1. Modulation of Ion and Protein Flow across the Cell membrane

The phenomenon most studied at the cellular level is the nonlinear pattern of calcium ion efflux

from cells which results after exposure to 60 Hz fields . Before discussing these experiments it is useful to

briefly review the role of calcium in the regulation of cellular processes.

The flow of calcium ions (Ca+2) across the cell membrane in response to extracellular signals is an

important means of transmitting signals from the outside to the interior of the cell. Calcium flow governs

physiological processes such as muscle contraction, egg fertilization, and cell division. Most of the

intracellular calcium (Ca present in the cell) is normally bound to molecules in the cell. Calcium is also
26

present in the structure of the membrane itself, to be released in the event of an appropriate triggering

signal.

When information in the form of electrical or chemical impulses arrives at the cell membrane, the

membrane binding as well as permeability to calcium is altered and the subsequent transport of calcium

across the membrane transfers the information signal to the interior of the cell. Because of this function,

calcium is said to be a “second messenger”.

Calcium acts in a multitude of ways in its capacity as a second messenger. For example, among

the proteins on the surface of nerve cells are certain enzymes called calcium-dependent protein kinases

which, when activated by the calcium changes, cause actions on other cell surface proteins that are

important in cell adhesion during development and growth. Calcium signals also regulate processes such

as muscle contractions including heartbeats, developmental processes such as egg maturation and

ovulation and several others. The quantity as well as the rate of calcium ion transport are important in

this regulation.

Unusual behavior of calcium efflux (or, outward flow) from cell membranes in brain tissue in vitro

was the first clear, reproducible effect of ELF fields observed in biological tissue. Bawin and coworkers

took the two halves of the brain of freshly killed chicks maintained in solutions to continue the natural

cellular processes (“tissue preparation of chick cerebral hemisphere”). They exposed one half to an ELF

field, keeping the other half unexposed to field. They then compared the calcium efflux from the two

halves and found that the efflux was decreased in the exposed, compared to the unexposed half. This

effect of decreased calcium efflux was noted to have frequency and amplitude “windows” around 6 and

16 Hz and at 10V/m. That is, the effect occurred when the field value was 10V/m and the frequency 6 Hz

or 16 Hz. [Bawin 76].

In an independent set of experiments, Blackman and coworkers also observed a change in calcium

efflux, although it was an increase rather than decrease, with a complex pattern of several “windows”.

The frequency ranges they examined were 1-30 Hz and 45-105 Hz , and the intensity range, 1 to 70 V/m.

[Blackman 82, Blackman 85a, Blackman 85b]

Figure 3-1 summarizes the ELF frequency and intensity combinations found to cause changes in

calcium-ion efflux from chick brain tissue in vitro. [Blackman 85a] For example, the figure shows that in

this experiment, at 60 Hz, six field intensity values were examined : 25, 30, 35, 40, 42.5 and 45 V/m .

These voltage values to the peak-to-peak voltage (abbreviated as VPP) of the field applied during the

experiments. In all other experiments the field intensity is expressed in terms of root-mean-square (rms)

voltage, as defined in Section 2.2.2. Figure 3-1 also shows the equivalent rms values. The effect

appeared only at three of these values, 35, 40 and 42.5 V/m. The lower values of 25 and 30 V/m as well

as the higher value of 45 V/m showed no significant difference between the efflux from the exposed and

the unexposed halves of the brain. That is, for the frequency of 60 Hz, there is an intensity window

between about 35 V/m and 43V/m. There is no effect observed immediately above or below this range of

values. Similarly, if the intensity is kept at 42.5 V/m and the effect explored at various frequencies, the

effect is seen at several values (15, 45, 60, 75, 90 and 105 V/m) but not at values in between.

Further experiments by Blackman et al., showed that the position of frequency and amplitude

windows was influenced by the strength and relative orientation of any static magnetic field superimposed

on the AC field [Blackman 85 b]. That is, the position of the windows depended on constant or static (not
27

[ I I I I I

.

0 p > 0.05

●

0

● ● ● c

20 40 60 80 100 120

Frequency, H z

Figure 3-1: Frequency and intensity windows in the efflux of calcium from chick brain tissue : This figure

shows the results of Blackman’s experiments on calcium efflux in chick brain exposed to

ELF electric fields.’ The horizontal axis shows the frequency of the sinusoidal ELF

exposure. The left hand vertical axis shows the peak-to peak electric field strength. The

right hand vertical axis denotes the root-mean-square field strength (See section 2.2.l for an

explanation). The efflux of calcium from one half of the brain exposed in vitro to ELF electric

fields was found to be significantly higher than from the other half which was not exposed.

The graph shows the values of frequency and field intensities for which there was an effect.

Dark circles show the presence of an effect and the open circles show values which were

examined, but no effect was found. Instead of showing an effect that increased or

decreased with increasing or decreasing frequency or intensity, the effect appeared at

certain values of frequency and intensity but not at others. For example, note that when the

frequency of the applied field is 60 Hz, an effect is seen at 3 values of field, at 35, 40 and

42.5 Vpp/m. When the field is above or below this range, such as at 45 V/m or at 30 Vpp/m,

there is no effect. So when the “applied frequency is 60 Hz, there is an ‘intensity window”

between about 35 and 42.5Vpp/m at which there is an effect. Along similar lines, it can be

seen that there are “frequency windows” at 15, 45, 60, 75, 90 and 105 Hz when the applied

field value is kept at 42.5Vpp/m. Similar observations can be made about other values of

frequency and field. [Blackman 85a]
AC) magnetic fields present in the Iabortory setup. In a recent experiment, Bellossi has found that a

replication of the efflux experiment with only static (frequency = O Hz) magnetic fields produces no effect..

[Bellossi 86].

Blackman has recently found that 16Hz, 40V/m fields affect the efflux from brain tissue not only of

calcium ions which are charged but also of the neutral sugar molecules, mannitol and sucrose. Further

experiments are being carried out to see if the window pattern seen for calcium ions persists for these

neutral molecules [Blackman 87].

Gundersen et al. [Gundersen 86] studied the effects of electric and magnetic fields on calcium

efflux from cells of chick spinal cord. For exposure to 60 Hz fields of 1 G, 30 kV/m for varying periods of

upto 72 hours, no change was found between sham and experimental cases. [Gundersen 86] Because of

the use of different cells - spinal cord rather than brain- and of a single pair of field values, these results

should be viewed as a separate observation rather than an attempt to replicate the Bawin and Blackman

work.

The calcium efflux experiments described above point up several peculiarities of the ELF-tissue

interaction at least in this one effect:

. A. Frequency and Intensity Windows:

For a particular value of frequency, some field intensities produce the effect but others do

not. Conversely, if an effect is observed at a particular value of field, it might be *’tuned out”

by changing the frequency of the field.

The “windowed’* nature of these effects imply that when one looks at experimental results,

one must bear in mind that even when there is no effect at some field values there may be

effects at other, lower or higher values.

. B. Background static field conditions may matter:

The effect may be influenced by how the field is applied relative to earth’s natural static

magnetic field.

. C. “More is worse” paradigm does not hold:

For this cellular level phenomenon at least, it is not true that a larger value of the field shows

a larger, or even any effect, compared to a smaller value of field.

The features described above have been observed in the cell in vitro. Blackwell and Reed of the

National Radiological Protection Board in the United Kingdom attempted to see if the calcium efflux effect

seen in vitro in the chick brain, could be detected through an effect in an intact animal [Blackwell 85].

They looked for signs of change in exploratory activity and of barbiturate-induced sleeping time in male

mice exposed to 50 to 400V/m at 15, 30, and 50 Hz, Both of these parameters are sensitive to changes

in the central nervous system (CNS) associated with calcium changes. Their experiments failed to show

any effect. The authors suggest that the results indicate that the fields used may not be of the right

magnitude, or that the calcium efflux change that may have been induced in the brain by the fields were

not large enough to produce changes in the CNS function. Blackwell [Blackwell 86] has also studied the

activity of spontaneously firing neurons in anesthetized rat exposed to 100 V/m field at 15 and 30 Hz,

both of which were resonant frequencies for the chick brain and for 50 Hz which is the frequency for

power transmission in the United Kingdom. He found no change at 50 Hz. However, the time, but not the

rate, of firing was changed for 15 and 30 Hz signals. It is not clear what if any implication this has for the

functioning of the animal.

Other than the work described above, no work has been done to see if similar effects exist in whole
29

organisms and if they do, whether these too show windows in the effects. However, if biological effects of

ELF fields on whole organisms show similar dependencies, then setting exposure standards would be a

problem, because the “more is worse” maxim which applies for most agents such as environmental

chemicals may not hold true in the case of ELF field exposure.

3.2. Chromosomal Damage and Interference with DNA Synthesis and RNA Transcription

DNA and RNA are the primary biomolecules in the cell. Nuclear DNA which is the primary

constituent of the chromosomes carries the genetic code while the extranuclear RNA transcribe the DNA

command codes into proteins for the physiological functioning of the cell. Well-studied cancer- initiating

agents such as ionizing radiation and chemicals cause direct damage to DNA by mutations. As

mentioned earlier, ELF fields do not have enough energy to break bonds or otherwise disrupt the

structure of DNA.

Chromosomes from blood samples of mice chronically exposed to 60 Hz fields of 50 kV/m , 10 G,

and from human lymphocytes and Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells exposed in vitro were examined

for sister chromatid exchange (SCE)3 and other forms of chromosomal damage [Benz 87, Cohen

86, Livingston 86]. These experiments were all negative and the extensive nature of these studies leads

to the conclusion that it is quite unlikely that ELF fields induce SCE’s or other standard chromosomal

aberrations.

However, changes in DNA synthesis rates and alterations in the transcription patterns of RNA, with

the resultant production of structurally changed proteins have been observed in cells exposed to low

intensity ELF fields. LibOff [Liboff 84] showed that the rate of DNA synthesis in human fibroblasts4 is

increased on exposure to ELF magnetic fields with intensities comparable to the earth’s magnetic field.

Goodman and coworkers [Goodman 86] showed that 60 Hz fields both qualitatively and quantitatively

change the pattern of translation (or, perhaps transcription) in cells from the salivary gland of a particular

insect 5

. The rate of production of the normal proteins made by the cell is increased. In addition, the field

causes new proteins to be made. Protein synthesis is a very complicated process and the experiments

yield no simple interpretation about the mechanisms or about potential effects on the organism.

3.3. Interaction with Response to Hormones and Effects on Endocrine Tissue

Only a few experiments have studied the effects of ELF fields on endocrine parameters. These

involve responses of various tissues to the corresponding hormones in the presence of an ELF fields.

Some interesting effects have been found. But, it is impossible at this point to draw any inference about

the effects of fields on the endocrine system in a human or animal, other than to say that fields do exert

an action on endocrine tissue and endocrine processes in vitro and these effects too show windows.

Luben et al. [Luben 82] reported a reduction in the cell response to parathyroid hormone (PTH) in

SSCE1S ~e a well.~arac~riz~ chromosomal defect known to result from agents such as i0nizin9 radiation

4Fibrob[=~are ~11~ in tie “extrace[lu[ar matrix” or the network of nloklk COfl!leCtif19 h Space OU~i* tie cells. ‘ibrob[=k

are responsible for produang material such as fibrin and other collagens, which form a large fraction of the matrix.

Sprotein syn~mis is a complex Promss hat begins in the cell nucleus. The first step k mflscriptiofl, he Process bY which ‘he

information in the DNA in the genes is used to form the molecule mRNA (messenger RNA). After some modifications, this mRNA is

translated into a sequence of aminoaads which rearrange to form proteins.
30

mouse cranial bone cells, exposed to 72 Hz and 15 Hz pulsed magnetic fields. This response was

measured as reflected in the cyclic AMP (cAMP) accumulation and collagen synthesis which normally

result from administration of PTH6

. Although not a 60 Hz field experiment, this study is significant in that

it demonstrated rather clearly that, for this action at least, the membrane is the site of action.

The only studies on endocrine tissue in vitro have been done by Lymangrover and coworkers who

investigated the effects of 60 Hz electric fields on the adrenal tissue7 (Lymangrover83, 87). They found

that a 60-Hz electric field caused an increase in the production of corticosterone in response to the

hormone ACTH (adrenocorticotropical hormone). Corticosterone is a hormone of the steroid family

involved in stress response and in anti-inflammatory reactions of the body. ACTH is a hormone one of

whose functions is to stimulate the production of corticosterone by the adrenal tissue. In the present

context, the production of corticosterone in response to ACTH is used as a biological process to examine

a possible effect of electric field exposure on a specific tissue function. The tissue level effect noted

below cannot be simply interpreted in terms of consequences in the whole animal.

The field did not produce any change in the amount of hormones produced by the tissue alone

(basal activity of the tissue). But when the tissue was activated with ACTH, and the resulting production of

corticosterone was measured, there was an increase in corticosterone production for certain values of the

field, for certain durations of exposure. That is, the effect showed intensity windows combined with an

exposure time dependence. Specifically, a 10 kV/m field intensity produced a fourfold increase in

corticosterone production on 5.5 to 7 hours exposure and a 1,000 kV/m intensity produced a twofold

increase during 2 hours of exposure. Fields of 5 and 100 kV/m produced no effect for any of these

durations. The complex intensity and time dependence are the most notable features of these

experiments. Although corticosterone level increase in response to ACTH is a stress response, tissue

level experiments do not necessarily act as indicators of response in situ [Axelrod 84].

3.4. Interaction with the Cell Response to Neurotransmitters

As much of the activity in the brain takes place through electrical signals, it is reasonable to

examine whether some of the chemical production in the brain are affected by exposure to electric fields.

Rates of neurotransmitter secretion especially of norepinephrine and dopamine by the hypothalamic

section of the brain in chicks and rats were found to change upon exposure to electric fields [Vasquez

86]. This effect is detailed in the subsection 4.2 on experiments in the whole animal.

3.5. Interaction with Immune Response of Cells

The immune response of the cells, that is the ability of the cells to act against foreign agents such

as viruses and toxic chemicals, is important in combating infection and maintaining a healthy function.

The several types of blood cells responsible for immune response have been examined in electric fields

to see if any change in their function can be observed. Decreased immune response could lead to

decreased resistance to disease or other harmful agents and is also suspected of accelerating the growth

of some cancers.

Gcyclic AMp or cyclic Adenosine MomptlOSptla@, is an intracellular signaling molecule, or, “second messenger”’ like ~lcium.

,,

PTH is a hormone that activates bone absorption of calcium using cAMP as the second messenger.

7Tissue from adrenal glands, situated over the kidney
31

Winters examined human and canine Ieukocytes8 under different combinations of ELF electric and

magnetic field exposure to see if immune response is modified by field exposure. [Winters 86].

Leukocytes taken from these dogs and people were examined under two conditions. First, immune

properties of normal, unstimulated white blood cells (that is, healthy white blood cells that was not

exposed to any known challenge to the immune system) were measured during exposure to fields.

Second, the dogs and human volunteers were injected with antigens9 and the white blood cells thus

stimulated to an immune response. The cells were then exposed to combinations of electric and

magnetic fields. The exposed cells were examined for immune responses . Tests showed no significant

effects of ELF field exposure on immunologic functions of normal or specifically immunized cells.

It is worth noting in this context that some authors have found responses when the cell was first

stimulated by antigens and then exposed to fields, and when the cells were subjected to pulsed fields10

Most of the results discussed in this paper are for fields which are not pulsed [Chiabrera 84, Hellman 85].

These observations point to two possibilities: that field effects on immune system response are

complicated ; and that there is a marked difference between cell behavior in sinusoidal regularly

alternating) and pulsed fields.

Lyle (1986) reported an alteration in the cytotoxicity (that is, the ability to kill cells) of T-lymphocytes

of the type CTLL-1 which are purified mouse lymphocytes that specifically attack cancer cells. The cells

were exposed to 60 Hz electric fields for 48 hours and their cytotoxicity measured. In general, the fields

inhibited the ability of these cells to kill cancer cells. A 0.10 mV/cm field inhibited the ability by 7%, a field

of 1 mV/cm by 18% and a field of 10 mV/cm by 30%. In this experiment, therefore, one sees a “doseresponse” type of relationship between the effect the magnitude of the effect and the intensity value of the

applied field. That is, in this range, the effect (inhibition of cytotoxicity) increases in proportion to the

intensity of the applied field. If the reduced immune capacity exhibited in this experiment by one

particular type of lymphocytes when exposed to low intensity electric fields, against a particular type of

cancer cell) turns out to be present also when the cell is in the whole organism, it may be one mechanism

by which the field inhibits the body’s resistance to cancer or cancer growth.

3.6. Interaction with Cells Relevant to Cancer

One hypothesis for potential carcinogenesis by ELF fields is that the fields promote cancer

formation or cancer growth rather than initiating cancer. This is discussed in the Endnote 2 on cancer.

The fact that ELF fields have not been known to cause alterations in DNA structure (see Section 3.2), is

consistent with the observation that ELF fields do not initiate cancer.

Several authors have looked for a response of leukemia cells to ELF field exposure [Liboff

84, Winters 86, Cain 86]. LibOff and Kaplow found that mouse leukemia cells exhibited increased DNA

synthesis [Liboff 84]. Winters and Phillips found increased DNA synthesis in human colon cancer cells

after 24 hours of exposure to 60Hz magnetic field. Field-exposed cancer cells also showed an increased

8Leukoqte~ is tie general term for white blood cells, types of which destroy invading bacteria, modljlate aller9ic reactions, ‘Voke

several immune responses and kill some infected and tumor cells.

gAntigens are subs~nces that elicit an immune response from the body. Examples are inf~Cl10n”C~uslf19 Viruses, pollen, etc.

IOpulS~ fiel~ are fields which are ~rned on quitiy for only a brief period. Most of the resldk discussed in fiis paper are ‘or

fields which ar not pulsed.
32

capacity to proliferate compared to unexposed cancer cells. At the request of the New York State Power

Lines Study Project, which sponsored the Winters study, Cohen attempted to replicate the Winters

results. [Cohen 871. He found no significant effects of the fields to affect the proliferative ability of the

same two lines of cells. For this and other reasons, the validity of the Winters results has been

questioned.

The group at the J.B. Pettis Veterans Hospital at Loma Linda have examined the tumor promotion

hypothesis by looking at effects of ELF fields on specific biochemical processes in the cell rather than by

looking at the cell growth itself. Their results are described below. They have so far examined :

1. Decreased immune response depicted by the CTLL-1 experiment described in the previous

section [Lyle 86],

2. Accelerated growth potential as measured by the increased activity of ornithine

decarboxylase (ODC), described below [Cain 86, Byus 86],

3. Loss of the ability of cells to communicate because of the loss of gap junctions, described

below [Fletcher 87].

Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) is present in all cells and is an essential enzyme for cell growth

because it helps synthesize biochemical that are necessary for DNA and protein syntheses. Any agents

promoting cell growth also increase ODC activity. Examples of biochemical that cause increased ODC

activity when administered to cells are : hormones and growth factors in the case of normal cells, and

tumor promoters such as phorbol esters that promote uncontrolled growth of tumor cells. Hence factors

that increase ODC activity can, but do not necessarily, lead to tumors. Highly increased ODC activity has

been used as an indicator of malignancy.

Cain’s experiments used normal fibroblasts which are a classical system for tumor promotion.

There was a two-fold increase in ODC activity in cultured fibroblast cells exposed to 60 Hz electric fields

at 10 mV/cm.

Fletcher’s experiments are based on the observation that gap junctions which help cells

communicate with each other lose their function in many tumor models in which there is evidence for

promotion. An example is the skin tumor in mice, a classical model of tumor promotion. He also notes

that tumor promoters have no effect on cells that do not express gap junctions. Fletcher reported that

while the field by itself has no effect on gap junctions in fibroblast cell lines, the field enhances the effect

of the tumor promoter chemical TPA 11. This experiment was, however, with modulated microwaves

rather than with 60 Hz fields.

Byus exposed human Iymphoma cells to 60 Hz fields and reported both intensity and time windows

for increase in ODC activity. The same value of increase was noted for 10mV/cm and 0.1 mV/cm field

intensities, with no effect by field values in between. On continuous exposure to field, the effect was

maximum at 1 hour of exposure time, and fell to control values at 2 hours of exposure. Beyond two hours

exposure, ODC activity continued to decrease, so that the phenomenon changed from one of

enhancement to one of inhibition of ODC activity after two hours. The activity went back to normal values

when the field was removed [Byus 86].

1 ITpA or 12+-tetrad~a@ ptlorbol-ls-awtate, is a potent promoter of cancer often used as an experiment standard in ,,

cancer promotion experiments
33

All the observations above, except the last, are consistent with a hypothesis that fields can promote

tumors but again carry with them the warning that any potential relationship between the field intensity

and the degree of promotion and may be highly complex. The last experiment shows that continuing to

remain in the field once an organism has entered it may be less perturbing than a pattern that involves

frequent periods of exposure and non-exposure .

3.7. General Observations on Cell Level Experiments

Despite many negative results, a significant number of cell level experiments have shown positive

effects from exposure to ELF fields. These are summarized in Table 3-1. These results do not yet

indicate any clear adverse impacts at the level of the whole animal. They do clearly demonstrate that:

. the cell membrane is one site of action of the field; and, therefore, processes governed by

the cell membrane may be candidates for disruption by field exposure, the immune response

and cell-cell communication being two such processes;

. the fields do not appear to act directly on the DNA structure; but may alter cellular processes

by interfering with the transcription by RNA, a process in the chain of command from DNA to

protein production;

. the effects may show a complex dependence on the intensity and frequency of the field and

the time pattern of exposure to the field; further, the effects of fields may depend on the

direction of the applied field in relation to the earth’s magneitc field or, upon whether the field

is a simple alternating field or a pulsed field. (i.e., a field turned on rapidly for brief periods)
34

Table 3-1: Cellular Level Experiments: Effects and possible significance

A Summary of results described in this section

Possible

Experiment Effects Noted Significance

Calcium efflux from Efflux is dramatically changed.

cell membrane The change occurs only at some

(6 experiments) frequency and intensity values,

but not at others.

Chromosomal Damage

(3 experiments)

DNA Synthesis Rate

(1 experiment)

RNA Translation

(1 experiment)

Cell Response Modifications: Response to:

A. hormones

(1 experiment)

B. Neurotransmitters

(1 experiment)

No chromosomal damage

detectable.

Rate change at low

magnetic field.

New proteins made by

the cell. Rate of transcription altered.

Modifications in adrenal

and bone tissue and connective

cell response.

to hormones

Phase shifts in

the periodicity of

secretion rhythms

C. immune system Not clear that there

(5 experiments) are significant effects

except in special cases.

Significance not clear

But points up the

possibility that effects

of fields may not be

such that “higher field intensity

is worse than lower”.

Does not cause the

damage that usually

initiates cancer.

Extremely low AC magnetic

fields as small as the

earth’s natural DC field

may affect cell process

rates.

Fields may alter rates

of primary cell processes.

Significance not clear.

Adrenal response shows

intensity windows. Bone tissue

experiment points to membrane

as site of action.

If true in humans, might

have implications for

psychological disorders, such as

chronic depression.

Implications not clear.
35

4. Whole Animal Experiments

Animal systems have been examined under a range of electric and magnetic field intensities and

for varied exposure conditions and durations. Historically, the animal experiments began by looking for

general effects rather than by formulating and testing hypotheses because there was no indication about

what system or function, if any, is most likely to be affected by fields.

The very early experiments in this area were riddled with problems of poor experimental design

leading to artifacts in results. Because of this, studies prior to 1970 are not discussed in any detail in this

report. In the past fifteen years, there have been a set of high quality experiments. But, as in the case of

the cellular level experiments, a hypothesis testing stage has not been reached in the science of health

effects on animals or humans. Epidemiological studies have focused on a search for cancer because of a

historical observation and the public saliency of cancer rather than because cancer is thought to be the

most likely effect.

Among the most impressive and concerted set of experiments with animals have been those

conducted at the Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories in Richland, Washington [Phillips 79] under a

rather large project funded primarily by the Department of Energy, and a few smaller projects by Electric

Power Research Institute (See Section 8), The first phase of these experiments consisted of extensive

screening studies in which animals were examined for all kinds of effects of electric fields at the

perceptual, behavioral and physiological levels. This screening was done under fairly high field strengths,

much higher than any field that is likely to be encountered even under the right-of-way as it was thought

that this would enable a potential effect to be picked up. This argument assumed that exposure to higher

fields produce more pronounced effects than that to lower values. The Battelle studies used small

animals such as mice, rat and miniature swine to study effects of fields on behavior, physical and motor

development and growth, immunology and hematology, and endocrinology. Several of the studies

spanned generations. The breadth of these studies, their careful experimental design and interpretation

make them the central source of knowledge in this area. This has in large part been due to the excellent

team work by experts in the various fields relevant to this area of study such as neurochemistry, stress

physiology, psychology, developmental toxicology, electrical engineering and physics and careful

integration of the results. Animal studies with sufficient numbers of animals to get statistically significant

results, are very expensive and time-consuming. For example, some of the Battelle studies spanned two

or three generations of mice and pigs ( 4-5 years), and involved as many as two hundred rodents in each

study.

Other laboratory studies with whole animals have involved isolated experiments rather than an

extensive program. Most of these have been funded by the New York State Power Lines Project

(NYSPLP), and by the Department of Energy program described in Section 8. Examples are

neuroendocrine studies by Michelson et al., circadian rhythm studies on rats by Ehret et al., and on

monkeys by Sulzman et al.; on field avoidance behavior of rats by Sagan et al., by Lovely and by

Hjeresen et al.; on central nervous system effects by Thomas et al. and Ossenkopf et al.; and

development in rats by Walker et al. and Salzinger et al. References are given below as each study is

described. Several studies among these were funded by the five-year long New York State Power Lines

Project. We have not described the avoidance behavior studies because it is not clear that they have

relevance to health effects, especially in humans.

Most well-designed animal studies expose the experimental animal to the fields according to a set
protocol of field exposure in a controlled environment. Exposure chambers for the experiments have to be

specially developed and calibrated. great care must be taken to avoid factors such as vibration, hum,

ozone or shock which could lead to erroneous results or “artifacts”. Exposed animals are compared with

animals living in an identical environment but subjected only to a “sham” exposure, that is, all conditions

for exposure are simulated but there is no actual exposure. The Battelle studies and some of the others

were done “blind” so that the persons handling and recording results from the animals did not know which

animals were really exposed and which were sham-exposed.

Field studies have been done on cows and some small animals in Sweden and Italy and by the

Bonneville Power Administration in Oregon.

Some studies of human physiological parameters have been done as part of the New York State

Power Lines Project. These are outlined in a separate section below. Finally, there are several

epidemiological studies that have investigated an association between ELF field exposure and cancer.

These are discussed in Section 6.

The animal and human studies are now reviewed under the following categories of effects:

1. General effects such as detection, avoidance and behavior responses and development

and learning of animals, and moods of humans.

2. Effects on externally measured physical parameters such as growth and birthweight,

respiration, heartbeat rate, and temperature rhythms.

3. Effects on specific biochemical such as hormones, and blood components

4. Effects on reproduction, growth and development

5. Effects on circadian rhythms of animals and humans.

6. Effects on human perception, performance on specific tests and physiology

7. Epidemiology of cancer, particularly leukemia and brain cancer.

4.1. Detection, Behavior, Learning and Avoidance Responses in Animals

Early Russian reports of necrologic symptoms such as headache and fatigue [Korobkova

72] together with the supposition that nervous tissue might be most responsive to field exposure because

some of its functions are enabled through electrical signals, prompted several of the animal experiments.

These experiments studied central nervous system (CNS) function directly by the observation of behavior

or indirectly by measurements on the secretion of certain hormones known to be associated with effects

on the central nervous system.

Perhaps the largest set of behavioral studies have involved studies of animal preferences to remain

in or avoid strong electric fields [Hjeresen 80, Stern 83, Stern 85]. While they are interesting, and show,

for example that rats can detect fields of just over 1 kV/m, we do not believe these experiments provide

much insight on health effects. They do, however, suggest that effects observed in experiments involving

strong electric fields may reflect the effects of sensory stimulation, rather than the direct effects of fields

on the cell.

Rogers and Smith have conducted experiments on the behavior of baboons in strong electric fields

of 30 kV/m and 60 kV/m. While the baboons exhibited alterations in postures and positions, there

appeared to be no consistent trend and the changes in positions were noted to be temporary. [Rogers 87]
37

No perception mechanism for magnetic fields at ambient strengths is known .

Thomas, Schrot and LibOff [Thomas 86a, Thomas 86b] studied the effects of magnetic fields alone

or in combination with drugs on specific learning schedules of rats. The objective was to look for effects

on behavior and learning and to see if fields affect the action of certain drugs on these animals. Magnetic

fields of 0.5, 1, 3 and 5 gauss were used, alone or in combination with 1 kV/m electric field. The results

indicate no systematic effect on the behavioral pharmacology of the two drugs used. Both of the drugs

have very definite reproducible effects on the learning schedules used. In 60 Hz magnetic fields alone or

in combination with electric fields, the learning schedule effects of the drugs continued to be the same as

in the absence of the field.

However, when the 60 Hz magnetic field was combined with a static magnetic field, a systematic

reproducible modification was produced in one of the learning effects. The change is transitory, lasting

more than one hour, but disappearing within 24 hours even when the field exposure is continued. The

authors conclude that under very precise conditions, magnetic fields may have an effect on learning.

Ossenkopp and Kavaliers showed that exposure to 60Hz magnetic fields in the range 1 to 1.5 G

produces a significant reduction in epileptic seizures induced in rats by pentylenetetrazol, an

epileptogenic drug [Ossenkopp 86]. There is no effect at 0.5 and 1.85 G. Exposure to 1G also had a weak

inhibitory effect on development of seizures by electrical kindling, that is, bringing on epileptic seizure by

applying an electric current to the brain. Mice exposed to magnetic field in the range 0.5 to 1.5 G also

exhibited significantly less analgesia than control or sham-exposed groups when morphine was

administered to them. That is, exposure to magnetic field appeared to make the rats less sensitive to the

numbing effects of morphine. The degree of inhibition increased for higher fields. However, the fields did

not influence the tolerance development to morphine in the mice.

These observations can not be simply extrapolated to any general conclusion except to note that

there are central nervous system effects which may be windowed even in the whole animal, and be very

specific with respect to field values as well as to specific functions.

4.2. Effects on Hormone Levels and the Central Nervous System

Levels of specific hormones are maintained in balance for the proper functioning of the central

nervous system (CNS) (See Endnote 2 for discussion of the specific hormone systems). Most prominent

among the aminoacid hormones synthesized in the brain and the nervous system are the catecholamines

dopamine, norepinephine and epinephrine. As they are released from nerve endings during physiologic

stimulation, they are called neurotransmitters. They have several functions and affect muscle, heart, liver,

spleen, lung and brain physiology. They control blood pressure, heartbeats, some forms of headache,

the basic metabolic rate, some psychological changes and several other rates. Deficient or excessive

secretion of catecholamines or alterations of their action cause major physiological and psychological

problems. Increased metabolism of catecholamines is also associated with neuroblastoma, a tumor

originating in the neural crest, often during fetal development.

Serotonin stimulates or inhibits many of the muscles and nerves, depending on the amount and the

phase of the organ in its function. it can stimulate or depress heartbeat, contract blood vessels and

change blood pressure. Serotonin prevents clotting, and provides reflexes such as coughing or

hyperventilation. In humans, serotonin also serves as a chemical transmitter in the brain. Serotonin and
38

its product melatonin influences sleep, perception of pain, psychological depression and social behavior.

Melatonin is also secreted by the pineal gland and is described in the endnote on circadian rhythms.

The levels of these hormones are not only responsive to external and internal signals, but undergo

a regular pattern of variation in different periodic rhythms. One such rhythm is the circadian rhythm which

has a period of about 24 hours (See endnote 4 on circadian rhythms). Large variations of these levels

and rhythms are therefore indicative of perturbations of CNS function.

In a study at Battelle, Free et al. (1981) noted a phase shift of the normal variations of hormones in

adult male rats exposed to 64 kV/m for 30 days and 120 days, but no change in body or organ weights.

They concluded that continuous exposure to electric fields may alter some endocrine system secretions

but do not appear to impair normal physiology [Free 81]. No significant changes were noted in the levels

of various neuroendocrine secretions by rats for 1 or 3 hours at 100 kV/m by Quinlan et al. [Quinlan 85].

A pineal function change was seen in the Battelle studies by Wilson et al. (1981). Continued

exposure to 60Hz electric fields of 1.7 to 65kV/m produced a depression of the night-time levels of

melatonin in rats, and introduced a delay in the activity in the rhythms of other biochemical activity. This

pineal melatonin depression effect did not appear in the animals immediately on exposure. For a 39 kV/m

field, the onset of the effect appears after two and before three weeks of exposure. In less than three

days after the cessation of exposure, the levels returned to normal. This experiment is discussed again in

the section on circadian rhythm because of its importance in that context.

Investigating this delay in the secretion of the neurochemicals in detail, Vasquez and coworkers

working jointly with the Battelle group, have found that the daily periodicity (or, circadian rhythm) of some

pineal hormones such as melatonin undergoes a change in rats exposed to strong electrical fields. A

period shift of four hours has been observed for the hormones norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine in

the exposed rats. [Vasquez 86]. This shift in the time of occurrence of peak and low levels, called “phase

shift”, may or may not be present in humans. A phase shift of these hormones with respect to the natural

light-dark cycle, if present in humans, might have implications for certain psychological disorders of

biochemical origin such as sleep and mood disorders, and chronic depression. As described in Section 5

(Figure 5-1 ), the fields in these experiments generate in the animal a current density comparable to the

exposure situation in a home near a 500kV line.

CNS endocrine secretion effects were also seen by Wolpaw et al. in an experiment on pig-tailed

macaque monkeys [Wolpaw 87].. The animals were exposed to electric and magnetic fields from (3 kV/m

and 0.1 G) to (30 kV/m and 0.9 G) for three periods of 21 days each, with 21 days of sham exposure in

between. Weight, blood chemistry, blood counts and performance on a simple motor task as well as

postmortem examination of brain and organs showed that fields did not apparently affect any of these

factors significantly for the period of exposure. Spermatogenesis was also seen to be normal. The

monkeys viewed by videotape while in the fields showed no indication of disturbance.

Cerebrospinal fluid examination at the end of each period showed significant decline of

homovanillic acid (HVA) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) whose levels in turn reflect those of

dopamine and serotonin (See endnote 2 on hormones). The experiments did not show any circadian

shifts. The 5-HIAA concentration failed to return to original levels after exposure, showing a permanent

effect in modulating an important neurotransmitter system which also plays a role in several

psychochemical disorders as mentioned above.
39

4.3. Effects on Blood and Immune System Chemistry

Blood and serum chemistry can reveal abnormal levels of metabolizes, immune system

components or hormones which may be indicative of improper functioning of some organ system. Blood

chemistry of rats exposed continuously to unperturbed fields has been examined in several studies.

A Battelle study looked at specific components of the immune system in mice in 68 kV/m fields for

30 to 150 days. It found no systematic significant variation in counts of blood cells or antibody responses

[Morris 82]. In another study at Battelle, adult rats were exposed for 15,30,60 or 120 days to a field of

68 kV/m. Blood counts of cells necessary for proper immune responses as well as serum constituents

indicative of proper level of metabolism were studied in detail in replicated experiments on groups of rats.

No variation was observed between exposed and sham-exposed rats in the various parameters examined

[Ragan 83]. Studies on immune response of rats at a field level of 100kV/m also showed no effect

[Morris 87]. In independent experiments, Michelson et al. at the University of Rochester also found no

change in these parameters [Quinlan 85]. The experiments on monkeys by Wolpaw et al. mentioned in

the preceding section also showed normal hematology and serum chemistry.

These experiments imply that there is no general or overall immune system performance changes

or endocrine system changes induced by exposure to electric fields of a rather high intensity over a

duration of several months.

4.4. Effects on Reproduction, Growth and Development

Reproduction, growth and development studies measure a wide variety of factors including:

reproductive behavior such as mating and fertility; the viability of the fetus; alterations in physical

parameters such as birth weight and head size; gross malformations; and central nervous system

development. In addition, some experiments have studied adult growth, particularly of bones and the

ability of bone to repair after it has been fractured. These are now discussed under the different

categories of reproduction and pre- and perinatal external development; central nervous system

development and adult growth and repair capability as examined under field exposure,

Reproduction, prenatal and perinatal development

Most of the studies of possible developmental effects of ELF field exposure have concluded that

there are no overt defects and malformations as a result of exposure. However, some studies have seen

subtle effects and the possibility of the existence of effects remains an open question. Tables 4-1 and 4-2

summarizes the experimental results.

Several investigators have used chicken eggs to study the effect of ELF fields on embryonic

development. While early experiments in Spain, using pulsed12 magnetic fields reported an increase in

developmental abnormalities [Ubeda 83, Delgado 82], attempts to replicate the effects yielded mixed

results. Tell and coworkers at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency could not see any statistically

significant effect [Martucci 84]. However, Mild reported from Sweden that he did observe an increased

abnormality in chick embryos exposed to weak, pulsed magnetic fields [MWN 84]. Maffeo et al. also

found no developmental effects on chick embryos exposed to pulsed ELF fields [Maffeo 84].

lzpuls~ fields are fieids which are turned on quickly for only a brief Period.
40

Table 4-1: Summary of reproduction, prenatal and perinatal development in rats, and chicks exposed to

60Hz fields

Animal and

Exposure Conditions

Chick eggs

incubated in 0-100kV/m

electric fields

—Rats in 100kV/m fields —

Males and females exposed

Females exposed during

pregnancy

Females exposed during

pregnancy; exposure of newborn continued for 8 days

Fetal exposure beginning

at three-fourths term to

25 day old newborn

Observed Effects and Conclusions

No effects on mortality, deformity or birth weight

No physical developmental defects in chicks

due to exposure in this range

No effect on mating performance or fertility

No effect on full-term development of

appearance and size of fetus

No effect on litter size, stillbirths, birth weights,

or early external neuromuscular or neurological

development

Fewer stillbirths and neonatal deaths in exposed

compared to sham-exposed animals. No observable

changes in early neonatal development
41

Todate, exposure to 60Hz fields of chick embryos has not shown any significant abnormalities.

Graves et al. [Graves 85] exposed over 20,000 eggs to a range of 60 Hz electric fields ranging from O to

100 kV/m through the 21-day incubation period. They found no effects on mortality, deformity, or on

weights of embryos or one-day old chicks.

Pulsed magnetic fields, however, continue to cause concern and controversy in the scientific

community with respect to their potential detrimental effect on the development of chick embryos.

Following the early work cited above, the U.S. Office of Naval Research and the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency sponsored six independent laboratories in the U. S., Canada and Europe in a planned

series of experiments involving exposure of chick eggs to pulsed magnetic fields with the same set of

characteristics. All the laboratories also examined the same endpoints. Exposed eggs were examined for

fertility. Embryos were examined for abnormalities in development, and for growth. This project,

nicknamed the “Henhouse Project” showed an overall increase in the proportion of abnormal embryos in

the exposed group for all the laboratories taken together, although the exact proportion of abnormality

differed from one laboratory to another. It is to be noted again that this result is for pulsed fields.

Scientists cannot say what the implications are for 60Hz fields and humans. The Henhouse Project group

are planning further research on developmental abnormalities.

Three experiments of reproduction and development were done on large numbers of rats (over 100

rats in each study) as part of the early screening studies at Battelle. The animals were exposed to

uniform 100 kV/m 60 Hz electric fields [Phillips 79].

The first experiment, replicated three times, examined reproductive behavior, fecundity and fetal

development. The male and female animals were exposed to the field for six days. This did not affect

their reproductive performance. A 30-day exposure of males and females prior to mating also did not

affect mating performance or fertility. The females continued to be exposed during pregnancy. The

appearance and size of fetuses were examined after 20 days of gestation (Full term for rats is about 22

days). In the second experiment, postnatal development subsequent to prenatal exposure was examined

in four replicates. Exposure was begun on the first day of pregnancy and continued until the offspring

were 8 days old, a total of 30 days. Parameters of physiological, behavioral and neuromuscular

development were noted. Exposure did not affect litter size, incidence of stillbirths, or birthweights. No

differences between exposed and sham-exposed animals were noted in morphological, neuromuscular or

neurological development.

The third experiment of five replicates measured development as a consequence of exposure for

30 days, from day 17 of gestation to when the offspring was 25 days old. The same set of developmental

measures as in the previous experiment were used. Significantly fewer stillbirths and neonatal deaths

were noted in the exposed group in this case. No changes were noted in neonatal development.

The authors concluded from these experiments that exposure to high fields before and immediately

after birth did not affect the growth or development of rats.

Two experiments in which rats were exposed prenatally to 80 kV/m fields during the last trimester

of pregnancy indicate that such exposure may slightly retard postnatal development as measured by ear

flap separation and eye opening and alter sexual differentiation. These experiments were, however, done

using only about 15 experimental and 15 control animals each and the results are therefore are not

conclusive. [Burack 84]
42

A study of Hanford miniature swine was also a screening study to look at a larger and longer-lived

species than rodents over multiple generations. The time course of the systematic study over three

generations is shown in Figure 4-1 reproduced from the paper by Sikov [Sikov 87].

In the figure, FO denotes the original generation of the female swine. These lived in a 30 kV/m, 60

Hz electric field for 20 hours each day for 4 months before they were mated with unexposed male swine,

and continued living in the field while they were pregnant with the first, and in some cases with the

second, set of offspring. The first generation F, females were bred to unexposed boars at 18 months of

age and gave birth to the second generation F2

. In the figure, Teratology13 I,II, Ill denotes the points in

time at which detailed morphologic evaluations of the newborn were performed. This included external

measurements, weight and observations of internal and external malformations. Prenatal embryonic loss

was also noted.

Teratology I and Ill, of the first set of offspring of the original and of the second set of offspring of

the first generation yielded no incidence of abnormal growth or malformations as compared with sham

exposed swine. Teratology II of the second bred offspring of the original generation showed a

significantly larger proportion of malformations than the corresponding sham-exposed group.

There was a tendency toward less prenatal mortality in the exposed group. That is, there were

more live fetuses per litter in the field-exposed group than in the sham-exposed. There were no other

significant differences. The authors conclude that while the experiment suggests that there is an

association between field exposure and prenatal growth and development, no definite conclusions can be

drawn.

Two replications of the experiment similar to the swine experiment were performed with rats as a

followup to the swine study at Battelle [Rommereim 87]. The rats were exposed to a higher field -

10OkV/m for 19 hours per day. An experimental protocol similar to the swine study over the three

generations was used.

In the first of these experiments, an increase in birth defects in the second farrow of the original (Fo

)

generation and a decreased fertility of the F, generation were noted. But these effects were absent in the

second replicate study. Because of this, it is not clear whether the observed effects in the first experiment

were due to a random variation rather than due to a significant effect of field exposure.

The scattered positive results in these experiments do not allow the possibility of an association

between electric field exposure and gross musculoskeletal abnormalities to be ruled out. However, taken

together, the studies do not provide strong support for the existence of an effect.

Prenatal exposure in humans —

Wertheimer and Leeper (Wertheimer 87) used birth announcements to examine the association

between the use of electric blanket or electrically heated waterbed and irregularities in pregnancy

outcomes. The authors noted a seasonal pattern indicating a higher abortion rate, longer gestation

periods and lower birthweights in babies born to users of heated waterbeds and electric blankets.

IsTeratology is the study of bi~h defects
43

IOOd

● I

Start 1st

exposure Breed

Far

18 mo

I

114d 10 mo

I

1st 2nd

Breed Breed

I

Far row

F 2

10 mo

I

Sac r ifIce

Figure 4-1: Scheme for three-generation reproduction study of Hanford miniature swine exposed to

60Hz electric field of 30 kV/m, 20 hours a day, 7 days a week: The horizontal length of the

bars are proportional to the time elapsing in each generation. FO, F1, and F2 denote the

original, first generation and second generation of miniature swine respectively. Generations

F0 and F, were bred twice. After the start of the exposure, the female swine continued to

live in the electric field. F0

, the original generation consisted of 49 sows derived from 13

mothers and a single father. 31 of these 48 animals formed the exposed group, and 18 the

sham-exposed group. The F0

. sows were bred first after 4 months of exposure to unexposed

boars. 18 exposed and 10 sham-exposed sows of the F0 generation produced the F1

generation. Teratology I (examination for birth defects) was done 14 days prior to birth on

some of the litters of the F0 swine. The FO were bred again after 10 months to produce the

second farrovv of the original generation. The F, females were bred at 18 months age to

produce F2 generation and again 10 months later to produce the second farrow of the first

generation.

Reference: [Sikov 87]
44

Table 4-2: Studies of Three Generations of Swine and Rats

Animal and Observed Effects and Conclusions

Exposure Conditions

Hanford miniature swine First set of offspring of original and

Three generations in 30kV/m second set of offspring of first generation

electric field normal in prenatal development. Less prenatal mortality

Females exposed and in exposed group.

mated with unexposed Second bred offspring of original generation

boars showed increased incidence of malformations

primarily of musculosketal system.

Rats: Replication

of swine study. Two repetitions

of three generation study

Study 1 Increase in birth defects of second farrow of first generation

parallel to swine study

Study 2 No effect observed.
45

This study is at best a preliminary scoping study because of the large number of experimental

biases and small sample size. Sources of human prenatal developmental abnormalities are

characterized only for at most 20 to 30 % of the observed cases [Wilson 74] and confounding effects

abound. Only a very careful study done with a knowledge of the base seasonal variations of different

kinds of abnormalities, maternal habits and exposures, and genetic susceptibility can reveal any potential

effect of fields on the developing human. A database for the baseline for such a study exists in the

Congenital Malformation Surveillance System at the Center for Disease Control in Atlanta [Edmonds 81 ].

This is an intensive surveillance system which is a useful resource for birth defect studies, especially in

the case of weak potential agents such as ELF fields. On our initiative, selected questions related to ELF

exposure have been added to the survey questionnaire for this system since late 1985 [Sever 84] and

may yield reasonable conclusions by the early 1990’s. The questions ask about the use of electric

blankets and electrically heated waterbeds during and immediately preceding pregnancy in order to

assess if there is any observable association between such use and birth defects.

Growth, development and bone repair in adult animals

Growth and repair in bones have been associated with pulsed ELF fields used clinically [Bassett

74, Bassett 82] and several studies have examined the effects of 60Hz fields on bone growth and repair.

In a large study at Battelle, Hilton and Phillips conducted a series of 31 separate experiments, 17

with rats and 14 with mice to determine effects of 65kV/m fields for different periods of exposure (30, 60,

or 120 days) [Hilton 81]. Effects examined were: body and organ weights; food and water consumption;

and, metabolic rates such as oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production. While there were

some variations in some of the experiments, the authors concluded that there were no major changes in

any of these features and that therefore living in 65 kV/m fields for four months produced no effects on

the growth and metabolism of rodents.

A smaller study by Walker et al. [Walker 82] examined effects on bone growth in prenatally

exposed rats. Leg bones from 55 adult rats conceived, born and raised in a 80 kV/m, 60 Hz electric field

were compared with those from sham-exposed animals. Body weight, wet and dry bone weights, bone

length, and specific gravity of bone were studied. Chronic field exposure enhanced growth in the long

bones causing increased length and mass, but not in specific gravity. No tumors or other effects were

noted. The magnitude of the effect was small, about 5%, but statistically significant. In another study,

male rats were exposed to 10.2 G at 60Hz for 30 days . Although there appeared to be a trend toward

impaired growth, there were no observable skeletal effects [Simmons 86].

The Battelle group also studied the effect of 10OkV/m fields on bone growth and fracture repair

[McClanahan 83] in rats. Exposure of young and adult rats of both sexes for 20 hours a day did not alter

growth rate of bones. Bone repair was tested by examining bending and breaking strength of fractured

and intact leg bones at several periods after bone surgery. The exposed group showed a slightly lower

repair capability as measured by lower strength during early periods after surgery(16 and 20 days), but

the repair was normal by day 26. The authors state that the exposure retards the rate of repair but does

not lead to permanently diminished strength. It is also not clear whether the diminished repair was due to

the lowered rate of bone deposition or due to the fact that the rats in the field tended to move more than

the sham-exposed rats because they felt the field.
46

Overall, high intensity electric fields do not appear to have a strong effect on bone growth and

repair in rodents.

Early brain and central nervous system development

There are several isolated experiments that have looked at different effects which are indicators of

early development of the brain and central nervous system. Because of the different aspects examined,

they do not lead to any simple conclusion. The results are summarized in Table4-3. The one significant

lesson from these experiments is that there maybe subtle effects in facets of development that are hard

to measure. These may include learning retention as the animal is subjected to repeated learning

experiments. All but one of the studies have done single measurements of some parameter of learning

rather than continued repetitive learning.

Studies in Sweden by Hansson reported that the brain morphology of certain parts of the brain of

various small animals such as rodents and rabbits born and reared under 100 kV/m fields showed

abnormalities [Hansson 81]. These results were based on qualitative tissue pathology and were subject to

significant criticism in the research community. Experiments since then have failed to replicate the result

[Albert 84].

As part of the New York State Power Lines Project (NYSPLP), a study by Gona et al. examined the

various aspects of the developing nervous system in rats [Gona 871. The prenatal and perinatal

development of rat brain was studied under continuous exposure of pregnant and newborn rats. Three

field combinations (1 kV/m and 10 G); (100 kV/m and 1 G); and, (100 kV/m and 10 G) were used.

Indexes of cerebral and cerebella development of the brain were noted for different periods of

development.

No significant permanent differences in the biochemical and morphological parameters of brain

development were observed between exposed and sham-exposed animals. The features observed by

Hansson were not evident in these animals.

Blackman et al. [Blackman 88] examined whether the in vitro calcium efflux effect in chick brain

tissue described earlier in section 3 is affected by prenatal exposure of the chick. (i.e., the exposure of

eggs) to 60 Hz and 50 Hz fields. They found that eggs exposed to a 60 Hz electric field produced chicks

with brain tissue that showed the calcium efflux effect for 50 but not 60 Hz. Eggs incubated at 50 Hz

produced chickens with brain tissue that were not affected by 50 or 60 Hz fields. The result was not

sensitive to particular intensity values, but to the frequency. This finding was confirmed in three separate

experiments by Blackman. It shows that prenatal exposure to ELF fields can affect postnatal tissue

physiology in very specific ways.

Subtle central nervous system effects can result from some prenatal insults that may be manifested

only later in the offspring’s life and hence may not become evident in studies done soon after birth.

Examples of prenatal chemical insults that lead to defects much later on in life are the pregnant mother’s

use of diethylstilbesterol (DES) which led to carcinogenesis in women offspring; and of alcohol use that

can lead to learning deficits in children and nutritional deficits that lead to persistent functional deficits

[Snell 82].

The Battelle studies described earlier in this section have examined some learning and behavioral
47

Table 4-3: Early development of brain and central nervous system in exposed animals (Details in text)

Experimental Conditions

Rodents and rabbits born and

reared in 10OkV/m; Brain tissue

examined for change in appearance

Prenatal and perinatal development

under combinations of 1 kV/m

and 100kV/m electric field, and

1G and 11 G magnetic field

Calcium efflux effect in

brain tissue of chicks

hatched from exposed eggs

Rats exposed from 3/4 term of

gestation to 11-20 days age

Early learning and repetition of

learning in rats exposed in utero

Observations and Conclusions

Alteration noticed on examination by

Hansson in Sweden. Attempts at

replication by Albert in the U.S.

found no evidence of the differences.

No significant effects on biochemical or

visual morphology of brain development

Frequency window may be affected by prenatal

exposure. No intensity window

No effect on early motor activity learning;

No effect in total electrical activity of

the brain

Learning response decreases when learning

tests are repeated.
aspects of newborn rats as well as perinatally (day 11-20). In the simple learning experiments involving

motor development, no significant effects were found.

in another set of experiments at Battelle, Jaffe [Jaffe 83] measured the development of the visual

evoked response (VER) in newborn rats exposed prenatally and perinatally. The VER is a measure of

the total electrical activity of the nerve cells that process the information supplied by a visual stimulus

(regular light flash in this instance). Early changes are an index of CNS development. In tests on a total

of 114 rats from 114 litters, no significant effect of exposure was found for upto 20 days of perinatal

exposure.

Salzinger et al. note that it may be important to study behavioral effects over more training sessions

than may be done ordinarily [Salzinger 87]. In their studies, they examined the behavior of rats exposed

in utero and for the first eight days of life. Exposure levels of 30 kV/m, 1 G and 10 kV/m, 0.33 G fields

were used and the experiment was done blind, with sham and real exposure settings.

A specific behavioral and learning test was used. Other parameters such as physical appearance,

general activity level and weight were also monitored. None of the physical parameters showed any

difference between the sham and exposed groups at either of the field levels. The exposed and shamexposed group started out with the same learning response level. However, repetition of the learning

tests showed that the performance of the two groups increasingly diverged, with the exposed group

showing a more and more lowered rate of response in subsequent sessions. This divergence was higher

for the higher field levels than the lower. This difference in learning was found to be robust in that it was

maintained when the behavior was extinguished and the animals reconditioned. The effect was

reproducible.

Salzinger et al. note that most experiments involve an examination of the early learning behavior

and do not continue conditioning studies. Their results show that it is important to study conditioning over

a larger number of training sessions because the effects may become evident only late in the conditioning

process. The robustness of their results implies that it may be important to attempt to replicate

experiments of this type in other laboratories, in other animals and for other learning behaviors in order to

understand the full implications of perinatal field exposure for learning.

4.5. Effects on the Circadian Systems of Animals and Humans

The circadian timing system serves to synchronize various physiological and biochemical

processes that have a daily cycle. While many aspects of the biology of the circadian and other timing

systems are not well understood as yet, the last two decades have brought considerable understanding of

some of the elements of the system. Endnote 4 summarizes some of the relevant background and

terminology.

Early work by Brown [Brown 70] suggested that geophysical variables (timing and amount of sun,

etc.) play an important role in giving time cues to circadian systems. Natural geomagnetic and

geoelectrostatic fields maybe one of these entraining cues as they undergo a daily variation of about

15% in intensity. Dowse and Palmer [Dowse 69] showed that an electrostatic field can entrain the activity

rhythm of mice.

Wever’s is the only extensive work on the effects of low intensity fields on circadian activity of
49

humans [Wever 74, Wever 79]. Human subjects (all men) lived in underground bunkers for 3 to 8 weeks

at a time. One bunker was isolated from natural electromagnetic fields while one was not. Subjects living

in the shielded bunker showed a tendency to have desynchronized temperature and activity rhythms, with

significantly longer circadian periods than those who continued to be exposed to the natural fields. The

application of a small electric field of 2.5 V/m at 10 HZ reduced the internal desynchronization, while a 600

V/m direct current (DC) failed to have any effect. Application of the low-intensity, low-frequency field in

12-hour on, 12-hour off cycles restored the circadian period to the natural value.

Work by Ehret’s group at the Argonne National Laboratories monitored different rhythms of mice

simultaneously while exposing them to different AC fields [Duffy 82, Ehret 80]. Their work showed that

depending on the field applications protocol, phase delays were produced in activity and metabolism

rhythms. However, as the field strength used in this work was very high (130kV/m) and only one species

of mice were used, the work can not be used to conclude that lower field levels affect circadian activity in

rodents.

Dowse (1982) also showed that a 150 V/m electric field at 10 Hz advances the phase in the

locomotor activity of the fruit fly Drosophila Melanogaster under constant light conditions when the field is

applied in a 12-hr on, 12-hr off pattern, perhaps taking the place of the normal LD cycle cue.

The most striking and directly demonstrated circadian effect of 60 Hz electric fields on animals

came from the work of Wilson, Anderson and colleagues at the Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories.

They examined the effect of continued 60 Hz electric field exposure on the functioning of the rat pineal

gland as measured by the circadian pattern of secretion of 5-methoxytryptophol (5-MHOT, melatonin and

serotonin-N-acetyl transferase (SNAT). Night levels of melatonin and SNAT in mice are generally several

times higher than day levels. Field exposure in the range of intensities 1.7 to 65 kV/m depressed the

melatonin rhythm , and introduced a delay in the SNAT activity rhythm. This effect, however, was not

immediate on field exposure . For a 39 kV/m field, the onset of the effect appears after two weeks and

before three weeks of exposure. The animal recovers from the effect on cessation of exposure in less

than 3 days after initiation of exposure. There was no apparent change in the magnitude of the effect at

the different field strengths.

As part of the New York State Power Lines Project, Sulzman and colleagues examined the effects

of a range of electric and magnetic fields ( O to 39 kV/m, O to 1 gauss) on free-running periods of food and

oxygen consumption of squirrel monkeys, maintained under constant light [Sulzman 86]. Although the

number of monkeys used in the experiment is small (1 O), there was a systematic increase of effect with

increasing values of field intensity. The two rhythms did not show any increase in a 2.6 kV/m, 1 G field;

Three out of nine monkeys showed a statistically significant increase in the period of both rhythms in 26

kV/m, 1G; and three out of four monkeys showed an increase in a 39 kV/m, 1G field. There was no

desynchronization between the two cycles measured . Both individual variation of susceptibility to the

effect among the monkeys and residual effects were noted. Three of the ten monkeys involved in these

experiements continued to maintain their longer period even after the removal of field exposure. Inspite of

the small number of animals in the experiment, the results are reliable because the investigators have

maintained several years of circadian period data on this class of monkeys and found them to be

remarkably stable with little dependence on age and various kinds of treatment.

In summary, experiments on the effect of electric and magnetic fields on the circadian systems of
50

man, primates and lower animals indicate a definite effect of 60 Hz fields on the periodicity of

physiological functioning. It is not clear whether such effects are deleterious or even long-lasting.

Dyschrony of the circadian system has been associated with physiological and psychological disorders

ranging from altered sensitivity to drugs and toxins and internal conflicts between the timing of

physiological processes to sleep, performance and other psychiatric disorders including chronic

depression [Maurizi 84]. Hence it would be useful to do some careful and focused research on the

potential effects of low-level 60Hz fields on the circadian system in humans and animals.

4.6. Experiments with Human Subjects

Like many other animal species, humans can detect power-frequency electric fields through

stimulation of receptors on the surface of the skin. Deno and Zaffanella [Deno 82] found the threshold of

perception to depend on body posture and to vary markedly across individuals. The lowest detection

thresholds for vertical electric fields were associated with stimulation of hand hair with the hand held over

the head. The median threshold of perception across 136 individuals for this posture was found to be 7

kV/m. With arms at the side, the field is first perceived as stimulation of head hair. The median threshold

of perception in this case was about 23 kV/m. For both postures, the most sensitive individuals could

detect fields smaller than 2 kV/m.

In a carefully designed experiment, Graham et al. conducted a study to evaluate human perception,

performance and physiology in 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields. The effect of fields on performance

was studied through a specific battery of tests that measured effects on the EEG14 in response to visual

and auditory signals; memory; reaction time; time perception and some specific information processing

abilities. Physiology was monitored by blood chemistry and other parameters such as heart rate.

Subjective feelings were also elicited [Graham 871. The exposure chamber was carefully designed and

built, and the study done blind with each volunteer subject serving as his own control. All 20 subjects

were healthy males between 21 and 35 years of age, and were given complete explanation of the

purpose of the experiment. Field strengths were O-32 A/m and 15 kV/m for a few hours at a time.

The perception experiments showed that while subjects differed in their sensitivity to the fields,

there was no difference when the fields were presented individually or in combination. Fields increasing

gradually resulted in a higher perception threshold than a sudden onset.

Most vital signs, physiological parameters, daily life activities and moods were not affected by the

field strengths presented. Also not affected were simple reaction time, memory span, fatigue and ability

to make decisions. Some changes were detected in heart beat interval and on tests demanding specific

EEG activity but the variations were within normal ranges for these parameters.

Followup studies of the observed heartbeat changes showed some definite effects in heartbeat rate

and performance. Two groups of fifteen subjects each were exposed to different exposure conditions.

One group was subjected to field exposure for 6 hours in alternating 45-minute periods of field on and off.

The second group was exposed to a fast, intermittent exposure pattern of 15 seconds of switching on and

off for periods of 45 minutes followed by 45 minutes of fields off. While preliminary, the results suggest

IdThe EEG or electrOen~ph@rarn, is a record of the variations in electric potential recorded from the brain and is indicative of

the electrical activity in the brain. EEG patterns depend upon diverse factors such as age, sleep state, blood glucose, and levels of

brain hormones.
51

that alertness and reaction time were notably affected in the intermittent exposure group and there is an

individual variation in individual susceptibility to fields. [Graham 88]
52

5. Comparing Laboratory and Human Exposures

Studies of the bioeffects of power-frequency fields described in the preceding sections, involve

many different subjects, exposure systems, and exposure regimens. Animal studies have examined field

effects on rats, mice, miniature swine, cows, guinea pigs, and chicken eggs. in vitro studies have

employed perfused nervous system tissue, cell cultures, and entire organs (e.g. heart, brain). This

section describes electric and magnetic induction in these experimental systems and presents a

comparison of the exposures in several specific experiments to the exposures in the set of common

human exposure situations described in Section 2.6.

5.1. Laboratory Animals - Electric Induction

The factors that most affect electric induction are body shape, the orientation of the body relative to

the field, and body grounding. The charge induced on the surface of the body is independent of both

body size and the conductivity of body tissue. The conductivities of various body tissues do, however,

affect the specific paths that induced currents take through the body.

Rough estimates of body-averaged quantities can be obtained from simple theoretical models such

as those by Barnes and colleagues [Barnes 67] which approximate the body as an elongated sphere.

Table 5-1 gives the body-average internal electric fields and current densities that such models predict for

a number of different species under several exposure conditions.

The data in Table 2-9 show clearly that electrically-induced fields and currents are most intense

when the applied field is parallel to the long axis of the body. For such a condition, the data also show

that induced fields are greatest for the most elongated species (i.e. humans). Finally, these calculations

indicate that body-average exposure intensity is more intense when the body is grounded than when it is

ungrounded.

5.2. Laboratory Animals - Magnetic Induction

By Faraday’s law, the intensity of the current induced at any point in the body by a spatially uniform

magnetic field is proportional to the rate of change of flux through all closed current paths that include that

point. This means that both magnetically-induced current density and magnetically-induced electric fields

will tend to zero near the body center and reach maximum values at those areas of body surface that lie

most parallel to the applied magnetic field. Both peak and volume-averaged magnetically-induced electric

field and current density tend to scale with body radius.

Estimates of magnetically-induced electric fields and currents come primarily from theoretical

models that treat the body as a homogeneous sphere, spheroid, or ellipsoid [Kaune 86, Spiegel

76, Spiegel 77]. A limited number of measurements have been made of magnetic induction in

homogeneous human models [Guy 76]. These measurements demonstrate the presence of local

induced fields that are several times stronger than volume-average values.

Using the same approach adopted above for comparing body-average electric induction in animals

and humans, we have computed the magnetically-induced volume-averaged current density and the

volume-averaged electric field induced in a set a spheroids with dimensions chosen to approximate the

shape of several species including man. Our calculations are based on an analysis by Kaune that can be

used to estimate the electric field at any point within a homogeneous spheroid exposed to a uniform
53

Table 5-1: Electric induction in various species by a 60 Hz uniform electric field of 1 kV/m. Ei is the

average magnitude of internal electric field, and Ji is the volume-averaged current density.

Estimates are presented for the field both parallel and perpendicular to the long axis of the

body and for both the grounded and ungrounded condition. a/b is the ratio of the lengths of

the long and short axes of the elongated sphere used to approximate body shape. Induced

electric field is given in millivolts per meter. Current density is given in nanoamps per square

centimeter. Adapted from [Barnes 67].

Specie a/b Grounding Field orientation Ei Ji

relative to long axis (mV/m) (nA/cm2

)

Human

Human

Human

cow

cow

cow

Swine

Swine

Swine

Mouse/rat

Mouse/rat

Mouse/rat

Chick egg

yolk*

5.5

5.5

5.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

3.0

3.0

3.0

2.7

2.7

2.7

1.0

Grounded

Ungrounded

Ungrounded

Grounded

Ungrounded

Ungrounded

Grounded

Ungrounded

Ungrounded

Grounded

Ungrounded

Ungrounded

Ungrounded

Parallel

Parallel

Perpendicular

Perpendicular

Parallel

Perpendicular

Perpendicular

Parallel

Perpendicular

Perpendicular

Parallel

Perpendicular

Either

1.0

.35

.035

.04

.25

.035

.045

.15

.035

.045

.13

.04

.02

20.

7.

.7

.8

5.

.7

.9

3.0

.7

.9

2.5

.8

.4

● Field in yolk estimated using concentric sphere model with conductivities

of 2.5 S/m15 and 7.2 S/m for yolk and albumin, respectively [Tinga 73].

magnetic field [Kaune 86]. Magnetic induction was estimated for applied fields both parallel and

perpendicular to the long axis of the body. The results of these calculations are presented in Table 5-2.

This analysis shows that magnetically-induced body currents are much larger for large species than

for small ones. In comparing the magnetic fields used in lab animal experiments to the fields that humans

commonly encounter, one may want to adjust laboratory exposure intensities to account for these

differences in magnetic induction. Another conclusion one can draw from Table 5-2 is that induced

currents are slightly larger when the field is applied perpendicular to the long axis of the body. This is a

consequence of Faraday’s Law, which says that induced currents are proportional to the area enclosed

by the current loop.

IsS/m or, Siemens ~r meter is tie unit for speafic conductivity. The Siemen (S) is the same magnitude as the formerly used

(ohm)-l ‘
54

Table 5-2:

Specie

Magnetic induction in a homogeneous elongated sphere by a 60 Hz uniform magnetic field of

1 gauss. The long axis of the spheroid, a, and the ratio, a/b, of the lengths of the long and

short axes are chosen to approximate the dimensions of various species. Ei is the

average magnitude of the magnetically-induced electric field inside the body (in millivolts per

meter) and Ji is the average magnitude of the magnetically-induced current density (in

nanoamps per square centimeter). Based on analysis by Kaune [Kaune 86].

a a/b Field orientation rel- Ei Ji*

(m) ative to long axis (mV/m) (nA/cm2),

Human

Human

cow

cow

Swine

Swine

Mouse

Mouse

Rat

Rat

Chick Egg

(Yolk)

1.7 5.5

1.7 5.5

2.5 4.5

2.5 4.5

0.9 3.0

0.9 3.0

0.08 2.7

0.08 2.7

0.17 2.7

0.17 2.7

0.025 1.0

Parallel

Perpendicular

Parallel

Perpendicular

Parallel

Perpendicular

Parallel

Perpendicular

Parallel

Perpendicular

Either

3.4

4.4

6.2

8.0

3.3

4.3

0.33

0.42

0.70

0.89

0.28

68.

88.

120.

160.

66.

86.

6.6

8.4

14.

18.

200.

● - Assumed conductivity is .2 S/m except 7.2 S/m for egg yolk [Schwan 57, Tinga 73].

5.3. In Vitro Experiments

This section describes the tissue currents associated with some of the in vitro experiments

described in Section 3. The preparations used in these experiments include chick brains, cultured blood,

cancer, and bone cells, and adrenal tissue. Exposure means include placing the preparation within

magnetic field coils, exposing cells to special radio frequency fields in large wave guides, and by placing

electrodes directly into their growth medium of the cells.

5.3.1. Pulsed Magnetic Field Exposures

The bioeffects literature contains many references to both in vivo and in vitro experiments that

involve exposures to pulsed magnetic fields generated by Helmholtz coils. Many of these experiments

involve pulses with rise times of about 100 microseconds and peak magnetic fields of about 10 Gauss.

Such systems are capable of inducing peak electric fields of about 1 mV/cm in tissues of 1 cm diameter

and proportionately larger electric fields in tissues of larger dimension. For typical tissue conductivities of

.2 Siemens per meter, this corresponds to a current density of 200 nWcm2. Induced fields and currents in

tissues with dimensions greater than 1 cm are proportionately larger.
55

5.3.2. ELF-Modulated Radiofrequency Exposures

There are a number of experimental studies (those by Adey [Adey 82], Bawin [Bawin 75], Blackman

[Blackman 85a], and Lyle [Lyle 83] being notable examples) that have demonstrated bioeffects of

exposures to radiofrequency fields (100-1000 Mhz) that are amplitude-modulated at ELF frequencies

(0-100 Hz). Amplitude modulation, as applied here, means that the intensity of the radiofrequency field is

varied sinusoidally at ELF frequencies. Because electric fields induced in tissue are proportional to

frequency, radiofrequency fields couple much more strongly to tissues than do ELF fields. The

radiofrequency fields in the experiments listed above induce radiofrequency fields in the exposed tissue of

1-10 V/m.

Given evidence suggesting that the mechanisms by which fields interact with cells are nonlinear,

some scientists have proposed that cells may be capable of “demodulating” amplitude-modulated fields.

That is, cells may be able to extract the ELF component of the high frequency field. If this is true, the

resulting ELF fields in tissue would be orders of magnitude larger than the ELF fields induced in humans

by the power-frequency fields of power lines and appliances.

5.3.3. Calcium Efflux from Chick Brains

Blackman and colleagues have exposed chick brain halves to ELF electric fields to study effects on

calcium efflux [Blackman 85a]. Brain halves were placed in test tubes along with enough saline solution

to just cover the brain tissue. The test tubes were placed in an exposure chamber capable of creating

ELF fields in air of 10-20 V/m. Blackman et. al. estimate that the electric field induced in the exposed

brain tissue is about 10-7 V/m at 45 Hz and proportionately larger or smaller at other frequencies. This

corresponds to an induced current density of .01 nA/cm2

. These intensities are comparable to the electric

fields and currents induced in the body of a person standing in a vertical 60 Hz electric field of about 1

V/m.

5.4. Comparison of Exposures in Bioeffects Studies to Common Human Exposure

Situations

Comparisons between the exposure conditions of several of the bioeffects studies described in

Sections 4-3 and the exposures that people commonly encounter can, of course, be made along many

different exposure dimensions. Figure 5-1 compares common human exposure situations with

experimental exposures along just one of these dimensions, the volume-averaged, time-peak current

density. The experimental exposures listed in Figure 5-1 span the range of common human exposure

situations. This same observation is likely to hold for many other measures of exposure that one might

choose to examine. In other words, biological effects of power-frequency fields have been demonstrated

across the range of exposure conditions that people commonly encounter. Effects are not limited to

situations involving only very intense or otherwise unusual fields.
.001 .01 .1 1.0 10 100 1000 10000

----------------------------- -

I I

----- ---- -

I I

----- ---- -

I I I

----- ----- ---- -

I

I Exposure Situation I I

I l-On RoW of 500 kV line I <--->

 2-In house near 500 kV line <---> I

 3-Car contact near 500 kV <------------ > I

 4-Appliance contact I <----- - > I

I 5-Electric blanket I <---- > I

 6-Electric shaver I <--------- > I

I 7-Household background I <------> I

 8-Beneath distribution line <--> I

I

------------------------------ ----- ----- ----- ----- _____ ----- ---- -

I I I I I I I I

Esperimet I I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

ELF Ca efflux, Bawin/Blackman

Rat pineal melatonin, Wilson

Rat biogenic amines, Vasquez

Parathyroid Hormone, Luben

ACTH, Lymangrover

ODC activity, Ca cells, Byus

Cytotoxicity, Lyle

Protein synthesis, Goodman

Human residential, Wertheimer

--- -> I

<---- -> I

<-> I

<-> I

<-> I

< --------- - >

<--------- - >

< --------- - > I

<----- - > I

------------------------------ ---- -

I I I

----- ---- -

I I I I

----- ----- ----- ---- -

I

.001 .01 .1 1.0 10 100 1000 10000

Tissue-Averaged Current Density

(nA per sq cm)

Figure 5-1: Average current density associated with eight common human exposure situations

compared to average current densities in a number of laboratory experiments. Adapted from

[Florig 87b].
57

6. Cancer and Electromagnetic Fields: Epidemiological Studies

Cancer incidence in children and cancer as related to occupational ELF field exposure are the two

areas that have received the most attention in the context of public health consequences of exposure to

ELF fields. This concern with cancer arose as a result of an epidemiological study and has increased as

several additional epidemiological studies have examined the association between ELF field exposure

and cancer. The suggestion is not that 60 Hz fields initate cancer but rather that exposure to fields may

serve to promote cancer once it is initiated by other causes (See endnote on promotion).

As biologic knowledge about an epidemiologic hypothesis is often missing or minimal, causal

inference is hard to make. At the same time, public health problems or public perception of potential

health problems may cause an action to be taken by decision-makers, despite imperfect knowledge about

cause. Hill [Hill 65] developed a set of criteria by which to sort out causal from noncausal associations.

These are :

1. Strength of association : that is, magnitude of the ratio of incidence rates in exposed

populations to that in non-exposed, for example, the relationship between higher levels of

smoking and lung cancer.

2. Consistency : Observation of same association in different populations under different

criteria, for example, increased lung cancer incidence in smokers of all age groups, and

races.

3. Specificity : single rather than multiple effects, as for example, when all the females

exposed to DES prenatally exhibited the incidence of a particular type of cancer.

4. Temporality : Cause should precede effect in time.

5. Biologic gradient: That is, a dose-response relation or a definite mathematical relation

between the amount of the exposure to an environmental agent and the incidence of the

effect.

6. Biologic plausibility and coherence : A potential mechanism and an absence of conflict

between the association and with what is known about the history and biology of the

disease.

7. Experimental evidence : Particularly, animal data that points to the same association. This

may not always hold . For example, some substances such as DES may not be

carcinogenic in animals.

8. Analogy : If there is another agent that is analogous to the agent under consideration, and

its biologic effect is well- (or better) known, we can look for analogous modes of action and

effects.

In light of our discussion of “dose”, and nonlinear effects in Sections 3, criterion 5 above needs to

be redefined and elaborated before it can be applied to ELF field exposure. Also, there is no analogous

agent of the sort mentioned in criterion 8. Beyond this, we believe that the remaining criteria are directly

applicable to epidemiological studies of ELF fields. At most, these considerations make the point that a

further examination of the question through carefully designed, focused epidemiologic) studies are

necessary in addition to laboratory experiments to understand the science before any firm conclusion can

be drawn.
6.1. Childhood Cancer and ELF fields

Five completed epidemiological studies have addressed the question of association between

exposure to ELF fields and cancer in children. These are all case-control studies. The Wertheimer and

Leeper study [Wertheimer 79] in Denver first raised the question. The authors noted an association

between childhood cancer and homes they classified as located near “high current configuration”

distribution lines which were likely to produce stronger than average magnetic fields. The authors studied

cases of children of age less than 19 years who died of cancer between 1950 and 1973, and who also

had a Colorado birth certificate and resided in the area during most of their lives. The controls were

children whose birth certificates placed “next” to the case children in the public birth files organized by

birth month and county, except in the case when the “next” case was a sibling of a case child. 344 cases

and 344 controls were examined.

After performing a series of measurements of magnetic fields to develop a simple classification

scheme, the authors estimated the comparative magnitude of the magnetic field in the home by the

surrogate measure of wiring configurations. Homes were classified as “HCC” and “LCC” ( for high and

low current configurations). A house was classified as “HCC” if one of the following conditions was

satisfied : (1) it was close to a large gauge or several (6 or more) thin primary current-carrying wires from

distribution transformers; (2) it was close to 3 or more thin primaries or high voltage (50kV to 230kV) lines,

(3) it was less that 15 meters of wires coming directly from a transformer. A series of field measurements

was performed to confirm these classifications.

The results showed that children exposed to a HCC configuration residential environment had a

1.6- to 2.2 -fold higher incidence of cancer than controls. Background incidence rate for childhood

leukemia in children between the ages O to 14 years is about 10 in 100,000 per year [Greenberg 85]. If

the children exposed to HCC configuration have a risk of 1.6 to 2.2 (or, about 2), relative to this

background rate, this means that the risk of children exposed to HCC is double the base rate, or 20 in

100,000 per year. The study ruled out socioeconomic class, family pattern and traffic congestion near

homes as possible confounders but did not deal with other possible factors that could cause confounding

or bias. The results have been widely debated and criticized since their publication [Cole 87, Savitz 87b].

Among the limits of the study are : biases due to survival aspects introduced by studying only the cancer

deaths rather than all cancers diagnosed; bias introduced by residential mobility; validity of the exposure

measure; and, failure to account for other confounders.

Four studies have been done since the Wertheimer and Leeper study. Two of them found no

association between leukemia and estimated exposure to magnetic fields. These two studies were

conducted in Rhode Island [Fulton 80] and in Yorkshire, England [Myers 85]. The Rhode Island study

included 119 childhood leukemia incidence cases and 240 controls, and was similar in design to the

Wertheimer and Leeper study. The study in Yorkshire looked at all children diagnosed with cancer during

1970-79, a total of 376 cases and 591 controls. Residence classification was first made in terms of

proximity to overhead power lines. Among those of the homes within I00m of the power lines, magnetic

fields were estimated. There was no relationship observed between cancer incidence and either

exposure metric.

Two other studies found positive results. The first of these was done in Sweden [Tomenius 86]. All

716 children diagnosed with cancer, and born and raised in Stockholm County during 1958-73 were

included in the study. Tomenius found that there were more electrical constructions near dwellings of
59

children who had cancer than of controls.. A single measurement of magnetic field near the front door

was also taken for each house. There was no difference between the average value of magnetic fields

the doors of homes that were near electrical constructions or 200-kV lines and those that were not.

However, magnetic fields at the door of homes within 150 m of 200 kV lines were higher than at the

houses that did not have such lines close by. It was found that homes of cancer cases were twice as

likely to have a front-door measurement of 3 mG or above than those of controls. The strongest odds

ratio of 3.7 was noted for nervous system tumors.

at

The latest and by far, the most thorough and complete study is that by Savitz et al. [Savitz

87a, Savitz 88]. The study was designed to be similar to that of Wertheimer and Leeper, but with

particular attention paid to several factors that were weaknesses in the former study. These were: a

complete set of incident cases because of the use of the registry; use of a general population control

group; expanded and detailed exposure measurement; and, measurement of possible confounding

factors.

The Savitz study involved children from the Denver Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area of age

15 or less diagnosed as having cancer during the period 1976 to 1983, a period distinct from that of the

Wertheimer and Leeper Study, which covered 1950 to 1973. Both wire coding and actual measurement

of fields in the house were used to characterize the residential field environment. Detailed questionnaires

elicited information about socioeconomic and other possible confounding factors such as smoking. An

analysis of the total childhood cancers occurring in the Denver area children was also done and showed

that Denver area children show the same overall risk as those in the National Cancer Institute’s

Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program.

Electric and magnetic fields data at three different times in a child’s chronology were selected for

measurements and exposure assessments: the fields in the residence of birth to reflect early-life

exposure; those at two years before the diagnosis to examine an effect of the field in promoting cancer;

and, those at diagnosis. For each of these three times four types of field measurements or estimates

were made : (1) magnetic field in the house when electric power consumption was low, (2) magnetic field

in the house when electric power consumption was high, (3) electric field in the house when electric

power consumption was high, and (4) the distribution system wire code classification using the system

developed by Wertheimer and Leeper. An array of field measurements - fields in different rooms, variation

over the day, etc. - was done. In fact, this part of the Denver study, conducted by Barnes and Wachtel

[Barnes 87] has become a prime source in understanding fields in the home (see Section 2.2). For each

power range, measured levels of magnetic fields were classified into four ranges : less than 0.65 mG,

0.66 to 0.99 mG, 1.00 to 2.49 mG and 2.50+ mG. Wire coding was used as a proxy for the long-term

magnetic field level after it was calibrated using measurements.

The study also assessed other measures of potential field exposures such as electric heat and hot

water use, use of water beds, heating pads and electric blankets by the children and by mothers during

pregnancy and the total number of electrical appliances in the house. The results showed that the

highest field (2.5+ mG) group in each power category showed a increased risk of about 20 to 60% above

the controls for all cancers. The values for risk correlated with fields at two years before exposure and at

time of diagnosis were similar. The odds ratio in this study was computed by taking the ratio of cancer

incidence in each field group to the lowest (< 0.65 mG) group. The Odds Ratio (OR) for a group is a

measure of how much more likely a child in that exposure group is to have cancer compared to a child in

the lowest exposure group. The general results are summarized below:
Table 6-1.—Methodology and Results of Epidemiologic Studies of Childhood Cancer and Electromagnetic Field Exposure (Savitz 87a)

Wertheimer & Leeper (1979) Fulton et al. (1980) Myers et al. (1985) Tomenius (1986)

Geographic Colorado Rhode Island Yorkshire (England) Stockholm County

source Health District

Case group:

Time period Deceased 1950-73 Onset 1964-78 Diagnosed 1970-79 Registered 1958-73

Diseases All cancers Leukemias All cancers All tumors

Age range O to 18 0 to 20 0 to 14 0 to 18

Size 344 (491 dwellings) 119 (200 dwellings) 376 716 (1,172 dwellings)

Other Colorado birth certificates; Identified at Rhode Island — Born & diagnosed in

criteria resided in Denver area, Hospital: Residences up to Stockholm County

1946-73 8 years before diagnosis

Control group:

Source Birth certificates Birth certificates Birth certificates Birth certificates

Matching Year of birth; some by county Year of birth Time of birth, near case’s Age, sex, church district

birth address

Size 344 (472 dwellings) 240 (240 dwellings) 501 716 (1,015 dwellings)

Other Subsets formed based on Only birth addresses Only birth addresses Birth & “diagnosis” address in

criteria residence information considered considered Stockholm

Exposure:

Definition Wiring configurations (wire

type, gauge, number,

proximity to home)

Range Up to 35mG

Potential Age of onset; sex; urbanconfounders suburban residence;

socioeconomic class;

maternal age; birth order;

traffic density

Estimated exposure from Calculated magnetic fields Electrical constructions within

Colorado measurements, from overhead lines 150m including 200-kV lines;

divided into quartiles 50-Hz magnetic fields near

door

N.A. 0.002 to 16.8mG 0.004 to 19mG

Year of birth; father’s Age Age, sex, church district

socioeconomic level; age of

onset

Results Positive association between No association observed No consistent tendency for More electrical constructions

high-current configurations between imputed exposure higher exposures among within 150m of case homes;

and cancer; dose-response & leukemia cases more case homes >3mG

gradient; consistent across

cancers
61

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

A 30% increase in risk (Odds ratio= 1.31) for all cancers was observed at fields in the

category 2.50mG + but none was observed in the two field ranges below ( 0.66 to 0.99mG

and 1.00 to 2.49mG). The odds ratio did not systematically increase or decrease with the

field magnitudes. That is, the higher the field ranges did not always give a higher cancer

risk,

Cancer subgroups were analyzed under the categories, leukemia, Iymphoma, brain tumors,

soft tumors and “other cancers’*. All the categories except leukemia showed odds ratios 1.3

to 1.6 at high (2.5 mG+) field exposures only, Leukemia showed an odds ratio of 2.11 for

the highest field class and 1.23 for the next one below.

The risk of cancer was not associated with measured magnetic field values at residence of

birth.

For the one category (high-power) of electric field ranges analyzed, no association of the

electric field categories with the odds ratio for cancers was found. That is, higher electric

fields did not show higher risk of cancer.

Comparing odds ratio HCC/LCC of wiring configurations, odds ratios between 1.5 and 2.1

was found for all cancers with the highest 2.10 occurring for leukemia.

The results on the relationship of childhood cancer to use of appliances, electric blanket

and waterbed, and electric heat are mixed but suggestive of a few trends. It must be

remembered that the number of cases in the sample is small :

a. Electric heat in residence and electric hot water:

Lymphoma and cancers other than leukemia, brain, and soft tissue had odds ratio

above 3.5, associated with electric heat in residences at birth, 2 years before

diagnosis and at diagnosis. Leukemia showed elevated odds ratio for electric heat

in residences two years before diagnosis, but not for electric heat for residences at

birth and at diagnosis. Electric hot water in the residence showed no association

with any of the cancers.

b. Electric blanket, heated waterbeds, heating pad and total number of electrical

appliances used by mother during pregnancy:

Although electric blanket and water beds are known sources of high fields for in

utero exposure, Savitz found no indication of increased cancer risk associated with

such exposure. Heating pad use was associated with brain and soft tissue tumor

cases. High appliance use was associated with soft tissue tumors, this relationship

showing a monotonic increase in number of cases with increased appliance use

from an odds ratio of 1.72 for 3-4 appliance use to 3.98 for 7 or more appliances

compared to low (O-2) appliance use.

c. Childhood appliance exposure:

Electric blanket and isolette exposures were associated with increased risk of all

cancers especially of the brain and soft tissue for isolette exposure.

Cole (1987) points out that the hypothesis of ELF magnetic fields as promoters or as growth

enhancers would lead one to expect the average age of the highly exposed children in the childhood

cancer studies would be lower than that for the control group. This, however, does not seem to be the

case. Wertheimer has, however, argued that this lack of early appearance of cancer may be an artifact

arising from the fact that if the promotion is pre- or perinatal, the fetal survival rate might have been

affected and one might be seeing only a fraction of the affected children surviving to manifest the clinical

cancer stage.
62

6.2. Residential Exposure and Adult Cancer

Three studies have examined the association between adult cancer and exposure to ELF fields

from non-occupational sources, two in the U.S. examining residential exposures and one in England

examining the proximity of residences to electrical transmission facilities.

Wertheimer and Leeper were also the first to report an association between adult cancers and

residential wiring configurations in 1982 [Wertheimer 82]. They used a methodology parallel to the

childhood cancer study described above. Four categories of wiring configurations were used to

characterize residences in which the subject had lived for periods from three to ten years prior to the

diagnosis of cancer. The authors reported an association between cancers of the nervous system, uterus

and breast with a systematically increasing risk for higher current configurations. The strongest

association was found for those subjects who had been in the coded residence for three to six years right

before diagnosis and no association was found when the subjects had left the residence three years or

more prior to it. Leukemia was not considered. The study also did not look for confounding factors and

exposure determination was not done blind. When a study is not done blind, a bias on the authors’ part

to find an association might lead to a false positive result. Cole [Cole 87] notes that there is a

“remarkable consistency” about the demonstrated relationship in the study. He remarks such a

consistency is atypical of epidemiological studies even when a causal relationship actually exists,

because of the large uncertainties that accompanies the data.

Stevens and coworkers [Stevens 87] at Battelle Pacific Northwest National Laboratories carried out

a case-control study under the New York State Power Lines Project. Acute nonlymphocytic leukemia

(ANLL) incidence was chosen as the effect to study because several of the occupational studies had

indicated an association of ANLL incidence with occupations involving ELF field exposures. Wiring

configurations and residential field measurements over 24 hour periods were used to characterize

residential exposures. The cases of ANLL used were those registered at the Cancer Surveillance System

at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, Washington. Cases of ANLL occurring in

three counties in persons between 20 and 79 years of age and diagnosed in the period 1981 to 1984

were used, compared with controls generated by random-digit dialing. The study found no association

between ANLL incidence and residential fields.

McDowall [McDowall 83] identified a cohort of people living in the vicinity of transmission lines and

power substations in East Anglia in England and did a followup mortality study from 1971 to December

1983. He found no increased leukemia mortality incidence for this population compared to national or

regional mortality rates.

These three studies were varied in concept and have several problems, such as confounding

variables and uncertainties in the amount of field exposure, and do not provide enough evidence to judge

the possibility of an association between residential field exposure and adult cancer.

6.3. Occupational Exposure and Cancer

We now discuss the studies of occupational exposure to ELF fields and the association with cancer

.

in three categories, those examining associations with Leukemia, with brain cancer and with all cancers.

Savitz and Cane [Savitz 87b] have reviewed the leukemia studies.

About twenty studies have looked for an association between cancer, particularly leukemia and
63

brain cancer and occupational exposure to ELF fields. Studies have been done using electrical worker

populations or ham radio operators in the U. S., England, Sweden and New Zealand. All except 5

Swedish studies have been proportionate mortality or morbidity studies or case-control studies. The five

Swedish studies are retrospective follow-up studies which tend to be more reliable than proportionate

mortality studies. The results of all studies taken together indicate a small positive association or no

association.

6.3.1. Leukemia

Four occupational studies of U.S. male populations looked at leukemia deaths of “electrical”

occupations as the end-point and calculated proportional mortality ratios [Milham 82, Wright 82, Cane

83, Milham 85]. Additionally, two U.S. studies of causes of cancer deaths [Peterson 80, Dubrow

80] yielding data for the association between leukemia and occupational ELF exposure have been

examined by Savitz and Cane in their review article. Two studies from England and one from New

Zealand have examined leukemia incidence in electrical workers. Leukemia was also examined in three

retrospective follow-up occupational exposure studies done in Sweden [Olin 85, Barregard 85, Tornqvist

86]. Some of these studies also sorted out the incidence of or death rates from acute Ieukemias. Table 3

from the paper by Savitz and Cane [Savitz 87b] presents the results of their calculations combining data

from eleven of the studies to obtain relative risk (RR) associated with specific electrical occupations, and

the relevant confidence levels.

In Table 6-2, the highest RR’s -- for electrical equipment assemblers and aluminum workers have

large uncertainties associated with them. The third group -- telegraph, radio and radar operators -- for

whom the largest data set was available, show a consistently increased risk (RR = 1.8). The other sets

showing RR’s above 1.5 consisted of relatively small numbers of cases. There is a relative enhancement

for acute leukemia in the top four groups.

Cole’s review of epidemiologic studies include two additional case-control studies of the association

between occupational ELF field exposure and leukemia [Cole 87]. One of these is a study of Swedish

acute myelogenous leukemia cases among electrical occupations [Stern 86] which found a RR of 3.8.

The second is an analysis of nuclear shipyard workers data, looking for association between leukemia

cases and electrical jobs which found a RR of 2.3 for myeloid leukemia and 6 for lymphatic leukemia.

Based on the set of studies discussed above, it is fair to say that there is an indication that

occupational exposure in “electrical occupations” is associated with enhanced leukemia risk. Remember

that “associated” means “occurs together with”; it does not imply a causative link. The job classifications

do not clearly indicate the actual occupational exposure to fields. No confounding variables and

household and other exposures have been taken into consideration in these studies. Savitz’s table above

also involves combining data from U.S. and non-U.S. populations which might add to the spectrum of

confounding, although the effect of such addition would be to decrease rather than increase the risk

numbers if there were no real association at all.

Collectively the studies do not provide good evidence that ELF field exposure increases the risk of

leukemia. At the same time the evidence precludes categorical statements that no such risk exists.
64

Table 6-2: Comparison of Occupational Studies of ELF exposure and leukemia [Savkz 87b].

Total Leukemias, Acute Leukemias, and Acute Myelogenous Leukemias in Electrical Occupations*

Acute myelogenous

Total Ieukemias Acute Ieukemias Ieukemias

Occupations RR 95% CL RR 95% CL RR 95% CL

Electrical equipment assemblers . . . . . 2.4 (1.0 4.8)

Aluminum workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 (1.2 2.9) 2:6 (1.3 4.6) ❑

Telegraph, radio, and radar operators . 1.8 (1.4 2.6) 2.1 (1.3 3.3) 2.6 (1.4 4.4)

Streetcar, subway, and elevated

railway motormen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 (0.7 3.3) <1 expected —

Power station operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 (0.8 3.0) 2.2 (0.6 5.7) <1 expected

Electronic technicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 (0.9 1.8) 1.8 (1.0 3.0) 1.9 (0.8 3.8)

Power and telephone linemen . . . . . . . . 1.3 (1.0 1.6) 1.7 (1.1 2.5) 2.5 (1.1 4.9)

Electrical and electronic engineers . . . 1.2 (1.0 1.5) 1.8 (1.2 2.3) 1.9 (1.3 2.7)

Electricians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 (0.9 1.2) 1.1 (0.9 1.4) 1.0 (0.7 1.5)

Motion picture projectionists . . . . . . . . 1.1 (0.5 2.2) 1.2 (0.1 4.5) <1 expected

Telephone repairers and installers . . . . 0.9 (0.6 1.3) 1.1 (0.6 1.8) 1.0 (0.4 1.8)

Welders and frame cutters . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9 (0.7 1.2) 1.0 (0.7 1.5) 1.7 (0.5 4.5)

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 (1.1 1.3) 1.4 (1.2 1.6) 1.5 (1.2 1.8)

● Abbreviations used are: RR, reliative risk; CL, confidence limits.

6.3.2. Brain and Central Nervous System (CNS) Tumors

The association between brain and CNS tumors and ELF field exposure related to occupation has

been examined in about 10 studies, some of which are general cancer studies referred to in the above

section on leukemia [Milham 85, Peterson 80, Olin 85]. Other studies looked specifically at brain and

CNS tumor mortality risk in men with electrical jobs [Lin 85, Thomas 87] or at the association between

cancer and electrical jobs or all jobs and sorted out the types of cancers [McLaughlin 87, Preston

82, Thomas 87, Vagero 83, Vagero 85].

Brain cancer is rare (1% of all cancer incidence, implying a risk of 5 in 100,000) in adults, peaking

at about 60 years of age with a histology different from that seen in children in whom brain cancer is the

second high-risk cancer (20°/0 of the cancer occurring in the age group O-8 years) peaking at about 5

years [Gold 79, Russell 71]. The small numbers of occurrence of brain cancers in adults poses a data

problem in establishing causal association. The brain is also a favored site for metastasis 16 and hence
65

cases counted as primary brain cancer may actually be secondaries spreading from a different organ in

which the cancer was actually initiated.

Separate studies by Lin and Milham in 1985 were the first to suggest an association between

brain/CNS tumors and occupational exposure to ELF fields [Lin 85, Milham 85]. Lin’s case-control study

is exceptional in the set of all occupational studies because he sought to correlate the brain tumor risk

(RR) derived from death certificate data with the likelihood of exposure on the job. Based on occupational

data from Maryland for 1974 to 1984, Lin obtained a relative risk of 2.2 for jobs with “definite” exposure

2.0 for those with “probable” exposure, 1.4 for “possible” exposure, and 1.0 for “no” exposure compared

to age matched deed controls. His results indicate statistical significance, consistency, and an

association between higher doses and higher risk of brain tumor.

Thomas and colleagues at the National Cancer Institute used death certificate data from northern

New Jersey, Philadelphia and southern Louisiana to do a case-control study of the association between

brain tumor mortality risk and electrical jobs, and found that data when all electrical jobs were combined

showed an excess risk for astrocytic tumors (RR = 3.9). But his group included engineers, teachers,

technicians, repairers and assemblers. When the data for electric manufacture and repair workers were

separated, this high risk remained (RR = 4.9; 95% Cl = 1.9, 13.2) and increased tenfold among those

employed for 20 or more years. Data for electrical tradesman (electrician; power and telephone lineman)

showed no statistically significant increased risk. The authors conclude that although ELF field exposure

cannot be definitely or uniquely identified as an causative agent, some aspect of the manufacturing and

repair jobs mentioned above does place the workers at increased risk of brain tumors.

All the studies of Swedish workers [Vagero 83, Vagero 85, Olin 85, Barregard 85, McLaughlin

87] saw no excess risk for CNS or brain cancer in electrical occupations.

Lin has also completed a study of employees of the electric power industry in Taiwan by an

examination of the death certificates between 1971 and 1985. He observed an elevation of liver and

brain tumors and leukemia with odds ratios in the range 1.3 to 2 [Lin 87].

Estimation of exposure is the main problem with these studies which use data based on

occupational classification. The data are classified by job titles or general occupational codes. These

“electrical occupations” in some cases include electrical and telecommunication engineers who are no

more exposed to ELF fields than the average individual. Even electricians often work with circuits turned

off so that their exposure may not be significantly different than that of others. In addition, these jobs

often involve exposures to other environmental agents such as chemicals, and this can confounds the

findings.

6.4. General Conclusions on the status of understanding of the ELF fields-cancer

association

The question of association between cancer and ELF electromagnetic fields first arose because of

the work on childhood cancer in Denver. Studies since then have yielded mixed results. The most

thorough epidemiological study by Savitz and the cellular level studies described in Section 3 provide

some evidence to support the possibility that ELF field exposure can act as a cancer promoter. Overall

the evidence now available is too weak to allow firm conclusions either way,
Because epidemiological studies involve human populations, they do not have the problems

associated with extrapolating from cell to whole animal or from animal to human. On the other hand, the

epidemiological studies which have been completed todate are all retrospective and so may involve

confounding effects and bias arising from such lack of control. Prospective epidemiological studies which

can be expected in the future, will have fewer such difficulties, but even in this case, because the subjects

are people with several other activities to pursue, problems of control will remain. No single

epidemiological study can demonstrate causation. But a series of carefully designed studies which all

indicate a positive association can provide persuasive evidence for causation especially if there are also

supportive cellular and animal data. If 60 Hz fields do pose cancer risks, it will be some time before this

stage of understanding is reached. A number of improved epidemiological studies will be needed and

more importantly, a series of animal cancer promotion studies will be needed. Largely because of limited

research budgets, no animal promotion studies have yet been completed.
7. General Conclusions About

67

Biological Effects of ELF Fields and Their

Implication

As the preceding discussions have indicated, there is now a very large volume of scientific findings

based on experiments at the cellular level and from studies with animals and people which clearly

establish that low frequency magnetic fields can interact with, and produce changes in, biological

systems. While most of this work is of very high quality, the results are complex. Current scientific

understanding does not yet allow us to interpret the evidence in a single coherent framework. Even more

frustrating, it does not yet allow us to draw definite conclusions about questions of possible risk or to offer

clear science-based advice on strategies to minimize or avoid potential risks.

Of the effects discussed , the central nervous system effects including circadian effects in animals

and the possibility of cancer promotion appear most worthy of concern with respect to public health

effects. These are now summarized.

7.1. Central Nervous System Effects

As a system that uses low frequency fields for its intracellular communication and function, the

brain and central nervous system are natural candidates for interaction with fields. The implications of

tissue or cellular level in vitro experiments for the whole organism are not clear. But the animal studies,

including the circadian variations introduced by fields, indicate that:

1. Field-CNS interactions may have dependencies which are at very specific frequencies and

intensities, and may vary with the background static fields present, the time of day and the

duration of exposure.

2. Developing nervous systems maybe particularly susceptible and effects maybe latent,

manifested only in specific situations or later in time.

3. More than any other agent known, except perhaps some psychotropic drugs, ELF fields are

specific: with respect to the regions of the brain tissue affected and the point of

administration in the circadian rhythm.

How and whether these findings have public health implications remains unclear. What is clear is

that these findings about subtle and complex effects demand a carefully planned research agenda in this

area.

7.2. Cancer Promotion

The following points summarize the key experimental results that are consistent with a possible

association between exposure to ELF fields and the occurrence of cancer:

1. ELF fields are not known to cause any chromosomal damage, and, hence, are not likely

initiators of cancer.

2. Some cellular level experiments indicate that the cell membrane is the site of the interaction

between ELF fields and the cell. The membrane site responsible for this action has also

been shown to be a receptor for chemical cancer-promoters.

3. ELF fields have been shown to increase ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) activity. All known

cancer promoters stimulate ODC. However, the converse is not true. Many agents that

promote ODC activity are not cancer promoters.

4. Alterations in protein synthesis, in immunological and hormone status, and in metabolic

competence via circadian shifts can all contribute to the progress of initiated cancer. To the

extent that ELF fields play a role in those, they might have an effect on tumor growth or
indeed tumor inhibition. The increase in ODC activity noted above is indicative of growth

enhancement rather than inhibition.

5. Pineal melatonin depression has been associated with cancer growth, and administration of

melatonin has been found to slow the growth of cancer. ELF fields depress pineal melatonin

levels in animals.

6. Functions of gap junctions are disrupted by ELF fields. Similar disruptions are produced by

other known chemical promoters.

7. Epidemiologic studies of ELF exposures and cancer show a weak association between ELF

field exposure and nervous system cancer and leukemia.

While the above arguments are consistent with the hypothesis that ELF fields may play a role in

cancer or tumor development, none of these constitutes proof or even necessarily a strong indication that

it does.
69

8. Major Programs and Funding Levels for ELF Bioeffects Research

In the long run, better scientific understanding is the only way to resolve problems posed by powerfrequency fields. Yet funding for field-effects research has been irregular over the years and current

levels of federal support are modest. A history of the research funding provided by the six largest

programs is shown in Figure 8-1. These and other research programs are described below.

The U.S. Navy played an important early role in research on the bioeffects of ELF electric and

magnetic fields. In 1968, the Navy proposed to build an ELF submarine communications facility in

northern Wisconsin that would have covered many thousands of square miles. In response to concerns

raised by the people of Wisconsin and to comply with the recently enacted National Environmental Policy

Act, the Navy launched a large laboratory research program that examined the effects of ELF field

exposures on many animal and plant species [Rozzell 74]. This program funded about $8 million worth of

research between 1969 and 1977 [Abromavage ??]. The Navy now has two operating ELF transmitting

facilities, one in Wisconsin and one in Michigan. The Navy has continued to sponsor ecological field

studies in the vicinity of these transmitters since they began operation. Funding for these program is

currently about $2 million per year [Abromavage ??].

Over the last decade, the Department of Energy’s (DoE) Office of Energy Storage and Distribution

has been the chief federal source of support for research on the possible biological effects of lowfrequency fields. DoE’s fiscal 1988 budget of $2,2 million is detailed in Table 8-1. Congress has

allocated $3.0 million for DoE in fiscal 1989 [MWN 88a].

Several laboratories of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have had smaller research

programs involved in both exposure- and effects-related studies. Because of federal budgetary

pressures, most of EPA’s projects dealing with ELF fields were shut down in 1986 [MWN 86].

The federal government has not been the only source of research support in the United States.

From 1982 through 1986, the state of New York operated a $5 million research program on field effects

administered by the New York Department of Public Health, with money largely provided by the state’s

electric utilities. Although this program has now ended, the research it generated has opened interesting

new issues and produced several very useful results. Another useful but smaller state-funded venture

has been the Maryland Power Plant Siting Program, which has supported database development and

dosimetric studies at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. California recently adopted a bill

requiring the state’s larger utilities to fund a two-year, $2 million research project on the biological effects

of ELF electromagnetic fields [MWN 88b].

The electric utility industry has also been involved in supporting research on ELF field effects.

Utility support began as early as 1962, when American Electric Power Company (AEP) funded two smallscale studies at Johns Hopkins University, one of EHV lineworkers and one of mice exposed to strong

electric fields. Several years earlier, AEP had become the first U.S. utility to build an EHV transmission

line. The Bonneville Power Administration is another utility that has made a significant contribution to

research. BPA has provided about $200 thousand per year (in ’87 dollars) for the past decade, primarily

for environmental and livestock studies [Lee 87], Several other utilities, most notably Southern California

Edison, have mounted fields research programs. Together, these sources have provided about $3 million

in funding over the last decade [Sahl 87].

The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has supported a substantial amount of work since the
70

Funding for ELF Bioeffects Studies

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

7890123456 78901234567 8 9

Year

*

- Estimate for years ‘75-’79

Figure 8-1: History of funding for ELF bioeffects studies in the U.S. from 1968 to the present. From

[Abromavage ??, BEMS 86, Gyuk 88, MWN 88a, Sussman 88].
71

Table 8-1: U.S. Department of Energy 1988 Funding for ELF Electric and Magnetic Fields Research.

From [Gyuk 88].

Project Site Project Description ’88 Contract Amount

Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory

Argonne National Laboratory

MidWest Research Institute

Pettis VA Hospital, Loma Linda, CA

Southwest Research Institute

University of Rochester

Lawrence Berkely Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Program management

Pineal gland melatonin

Circadian rhythms, mice

Response of human volunteers to

60 Hz electric and magnetic fields

Cellular mechanisms

Baboon behavior

Rodent behavior under lithium

cyclotron resonance

Reaction of Ieukaemia cells

to electromagnetic fields

Effect of temperature on the emission

of ions from high voltage DC lines

$600,000

$325,000

$300,000

$225,000

$90,000

$170,000

$126,000

$50,000

$300,000

Total $2,186,000

early 1970s. EPRI support declined slightly in recent years but is now expanding, from $1.7 million in FY

1986 to a projected $6 million in FY 1990 [MWN 88c].

Many other nations have active fields-research programs. In approximate order of current funding

commitments, these include Sweden, the U. K., West Germany, Canada, Japan, Italy, France, Finland,

and Norway.

Sweden’s program is the largest, currently running at about 11 million krona ($1.9 million) per year.

Swedish research includes projects in epidemiology, exposure assessment, and cancer induction and

promotion. These projects are funded primarily by the Sweden’s State Power Board and Sweden’s

National Institute of Occupational Health.

Research in the U.K. is funded primarily through the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB).
72

Since roughly 1980, the CEGB has spent 3.5 million pounds (about $7 million ) on fields-related research

including epidemiological, laboratory, and human exposure studies. Recently the CEGB announced a

doubling of its annual commitment to 1 million pounds ($1.8 million) per year. The CEGB’s parent body,

the Electricity Council, has also contributed to fields-related research in the U. K., but at a much lower

level than the CEGB.

Using support from both public and private sources, the West Germans are funding a half-dozen

projects including animal teratology experiments, in vitro studies, and measurements of human exposure.

Canada’s Ontario Hydro and Hydro Quebec have been actively involved in exposure related

research for some time and have recently begun an animal cancer study. They also have active

programs in high voltage DC (direct current) field and ion effects.

Japanese utilities have funded a number of studies of electric field dosimetry over the last few

years. They have also supported a study at Southwest Research Institute on the effects of electric fields

on baboon behavior.

Italy’s programs are entirely utility funded and include electric field studies with chickens and

rodents.
73

9. Regulatory Activity and Exposure Standards

There are growing pressures for states to take regulatory action to protect citizens against possible

risks posed by power frequency fields. Major transmission line projects in New York, Montana, Florida

and several other states have encountered considerable opposition. The courts have now become

involved [Alvarez 86, Kelly 86]. In 1985, a Texas a County Civil Court ordered Houston Lighting and

power to pay $25 million in punitive damages on the grounds that in building a 345 kV transmission line

within 60 meters of a school, and in full compliance with all laws of the State of Texas, the utility had

acted “with callous disregard for the safety, health and well-being of... the children...”. The Texas Court of

Appeals has since denied the $25 million award but affirmed the lower court’s finding that there are

potential health effects associated with exposure to powerline fields. Prevented from using the

transmission line pending its appeal, Houston Lighting and Power rerouted the line around the school

property at a cost of $8.6 million [MWN 87]. In New York, a group of land owners has filed a $66.5 million

class-action suit claiming that the fear of health effects has had a negative impact on the value of

properties along a new 345 kV transmission line. It is estimated that over $1.5 million in attorney and

witness fees had been spent on the case through August 1988 [MWN 88d]. Other less dramatic incidents

are occurring all over the country.

To date, most of those pressures are directed toward the control of transmission lines, but it seems

likely that similar pressures will grow for distribution lines, at least for those which are visible because they

are above ground. While fields from house wiring and appliances can involve field exposures that are

comparable to those associated with transmission and distribution lines (Figures 2-5 and 2-8), pressures

to control fields from house wiring and appliances are likely to be slower in building. [Morgan 85].

If pressed to regulate field exposures, the natural instinct of most state regulatory authorities, based

on experience with other environmental agents, is to implicitly assume that more is worse and impose

field strength limits. To date, seven states have taken regulatory actions to limit the intensity of the

electric field on transmission line rights-of-way. Recently, the state of Florida adopted limits on both

electric and magnetic fields from transmission lines. A brief summary of the existing field limits is shown

in Table 9-1.

Table 9=1: State regulations that limit field strengths on transmission line rights of way (RoW).

State Field limit

Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 kV/m at edge of RoW in residential areas

Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 kV/m maximum in RoW

New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . 3 kV/m at edge of RoW

New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 kV/m at edge of RoW

North Dakota . . . . . . . . . 9 kV/m maximum in RoW

Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 kV/m maximum in RoW

Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 kV/m maximum for 500 kV lines in RoW

2 kV/m maximum for 500 kV line at edge of RoW

8 kV/m maximum for 230 kV smaller lines in RoW

2 kV/m maximum for 230 kV and smaller lines at edge of RoW

200 mG for 500 kV lines at edge of RoW

250 mG for double circuit 500 kV lines at edge of RoW

150 mG for 230 kV and smaller lines at edge of RoW
74

Despite the proliferation of regulations based on field strength, the discussion in Section 2.5 makes

it clear that regulatory approaches which set quantitative ‘safe” field strength limits (such as 1 kV/m at the

edge of the right-of-way) cannot be supported on risk management grounds, given available scientific

understanding. Such a standard offers no assurance that it will reduce the overall level of risk.
75

10. Policy Implications

There is of course nothing new about a possible environmental health risk for which our scientific

understanding is incomplete. Legislators and regulators have been dealing with such risks for decades.

But, when we look with care at the scientific understanding that is available for 60 Hz and other low

frequency electromagnetic field exposure, we discover that this particular problem maybe very different

from previous problems in environmental risk in several ways.

First, the quality of the science that is now available is remarkably high. In contrast to a number of

other known or suspected environmental health risks the uncertainty in our understanding about low

frequency electromagnetic fields comes not from the quality of the science but from the great complexity

of that science. It is now clear that 60 Hz and other low frequency electromagnetic fields can interact with

individual cells and organs to produce biological changes. The nature of these interactions is subtle and

complex. The implications of these interactions for public health remain unclear, but there are legitimate

reasons for concern.

Second, because of the complexity of the science, the strategies which legislators and regulators

have evolved to deal with other uncertain environmental health risks may not lead to effective results for

this possible risk. Most conventional approaches to environmental regulation assume that “if an agent is

bad more of it is worse”. This assumption allows regulatory activity to begin before full scientific

understanding is available. Because of experimental evidence of thresholds, windows, and similar

phenomena (see the discussion in Section 3 and the summary in the preceding section), it is unclear

whether the assumption that “more is worse” can appropriately be applied to 60 Hz fields. The implication

of this is that practical regulatory standards which set a simple “safe” field strength limit can not be

adequately suppported by the science that is now available. Such standards could prove expensive and

might not have positive benefits. In some circumstances field strength based standards could arguably

even do more harm than good. This conclusion raises the difficult policy question, if standard approaches

may not work, what alternatives, do we have available? We explore this question at some length in the

discussion below.

Third, the public discussion of 60 Hz fields has been almost exclusively limited to the context of

high voltage transmission lines. Running across the country for great distances on large steel or wooden

structures, high voltage transmission lines are visibly compelling objects. As such they offer powerful

symbolic value and are a natural target for attention17. However, if there are serious public health

consequences associated with 60 Hz fields the discussion in Section 2 in this report suggest that the

fields associated with distribution lines (e.g. the wood poles in the street), building wiring, and appliances

(e.g. electric blankets) could be the primary source of public health impact. To the extent this proves true,

it will be important for legislators, regulators, and others to take care to think of this issue as a problem of

field exposure rather than as a problem of high voltage transmission lines. Otherwise, enormous attention

may be devoted to one, possibly minor, source of public exposure, while ignoring many other, possibly

major, sources of public exposure.

Why not just use the standard techniques of probabilistic risk assessment and risk analysis to

171n the heYdaYS of fe~ral power proj~ts (TVA and Bonneville) and of rural electrification, high v01ta9e transmission lines ‘ere

widely used as a political symbol to represent the advancement of democracy through economic development. For example they

figured prominently in the promotional posters and other materials developed by these projects.
76

decide how serious the possible risks of human exposure to 60 Hz fields maybe and develop appropriate

regulatory recommendations from these studies? Under support from the U. S. Department of Energy we

have tried to do this [Morgan 87a, Morgan 87b, Morgan 87c, Morgan 87d] but have found it impossible to

get very far. The basic problem precluding risk analysis is the inability to define dose. We do not yet

know what attribute, or combination of attributes, of the field produces public health effects. (For simplicity

we will not continue to say “if any” after each mention of the word *’effects” in this discussion. However,

readers are reminded that while biological effects have been clearly demonstrated, the existence of

adverse public health consequences from 60 Hz field exposure is still an open question. Thus, whenever

the word effects appears in this discussion, the phrase “if any” is implicitly assumed.) We also do not

know the relationship between these field attributes and the level of effects. We do have a significant

amount of experimental evidence that suggests that the relationship between field exposure and effects

may be very non-linear, and may not increase systematically with field strength. In work we did several

years ago [Morgan 83] we showed that it is possible to develop a series of risk assessment models each

one of which assumes a different plausible relationship between exposure and effect and each one of

which assumes a range of possible alternative values to define the strength and other characteristics of

those relationships (parametric analysis). This approach can produce page after page of impressive

looking quantitative results -- so many alternative possible outcomes that they are of absolutely no use

from a policy perspective. Similarly, attempts to establish “upper bounds” on the estimates of possible

health impact have produced bounds that are too lose to be of much use in policy considerations [Morgan

87e].

10.1. Policy Alternatives

The conventional approach to regulating environmental agents such as ionizing radiation or

chemical pollutants is in terms of a standard based on a safe or acceptable level or concentration. When

the details of the science are not known, risk managers can still move in the right general direction by

assuming “if some is bad, more is worse” and regulating to reduce the levels of exposure. As we outlined

in Section 9, without thinking critically about the underlying differences in the science, this same thinking

has been applied by a number of state regulatory agencies to the topic of 60 Hz fields, with the result that

several states have now promulgated fields strength standards for transmission lines which are at least

talked about as safety standards.

There are however a variety of powerful forces that work to promote the adoption of simple field

strength safety standards. This is the approach that regulatory agencies have habitually adopted. There

are a variety of legal and institutional precedents which make a field strength standard the natural way to

proceed. Because field related controversies have made it increasingly difficult for utilities to construct

new transmission facilities, many utilities have recently begun to favor the issuance of such standards, so

that they can say “we meet the standards” and get on with the job. But, while simple field strength

standards may be administratively convenient for both regulators and utilities, they unfortunately can not

be justified on the basis of the available science. If they are represented as assuring safety they may

produce a false sense of protection, and in some circumstances could arguably do more harm than good.

Better scientific understanding may in the future clearly demonstrate the existence of adverse

public health effects from field exposure and may point the way to specific risk management regulations.

But, for the moment we have to operate with what we have. Available policy options include the following:

1. Do nothing until the science becomes better.
77

2. Make public information available but take no additional actions.

3. Adopt a field strength safety standard approach to transmission line fields based on the

fiction that the numbers are supported by a review of the science. Ignore fields from all

other sources.

4. Adopt a “similarity” based approach to transmission line fields which makes the exposures

that people receive to these fields “similar" to those they receive from other sources in

modern life. Ignore fields from all other sources.

5. Adopt a “prudent avoidance” strategy. That is, look systematically for strategies which can

keep people out of 60 Hz fields arising from all sources but only adopt those which look to

be “prudent” investments given their cost and our current level of scientific understanding

about possible risks.

In parallel with these options are a set of research options which we discuss in the final paragraphs of this

section.

Up until a few years ago we believe that option 1, “do nothing until the science becomes better”,

was preferred by the majority of informed people dealing with this topic. There are still people who argue

vigorously for this option, but their numbers are declining both because of increasingly suggestive

scientific findings and because of growing levels of public concern. At least in the short run, Some state

regulatory agencies do appear to be successfully adopting a variant of this strategy, either because they

have not had a recent request for new transmission line construction that has raised the issue or because

they have been able to mount a series of ongoing studies of the problem.

Available public information on this topic is not as good as it should be. Press accounts tend to be

simplistic and inflammatory. There are a few good brochures available through utilities, but there is

reason to suspect that the public does not place great confidence in information on this topic provided by

utility sources [Lee 86, IUS86 86]. There is a clear need for good balanced semi-technical and nontechnical treatments of this topic from “neutral” government and private sources. Until recently many

people familiar with the issues would have argued that active programs of public information might do

more harm than good by raising concerns in large numbers of people before any answers were available.

While a few might still make this argument, most would now agree that the issue has moved squarely on

to the public agenda and that there is now a clear need for accurate and balanced information to inform

public discussions and debates. Public information programs can take two forms, active programs which

push the dissemination of information, and passive programs which provide information on request. To

date most programs have been of this second variety. Whether programs of information alone are now a

sufficient response to the issue of 60 Hz fields is a question which generates vigorous debate among

informed workers active on this issue. Our personal assessment is that today a majority would probably

argue that information alone is not sufficient.

Policy option three is to:

“Adopt a field strength safety standard approach to transmission line fields based on the fiction that the

numbers are supported by a review of the science. Ignore fields from all other sources.”

It appears that this option is now being pursued by a number of state regulatory agencies. As we

noted above it is also supported by a number of utilities as a simple strategy to control the issues and get

on with the job. There are three ways in which a field strength based approach to transmission line field

regulation can be pursued. The first is to assert that the standard grows directly from and is supported by

a careful assessment of the field effects literature. While administratively convenient, our reading of the
7 8

scientific literature says that the literature can not currently support such a standard. The second is not to

base the standard on field effects of the sort discussed in this paper but rather to base it on

considerations of safety arising from factors such spark discharge caused by induction effects in

conducting objects near transmission lines. If such a strategy is pursued there is likely to be a temptation

to “fudge” a bit by leaving the public communication unclear so as to imply that other health effect

considerations, of the kinds discussed in this paper, have been included. Finally there is the practical

consideration that at least for electric fields transmission line fields much above about 10 kV/m are clearly

precluded by safety considerations and fields much below about 1 kV/m are at the level widely

encountered elsewhere in the environment. This leaves a range of only a factor of ten. The temptation is

to arbitrarily pick some number in this range in order to have a standard that will simplify life. Our 

judgment is that such considerations may have underlain some of the current state field strength

standards.

As we discuss below, a field strength standard may also have a role to play in a “prudence** based

approach to field exposure control. The difference however is two fold. Conventional standards maintain

the position that they represent a “safe” level below which there is little or no risk. And, a conventional

transmission line field strength standard deals only with exposure from transmission line sources, ignoring

all others, or perhaps assuming that all others constitute “acceptable” exposures.

This leads us to our fourth option:

Adopt a “similarity” based approach to transmission line fields which makes the exposures that people

receive to these fields “similar” to those they receive from other sources in modern life. Ignore fields from all

other sources.

Similarity based control sets out to make people’s exposures to transmission line fields as “similar”

as possible to the exposures we receive from all the other fields in our day-to-day lives: exposure from the

fields from the power lines out in the street, the wiring in the buildings we live and work in, and the

appliance we use during the day and sleep with at night. The definition of “similar” can get technically

complicated I[Florig 86, Morgan 87c], but the idea is simple enough. A similarity based approach to

transmission line field control can be justified on two possible grounds:

1. “Acceptability” - In this case the argument is that the fields to which we are all exposed from

other sources constitute a socially acceptable level of risk. By making transmission line field

exposures similar, we make them socially acceptable.

2. “Equity” - In this case the argument is that if transmission line fields are made similar to the

fields to which we are all exposed from other sources then we are not asking residents who

live along transmission line right-of-ways to bear field related risks that are any different

from those born by all members of modern society.

We suspect that similarity considerations have entered, at least informally, into the decision making

of several state regulatory agencies. In the case of New York State, the standard was explicitly chosen to

make the fields of higher voltage lines similar to those of the 345kV lines already in wide use in the state.

However, recent legal actions cast doubt on the state’s assumption that the 345 kV lines are “widely

accepted”.

Our fifth and final option is a strategy of “prudent avoidance” of field exposures. By avoidance we

mean taking steps to keep people out of fields, both by re-routing facilities and by redesigning electrical

systems and appliances. By prudence we mean undertaking only those avoidance activities which carry
modest costs18. When, as

79

individuals, we think a risk may exist but we are not sure, we exercise

prudence. For example, broccoli and cauliflower may contain anti-carcinogens. Dietary fiber may help to

reduce the risk of certain cancers. Conversely char-grilled meats may carry increased risks of cancer.

The evidence on these things is suggestive but inconclusive. As a matter of prudence many people have

tried to increase the frequency with which they eat cauliform vegetables, increase their fiber intake, and

reduce the amount of char-grilled meat they eat. But reasonable people do not rent a helicopter to fly high

fiber bread in to them when they spend a week at a mountain ski resort which serves only regular bread.

Families who eat meat, would not buy lobster for their kids every night for a week at that same ski resort if

it is the only meat on the menu that is not charbroiled. Nor do reasonable people rent their own

refrigerated truck to supply them with broccoli and cauliflower when they travel in places where these

foods are not available. Such steps go beyond prudence. At the least they would be foolishly expensive,

at the worst, signs of serious paranoia.

What would constitute prudence in the context of keeping people out of 60 Hz fields? Here are a

few possibilities:

. attempt to route new transmission lines so that they avoid people;

. widen transmission line rights-of-way;

. develop designs for distribution systems, including new grounding procedures, which

minimize the associated fields;

. develop new approaches to house wiring that minimize associated fields;

. redesign appliances to minimize or eliminate fields.

If we decide to do these things we have to ask how do we avoid going overboard... how do we avoid

the equivalent of renting the helicopter? The answer lies in asking how much we should be prepared to

invest in avoiding exposing people to fields. It is fairly easy to set an upper bound on the amount we

should be willing to spend. Clearly it makes no sense to invest more per person-exposure avoided than

we invest per death avoided for various known risks in our society. In other writings we have used the

rates at which our society invests in avoiding known risks of death and injury to develop an upper bound

on the rates at which it would be prudent to invest in field avoidance [Morgan 87b, Morgan 87c]. We

conclude that it might be possible to justify investment rates of up to some thousands of dollars of personexposure avoided, but not possible to justify rates of investment in field avoidance activities that are

significantly higher than this. Thus, for example, while it might make sense to work to avoid exposing

people in siting new lines, in most cases, with our current knowledge, it would not make sense to tear out

and rebuild old lines. Similarly it might make sense to redesign new appliances to reduce fields exposure

if this can be done for small increments in their cost. It might even makes sense to selectively replace a

few old appliances, such as electric blankets, with new “field-free” versions. But it probably would not

make sense to throw out all old appliances before they wear out and replace them all immediately with

new “field-free” ones.

To date there has been very little research on the design of strategies to reduce field exposures.

We have done a small amount of work ourselves, principally in student projects [CarnegieMellon 84].

This work suggests that in many cases low-field or “no-field” solutions maybe possible at economically

la~ctions of thjs djs~ssjon draw directly from a paper by the authors which recently appeared in public utilities ~o~~@ht/Y

[Morgan 88]
80

reasonable levels. For example a low-field electric blanket might be designed by using concentric

conductors in the heating elements, by using shielded twisted pair heating elements, or by using heated

fluid.

In the case of transmission lines we have developed proposals for specific strategies based on

transmission line siting fees which could be used to implement prudent avoidance. The basic idea is to

charge the utility a fee of $X for each person who lives within a given distance19 of the line. If properly

implemented this approach should provide incentives for the utility to avoid exposing people up to a

marginal investment rate of $X per person-exposure avoided. We have argued that the revenue

generated by such a scheme should be used to support 60 Hz health effects research. Details on this

strategy can be found elsewhere [Morgan 87d, Morgan 88]. If a fee based approach is considered

unacceptable, various second-best administrative procedures may be used to achieve similar goals. For

example, if it was undertaken with the explicit recognition that it did not represent a “safe” exposure level,

a field strength standard might be justified in terms of *’prudent avoidance” arguments.

Society has trouble doing collectively things that we do as individuals all the time. In particular, the

notion of exercising social prudence on a possible but uncertain risk such as 60 Hz fields is a nonstandard strategy for social risk management. To implement it will require some behavioral, political and

perhaps even some legal changes. For example, as noted above, with some careful engineering, the field

exposures associated with many appliances could probably be dramatically reduced or eliminated, at only

modest increases in price [CarnegieMellon 84]. Suppose, that in the spirit of prudent field avoidance, an

electric blanket company decides to redesign their blankets to make them “field free”. It seems only a

matter of time before the company will be facing litigation from leukemia victims which argues that the

electric blankets caused their cancer and that the fact that the company has recently redesigned their

blankets “proves” their claim, since otherwise why would the company have gone to the trouble to

introduce the new design.

To date there has been very little work done on field avoidance strategies. There is clearly a need

for a series of careful engineering, economic and legal studies. While DoE supports research on 60 Hz

health effects, primarily from a transmission line perspective, neither they nor any other agency appears

to have yet assumed responsibilities that span the full problem, including distribution, building wiring and

appliances. Clearly, such research is needed if we wish to be able to develop a set of coherent and

rational responses to the problem of general social exposure to 60 Hz fields.

10.2. Strategies for Research

Recent years have seen dramatic developments in the science which have prompted many

observers to conclude that the issue of possible 60 Hz health risks should be taken seriously. In parallel

with these developments, the past several years have also witnessed a marked decrease in the level of

federal research support in this area which has only recently begun to reverse. The reductions do not

appear to have sprung from any deliberate choice to reduce 60 Hz field effects research. Rather, they

appear to have been the byproduct of high level efforts to limit the level of overall federal expenditures.

lgT~e avoi~nce distance used in such a scheme would typically be significantly greater that the widths Of CUrrOnt traflsnlissiofl

line rights-of-way, which would be retained and could be widened.
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While research completed to date is sufficient to raise serious questions it is not sufficient to

provide satisfactory answers or to point the way to action. Electric power plays a critically important role in

the health of our nation. Already concerns have prompted vigorous public intervention and litigation

which has significantly impeded the ability of private and public utilities to construct new power

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fields will soon be raised at other levels. Without adequate science on which to base answers, the

resulting contention could go on for many years and have costs significantly greater than the costs of the

needed research.

While legislators, regulators and risk managers all have a role in determining the /eve/of research

that is undertaken, they should obviously not become involved in specific decisions about the details of

the research to be conducted. But, beyond the issue of level of support, there are several issues of

research management that should concern these groups:

1. Because of its highly interdisciplinary nature (involving biology, biochemistry, physics and

electrical engineering) a high level of quality control is required for research on the health

effects of low frequency electromagnetic fields. Failure to exercise such control can lead to

serious confusion. The current private and public research support programs have

developed adequate quality control. If other actors, such as additional individual states,

begin to support research, they need to take care to exercise similar control.

2. The overall program of research should include a balanced mixture of a) cellular level and

other biological studies of mechanisms; b) whole animal studies; and c) epidemiological

studies. No single type of study is likely to lead to the kind of complete understanding which

will be necessary to make informed judgments about risk assessment and management,

For example, while epidemiological studies maybe able to demonstrate health impacts in

humans, cellular and animal studies are likely to be necessary to identify the dose-response

mechanisms needed to develop effective strategies for risk management.

3. Care must be taken not to define the scope of the program too narrowly. The fundamental

science of this problem appears to be complex and may still lead in unexpected directions.

It is important to define the scope of the research widely enough so that important but

unexpected developments will not be missed. An example will clarify this point. In the early

years of work on this topic it was common for some observers to complain that any study

done at a frequency other than 60 Hz was irrelevant. Had this position been enforced on the

research then occurring, the important discovery of frequency windowing (Section 3) would

have been missed and the correct interpretation of a number results would be impossible.

4. Management of the research program must be flexible and adaptive so as to be able to

redirect attention as understanding evolves. For example, in the past the federal research

program was too slow in phasing down support for rodent behavioral studies. Recently it

has been too slow in mounting a series of laboratory animal cancer promotion studies. In

order to avoid such problems regular strategic program reviews based on independent

critical advice from health scientists, engineers and risk analysts, are necessary.

5. There is a risk of becoming too fixed on cancer as a single health effect of concern, The

breadth of cellular and animal findings suggest that other public health effects, including

psychological effects such as chronic depression, deserve some attention.

6. Insufficient attention has been directed at field exposures that result from sources other

than high voltage transmission lines. A systematic characterization of the entire low

frequency field environment to which people are exposed in normal modern life, is needed.

7. There has been almost no attention given to techniques for eliminating 60 Hz field

exposures in modern life. A series of engineering studies, designed to explore the technical

and economic feasibility of exposure avoidance, are needed.
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95

1. Endnotes

This section consists of notes that describe the background information of some of the aspects of

biology and epidemiology central to the understanding of the ELF fields effect science.

Note 1: The role of calcium In biological systems

The flow of calcium ions (Ca+2) across the cell membrane is an important means of transmitting signals

from the exterior to the interior of the cell in all organisms. “Pumps” in the membrane maintain a 10,000-

fold difference between extracellular ( about 10-3 molar) and intracellular ( about 10-7 molar) free calcium

ion concentrations. Most of the intracellular calcium is normally bound to other molecules or otherwise

sequestered. Calcium is also present bound to the membranes to be released in the event of an

appropriate triggering signal. Component molecules of the membrane (primarily those called called

glycoproteins) have charged ends that attract and hold a layer of ions, principally calcium and hydrogen

ions competing for the available sites. This layer of protein ends and ions (an ionic bilayer) is a major

element that modulates the action of drugs and other chemicals.

Note 2: Hormones

Hormones which are produced by glands of the endocrine system play a major role in regulating

the numerous functions of the body. The four general functions of the endocrine system are:

maintenance of the intricately balanced biochemical and conditions in the body; response to everyday

demands of physiologic and psychologic stress; integration of growth and development in the appropriate

time sequence; and processes controlling sexual reproduction and fetal and newborn nourishment.

For some functions a multiplicity of hormones have to act in concert. For example, the sequence of

hunger, and appetite production are controlled by a system of six hormones acting in sequence arising

from different glands in the body. On the other hand, there are some hormones such as insulin,

parathyroid hormone and epinephrine each of which performs multiple actions.

Because of their complexity, it is not simple to extrapolate observations of hormonal changes

induced by ELF fields in in vitro cellular experiments to conclusions about end effects in the whole body.

The effect of a hormone in the body depends on its interaction with a receptor which in turn depends on

the circulating level of hormone present. There are basal and stimulated levels of secretion of hormones

and the levels are also regulated by various feedback mechanisms. In vitro observation cannot simulate

all the above processes that act together in the body.

The three major classes of hormones are; steroid, peptide and aminoacid. Cortisol which regulates

appetite, and is an example of a steroid hormone while PTH and ACTH are peptide hormones.

Catecholamines are aminoacid hormones. The chemical nature and structure of the hormone determines

how the hormone operates biochemically. All hormones interact with receptors on the cell membrane,

and the combination initiates a transmembrane message which for most hormones is an activation of

adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that is bound to the inner surface of the cell membrane. Adenylate cyclase
then “sends” cyclic AMP (cAMP) which can widely circulate through the cell and is “the second

messenger” that activates and regulates other enzymes through an intermediate enzyme called protein

kinase. One of these, called protein kinase C, has been associated with the mechanism for cancer

promotion. cAMP and calcium comprise the primary messenger system, both being released from stores

on the cell membrane in response to messages.

Hormones that appear often in description of ELF effects are: the catecholamines, the serotonin

5-HT)- melatonin sequence, parathyroid hormone (PTH), ACTH, and growth factors (GF). These are

briefly described below.

Catecholamines and the serotonin group belong to a class of hormones known as autacoids, or

autopharmacologic agents and also as local hormones.

Catecholamines: Most prominent among the aminoacid hormones synthesized in the brain and the

nervous system are the catecholamines dopamine, norepinephine and epinephine. As they are released

from nerve endings during physiologic stimulation, they are called neurotransmitters. They have several

functions and affect muscle, heart, liver, spleen, lung and brain physiology. They control blood pressure,

heartbeats, some forms of headache, the basic metabolic rate, some psychic changes and several other

rates. Deficient or excessive secretion of catecholamines or alterations of their action cause major

physiological and psychological problems, Increased metabolism of catecholamines are also associated

with neuroblastoma, a tumor originating in the neural crest, often during fetal development.

Serotonin, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and Melatonin

Serotonin, first identified as a vasoconstrictor material, that appears in the serum when blood clots

is the common name for the hormone whose active part is the complex 5-HT or 5-hydroxytryptamine:

Serotonin is widely present in animal and plant tissue and has a wide array of regulatory action. 5-HT is

synthesized all over the body, from tryptophan which is present in many foods, notably milk. Receptors

for serotonin are present in cell membranes all over the body, Serotonin stimulates or inhibits many of

the muscles and nerves, depending on the amount and the phase of the organ in its function. It can

stimulate or depress heartbeat, contract blood vessels and change blood pressure. Serotonin prevents

clotting, and provides reflexes such as coughing or hyperventilation.

In humans, serotonin also serves as a chemical transmitter in the brain. Serotonin and its product

melatonin influences sleep, perception of pain, psychological depression and social behavior.

Melatonin is also secreted by the pineal gland and is described in the endnote on circadian

rhythms.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

PTH is a major hormone in the control of mineral (calcium, magnesium and phosphorus)

metabolism. PTH and a group of other hormones, together with extracellular calcium, synergize and

feedback on each other to regulate processes such as the growth and availability of calcium for conveying

messages into the cells. Produced in the thyroid gland, PTH secretion in the cells is regulated primarily
97

by calcium and cAMP. Calcium concentration in the extracellular fluid is the primary variable that is

controlled by PTH, which this determines the rate of resorption of Calcium in bones, kidney and intestine

tissue.}

Adenocorticotropin (ACTH)

ACTH is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland and is responsible for stimulating the secretion

of the steroid hormone cortisol and related steroids by the adrenal gland. Cortisol levels in turn govern

ACTH levels in the blood, and further ACTH production. The ACTH level is a function of the presence of

cortisol or analogous steroids such as cortisone and aldosterone, the circadian rhythm and stress. The

circadian variation of ACTH regulates that of cortisol which governs hunger and appetite, control of

hypertension, and other functions; cortisone, which governs inflammatory response; and corticosterone

which governs stress response, sexual development and other function. The “biologic clock” and stress

work through the central nervous system to stimulate ACTH. The stimulation of cortisol by ACTH is

mediated by cyclic AMP.

Note 3: Stages In the formation of a tumor or cancer

[Cole 87, Guddon 81, Berenblum 75, Trosko 83, Trosko 85]

For convenience in understanding the origins and development of a tumor or cancer, oncogenesis

or carcinogenesis1 is usually thought of in terms of three stages : initiation, latent period and clinical

manifestation.

Initiation is generally assumed to be a clear period in time when an agent damages the genetic

material of a cell to produce changes that starts the tumor or cancer by changing the codes for production

of essential biomolecules, or by inducing the production of molecules normally foreign to the organism at

that stage of its life. As shown in Figure 1-1, reproduced from an article by Swenberg [Rice 79], this

damage may be repaired depending on the repair mechanisms, the extent of damage and genetic

susceptibility for repair.

During the latent period, the altered cells (also called “transformed’* or “neoplastic” cells) continue

to grow and proliferate, to finally manifest themselves into detectable sizes as a ‘frank” or clinical tumor.

Both external agents and epigenetic (or, extranuclear) events maybe important at this stage. An external

agent may be a promoter, that is, it might enhance the effect of an initiator to further promote the

transformation which may not otherwise not have been completed or for which the dose of the initiator

was not enough.

The idea that tumor cancer development is a multistage process came from the pioneering

experiments of Rous and his colleagues [Friedewald 44]. They found that virus-induced skin tumors that

regressed after a period of time could be made to grow again if the skin is physically stressed or by

application of irritants such as croton oil. Rous et al then concluded that the tumor cells could exist in a

latent state and could be “promoted” by appropriate agents. They named these stages initiation and

promotion. Berenblum then did an elegant series of experiments on mouse skin tumors showing clearly

‘“onco” is a prefix denoting a benign or malignant tumor, while “carcino” denotes a cancer which may be a malignant tumor
98

Clinical tumor

Benign

Chemically malignant

Malignant

Figure 1: Stages in the development of a tumor or cancer [Rice 79]

that there were substances that could not initiate cancer but could promote its growth [Berenblum 41].

Although these experiments were performed almost forty years ago, and vigorous research has continued

since, we still do not have a clear delineation of the processes and mechanisms involved in the stages of

oncogenesis or carcinogenesis.

Initiation and growth alone are enough to induce cancer. Promotion by a separate or the same

agent is not necessary. A single appropriately high dose of certain carcinogens have been shown to

induce cancer in animals.

Initiation and promotion has now been widely studied in chemical carcinogenesis after the

identification of chemicals such as urethane which are primarily initiators and components of croton oil

that have only a promoting activity. The classic promoter used as a standard because of its potency is a

chemical isolated from croton oil, 12-o-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate, or, TPA.

External agents may also affect the growth of the cancer by enhancing cell growth and proliferation

processes or by having the properties to enhance those of a transformed cell in preference to a normal

cell. Epigenetic events that maybe important during the latent period in increasing the rate of growth are:

the hormone and immunologic status of the body; the stage of tissue differentiation especially if the

affected body is that of a fetus or neonate; and metabolic competence in general, or in particular with

respect to certain agents that are promoters or growth enhancers.

Trosko and Chang have developed models of some aspects of multistage carcinogenesis and

reviewed the subject in detail [Trosko 83, Trosko 85]. They have hypothesized that in some cases at

least, promotion occurs when a cell escapes control by the normalizing regulating molecular signals from

its communicating neighbors.
100

circadian regulation was a powerful selection agent in evolution. Submammalian vertebrates exhibit

endogenous circadian rhythmicity. That is, a submammalian pineal separated from the organism,

continues its cycle of function given the proper LD cycle. This is because in birds and other lower

vertebrates, the pineal itself contains photoreceptive cells, a function that has been separated to the SCN

in mammals.

The pineal contains a multitude of critical biochemical. Among the most studied of these are:

1. norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine( neurotransmitters that transmit excitatory and

inhibitory signals in the central and peripheral nervous system)

2. histamine (a chemical mediator found in connective tissues throughout the body that

causes blood vessels to dilate facilitating the access of serum proteins, antibodies and

white blood cells to the Iocation as needed to respond to injury and infection),

3. melatonin ( a hormone that regulates sexual function and development, among other

things) which has been most widely studied, and other related indolamines.

4. the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma amino butyric acid (GABA). In addition, there are a

number of other pineal hormones.

It is evident from the above that an environmental agent that affects the pineal could have

important biological effects. The most striking aspect of indolamine synthesis in the pineal is the marked

circadian rhythms in the concentrations and therefore in the modulations of the synthetic processes. Light

is the single most significant environmental stimulus guiding these. Pinealectomy experiments in fish,

amphibians, reptiles and birds have established several interesting rules about the circadian rhythmsetting role of the pineal.

Pineal-ScN interaction in mammals is distinctly different from these other vertebrates and work on

pinealectomy on mammals has provided only sparse and inconclusive data, The pineal in the mammal

appears to be a feedback modulator of the circadian activity. Disorder of the pineal gland has been

associated with a range of symptomatic disorders such as psychological depression and sexual

dysfunction [Maurizi 84]. Low levels of melatonin have been found in people with certain types of cancer

and melatonin has been administered to cancer patients to inhibit cancer growth.

Note 5: Epidemiological Studies [Savitz 87, Rothman 86, Aldrich 85]

Epidemiological studies have the notable advantage that they are studies of human populations

and are, therefore their results, if clear-cut, should be directly applicable in public health decision-making

without the animal to human extrapolation problems faced by experimental studies. However, because

there are ethical and practical limitations on the extent to which epidemiological studies can be designed

as experiments, their results are often inconclusive, the main problems being confounding effects,

uncertainties about exposures and concurrent behaviors and exposures of the subjects, recall biases

and, in the case of weak agents with non-specific effects, which maybe the case for ELF field exposure,

that of getting enough numbers in the study to provide statistical significance or” power” to the study.

Epidemiology has really begun to emerge as a sound methodology only in the last three decades,

with several epidemiological studies by Health departments in the U.S. such as the Framingham Heart

Study initiated in 1949. The Heart study has been instrumental in providing much of our knowledge about

cardiovascular disease and health habits and still continues to yield results., after 35 years. Other
99

Tumor promotion itself is likely to be a multistep process including some or all of the following :

1. Inhibition of the intercellular communication which normally restricts cell proliferation beyond

the healthy regime for the organ,

2. Changing or blocking of normal regulatory processes within the cell, or,

3. Affecting gene expression (i.e., the manufacture of the appropriate proteins) through

enzyme induction or inhibition. This may lead to the production of too much of the normally

occurring proteins or that of altered proteins.

From the above, it is clear that the most obvious limitation of an in vitro result in studying

mechanisms of carcinogenesis is the fact that carcinogenesis is an in vivo process that is a combination

of physiologic factors, immune responses, pharmacokinetics, and metabolic effects.

Two facts about the cellular level experiments involving field exposure are worth noting. Ornithine

decarboxylase production is increasingly being used as a biochemical marker of some types of cancers. []

It has also been noted that membrane modulators which control or inhibit calcium efflux or cause an

internal redistribution of calcium will act as stimulants of promotion or as promoters of cancer. (Trosko85b)

Note 4: Circadian Systems and the Pineal Gland [Relter 84]

While all the biology of the circadian and other timing systems is not well understood as yet,

research in the last two decades have brought considerable understanding of some of the elements of the

system. It is believed that the system has several elements that work in some logical sequence. Prime

among these are : transducers that sense cues of time; pacemakers which keep time; and, mediators that

are neural and biochemical pathways which transfer appropriate information to the respective systems.

Under general constant conditions, circadian rhythms are “free-running”, that is, they show periods close

to 24 hours. Environmental stimuli can be used to re-synchronize or “entrain” these cycles to other

periods within some limited range of periods. A stimulus that is usually used in experiments is the

“light-dark” (LD) cycle, which can be used to entrain both periods and phases of biological activity

The specialized organs that have a major role in the organization of circadian rhythms in mammals

are the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and the pineal gland . The SCN is a nucleus located in the

hypothalamus ( the region of the brain that is the main regulator of the endocrine system), close to the

base of the optic nerve . The SCN receives direct input from the retina that conveys information about

light and dark and continues receiving this information, independent of conscious light-dark perception.

The pineal, so named for its pine cone-like structure, is a tiny gland, weighing only about 0.15 gram in the

human, at the base of the brain. The pineal receives its regulatory signals directly from the SCN via a

neural pathway. In mammals, when there is no light input, pineal rhythms still persist; but these are no

longer entrained to the external LD cycle but rather to a free-running rhythm set by the SCN which is

believed to be the only internal clock that drives the pineal in the mammal. Any signal that cues the SCN

and therefore the pineal are termed “zeitgebers” or, time givers. The LD cycle is the most important

natural zeitgeber for the pineal.

The pineal is one of the most important regulatory organs in the body, one that has existed through

millenia of evolution. The pineal gland acts as a neurochemical transducer, that is, it converts information

about the level of environmental lighting into neurochemical activity. Thus it plays an important role in

controlling hormone systems, although its full function is not yet known. It is believed that the protection of

certain biochemical processes from lethal solar ultraviolet radiation by confining them to the night via
101

triumphs of epidemiology have been in establishing the connection between smoking and health, lowIevel ionizing radiation and leukemia, and maternal ingestion of DES (diethylstilbestrol) and cancer in

female offspring.

Because it is a science in its infancy, epidemiology still faces some disagreement and confusion

about definition of measures. Considerable time and effort are needed to make the basic measurements

in epidemiology which track the disease incidence. Getting data from people is often difficult, very timeand resource-intensive, and hampered by problems of non-cooperation, population mobility and privacy.

Rothman points out that the theoretical foundation of epidemiology lies in statistics but that some of

the methods that have become incorporated into epidemiology are not theoretically sound in biological

applications while they make sense in other applications in statistics. Statistical hypothesis testing is such

a method that was evolved for agricultural and quality control experiments with very uniform and discrete

results . The criteria for significance in disease definition are often arbitrary and the concept of

significance not always meaningful.

Cause and Effect in Epidemiology

Many of the public health effects result from interaction of several factors in a biological system so

that the “single cause’’-to-"observed effect” often used in the generalization of epidemiological studies to

public health protection measures is too simplistic. “Sufficient cause” for a public health effect often

consists of many components acting in concert or in a definite or random sequence. Strength of each

cause, interaction among causes and proportion of disease due to specific causes all combine to produce

an epidemiological effect. Often the biologic factors underlying any or all of these are unknown and this

makes interpretation of associations difficult.

Because of the lack of knowledge of biological mechanisms and individual variation, when we are

faced with a decision of making a public health decision about an agent we assign an average value of

risk of a particular health effect from the agent to everyone in the exposed population while in reality there

are some individuals who have no risk at all of contracting that particular effect from that agent. For

example, smoking does not necessarily cause lung cancer in everyone who smokes. What we know is

we face enough of a whole set of causes of lung cancer that removing smoking, the one known

component cause makes sense from a public health point of view.

Types of Epidemiologic Studies

Epidemiologic studies may be designed experiments as in the case of chemical, field and

community intervention trials; or, as is more often the case, they may be studies of selected populations

who have been exposed to the agent of interest. Obviously, all studies involving exposures to

environmental agents with potential or unknown harmful effects have to be of the latter type.

A major difference between follow-up and case-control studies is that the subjects are chosen

according to some exposure of the agent of interest in follow-up studies and according to a disease or

end point in case control studies. As a time interval is allowed to elapse as part of the study in the
102

follow-up case, these are called longitudinal studies. A case-control study is essentially a cross-sectional

study, looking at a sample of the cross-section of diseased population at a particular point in time.

Obviously, etiology of a disease is better studied with the longitudinal follow-up studies.

Measures of Effect in Epidemiology

Epidemiology may measure effects on the absolute level in terms of incidence rate , cumulative

incidence or prevalence; and on a relative scale by several measures described below. When one

potential cause is to be studied, a useful measure to work at is the attributable proportion for which the

disease incidence can be said to have arisen from exposure to the agent as sufficient cause. Strictly

speaking, attributable risk should be calculated only if the causation has been established.

The ELF field studies have all measured the possible effect in terms of the relative measures,

Relative Risk (RR), Odds Ratio (OR), Proportional Mortality Ratio (PM R), and Standardized Mortality

Ratio (SMR). A couple of early studies calculated Proportional Incidence Ratio (PIR) or Proportional

Registration Ratio (PRR).

Relative measures essentially take the ratio of the incidence rate or difference in incidence rate in

exposed population to ratio among unexposed or less exposed. If I0 and I1 are respectively the ratio of

incidence among unexposed (or less exposed) and among exposed, the relative risk is simply the ratio I1

/ 10. The relative risk is also referred to as the relative incidence, or rate ratio.

In case-control studies, cases are those who became ill during a time period and the controls area

fraction of exposed and unexposed (all undiseased) persons. If the sampling for controls is random and

an equal fraction of exposed and unexposed persons have been sampled, the relative risk is the

exposure odds ratio, that is, the exposure odds among cases to exposure odds among controls, usually

called the Odds Ratio.

When death certificate or mortality statistics are used, the proportional mortality ratio or PMR is

taken as a measure of the effect of an exposure. PMR is the ratio of the exposed subjects who died of a

specific cause to the unexposed subjects who died of the same cause . PMR values have to be

interpreted carefully for a specified cause because if the subjects are exposed to a spectrum of causes

and other relevant agents, a high PMR might reflect the preventive effect of an agent in the unexposed

population rather than the causative effect of the agent on the exposed population.

Instead of mortality statistics, if registration or other incidence data are available, Proportional

Incidence ratio (PIR) or Proportional Registration Ratio (PRR) can be calculated.
103

References to Endnotes

[Aldrich 85] Aldrich, T.E. and C.E. Easterly. Handbook of Epidemiological Methods, with Special

Emphasis on Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields. Technical Report ORNL-6237, Prepared

for the Department of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1985.

[Berenblum 41] Berenblum 1. The Mechanism of Carcinogenesis : A Study of the Significance of

Carcinogenic Action and Related Phenomena. Cancer Research 1 :807-812, 1941.

[Berenblum 75] Berenblum 1. Sequential Aspects of Chemical Carcinogenesis: Skin. Cancer: A

Comprehensive Treatise. Plenum Press, New York, 1975, pages 323-344.

[Cole 87] Cole P. An Epidemiologic Perspective on Electromagnetic Fields and Cancer.

Prepared for the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, March. 1987.

[Friedewald 44] Friedewald W.D. and P. Rous. The Initiating and Promoting Elements in Tumor

Production: An Analysis of the Effects of Tar, Benzopyrene, and Methylcholantrene on Rabbit Skin.

Journal of Experimental Medicine 80:101 -122, 1944.

[Guddon 81] Guddon R.W. Cancer Biology. Oxford University Press, New York, 1981.

[Maurizi 84] Maurizi C.P. Disorder of the Pineal Gland Associated with Depression, Peptic Ulcers

and Sexual Dysfunction. Southern Medical Journa/77:151 6-1518, December, 1984.

[Reiter 84] Reiter R.J. (editor). The Pineal Gland. Raven Press, New York, 1984.

[Rice 79] J.M. Rice. Perinatal Carcinogenesis. Technical Report, National Cancer [Institute

Monograph No.51, Washington, D. C., 1979.

[Rothman 86] Rothman K.J. Modern Epidemiology. Little Brown Company, New York, 1986.

[Savitz 87] Savitz, D.A. Case-Control Study of Childhood Cancer and Exposure to

Electromagnetic Fields. Technical Report, Prepared for the New York State Power Lines Project, Albany,

NY: Health Research Inc., 1987.

[Trosko 83] Trosko J.E. and C.C. Chang. Role of Intercellular Communication in Tumor

Promotion. Tumor Promotion and Carcinogeensis in vitro. CRC Press, Boca raton, Florida, 1983.

[Trosko 85] Trosko J.E. and C.C. Chang. Implications for Risk Assessment of Genotoxic and

Non-Genotoxic Mechanisms in Carcinogenesis. Methods for Estimating Risk of Chemical Injury: Human

and Non-Human Biota and Ecosystems. Academic Press, New York, 1985.
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