NIST Technical Note 1635 

A Case Study of a Community 

Affected by the Witch and Guejito 

Fires

Alexander Maranghides 

William Mell 
NIST Technical Note 1635 

A Case Study of a Community 

Affected by the Witch and Guejito 

Fires

Alexander Maranghides 

William Mell 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Technology Administration 

Building and Fire Research Laboratory 

National Institute of Standards 

And Technology 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

April 2009 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Gary Locke, Secretary 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Patrick D. Gallagher,Acting Director
Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this 

 document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately. Such 

identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the 

entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose. 

National Institute of Standards and Technology Technical Note 1635 

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Technical Note 1635, 59 pages (June 2009) 

Cover Page Photo: The Trails Monday 22 October 2007, Photo Courtesy of Mark Weir, Used by Permission 

ii 
Table of Contents

List of Figures................................................................................................................................ iv 

List of Tables.................................................................................................................................. v 

List of Tables.................................................................................................................................. v 

Abstract........................................................................................................................................... 6 

1.0 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 7 

1.1 Previous Case Studies........................................................................................................... 8 

2.0 Objective of Case Study............................................................................................................ 9 

3.0 Area of interest – Rancho Bernardo, The Trails Community................................................... 9 

4.0 Witch Creek and Guejito Fire Ignitions.................................................................................. 10 

5.0 Weather................................................................................................................................... 11 

6.0 Data Collection ....................................................................................................................... 12 

7.0 Wildland Fuel and Fuel Moisture ........................................................................................... 12 

8.0 Fire Approach Timeline.......................................................................................................... 13 

8.1 Timeline within The Trails................................................................................................. 13 

8.2 Fire Spread within The Trails............................................................................................. 16 

9.0 Structure Exposure to Fire and Embers.................................................................................. 17 

10.0 Defensive Actions................................................................................................................. 18 

10.1 Timeline of actions ........................................................................................................... 19 

11.0 Partly Damaged Structures ................................................................................................... 20 

11.1 Interior versus Perimeter Structural losses.................................................................... ... 22 

12.0 Structure Ignition Data.......................................................................................................... 22 

13.0 Commonly held beliefs in light of these findings................................................................. 24 

14.0 Summary of findings and discussion .................................................................................... 25 

14.1 General Fire Behavior....................................................................................................... 26 

14.2 Structural Losses and Defensive Actions.......................................................................... 26 

15.0 Unanswered Questions.......................................................................................................... 26 

16.0 Future Work.......................................................................................................................... 27 

17.0 Acknowledgments................................................................................................................. 27 

18.0 References............................................................................................................................. 58 

iii 
List of Figures 

Figure 1: The Trails Community, Destroyed Homes (in Yellow) and Fire Perimeter after the 

Guejito and Witch Fires............................................................................................... 29 

Figure 2: Destroyed Structures in the vicinity of Rancho Bernardo, CA..................................... 30 

Figure 3: Structure Densities in Three Different WUI Settings ................................................... 31 

Figure 4: Origins of the Guejito and Witch Creek Fires, the combined perimeter of both fires and 

the locations of the weather stations used later in the report. (map Courtesy of 

CALFIRE).................................................................................................................... 32 

Figure 5: Weather data from Ramona Airport.............................................................................. 33 

Figure 6: Northwest Corner of The Trails.................................................................................... 34 

Figure 7: North Side of The Trails................................................................................................ 35 

Figure 8: East Corner of The Trails.............................................................................................. 36 

Figure 9: Southeast Corner of The Trails – Sycamore Creek....................................................... 37 

Figure 10: West side of The Trails ............................................................................................... 38 

Figure 11: Southwest side of The Trails....................................................................................... 39 

Figure 12: Angosto Way before October 22 , 2007 (circa 2005) nd ................................................ 40 

Figure 13: Angosto Way after October 22 2007 nd ........................................................................ 41 

Figure 14: Topographic mps of The Trails................................................................................... 42 

Figure 15: The Trails - Fire approach........................................................................................... 43 

Figure 16: Timeline of Structures Burning in The Trails............................................................. 44 

Figure 17: The Trails - Flame Spread and Needle Freeze ............................................................ 46 

Figure 19: Golf Ball Providing Direction of Highest Heat Flux .................................................. 47 

Figure 20: Fire Line progression within The Trails...................................................................... 48 

Figure 21: Rock Outcrop Acting as a Fire Break ......................................................................... 49 

Figure 22: The Trails Defensive Actions...................................................................................... 50 

Figure 23: Impacts of the Defensive Actions Taken at The Trails............................................... 51 

Figure 24: Damaged Structures. See Table 6 for further information on each house according to 

number on figure.......................................................................................................... 52 

Figure 25: The Trails - Ignition categories of destroyed structures and perimeter/interior outline

...................................................................................................................................... 53 

Figure 26: Structure Ignition Category A Fire from the wildlands burns uninterrupted up to the 

structure........................................................................................................................ 54 

Figure 27: Structure Ignition Category B ..................................................................................... 54 

Figure 28: Structure Ignition Category C ..................................................................................... 55 

Figure 29: Potential Structure Ignition Categories A, B and C .................................................... 56 

Figure 30: House burning times, fire spread and fire jumps ........................................................ 57 

iv 
v 

List of Tables 

Table 1: Geographic Locations of Four Weather Stations ........................................................... 11 

Table 2: Weather Summary .......................................................................................................... 11 

Table 3: Timeline of Completely Destroyed Structures............................................................... 15 

Table 4: Timeline of Defensive Actions....................................................................................... 20 

Table 5: Homes that were defended while burning ...................................................................... 20 

Table 6: Damaged Structures and Defensive Actions.................................................................. 21 

Table 7: Ignition Categories A, B, and C ..................................................................................... 23 

Table 8: Homes Destroyed - Interior............................................................................................ 24 

Table 9: Homes Destroyed - Perimeter......................................................................................... 24 

Table 10: Time Distribution of Potential Structure Ignition Categories A, B, and C .................. 24 
A Case Study of a Community Affected by the Witch and Guejito Fires

by 

Alexander Maranghides, William Mell 

Abstract 

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has a Reduced Risk of Fire Spread 

in Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) Communities research program. The program objective is 

to develop, by the end of FY2013 first generation tools for improved risk assessment and risk 

mitigation in WUI (wildland-urban interface) communities at risk from wildfires. These tools 

will be developed and tested through a coordinated effort that includes laboratory and field 

measurements, physics-based fire behavior models, and economic cost analysis models. The 

NIST WUI Team was invited by CAL FIRE to collect post incident data from the California 

October 2007 fires. Early on, the NIST WUI Team initiated a case study within the Witch Fire 

perimeter. The case study is focused on The Trails development at Rancho Bernardo, north of 

the City of San Diego. There were 274 homes in The Trails, with 245 within the fire perimeter 

74 homes were completely destroyed and 16 were partly damaged. Field measurements included 

structure particulars, specifically roof type, proximity of combustibles to the structure, and 

damage to wildland and residential vegetation. Documentation included over 11 000 pictures. 

The data collected and the data analysis to be conducted are divided into three initial papers. 

This paper will address the event timeline reconstruction and general fire behavior observations. 

The second paper will investigate the impacts of structure attributes, landscaping characteristics, 

topographical features and wildland fire exposure on structure survivability. Lastly, the third 

paper will investigate the use computer modeling as a tool to understand fire behavior at the 

WUI. 

KEY WORDS: Wildland Urban Interface, WUI, fire behavior, community, Witch fire, Guejito 

fire

6 
1.0 Introduction 

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has a Reduced Risk of Fire Spread 

in Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) Communities research program.1

 The program objective is 

to develop, by the end of 2013 first generation tools for improved risk assessment and risk 

mitigation in WUI communities at risk from wildfires. These tools will be developed and tested 

through a coordinated effort that includes laboratory and field measurements, physics-based fire 

behavior models, and economic cost analysis models. 

Despite the increasing frequency and losses from WUI fires, there has been relatively little 

research, compared to fires within structures, on WUI fire spread. This is due, in part, to the fact 

that the subject of WUI fire research falls between traditional studies of building fires and forest 

fires, non-overlapping areas that in the past have been the responsibility of different branches of 

the government. Advances in measurement science are needed to effectively characterize and 

identify the conditions and mechanisms that result in a high risk of structure ignition across a 

range of WUI community types and conditions. Also, to date, no study that measures the 

effectivenes of current risk mitigation practices, whether through wildland fuel treatments or 

modification of residential fuels, has been conducted. 

In this paper, the term WUI refers to locations where topographical features, vegetation types, 

local weather conditions and prevailing winds result in potential for ignition of structures from 

flames and embers of a wildland fire.2

 The WUI fire problem is gaining momentum across the 

Southern continental US and is particularly severe across southern California. Between October 

2003 and October 2007, seven California WUI fires destroyed a total of 8877 structures,3 on 

average over 2200 structures per year. These seven fires resulted in 29 deaths, and over 317 000 

hectares (783 000 acres) burned. The 2003 Cedar fire and the 2007 California Firestorm are 

among the top four fire incidents for the number of structures destroyed and acres burned. The 

Witch fire, the largest of the fires that occurred during the 2007 California firestorm, burned 

80 124 hectares (197 990 acres) and destroyed 1125 residential structures, 509 outbuildings and 

239 vehicles. Additionally, 77 residential structures and 25 outbuildings were damaged. 

Suppression costs were $18 million. The property damages for the 2007 California Fire Storm, 

dominated by the Witch fire, are estimated at $1.8 billion4. The Witch Fire resulted in 45 

firefighter injuries and two civilian fatalities. The Witch Fire started on October 21, 2007 at 

12:35 pm at the Witch Creek area, east of Ramona in San Diego County. 

The NIST WUI Team was invited by the California Department of Forestry and Fire Prevention 

(CAL FIRE) to collect post incident data from the California October 2007 fires. Early on, the 

NIST WUI Team initiated a case study within the Witch Fire perimeter. The case study is 

focused on The Trails development at Rancho Bernardo, 40 km (25 miles) north of the City of 

San Diego. There were 274 homes in The Trails, with 245 within the fire perimeter (Figure 1). 

Seventy four homes were completely destroyed and 16 were partly damaged. 

The NIST data collection effort was designed to provide the necessary information to 

characterize the fire approach from the wildlands, the effects of fire within the community and 

the defensive actions taken. The intent has been to collect sufficient information, not only to 

characterize overall fire behavior in the WUI, but also to provide a foundation for future case 

studies. In that light, the following data collection methodology was developed and followed: 

7 
1. Immediately after the fire, the construction characteristics of the destroyed residences 

were documented as well as all the damage to residential vegetation. This was necessary 

in order to capture the information before it was lost during community reclamation/ 

recovery efforts. 

2. Characteristics of the wildlands surrounding the community were then documented and 

data were collected on the direction and intensity of the wildland fire approach. 

3. Technical meetings were conducted with first responders to develop an event time line. 

At the same time, The Trails homeowners association provided critical input to the event 

timeline. 

4. The community was revisited to collect structure construction and landscaping 

particulars on all non-destroyed structures. 

The field data collection effort took approximately 1300 person hours over 14 months. Field 

data were collected by NIST personnel and CAL FIRE Fire Marshals with the support of 

residents, and the San Diego Fire and Police Departments. Field measurements included 

structure particulars, specifically roof type, proximity of combustibles to the structure, and 

damage to wildland and residential vegetation. Documentation included over 11 000 digital 

photo images. The data collected and the data analysis conducted are divided into three initial 

papers. This paper will address primarily the event timeline construction and general fire 

behavior observations. 

The second paper (work in progress) will explore the response of structures within The Trails to 

the WUI fire. Specifically, the second paper will “apply” different WUI hazard reduction 

guidelines to the community and determine how well the guidelines match the observed 

structure responses to the fire. The second paper will explicitly look at the structure construction 

and ornamental vegetation impact of structure survivability. A third paper will then be 

developed to compare the outputs of different fire models to the observed fire behavior and 

structural fire responses in the community. It is the intent of the authors to make the post-fire 

data set self-contained to enable its use by other fire researchers. The data set will be placed on 

the NIST WUI website at www.fire.nist.gov/wui. 

The NIST WUI research effort has three components: computer model development, 

experiments and field data collection. All three components are interlinked and work together 

towards reducing losses in the WUI. Fire behavior models are being developed to help 

characterize and predict fire behavior in the wildlands and at the interface. At the same time, the 

experimental work is being conducted, with input from the field data collection, to characterize 

and quantify structure ignition vulnerabilities. Modeling and experiments will also be used to 

assess the potential effectiveness of hazard reduction techniques. By implementing this 

comprehensive methodological approach to studying communities burned by wildfires, the 

effectiveness and reliability of such techniques may be better assessed.5

1.1 Previous Case Studies 

A number of studies have been conducted after WUI fires. Nonflammable roofs were defined in 

these cases as roofs made of non-combustible materials such as spanish type, cement, metal or 

asphalt shingle. In 1973, Howard6

 observed a 95 % survival of homes with nonflammable roofs. 

Foote7

 studied structural survival of the 1990 Paint fire and also observed over 80 % survival of 

homes with nonflammable roofs and a clearance of 9 m (30 feet) or more. The 2007 USDA 

8 
Angora fire study focused on assessing fuel treatments effects on fire behavior, suppression 

effectiveness and structure ignition.8

 The report focuses on the wildland fuels treatments; 

however, it provided little information on structure characteristics. The Home Destruction 

Examination report of the Grass Valley Fire by Cohen and Stratton9 has provided a very useful 

time line reconstruction; however the report does not directly couple the defensive actions taken 

to the individual structures. More recently, the Institute for Business and Home Safety (IBHS) 

had conducted a study of the Witch Fire.10 The IBHS study’s primary objective was to 

determine the relative merits of property protection measures ranging from individual actions to 

community-wide actions. Blanchi and Leonard11 conducted an investigation of structure ignition 

mechanisms after the 2003 fire in the Duffy community of Canberra, Australia 2003. The report 

identified that 50 % of the ignitions were from embers only, 35 % were from embers and radiant 

heat, while 10 % were from radiant heat alone. The report also included the comprehensive 

survey form that was used in the data collection process. Although the survey has two questions 

relevant to defensive actions, very limited information on defensive actions taken is presented in 

the report.

The above listed case studies have in common the lack of linking defensive actions to individual 

structures. Without factoring in the defensive and suppression actions taken by first responders 

and homeowners, any conclusions on fire behavior and structure survivability are incomplete 

and may be erroneous. 

2.0 Objective of Case Study 

To understand the fundamentals of fire behavior at the WUI, the study attempts to address the 

following technical questions: 

- How far within a community did the fire spread? 

- To what extent did embers contribute to ignition of structures? 

- Why did the fire spread stop when it did? 

- Did all the structures ignite from the passage of the wildland fire front, or were some 

structures ignited later and why? 

A timeline was developed for the event and the damage that occurred to structures, residential 

vegetation and surrounding wildland vegetation was documented. Additionally, the fire fighting 

and structure protection responses taken shortly before and during the fire event were also 

documented. An analysis of the resident evacuation was outside the scope of this study. An 

analysis of structure construction and landscaping particulars will be documented in the second 

paper (work in progress). 

3.0 Area of interest – Rancho Bernardo, The Trails Community 

This study is focused on The Trails community at Rancho Bernardo. The community extent is 

1.5 km (1 mile) from East to West and 1 km (0.6 mile) from North to South. Community 

elevations range from 125 m to 200 m (415 feet to 660 feet) above sea level. The community 

rests on a knoll and is surrounded by valleys on three sides. To the north is Highland Valley, at 

elevations from 100 m to 110 m (330 feet to 365 feet). To the east is Sycamore Creek at similar 

elevations while to the west is a ravine at elevations ranging from 100 m to 135 m (330 feet to 

9 
445 feet). The community is 23 km (14 miles) east of the Pacific Ocean. The community 

consists of 283 residential lots (Figures 1 and 2). Although some lots on the perimeter of the 

community are larger, typical lots are approximately 6000 m2

 (1.5 acres). At the time of the fires 

there were 274 residences. Out of the 245 residences within the fire line, 74 were completely 

destroyed and an additional 16 sustained various degrees of damage. Housing density is 

approximately 116 homes per km2

 (300 homes per square mile). Figure 3 illustrates three 

different housing densities. The Trails is represented on the left, a community in Rancho Santa 

Fe, California is shown in the middle and a low density housing area is shown on the right. Note 

that the houses are not evenly distributed as the “density” becomes lower. The housing density 

within The Trails is greater than the densities seen outside of Rancho Bernardo but lower than 

the densities seen to the west of The Trails (Figure 2). 

4.0 Witch Creek and Guejito Fire Ignitions 

It was initially believed that The Trails community was impacted only by the Witch Creek Fire. 

The After Action Report October 2007 Wildfires, City of San Diego Response12 identified the 

Guejito Fire as the main fire that hit The Trails. The Witch Fire13 was ignited in the Witch Creek 

area east of Ramona, California, about 27 km (17 miles) east of The Trails, at approximately 

12:35 pm on October 21, 2007. The cause of ignition was determined as electrical line arcing. 

The Guejito Fire14 started, twelve and a half hours later, at 1:00 am October 22nd, 2007 at 

Guejito Creek drainage, on the South Side of California State Route 78 and 0.4 km (1⁄4 mile) 

west of Bandy Canyon Rd, or 10 km (6 miles) northeast of The Trails. The cause of ignition was 

identified as energized power lines contacted lashing wire. The following excerpt from the After 

Action Report described the general progression of the Guejito Fire: 

“The Guejito Fire spread rapidly along the river bottom area of the San Pasqual Valley 

and southwest toward Highland Valley Road. SDFD strike teams engaged in numerous 

firefights along the Highland Valley Road and Bandy Canyon Road areas, but in many 

cases were forced to retreat by the wind-driven flames. It took just over two hours from 

the start of the Guejito Fire for the first homes in northeastern Rancho Bernardo to be 

destroyed by fire. The Guejito Fire spread west along Highland Valley Road, eventually 

spotting across Interstate 15 and ultimately destroying hundreds of structures in West 

Rancho Bernardo.” 

Late Sunday night residents of Rancho Bernardo were informed through mass media that 

the Witch Fire would be arriving at their communities around 11:00 am Monday morning. The 

ignition of the Guejito Fire well to the west of the Witch Creek fire caused the anticipated 

timeline for resident evacuation to be moved into early Monday morning. By approximately 

2:16 am (one hour and sixteen minutes after ignition, the Guejito Fire was identified as posing a 

significant threat to the Rancho Bernardo Community and the San Diego Fire Chief requested 

the activation of the City’s Emergency Operation Center. Figure 4 contains a map illustrating 

the origins of the Guejito and Witch Creek Fires, the combined perimeter of both fires and the 

locations of the weather stations used later in the report. The combined perimeter encompasses 

the total area burned by both fires. 

10 
5.0 Weather 

Weather data was obtained from MESO West 15 operated by the University of Utah. Four 

weather stations were used. The stations were selected for their proximity to either the study 

area or the fire origin. Table 1 lists the particulars of the stations. Figure 4 shows the 

geographical location of the stations, the fire origin locations for the Witch and Guejito fires, 

and the location of The Trails community. 

Table 1: Geographic Locations of Four Weather Stations 

Station Name Station ID Latitude ° Longitude ° Elevation (m) 

Poway NE1 SDPOY 32.9606 -117.0192 182 

Ramona 

Airport 

KRNM 33.0375 -116.9158 423 

Escondido SPV CI153 33.0810 -116.9760 119 

Julian JULC1 33.0756 -116.5917 1292 

The Weather Station at Julian is 10 km due East from the Witch fire origin. It displayed a wind 

shift from west to east early on the morning of October 21st 2007. The relative humidity ranged 

between 30 % and 40 % prior to the wind shift and was reduced to 16% by noon. By 12:15 pm, 

the sustained wind at Julian was recorded at 38 km/hr and gusting to 69 km/h. The Witch fire 

ignited at 12:35 pm. 

The Ramona Airport weather station is 13 km due east from The Trails. The station recorded a 

dramatic drop in humidity while also recording a rapid increase in wind speed. Similar 

behaviors were recorded by the Poway NE1station, located 10 km SSE of The Trails, and are 

summarized in Table 2. Figure 5 displays wind speed, wind gusts, wind direction and relative 

humidity at Ramona airport between October 20th and October 22nd. 

Table 2: Weather Summary 

Station 

Name 

Date and Time Wind 

Speed 

(km/h) 

Wind Gust 

(km/h) 

Wind Direction Relative 

Humidity (%) 

October 21st

00:45 

Poway 0 22 North 90 

NE1 

October 21st

11:45 

34 42 North 14 

October 21st

00:45 

Ramona 0 0 East 94 

Airport 

October 21st

11:53 

42 61 East North East 7 

Escondido SPV is 2 km South West of the Guejito fire origin. Although the Escondido SPV 

data was received by MESO West it did not have the MESO West Quality Check Flag ensuring 

data reliability. The data displayed similar trends to the Ramona Airport data. On October 21st

, 

between 8:00 am and 10:00 am, the relative humidity dropped from 100 % to 15 % and the wind 

11 
increased from 11km/h to 36 km/h. At the time of the Guejito fire ignition, station CI153 

reported a relative humidity of 8 %. 

Limited quantitative information is available for the weather conditions at The Trails during the 

morning of October 22nd. Residents and Firefighters reported “extreme” winds and a residential 

weather station on Polvera Avenue and facing Highland Valley registered 91km/h in the early 

morning hours. Accounting for the possible amplification of the winds due to the Highland 

Valley NE orientation and Northerly wind, it is estimated that wind speeds at the Trails were at 

least as severe as those at Ramona or Poway. 

6.0 Data Collection 

Field data collection was initiated four days after the fire by NIST personnel and CALFIRE Fire 

Marshals. Field measurements were initially focused on destroyed structures and extent of burn 

damages through the community. This focus was necessary due to the short life span of that 

data. Subsequent data collection was focused on the structures that survived the fire. Data 

included structure particulars, including building construction and roof type, proximity of 

combustibles to the structure, and damage to wildland and residential vegetation. The impacts of 

construction type on structure survivability will be addressed in the second report on this study 

(work in progress). Documentation included over 11000 pictures. San Diego Fire and Police 

departments provided critical information for the development of the event timeline. Similarly, 

The Trails Homeowners Association provided essential observations from residents. Additional 

tools used during the study included CALFIRE generated wildland fuel maps, Google Earth, 

Microsoft Virtual Earth and Pictometry information.1

7.0 Wildland Fuel and Fuel Moisture 

The CALFIRE Witch Incident Fuel Map16 contains information on the Witch fire perimeter and 

wildland fuel type. Thirteen different fuel types were involved within the perimeter of the 

Witch Fire. The Highland Valley is covered primarily by Barren/Rock/Other (Fuel Model 99), 

with Brush (Fuel Model 5) on the western side and Agricultural Lands (Fuel Model 97) on the 

eastern side. The mount occupied by the Trails is surrounded by Hardwood/Longpole Pine (Fuel 

Model 8) to the north and west. A small amount of Brush (Fuel Model 5) can also be found on 

the western side of the mount and in the main ravine/chute on the northern side. The eastern side 

is primarily Brush, with a couple of patches of Grass (Fuel Model 1). At the base of Sycamore 

Creek, there is Barren/Rock/Other (Fuel Model 99) surrounding the Creek. Figures 5 through 11 

show the inhomogeneities in wildland fuel on the slopes surrounding The Trails before the 

Witch and Guejito fires. Wildland fuels surrounding The Trails vary in type as well as density. 

Figures 12 and 13 show Angosto Way, which borders the northern edge of The Trials, before 

 

1

 Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this document in 

order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately. Such identification is not 

intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and 

Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily 

the best available for the purpose. 

12 
and after the fires. The extent of damage to the canopy on the northern side of Highland Valley 

road is clearly evident as is the lack of canopy damage up slope, near the structures. Just before 

the fires reached The Trails, dead fuel moisture for 1 hour fuels is estimated at less that 10 %. 

8.0 Fire Approach Timeline 

The following timeline data for the flame spread of the Guejito and Witch fires on the morning 

of October 22nd 2007 was collected from first responders17 and community residents.18 The 

Guejito Fire started at 1:00 am. By 1:30 am the head of the Guejito fire met with Santa Isabel 

Creek which bisects Guejito Creek, 3.2 km (2 miles) from its point of origin. This suggests an 

average spread rate of 6 km/h (3.75 mph). Between 3:15 am and 3:20 am the head of the fire 

turned southwest and started down Highland Valley. By 3:50 am, the fire front had reached the 

intersection of Highland Valley road and Sycamore Creek, covering a distance of 4.5 km (2.8 

miles) in a little over 30 minutes at a rate of 9.0 km/h (5.6 mph). At that time the fire had 

reached the perimeter of The Trails. A high intensity fire (based on observations of crown 

damage) was concentrated around the trees on the river bed to the north of The Trails, with 

lower intensity burning along the valley floor. 

At the time the Guejito Fire was moving southwest down Highland Valley, it was also spreading 

towards the intersection of Bandy Canyon/Highland Valley Road. It reached that intersection by 

3:30 am and homes there began to burn. 

At the same time, the Guejito fire was moving towards The Trails, the Witch Creek fire was 

advancing west. Because of the large magnitude of the Witch fire perimeter it has been difficult 

to identify its exact location over time as it approached The Trails. The following data points 

provide a general idea of its timeline. By 2:55 am the Witch Fire reached the San Pasqual 

Academy 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) east of the Guejito origin and 23 km from its own point of 

origin. At 6:00 am another part of the Witch Fire was making its way down Clevenger canyon 5 

kilometers (3.0 miles) east of Guejito origin and 23 km from its own point of origin. 

The Trails was assaulted by both the Guejito and the Witch fires. The main front of the Guejito 

Fire reached The Trails at approximately 3:45 am Monday morning October 22nd and came from 

the Highland Valley. It is estimated that the Witch Fire arrived at the southeastern part of The 

Trails sometime around 6:00am. Figure 14 shows the topographic characteristics of The Trails 

and Figure 15 illustrates the approach of the Guejito and Witch fires. 

8.1 Timeline within The Trails 

The following timeline includes ember exposure, burning vegetation, and burning structure 

information. The chronological steps vary in duration to better capture the nature of the event. It 

should be noted that the available data is partial and limited in the sense that the frequency of 

reported observations is a function of number of the observers present, which was inconsistent 

and decreased with time. The timeline reconstruction focuses on the destroyed structures, while 

damaged structures are addressed in section 11.0, later in the document. Reported observations 

of structures that were ultimately destroyed are divided in four categories: (1) some visible 

flaming, (2) fully involved flaming, (3) almost completely burned out, and (4) destroyed with 

13 
essentially no flames visible. In most cases, only one observation is available for a particular 

structure. 

In the following time reconstruction for destroyed structures, burning structures were reported 

along with their degree of burning, when the observation was made (Figure 16). In that respect, 

structures that are fully involved during a time interval and binned in one time step could 

possibly have ignited during the previous time interval. There is therefore potentially a 

significant temporal uncertainty associated with the actual ignition times of the structures. Even 

though smoldering could had been present for hours before the flaming occurred, it is estimated 

that initiation of flaming combustion can be estimated to within one hour. An attempt is made to 

estimate structure ignition times and total number of homes burning during each time interval. 

This is reported later in this section. Structure burning observations are documented in Figure 

17. 

2:00 am to 3:30 am 

Embers appear on the perimeter of the community, from the burning wildland fuels as early as 

2:30 am. The first vegetation ignitions are reported at 2:30 am and 2:45 am. These ignitions 

were a result of spotting from the Guejito Fire which at 2:30 am was over 4.5 kilometers (2.8 

miles) away. Vegetation began to burn in the interior of the community by 3:00 am. Three 

structures were ignited and six vegetation ignitions are reported throughout the community by 

3:30. All three structures were on the north-west side of the community adjacent to or within 

150 m (500 ft) from the wildlands. 

3:30 am to 4:30 am 

The main fireline of the Guejito Fire reached the community between 3:30 and 4:00. Embers 

were reported across the entire perimeter of the community as well as in the interior and there 

are sixteen different vegetation fires. This was the period of highest reported structure burning 

activity. Four additional homes were burning between 3:31 am and 3:50 am and sixteen more 

between 3:55 am and 4:30 am. Out of the twenty-two new homes that were reported burning in 

this time period, eleven were showing some flames visible, while the remaining nine were fully 

involved. 

4:30 am to 5:30 am 

Active ember attack was still reported across the perimeter and the interior; however the total 

number of ember observations was reduced to six. Vegetation burning observations were down 

to two. Nine additional homes were burning in this time window. Seven were showing some 

flames visible and two were fully involved.

5:30 to 6:30 am 

An additional eight homes were reported burning in this time window, including two that were 

almost completely consumed. An additional two homes were completely consumed and no 

longer burning. It is during the end of this time interval that the Witch Fire likely arrived at The 

Trails from the east. Four out of the ten additional burning homes reported in this time window 

were on the eastern perimeter of the community. 

6:30 am to 10:30 am 

In this time window, five additional homes were burning. Additionally, there were three 

previously unreported homes that were identified as destroyed and no longer burning. 

14 
10:30 am to 12:30 pm 

One new home burned in this window and eight previously unreported homes were identified as 

completely destroyed and no longer burning. 

12:30 pm to 3:15 pm 

The last home was ignited and burned in this time window. In less than twelve hours after the 

Guejito fire arrived at The Trails no homes were burning. 

Table 3 lists the breakdown of destroyed structures as a function of time. The category, “No 

longer burning” refers to structures that were already destroyed at the time of the first 

observation. The category “Partial data” refers to structures where observations were made prior 

to structure ignition, i.e.: subsequently destroyed home was not burning at the time of 

observation. The data in the table shows that new structure burning observations peak at 22 

structures / hour between 3:30 to 4:30 am. The fire spread very rapidly within the community 

igniting over 50 % (41/74) of the destroyed structures within three hours after the first reported 

ignition. After 6:30 am, the number of new structure ignitions dramatically tapers off from 

eight, to one or two per hour. An expanded timeline table can be found in Figure 16. 

To bound the estimate of number of homes burning in the community at any one time, the 

following assumptions are considered: 

- It takes two hours from flaming ignition of a house to no longer burning 

- Reports of homes ignited with some flames visible can be used as surrogates for structure 

ignition times. 

- Reports of homes fully involved can be moved back one hour and used to approximate ignition 

in the previous time interval. 

- Reports of homes almost completely destroyed can be moved back two hours and used to 

approximate ignition in the new time interval. 

In Table 3, the rows labeled Estimated Structure Ignitions and Estimated Total Homes Burning 

are created using the above assumptions. 

Table 3: Timeline of Completely Destroyed Structures 

Time window 2:30 

am to 

3:30 

am 

3:30 

am to 

4:30 

am 

4:30 

am to 

5:30 

am 

5:30 

am to 

6:30 

am 

6:30 

am to 

10:30 

am 

10:30 

am to 

12:30 

pm 

12:30 

pm to 

3:15 

pm 

Total 

Ignited- some flames 

visible 

3 12 7 2 1 1 0 26 

Fully involved 0 10 2 4 2 0 1 19 

Almost completely 

destroyed 

0 0 0 2 1 0 0 3 

New burning 3 22 9 8 4 1 1 48 

New No longer 

burning* 

0 0 0 0 1 4 5 

Total 3 22 9 8 5 5 1 53 

Cumulative Total 3 25 34 42 47 52 53 53 

Partial data** 2 7 3 3 15 

15 
Unknown 6 

Grand Total 74 

Estimated Structure 

Flaming Ignitions 

13 16 12 4 1 1 1 n/a 

Estimated Total 

Homes Burning 

13 29 26 16 5 2 2 n/a 

n/a – not applicable 

* Only data available 

** Partial data: destroyed structures were not burning at the time of observation 

8.2 Fire Spread within The Trails 

Different tools were used to document fire spread within The Trails. The extent of burned 

vegetation was documented along with the locations the fire jumped a road. Several different 

indicators were used to determine the direction that the fire spread. The use of the different 

indicators will be explained in this section. In the wildlands, needle freeze as defined below, 

directional degree of damage to wildland vegetation and the presence of partly damaged golf 

balls were all used to determine directionality of fire spread. In this document, the perimeter of 

The Trails is defined by all lots that have direct contact with the wildlands. 

Within The Trails, vegetation was burned on both sides of a road, implying spotting across the 

road, 21 times. Out of those, 18 were on the perimeter of the community and the remaining three 

on interior roads. Out of the 18 road jumps along the perimeter region, 15 were located on lots 

with destroyed structures on the perimeter side of the road and 2 out of the remaining 3 were 

located at lots adjacent do destroyed structures. Additionally, 10 out the 18 jumps had destroyed 

homes on both sides. It is not known if the fire jumps occurred before or after the structures on 

the perimeter were burning. That is, it is not clear whether embers generated by burning 

vegetation or structures caused the spotting. 

The limited data available do show that in the perimeter region, there are two cases were 

structures in the interior ignited before structures on the perimeter. It is therefore possible that 

the wildland front ignited interior structures 0.2 km (1/8 mile) from the perimeter. This 

hypothesis, however, cannot be confirmed because of the limited spatial/temporal resolution of 

the currently available data. Flame spread information was obtained from direct observation of 

burned vegetation. 

Needle freeze information, the process of dehydrated foliage aligning or “freezing” parallel to 

the wind direction, was also used to obtain wind direction.19 Figure 18 illustrates flame spread 

and needle freeze around and within The Trails. 

A survey of the perimeter of The Trails and valley floor identified a number of golf balls that 

were partially embedded in the ground. These were used to obtain general quantitative 

information of the direction of the oncoming fire front, or highest heat flux since the surface of 

the golf ball facing the direction of the oncoming fire front melted (Figure 19). GPS coordinates 

and a compass heading were used to document this information. The yellow arrows in Figure 17 

depict the information collected by the geo-located golf balls. The general flame spread 

direction information obtained from the golf balls matches the other flame spread information 

collected from first responders. 

16 
Figures 17 and 20 illustrate the fire line progression within The Trails. The fire lines, 

represented with solid lines in Figure 20, are assembled by joining together the observations at 

different times throughout the community. A fire line data point is associated with either 

vegetation or a structure burning. The two earliest reports of fire in the community occur at 2:30 

in the morning, over an hour before the main fire front arrived from the wildlands at 3:50 am. 

Between 2:45 am and 3:10 am, there were three reports of embers on the northern part of the 

community. Reports of embers on the Sycamore Creek side (eastern side) were provided at 3:50 

am, the same time the main fire front reached The Trails. The fire line then progressed in the 

community by moving further on the eastern and western sides where wildland fuel is present 

and almost reaches its final configuration by 5:30 am. Based on first responder accounts, the 

wind veered from the northeast to the east shortly before 6:00 am. This wind shift arrived at the 

Trails, shortly before the Witch fire. It is likely that the shift in wind direction, slowed and 

eventually stopped the fire spread within the Trails, however, given the data available, this 

cannot be confirmed. 

Figure 20 uses four different bins to illustrate the extent of structures burning within the 

community. Between 2:30 am and 3:55 am, the Guejito fire ignited structures on the 

northwestern part of The Trails, and primarily on the perimeter. Over the next two hours, 

between 4:00 am and 5:55 am, the structures burning in the interior reached 500 m (1/3 mile) in 

from the perimeter, the furthest into the community. Between 6:00 am and 9:55 am five new 

homes are burning on the eastern side of The Trails, with three additional homes burning 

throughout the community. Between 10:00 am and 1:30 pm, seven more homes burned. 

9.0 Structure Exposure to Fire and Embers 

Embers from the wildlands were observed in the community as early as 2:30 am, well before the 

main fire front which arrived at 3:50 am. The embers that arrived before the main front 

contributed to three structure ignitions or less than 5 % of the total destroyed structures. This is 

based on multiple first hand observations from first responders (police and fire) and 

homeowners. Additionally, there were six documented separate vegetation ignitions from 

embers. Most of the damage to structures and vegetation was done by the main fire front which 

arrived approximately one hour later. 

 

The relationship between wildland fuel and the number of destroyed structures in two areas of 

The Trails requires consideration. From reference 15, the CALFIRE Witch Incident Fuel Map, 

the wildland fuel down slope of Angosto Way (western end of the northern perimeter) consisted 

of hardwood/long pole pine trees. Direct observations and discussions with SDFD and home 

owners confirmed the presence of significant surface litter. Despite the fact the wildland fire did 

not transition to crowning in that location, seven out of nine homes on that road were destroyed. 

Additionally, of the two remaining structures, one was actively defended. 

The wildland fuel adjacent to Polvera Avenue (north perimeter) varied as a function of location. 

On the western side, Angosto Way was at lower elevation than Polvera Avenue and had 

significant coverage of hardwood with surface litter. From Olmeda Place (center of northern 

perimeter) to the eastern end of the northern perimeter, the fuels consisted of intermixed 

hardwoods and brush. At the eastern end of Polvera Avenue there is a rock outcrop, see Figure 

17 
21. This outcrop reduced the local wildland fuel loading and provided a fire break for the 

structures to the north (upslope) of it. 

On the eastern perimeter of the community, the fuel down slope of Aceituno Street was 

primarily brush with one patch of hardwood threes covering approximately one hectare (2.47 

acres) and one patch of grass of approximately the same size. The damage to the wildland fuels 

was extensive in this area. The structural damage along Aceituno Street was focused on the 

wildland side of the street, with seven out of nine homes destroyed compared to two out of nine 

on the western (i.e., interior) part. Out of the two surviving structures on the perimeter, both 

were damaged and one had been defended. 

The exposure to embers within the community varied with location and time. Ember exposure 

reached further into the community with time as the main front arrived. The presence of embers 

continued to increase as more structures were ignited on the perimeter and within the 

community. Unlike on the perimeter of the community where the presence of embers preceded 

the main fire front by approximately one hour, in the interior, the data available does not allow 

us to differentiate spatially between ignitions by embers or by the fire front. 

10.0 Defensive Actions 

A number of defensive and fire suppression actions were taken in The Trails before, during and 

after the arrival of the Guejito and Witch fires. Documenting defensive actions is essential to 

correctly interpreting fire behavior and structure survivability data. Defensive actions are 

defined here as actions taken by SDFD (San Diego Fire Department), SDPD (San Diego Police 

Department) and homeowners to slow down, redirect, control and extinguish any fires during 

the morning of October 22nd, 2007. No attempt will be made to examine SDFD and SDPD 

doctrines, policies or decision making. The purpose of this section is to examine the actions 

taken in the context of structure survivability. In that context, in order to develop a more 

complete understanding of structure ignitions mechanisms and conditions as well as correctly 

interpreting structure survivability data, defensive actions must be documented. 

A case is presented here to illustrate this. A homeowner was convinced that his house survived 

because he turned on the lawn sprinkler system the evening before the fire arrived but was 

unaware that a fire engine had spent two hours defending his house. It is not possible to 

accurately estimate the total impact of all defensive actions; however, the effects of defensive 

actions on damaged structures are clearly seen as 15 out the 16 damaged structures were 

defended (see Section 11.0). 

The focus of the analysis is on all actions taken shortly before the approach of the Guejito fire 

and for approximately the 12 hours after its arrival, or until 3:00 pm Monday afternoon. Figure 

22 illustrates the impacts of the identified defensive actions taken at The Trails during that 

period. Although fires reignited and new spot fires were started after that period, no homes were 

ignited after 1:30 pm and all major fire suppression activity was significantly reduced. 

Data collection and technical discussions were conducted with the SDFD, SDPD and The Trails 

Home Owners Association. A total of 86 actions were identified at The Trails, between 2:00 

am and 3:00 pm Monday October 22nd, however there is no way of knowing how many actions 

18 
were not identified. The actions ranged in complexity and scope from SDFD fire engine crew 

defending a house with multiple fire hoses to a homeowner putting out a gutter fire with a 

garden hose. Out of the 86 identified actions, 47 actions taken by SDFD and 39 actions were 

identified as taken by SDPD or residents of the trails.

Perimeter versus Interior 

Out of the 86 identified actions, 32 were on the perimeter and the remaining 53 in the interior of 

The Trails. In relative terms, defensive actions were identified on 39 % of perimeter structures 

and 32 % of interior structures. Half of the actions taken by SDFD, were on the perimeter and 

the remaining half were in the interior of The Trails. 

Structures on Fire 

There were 11 fire containment actions and 25 defensive actions aimed at saving structures on 

fire. San Diego FD, Police and homeowners all contributed to suppressing homes on fire. Out of 

the 25 defensive actions taken on structures on fire, 15 were successful yielding a success rate of 

60 %. Ten of the defended homes on fires were lost. Additionally, due to the extreme rate of 

structure ignitions and the limited number of resources available 53/74 or 70 % of the destroyed 

homes were not defended. Lastly, 50 actions were taken on undamaged structures with unknown 

influence on structure survivability. Figure 23 illustrates the relationships between the defensive 

actions taken and the numbers of structures damaged or destroyed. 

10.1 Timeline of actions 

Technical discussions with the SDFD identified that a strike team of six engines was at The 

Trails at approximately 2:45 am. At 3:00 am, after a short safety brief, the engines took their 

positions around The Trails. Many residents were still in The Trails and out of the six engines; 

three were involved in resident evacuations. The remaining three engines worked on protecting 

residences for the next three hours. 

At approximately 6:00 am, the SDFD engines left The Trails to pursue the Guejito fire. SDFD 

returned at The Trails at approximately 10:00 am, with at least 7 engines, and remained there, 

with different crews, until the event was over well into Tuesday. 

SDPD started arriving at the scene at approximately 3:30 am. Over 80 police officers were 

involved in the evacuation of residents from the Trails community. The majority of the 

evacuation occurred between 4:00 am and 6:00am. At 4:30 am a small fraction of the police 

personnel left The Trails. The remaining Police personnel patrolled the neighborhood and 

contributed to fire suppression and control, however the defensive actions taken by SDPD after 

4:30 am were not documented due to NIST resource limitations and could not be differentiated 

from resident defensive actions. 

Table 4 contains information on the timeline of defensive actions. Table 5 contains timeline 

information on the destroyed homes that were defended. Information on the damaged homes can 

be found in section 11.0 of this paper. There were 48 separate San Diego Fire Department 

actions identified, including 30 that were taken before 3:15 pm. Additionally, there were 30 

separate actions taken by The Trails residents and San Diego PD, 14 of which were identified as 

taken before 3:15 pm. 

19 
Table 4: Timeline of Defensive Actions 

Time 

window 

2:30 am to 6:30 am 6:30 am to 10:30 am 10:30 am to 3:15 pm Total 

Known 

SDFD 12 No fire suppression/ 

control actions 

18 30 

SDPD No fire suppression/ 

control actions 

All SDPD fire suppression/ control actions started 

after approximately 6:30 am 

- 

Resident 7 5 2 14 

Out of the 12 homes that were defended when burning, attempts were made to save 8. Out of 

these the eight, four were defended when the Guejito fire hit the community, one shortly after 

10:00 am and the remaining three between noon and 1:30 pm. 

Table 5: Homes that were defended while burning 

Time 

window 

2:30 

am to 

3:30 

am 

3:30 

am to 

4:30 

am 

4:30 

am to 

5:30 

am 

5:30 

am to 

6:30 

am 

6:30 

am to 

10:30 

am 

10:30 

am to 

12:30 

pm 

12:30 

pm to 

3:15 

pm 

Total

Ignitedsome 

flames 

visible 

2 out 3 2 out 11 1 of 5 0 of 2 1 of 1 2 of 2 0 8/24 

Fully 

involved 

0 1 out 9 0 of 2 0 of 4 0 of 2 0 1 of 1 2/18 

Almost 

completely 

destroyed 

0 0 0 0 of 2 2 of 2 0 0 2/4 

Defended 

while 

burning 

2 of 3 3 of 20 1 of 7 0 of 8 3 of 5 2 of 2 1 of 1 12/46

Between 3:00 am and 3:00 pm, the San Diego Fire Department saved eight structures, where 

ignitions had taken place (see next section) and attempted to save an additional 10 that were lost. 

In addition, actions were taken on 11 structures to contain or overhaul the fire (reducing the 

potential for secondary fires). Additional actions were also taken that affected fire behavior and 

reduced fire severity; however, they were not directly linked to the survival of particular 

structures. Such actions included the displacement of flammable materials from the vicinity of 

structures and the suppression of spot fires. 

11.0 Partly Damaged Structures 

Out of the 245 homes within the fire line, 16 homes (7 %) were damaged compared to 74 homes 

(30 %) destroyed. Numerous additional properties suffered sometimes extensive smoke damage 

that is not addressed here. Burned ornamental vegetation, sometimes extensive, is also not 

covered here. The 16 damaged structures addressed here had varying degrees of damage 

ranging from burned detached garages to small amounts of burn damage on the main house. 

20 
Identified defensive actions were taken on 15 out of the 16 homes. Table 6 lists type of damages 

and the time, if known, and type of detailed defensive action taken. Out of the fifteen defended 

structures, eight were defended by SDFD and five by residents or SDPD. For one damaged 

structure no defensive actions has been reported to date. Four out of the fourteen defensive 

actions occurred before 6:00 am, while the remaining seven occurred after 8 am, and the times 

for two defensive actions have not been identified. Figure 24 contains the locations of the 

damaged homes; numbers on Figure 24 correspond to House Number in Table 6. 

Table 6: Damaged Structures and Defensive Actions 

House 

Number 

Damaged area/ 

ignition location 

Defensive Action (party responsible) Time Action 

was Taken 

1 decking and railroad 

ties 

Garden hose used to extinguish fires 

(resident or SDPD) 

before 6:00 am 

2 detached garage and 

corner of main house/ 

unknown 

Fire contained in garage (SDFD) 10:00 am to 

noon 

3 detached garage/ 

unknown 

Fire contained in garage (SDFD) 10:00 am to 

noon 

4 Structure addition 

under construction 

Water from suppression evident 

(SDFD) 

unknown 

5 main structure/ outside 

column (stucco over 

wood) 

Fire contained to outside column 

(SDFD) 

after 3:00 pm 

6 detached garage/ 

unknown 

Fire contained in garage (SDFD) 10:00 am to 

noon 

7 detached structure/ 

unknown 

Fire contained in detached structure 

(resident or SDPD) 

7:00 am 

8 main structure/ exposed 

wood beam 

Garden hose used to extinguish fires 

(resident) 

8:00 am 

9 decking Garden hose and bucket (resident) 9:00 am 

10 main structure/ gutter Garden hose used to extinguish fires 

(resident) 

3:00 am to 5:00 

am 

11 decking Garden hoses used (unknown) 3:00 am to 6:00 

am 

12 detached wood shed, 

wood fencing 

Fire contained (SDFD) 3:00 am to 6:00 

am 

13 decking Fire contained to location of origin 

(SDFD) 

3:00 am to 6:00 

am 

14 roof top solar panels Spot fires extinguished (SDFD) after 10:00 am 

15 deck and main structure Fire contained to location of origin 

(unknown) 

unknown 

16 main structure/ wood 

crate 

None known - 

It is not possible to know how the fire would have progressed if no defensive actions had taken 

place. There was only one damaged and unprotected structure within the Trails. The other 15 

21 
damaged structures were defended. Since 15 of the sixteen damaged structures were defended, it 

is very likely that most if not all ignited structures would have been destroyed had there been no 

defensive actions. In that case, the destroyed to total ratio would have increased from 30 to a 

minimum of 37 % for The Trails. 

11.1 Interior versus Perimeter Structural losses 

In this study, the perimeter of the community is defined by the lots that have a portion of their 

perimeter adjacent to wildlands. Figure 25 shows the interior and perimeter boundary for The 

Trails. Out of the 74 destroyed structures, 38 were on the perimeter and the remaining 36 in the 

interior of the community. Forty percent of homes on the perimeter were destroyed (36/82), 

compared to twenty percent in the interior (36/163). As described in section 9.0, there was 

significant wildland fuel variability around The Trails. This fuel type and loading variability 

resulted in locally different fire and ember exposures. In the interior of the community, structure 

losses were a result of exposure to embers generated from burning wildland and residential 

vegetation and structural fuels. 

12.0 Structure Ignition Data 

In the two weeks after the Guejito and Witch fires reached the Trails, the damage to vegetation 

and the particulars of the destroyed homes were documented. The initial focus on the destroyed 

structures was aimed at collecting the necessary information prior to the initiation of cleanup 

and reconstruction. Three categories were defined to characterize potential structure ignitions. 

Category A – Uninterrupted Vegetative Fire or Ember Ignition 

Category A was defined as potential structure ignitions due to uninterrupted fire spread though 

vegetation to the structure. This category is by definition limited to the perimeter of the 

community as roads provide a vegetative fuel break. Figure 26 shows an example of a Category 

A structure. The 19 structures in this category had burned vegetation right up to the structure. In 

all 19 cases, residential vegetation carried the fire to the structure. Note, that there is no way to 

determine, short of an eyewitness account, if the vegetation was responsible for the ignition of 

the structure or if embers had resulted in structure ignition independently. 

 

Category B – Vegetative Fire or Ember Ignition 

The Category B was defined as structures where there was sufficient burned vegetation around 

the structure to be a potential source of structure ignition; however this vegetation near the 

structure could not have ignited due to continuous fire spread through vegetative fuels. In this 

case, it was assumed that the vegetation near the structure was ignited via embers. Figure 27 

shows an example of a Category B structure. The vegetative fuel discontinuity meant that the 

ignitions of structures in category B, involved embers. Embers were involved in either igniting 

residential vegetation or directly igniting the structure. Table 7 shows that the 35 structures in 

category B were not limited to the interior of the community, with almost one out of every three 

being on the perimeter of The Trails. 

Category C- Ember Ignition 

Category C, with 20 out of the 74 destroyed structures, was defined as structure ignitions that 

were a direct result of embers. Figure 28 shows an example of a Category C structure. This was 

22 
determined from the very limited damage to vegetation surrounding the structure. There were 

structures in both the interior and the perimeter of the community that fell in this Category. 

Direct flame impingement from structure to structure ignitions was not identified as a significant 

contributor to fire spread within The Trails. Out of the 74 homes that were destroyed only two 

sets were closer that 13.5 m (45 ft). This observation does not apply to embers generated from 

burning structures, as there are several reports of structures coming apart in the high Santa Anna 

winds and generating large quantities of embers ranging up to golf ball size and larger. 

Embers could have potentially ignited all structures. However, conservatively, ember ignitions 

are the sum of structures in Categories B and C which is 55 out of the 74 destroyed structures. 

Thus, in this particular scenario, over two out of every three structure ignitions involved embers. 

Embers were involved either by igniting vegetation that could have ignited the structure 

(Category B), or by direct ignition of the structure (Category C). 

The distribution of Categories A, B, and C in the perimeter and interior of The Trails are listed 

in Tables 7 through 9. Out of the 245 structures that were within the fire line 163 were in the 

interior of the community and 82 were on the perimeter. 

While Category A is found only on the perimeter of the community by definition, Categories B 

and C are found both on the perimeter and in the interior of The Trails. Category B, with 35 out 

of the 74 destroyed structures, has the largest percentage of structures of all three Categories. 

The ratio of interior structures in ignition Category B (IB) to the total number of interior 

structures (IT) is 0.15. This is identical to the ratio of perimeter structures in ignition Category 

B (PB) over the total number of perimeter structures (PT) indicating that spotting was involved 

equally in the ignition of perimeter and interior structures. 

The equivalent ratios for ignition Category C have respective values of 0.075 and 0.10. While 

not identical, the numbers are very similar indicating that embers were a direct source of 

structure ignitions on the perimeter as well as in the interior of this community. 

Table 7: Ignition Categories A, B, and C 

Ignition Category A - 

Uninterrupted fire 

spread through 

vegetation (19/74) 

Ignition Category B - 

Fire spotting over 

residential vegetation 

(35/74) 

Ignition Category C - 

Embers* 

(20/74) 

Total 

Perimeter: 19/19 Perimeter: 11/35 Perimeter: 8/20 Perimeter: 38 

Interior: - Interior: 24/35 Interior:12/20 Interior: 36 

23 
Table 8: Homes Destroyed - Interior 

Ignition Category A - 

Uninterrupted fire spread 

through vegetation 

A = 19 

Ignition Category B - 

Fire spotting over residential 

vegetation 

B = 35 

Ignition Category C - 

Embers* 

C = 20 

IA= 0 IB = 24 IC = 12 

IA/A: N/A IB/B: 24/35 (0.70) IC/C: 12/20 (0.60) 

IA/IT : N/A IB/IT : 24/163(0.15) IC/IT : 12/163 (0.075) 

Table 9: Homes Destroyed - Perimeter 

Ignition Category A - 

Uninterrupted fire spread 

through vegetation 

A = 19 

Ignition Category B - 

Fire spotting over residential 

vegetation 

B = 35 

Ignition Category C - 

Embers* 

C = 20 

PA = 19 PB = 11 PC = 8 

PT/A: 19/19 (1.0) PB/B: 11/35 (0.30) PC/C: 8/20 (0.40) 

PA/PT : 19/82 (0.25) PB/PT : 11/82 (0.15) PC/PT : 8/82 (0.10) 

The time distribution of Potential Structure Ignition Categories A, B, and C are described in 

Table 10. Seven out of the twelve time-distributed As, or 60 %, were first observed burning 

between 3:31 and 4:30 am. Similarly twelve out of twenty-two Bs, or 55 %, and four out of 

twelve Cs, or 30 %, were burning during that same time window. From 4:30 am to 3:15 pm, the 

limited data in the table show that the Bs and Cs have almost the same time history. Figure 29 

shows how the As, Bs and Cs are spatially and temporally distributed. 

Table 10: Time Distribution of Potential Structure Ignition Categories A, B, and C 

Time 

window 

2:30 

am to 

3:30 

am 

3:30 

am to 

4:30 

am 

4:30 

am to 

5:30 

am 

5:30 

am to 

6:30 

am 

6:30 

am to 

10:30 

am 

10:30 

am to 

12:30 

pm 

12:30 

pm to 

3:15 

pm 

Partial or 

unknown 

time data 

Total 

A 1 7 1 2 1 0 0 7 19 

B 2 12 3 2 2 1 0 13 35 

C 0 4 3 2 2 0 1 8 20 

Total 3 23 7 6 5 1 1 38 

Cumulative 

Total 

3 26 33 39 44 45 46 74 74 

13.0 Commonly held beliefs in light of these findings 

This study focused on only 5 % of the structure losses from the Guejito and Witch fires. The 

area of study is not one where individual homes were spaced on 16 hectare (40 acre) lots where 

24 
homeowners have tens of meters of defensible space around their homes. The Trails is a 

suburban development on the edges of Rancho Bernardo with lots ranging from 0.5 hectare to 2 

hectares (1.25 acres to 5 acres). Several observations were made during this study that contradict 

some commonly held beliefs. It had been believed that only homes on the perimeter ignite from 

the wildland assault. This was not the case in The Trails, where homes on the perimeter and in 

the interior of the community started burning before the wildland front arrived at the 

community. 

Another common belief is that homes only take 40 minutes to burn. In reality, burn time is a 

function of construction material, home size, home configuration, and weather (wind). 

Observations from first responders and homeowners confirm that several homes burned for over 

two hours. Lastly, it is frequently believed that in extreme events like the Witch fire, no 

defensive actions are taken to protect structures. In the case of The Trails, research had 

identified that one out of every three homes was defended by the home owners, fire or police 

department personnel. These defensive actions significantly affected fire behavior and structure 

survivability and should be an essential component of WUI post fire case studies. 

14.0 Summary of findings and discussion 

The Witch fire was spreading towards the Rancho Bernardo area of San Diego, CA when the 

Guejito fire ignited. The proximity of the Guejito fire origin to the Rancho Bernardo area 

dramatically reduced the available time for resident evacuation and resource deployment. The 

net result was that in The Trails, resident evacuation was conducted as the fire reached the 

community. Additionally, half of the fire fighting resources available were involved in resident 

evacuation. The impact of the Guejito fire from embers (spotting ignitions) before the main fire 

front reached the community was very limited with only three home ignitions and six reported 

vegetative fires. The arrival of the front at approximately 3:45 am resulted in a very rapid 

increase in structure ignitions, exceeding 20 per hour at its peak. As the structure ignitions 

continued, however the rate decreased to nine per hour by 5:30 am then to eight per hour by 

6:30 am. After the Witch fire reached the community, shortly after 6:00 am, the ignitions of 

structures dropped to one or two per hour. 

The rapid ignition of structures after the main fire attack demonstrates that, with the limited 

available resources, effective fire prevention is essential to reducing losses. Tested and 

implementable guidance for homeowners, communities and land use officials are essential to 

reducing losses in the future. 

The contributions of the SDFD, SDPD and homeowners significantly reduced the losses from 

these fires. Thirty percent of structures within the fireline were defended. Actions by the SDFD 

saved a number of homes as did actions from homeowners. Even though structures were saved 

by residents, in the case of The Trails, smoke inhalation, egress considerations, and limited 

visibility all contributed to generating a very high risk environment. Many additional actions 

were taken that limited fire spread, however, their effects are not traceable. 

The development of a timeline for fire spread through the wildland fuels and then through The 

Trails has been able to provide insights on fire behavior at the WUI. Figure 30 summarizes 

much of the spatial and temporal information. The findings to date are divided into two 

categories; general fire behavior, and defensive actions and structural losses. 

25 
14.1 General Fire Behavior 

- The Guejito fire approached The Trails at a fire spread rate of 9 km/h. 

- Fire spread rate within the community dropped to 0.35 km/h. 

- Embers from the approaching wildland fire front started arriving at the community an 

hour before the main fire front, traveling a distance of 9.0 km. 

- The ignitions generated by embers prior to the arrival of the main fire front were limited 

to three homes and several patches of ornamental vegetation. These ignitions occurred 

9.0 km ahead of the main front. 

- Fire spread up to 500 m into the interior of the community. 

14.2 Structural Losses and Defensive Actions 

- The arrival of the wildland fire front, not the preceding embers, caused the majority of 

the damage and overwhelmed the first responder resources. 

- 70 % of the destroyed homes were not defended. 

- 60 % of defended structures on fire were saved. 

- Over 50 % of the structures were ignited within 3 hours after the main front of the 

Guejito fire hit the community. 

- At its peak; right when the wildland fire front reached the community, structure ignitions 

reached 21 per hour. 

- It is estimated that 29 of the destroyed structures (40 %) were burning at the same time. 

- Two out of every three destroyed homes were ignited directly or indirectly by embers. 

- Direct embers ignitions occurred from the arrival of the wildland fire front and for the 

next nine hours. 

- Direct ember ignitions accounted for one out of every three destroyed homes. 

- Embers were responsible for the ignitions of structures on the perimeter and in the 

interior of the community. 

- 40 % of structures on the perimeter were destroyed compared to 20 % in the interior of 

the community. 

- Defensive actions were taken on one out of every three homes in The Trails. 

- Fifteen out the sixteen damaged homes were successfully defended. No defensive actions 

have been identified on the sixteenth damage home. 

- Impact of defensive actions was significant, and probably reduced losses from over 37 % 

down to 30 %. 

15.0 Unanswered Questions 

Despite the extensive data collection and analysis, there are several questions that remain 

unanswered. The information available has not been sufficient to determine how many home 

ignitions were a direct result of the wildland fire and how many resulted from structure to 

structure fire spread via structure generated embers. Additionally, the full impact of all the 

defensive actions was not quantified. Even though it is likely that most of the 15 damaged 

structures would have burned without intervention, over 60 documented actions were taken with 

potentially significant yet unquantifiable ramifications to fire spread and structure ignitions. To 

provide implementable risk reduction technologies, the fire and ember exposure needs to be 

26 
characterized. Post fire studies, laboratory and field experiments and fire modeling are needed to 

capture the true flame and embers exposures and structure vulnerabilites. 

The reach of the wildland fire into the community was not determined. The limited data 

available shows that in the vicinity of fire jumps from the perimeter to the interior of the 

community, there are two cases were structures in the interior ignited before structures on the 

perimeter. It is therefore possible that the wildland fire front ignited structures 0.2 km in from 

the perimeter. This hypothesis, however, cannot be confirmed because of the limited 

spatial/temporal resolution of the currently available data. Additional information to answer this 

question should be collected in the future in the form of highly temporally resolved structure 

burning. This may be accomplished by ground observations or remote sensing platforms such as 

unmanned aerial systems. 

16.0 Future Work 

There is a need for more case studies of entire fires. This study only focused on 5 % of the 

losses from the Guejito and Witch fires. Future studies should explore how different types of 

neighborhoods behave under different WUI fire conditions. The influence of type of 

construction, age of homes (affected by different building codes) and housing density should all 

be explored. Structure ignition from the wildland fire versus burning structures should also be 

characterized for different housing densities and constructions. 

At NIST, work on the Witch and Guejito fires will continue. A second report is being developed 

on the structural response of homes in The Trails. The primary objective of the second report is 

to examine how structure construction and landscaping attributes affected structure 

survivability. Exposure to embers and radiation as well as the defensive actions will again be 

factored in. Specifically, as mentioned in the introduction, the second paper will “apply” 

different WUI hazard reduction guidelines to the community and determine how well the 

guidelines match the observed structure responses to the fire. The third paper will compare the 

outputs of different fire models to the observed fire behavior and structural fire responses in the 

community. 

Only by conducting methodical studies (field data collection, experiments and modeling) of 

destroyed communities that have partly or fully implemented hazard reduction principles, like 

Firewise,20 will we be able to assess the reliability and effectiveness of such treatments. It is 

critical that the guidance generated for the public should be tested and implementable. Only by 

offering usable and tested solutions, will we be able to reduce future WUI losses. 

17.0 Acknowledgments 

The authors would like to acknowledge the critical contributions from CALFIRE Chief Ernylee 

Chamlee, San Diego Fire Department Chief Tracy Jarman, and San Diego Police Department 

Chief William Lansdowne. Additionally, the authors would like to acknowledge Mr. Steve 

Arnold, President of The Trails Home Owners Association, for his critical contributions in 

organizing the data collection efforts with The Trails residents and Jimmy Zurenko for his data 

collection support. Lastly, the authors would like to thank residents of The Trails and of the city 

27 
28 

of Poway. Collaboration with Dr. Samuel Manzello of NIST has been an important element of 

this work and is gratefully acknowledged. 
No

The Trails 

Fire Perimeter

1.8 km

Figure 1: The Trails Community, Destroyed Homes (in Yellow) and Fire Perimeter after the Guejit

29 
Nort

The Trails

11 km

Figure 2: Destroyed Structures in the vicinity of Rancho Bernardo, CA

30 
The Trails Rancho Santa Fe Ru

116 homes per km2 31 homes per km2 4 h

(300 homes per square mile) (80 homes per square mile) (10 

Figure 3: Structure Densities in Three Different WUI Settings 

31 
GUEJITO FIRE ORIGIN

WITCH FIRE ORIGIN

ESCONDIDO SPV JULIAN

The Trails 

RAMONA AIRPORT

POWAY NE1

60 km

Figure 4: Origins of the Guejito and Witch Creek Fires, the combined perimeter of both fires and the lo

stations used later in the report. (map Courtesy of CALFIRE) 

32 
Figure 5: Weather data from Ramona Airport 

33 
The Trails 

Figure 6: Northwest Corner of The Trails 

34 
The Trails 

Figure 7: North Side of The Trails 

35 
The Trails 

Figure 8: East Corner of The Trails

36 
The Trails 

Figure 9: Southeast Corner of The Trails – Sycamore Creek 

37 
The Trails 

Figure 10: West side of The Trails

38 
The Trails 

Figure 11: Southwest side of The Trails 

39 
Figure 12: Angosto Way before October 22nd, 2007 (circa 2005) 

40 
Burned Canopy 

Unburned Canopy 

Destroyed Structure

Destroyed Structure

Destroyed Structure

Destroyed Structure 

Destroyed Structure

Figure 13: Angosto Way after October 22nd 2007 

41 
Figure 14: Topographic mps of The Trails 

42 
3.8 km

NE Win

Guejito 

The Trails

Witch Creek 

Figure 15: The Trails - Fire approach 

43 
Figure 16: Timeline of Structures Burning in The Trails 

Time window 2:30 3:31 4:31 5:31 6:31 7:31 8:31 9:31 10:3

Ignited- some flames visible 3 11 7 2 1 Fully involved 0 10 2 4 2 Almost completely destroyed 0 0 0 2 1 New burn ing 3 21 9 8 0 2 0 2 No longer burning* 0 000 0 1 To tal 3 21 9 8 0 2 0 3 Cumulative Total 3 24 33 41 41 43 43 46 4Partial data* 2 7 3 3 Unknown Grand Total 

Timeline, The Trails

74 Destroyed, 53 Known

605040

Homes 

Burning or Destroyed 30

2010

0

2:30 3:31 4:31 5:31 6:31 7:31 8:31 9:31 10:31 11:31 12:31

44 Morning of October 22nd, 2007

New Homes Burning Cumulative Homes Destroyed
1:30

no

6:00 

6:00 

6:00 8:

5:30 

4:00 

8:00 

4:30* 

4:00 

3:00 

3:50 

3:55 

3:55 

4:30* 

5:30 

4:10 

3:45 

3:15 

4:15 

4:15 

9:301*

4:30 

3:50 

5:30 

5:30

4:30 

5:45 

3:50* 

6

4:50+

4:30+

4:15+

10:30 

4:40 

10:00 

4:45+

5:15 

4:25+ 

4:20 

4:20 

noon

4:15

4:15 

4:15 

10:30 

6:30*

4:05 

4:15+

5:00 

3:30+3:30+

5:45+

4:15

3:55 

3:45 

GUEJITO Fire 

2:30 

6:00+

Burning occurred after listed time 

2:30 – 3:55 4:00 – 5:55 6:00 – 9:55 10:00 - end 

1 3:45 deck fires put out by SDFD, 9:30 deck fires put out by resident Notes: All times amunless otherwise noted * estimated 

Figure 17: Timeline of structure burning at The Trails 

45 
Figure 17: The Trails - Flame Spread and Needle Freeze 

Figure 18: The Trails - Flame Spread and Needle Freeze 

WI

GUEJITO Fire 

Flame Spread 

Flame Spread from Golf Balls 

Needle Freeze 

Figure 18: The Trails - Flame Spread and Needle Freeze 

46 
Direction of highest heat flux 

Figure 19: Golf Ball P

roviding Direction of Highest Heat Flux 

47 
Figure 20: Fire Line progression within The Trails 

5:30 AM FIRE 

3:30 AM FIRE 

4:20 AM FIRE 

2:45 AM FIRE 

3:50 AM EM

3:10 AM EMBERS

3:50 AM WILDF

FINAL FIRE LINE 

48 
Figure 21: Rock Outcrop Acting as a Fire Break 

49 
P (85) Defensive 

actions taken, including on 21destroyed homes (54) Destroyed home – unknown actions 

Figure 22: The Trails Defensive Actions

50 
74 Structures 

Destroyed 

85 Actions Taken 

16 Structures Damaged 

7 SDPD or Resident Saved 8 SDFD Saved 

1 

10 SDFD Attempts to Save

55 unprotected 

20 Structures Undamaged; SDFD Actions 

30 Structures Undamaged; SDPD and Residents Actions 

274 homes wThe Trails 245 Homes within the Fire line

11 SDFD Containments 

1 SDFD Saved 

Figure 23: Impacts of the Defensive Actions Taken at The Trails 

51 
16

15

14

7

12 8

10

11

13

6

9

5 4

3 

2

1

Damaged structure – SD FD defensive action taken(8)Damaged structure – defensive action taken(7) 

Damaged structure – no known action (1) 

Figure 24: Damaged Structures. See Table 6 for further information on each house according to n

52 
A – 

fire to structure 

Uninterrupted 

B - Fire spotting 

C – Structure ignition from Embers 

Figure 25: The Trails - Ignition categories of destroyed structures and perimeter/interior 

53 
Figure 26: Structure Ignition Category A Fire from the wildlands burns uninterrupted up to t

Figure 27: Structure Ignition Category B 

54 
Fire Spotting 

Fire spotted to vegetation next to structure and possibly onto structure 

Unburned vegetation 

surrounding structure 

Figure 28: Structure Ignition Category C

55 
56 

Figure 29: Potential Structure Ignition Categories A, B and C 

1:

6:00 

5:30 

4:00 

8:00 

6:30* 

4:00 

3:00 

3:55 

3:55 

3:55 

6:30* 

5:30 

4:10+ 

3:15 3:45 3:45

4:15 4:15 

3:50 

5:30 

5:30

4:30 

5:45 

4:40 

3:50 

5:15+

4:25+

2:30 

3:30+3:30+

5:45+

4:15

5:00

4:15+

4:15 

4:30 

6:30* 

4:05 

3:50 

9:23 

10

9:30 

4:20 

C – Structure ignition from Embers 

A – fire to structure 

Uninterrupted 

B - Fire spotting 
Fire spread Fire jump 

6:0

6:00 

5:30 

4:00 

8:00 6:30 

4:00 

3:00 

3:50 

3:55 

3:55 

3:55 

6:30 

5:30 

8:00 

4:10+

3:45 

3:15 3:45 

4:15 

4:15 

4:15 

9:23 

10:301

4:30 

3:50 

5:15 

5:30

4:30 

5:45 

noon 

3:50* 

4:50+ 

4:30+ 

4:

10

10

10:30 

4:40 

ND 

4:4

 noon 

noon

noon

noon 

5:15+ noon 

4:25+ 

noon 

4:20 4:20+ noon

2:30 

3:30+ 3:30+ 

5:45+ 

3:40+ 

5:00 

4:15+ 

4:05* 

6:30* 

4:15+

6:30 

4:00+ 

4:00+ 

3:45+ 

4:00+ 

4:1

4:30+ 

10:30 

<6:00 

10:00 

3:00pm 

4:00/ 7:00 8:00 

9:00 

2:45 

3 to 6 

3 to 6 

3 to 6 

ND 

GUEJITO Fire 3:50 am 

4:15 

3:45 

6:00+ 

* Estimated House Ignition 

 Damaged 

House completely in flames 

House burning – visible flames 

House burned - gone 

House almost gone 

1 3:45 am 

deck fires put out by SD FD , 9:30 am deck fires put out by resident 

Figure 30: House burning times, fire spread and fire jumps 

57 
18.0 References 

 

1

 BFRL Initiates Studies of Wildland / Urban Interface (WUI) Fires, BFRL Activities, 

Accomplishments and Recognitions, 2004-2005, http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/Annual/2004-

2005/BFRL06.pdf 

2

 NFPA 1144, Standard for Reducing Structure Ignition Hazards from Wildland Fire 2008 

Edition, NFPA, Quincy, MA 

3

 The 20 Largest Califirnia Wildland Fires (By Structures Destroyed), CALFIRE 

Communication, January 12, 2009 

http://www.fire.ca.gov/communications/downloads/fact_sheets/20LSTRUCTURES.pdf

4 Michael J. Karter, Jr., NFPA Reports: U.S. Fire Loss for 2007 NFPA ,www.nfpa.org

5

 Mell, W.E., Maranghides, A., Manzello, S.L., Rehm, R.G., "Wildland-Urban Interface Fires: 

Overview and Research Needs, International J. of Wildland Fire, in review. 

6

 Howard, Ronald A.; North, D. Warner; Offensend, Fred L.; Smart,Charles N. 1973. Decision 

analysis of fire protection strategy for the Santa Monica mountains: an initial assessment. Menlo 

Park, CA: Stanford Research Institute. 

7

 Foote, Ethan I.D. 1996. Structural survival on the 1990 Santa Barbara “Paint” fire: A 

retrospective study of urban wildland interface fire hazard mitigation factors. MS thesis, 

University of California at Berkeley 

8

 Kathy Murphy, Tim Rich, Tim Sexton, An assessment of Fuel Treatment effects on Fire 

Behavior, suppression and Structure Ignition on the Angora Fire, USDA, R5-TP-025, August 

2007 

9

 Jack D. Cohen and Richard D. Stratton, Home Destruction Examination Grass Valley Fire, 

Lake Arrowhead,CA, USDA, R5-TP-026b, June 2008 

10 Mega Fires: The Case for Mitigation, Institute for Business and Home Safety, July 2008 

11 Leonard JE, Blanchi R. 2005. Investigation of Bushfire Attack Mechanisms Resulting in 

House Loss in the ACT Bushfire 2003. A CRC Bushfire Report. Bushfire CRC Report CMIT 

Technical Report - 2005-478. April 2005.

12 After Action Report, October 2007 Wildfires City of San Diego Response 

http://www.sandiego.gov/mayor/pdf/fireafteraction.pdf

13 CALFIRE Investigation Report, CA-CDF-010432 (Witch Fire), 

http://www.fire.ca.gov/fire_protection/downloads/redsheet/CA-MVU-010432_Complete.pdf

14 CALFIRE Investigation Report, CA-CDF-010484(Guejito Fire), 

http://www.fire.ca.gov/fire_protection/downloads/redsheet/CA-MVU-010484_Complete.pdf

58 
59 

 15 http://www.met.utah.edu/cgi-bin/droman/mesomap.cgi?state=CA&rawsflag=3

16 Witch Incident CA MVU 010432 10/23/2007 Fuel Map, CALFIRE 

17 Technical communications, San Diego Fire Department, Chief Brian Fennesy, Director of 

Operations/ Special Operations, November 2007 

18 Communications with Trails residents, Mr. Steve Arnold, President, The Trails Home Owners 

Association, November 2007 

19 Glossary of Wildland Fire Terminology, PMS 205, November 2008, A publication of the 

National Wildfire Coordinating Group 

20 www.firewise.org