COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Photographed by Army Air Corps AIRPLANE VIEW OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS (LOOKING SOUTH)

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Vol. 8, No. 8 FEBRUARY, 1932

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - See page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified practice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce waSte, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of product, method, or

practice. Its function is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a projeCt of this character, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified practice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current practice, formulation of a simplified practice program, and presentation of

that program for aCtion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSt for written acceptance of the aCtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in conducting periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified practice may be applied to any com- modity or activity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effective any application of simplified praClice which

will reduce waSte, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering construction activities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building construction, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged, Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fluctuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objective of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respeCt to other Structures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

syStems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

F-fO ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

. . BUT.

.

TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAllister

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on activities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and testing

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting activities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares directories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Directory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSl two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Products.” It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSt,

assiSts industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional inter- changeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aClive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the industry.

Address BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 8 WASHINGTON, D. C., FEBRUARY, 1932 Number 8

SUBJECT ANALYSIS

ELECTRICAL

Page

Radio aids navigation 248

Radio broadcasting service standards 231 Telephone industry 229

Uniform control of assigned radio frequency 237 GROUP ACTIVITIES American Standards Association 233

A. S. T. M. committee set up for mortars for unit masonry 251

Centralized purchasing at Chicago 244

Federal specifications 250

Gaging California produce by Federal standards 241 Lock-washer standards 255 New natural-gasoline grades 253 Oklahoma supervision for grading of grain 226

Simplification program of California State Chamber of Commerce 227 INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN

Brazilian Federal purchasing bureau 247 Germany to standardize motor fuel 242 Grading and marking of willow products considered by

English industry 254

Simplified practice in Australia 253

Standards for sorting, packing, and marking fresh fruits in Norway 250

MANAGEMENT

Centralized purchasing at Chicago 244

Certified supplies for school janitors 246

Coated abrasive products 230

Economies in store wrapping and packing 235

Feldspar 252

Industry has developed 154 simplified practice recom- mendations to date 254

Promoting home ownership plans 245

Standardization in communication 251 Standards for machined surfaces 239 Western Union office supplies are standard 234

METALS. GLASS, AND RUBBER

Page

Commercial laundry machinery 255 Lock-washer standards 252

Simplification of dental mouth mirrors and dental rubbers 255

Sizes of steel spiral rods 250

Standards for machined surfaces 239 PETROLEUM

Fuel oils 254

New natural-gasoline grades 253 Standard unit for determining quantities of petroleum

products 252

QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Certified supplies for school janitors 246

Farm marketing in New England 243

Labeling bread for quality as well as quantity 256

Labeling of canned-salmon variety 255 Terms on sirup labels explained 256

SAFETY

Need for uniform methods of railroad-crossing protection 249

Reducing mine explosions 238

Sanitary code proposed for industry 228

TEXTILES AND LEATHER

Bag, case, and strap leather 251 Grading of hides and skins 232

Wool and part-wool blankets 253

WOOD, CLAY, AND PAPER

Economies in store wrapping and packing 235 Mop sticks 238

Red-cedar shingles 253

Standing committee for paper simplification reorganized 256

Staple porcelain plumbing fixtures 240

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical

discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basis contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

99993—32 1 226
1

I

OKLAHOMA SUPERVISION

FOR GRADING OF GRAIN

By E. H. LINZEE

Grain Inspector, State of Oklahoma OKLAHOMA is the only wheat-growing State that

maintains a department for the free use of the grain

farmer.

The State Grain Inspection Department was created

for the purpose of giving the farmer information that

will help him to market his wheat to the best advantage,

also to place the proper grade on the grain that is placed

in storage in State-bonded warehouses operated under

the State Board of Agriculture. The law requires that

the State grain inspector be a Federal licensed inspector the same as all other grain inspectors must be.

A chemist with a fully equipped laboratory is maintained under the direction of the Board of Agriculture

from funds received from the sale of feed tags. The

laboratory is for the use of different departments under

the Board of Agriculture, such as the grain inspection,

feed and fertilizer inspection, dairy inspection departments, and the State veterinarian. In this way the

farmers can send samples of their wheat and have protein tests made to find if they have wheat that may be

selling at premiums on the terminal markets as high

quality milling wheat.

226
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 227

SIMPLIFICATION PROGRAM OF CALIFORNIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE

State Group of California Has Cooperated with Bureau of Standards in Promoting Value of

Simplification to Industry

The simplified practice committee of the California

State Chamber of Commerce recently reported to the

state-wide industrial committee that “ The application of simplified practice and elimination of waste

has very materially benefited California industry by

reducing production and merchandising costs, and

supplying the market with more uniform and satis- factory products.” This committee recommended that

“ the State chamber of commerce expand its simplification activities to include other groups that are in need of such benefits, in order that they may better

compete in available markets.”

Since October, 1929, the California State Chamber

of Commerce has served as the contact agency in California for the division of simplified practice of the

Bureau of Standards. This arrangement affords a

direct avenue through which the use of simplified

practice recommendations may be encouraged and

suggestions for new projects secured.

This state-wide simplification program has been in

operation for more than two years. More than 30

meetings have been held during that period, out of

which have developed a number of definite waste elimination projects and which have progressed as a result of active assistance of trade organizations representative of the following professions and industries : Purchasing agents; electrical, founders, and clay products industries; and groups engaged in the study of

industrial accidents.

The California State Chamber of Commerce further reports that 80 per cent of the objectives for the

year 1931, were attained, and that, as an outgrowth of

the general plan, many specific objectives have been

established for future attainment by committees appointed for the purpose.

Under the direction of Charles S. Knight, manager

of the industrial department of the State chamber,

the cooperative simplification movement has developed

through the following customary three stages

1. General education as to the philosophy of simplified practice and the building of interest by local applications of this principle.

2. Acceptance of existing simplified practice rec- ommendations.

3. Initation of new simplified practice recommendations.

The first stage consists of the writing and publication of articles dealing with simplification and standardization. Speeches are made by industrial leaders

and executives of trade associations before conventions, conferences, and other meetings. This promotional work has aroused general interest by showing

that simplified practice is an economic principle, the

adoption of which results in definite and tangible

benefits. The chamber of commerce has appointed several

committees which go further than merely confining

their activities to the simplification of materials.

They study safety codes, business codes, and other

practices susceptible of simplification. Their initial efforts have necessarily have confined to generalities

educational programs and promotional activities. They are now engaged in certain definite programs.

George L. Eastman of the Fidelity Savings &

Loan Association of Los Angeles, is chairman of all simplification committees in the State of California.

Charles M. Gunn of the Gunn-Carle Co. of San Francisco is vice chairman. The committees are divided

into two major groups known as the northern group

and the southern group, each under the immediate

guidance of a vice chairman. The following six committees in each group are activety at work

1. Sinrplified invoice.

2. (a) Standard specifications and pattern charts

for castings.

(b) Standard sales agreement and trade cus- toms.

3. Common brick.

4. Pole line hardware.

5. Structural steel.

6. Uniform building code for California.

Other committees will be formed when opportunity

permits.

Each group holds at least two meetings every year,

at which time plans are adopted for future procedure

and reports are made on actual operations and results. Minutes of these meetings are published and

distributed. The committees have been and are now

setting and accomplishing definite objectives, with

satisfying results. To illustrate, they report:

1. One hundred and twenty-five California firms

are using the simplified invoice form.

2. Eighty-two foundries have adopted standard

specifications for castings.

3. Eighty foundries have adopted standard patterns

for castings.

4. Twenty-nine California manufacturers of com- mon brick have adopted one standard size.

5. Sixteen reinforcing-steel dealers throughout the

State have accepted simplified practice recommendation No. 26, Steel Reinforcing Bars. An example of the initiation of new simplification

projects may be cited in the instance of items of poleline hardware, used by public utility companies principally. Through the activity of a special committee

of the Pacific Coast Electrical Association, in co- operation with the simplified practice committee of

the California State Chamber of Commerce, the users of pole-line hardware in the State of California have

adopted as standard 17 items of pole-line hardware.

These 17 items represent approximately 60 per cent of the former variety. Twelve of the former variety

have been eliminated and replaced by 3 items, in- cluded in the total of 17 mentioned above. A list of

approximately 85 items has been reduced to 53, a reduction in variety of 37.6 per cent. A list of 56

standard packages for various items of pole-line hard-
228 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932

ware has been adopted. The hope is that this work

eventually will be recognized on a national scale. The committee believes that its efforts will place

the following benefits within the reach of manufacturers, jobbers, and consumers: Fewer sizes and varieties of raw material and hardware to be manufactured, quicker turnover of stock, less space required

for storage, smaller capital investment, greater ease

in obtaining materials, quicker delivery, and release

of capital for other purposes. The adoption of standard packages should result in easier handling, improved storing conditions, and simplification of in- ventories. There should also result less need for

breaking standard packages to fill small orders, be- cause the adopted standard packages hold a smaller

quantity than the former packages.

The California group estimates that this simplification of pole-line hardware, and packages therefor,

will result in an annual saving of $700,000 to the

electrical industry of California.

Having summarized the activity of the California

group, it is apropos to state that groups in other

States are planning similar activity. For instance,

the Pennsylvania State Chamber of Commerce has

inaugurated a state-wide simplification and elimination of waste program and is now engaged in select- ing membership of the various working committees.

The advisory committee which is now at work on this

program consists of the following: F. W. Walker,

Beaver Falls, Pa., chairman; William Mann of the

Wm. Mann Co., Philadelphia; C. B. Auel, of the

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., East

Pittsburgh; John A. Longacre, of the American

Equipment Co., Norristown, Pa.; E. J. Poole, of the

Carpenter Steel Co., Reading, Pa.; and R. K. Laros,

of the R. K. Laros Silk Co., Philadelphia.

Groups elsewhere in the United States are studying

the potentialities of simplification and standardization, on a state-wide basis, and their possible effect on industries within the State.

SANITARY CODE PROPOSED FOR INDUSTRY

Proper Sanitation and Practice of “ Safe ” Principles of Personal Hygiene Outlined in Safety Code

By Assistant Surgeon General L. R. Thompson, United States Public Health Service

For many years industry has carried on a more or

less extensive educational campaign along accidentprevention lines. The resulting laws requiring proper

safeguarding against preventable accidents and the

education of the worker as to his share of responsibility have reduced machine accidents in a marked

degree. In fact, reports show that where formerly

loss of life and the economic loss from accidents in

industry were in some instances greater than the losses from illness, now the reverse is true ; namely, the loss of life and economic loss to the workers and industry

resulting from preventable illness far exceeds such

loss as a result of accident. When this became apparent the same group of “ safety men ” became interested in the prevention of illness through proper sanitation especially as accomplished by securing “ safe ” water supply, “ safe ” excreta disposal, “ safe ” atmosphere in the workroom free from injurious dust, gases, and excessive heat, and the practice of “ safe ” principles of personal hygiene. In this sense of the

word the proposed industrial code is properly con- sidered a safety code. The Industrial Sanitary Code

has been sponsored by the Public Health Service and

is being prepared under the auspices and procedure

of the American Standards Association. A tentative

draft of the code has been furnished the members of

the sectional committee. It is hoped that the work of

this committee will soon be completed and a code will

be made ready for final drafting. When finished this

code will furnish what is believed to represent at the

present time the best methods and practices in the

sanitation of industrial establishments. These rules

and regulations will be offered to municipal or State

governing bodies for their approval and adoption as a means to secure and enforce sanitation in industry.

The standards as regards efficient sanitation as ex- pressed in this code have been arrived at after consulting various leaders in the following representative

groups, including industry, sanitarj^ engineers, industrial medical departments, industrial insurance

groups, safety engineers, architects, State and National Departments of Labor, Bureau of Mines,

Bureau of Standards, and the Public Health Service.

To attempt to express all the standards in terms ef- fective for all localities would be an impossible task. However, it does, in a broad way, cover all fields of

industry, including those temporary and those permanent. Some States may see fit to supplement more

stringent rules regarding some portions of the code

that would be unnecessary and unreasonable in other

locations under different working conditions. The

standards set forth are such that with intelligent ob- servance of the rules the employees and community

are safeguarded in any locality, and where these standards can not be effected, the industry should not be

permitted to carry on. Likewise under some conditions it is reasonable to suspect that more stringent

standards are reasonably expected to be maintained

and this can be accomplished by the governing bodies

further supplementing and modifying these rules. The standards expressed are those considered safe

from a health viewpoint and not necessarily to be ac- cepted as the best that can be attained in any instance.

We can reasonably expect the proper observance of

the rules and regulations in this code to prevent ill- ness among industrial workers and within the com- munity by insuring water supply, proper disposal of

waste, efficient ventilation and heating of plants, and

education of the worker in matters of personal hygiene.

Should the acceptance of this sanitary code by those

properly interested in the welfare of the worker as well as in success of industry be followed by decrease

in illness among the group affected, it may correctly

be termed a safety code of the first class.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 229

TELEPHONE INDUSTRY

Standardization Steered Toward an Orderly Mode of Progress

By Dr. Frank B. Jewett 1

While the above title covers communication broadly,

the telephone industry may be chosen as one of the

several arts of communication well representing the

interdependence of research and standardization.

The telephone itself, as has been stated many times, was born in a research laboratory, and a continuing

program of research has been the foundation built

upon in the development of the telephone plant and in

the expansion of the business. Following the invention of the telephone, those who undertook to develop

the new industry were men of vision and imagination

who saw clearly that the conditions to be met in such

a broad use of the new facility as they foresaw were

quite different from those underlying any previous art or industry. From its earliest days the telephone

industry has shown on the one hand independence of

precedent and on the other hand a keen appreciation

of standardization intelligently applied. Care has

been taken, therefore, in the telephone industry not

to allow standardization to lead to stagnation, but

rather to an orderly mode of progress. New standards for old things are being continually evolved, as

a result of laboratory research, but these new standards are always tied in with the old. Standardization has from the beginning of the in- dustry been recognized as peculiarly a necessity in the

telephone art. Telephone plants installed anywhere

throughout the country must operate or perform effi- ciently in connection with apparatus installed in any

other part of the country. The very intricacy of the

switching operations for the rapid connection of an)

two telephones in the country and the complexity of

the electrical transformations to transmit and reproduce speech clearly, resulting in a highly organized

and inherently complex system, lead to an effort to avoid the still greater intricacy and complexity which

would result if it were not for a high degree of standardization. It is no exaggeration to say that the tele- phone service of to-day could not be given without this

standardization.

In addition to the fact that the inherent nature of

the business makes standardization so essential, by

this process the best is made available for all. This

does not mean that in the telephone industry there

may not be a number of standards so chosen as to meet

varying conditions and at the same time to furnish

best over-all results. In addition to minimizing the complicated engineering and operating problems which would result from

attempts to provide intercommunication between

widely divergent systems and with widely divergent

apparatus, there are the following rather obvious advantages from standardization : Material costs are reduced when under similar conditions in a large interconnected system all use identical items permitting

manufacture in large quantities. Standardization

likewise reduces the cost of carrying stocks of material

by reducing the number of types required ; reduces the

1 President, Bell Telephone Laboratories (Inc.).

cost of instruction of new employees, because there

are fewer things with which to get acquainted; simplifies plant accounting; and of particular advantage

in a public service, such as the telephone business, it renders large supplies of material and labor more

readily available in emergencies. Past standardization facilitates, not hinders or delays, the prompt

and economical introduction of new standard types of

apparatus and methods.

Standardization without the knowledge accumulated from well-directed research proceeds haltingly,

without any real assurance that in seeking to choose

the best medium the whole field of choice has been

considered and hidden pitfalls avoided. The tele- phone art involves the transmission of speech; hence

the necessity of knowing in definite terms the characteristics of speech sounds and corresponding speech

currents. Having determined the characteristics of

normal speech, it is equally important to determine

how serious becomes any failure to transmit accurately

those speech sounds from talker to listener. This

determination also includes the effects of noise upon

the circuit or in the room where the listener is located.

This leads from a study of speech itself one step

further back to a study of the mechanism of speech

production and a study of the mechanism of hearing.

.Research has been actively directed to these subjects

particularly during the past 15 years or so, and the

results obtained furnish a more definite knowledge

of the basic material, namely, speech, with which the

art deals. Having defined, in so far as is possible, in definite

physical terms the basic material with the transmission of which the art deals, namely, speech, the next

concern involves making available to any two persons

who may wish to converse the most effective channel

for the conveyance, that is, transmission of their

speech. To do this requires the provision of an enormous quantity of physical apparatus, using the

term apparatus broadly, and in the choice of this

apparatus economical considerations become a recognized factor of great and in many cases, controlling

importance. Since, in general, considering portions

of the problem, there are several different methods of

accomplishing a result, to choose the method which,

weighing all the factors, is the best presumes an ac- curate definition in quantitative terms of all those

factors. While one of those factors is defined in

economic terms, the other factors are largely defined

in physical terms which in the last analysis rest upon

the results of research.

As the primary concern in the telephone art is the conveying or transmitting of speech, for which

the transmitting channel between the two terminal

instruments is by means of either wire or radio or the two combined, it has seemed of prime importance

that complete physical or technical data should be

derived covering all possible methods of using such

transmitting media. An enormous amount of such

quantitative data has been secured from laboratory
230 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932

and field tests covering, for example, loaded and non- loaded open-wire lines, various types of cable construction, loaded and nonloaded, and radio over a wide

frequency range. These investigations covered, in general, signaling frequencies, voice frequencies, and

carrier frequencies. The availability of this quantitative physical data, together with economic data, has

enabled the engineer to choose and standardize the

transmitting channels best fitted to meet conditions

involved.

Likewise in that phase of the art of telephony in- volving switching or the process of providing a tel- ephonic path from one person to another with whom

he desires to converse, fundamental data, the results of technical research, together with economic considerations, form the basis of the engineer’s choice and

standardization of the methods to be employed under

varying but definitely definable field conditions.

Having spoken of the broader research activities

underlying the telephone art, mention may be made of

two more or less typical cases selected from many

under way.

Magnetic materials, being of very great importance

in the telephone art, have been for many years the

subject of research. As one result of this work the

Bell Telephone Laboratories developed permalloy, a

nickel-iron alloy having, as compared with the more

familiar magnetic materials, very extraordinary magnetic properties. Applications of this new material in

the communication art seemed very possible and further work has led to its use for the loading of submarine telegraph cables, its use in certain telephone apparatus, such as relays, and particularly to its use in

compressed powder form in the cores of loading coils. The development and standardization of this type of

loading coil has resulted in large savings.

The telephone companies have always been large

users of timber for poles, cross arms, conduits, pins,

and other items used in the construction of the outside

plant. At an early date experience showed that poles, even when selected from species most resistant to fungus attack, such as cedar and chestnut, were, nevertheless, quite vulnerable to decay at the ground line. Other species were available, such as southern yellow

pine, which would make desirable poles, except for

their tendency to decay rapidly, even in the section

above ground, unless some form of preservative was

applied. Over 30 years ago investigations were begun

by the Bell system covering the technical and eco- nomic aspects involved in the use of poles treated with

preservatives to protect them against decay and insect

attack. At that period of abundant timber supply

small economies, if any, could be expected from the use of pole preservatives, but as time went on, with

the depletion of timber supply and the increase in its usage, there was foreseen as has actually developed an economic demand for pole preservation which has

fully justified the constantly increasing program of

investigation.

An early step undertaken was the collection of

data as to the performance of southern yellow-pine

poles full-length pressure treated with creosote by

processes then commercially available. Also, as the

cedar and chestnut supply began to show restrictions,

further experiments both in field and laboratory were

conducted in the treatments of the butts of these

species with creosote by brush or open-tank methods,

and still later by the spray method. It is obvious that

there are many variations possible in the methods

which may be employed in treating pole timbers and

in the preservatives used. It therefore became neces- sary to study the effect of these variations and to try

to determine those qualities in the finished product

that it would be most desirable to obtain.

By applying laboratory methods, it has been sometimes possible to accelerate the tests so as to reach a decision on the value of a treatment long before it could be determined in the operating plant. As might

be expected, many of the apparently promising treat- ments investigated have proved worthless or unreliable. With research going hand in hand with standardization, it is possible to avoid heavy losses that

would result from the wholesale use of untried materials in the plant. Standardization, while gradually

changing with our increasing knowledge, has been so employed as to confine operating practice to the use of that which is currently known to be the best and

to more accurately define that best. By our present standardized treatment, cedar and

chestnut poles have had from 15 to 20 years added to their average physical life, and the southern yellowpine pole, which normally could not be expected to give more than a few years’ service, can now be employed with assurance of an average physical life well over 30 years.

COATED ABRASIVE PRODUCTS

The simplified practice recommendation covering

coated abrasive products, as revised by the standing

committee of the industry, has been submitted by the

division of simplified practice of the Bureau of Standards to all interests for written acceptance.

On April 11, 1928, a joint conference of representative manufacturers, distributors, and users drafted a

simplified practice recommendation for coated abrasive products. Acting on the suggestions of various

members of the industry, the standing committee

appointed by this general conference worked, with the

cooperation of the division of simplified practice of

the Bureau of Standards, for several months, by cor- respondence between its members and the division,

preparing a revised list of coated abrasive products.

On September 30, 1931, the chairman of the standing

committee notified the Bureau of Standards of the

final action of the committee and advised that the

revised draft, which includes certain changes they

believe will add to the value of the simplification program, should be submitted to the industry.

In the original recommendation the number of

sizes and types of coated abrasive products was re- duced from 8,000 to 1,976. Under the proposed re- vision certain changes were made which further

reduced that number to 1,949. The revised recom- mendation will become effective one month after the

bureau’s formal announcement that the required degree of support has.been received.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 231

RADIO BROADCASTING SERVICE STANDARDS

Uniform Standards of Service and Uniform Methods of Measurement Essential to Radio Broadcasting

Stations

By C. M. Jansky, Jr., Washington, D. G.

In no field of radio communication is there greater

need for the adoption of uniform standards of service

and uniform methods of measurement than in the

definition and determination of the coverage obtained

by radio broadcasting stations. The inherent complexity of the phenomena of radio transmission and

the wide differences of opinion which exist among

radio listeners with respect to what constitutes service are largely responsible for the difficulties which to date have stood in the way of standardization in this

field. A complete radio-communication system may be

considered as composed of three parts: (1) The trans- mitting station proper, (2) the transmission medium,

and (3) the receiving installation. Knowledge con- cerning the design of radio transmitting and receiving apparatus has progressed immeasurably beyond

the knowledge of the transmission medium or the abil- ity to control it. Consequently, consideration of the

problems of standardization are immeasurably simplified if attention is confined to conditions as they

exist at the receiving location without attempting to express any relationship between conditions at the

transmitter and conditions which may be expected at the receiving location. In fact, the vagaries of radio

transmission are such that generalized attempts to express coverage and service areas in terms of power

and frequency are bound to result in specific cases deviating to such an extent from each other as to render the result highly inaccurate.

The operation of a radio broadcasting transmittei

produces at any receiving location a radio-frequency

field, the intensity of which may be measured. There

are present at any particular receiving location in addition to the field from the desired broadcasting station, other electrical fields capable of producing noises

and disturbances in the receiver. Some of these may

be referred to as atmospheric (static). Others produced by man-operated electrical machinery are sometimes referred to as inductive interference. There

may also be produced at the receiving location electric intensities from radio stations other than the one

the listener desires to hear. The presence of these

may be referred to as radio interference. (Some years

ago some interference due to the operation of re- generative receiving sets was of importance, but this

factor may be neglected now.)

It is not absolute value of electric intensity from the

desired broadcasting station which is of importance,

but the ratio of this intensity to the other disturbances

present at the receiving location. This is due to the

fact that the sensitivity of modern receiving sets has

been carried to a point where weakness of signal is not in itself an important factor in limiting its use- fulness. If attention is confined to the area immediately

surrounding a broadcasting station, there will, in general, be a decrease in the intensity at the receiving

location as the receiving location is moved in a line

directly away from the transmitter location. (This

does not mean that the rate of falling off will be the same in all directions.) Out to a certain point this

falling off of intensity has no effect upon reception

except to require different adjustments of the volume

control on the receiving set. However, a point will

finally be reached at which reception from the desired

station is marred by the presence of interfering dis- turbances from static, inductive interference, or radio

interference.

If nighttime conditions are under consideration a fourth factor, fading, may serve to mar reception. As

the receiving location is moved to points where the

electric intensity from the desired station becomes

lower, and lower reception conditions become worse and worse until finally there is no possibility of en- joyment of the program.

There have been numerous grades of broadcast service defined and numerous standards set up for these

grades. Also, different engineers have applied different names to these grades. However, there is now

a distinct tendency to limit the grades of service to two and to define these as “ primary ” and “ sec- ondary.” Since nighttime conditions are sometimes

radically different from those in the daytime, it is also becoming common practice to differentiate between night and day conditions. Thus it is common

to speak of the “ primary nighttime coverage area

” and the “ primary daytime coverage area ” of a sta- tion. Variations in interference conditions and the standards of service imposed by listeners preclude absolutely accurate word definitions of even primary and

secondary coverage. However, the following description will serve to show the basis for determining the

division line between the two

The primary coverage area of a station is that area throughout which the station can be received without

objectionable interference from static, electrical inter- fering noises, or interference from other radio broadcasting stations practically all the time the station

is in operation. Primary daytime coverage refers to daytime conditions while primary nighttime coverage

refers to nighttime conditions.

In an area where several stations deliver primary

grade service there will be no tendency for the listener

to select the station giving the strongest signal, since

for all practical purposes all signals will be equally

satisfactory providing thejr exceed the minimum value

necessary for primary grade service. Rather, if sev- eral primary grade services are available, the listener’s choice will be based entirely on program appeal. The

standards for primary coverage are necessarily high

and should be considered as such.
232 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932

Secondary coverage is that coverage obtained by a station which does not meet the high standards set forth for primary coverage. In secondary coverage

areas there may be times when static, interference, or fading prevent the fullest enjoyment of programs.

Further progress in the standardization of broadcasting station service areas will rest upon recognition of the following fundamental considerations: (1)

Coverage must be determined by a consideration of

conditions at receiving locations throughout the area

served, (2) coverage can only be determined by an

engineering study of field intensities and conditions

at the receiving location. It can not be based upon

listener opinion if the results are to possess sufficient accuracy to be of value for comparative purposes, (3)

throughout the highest grade coverage area (primary)

value of service will in general be independent of the

field intensity produced by the station, (4) the differ- ences between night and clay time conditions are usually so great that both primary and secondary cover- age should be subdivided to show separately night

and day conditions, and (5) secondary nighttime cov- erage can not be shown on an area basis, and any

attempts to show even secondary day coverage on an area basis must be made with extreme caution.

GRADING OF HIDES AND SKINS

Tentative Standards Issued by Department of Agriculture

By C. V. Whalin 1

The U. S. Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the national hide and leather industries, is conducting a program of domestic hide and skin con- servation and improvement. Various agencies in the

department specialize in this work according to their

respective fields of activity. The livestock, meats, and

wool division, of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, whose duties are in the field of economics,

standardization and marketing, is developing standards for the market classes and grades of hides and

skins generally referred to by the industry as “ raw

stocks,” while other agencies are working to reduce the

wastes and loss due to grubs or warbles, warts, wire

scratches, brands, improper flaying, and curing, etc. This division is preparing standards by which the

relative excellence of the product may be equitably

measured on the basis of its condition and quality and

on which trading may be conducted with fairness to the stockman, hide producer, dealer, and tanner. It

also encourages trading according to definite qualities or values as indicated by the market classes and grades

recommended in these standards in order that there

may be a commensurate reward to those concerned, ac- cording to the varying degrees of quality, yield, and

usefulness. The objective is to stimulate greater care

in the production, preparation, and marketing of these

products and, by this means of conservation, add proportionately to the national wealth.

The grades of hides and skins are determined quite

largely by the condition, yield, and quality of the

leather produced from them under standard tannery

conditions. This requires careful research involving

elaborate correlation tests, checking the classified and

identified raw materials against their leather products

in the various tannery process stages to the finished

products.

Tentative standard market classes and grades for

hides and skins were issued in September, 1928, and

distributed to packers, hide dealers, and tanners. Revised tentative standards for kip and calf skins were

1 Principal marketing specialist, Bureau of Agricultural Economics,

U. S. Department of Agriculture.

issued in January, 1931, and distributed in like manner. These latter standards, while subject to change

if experience indicates changes to be desirable, have

demonstrated their usefulness in connection with the

kip and calf skin conservation program, particularly

in cases where their requirements and recommendations have been faithfully followed in the flaying,

curing, sorting, and marketing operations.

Greater care in the production, preparation, and

handling of American raw stocks is essential to ac- complish the degree of conservation desired. Importations of the qualities of raw stocks required bj^ tan- ners have been relatively heavy, while many of the

domestic skins apparently have been neglected. This

is especially true of skins produced in small quantities and at irregular intervals by those who either are inexperienced in efficient skinning, curing, and marketing practices or who lack the facilities for following

the proper methods. It is believed that a simple sys- tem of standards if properly used will provide a measuring stick by which defects and improvements may

be correctly appraised and by which the raw stock

producer may register his progress in conservation

and market his products according to their value. It

is further believed that this will stimulate a sustained

effort at hide and skin conservation and create a broader demand for the improved domestic products.

The livestock, meats, and wool division has endeavored

to provide the measuring stick—the standards by

which progress in conservation may be registered and

by which relative values may be rewarded by corre- sponding market prices.

Another service rendered by the division to the hide

and leather industries is that of collecting and compiling basic data by which estimates of the number of

domestic hides and skins produced annually may be

made. This estimate is based on the actual and esti- mated slaughter of hide and skin bearing animals in connection with its estimates of annual production

and per capita consumption of meats. The basic

figures in both cases are the same and are compiled

after patient research and careful calculation.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 233

AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Association Activity During January

The following current information concerning developments in standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of the American Standards

Association, has been furnished by that association

Pipe flanges and fittings.—The association has approved an American standard for cast-iron pipe

flanges and flanged fittings for maximum nonsliock

working hydraulic pressure of 800 pounds per square

inch (gage) at ordinary air temperatures. The

standard, which is the eighth one so far developed

by the sectional committee on pipe flanges and fittings,

gives three tables listing the facing dimensions, the

center-to-contact-surface dimensions, and the center- to-flange-edge dimensions in so far as these apply to elbows, tees, crosses, 45° ells, laterals, and reducers,

for nominal pipe sizes from 2 to 12 inches, inclusive.

The committee was sponsored by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Manufacturers’

Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings

Industry, and the National Heating and Piping Contractors’ Association.

Manhole frames and covers.—A proposal for an American standard for manhole frames and covers containing recommendations for 13 types of frames

and 7 types of covers to replace the thousands of types

now in use has just been published by the American

Standards Association. The demand for innumerable different designs and sizes of openings for manholes by the various utilities and municipal supply

departments which make separate or joint use of manholes for their underground pipes and lines has

caused many difficulties in manufacture and replacement of manhole frames and covers. The present

concerted effort to standardize on a few sizes and

styles is the result of these difficulties. Since 1924 a technical committee has been working on the subject

under the procedure of the, American Standards Association, going through a long process of elimination,

selection, and redesign.

The number of utilities concerned with manholes is indicated by a list of the organizations which have

been working on the formulation of the standard

through representatives on the committee. These

organizations include the American Electric Railway

Association, the American Gas Association, the American Railway Association, the American Society of

Municipal Engineers, the American Water Works

Association, the Bell Telephone System and the

United States Independent Telephone Association,

the National Electric Light Association, the Western

Union Telegraph Co., and the Postal Telegraph-Cable

Co. The American Society of Civil Engineers and

the American Standards Association telephone group

have been acting as joint sponsors for the project.

The committee is now circulating a questionnaire

to all those concerned with the production and use of

manhole frames and covers to determine whether producers and users find the recommendations satisfactory or whether they wish to make suggestions for

changes.

The proposed standard includes drawings showing

designs and dimensions for the 13 types of manhole

frames and the 7 types of manhole covers which are recommended. It is believed that this limited number of frames and covers will meet the present re- quirements of the various utilities concerned.

The draft also includes specifications for hydrant

and service valve boxes. Specifications are given for

the gray-iron and carbon-steel castings to be used in

the manufacture of manhole frames, covers, and

boxes. Standard methods of test are provided by

which both manufacturers and purchasers can determine compliance with the specifications. Following

are the types of manhole frames for which standards

are proposed : Straight-type round base, flared-type

round base, flared-type square base (height 10 inches),

flared-type round base (shallow), flared-type square

base (shallow), flared-type square base (height 7

inches), flared-type square base (light weight),

straight-type square base, straight-type round base

(for inner cover), straight-type square base (for inner

cover) , straight-type round base (shallow, flange midway between top and bottom—for inner cover),

straight-type square base (shallow, flange midway between top and bottom—for inner cover), and shallow

ring.

/Sieves for testing purposes.—The sectional committee on sieves for testing purposes has agreed upon

the following scope as suitable for the project: Specifications for sieves (screens) for testing purposes,

including nominal dimensions, tolerances, designation, and methods of verification, also methods for re- porting results of sieving. It is expected that this

scope and the membership of the committee will

shortly be submitted to the association for approval.

It has been decided by the committee that subcommittees should be set up to investigate the possibility

of developing tentative specifications on the following:

(1) Coarse sieves (square mesh and round holes,

if both are found necessary); (2) fine sieves; (3)

pigments or other materials requiring special atten- tion; (4) the presentation of data; and (5) the cali- bration of sieves. The committee further recommended that L. V.

Judson, of the Bureau of Standards, who is serving

as secretary of the committee, be designated as the

American representative on the International Standards Association committee on unification of sieves

for testing purposes on an international basis. The

sectional committee as representatives of American

technology will participate in the discussions of the

international committee.

Electrical standards committee.—The July, 1931,

Commercial Standards Monthly contained an account

of the organization of the electrical standards committee under the auspices of the American Standards

Association. The committee was created for the purpose of unifying the standardization activities of the

electrical industry. The personnel of the electrical

99993—32 2
234 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932

standards committee were to constitute the major part

of the personnel of the United States National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission after reorganization of the national committee.

At a meeting of the latter group held in New York

on December 1, 1931, Dr. Clayton H. Sharp, of the

Electrical Testing Laboratories, was unanimously re- elected president; Charles Rufus Harte, chairman of

the electrical standards committee, was elected vice

president; and Dr. H. S. Osborne, American Telephone & Telegraph Co., was reelected secretary. The

December 1 meeting of the United States National

Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission was the first to be held by the new committee

as constituted in the recently approved constitution

of the electrical standards committee. The new committee consists of the members of the electrical standards committee, nine members at large, and three rep- resentatives of the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers.

WESTERN UNION OFFICE SUPPLIES ARE STANDARD

Company Began Its Standardization Work on Office Supplies 17 Y ears Ago

By W. G. Higgins

Seventeen years ago our company set about to adopt certain standards for forms and office supplies.

A committee was appointed to study this question.

The committee was composed of one representative

from each operating vice president’s office, the departments thus represented being engineering, plant, commercial, traffic, and accounting. The writer was appointed chairman of the committee in question.

The committee was created for the purpose of

standardizing on printing, printed forms, paper, office and janitor supplies, office equipment and furniture, and to produce a suitable catalogue for the guid- ance of the various departments in the ordering of

such supplies. Its policy has been, so far as practicable, to select commercial grades of supplies and

avoid the necessity and expense, of special or specification materials.

The committee first went to work on printed forms.

Our warehouses were crowded with forms of all sorts, shapes, and sizes—about 2,000 of them. Investigation

as to the necessity of each form resulted in eliminating one-third of them entirely. “ What quality of paper ought to be used ” was

the first question asked regarding the remainder of

the forms. As a result of a study on this phase of

selection of forms, the kinds of paper were reduced

from 37 to 11. Corresponding changes in weights were made. To a large extent a standard manila

paper is now used. However, the change was not

always in favor of a cheaper grade of paper. We

considered carefully the purpose each form was to

serve. The committee met weekly for the first year, 1913-14, and working in virgin soil, made savings of

about $39,400 in changing grades of paper on forms

and plain sheets, changing from closed to windowtype message envelopes, standardizing carbon paper,

typewriter ribbons, pencils, ink, copy book, paste,

erasers, onion-skin paper, brooms, towels, and so on, and by eliminating about 600 forms entirely.

During this same period it Avorked out a new basis

for consolidating the printing into one central contract, in which the printer Avas protected from loss due to obsolete firms by authority from us to print

certain units and to carry certain stocks which we

guaranteed to take.

In 1914 the purchasing department made a 3-year

contract for printed formsq and the printers, with

definite standards at hand for the various papers

used, purchased their full three years’ requirements.

This resulted in the saving of several hundred thousand dollars during the three 3

Tears folloAving.

Subsequent standardizations have produced savings

of about $85,000, principally from further changes in

Aveights and kinds of paper, the further elimination

of unnecessary forms, a change from cheese cloth to dust cloths and wiping rags, and economies in con- nection with the use of miscellaneous office supplies.

Naturally, conditions, changes and all savings do not

repeat through the years, but many have been of an enduring annual nature. All supplies are ordered by the operating divisions

from main supply warehouses at New York, Chicago,

and Atlanta. Any orders for items of nonstandard

material from any of these warehouses are sent to me

for approval, as chairman, and clearing house for the

committee. The chairman then sends the request for

approval or rejection to one or more of the representatives within whose departmental jurisdiction the

request falls. Thus the committee keeps close record

of the extent to which it is necessary to deviate from

standards.

Nearly all new forms now proposed emanate from

the committee representative in an operating vice

president’s office, assisted by a man in my office who is an expert in arranging forms for printing.

Of later years the committee’s Avork has been so thoroughly organized, that while in the beginning it met regularly it meets noAv only on call of the chair- man. HoweATsr, there is a constant exchange of

memoranda on various suggested changes and improvements. Naturally, the field of exploration has

been materially narrowed, but new and satisfying

savings are made each year and the committee decidedly justifies its existence. Existing standards are regularly test checked, and neAv possibilities are in- vestigated through testing in our engineering laboratory and by trial in actual use. Samples of a number

of such standardized articles are on view in the office of the chairman of the committee, and at each warehouse, in order that materials received and disbursed

may be in accord with the standard.

A spirit of steady cooperation is, of course, essential to the proper working of any committee ap- pointed to work out such problems, and Ave have been

fortunate in this respect.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 235

ECONOMIES IN STORE WRAPPING AND PACKING

Simplification of Existing Sizes of Paper Bags, Folding Boxes, Set-Up Boxes, and Corrugated Boxes Will

Tend to Reduce Costs of This Part of Stores’ Overhead Expenses

By Maurice Roseneeld, President Equitable Paper Bag Co. {Inc.)

Statistics will, it is believed, indicate that the number of department-store transactions has increased

during the past year. Yet, while sales volume has

unquestionably declined, operating expenses have

Many will recall that very recently the simplification and standardization program was accepted by

the manufacturers and users, and was promulgated

through the division of simplified practice, Bureau of

Procedure of machine’s function in bag making

shown no appreciable variation. If anything, because

of these increased transactions, operating expenses

have become higher.

With the possible exception of set-up and corru- gated box manufacturers, I, as a paper bag, envelope,

and sack manufacturer, can not state the ideas and

opinions of others. However, I am convinced that in

my industry a remedy exists which will enable department stores to minimize these maintenance costs, and

by that token, bring them to a more reasonable proportion with sales volume. An adoption of the program designed to simplify and standardize the department-store use of paper bags, folding boxes, set- up boxes, and corrugated boxes is the remedy to which

I refer.

Standards, and the National Retail Dry Goods Association. Although it is true that both of these latter organizations dealt assiduously with the subject matter and thereby obtained an intimate knowledge of

the problems of both the bag and box manufacturer

and the department store, it is entirely conceivable

that many manufacturing policies and difficulties, perforce, had to be dealt with rather hypothetically. To

clarify any doubts or ambiguities which may exist,

let me submit a more intimate explanation of the

economies we manufacturers will be able to achieve

and pass on, if the department stores will adhere to this new simplification program.

In the United States there are approximately 6,000

department stores, representing a yearly consumption
236 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932

of about 3,000,000,000 bags. The survey by the Department of Commerce revealed that these stores use approximately 188 different sizes. By the adoption

of the neAV simplified practice recommendations these

sizes have been reduced to 28. Although much has

been said concerning the merit of mass production,

there is no doubting the fact that in my industry it

is the one system of operation that will make prices

lower. Moreover, when it is considered that the

manufacture of each size of bag necessitates certain

time-consuming machine-changing operations, it will

readily be seen that in order that we may be able to bring about production economies we must reduce

these machine changes to a minimum.

After all, mass production is not an unscientific

production on a large scale. Instead, it represents a well-formulated plan of manufacture at the lowest

possible cost. Therefore, to point out the tremendous

importance in terms of mass production, attached to the adoption of the standardized and simplified sizes, let me give you a description of the procedure generally necessary for the making of a complete change

of bag size. I say “ generally ” advisedly, because

this process would vary slightly, depending upon the

make or type of machine employed.

Let us assume that the machine (see illustration)

has just completed an order calling for an 8% by 11%

inch big-lip printed notion bag, and that we now want

to fill an order calling for an 8 by 11 inch printed biglip bag. (It should be noted, incidentally, that this

changing operation is necessary even though the size

differential between an 8 by 11 and an 8% by 11% is slight.)

The adjuster removes the former, big-lip knife, bottom paste bar, change gear, electro printing and impression cylinder, bearers, gears, and mill-roll spindle out of the machine, cleans them, and returns them to the equipment rack. If a different color of ink is re- quired, he clears the ink fountain and rollers. A new former, centered and leveled, is inserted, and

advanced or retarded, as the situation requires, to achieve the proper distance from the chopper bar. It

is then clamped tight. The lip knife is put in and set properly in relation to the former head and side

formers, and guides are adjusted. The change gear

is placed into position, fastened, and properly meshed

with an intermediate gear. The proper paste bar is put in and set at a distance from tucker blade to suit

the bag bottom. The bar or paste pot is adjusted,

so that the bar will pick up the correct amount of

paste. We are now ready to put the mill-roll spindle

through the new roll of paper, center it in the machine, and adjust the tension of the brake.

Paper is threaded through the machine, feed rollers are adjusted to pull up a good tube, pinch bars and

choppers are adjusted to insure a good cut-off, the

carriage is moved in or out to make a proper bottom

and exact bag length, and then deliver rollers are set to pinch the bottom edge of the bag. From the machine the bag goes into a conveyer which is regulated

so that bags deliver properly. After the counter or kicker is adjusted and timed, we have completed the

operation necessary to procure a plain bag.

We next direct our attention to the printer.

Proper printing and impression cylinder bearers

and gears are put in. The electroplate is mounted on

the printing cylinder. A new tympan is placed upon

the impression cylinder and adjusted for proper impression. The fountain is flushed with ink, composition rollers are placed into position and adjusted for

proper printing reproduction.

The paper is again threaded through the machine

and imprint is placed in proper position upon the bag.

A bag is then brought to the check inspector to be

checked for size, print, flap, paper, etc. If every

detail is found to be correct, it is O. K’d and manufacture begins.

When it is realized that these paper bags are made

right from a roll of paper, the bags being printed,

formed, seam pasted, cut off, bottom formed and

pasted, delivered, and counted, all in one operation

at the rate of 150 to 250 per minute, it can readity be

understood that the machine must not only be a fairly

large and complicated piece of machinery but one which requires constant .surveillance. To run such a machine, it is required that an operator, a machine

tender, and an adjuster be in constant attendance.

(The adjuster usually has control of a battery of five or six machines, and is the person who makes the

enumerated changes.)

Sometimes the changing operation is effected very

rapidly. At other times something may occur to delay

it. Usually it takes from two to five hours, during

which time the machine tender and the operator are

idle, so that actually for every changing operation

the time and labor of three persons are involved, the

adjuster, the machine tender, and the operator.

By checking up on daily production slips, we have

found that each machine change results in daily production utility loss. An example should indicate this

point more clearly. Ordinarily, size 614 by 9^4

should be produced at or about the rate of 100,000

per day. On the basis of 225 working days, yearly

production should then be 22,500,000. Our records,

however, indicate an actual production of 18,987,000

of this size—a below par discrepancy of 3,513,000, or

15.6 per cent. Inasmuch as the mere changing of the

roll of paper is a speedy operation, this production

loss is due entirely to the fact that we were called

upon to alter the machine for the accommodation

of a slightly larger or slightly smaller size. Could

we, therefore, be assured that each machine would be

concentrated exclusively upon the production of one

size, the 15.6 per cent production loss would be eliminated and our prices would be proportionately lower.

Even though every manufacturer strives to do exactly

that, the inordinate number of sizes prevalent makes

it an impossibility to do so. Some may say, “ Well,

why not obtain more machines?” When it is realized

that the installation of every new machine requires

(1) an initial investment for its purchase, (2) the

purchase of power units (motor and variable speed

control), (3) added floor space, (4) added workers,

(5) installation cost (machines lined up, leveled up,

and wired up) , and (6) the use of more electric power,

it will be recognized, since prices must keep pace with

increased overhead, that nothing will be gained. A

universal adoption of the 28 suggested sizes, however,

will enable us, as it will other manufacturers, undoubtedly, to maintain not one but two machines for

the steady production of one size—all of which is in- deed a far cry from actually being compelled to purchase additional equipment.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 237

Aside from this major production loss, since the

adjuster must also give his attention to the other

machines under his control, there is very often a loss in connection with those neglected.

Equally as important as that of the manufacturing

change itself is the problem which concerns itself with

the amount of paper we are required to stock in order

to swiftly facilitate the execution of incoming specifications. With 188 different sizes of bags being used

in the United States and with each roll of paper varying with the bag size to be produced, it is understandable that vast warehouse facilities must be maintained. It therefore requires little deliberation to

visualize the fact that a concentration upon the 28

suggested sizes will permit us to make infinitely more

favorable group purchases, and to release warehouse

space for other valuable purposes.

These few explanatory words, we trust, will serve

to clear up the last vestige of uncertainty which may

exist, and bring to department-store operators a sounder knowledge of our problems and of our manufacturing limitations. Inasmuch as we can not readjust our price schedule on mere conjecture, nor would

anyone, I am sure, expect us to adopt such an impractical measure, it is urged that department stores accept the standardization and simplification proposal

at once. This is imperative, because manufacturers

can do nothing until they are assured of a full 100

per cent cooperation.

Recently the store manager’s division of the National Retail Dry Goods Association published a booklet on the simplification of wrapping and packing supplies, which explains this project in detail. Attached

to this booklet is a blank form on which the reader

may indicate his acceptance of the recommendations.

Many, undoubtedly, have this in their possession.

Those who have not may apply to the National Retail

Dry Goods Association.

UNIFORM CONTROL OF ASSIGNED RADIO-FREQUENCY

Broadcasters Prepare to Meet Federal Radio Commission’s New Ruling on Frequency Control

Broadcasters throughout the country are preparing

to meet the requirements of the Federal Radio Commission’s new frequency-control ruling, effective June

22, 1932, which will clear the air of much objectionable

interference and accomplish the equivalent of increasing the power and service area of every regional and

local station in the United States. Regional and local stations (those not operating on

cleared channels) in every part of the country are

installing frequency checking and controlling devices,

which will enable them to keep their transmitters operating almost exactly on their assigned frequencies.

The new regulation, contained in General Order

No. 116, adopted by the commission June 22, 1931, and

effective one year from that date, provides that all broadcasting stations shall maintain their assigned

frequency between the limits of 50 cycles above or below that channel allocated to them. That is, a

station operating on 650 kilocycles, for example, must

maintain a frequency during operation between 650,-

050 and 649,950 cycles.

Under the present law a 500-cycle deviation from

the assigned frequency is allowed. This means that

under the present law the station’s frequency may

change as much as 1 kilocycle but the new regulation

limits this permissible change to one-tenth kilocycle.

The new law is outlined in paragraphs 144, 145, 146,

147, and 148 of the commission’s recently published

Rules and Regulations.

The commission has made arrangements with the

Bureau of Standards to make type tests of frequencychecking devices placed on the market by manufacturers, to see that these devices conform with commission requirements. Broadcasting stations may install any approved device and by means of it check

their frequency variation. These devices are being

installed now by many stations, so that if they find

it necessary to make any changes in equipment to meet requirements of the new rule, they will have opportunity to do so before June 22, 1932. The commission believes, however, that changes in equipment

will be necessary in only a few stations. By checking carefully with an approved device, commission

engineers say, it is possible to maintain the frequency

of almost any transmitter within the stipulated

limits. If a station finds it can not maintain its transmitted

frequency sufficiently steady, an automatic frequencycontrol device may be installed, assuring maintenance

of frequency. The commission has received a number

of applications asking permission to install such

equipment. Most stations, however, are finding that new apparatus is not needed.

Engineers who have studied the possible effect of

application of the new ruling believe that it will

improve reception to a greater degree than any step

yet taken in this field. The annual report of the commission called the new regulation a “ recognition of

the greatest technical advancement in the broadcast

transmitter art in recent years.” Too great a deviation from frequency brings about what is known as

“ heterodyne ” interference. All radio listeners are familiar with the results of such interference, which

sometimes mar the finest programs.

With frequencies of all stations maintained within

the 100-cycle limit, the majority of this heterodyne

interference will be eliminated. Also, maintenance

of frequency, engineers point out, will amount to the same thing as increasing the power and service area

of each station under even the most unfavorable conditions.

The Radio Division of the Department of Commerce will report to the commission all violations of

the law after it goes into effect. Any station not

maintaining its assigned frequency within the stipulated limits will have its application for renewal of

license set for hearing.
238 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932 REDUCING MINE EXPLOSIONS

Electrical Apparatus for Mines Tested to Reduce Hazard from Explosions

By A. C. Fieldner and Axden H. Emery 1

Have you ever pulled an electric plug from its socket

in a dark room and seen a brief flash of flame? Perhaps at night you have watched sparks jump from

the trolley pole of a street car to the trolley wire

whenever the two were slightly separated. If so, you

realize that from the use of electricity in coal mines

you have a possible source for the ignition of flammable or explosive mixtures of gas or coal dust and air

which may inadvertently be present in the atmosphere

of any mine. It is known that electric sparks have

ignited such mixtures and caused tremendous explosions, which have resulted in the wholesale destruction

of life and property. The elimination of the sources of ignition of such mixtures is therefore of paramount

importance.

There was a time when the miner dug coal from the

ground with a pick; now he manipulates a huge elec- trical machine which does the work for him. Until

recently, men loaded the coal by hand into cars; now

many mines rely on electric loading machines. Once

horses and mules pulled the little cars full of coal;

now trains of large cars are made up and hauled by

electric locomotives.

Most operations within some modern mines are as thoroughly mechanized as those in an up-to-date fac- tory. The machines are usually driven by electricity,

and with the increase of electrical equipment has come

an increased danger of electrical ignition of explosive

mixtures present in the atmosphere. Modern efficiency

demands these tools; we can not eliminate electricity

from mines, therefore we must take steps to make it harmless.

From its establishment in 1910, the Bureau of Mines

has been continuously engaged in a study of the proper

design of electrical equipment to minimize this hazard.

At present, 13 trained engineers determine whether the

various machines, voluntarily submitted by the manufacturers, meet a minimum standard of safety. Not

only are the detailed drawings studied to determine

whether the method of assembly is fundamentally

safe, but the equipment is minutely examined and

eventually tested in a gallery containing an explosive

atmosphere. Here, 15 to 50 tests are made on the

dangerous component parts of a large assembly,

trained observers watching for any sign of failure.

If electrical equipment meets these stringent tests

it is designated as permissible for use in gassy or dusty coal mines, and the manufacturer is allowed to attach an approval plate bearing the seal of the Bu1 Engineer and assistant to engineer, division of experiment stations, U. S. Bureau of Mines.

MOP STICKS

On January 15, 1932 a circular letter from the di- vision of trade standards to interested contacts an- nounced the reaffirmation of the commercial standard

for Mop Sticks to October 45yl932.

reau of Mines to duplicates of the machine tested. Approximately 400,000 pieces of apparatus bearing the

approval plate of the Bureau of Mines are in use to-day, thus considerably reducing the hazards attend- ant upon coal mining.

In the development of these standards, many laboratory experiments are conducted. For example, the

bureau’s approval system recently has been extended

to cover electric cables. These cables are subject to varied abuses in mines. Tests were developed to show

their resistance to bending, abrasion, stretching, and

smashing under car wheels. It was found that cables were being constructed which could be bent 5,000 times

or run over 20 times by a loaded mine car weighing

7*4 tons without failure. Such durability was not

general when the first tests were made, but since the

attention of cable manufacturers was called to existing

weaknesses they have improved their product.

Fundamental work of a related nature has been

conducted. This has included a study of the ease of

ignition of gas mixture, ignition by heated surfaces,

flame propagation, and other factors. Spectacular as are those mine catastrophes which

vsfipe out lives in a wholesale fashion, they are not re- sponsible for as many fatalities as the day-to-day fall- ing of rock in a mine. Because only one, two, or a few men are killed at a time, accidents of this type

escape attention, although their aggregate effects are more disastrous than explosions. An average of 314

lives are lost each day in our 6,000 coal mines from

this cause alone. The Bureau of Mines has therefore

undertaken a study of methods for the .reduction of

this hazard. Although it is too early to evaluate the

results achieved, it is believed that practices are

definitely being improved.

Seven hundred men caught underground by mine

fires or explosions owe their lives to the prompt erec- tion of barricades. Many of these were constructed

in accordance with Bureau of Mines recommendations

based on a study of hundreds of such accidents. This

is only one example of the conservation of life re- sulting from the extended investigation of mine

explosions by this bureau.

Other investigations have included a study of the

treatment of mine timber, causes of mine fires, methods of underground loading, and other similar studies.

The safety division of the Bureau of Mines also maintains at the Pittsburgh Experiment Station an

office, a laboratory for testing breathing apparatus,

and a safety station for the training of men in the

mineral industries in first-aid and mine-rescue work.

The survey of adherence to this standard, upon

which the opinion of the standing committee was

based, indicated adherence of 92 per cent, based on

the unweighted averages of 10 large manufacturers of

this commodity.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 239

STANDARDS FOR MACHINED SURFACES

System of Reference Samples Proposed as Basis for Standards

By Robert Corey Deale, Stevenson, Jordan d Harrison, Neio York, N. Y.

In every machine shop there is always a question

as to just how good a finish is necessary on any sur- face of a machined part. This is particularly true in

a shop run on a jobbing basis, where no part is made

in any great quantity, and where a mechanic, in the course of a week, may have a number of different

parts to make. As a result, he frequently does not

know just how the part fits into its mechanism, and

even more frequently is uncertain as to the grade of

finish necessary on each of its surfaces.

Because of this condition, a loss of time, and so an

extra cost, is almost certain to occur. There are

several courses of action open to a mechanic when he

is given a part to machine for the first time.

1. To jirevent criticism, he may use a high grade

of finish all over the part. This is particularly apt

to be the case when the workman is paid by an hourly

rate, with no form of incentive for production. As

few parts require a high finish on all surfaces, this results in an excessive machining cost.

2. The mechanic may go to the foreman for information. It is difficult for the foreman of a machining department to keep clearly in mind the surface

requirements of all parts. As a result, he is apt to require better finishes than are necessary, in order

to protect himself, although he probably is more

nearly correct than the workman. In any case there

is a loss of time while the mechanic is securing the

information. In addition, the fact that the information is verbal may lead to a disagreement later, either

with foreman or inspector.

^ 3. The mechanic, or foreman, may go to the designer for information as to what is necessary. Time

is particularly apt to be lost in this way the first time

a part is made.

4. The mechanic, or foreman, may go to the as- sembly floor to study a completed mechanism or machine, should one be available. A single trip of this

sort may take a very appreciable amount of time, as

it is seldom that it does not include a certain amount

of visiting.

5. After a part has been made, the workman and

foreman, or workman and inspector, may disagree as

to the quality of finish necessary. As a result considerable time is certain to be lost, and the parts already

made may be scrapped, although the matter may be

carried to the engineering department for final decision, which at the best results in further loss of

time.

For the above reasons it seemed highly desirable

to standardize the grade of machining finishes used in

the plant of a manufacturer of precision machine

tools, and to find some manner of indicating on the

drawing just what grade of surface was required. It was felt that the designer was in a better position

than any one else to decide just what was necessary. In case it seemed desirable to make a change, it could be simply done, and the drawing would then

remain the last word as to the part, in dimensions,

material, tolerances, and finish.

After a study of the shop had brought out the great

loss of time caused by the lack of any method of

specifying the degree of surface finish, the system

described below was worked out. It has now been

in operation for a year and a half, and has proved to be a simple and practical way of avoiding this loss of

time, and of making certain that parts made at different times are identical as to finish. It has also

been used with complete success in a large repair shop.

The first step was to determine the number of grades

of finish necessary to cover all parts that were apt to be made, and to insure that little unnecessary time

should be spent on a piece. Conferences with representatives of the engineering, production, and in- spection departments brought out the fact that three

grades of surface, as produced by a cutting tool, would

be ample. In addition, it was decided to list three

grades of grinding finish for machinery manufacture, with an additional three that would be used

when unusual quality of surface was necessary, as on

the rolls used for making tin and aluminum foil. The three grades agreed on were to include a rough

finish, that would be used only for clearances, and

similar places where it was only necessary to remove

metal ; a high-grade finish, which would be used for

surfaces running or sliding on each other ; and an in- termediate finish, termed “ commercial ” for convenience, which could be used on such parts as bolts or parts that were fastened permanently to some other.

A series of samples were machined, one set of three

for each type of cutting tool, using the speeds and

feeds that would be used in ordinary shop practice.

These samples were criticized by the heads of the

production, engineering, inspection, tool engineering,

and other methods departments, and new samples machined in accordance with their criticisms.

After samples had finally been produced that were

satisfactory to every one concerned, several duplicate

sets were made up. Complete sets were placed in

cabinets in the engineering and inspection departments, while each shop department was given samples

of such types of finish as they were engaged in duplicating. These samples were as follows

1. Turning (on lathes or boring mills) : (a) High

finish—for journals, etc.; ib) commercial finish

used for press fits, bolts, portions of shafts, rough fits, etc. ; (c) rough finish—used where it is necessary only

to remove stock for clearance or to put part in balance.

2. Cut-off : (a) Shaved end—used whenever it is desirable to have highly finished end on shaft; (b)

plain cut-off—made with ordinary cut-off tool and

showing remains of tit—used where appearance is not

important.

3. Thread cutting: (a) High finish—for all precision screws; ( b ) commercial finish—for bolts, or for rough screws transmitting motion at low speeds.

4. Boring: (a) High finish—used for bearings or similar surfaces; (b) commercial finish—may be used

Avhere mating surfaces are used only for the purpose

of location; ( c ) rough finish—used where stock is
240 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932

removed only to provide clearance or to put part in

balance.

5. Grinding: (The mirror finishes used for rolls,

etc., are not listed. Where used they should be standardized.) (a) High finish—used for bearings, either

for rotating or sliding members; (b) commercial fin- ish—used for force fits; (c) rough finish—-usually

used for truing up hardened pieces where surface is not used.

6. Planing and shaping: (a) High finish—used for

bearing surfaces; (b) commercial finish-—used for

surfaces bolted permanently together; ( c ) rough fin- ish—used to remove stock for clearance.

7. Side milling: (a) High finish—used for bearing surfaces; ( b ) commercial finish—used for sur- faces bolted permanently together; (e) rough fin- ish—used to remove stock for clearance.

8. Face milling: (a) High finish—used for bearing surfaces; (b) commercial finish—used for sur- faces bolted permanently together ; (c) rough finish

used to remove stock for clearance.

9. Drilling and reaming: (a) Reamed hole—used

wherever close fit is necessary; (b) drilled hole—used

for clearances, as bolt holes.

10. Keyway cutting: ( a) High finish—accurately

fitting key,, or slide key; ( b

)

commercial finish—un- important key, not transmitting heavy load.

11. Polishing: ( a

)

High finish—used for appearance, as on handles and hand wheels.

12. Lapping: (a) High finish; ( b

)

commercial

finish. To indicate these finishes on a drawing, some simple, unmistakable symbol system is necessary. Those

following, which are in part taken from those used in

Germany and Sweden, seem to fill the need

adequately

:

Rough finish (any machine).

VT Commercial finish (any machine).

VfT High finish (any machine). • The rough unfinished surface of a casting or forging.

9 • Surface chipped or filed to size. 0 ® • Surface scraped to fit. The connecting rod illustrated shows just how these

symbols would be used on a drawing. As can be seen from this drawing, the symbols are clearer and easier to read than the commonly used “ /

” and in addition

give much more information without cumbering the

drawing with notes. It is intended that the ®

symbol, denoting a rough, unfinished surface, shall be

used only when it is necessary for clearness. Ordinarily an unfinished surface of a casting would be

self-evident with marking.

The foregoing series have the merit of not requiring the engineering department to specify anything

regarding the machining of a surface other than its final appearance, unless grinding or lapping are necessary. These may best be indicated by separate

dimension lines, bearing an appropriate notation, for

the turning, rough grinding, finish grinding, and

lapping dimensions.

Specifications of machined surfaces, as outlined

previously, may be set up in any shop, either small

or large, at a very moderate cost, provided that they

go into effect at the start only on new parts. A procedure may be set up whereby no print may be issued

to the shop until it has been checked to make certain

that the finishes have been specified. Within a short

time all active drawings would thus have been

changed over, without the necessity of touching any

inactive drawing.

In time, it will unquestionably be desirable to have

national or international standards of finish, so that

a part machined in one shop will fit without difficulty

into an assembly made in a second shop. To secure such a standard, it will be necessary for a general

method of specifying them. This can be done by

specifying the depth of the tool marks, as measured

by some form of comparator, together with a toler- ance for each class of finish. To recapitulate, it is believed that the advantages

to the average machine shop from the specification

of machined surfaces would be comparable to those,

resulting from the use of tolerance, which are generally conceded. In addition, it would be possible to introduce such standards in the individual shop, by

the method indicated, much more readily, and at a much lower cost, than was the case with tolerances.

Should a national standard be set up it would greatly

facilitate the production of parts in a shop other than

the one in which thejr were designed—a practice

which is becoming increasingly more prevalent. A

company having no shop at all may design a machine

and send it out to a jobbing shop with some assurance

that the finish will be as expected, while one with a shop may do the same when its facilities are over- crowded. A national standard would be of particular importance for ordnance, which, in time of

emergency, may have to be done in any shop in the

country.

STAPLE PORCELAIN PLUMBING FIXTURES

The commercial standard for Staple Porcelain (AllClay) Plumbing Fixtures, CS4-29, has been reaffirmed,

without change, for another year beginning July 1, 1932, or until authorized revisions are duly indorsed

by the industry. This action was taken upon the

recommendation of the standing committee after con- sidering the results of an adherence survey undertaken

in cooperation with the manufacturers of porcelain

(all-clay) plumbing fixtures. The report, summarizing the results of the survey, was based on six replies out of onty eight manufacturers in this field. The average unweighted adherence to standard regular selection grade was 95.8 per

cent. Two manufacturers reported that no culls were

sold by them ; three reported that all culls were marked in accordance with the rules, and one reported

that 50 per cent of culls were so marked. The aver- age unweighted adherence to standard types and sizes (both grades) was 91.6 per cent. Deviations from the standard were reported, due to demand from purchasers for a few nonstandard items,

and for several old items for replacement.

No suggestions were offered for the improvement

of the standard. Actual direct benefits from the

establishment of the standard were reported by all manufacturers who replied to the adherence survey

questionnaire. Further details are made available in the report.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 241

GAGING CALIFORNIA PRODUCE BY FEDERAL STANDARDS

Optional Use of Grades Generally Applied Throughout State to Perishable Vegetables and Fruits

By H. W. Peterson 1

The development of standard specifications for perishable products has been one of the important projects of the United States Department of Agriculture

for the past 15 years. Since most of these standards apply directly to California commodities, the

California Department of Agriculture has taken an

important and active part in the promulgation of a number of these grades.

These standards are known as United States grades.

At the present time there are specifications on about

TO commodities. Most of these apply to fresh fruits

and vegetables, but several apply to such products

as peanuts, honey, and also to crops raised for commercial cannery purposes; for example, cannery to- matoes and spinach.

California’s crops are very diverse, and it is interesting to observe that 48 of these grades are used on commodities grown in that State. Several of these

grades have been worked out at the request of the

produce industry of California. In 1924, in answer

to repeated demands of the grape industry, not only

in that State but also in the receiving markets, United

States standards were developed which cover sawdust pack, table and juice grapes. During subsequent

years necessary revisions have been made, until at the present time the grades are very satisfactory.

The past two years have witnessed the development

of grades for some of the more unusual crops which

include fava beans, sweet anise, and sprouting broccoli. The last-named vegetable is a rather recent in- troduction into this country, and in a short time has

gained a wide usage. Grades have b£en established

for artichokes, which are a commodity grown in California only.

The use of these grades is not compulsory. A few

States have adopted grading laws where the use of

the grades are mandatory, but in California their use

is entirely optional. Even though they are optional

in the State, last year they were used as the basis of

almost 60,000 inspections.

Transactions involved in the buying and selling of

perishable products can be based upon the United

States grades. They are applied uniformly in the various sections of the country. They are known alike

in shipping districts as well as in receiving markets.

Growers may sell to shippers with these grades as the basis, and buyers in the receiving markets are en- abled to purchase a standard product by specifying

the grade they may require.

With the shipment of thousands of carloads of fruit

and vegetable products each year, such as apples,

pears, oranges, potatoes, lettuce, cauliflower, and

others, it is quite obvious that such standard grades

are necessarjL Perishable farm products are shipped

over the entire United States. Certain products are exported, not only to Canada and Europe, but also

to South and Central America, Australia, and the

1 Field superintendent, bureau of shipping-point inspection, depart- ment of agriculture. State of California.

Orient. In the handling of commodities for export,

very careful grading of products is necessary. The United States grades are drawn up to fit, in

so far as possible, all producing and all marketing

conditions. It is necessary to do this because many

crops are grown in a number of States, and sold in

many markets. For instance, potatoes are grown in

California, Idaho, Minnesota, Maine, and many other

States. Tlie crops produced are sold competitively in numerous markets. The same principle applies to such crops as apples, cantaloupes, and numerous

others.

There are a few crops which are not adapted to a

single set of standards for the entire country. One

important example of this is citrus fruits. California,

Florida, and Texas produce the bulk of the oranges

and grapefruit grown in the United States. The fruit

from each of these States varies in many respects on

account of differences in soil, climate, culture, and

various other conditions. For these reasons it has

been necessary to draw up citrus grades for the fruit

of each of these three States. The same practice has been necessary with grapes.

The grapes grown in California are entirely different

in variety and type from those produced in other

States, and consequently it has been necessary to draw

up separate specifications from those for grapes grown

in the East. The development of grade specifications entails

many different factors. All producing sections must

be visited by a representative of the United States Department of Agriculture. It is usually necessary to spend considerable time in the largest and most important producing centers in order to determine what

may reasonably be considered as the average quality

for a district. It is also necessary to visit the consuming centers in order to determine what the receiver

expects or demands.

The information that is gained from these investigations shows fairly accurately the condition that must

be met by a producer in normal growing years. It

also shows what the receiver may reasonably expect,

and what factors he considers desirable. The factors

to which a receiver may object are also brought out. Representatives of the California Department of

Agriculture, together with representatives of the Federal Department of Agriculture, have interviewed

growers and shapers preliminary to the adoption of

grades. With some commodities such as grapes,

public meetings have been held in the growing districts in order to give everyone an opportunity to present his ideas. Following these meetings the re- sults are carefully worked out and the grades are presented to the Federal agencies in Washington for

consideration. With the information that has been

gathered in the terminal markets, the department is then in position to prepare the final grade.

The number of grades on a commodity usually depends upon the product. For instance, oranges have

a U. S. fancy grade, a U. S. No. 1 grade, and a U. S.
242 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932

No. 2. Tlie reason for this is that while the U. S. No. 1 grade includes the greatest bulk of the crop, fre- quently there is a demand for a limited amount of

the highest quality of oranges obtainable. It is to take care of this high-quality product that the U. S. fancy grade is used. The U. S. No. 2 grade includes

the fruit which, on account of score or limb rubs, or for other reasons, may not be as attractive in appearance as the U. S. No. 1 grade, although the objectionable defects that would cause the fruit to break down

or seriously detract from the appearance have been

removed.

Some other products, such as cauliflower, have only one standard, or the U. S. No. 1 grade. With most

vegetables it is hardly practical commercially to di- vide them into various grades. In general, it might

be said that when more than one grade is necessary, the standards are so arranged that the resulting grade

requirements will group the various proportions of a crop in accordance with its commercial value. The

portion of a crop showing the most desirable factors

of color, shape, texture, and other desirable properties

naturally falls into a higher grade, while that portion that may show more of the objectionable factors, or at least the less desirable ones, will fall into the

lower grades.

There are two important points involved in all grades. The first is quality, which deals with what

is often called the permanent grade factors, or those

which are not subject to change such as color, shape,

size, and certain defects. The second point is that of

condition, which involves factors that may change

after a product is harvested, such as firmness and

freshness, and also includes decays, breakdown and

GERMANY TO STANDARDIZE MOTOR FUEL

Domestic Products to Be Used, States Cable from Commercial

Attache at Berlin Standardized motor fuel appears to be an early

possibility for Germany, with utilization of a large

part of domestic products, according to a cable to the

Department of Commerce from Commercial Attache

H. Lawrence Groves, Berlin, Germany. The United

States has been the chief supplier for Germany’s

great gasoline requirements, of which about 90 per

cent have had to be imported until now. Current trade reports in Berlin, stated Groves’s

cable, indicate the early possibility of a standardized

motor fuel for the entire German Republic, utilizing a large proportion of domestic gasoline, benzol,

alcohol, and methanol, with the necessary adoption of some unified control of all filling stations in the country. Allotments of import quotas among foreign suppliers also form part of the trade reports, the cable

added.

However, it was the opinion of Mr. Groves that

this development will not be realized for many

months, pending a full and complete airing of the

question.

Such action outlined by Mr. Groves’s cable is understandable in the light of Germany’s attempt to bal- ance its foreign trade, and view of general economic

conditions, said the announcement made public January 20, 1932, by the United States Department of

Commerce. Added to this^-The announcement added,

other deteriorations which may occur in storage or

transit. Products such as apples and pears when

picked may be fully mature, but their condition will

be hard. As they are held in storage, they gradually soften and go through the stages of hard, firm,

firm ripe, and ripe. When the product is in the ripe

stage it is in the best eating condition and must be

consumed almost immediately. In the firm stage it may be held for a short time, and in the hard stage,

the fruit is fit for storageIn the case of apples exported to Great Britain, in

addition to meeting the grade requirements such as Fancy or U. S. No. 1, they must also meet the export

standards for this particular commodity. These re- quire the product to be tightly packed, to be no further advanced in maturity than firm ripe, and decay

and other condition factors are limited to very small

percentages.

Care must be exercised not to place these grade

specifications either too high or too low. If the grade

requirements are too stringent either a hardship is worked upon the grower or the use of the grade will

be very limited. On the other hand, if the requirements of the grade are placed too low, the product

will probably prove unsatisfactory upon delivery.

Often after a grade has been adopted conditions may

be encountered that were not previously experienced.

Such conditions make changes necessary, and after a

satisfactory method of handling the problem has been

worked out the grade provisions may be revised.

From the foregoing it can be seen that all standards are worked out with the utmost care in order

that they may be a practical aid in handling agricultural marketing problems.

is the attempt to aid the agrarian situation by the

increased use of alcohol as a fuel ; and also the fact

that the Leuna-Werke, originally built as a coal

hydrogenation plant, has now turned to processing

German crude oil. Recent discoveries of oil and rapidly increasing production of crude petroleum in the

Volkenroda potash mines of the Burbach Potash

Works Co., third leading producer of Germany’s important potash industry, is another factor. Petroleum Avas accidentally discovered there in

June, 1930, and production in the Volkenroda plant

increased from 1,500 tons in January, 1931, to 8,000 tons in August of the same year; production for the

first eight months of 1931 amounting to 37,000 tons. It is believed that the plant’s capacity will be in- creased from the present 100,000 tons a year to 350,-

000 tons a year. This increased production Avill greatly augment Germany’s total domestic production.

Until now approximately 90 per cent of Germany’s

great requirements of gasoline have had to be imported from abroad, and the United States has been

the chief supplier, it is pointed out by the minerals

division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Thus, the United States sold Germany

5,944,078 barrels of gasoline in 1930, in addition to 1,891,942 barrels of gas oil, 1,609,873 barrels of lubricants, 60,380 barrels of crude oil, 1,152,358 barrels of

fuel oil, 1,060,584 barrels of kerosene, 31,110 tons of

light residue, 16,185 tons of heavy residue, or 46.5 per cent of the total imports of petroleum products

into Germany.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 243

FARM MARKETING IN NEW ENGLAND

Keeping Up Quality of Produce by Grading, Inspecting, and Identifying Vegetables and Fruits Described

By Sidney A. Edwards

1

In undertaking to discuss the future of the New

England farm marketing program I am deeply conscious of the dangers besetting the prophet. Telling

what is going to happen is a very ticklish job for

things do not always turn out that way. So if in

this brief discussion there is any particular evidence

of side-stepping the issue or fence straddling it is well

to realize that even our economists and prognosticators of business conditions are quite apt to clothe their

language in such a way that it permits of wide interpretation.

Forgetting the prophet and his difficulties for the

moment, let us return to the New England farm marketing program, and review briefly the history of this

plan and its accomplishments to date. Possibly a study of its actual operation and progress will serve

as the best basis on which to judge its future.

Born of the New England council and reared

largely through nourishment supplied by the sis State

departments of agriculture, the New7 England farm

marketing program pertains to the grading, inspection, and identification of local quality farm products.

The adoption of identical or in some instances similar

grades by the six New England States and the use

of a uniform New England label to identify the better

grades of such products has done much to arouse the

interest of New England consumers in the merits of

the native product.

New England farmers are not given to jumpingheadlong into untried programs and being for the

most part individually instead of collectively minded,

they have advanced rather cautiously.

On the other hand, where cooperative marketingorganizations already existed as in the case of the two

Connecticut poultry producers’ associations or where

there was group consciousness in the production and

marketing of a single commodity in a particular

area as in the case of the Concord and Cape Cod as- paragus growers’ associations in Massachusetts, the

maple-sugar producers of Vermont, and the turkey

growers in Vermont, Rhode Island, and Connecticut,

the program has worked out very successfully.

The assembly of the products and the grading and

packing operations through a central packing plant

not only materially reduce the time and expense con- nected therewith but it means more accurate standardization, assures an adequate market supply, and

greatly simplifies the inspection of the product.

Furthermore, such products handled through a central organization lend themselves particularly well

to the use of a trade-mark, the employment of effective

advertising, and the adoption of efficient sales policies.

While the program has really not emerged from its experimental stage, although it has been in active operation for nearly four years, sufficient evidence is at hand to conclude that it works better with some products than with others.

Fresh eggs, turkeys, maple products, tomatoes, and

asparagus, as vr ell as strawberries, lend themselves par1 Director, bureau of markets, department of agriculture, State of Connecticut.

ticularly well, whereas potatoes, bunched vegetables,

and apples for various reasons have not fared so successfully. To put it another w7 ay, products with a comparatively high unit value or products that are not ordinarily stored for a long period of time before

reaching the consumer adapt themselves better to a grading and identification program than do lowpriced commodities such as most bunched vegetables

and products ordinarily held in cold storage, such as potatoes, root crops, and apples.

The difficulty in the case of stored products such

as potatoes is that such products properly graded,

packed, and labeled before going into storage may be

anything but of good quality when they reach the consumer unless they are carefully regraded and

packed before leaving the cold storage plant and

this, in many cases, is located at the receiving point

rather than at the point of shipment.

This same condition held true this past winter in

the case of a fine lot of “A” grade Baldwin apples

which developed Baldwin spot in storage. In this

particular case it was necessary to remove the New

England quality label because the owner of the apples

did not wish to give the label a bad reputation.

In the development of State grades for native farm

products, United States grades are ordinarily used

as a basis and varied in certain respects where local preference for some particular quality factor plays

a prominent part in the local market. A person who

has never made a study of local preferences in various

New England markets would find only a casual ob- servance of such factors both enlightening and

interesting.

No one has yet answered the question as to why

Boston wants its asparagus long and green while

Providence, only a comparatively short distance away,

is not so particular as to color but demands asparagus

tips and not long stalks. The old story of brown

eggs for Boston and white eggs for New York is along the same line. Such factors as size, color, and

weight, while not always associated with better

quality in the same degree as freshness, crispness,

degree of maturity, and freedom from defects, are nevertheless very important in the mind of the aver- age consumer and must be given due consideration

in the establishment of retail grades.

The inspection of graded products, packed in ac- cordance with official State grades and identified by

the New England quality label, falls within the scope

of work assigned to the State department of agriculture. Trained inspectors watch these products from

the time they leave the farm until they reach the con- sumer. While every package is not handled by an

inspector, a sufficient sample is examined to satisfy

him that the quality of the product is up to grade

as represented.

In case a customer secures a product bearing the

New England quality label which is not satisfactory,

she has the privilege of appealing to her State department of agriculture with the assurance that the com-
244 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932

plaint will be followed up immediately. It is worthy

of note and a tribute to the integrity of New England farmers as well as to the present inspection service that serious complaints are the exception rather

than the rule. Apparently those producers identified

with the program want to see it succeed and realize

that the surest road to success is via the satisfied customer.

In summarizing the progress made to date, suffice to say that at the present time there are over 1,800

leading New England producers who have sought the

privilege of becoming identified with the program

and these men have purchased an aggregate of 6,723,-

717 New England quality labels to identify their

better-quality products.

Turning from the past to the future, I believe the

possibilities ahead are particularly bright. The program has been tried and the principles behind the

plan have proven to be sound. The agricultural col- leges and experiment stations are becoming more

deeply interested in its benefits to the New England

farmer. As the program grows, the departments of

agriculture will be required to devote more time to the regulatory and service activities and less time to the promotional or educational side. This particular

phase will naturally be assumed by such agencies as the State college extension service, county farm

bureaus, and vocational agricultural teachers.

With the progress of the program the imperative

need for many types of research studies has developed

and this work will most naturally be conducted by

the various State agricultural experiment stations

where the equipment and trained personnel for such

studies are available.

To assure the permanency and stability of the program, much of the responsibility for its success must

fall on the producer. Experience has shown that

group or cooperative action is far more effective than

individual action and while in the beginning many

individual producers served as pioneers in demonstrating the soundness of the principles involved, we look

forward to the rather rapid development of local,

county, State, and possibly New England wide co- operative sales agencies operating under producers’

direction but in immediate charge of competent managers who will employ such expedients as effectAe

advertising and aggressive sales policies in placing

local quality farm products in the hands of the New

England woman buyer.

Consumer organizations, State federations of women’s clubs, civic and community organizations of various kinds are showing a wonderful interest in the

program and want to see it succeed.

The press of New England, both metropolitan and

local, as well as the several New England broadcasting companies, are not only sympathetic but enthusiastic over this attempt to put the New England farmer

in a more advantageous position by assisting him in

the solution of his biggest problem—better marketing.

What the program needs right now more than anything else is a larger volume of graded products,

efficiently marketed and effectively advertised.

Believing thoroughly in the soundness of the principles underlying the New England farm marketing

program but basing my present judgment not on that

belief but entirely upon the change in sentiment to- ward the program during the past four years, I must

confess that I am very optimistic as to its future.

CENTRALIZED PURCHASING AT CHICAGO

Standardization Board to Be Established for Setting Up Standards and Preparing Specifications to Be Used by City Departments

The ever-increasing value placed upon centralized

purchasing methods, particularly with respect to governmental purchasing, is significantly attested by the

recently passed ordinance providing for just such a system in the city of Chicago. This plan, part of a broad reorganization of municipal affairs under the

administration of the present mayor, is expected to contribute much to a general reduction of local cor- porate expenses.

In that division of the municipal survey dealing

directly with centralized purchasing, the National Association of Purchasing Agents and the Chicago Purchasing Agents Association took an important part.

A former president of both these organizations was

personally responsible for the thorough and vigorous

study of this section of the work, while a past re- search secretary of N. A. P. A. and nationally recog- nized as an authority on governmental purchasing

acted as special consultant for the N. A. P. A. He

was ably assisted by a delegate of the Chicago association.

Some of the salient features of that part of the re- port pertaining to centralized purchasing are set forth

in the following paragraphs.

The present provisions of the municipal code bearing upon purchasing powers and procedures in the

separate city departments and bureaus are to be re- pealed and a department of central purchasing established. This department is to have charge of the

purchasing and contracting for supplies, materials,

and equipment, and contractual services required by

the various agencies under the control of the city

council. Further, if any other board or department

under city government, but not under the control of

the city council, wishes to participate in the central

purchasing system, it is to be permitted to do so. Within the purchasing department itself there is to be established a standardization board, for the purpose of setting up standards and preparing specifications for the minimum number of qualities, sizes, and

grades of commodities to be used by the city departments. In the establishment of standards and standard specifications, the board is expected to make use of the engineering and testing facilities of the differ- ent departments and to make all standards conform

as nearly as possibly to the requirements of the using

departments.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 245

It is recommended that the department embrace

the following bureaus

(a) The bureau of standards and specifications,

which, working in conjunction with the standardization board, would prepare and revise written specifications and confer with the using departments in order

to ascertain the suitability of current specifications.

( b

)

The bureau of purchase and contract, which

would have charge of purchase negotiations. It would secure competition through various agencies;

would receive, open, tabulate, and submit such bids

with recommendation for award to the commissioner

for decision; and would keep a record of all com- modity purchases as an index to price and consumption trends.

( c

)

The bureau of inspection and testing, which

would conduct occasional inspections and tests in

order to determine whether the regular inspection

forces were satisfactorily performing their duties.

(id) The bureau of stores, which would receive and

check all requisitions from the operating departments; would receive regular inventory reports on

the amount and value of commodities on hand; would

transfer or salvage any surplus or obsolete stock;

would operate an office-supply stock room for all agencies in the city hall and a central mimeographing

service. •

In addition to the foregoing recommendations, it was suggested that the department of central purchasing have power to request, to receive, and to check

estimates of future requirements of the operating

departments for such period of the fiscal year as it might deem advisable, and to consolidate such esti- mates wherever possible for quantity purchasing ac- cording to the standard specifications adopted by the

board of standardization.

The department is to have no connection with or supervisory control over the awarding of public

works or other construction contracts. It is to make

occasional inspections and tests to determine whether

the specified commodities are actually being received.

Labor-saving devices are to be used for more efficient and economic handling of all work done. A modern,

simplified, purchasing procedure to secure wide and

free competion is advised, and it is urged that the

department be furnished with the necessary report

and statistical information so that it may gauge the

most economical time to buy in the market.

The foregoing recommendations were supplemented

by detailed instruction as to system, forms, records,

and procedure, and a suggestion as to the form of

ordinance that would make the recommendations

effective.

PROMOTING HOME-OWNERSHIP PLANS

Tangible, Beneficial Results of President’s Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership Are

Appearing, Says Conference Secretary

The establishment of regional and local organizations to carry forward general as well as specific measures outlined in Washington December 2-5, 1931,1 at the President’s Conference on Home Building and

Home Ownership are evidence of the tangible, beneficial results already appearing, according to Dr.

John M. Gries, executive secretary of the conference.

Among localities in which organizations have been

perfected may be cited the following areas : Pittsburgh, Massachusetts, Westchester County, N. Y.,

and New Jersey, where the respective real-estate

board is engaged in activities designed to spread home

ownership and to remove existing housing evils. Financing problems, regarded by the December con- ference as perhaps the most serious confronting it, are to be handled in Cincinnati by an organization

of banking and city representatives which will look

after the matter of mortgages.

“ It is obvious, of course, that the conference will not attain its potential value unless its findings and

the facts brought out by it are spread to the persons

whom will benefit,” said Doctor Gries in discussing

the program. “ Thus a considerable part of the pres- ent task of the conference, which still exists through

a continuing committee, is of an educational nature.” Doctor Gries further pointed out that requests are coming in by the thousands for information on the

various phases of housing and home ownership

touched on by the conference. That the conference

1 Commercial Standards Monthly, January, 1932.

in Washington was something of a pioneering, epochal

event is attested to by the fact that these requests are coming not only from the general public, but also from persons or groups closely connected with building, housing, and construction activities who would

be the most likely to have information of their own on

matters taken up by the conference.

Data previously not available were brought together

by the conference, and a widespread demand for facts

is pouring in from State, municipal and civic leaders,

realtors, subdividers, contractors, architects, manufacturers, dealers in materials, carpenters, masons,

plasterers, plumbers, bankers, building and loan offi- cers, engineers of several kinds from civil and elec- trical to mechanical and sanitary, landscape architects,

city planners, building inspectors, traffic authorities,

utilities men, and tax specialists. Home economists,

decorators, sociologists, psychologists, doctors, lawyers, educators, and editors have likewise shown an

interest. Numerous articles are being sent out by the conference to magazines, trade journals, and newspapers

which will further promote the work suggested by

the Washington meeting. The delegates to the gathering, numbering nearly 3,600 and representing every

State as well as such distant Territories as Porto

Rico and Hawaii, are another force working to place

home building on a scientific basis. Numerous reports have reached the conference of

the efforts of various local units, such as women’s

clubs, real estate boards, civic bodies, and other or-
246 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932

ganizations to study and promote particular phases

of the subjects brought before the Washington meeting. Immediately favorable results are expected

from some of these efforts. It can readily be seen, however, said Doctor Gries, that where a women’s

club is sponsoring a demonstration home, for ex- ample, benefits may be delayed at least until the home

is completed.

A definite plan by which the country may be or- ganized more effectively in the interests of American

homes has not j^et been worked out. There is some

difference of opinion as to the best method to be fol- lowed. Some persons feel that State agencies should

be set up, functioning for the State in much the same manner that the general conference is functioning for

the Nation. Others believe municipal organizations more desirable.

At present it is somewhat early for an inventory

of the results of the conference and an estimation of

the nature of problems not yet solved and needing

further attention. When the experience attained

from the first conference can be summed up, there

will perhaps be an opportunity for another national

gathering to take stock of the status of the home

building and ownership movement and to determine

along what lines further action is desirable.

The conference has learned that at least one com- munity has set up an information center where the

layman may obtain fundamental data on home construction in its various phases. If a number of communities should establish similar centers, there would

be an opportunity for the second conference to dis- cuss their value and their problem, in the light of the

experience gained. The conference is not planning

any campaign for legislation that would promote

home ownership, although the establishment of home

loan discount banks proposed by President Hoover

is in line with recommendations of the conference.

CERTIFIED SUPPLIES FOR SCHOOL JANITORS

National School Supply Association Creates Certification Program as Protection to Both Buyer and Seller

By J. W. McClinton, National School Supply Association

The National School Supply Association has been

actively promoting simplification, standardization,

and certification of various items in the school supply

and equipment field. Of the several projects undertaken by the association toward that end, one of the

most constructive, one of the most far-reaching in

beneficial efforts, and one of the most effective for

safeguarding the school purchaser, is the certifica- tion or labeling of janitor supply products.

The writer, during his many years in the superintendency field, was constantly perplexed when it came

to the purchase of janitor supplies because of the ab- sence of basic standards for the measurement of values.

Many superintendents are still having the same experience, judging from the favorable reactions received

from these men in regard to the certification program.

In fact, it is in response to a persistent de mand over

several years-’ period from school officials that some

standards be established for janitor supply products

that the association has undertaken this program.

For the time being, the quality labeling program

will apply to liquid and scrubbing soaps, disinfectants,

and deodorants. As the movement gets under way,

other items will be added to this list, notably floor brushes, etc., also the development of container standards and the per pupil usage of the products per year. A program of identification of ingredients manifestly has its advantages. It affords a definite basis

for checking purchases of janitor supplies. It furnishes a measuring rod for determining the quality of

the product purchased. A known quality product at a known fair price is safer than an unknown product

at any price.

Most schools, because of the limited quantity of

the product used, do not find it practicable or convenient to make the laboratory tests for definitely determining the ingredients on each purchase made.

Others do not have availablejhe testing facilities, and

the cost of a testing service for small purchases would

prove expensive. To these purchasers the centralized

testing and labeling plan affords a decided service.

There will always be a sufficient number of companies

which have taken advantage of the certification privileges from which purchases may be made to retain

the competitive element.

What is the purpose of the certification program?

is a question often asked. First of all, it will afford a source of supply for janitor supplies devoid of misrepresentation as to the quality of the product. There

have been misrepresentations. There need not be. There should not be. It is an objective of honest

business to eliminate it. It is unethical competition

to meet misrepresentation by misrepresentation. If

misrepresentation is necessary to get the business, the

majority of concerns will choose to loose the business.

That is the penalty that should not be imposed on honest selling.

This program of the National School Supply Association affords the purchaser the opportunity to take advantage of definite specifications in purchases

if he desires to do so. There is nothing compulsory on the part of the buyer or seller. It does give the

buyer the basis for measuring values which he has

long desired, and it gives the seller the label or certi- fied form of guarantee if he desires to take advantage

of it. When the quality of the product is not known,

competition centers on the claims for the product,

exaggerated or otherwise, without any common

standard for price comparisons.

Janitor supply products represent a line of supplies that is hard to measure in quality. It is not a poundage or yardage merchandising—it is an ingredient merchandising. The heretofore lack of standards and the intangible means of measuring the

claims for a quality product have proved a rich field for the “ bootleg seller ”—the temporary agent group.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 247

It is in this temporary selling group that the evils

of selling through misrepresentation have been so much in evidence. The transient salesman has no

reputation to protect, has no interest in establishing

a good will as an asset, has no interest in repeat

orders, has no interest save the present sale, and the

marginal profit as wide as the market will afford. There is, therefore, no restraint on overselling a purchaser or unloading onto a school system products

not essential for the school need. This is a selling

program that no legitimate distributor or manufacturer can subscribe to, a type of competition that he

will not meet, a selling program that brings unjust

and unfavorable reactions upon those established

houses engaged in ethical merchandising. The program should operate to the protection of both the

purchaser and the seller. The National School Supply Association is committed to a policy of service. It is the conviction that

this certification program will so function for the

school official intrusted with the purchases of janitor

supply products.

BRAZILIAN FEDERAL PURCHASING BUREAU

Technical Section of Bureau to Determine Standards of Articles Purchased

By Roger D. Moore, United States Department of Commerce

Federal Government purchases in Brazil will be

centralized in a single bureau under the Ministry of

Finance, according to a recent decree, No. 19587.1 It would seem that by virtue of this new decree, contracts for the purchase of materials and supplies for

the Federal service need no longer be approved and

registered by the Tribunal de Contas in order to be

made binding.

Innovations such as the required employment ol

specialists and the establishment of laboratories to conduct physical, chemical, technical, and resistance

tests under direction of the bureau are expected to place the making of such purchases more upon a scientific basis. An agency for the development of standards, es tablished by a somewhat earlier decree to make official standards as regards articles destined for the public

service of the Union, is now to function as a part of

the technical section of the bureau. If successful,

the various States and municipalities of Brazil quite

likely will establish similar bureaus.

The bureau is to be headed by a commission of

three—a chairman and two directors. Collectively,

they are to decide on purchases. In addition, there

are two divisions, each headed by a director. The first consists of (1) a technical section concerned with the

study of projects and materials as well as manufacturers and agents in Brazil and abroad, market prices

and tendencies, laboratory tests, and the preparation

of budgets and publications; and (2) an accounting

section, charged with recording invoices, issuing or- ders or certificates of payment, and the fiscalization of

agencies and subagencies. The second division is to be comprised of: (1) A section of departmental re- quests, to which pertain a register of materials requisitioned, and current accounts of the departments;

(2) a section of acquisitions to be in charge of warehouses, stocks, and contracts of acquisition; and (3) a section of dispatch to handle transportation and in- surance services, postal orders, bills of lading, and

deliveries, including claims thereunder.

The commission is to operate in the national terri- tory by means of limited agencies and subagencies,

1 Decree No. 195S7, as published in the Brazilian Diario Official, Jan.

16. 1931, is on file in the Division ot Commercial Laws, U. S. Depart- ment of Commerce, Washington, D. C., as well as a translation by Commercial Attache Carlton Jackson, Rio de Janeiro.

whose functions correspond generally to those of the

central commission, to which they are responsible.

Due authorization must be procured before executing

local contracts. Disbursements for materials destined for distribution among the departments (Ministerios) are to depend upon allotments in the respective budgets, no

requisition of material being allowed unless the bal- ance of the particular departmental allotment is sufficient to meet it. Although under the decree, the departments are not directly to acquire any material,

they may explain to the commission why different

types from those officially designated should be

adopted. Requisitions, Avhich must be signed by

those responsible for using the allotments, must set forth the purposes for which the articles are desired.

Portions of allotments remaining are to be remitted

by the tribunal of accounts to the national treasury.

Merchants and manufacturers, whether located in

Brazil or abroad, may, at any time, and not necessarily upon solicitation, submit quotations and bids

for materials offered, and may modify or withdraw

same at any time. Heretofore foreigners residing outside Brazil could bid only when expressly requested

by the Government. Whenever it may be necessary

to do so the commission may solicit bids by press or

letter. It must require of bidders sufficient proof of

capacity, and—except in orders not exceeding 50 contos ($5,981.50 at par exchange) for delivery within

30 days by local suppliers of known capacity—must

cause a contract to be drawn and a guaranty of 10 per

cent of the value of the order deposited. Bad faith

in failing to fill an order properly subjects the deposit

to forfeiture and bars the supplier from further supplying the Government.

In the selection of a supplier the following factors

art to be considered: (1) His capacity, (2) prices as compared to those of the market; (3) terms of delivery, in consideration of the urgency of current

orders; and (4) other conditions proposed. Quotations and bids received, the average prices of domestic

and foreign markets, and prices paid in purchases are required to be published each month, and audited annually. Pa^yments will be made as originally stipulated at sight or on terms; in the latter case, the supplier will be issued negotiable certificates payable at maturity by the commission.
248 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932 RADIO AIDS NAVIGATION

Greater Safety in Air Navigation Seen Through the Development of Radio Aids

By J. H. Dellinger, Bureau of Standards

Radio is responsible for great advances in the safety

and accuracy of navigation. The navigational uses of radio have a history of about 20 years on the sea and about 10 years in the air, and are of rapidly

spreading importance at the present time.

Radio aids navigation in two principal ways : As a means of communication and as an instrumentality of

navigation on course finding. Radio provides the

only means of communication to ships or aircraft at a distance, and has destroyed the isolation of ocean

voyages. As an instrumentality of navigation, radio

serves to provide either (a) a homing means; that is, means to reach a desired point, (&) a means of navigating a desired course, or (c) a means of determiningposition. Radio functions regardless of fog, tempest,

or distance, and thus provides unique services which

are bound to be of increasing value to navigation. It supplements rather than displaces other navigational

aids, such as the compass, sextant, and sonic depth

finder.

The differing requirements of marine and aerial

transportation have led to different kinds of uses of

radio. In the marine service, radio communication

is mainly telegraphic, although telephony has been

added recently on the larger vessels. In aviation,

radio communication is mainly telephonic. In the

uses of radio as a navigational instrumentality, the

principal marine system utilizes radio direction find- ers aboard the vessels to determine the line of direction of radio signals from a known source, while the

system used in aviation in the United States employs

directive radio beacons which mark out the directions

of the airways and are received with nondirectional

receiving apparatus on the aircraft. Another navigational system employing direction finders on land to determine the line of direction of radio signals from

the moving vessel lias been used in marine navigation

and is the method used in aerial navigation in Europe.

The Bureau of Standards has been active in the

development of the various radio aids to navigation.

The system of aids to marine navigation is now standardized throughout the world. There is a great deal

of activity at the present time in developing and ex- tending the use of radio in connection with air navigation. In the United States the research phases of

this work are carried on by the Bureau of Standards for the Aeronautics Branch, Department of

Commerce.

The system of radio aids to navigation on the air- ways of the United States has the advantage that it imposes the minimum requirements on the airplane

operator. There are many other possible systems, but

they require more specialized equipment aboard the

airplane or require more attention or some manipulation in use. The directive radio beacon system enables a pilot to continue along the regularly traveled

airways when no landmarks, sky, or lights are visible. It largely removes the chief limitation on reliability

of scheduled flights, viz, delays due to fog. This

system tells the pilot as soon as he veers from his course, indicates on which side he is off, shows him the

way back, and informs him when he arrives at his

destination.

To use the radio aids provided by the Government, an airplane need be equipped only with simple radio

receiving apparatus. Transmitting stations for ra- diotelephony are located on the ground, usually at air- ports about 200 miles apart. At these airports are located also the directive racliobeacon transmitting

stations. The radiotelephone stations send out messages regarding weather, landing conditions, etc., while the beacon stations send out directed signals of

a special type for the sole purpose of making out the

line of the airway. A single receiving set aboard any

airplane receives both classes of service. Thus any

number of airplanes may be served simultaneously.

This is one advantage of the system over the European

system which can serve only one airplane at a time.

Another advantage is that the airplane is required to carry only a receiving iset, whereas in the European

system the airplanes must be equipped for trans- mission as well as reception.

A number of air transport lines in the United

States do provide transmitting apparatus aboard their

airplanes, and carry on two-way communication with

ground stations owned and operated by them. This

system supplements the Government system which

gives service to all airplanes whether or not they carry

transmitting apparatus.

There are now on the airways of the United States 88 directive radiobeacon stations, and 62 radiotelephone stations broadcasting weather and other information to airplanes in flight, all maintained by the

Government and operating on low frequencies. There

are in addition 107 radiotelephone stations, operating on high frequencies, maintained by the air transport

companies for two-way communication with airplanes

in flight.

The use of radio as a navigational means has still further possibilities. Collisions between airplanes in

fog are a real hazard; experiments on a radio warn

ing system to obviate this danger are in progress. Another use of radio in navigation, which is advancing even more rapidly to the stage of practical

use, is the aiding of airplanes to land under conditions of low or zero visibility.

The radiobeacon system is adequate to guide air- planes along the airways, but no means have hitherto

been provided to insure a safe landing in heavy tog.

Radio has been applied to this problem with marked

success, giving the pilot full information, during the

movements of landing, of his position laterally, longitudinally, and vertically. When this method for

blind landing is in operation on a routine basis, the

aviator will be indebted to a radio for a comprehensive system of navigational aids.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 249

NEED FOR UNIFORM METHODS OF RAILROAD-CROSSING PROTECTION

Importance of Uniform Methods of Protection at Highway Grade Crossings Throughout the Country

Reviewed

By E. H. Aishton 1

In the interest of increased safety to the public

there is a constantly growing necessity for the bringing about of uniformity in the methods of protection

at highway grade crossings throughout the country.

In addition, there should be State supervision over

the creation of new grade crossings, and uniform

laws and codes relating to safety on the highways.

How to bring about increased safety at railroad

highway grade crossings has been a pressing problem

that has faced the railroads for years. Elimination

of such crossings would naturally solve this problem

but that is both a physical and financial impossibility

and even the elimination of the most important ones

involves serious financial questions.

Due to the increased use of the highways by motor

buses, trucks, and private automobiles, railroad ex- penditures for protection at railroad grade crossings

have constantly increased in the past 10 years. Class I railroads in 1930, according to a special

study just completed by the Bureau of Railway Economics, spent $33,070,708 for the protection or elimination of such crossings. Of that amount, $30,218,124

alone was spent for separation of grades, an increase

of $4,514,845 over the amount expended for that purpose in 1929, and an increase of $3,923,972 above the

amount spent in 1928.

In 1930 there were 465 fewer fatalities resulting

from accidents at railroad highway grade crossings

than in 1929, and reports filed with the Interstate Commerce Commission for the first 10 months in 1931

also show a slight reduction for that period compared

with the same period in 1930. There are, however,

altogether too many lives lost as a result of such acci- dents, but the question of providing adequate protection is complicated by the fact that more than 25 per

cent of the accidents at railroad highway grade cross- ings result from motorists crashing into the sides of

trains. The fact, however, that a reduction is being shown

in the number of accidents at grade crossings would

indicate that a large part of the driving public is endeavoring to cooperate with railroad and safety

organizations, which are urging greater care in approaching, and passing over, railroad highway grade

crossings.

Due to the fact that various phases of safety and

protection at railroad highway grade crossings are being handled by many interested parties, such as Federal, State, municipal, and local governments ; motorvehicle associations; civic and business organizations;

and by railroad managements, there is a lack of uniformity in meeting the situation and in providing

J President. American Railway Association, Washington, D. C.

protection at such points. In the interests of safety

to the public at large, nation-wide uniformity in

methods of warning motorists of danger at railroad

highway grade crossings would be advantageous, so that motorists traveling from State to State will have no difficulty in recognizing these warning signals.

There should also be a designated authority in each

State to pass on the construction of new grade crossings. At the present time many States exercise no

definite regulation over this matter, while in other

States such authority is divided. There is also a lack

of uniformity on the question of dividing the cost in- volved in the elimination of grade crossings. In many

instances the burden of the cost is placed on the rail- road, although such elimination is largely for the

benefit of the users of the public highways. Serious

consideration should be given to this fact in apportioning the cost of grade-crossing protection.

The National Conference on Street and Highway

Safety has thoroughly studied the question of safety

in an effort to reduce the number of accidents on the

highways, and it is of the opinion that without appropriate and uniform legislation, satisfactorj^ results, so far as safety is concerned, can not be obtained in the

fullest measure. It is clearly in the public interest

that the recommendations of the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety be adopted by the

several States. In order to bring about uniform practices and

understanding among the various railroad organizations and to present in a concise and positive manner

the recommendations of the railroads embodying the

latest thought in highway grade-crossing protection,

the American Railway Association has appointed a

joint committee on grade-crossing protection, consisting of members representing the operating, safety,

engineering, and signal departments of the railroads.

This committee was instructed to recommend and to coordinate the activities of the railroads in conforming to the principles adopted, and to provide a me- dium by which public authorities can be acquainted

with the most modern thought of the railroads in these matters. It has recently issued a manual on

railway-crossing protection measures giving details

of the standard signs, warning signals, and other

devices. These are in complete harmony with the

standards adopted by the National Conference on

Street and Highway Safety.

This joint committee offers its cooperation to any

State, highway, or railroad commission. State legislative committee, or automobile association, and will

aid such organizations in any practicable way to bring

about recommended practices in the interest of pre- venting accidents at railroad highway grade crossings.
250 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932 FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Twenty-one specifications were acted on by the Federal Specifications Board during the month of January. Of this number 7 were submitted for consideration as proposed specifications, and 14 were submitted for revision. The specifications submitted for

revision bear the new designation in accordance with

the system used in the Federal Standard Stock Catalogue. Copies of these specifications and further in- formation can be obtained from the Federal Specifications Board, Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D. C.

Brick, concrete SS-B-663

Undershirt, men’s (flat knit wool-cotton, heavy

weight, high neck, long sleeve, pull-over)

Underdrawers, men’s (flat knit, wool-cotton, heavy

weight, ankle length) —

Towels, machinery, wiping

Tar, pitch, for joint filler Tar, refined, for use as crack filler Tomato puree, canned _ JJJ-T-581

New designation

Specifications for revision Former

F.S. No.

EE-G-391a

QQ-B-601 286 QQ-B-726 370 QQ-F-171 143 QQ-F-201. 135 QQ-S-566- _ 306 QQ-S-571. _

.

313 QQ-W-401-

.

532 SS-B-661 504 SS-B-666 . 505 W-G-86

VV-G-89 WW-P-378 WW-T-781 Tubes, condenser and ferrule-stock admiralty-metal 374

SIZES OF STEEL SPIRAL RODS

Producers, distributors, and users of concrete reinforcement have been asked to consider a new draft of

the simplified practice recommendation covering steel sjhral rods. The proposal includes the same sizes of

rods as were listed in the original draft approved by

the industry in January, 1926. The new edition of

the simplification will include a detailed table to facilitate the use of the standard sizes by specifying

authorities. This, it is believed, will enhance the value

of the recommendation.

On September 9, 1924, representatives of manufacturers, distributors, and users of steel reinforcing bars

convened in Wahington, under the auspices of the

division of simplified practice of the Bureau of Standards, to consider the advisability of reducing a minimum the number of sizes of that commodity. In view

of the successful simplification of such steel products

as metal lath, woven wire fencing, sheet steel, and

terneplate, the rolling mills and building contractors concurred with the distributors of steel bars in the

belief that less costly inventories would bring about

minimum quotations in connection with public works

and privately owned construction.

This unanimity of opinion of all interests gave

simplified practice recommendation No. 26, Steel Reinforcing Bars, a propitious start when it became

effective on January 1, 1925. The faith of the industry in the efficacy of the step they were taking was

manifested on January 2(^4926, when the first revision conference reported a satisfactory year and

recommended the continuance of the schedule until

such time as it should become desirable to adapt the

simplified list to changing conditions.

The industry was so successful with this first ex- periment in simplified practice that it decided to subject steel spiral rods to similar treatment. For

this purpose the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute

made a survey of current practice which might serve

as a tentative recommendation to facilitate the marketing and use of this type of concrete reinforcement.

The simplified practice committee appreciated the

necessity of respecting the majority demand for steel spirals and sought to establish a list of sizes and

pitches which would accurately reflect the best thought

and practice in the industry, and which would have

due regard for minimum pitch and ratio of pitch to diameter of column cores. The proposed new draft of the recommendation is to be effective upon announcement by the Bureau of

Standards that the various elements of the industry

have recorded the necessary degree of acceptance.

STANDARDS FOR SORTING, PACKING, AND

MARKING FRESH FRUITS IN NORWAY

The Norwegian standardization committee has is- sued its proposed standards for the sorting, packing,

and marking of fresh fruits, according to information received from Gudrun Carlson, American trade

commissioner at Gale, Norway.

In his report Trade Commissioner Carlson pointed

out that it has been a recognized fact that Norwegian

fruit could not expect to compete with imported

goods until some more improved standards were

adopted. In 1917 the agricultural department appointed a committee to study the matter. In 1918

the committee worked out rules for the sorting, packing, and marking of finer grades of apples and pears. The crate or container agreed upon was that used in Canada. Later a crate for medium grades was

adopted, and lastly a crate for stone fruit. In the

complete standards now proposed the containers al- ready adopted are taken for granted as used.

The standards adopted in 1918 for apples and pears

have been more and more followed by the fruit dealers as well as fruit growers and have been changed

in a few instances to comply with American and

English standards, but at the same time kept to a form suited to Norwegian sales and transport conditions. Rules for stone fruits have been less thoroughly tried out but are based on careful

investigation.

In 1922 the committee referred to became a part of

the organization known as Selskapet Havedyrkningens Venner (Society of Friends of Gardening). The

standards now proposed have been formulated by this

cooperative committee and referred to the standardization committee of the Norwegian Agricultural Association. The purpose of issuing the proposed

standards now is to obtain criticisms and suggestions

for any changes or modifications.

After the standards are finally adopted they are not to be obligatory but recommended as a step to- ward improving the handling and sale of Norwegian

fruit.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 251

STANDARDIZATION IN COMMUNICATION

A symposium, Standardization in Communication,

will be a feature of the Standards Yearbook for 1932.

It will comprise articles by experts on the following

subjects

*1. Standardization in Aeronautical Communications, by

Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce

for Aeronautics.

*2. Communications and Weather Service for Airways, by

Charles F. Marvin, chief, Weather Bureau, United

States Department of Agriculture.

*3. Research as a Basis for Standardization in the Art of Communication, by Dr. Frank B. Jewett, president, Bell Telephonies Laboratories (Inc).

4. Standardization in a National System of Telephony, by H. S. Osborne, transmission engineer, American Tele- phone and Telegraph Co.

*5. Standards in Telegraphic Communication, by C. E. Davies, general commercial engineer, Western Union

Telegraph Co.

6. Communication with Quasi Optical Waves, by Eduard

Karplus, engineer, General Radio Co.

*7. Amateur Radio Communication, by C. A. Briggs, American Radio Relay League.

*8. Performance Standards to Aid in Buying Radio Sets, by

Orestes H. Caldwell, editor of Electronics and Radio

Retailing.

*9. Progress and Need of Standardization in the Radio Field,

by J. W. Horton, chairman, standardization committee,

Institute of Radio Engineers.

*10. Standardization of Naval Radio Material, by Rear Admiral Samuel M. Robinson, chief, Bureau of Engineering, United States Navy.

11. Standard Radio-Frequencies and their Dissemination, by

J. H. Dellinger, chief, radio section, Bureau of Standards.

*12. Radio Aids to Navigation, by J. H. Dellinger, chief, radio

section, Bureau of Standards.

13. The Velocity of Radio Waves, by N. Ernest Dorsey (principal scientist), Bureau of Standards.

14. Communication of Standard Time Signals, by Lieut. Marcy M. Dupri, United States Navy (in charge of Naval Observatory time service).

15. Relation of Standard Time to International Communication, by R. E. Gould, chief, time section, Bureau of Standards.

16. Communication by Racing Pigeons, by W. F. Dismer,

Washington, D. C.

*17. Some Standard Means of Tribal Communication, by Dr. Walter Hough, head curator of anthropology, Smithsonian Institution.

*18. Television as a Field for Standardization, by C. Francis

Jenkins, Washington, D. C.

*19. Standardization in the Communication System of Rail- ways, by W. P. Borland, director, Bureau of Safety, Interstate Commerce Commission, Washington, D. C.

*20. The Standardization of Language, by Thomas A. Knott,

the general editor of the Merriam Webster Dictionaries.

*21. Standard Means of Communication for Deaf Mutes, by

Josephine B. Timberlake, superintendent, The Volta Bureau, Washington, D. C.

*22. Standardization in Military Communication, by Capt.

Fred G. Borden, Signal Corps, United States Army.

23. Standard Control of the Acoustics of Auditoriums, by

Paul R. Heyl, chief, sound section, Bureau of Standards.

*24. Standardized Signs and Signals to Promote Highway

Safety, by M. G. Lloyd, chief, safety section, Bureau

of Standards.

25. Standardization in Post Office Department.

*26. Standardized Communication Aids to Marine Navigation,

by T. U. O’Connor, chairman, United States Shipping

Board.

*27. Standardization of Service Areas of Radio Broadcasting

Stations, by C. M. Jansky, jr., Washington, D. C.

*28. Standardization of Aids to Navigation Maintained by

the Bureau of Lighthouses.

These articles will be printed in full in the Standards Yearbook for 1932. Several of these, marked*,

are being preprinted in the Commercial Standards

Monthly.

A. S. T. M. COMMITTEE SET UP FOR MORTARS

FOR UNIT MASONRY

A new standing committee of the American Society

for Testing Materials has been organized to undertake

work in the field of mortars for unit masonry. This

committee will have as its scope of function, research

to promote knowledge of properties and tests of mortars for unit masonry and development of methods of

test and specifications for such mortars. The activities of this committee will be closely correlated with

other interested committees of the society.

While tremendous strides have been made in the

knowledge and use of mortars in the thousands of

years during which they have been used, there is still a great deal to be learned about the various types.

This subject is an important one and many millions

of dollars are expended annually for structures in

which mortars are an important material.

With the organization of this committee, there are 51 standing committees of the American Society for

Testing Materials with a total membership of about

2,500. These committees study the properties of materials of engineering and develop standard specifications, methods of test, definitions, and recommended

practices.

BAG, CASE, AND STRAP LEATHER

The printed edition of the commercial standard for

Bag, Case, and Strap Leather, CS3T-31, has been an- nounced by the division of trade standards, Bureau

of Standards. The pamphlet is now available for

purchase from the Superintendent of Documents,

Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents a copy.

This standard covers the regular thicknesses for

bag, case, and strap leather in terms of the most com- monly used designation, the “ ounce,” with comparable thicknesses in millimeters, sixty-fourths inch,

and thousandths inch. “ Bag, case, and strap leather ”

is a general term for leathers used in traveling bags,

brief cases, suit cases, pocketbooks, and straps. It does not include the light leathers employed for

women’s fancy hand bags. The staple material for

bag and case leather at present is leather made from

the hides of animals of the bovine species, but heavy

sealskins and goatskins are also used. It is the grain

side (hair side) of cattle hide, reduced to a specified

thickness ranging from 1 to 10 ounces according to the Woburn or equivalent standard gage. Split

leather should be designated as “ split ” leather, as

it is not included in the above classification. The commercial standard was proposed by the bag,

case, and strap leather group of the Tanners’ Council

of America and recommended by a general conference

of the industry for the universal adoption of all interests of the business to eliminate the confusion and

misunderstanding that has hitherto existed in the

purchase and sale of the commodity.

All references to scale weight in connection with

the gage thickness is eliminated as inconsequential,

since the purchaser of leathers in this group is con- cerned principally with the physical thickness of the

leather and its corresponding strength rather than

the weight of the piece per square foot. The effective date for the application of this

i standard was fixed for August 1, 1931.
FEBRUARY, 1932 252 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

STANDARD UNIT FOR DETERMINING QUANTITIES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

The standard unit used most extensively in this

country for determining quantities of gasoline and

other petroleum products in commerce is the gallon,

defined as 231 cubic inches of liquid at 60° F. In

large-quantity shipments, tank cars, for example, it is customary to observe the volume of gasoline at the existing temperature (by reading the gauge in

the dome of the tank car) and to reduce the observed

volume to the equivalent volume at 60° F. by the use of certain volume correction factors, such as those

given in National Standard Petroleum Oil Tables,

Bureau of Standards Circular No. 154. The factors given in these tables are based upon

measurements made prior to 1916 in the thermal ex- pansion of straight-run gasoline, the only type of

motor fuel in general use at that time. Recently

additional measurements have been made on presentday motor fuels, approximately 50 per cent of which

are now produced by various cracking processes or by mixing gasoline with benzol.

Measurements have been made on the coefficients of

expansion of 9 straight-run gasolines, 16 cracked gasolines, 3 motor benzols, and 5 benzol blends. These

materials were submitted for use in this investigation

by 20 different oil companies. The samples were derived from crudes from 7 different States and the

cracked gasolines were produced by 6 different cracking processes, including both liquid and vapor-phase

processes.

It is generally recognized that volatility is more

significant than gravity as an index of the suitability

of a gasoline for a particular use. Most specifications,

for example, require a distillation test, whereas a gravity determination is not required. It appears

from the results obtained in this investigation that

volatility also serves much better than gravity as an

index of thermal expansion.

It has been found that a table of volume correction

factors for aviation gasolines and motor gasolines,

based upon volatility, represents the results obtained on all the motor fuels with an accuracy better than

0.07 per cent in the correction factors for the usual

temperature range 40° to 80° F. This is equivalent

to an uncertainty of less than 1° F. in the determination of the average temperature of the motor fuel. This subject is discussed in detail in the December

number of the Bureau of Standards Journal of Research. Copies of the Journal may be secured from

the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 40 cents each.

FELDSPAR

The Commercial Standard for Feldspar, CS23-30,

has been reaffirmed, without change, for another year

beginning September 1, 1931, or until authorized re- visions are duly indorsed by the industry. This action was taken upon the recommendation of the standing

committee after considering the results of an adherence survey undertaken in cooperation with the producers of feldspar.

The report summarizing the results of the survey, was based on replies frourdfUproducers of this commodity. Complete adherence to the provisions of the

commercial standard were reported by 5 producers.

The production of feldspar conforming to the re- quirements of the standard was reported as averaging 51 per cent of individual production (average of

12 replies not weighted according to individual production.)

Deviations from the commercial standard requirements were attributed to: (1) Demands from purchasers, (2) specification not close enough, and (3)

lower costs. Actual direct benefits from the establishment of the

standard were reported by seven producers, while six producers considered the establishment of the standard

a benefit to the industry as a whole. A few changes were offered by the producers for consideration by

the standing committee. A meeting of this committee

is scheduled to be held in Washington, D. C., on February 6, 1932, in conjunction with the annual con- vention of the American Ceramic Society.

Users of feldspar are particularly requested to submit comment or suggestions regarding revision of this

standard to the division of trade standards, Bureau of

Standards, for the consideration of the standing committee at that time.

LOCK-WASHER STANDARDS

The proposed American tentative standard for lock

washers has been released, by the subcommittee which

developed it, to industry for general criticism and

comment, according to an announcement of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. This proposed

standard was developed by a subcommittee of the

Sectional Committee on the Standardization of Plain

and Lock Washers organized in 1926 under the procedure of the American Standards Association and

sponsored by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the Society of Automotive Engineers.

The development of an American standard for plain

and lock washers was first proposed to the American

Standards Association in October, 1922, by the War

Department. At a meeting of the A. S. A. on October 19, 1922, a special committee was appointed to decide whether or not this project should be approved;

and, if so, what its scope should be. The special committee submitted a report in January, 1923, suggesting that the project be undertaken and that the Society

of Automotive Engineers and the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers be invited to act as joint sponsors. This recommendation was confirmed by the

executive committee of the American Standards Association on October 11, 1923.

The proposed standard, now before the interested

groups for review, contains not only introductory

notes, but also a table of dimensions for lock washers

(spring washers) giving the nominal size, actual in- side diameter, dimensions for washers for use with

Avrench head bolts and nuts, and slotted head screws. Readers of Commercial Standards Monthly desiring an opportunity to examine a copy of this proposal

with a vieiv of transmitting comments to the committee, may obtain a copy by addressing their request

to C. B. LePage, assistant secretary, American Society

of Mechanical Engineers, 29 West Thirty-ninth Street,

New York, N. Y.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 253

WOOL AND PART-WOOL BLANKETS

A group of wool and part-wool blanket manufacturers met in New York on the evening of January 11

and developed the following modified draft which

they have proposed as a substitute for the recom- mended commercial standard for wool and part-wool

blankets

1. That no finished blanket containing less than 5 per cent wool shall carry the word “ wool ” in any form.

2. Blankets carrying the word “ wool ” in any form and con- taining between 5 and 25 per cent shall be labeled

“ part wool,” “ not less than 5 per cent wool.”

3. Blankets containing more than 25 per cent wool shall be

labeled with the guaranteed wool content in percentage.

4. Blankets containing more than 98 per cent wool shall be labeled “ all wool.” The agreement is proposed to be effective after

December 31, 1932, in order to allow more time for the

various interests to conform to it. Indications are that further conferences will be re- quired before a consensus of the entire trade is obtained.

RED-CEDAR SHINGLES

Commercial standard CS31-31, Red Cedar Shingles, has just been released in printed form, according

to an announcement of the Bureau of Standards

through its division of trade standards. The specification was established through the efforts of the Red

Cedar Shingle Bureau with the cooperation of practically all the cedar-shingle manufacturers, as well as many distributors and users, and became effective for new production on July 1, 1931. Copies of the

printed standard may be secured from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C., at 10 cents each.

The standard provides for the recognition, sale,

and use of high-quality, serviceable red-cedar shingles. The requirements specified include length,

width, thickness, grain, defects, color, packing, and

grading tolerance of the highest-grade commercial

product of the cedar-shingle manufacturer, comprising only those with 100 per cent edge grain and 100

per cent clear heartwood. It also stipulates other

exacting requirements that reflect serviceability, such

as specific natural defects in the wood, as well as defects of manufacture, uniformity of size, etc. A glossary of terms is included for the benefit of

those unfamiliar with the language of the shingle

manufacturers, together with tables showing the cov- ering capacities of shingles of various size and the

recommendations of manufacturers as to proper

weather exposures, nails, etc. An additional feature of the standard is the elimination of the “ thousand pack ” and adherence to the

“ square pack,” which provides a ready means of cost comparison between wood shingles and other forms of

roofing. The printed pamphlet includes a list of offi- cial acceptors, a condensed report of the general conference, and the membership of the standing committee. which is composed of representative manufacturers, distributors, and users, appointed to review

suggestions and effect a revision of the standard when

necessary to keep it abreast with progress in the

industry.

In order to assure commercial standard quality to the architect, builder, and prospective home owner,

the Red Cedar Shingle Bureau authorizes the use of a guarantee label which may be attached to each bundle

of shingles. This guarantee is made by the shingle

bureau on behalf of the manufacturers, and its provisions are enforced by a competent corps of inspectors wT ho are constantly in touch with the producing

mills. A reproduction of this label appears in the

printed pamphlet.

SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE IN AUSTRALIA

The simplified practice divisions of the Standards

Association of Australia has issued two simplified

practice recommendations, which may be described

briefly as follows : Simplified practice recommendation No. 3 covers sheet-metal fittings for exteriors of buildings. These

fittings include ridge capping, eaves guttering, round

ventilating and down piping, and square and rec- tangular down piping. The recommendation shows

reductions in variety amounting to 92 per cent in the

first two items and 83 per cent in the last two. Simplified practice recommendation No. 4 covers road-gully gratings. The simplified list includes five sizes and types of gratings and six sizes and types of

supporting frames.

The procedure of the Standards Association of

Australia has been modeled on that of the division

of simplified practice of the Bureau of Standards.

Australian simplified practice recommendations differ somewhat in form and arrangement from our own but contain exactly similar information, including the recommendation itself, a brief history of the

project, summaries of the various conferences, and a

list of acceptors. Like our own recommendations,

each one also includes a description of the purposes

and methods of developing simplified practice, and of

the results and benefits to be gained by all concerned.

NEW NATURAL-GASOLINE GRADES

New specifications for natural gasolines, approved

one year ago by the Natural Gasoline Association of

America, became official on January 1, 1932. After

that date grades A, AA, B, BB, and C are to be

abandoned as classifications of the various specifications. The new specifications are based on vapor pressure

and the per cent evaporated at 140° F, and will per- mit of a possible 24 grades.

According to the National Petroleum News (December 23, 1931), surveys have substantiated the belief

of the association’s technical committee that grade

AA and grade 26-70 are equivalent. One of the

major companies tested samples from 4,079 tank cars of gasoline shipped the past few months, and found

that only 33 cars or 0.4 per cent of the gasoline sold

as grade AA disagreed with the grade 26-70 specifications. The magazine further pointed out that a check

among manufacturers indicated that the price of

grade 26-70 will be used as the base in determining

the prices for the less prevalent grades, or for any

special grades buyers may require.
254 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932 FUEL OILS

Upon recommendation of the standing committee

in charge of commercial standard CS12-29, Domestic

and Industrial Fuel Oils, this standard has been re- affirmed to July 15, 1932, or until revision is authorized by the industry. Announcement to this effect was made to the industry in a circular letter from

the division of trade standards, Bureau of Standards,

under date of December 29, 1931.

Numerous changes have been recommended from

time to time regarding this standard, but unfortunately there is a wide conflict of opinion in the suggestions offered. Some had advocated the discard

of certain grades which are extensively sold in other

sections of the country, so for the present the six

grades appear to be necessary although it is not es- sential for refiners to produce all of them for regions

where little demand exists. This commercial standard became effective November 7, 1929. The manufacturers of oil burners and

many petroleum refiners had long felt the need of

uniform specifications for fuel oils. The American

Oil Burner Association assumed the initiative in this

matter and developed specifications for six grades of

domestic and industrial fuel oils with the cooperation

of the American Society for Testing Materials and the

American Petroleum Institute. In order to bring

these specifications into broader use, the cooperation

of the Bureau of Standards was requested. Anticipating the benefits to be derived from a commonly

understood basis of quality, all interests of the in- dustry freely participated in a conference held in

New York City, January 9, 1929, and recommended

that the standards be accepted as an everyday basis

for the production, sale, and use of fuel oils.

INDUSTRY HAS DEVELOPED 154 SIMPLIFIEDPRACTICE RECOMMENDATIONS TO DATE

During the last quarter of the calendar year 1931

four general conferences were held by various industries for the purpose of developing simplified-practice recommendations. The products covered by these

recommendations were wooden butter tubs, dental

mouth mirrors, dental rubbers, and singletrees.

Seven existing recommendations were reviewed by

their respective standing committees during the quarter. For the calendar year 1931 a total of 36 recom- mendations were reviewed by their respective standing committees. Of this number 9 were revised due

to changes that have taken place in the trade, while

the remaining 27 programs were reaffirmed without

changes.

In the 10 years that the Bureau of Standards has

been cooperating with industry in the development

of simplified-practice recommendations, a total of 154

simplifications have been approved by general conferences, and of these, 129 have so far received formal

acceptance by industry. A total of 77 recommendations have been reconsidered by their respective standing committees and reaffirmed without change.

The last two years have been marked by a notable

growth of consumer request that manufacturers identify the simplified lines in catalogues, lists, and other

media. Such identification makes it easy for the

prospective purchaser to adhere to the simplifiedpractice recommendations when referring to trade lit- erature listing “ special ” items in addition to those

retained in the simplified-practice recommendation.

Manufacturers and distributor acceptors have shown

a readiness to comply with this consumer request.

The result has been that already all the producers

in some of the more closely integrated industries are following this practice of identification when issuing new catalogues.

Of the 129 simplified-practice recommendations

that have received the written approval of industries,

the one for invoice, purchase order, and inquiry forms

(S. P. It. No. 37) has the formal approval of 1,099

acceptors. The second largest accepted recommendation is that covering paper (S. P. R. No. 22) with a

total of 972 acceptors.

GRADING AND MARKING OF WILLOW PRODUCTS CONSIDERED BY ENGLISH INDUSTRY

An example of the tendency in England to provide

for the grading and marking of all manner of commercial products as a means of guaranteeing quality

and thus improving local markets, was furnished in

the meeting of the Somerset Rural Community Council, January 4, 1932, to discuss the formation of a county association of willow growers, and the eventual grading and marking of all willow produced in

Somersetshire, according to information just received

from the American consul at Bristol, England, Roy

W. Baker. This contemplated action on the part of

the willow growers is in line with the recent similar

action on the part of dairymen, cider makers, and

others who produce for market, from the land.

Willow growing is one of the ancient industries

of Somersetshire and represents a capital outlay that

would be little expected in such an enterprise. A sur- prisingly large area of the county of Somerset is devoted to the growing of willow for use in basket making, packing, etc., and a large number of people derive

their livelihood from the growing of the plant and

the preparation of its shoots for sale. It was brought out in the course of the meeting that

last year (1931) was one of the worst in the history of

the industry, and that the quality of the crop had

fallen far below normal. Because of the inferior

quality sent to London, England, and other large

centers of production, the reputation of the Somerset product has suffered and it was argued that strict grading and marking were necessary in order to win

back to the county the prestige it formerly held in

this trade.

The Ministry of Agriculture was represented at the

meeting as were several local experts in willow cul- ture, and large producers of the wood. The various

speakers at the meeting held that rigid grading and

marking, to show the various qualities known to the

trade, would restore confidence in the local product,

stabilize the market, and eventually raise prices. An

establishment of a county quality mark, it is hoped,

will be only a stepping stone to the inauguration of a national quality mark for willow, which may stem

the tide of foreign willow which has recently been

coming into the country.
FEBRUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 255

COMMERCIAL LAUNDRY MACHINERY

Tentative programs covering the simplification of

tumblers, washers, extractors, ironers, and pressers

will be considered by representatives of the commercial laundry machinery trade this month.

In May, 1931, at a meeting of the Laundry and Dry

Cleaners Machinery Manufacturers Association, considerable discussion took place as to the possibility of

that industry adopting a comprehensive simplification program as a means of eliminating waste. In

July a meeting of manufacturers was held in New

York City and questionnaires were drawn up cover- ing types of machinery used in commercial laundries.

These questionnaires covered washers, ironers,

pressers, tumblers, and extractors, and requested data

upon which one or more simplified-practice recom- mendations could be based.

In December, 1931, a meeting of the committee

representing the extractor manufacturers was held

in New York and a composite report of the survey on extractors was submitted for their consideration.

As a result of the report a tentative program was

drafted and the division of simplified practice, Bureau of Standards, was requested by the industry to

call a general conference bringing in representatives

of the laundry owners, as well as manufacturers.

This meeting will be held following meetings by the

committees representing the manufacturers of the

other types of machinery.

SIMPLIFICATION OF DENTAL MOUTH MIRRORS AND DENTAL RUBBERS

Mimeographed copies of the recently approved

simplified practice recommendation for dental mouth

mirrors has been mailed by the Bureau of Standards’

division of simplified practice to all interests for their

consideration and written acceptance.

Through the medium of this simplification, which was approved by a general conference in Chicago on November 19, 1931, there are established four stock

diameters of plane and magnifying cone socket

mirrors.

Several years ago the American Dental Trade Association recognized the benefits inherent in simplification, and appointed a simplification and standardization committee to make a study of current conditions,

having in view the elimination of superfluous varieties

of the commodities made and distributed by its members and used by the dental profession. For this

study the commodities in the industiy were classified as teeth, sundries, cement and plasters, equipment,

gold, and instruments. The American Dental Trade

Association is composed of manufacturers and dis- tributors of dental supplies and equipment, and its members, doing an annual business estimated at $100,-

000,000, represent an estimated capital of $50,000,000.

As a( result of the preliminary work of the committee, a group of items was selected for simplification and association recommendations were approved

for some. Recognizing the need for the cooperation

of all concerned in order to derive the maximum benefit from the movement, the association in March,

1928, requested the division of simplified practice of

the Bureau of Standards to enlist the support of all elements of the industry in the development of

definite simplified practice recommendations.

The first three programs were for dental hypodermic needles, dental brush wheels, and dental

plaster and investment (packaging). These have

been indorsed by the industry and are now available

in printed form. A fourth program for sizes of dental-lathe grinding wheels has been accepted by industry and will shortly be made available- in printed

form. In addition to the recommendation for dental

mouth mirrors now before the industry for acceptance,

the same conference of November 19 approved a proposed simplification for dental rubbers, veneering,

and base. This second recommendation, which establishes names for colors for veneering and base rubbers

and a system for their uniform packaging, has like- wise been mailed to the industry for written

acceptance.

Other commodities now under consideration for

simplification are burs, engine stones, bracket tables,

and covers, and drawer liners. It is the intention of

the association to undertake the simplification of other

items as rapidly as conditions will permit.

LABELING OF CANNED-SALMON VARIETY

In years gone by it was the custom of the Indians

in the Northwest and in Alaska, to catch salmon

during the season and dry and store them for winter.

The Indians still do this in Canada and Alaska, but

most of us get our salmon from cans. The demand

for canned salmon has increased greatly in the last 20 years and the salmon-canning business is now one

of the largest and most important of the food-manufacturing industries, according to Dr. A. C. Hunter,

of the Federal Food and Drug Administration.

Recent discoveries indicate that canned salmon contains vitamin D. It has been known for some time

that this fish contains some of the other vitamins and

that it possesses considerable food value. “ While all of the varieties when properly canned are wholesome,

because of the enforcement of the national pure food

law, there is considerable difference in the qualities of

salmon found on the market,” says Doctor Hunter.

There are five leading varieties of canned salmon.

The kind generally considered to be choicest is springcatch Columbia River chinook and this sort generally

costs more money than the other four varieties. The

others, in order of popular preference, are: Red (or

sock-eye), medium red (or cohoe), pink, and chum.

There is considerable difference between the genuine

red and the medium red salmon, and there is a price

differential of approximately 75 cents per dozen cans. Chum salmon is the cheapest kind packed, but it is nutritious and wholesome when properly canned. It lacks the color and oil of the better grades.

The administration quite frequently encounters

cases where packers have mislabeled their fish as to variety. For example, medium red salmon has been

labeled as “ red,” a superior grade. The Government

has taken numerous actions, under the pure food law,

against salmon packers who have been guilty^ of this sort of mislabeling.
256 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1932 LABELING BREAD FOR QUALITY AS WELL

AS QUANTITY

“ We see advertised quite commonly these days different types of bread, and we see what seems to me

to be some rather exaggerated claims made for them,”

says Dr. P. B. Dunbar, assistant chief of the Federal

Food and Drug Administration.

Bread in common with scores of other foods has value in maintaining a person’s health, but officials who enforce the pure food law have always contended that to label a food with the word “ health,” implying that that food has a special

“ health merit,” is not in keeping with our interpretation

of the Federal food and drugs act. The housewife who goes

to the store for a loaf of bread should not expect to get a food of special “ health ” qualities.

Doctor Dunbar, however, does not believe that the

purchaser should neglect to read what is printed on the wrapper. For one thing, there will be a declaration giving the weight of the loaf, and there may

also be statements which indicate the type or quality

of the bread contained therein. The housewife, he

says, who customarily asks merely for a large or a small loaf, may find it more economical, price considered, to ask for a certain weight of loaf. There are many kinds of bread—white, wholewheat, raisin, rye, Boston brown, Graham, and milk

bread. The Government has established official definitions for most of these kinds of bread and bakers

are following them.

Officials who enforce the Federal food and drugs

act rarely have trouble with commercial bread makers,

although, during the past year, the Government took

steps to require a change of label on a number of

brands of bread which purported to be whole-wheat,

whereas the food actually was not that kind.

TERMS ON SIRUP LABELS EXPLAINED

What should the housewife expect for her money

when she goes to the store for a can of sirup to flavor

the winter-morning pancakes? If she wants a pure

maple sirup or cane sirup, should she unknowingly

pay for an imitation? J. W. Sale, of the Federal

Food and Drug Administration, thinks she should

not, and he answers the question this way

:

There are three main kinds of sirups on the market—the pure sirups, the mixed sirups, and third, the imitation sirups,

which are artificially flavored and colored. Imitation honeys

are in this latter class. The national pure food law requires that honey flavor be made from honey, and maple flavor from maple sap, sirup, or sugar. The cheap sirups are wholesome and valuable in their way, but they must be sold for what they are and not

as pure sirups.

The careful buyer may profit by remembering that the terms “ cane sirup ” and “ sugarcane sirup ” mean the same

thing; that is, that the sirup was made from the juice of sugarcane, evaporated down to a sirup consistency.

A “ cane-sugar sirup,” however, is not a genuine cane sirup.

A can labeled “ cane-sugar sirup ” contains ordinary refined cane sugar and water, with coloring and flavoring added, if the label indicates the presence of these latter ingredients.

The law goes one step further for the buyer’s protection. It holds that descriptive terms, such as

“ open kettle,” “ country made,” or “ homemade,” must

not be used on labels of sugarcane or maple sirups

unless the sirups actually are made in the way the

terms indicate. Mr. Sale says:

Housewives have told us that liquid measure is more ex- planatory to them than weights in expressing the contents

of a can of sirup. The Food and Drug Administration re- cently suggested to manufacturers that they express the con- tents of sirup containers in terms of liquid measure so that

the buyer will be sure just how much sirup she is actually

getting. While many manufacturers have acted upon this suggestion, there are some who have not.

STANDING COMMITTEE FOR PAPER SIMPLIFICATION REORGANIZED

The standing committee in charge of simplified

practice recommendation for paper (S. P. R. No.

R22), has been reorganized by the industry so as to represent 12 national groups directly concerned with

reducing the variety of sizes of basic paper sheets. Jesse H. Neal, general manager, American Paper

and Pulp Association, is acting chairman of the committee pending formal selection of officers at its next

meeting. That meeting will consider what changes,

if any, should be made in the present simplified schedule to bring the recommendation into accord with

current demand and best practice. The committee will

be glad to receive from the acceptors or others in- terested, any comments, criticisms, or suggestions

looking to the improvement of the following schedule,

which became effective July 1, 1924:

Stock sizes, general printing and publishing

:

26 by 29 inches, 29 by 52 inches. 25 by 38 inches, 38 by 50 inches. 32 by 44 inches, 44 by 64 inches. 35 by 45% inches. Stock sizes, book publishers: 30% by 41 inches, 41 inches by

61 inches. Forms and letterheads (bond, ledger, and writing papers) : 17 by 22 inches, 22 by 34 inches. 17 by 28 inches,, 28 by 34 inches. 19 by 24 inches, 24 by 38 inches. All paper substance weights shall be stated in terms

of the basic 25 by 40 inch size. The membership of the newly appointed standing

committee is: Jesse H. Neal, general manager, American Paper and Pulp Association, 18 East Forty-first

Street, New York, N. Y. ; H. F. Barrows, representing the National Industrial Advertisers Association

(Inc.) ; J. F. Miller, representing the National Paper

Trade Association; Maurice Saunders, representing

the Lithographers National Association; George C. Lucas, representing the National Publishers Association; R. E. Flynn, representing the National Association of Purchasing Agents ; A. B. Zerby, representing

the Association of National Advertisers; B. D. Stevens, representing printing machinery; W. D. Hall,

representing the United Typothetse of America; Benjamin J. Sweetland, representing the Direct Mail

Association ; H. J. Payne, representing the Associated

Business Papers (Inc.), and Joseph M. Farrell, rep- resenting the American Association of Advertising

Agencies.

o
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND COMMERCIAL

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY

THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its firSl year the Journal developed a

liSt of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

Issued monthly

Subscription price, $3 per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSt of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it. Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1931

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

standardisation. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless siz.es and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

Standardisation by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardisation Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.”

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1931 is the

fifth annual issue of a publication devoted

to the great and growing field of Standardisation in its broad aspeCts. It gives a summary

of progress.

Standardisation is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to industry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to business men and manufacturers as well as to engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all n elL

ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity suppleynental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly Periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.50; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $1.20
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

“ * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

mjL&jg. nr i t - r r

i? n r r £ r. 15 r n r r

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director- Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and otner industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attach6s, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws, including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1932