NAT L INST. OF STAND & TECH Reference

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Publications

Selected Articles on Microcomputers

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology

Center for Programming Science and Technology

Washington, DC 20234

May 1984

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

''ATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

- QC —

100

. U56

84-2373R

1384

NBSIR 84-2878

SELECTED ARTICLES ON MICROCOMPUTERS

Lynne Rosenthal

U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology

Center for Programming Science and Technology

Washington, DC 20234

May 1984

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Ernest Ambler. Director

SELECTED ARTICLES ON MICROCOMPUTERS

ABSTRACT

There is an abundance of information being written about

microcomputers and related products. Often the reader is

overwhelmed at where to begin. This document provides the

reader with basic microcomputer information and provides a starting point for further examination of the subjects. The

readings cover a broad range of topics including management

and technical aspects of hardware, software, communications,

and support.

Key words: communication, management, microcomputer,

micro-mainframe connection, personal computers, selection,

software

Page 1

SELECTED ARTICLES ON MICROCOMPUTERS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This document provides a collection of readings to

those involved in the selection, operation, and/or

management of microcomputer systems. This effort in

compiling references has been prompted by the growing

interest of the Federal community in microcomputer systems

and the overwhelming amount of information on the subject.

The selected readings are intended to help the reader

acquire basic information on microcomputers and provide them

with a starting point for further examination of the

subjects. This document is part of a continuing effort and

is an update to a previous bibliography, "An Annotated

Bibliography of Introductory Articles to Aid in the

Selection of Small Computer Systems," NBSIR 82-2573, August

1982 . The articles selected cover a broad range of

microcomputer topics, including managerial and technical

aspects of hardware, software, communications, and support.

The intent is to provide articles that are generic in

nature, in that they are not product reviews, but rather

discussions of features, techniques, and/or concerns

associated with microcomputers and related products and

services. Thus, the identification/discussion of a product

within an article is not the prime emphasis, but rather a means of illustration. It is hoped that the value of the

information presented here will not rapidly decay over time.

The document is comprised of reprints of articles from

readily available magazines and journals which are

considered primary sources for articles on microcomputer

systems (Appendix). No claim to exhaustiveness is made.

The articles were reviewed, evaluated, and selected as to

their value in fulfilling the objectives of this document.

It must be recognized that new articles on microcomputers

continue to be published, and it is therefore impossible for

this selected readings to include the most recent material.

Because of the nature of this document, it is necessary to

mention vendors and commercial products. The absence or

presence of a particular product does not imply criticism or

endorsement by the National Bureau of Standards or the

author

.

This document is part of a continuing effort to provide

the Federal community with standards and guidelines, and

advice, assistance, and information about the acquisition,
Page 2

management, and use of small computer systems. The author

invites comments and suggestions on this document, future

selected reading efforts, and/or our microcomputer program

activities. The author can be contacted at:

System Selection and Evaulation Group

Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

(301

)

92 1 -3485

1 . 1 DOCUMENT OVERVIEW

To aid the reader in locating areas (or articles) of

interest, Section 2: Article Compendium is a listing of the

readings selected for this document. The articles are

divided into several general categories, and are preceded by

the page number of the article as listed in Section 3 of

this document. Although each article has been assigned to a specific category, it is possible that some of the articles

might also be appropriate in other categories. The

categories are arranged in the following order:

1 . OVERVIEW

These articles present information related to the

changing role of computing due to the use of

microcomputers within an organization.

2. POLICY/STRATEGY

These articles address the issues and concerns

associated with developing organizational strategic

plans for microcomputer resources.

3. ACQUISITION

These articles discuss the methods and impact of

acquiring microcomputer systems.

4. SELECTION

These articles describe a methodology to be used in the

evaluation and selection of a microcomputer system.

5. HARDWARE

These articles describe various components of a microcomputer system, ranging from the microprocessor to

various peripherals.
Page 3

6. SOFTWARE

These articles cover a wide range of topics ranging from

the procedural aspects of selecting and using software

to a discussion of application software.

7. INTERCONNECTION

These articles address the needs, benefits, or methods

for connecting a microcomputer to other computer

systems

.

8. ON-LINE INFORMATION

These articles identify and describe services available

for the electronic dissemination of information.

9. SUPPORT

These articles discuss several of the microcomputer

support activities that can or should be implemented by

an organization.

1.2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks are extended to Shirley Radack of the

Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology for her

assistance in the preparation of this document.

The author acknowledges the assistance of the authors

or magazine and journal publishers for granting permission

to reproduce articles from their publications. The name and

subscription address of the publications can be found in the

Appendix

.
Page 4

2.0 ARTICLE COMPENDIUM

1. OVERVIEW:

page 10 "Smooth Sailing", Alan D. Mazursky, Computerworld

:

Office Aut oma ti_on , Volume 17, Number 8 A, February

23, 1983, pp. 17-24.

Overview of microcomputing including discussions

on technology, application and system software,

communications, and management issues.

2. POLICY/STRATEGY:

page 15 "Corporate Moves With Micros", Frank D. Girard,

Computerworld : O ff ice Automation, Volume 17,

Number 41A, October 12, 1983, pp. 13-15.

Discussion of key areas in the development of

guidelines for the use of microcomputer systems.

page 17 "Breaking Ground", Walter Ulrich, Computerworld : EXTRA!, Volume 17, Number 48A, November 30, 1983,

pp. 47-50.

Case history of how one company established a microcomputer policy.

3. ACQUISITION:

page 20 "Purchasing Micros", Aaron Goldberg, Computerworld

:

OUlce Automation, Volume 17, Number 32A, August

17, 1983, pp. 37,40,41,44,45.

Questions such as: Who is buying micros?, where

are they coming from?, and what impact will they

have?, are discussed.

4. SELECTION:

page 23 "Fear of Buying", Rebecca Houck, Dg.sk.tgp. Computi ng , February 1983, pp. 46-48,50,51.

Description of a general, commonly used

methodology for buying a microcomputer system.

page 27 "How to Choose a Portable", Stanley J. Wszola, BY1£,

September 1983, pp. 34,35,44-47.

Explanation of portable systems and exploration

of its various components.

page 31 "Multi-user Systems Offer Substantial Savings", Ken

Pedersen, Desktop Computi ng , December 1982, pp.

48-50,52.

Discussion of the advantages, limitations, and

related issues of multiprocessor systems.
Page 5

5. HARDWARE:

page 36 "Bit by Bit”, Ken Sheldon, Desktop Computing. March

1983, pp. 18,19.

Introductory explanation of the meaning and

implications of 8, 16, and 32 bit microcomputers.

page 38 '•Purchasing Computer Power", Mark Phillips, PC WORLD,

Volume 1, Number 4, May 1983, pp. 292-296.

Outline of a cost/benefits approach to buying

more memory or storage.

page 43 "How to Choose a Printer for Your Personal Computer",

Bruce Thatcher, LIST, Spring 1983, pp. 108-110.

Limited discussion of printer types and

capabilities.

page 46 "The Basics of Modems", Kenneth R. Guy, Hardcopy

,

September 1983, pp. 84,86,90.

Explanation of modems and how they work.

6. SOFTWARE:

page 50 "Software Evaluation", Michael Hammer, Computerworld

:

Office Automation, Volume 17, Number 24A, June 15,

1983, pp. 53,54,56,58,59.

Criteria for deciding what software is best for

you.

page 52 "Copying Computer Software: What Risks, What

Penalties?", Personal Computing . May 1983, pp.

131,132,134.

Discussion of copyright law and the legal

implications of copying or modifying software.

page 55 "Free Software: Is It Any Good?", James E.

Fawcette, Personal Computing , January 1984, pp.

243,245,247.

Discussion of public domain software; where to

find it and is it of any use.

page 57 "Choosing What's Best for Your Purposes: The Family

Tree Of Computer Languages", Bernard Cole, Eo.E.y.l_2.c

Computing . September 1983, pp. 82-86,88.

Guidelines for understanding computer languages

as well as a survey of several major/popular

languages

.

page 62 "The Processed Word", Terry Tinsley Datz and F. L.

Datz. Softalk. August 1Q88 t op. 4Q-S3.

Survey of various word processing program

features

.
Page 6

page 66 "Assessing Your Data Management Needs", Deward F.

Sayle, Desktop. Computing , March 1 983, pp. 38-41.

Discussion of data management needs and the kind

of system required to satisfy them.

page 70 "New Spread-Sheet Packages Do More Than Model", Alan

Hirsch, Mini-Micro Systems, June 1983, pp.

205,206,208,21 1,212.

Discussion of spread-sheet basics and the

integrated spread-sheet packages.

page 74 "The New Wave of Computer Graphics", Alexis Driscoll

and R. Howard, Computerworld : ExtLC.a.i_, Volume 17,

Number 48A, November 30, 1983, pp. 75,78-80.

General discussion of graphic programs,

features, and use as a management tool.

page 76 "The Communicators", Larry Jordan, PC Woc_ld, Volume

1, Number 5, June 1983, pp. 74,76,78,79-82,84.

Examination of the most important features of

communications programs.

page 83 "Integrated Software: More Than Meets the Eye",

Kathryn Cogswell Carr, Computerworld : OfXlcg

Automation, Volume 17, Number 41A, October 12,

1983, pp. 16,17,20,23,24,26.

Examination of what is meant by integrated

software and how it is influencing microcomputing.

page 87 "Fourth-Generation Lanaguages", Henry T. Cochran,

Computerworld : Office Automation, Volume 17,

Number 24A, June 15, 1983, pp. 47-49, 52.

Overview of these software tools and how they

aid in solving problems.

7. INTERCONNECTION:

page 90 "Communicating with a Mainframe, Mark Levine and J.

Williams, Popular Computing . April 1983, pp.

1 56,158.

Introductory look at why a personal computer

user would connect to a mainframe and how.

page 91 "Finding a Proper Translation", Amy E. Smith,

Business Comguteii Sy.stg.ms, Sept 1 983, PP*

86,88-90.

Discussion of the problems and solutions to

exchanging information among different computers.

page 95 "A Primer on Networking", Bruce Churchill, Sgllglk,

July 1983, pp. 97-100,103.

Discussion of local area networking

fundamental s

.
Page 7

8. ON-LINE INFORMATION

page 100 "Information Utilities", Markoff and Shea, Infowocid,

Volume 5, Number 13, March 28, 1983, pp.

41,42,44,46,47.

Brief introduction to electronically delivered

information and the various types of services

available

.

page 102 "Videotex", Bernell Wright, Computerworld : Office

Automation, Volume 17, Number 16A, April 20, 1983,

pp . 65,66,68.

Overview of Videotex; what it is and how it can

be used.

9. SUPPORT - Training, Security, Maintenance

page 105 "Information Resource Centers - Organizaing to Serve

End Users", Thomas N. Pyke, Jr., Proceedings of

C0MPC0N 83, Fall

Summary of the motivation for and issues

associated with organizing to support end user

direct access to computer resources.

page 109 "Computer-Based Training", Kate Barnes,

Computerworld : O ff ice Automation, Volume 17,

Number 24A, June 15, 1983, pp. 64-66.

Discussion of the use and benefits of

computer-based training.

page 111 "End-User Game Plan", Hugh Ryan, Datamation, December

1983, pp. 241,242,244.

Discussion of factors (training, 'coaches',

software tools) that should be part of end-user

computing strategies.

page 114 "Hard Facts on Hardware Service", John Butler,

Desktop. Computing T March 1 983, pp. 60-62.

Practical advice about maintenance options for

the care and repair of microcomputer hardware.

page 117 "Insecurity in Numbers", Fred W. Weingarten,

Government Data Systems . July/Aug 1983, pp. 8,9-

Discussion of security and data control problems

that arise from the use of office automation

systems

.
Page 8

3.0 SELECTED READINGS
Page 9
mainframe processors and as full business (production and accounting) systems. Frequently we forget that the

capabilities we now have with mi- crocomputers were not available even three years ago. Until recently. all processing and analysis had

to be performed either on the or- ganization's mainframe or mini- computer system or by hand in quill-and-pen mode. Microcomputers now allow many office

functions to be performed at costs considerably lower than those in- volved with more traditional mini- computer-based office systems. Microcomputers now are being used to handle many business office needs, such as:

• Word processing, including

report preparation, list processing

and data-base handling of abstracts. comments and briefs.

• Financial analysis, including

budget and financial statement

analysis, systems modeling and

simulation, portfolio charting and

modeling and cash flow and pro- duction forecasting.

• Mathematical analysis: statistics. linear programming, Pert Computerworld OV

Page 10

Q\

The mainframe computer j environment was where

it began. But now

it's smooth sailing

for personal computers,

particularly in the office.

j By Alan D. Mazursky

Microcomputers are producing a

revolution in the way many of us function at work. Neither mainframe computer systems nor tradi- tional word processing systems

have had such an impact on our

work lives. For the first time, users are finally getting control of their processing power. Business people

are now using microcomputers as

stand-alone or distributed “analysis" workstations, powerful WP

systems, inquiry and data entry

stations connected to mini or

and CP/M (project or Job stream

control) and production and market modeling.

• Color-graphics generation: Use of full-screen and hard-copy

color graphics, creation of free- hand graphics using digitizing

tablets, display graphic and textual material through automated

presentation systems.

• Communications: participation in electronic mail networks,

accessing remote data bases. In- quiry/data entry to host mainframes, accessing public

networks and functioning as lo- cal-area network workstations.

The above functions and others

are being performed through mi- crocomputer workstations In

many organizations. These work- stations can be used as standalone applications processors or as part of distributed networks,

tied into the organization’s sys- tems, local-area networks and

broader networks. The most Important factor in determining the application of micros In the office Is functionality.

It Is not the brand name or the big- gest and best system that Is Important. Importance Is gauged by

what the system can provide for

the users to make them better at what they do. Although 16-bit machines are here, many applica- tions can be performed

adequately and at a substantially lower cost with 8-blt micros. Similarly, many applications can and

should be performed in a standalone configuration, while others

dictate the need for a shared ca- pacity (either multiuser or

networked). The 1 980s has been identified as the decade of communications.

During the coming years, the control, analysis and effective communication of information will be among the determining factors of an organization's health and viability. Much like controlling the

factors of production was important for the industrial revolution, so will controlling the means of communication be important for the Information revolution. Micros are now being used to access many data bases available

to the public, including Micronet, The Source and the Dow Jones

News/Retrieval Service. These

networks offer services, data and programs that can be used for

“The most important factor in

determining the application of micros

in the office is functionality. It is not

the brand name or the biggest and best

system that is important. Importance

is gauged by what the system can

provide for the users to make them

better at what they do. ”

Copyright 190J by Ctl Connunications/Inc.. Franinghen. HA 01701 - Reprinted iron

LWRUTERUORLD OFFICE AUTONATION or CQ1PUTERUORLD EXTRA".
Paae 11 a\

business applications. Other speclallzed network services are also

offered, like Auerbach (computerrelated Information) and Lexis

(law-related Information). Also, many micro systems are currently

being used to access the Tfelex net- work for transmitting Important messages to other workstations on the network. During this decade. these network services will proliferate. Micros are frequently the sending and receiving computers for communications networks like Telenet and Tymnet, which support data, document and electronic mall transfers. Although most

micros currently communicate

asynchronously at 300 blt/sec or 1.200 blt/sec. full use of the public packet-switched networks sup- porting the ISO Open Systems

interconnect architecture will re- quire that hardware vendors em- bed X.25 communications

protocol hardware In the next gen- eration of microcomputer products. The use of X.25 protocols has the major advantage of guar- anteeing end-to-end transmission

of packetlzed data and therefore reduces the risk of receiving cor- rupted data. A growing opportunity exists

for organizations to take advantage of these public networks. Many companies are Investigating the use of micros for collecting and communicating data (for ex- ample. factory orders) to various remote sites — domestically and

abroad. These organizations have

recognized that It Is not necessary

to use mainframes or minicomputers In situations where micros can be used effectively — and at a much lower cost. In the move to put a workstation on every desk, we must con- sider how we want the system

architecture to look from a functional standpoint. Do we want our

workstations to have local storage and processing power while still communicating (Implying a net- work design), or do we want to Im- plement a multiuser micro

environment (Implying a more

traditional minicomputer-type

environment)?

Some of the larger microcomputer systems (such as those from

Fortune, Altos Computer Systems. Inc. and Cromemco, Inc.) are capable of supporting a number of users on a single host "micro"-processor. Architectually,

these systems are very much like the minicomputer systems currently available. However, lower

cost configurations are possible and it is possible to run many of the popular microcomputer soft- ware packages on these systems. They also share with minicomputers a basic drawback — if the

host processor goes down, so do

the terminals.

the organization require this type

of architecture for its processing needs?” If a data base is shared

frequently and there is a heavy

processing load, this might be the

correct choice. If the work load Is sufficiently large, consideration should probably be given to the minicomputer level.

T

he alternative of using a local-area network pre- sents some Interesting

possibilities. A number of physical and logical design approaches

are available for local-area net- works and are described below. Topologies:

• Star — Devices are inter- connected through a centralized network controller.

• Bus — Devices are inter- connected directly by cables and may pass thru nodal control

points.

• Ring — Devices are connected in a circular (ring) pattern. Cabling:

• Twisted pair — Essentially

phone-line cable. Offers low cost and low-speed transmission (56K

bit/sec).

' • CATV — Essentially cable TV cabling. Offers high cost and

high-speed transmission. Communications control

logic:

• Token passing — A device

Is allowed to transmit only when it gains control of a “token." Tbken

passing Is best suited for long

transmission lengths and large message packets.

• Carrier sense multiple ac- cess with collision detection

(CSMA/CD)— Devices monitor

transmission line for a not-busy

condition. Data transmission is monitored by device to determine

if data packets have collided; if so. data is retransmitted. Suited for small-size data packets.

Capacity:

• Baseband — Offers trans- mission speeds up to 10M bit/sec. Assigns capacity of network to one transmitting device at a time. Offers low cost and is good for low-volume data traffic.

• Broadband — Offers very

high-speed transmission, is capable of supporting data and voice communication and supports con- current device transmissions. Entails high cost and is good for high-volume transmission. Two popular microcomputerbased local-area nets are Cluster One by Nestar Systems. Inc. and Omninet by Corvus Systems. Inc.; both use the twisted-pair architecture. One possible drawback of

this type of network is that support is currently offered only for a

limited selection of micros, which

forces a hardware standardization. (In the larger sense, this may

or may not be warranted). Other micro-based networks now being implemented by many

corporations include, among others, Digital Research, Inc.'s CP/

Net and Zilog, Inc.'s Z-Net. Micros can also link into mini-based lo- cal-area nets such as Ethernet

from Xerox Corp., Intel Corp. and

Digital Equipment Corp.; Wang

Laboratories. Inc.'s Wangnet; Da- tapolnt Corp.’s Arcnet; Sytek,

Inc.'s Localnet. Many issues should be consid- ered before a decision is reached on a network or multiuser imple- mentation. These Issues — such

as work load, technological inte- gration, functionality, cost/benefits and software availability —

have always been the core of Intelligent DP decisions. As microcom- puter applications become

increasingly more sophisticated and complex, so. too. do the types

of decisions we make about their implementation. There is no quick answer as to which techological alternative to select, but the driving force should always be the strategic business need. M

icrocomputer software has already distin- guished itself as being

innovative, user-friendly and

powerful. The available software Includes systems for word processing, portfolio analysis, financial and production modeling

(including simulation and forecasting), data base management

and full-blown accounting sys- tems. The acknowledged leaders

in the marketplace show a flair for understanding what users

need, presenting the system to us- ers and maintaining reasonable

pricing structures and — more

Importantly — quality.

The following popular applications have found a firm foothold

In the automated office:

• Spreadsheet packages: These

are the primary legitimizing factor for businessmen. They enable

nontechnical users to "program"

financial forecasts, budgets and

so on. They also provide inter- faces to graphics processors for such things as trend lines and pie and bar charts, and they are excellent for small modeling tasks.

• Financial modeling languages

are used for complex models with

large data files. They provide some integration of functions and

are considerably more expensive than the spreadsheet packages.

• WP packages include most, if not all, of the features offered by

mini-based WP systems and they

are considerably less costly than

traditional WP systems. They enable users to prepare reports (in- cluding spreadsheets, graphics and so on) without resorting to the typing pool or report department.

They also allow users to transfer documents to and from many WP

systems.

• Data base systems support

users In complex tasks by pre- senting a logical (relational) view

of data to the user: by absorbing

the detail file/data management

tasks, thus allowing the user to concentrate on managing the ap- plication. not the data; and by

functioning as a very useful centralized data center for users con- nected on a local-area network

Passible applications Include fi- nancial and market modeling,

document and brief abstracts,

personnel assignment and client

billing and integrated accounting

systems.

• Graphics systems offer en- hanced data presentation capabilities. ("Everything Is In the

delivery.") They also function as

Interfaces to data bases, spread- sheet packages and modeling

systems.

• Communications packages

provide communications protocol

support for asynchronous trans- mission (public networks), blsych- ronous transmission and

3270-emulation and packetlzed transmission (for example. X.25

protocols). They also enable con- nection to public-access data

bases, corporate mainframe host systems, other micros (point-topoint) and so on. Over the past few years, the micro-software industry has experi- enced considerable growth both in numbers and sophistication. A

shift has occurred from the cot- tage industry to the corporate en- vironment. Software systems

have blossomed from those with

limited stand-alone functionality

to (hose employing concepts of multifunctionality, integration and communication. (Table 2 pro- vides a brief recap of the microsoftware industry). The next few

years should bring the Implementation of truly integrated software (and hardware) systems. These

systems will:

• Require little technical computer expertise. Users should not have to worry about brand of computer. type of operating system or management of data files (for ex- ample. details of I/O access methods or conversions).

• Benefit users who understand problem solving techniques and

are not afraid to try new

approaches.

• Integrate such functions as word processing, graphics Input and output, automated slide-show presentation capabilities, voice recognition and synthesis and

communications protocol support These types of packages are be- ginning to appear For Instance. Context MBA and Mlcro-DSS:F

display some of the integration features mentioned above The

current marketplace will show a

radical shift over the next year —

all for the better. T

he early 1980s has

brought a natural evolution of hardware from an

8-bit world (Apple II. TRS-80. Os- borne I. Commodore CBM. and so on) to the more powerful 16-blt microcomputers (such as the IBM

PC. Fortune 32: 16 and the DEC

Rainbow). The following shifts

are occurring:

Main memory:

• 64K bytes to 1 M byte

O Mass storage

• Floppy diskettes (400K

bytes) to hard disks (20M byte) Operating systems

• Single to multiuser

• Uniprogramming to multiprocessing

Technology changes

• 5.25 In. floppies to 3 in rig

id floppies

• illgh-resolutlon screen col- or graphics.

• Use of digitizing tablets, touch screens, light pens, voice and so on as Input devices From (he perspective of functionality. organizations should not be concerned with the particular

plrce of hardware being used Hardware Is nothing but a com

Computer-world QA
Q\ Page 12

modlty. like a record player or a

typewriter. If the hardware and

software satisfy a particular need and are consistent with the orga- nization's objectives, then users

should be given the latitude to ac- quire these support systems. Of course, the key phrase here

is "the organization's objectives." Management should always be

looking toward the future needs of the organization. Consideration

should be given to the possible re- quirements for integration and

compatibility, as well as to the need for short-term expedients.

Many articles are being written on the dangers of proliferating dif- ferent microcomputers and gener- atlng distributed data bases. These problems should be recog- nized and understood by manage- ment In the context of short-term and long-term goals. However,

from a very pragmatic point of view, we need to recognize that,

for many organizations, the cur- rent mainframe DP systems are

barely able to produce the mini- mum Information required to run

the business, much less support

management and staff with their analytical requirements. Often,

users' requests for mainframe analytical systems are put Into a backlogged development queue

with delivery promised for two to

five years down the road. Therefore, we must support users who wait to Implement their decision-support systems In the

short term and not focus on long- range requirements to the exclu- sion of what can be achieved

today using microcomputer

technology.

O

perating systems on the micro level have been Im- portant in determining

users' and software vendors' ac- ceptance of the hardware products. Basically, there are two

types of operating systems: pro- prietary (like Appledos and

Trsdos) and generic (like CP/M,

Msdos and Unix). Proprietary operating systems

function on only one vendor's

hardware, while generic operating

systems will function on the hard- ware of many different vendors.

Obviously, generic operating sys- tems, in providing the ability to run the same compiled software on different vendors' products, have become Important In deter- mining the distribution channels

for software and the popularity of hardware systems. It Is reasonable to Infer, then, that proprietary operating systems will have

a difficult time succeeding in the marketplace unless the hardware

has particularly good application software features. The Implications for these vendors are clear. Digital Research's Control Pro- gram for Microprocessors (CP/M) was the first of the popular generic operating systems available for 8-blt computers using the 8080

family of microprocessors (Includ- ing Z80. 8086 and so on). CP/M was patterned generally after DEC'S RSTS minicomputer operating system. It currently Is avail- able on over 200 models of microcomputers and has become

the de facto standard for 8-blt op- erating systems. Many hardware

manufacturers have been able to Computemorld CM

“From a very pragmatic point of view,

. we need to recognize that, for many

organizations, the current mainframe

DP systems are barely able to produce

the minimum information required to run the business, much less support

management and staff with their

analytical requirements. ”

bring their microcomputers to the marketplace very quickly because

of the existence (and modularity);

of CP/M and the general availability of software packages running under the CP/M operating system. One of the great debates currently raging is “Is CP/M dead?” CP/M Is often seen as the mast- head of the 8-blt world, and this question arises because of the

proliferation of 16-blt micros,

which threaten to crowd out the 8-

blt systems. The question really should be "Is the 8-bit world

dead?" The answer is "No!" at least In a two- to three-year time frame.

Currently, 8-blt machines per- form many functions very well and at a cost significantly below

the 16-blt systems. It makes little sense to spend extra money for a

16-blt machine If all the functionality required for a particular application Is on the 8-blt level. Certainly, as prices drop, users

will be getting more bang for the buck. Full-blown 8-blt machines

will become available at lower

prices: as a result, more organizations will be able to take advantage of the power of micros. The

8-blt world — and CP/M —

should therefore be with us as the low-end market at least for the near term. Looking to the rest of the '80s. we expect that users will not have

to know which operating system

they are using. The operating sys- tem will be Increasingly transpar- ent to the application and to the

user. Several operating systems

will probably survive on the 16-bit

level. Including CP/M-86, Unix

and the UCSD P-System. These

systems will provide the core for the stand-alone and distributed processing workstations of the

1980s. M

anagement surely rec- ognizes that Information and the means to get at that information constitute

vital organization resources. As

micros become more a part of QA

systems, we must become acutely aware of both their power and

limitations. In many organizations. management (including DP

management) pays very little at- tention to the management of in- formation and technologies or to supporting technological innovation.The rapidly changing technologies require that those at the upper levels of an organization must become more familiar with the

technologies and manage — not control — the spread of

microcomputers.

Many managers do not fully re- alize the Implications of implementing micro-based QA systems. They assume either that goals

stated in general terms can easily be translated into a microcomputer implementation (based on all the success stories appearing in the trade press), or that nothing

should be Implemented because

the technologies have not yet matured. Management (and staff) must be educated regarding technological alternatives. Further, management should

not control the use of micros for OA; rather, the use of micros

should be properly managed. Control Implies limitation — the an- tithesis of the concept of a personal computer — and may

well be resisted by users attempting to satisfy the requirements of

their particular function In the or- ganization. It Is Inappropriate to define the best hardware and soft- ware systems for an organization.

The edict approach does not rec- ognize the rapidly changing na- ture of the microcomputer

industry. To be sure, management should have real concerns about the use

of micros. Most of these concerns should be addressed by policy statements. Microcomputers

should be thought of as nothing more than office equipment, like electronic typewriters. Micros are only tools to be used by management, staff and support personnel. The acquisition of a micro

should therefore be tied to a real business need and should be able

to fulfill that need in a cost-effective manner. Many microcomputers In the

office will continue to be primarily stand-alone application systems — whether It be WP, financial or production modeling or forecasting. For these types of systems,

management should set general

policy guidelines for equipment

acquisition. These guidelines

might Include such things as rec- ommending (but not mandating)

specific equipment for acquisition. purchasing procedures,

training requirements and suggestions for packaged software.

Fbr computers that will be connected to a host mainframe or In- terconnected via local-area

networks, management must set both general and specific guidelines. For Instance, data access and privacy issues must be ad- dressed (and therefore, access to the network or host must be properly controlled). Also, physical ac- cess to the microcomputer

hardware and data storage floppy

diskettes must be controlled In some manner (at minimum, by

storing vital program and data

disks in a safe place). In all cases, management

should support the education of employees with these new tools, encourage formal and Informal

corporate communications (In- cluding underground newspapers,

if necessary) and inform the organization of changes In policy and

major development projects under

way.The points to be conveyed to management are:

• There is a need to understand

the rapidly changing nature of the micro technologies.

• There Is a need for manage- ment to be flexible In dealing with

the growth of micro technologies within their organizations.

• Access to information should be controlled, but the hardware/

software solutions should be managed.

M

icros are becoming

firmly entrenched in our OA systems —

whether as stand-alone or inter- connected application processors. They have achieved recognition as

truly functional workstations.

Furthermore, the available soft- ware demonstrates an understanding of what users need to help them improve their work

product. The next two to three years we

will see the widespread use of 16-

bit machines and the Introduction

of 32-bit architectures. The 8-blt world is not dead; Its universe,

however, has been redefined. It will now serve the low-end, entrylevel marketplace. The 3-in. rigid floppies will proliferate and the cost of hard-disk drives will plummet.

Software Is moving toward supporting an Integration concept In virtually every application area. Combining the new software tech- nologies and support of many

communications protocols will put microcomputers in the fore- front of the multifunctional workstation marketplace. Micros will become an increasingly important

part of local-area network implementations. Microcomputerbased graphics systems will become vital elements In the modern automated office. Management will be responsible for supporting, If not spearheading. the proper implementation of micro systems In the office. This support will take the form of general and specific policy state- ments, providing technical support through the DP department,

setting certain guidelines for pur- chasing micros and hooking Into

local networks or the corporate mainframe. Ok
Page 13

ARPL1CA1 ION PRODUCT VENDOR

Spreadsheet

Packages

Visicalc

Supercalc

nultiplar

Calcstar Target

Visicorp

Sorcin

Hicrosoft

Hicropro

Conshare target

Financial

f1ode] ing

DSS: Financial Context/MBA

FPL

Addison-Wesley Publishing

Context flanagenent

Lifeboat Assocaites

Finplan Hayden Publishing

TD1E FRAHE

Late 1970s

Early 1980s

i Word

Processing

Wordstar

Vedit

Easy Writer

Word Juggler

Scriptsit

Word Handler

Final Word

Hicropro

Conpuuiew Products

Information Unlimited

Quark Engineering

Tandy

Silicon Valley Systems

Hark of the Unicorn

DESCRIPTION

Home-grown and limited-function

software

Packaged software, including:

UP and electronic spreadsheets

Data Base Systens

Dbase-II

D6 Master Datastar

FT1S-80 Condor

Ashton-Tate Stoneware Hicropro

Systens Plus

Condor Computer

Hid 1980s Integrated software packages:

single "systems" combining UP. graphics and modeling software

Apple Business

Char trvaster Visiplot

Strobe

EBS

Apple Computer

Decision Resources Visicorp

Strobe Lotus Development

1 Graphics

Development of Hicro Software Technology

Connunications

Software

flicrolink

Ancall

Data Capture

Hicro- Courier

Z-Tem

Wordcraft

Hicrocall Services

Southeastern Software

Hicrocon

Southwestern Data Systens

Some Widely Used Hicro Software Packages

8 ttIT 16 BIT VENDOR CQtlENTS

Appiedos fpple Proprietary

T rsdos Tandy Corp. Proprietary

Hdos Zenith Data Systens Corp. Proprietary

CP/TJ CP/H - 86 Digital Research. Inc. Portable, single user

HP/M II HP/H 86 Digital Research. Inc. Hultiuser

HSDOS Hicrosoft. Inc. Developed for IH1 Personal Computer

IJCSD P Systen UCSD P System Softech flier osystrtes. Inc. Very portable, uses concept of

pseudo machine UNIX Western Electric Co. Originally developed for minicomputers XENIX Hicrosoft Unix look-alike

Oasis OASIS - 16 Phase One Systens, Inc. Single or multiuser systems

Available Operating Systens

Masuraky la a managemen i consultant with the New York of- fice of Delottte Haektne A Sells He works with clients (n tmple

mentlng microcomputers In their organisations, developing corporate policies and MIS strategies

and designing and Implementing production. MIS and decision support systems He la o mamber qf his firm's microcomputer

taskforce. Computerworld / Extra!
Page 14
a\

Page 15

Corporate Moves

With Micros

Most major corporations are finding they can no longer avoid developing a

corporate strategy for microcomputers. The pressure to set policy comes

from two main sources within these large organizations: users who pur- chase micros on their own and forward-thinking management and DP ex- ecutives who realize the growth of micro use should not go unattended.

In developing a strategy for effective utilization of microcomputers, cor- porate management faces many problems, including:

• Training relatively unsophisticated and nontechnical users to operate

microcomputers effectively.

• Coordinating the processing of information at hundreds of different locations rather than at a few carefully controlled and administered pro- cessing sites.

• Ensuring the integrity and security of data created by microcomputers — data that is less secure and more available to personnel who may

want to utilize it in a manner detrimental to the corporation. How can By Frank D. Girard

organizations successfully address the issue of micro use? One

way is to develop a plan that inte- grates microcomputing within the framework of the firm's overall business and information processing goals. A

fter an organization re- views Its current infor- mation processing and

business environment, a three- phase approach to developing this plan can be helpful: introduce mi- crocomputer concepts to user de- partments: develop user operating

guidelines; develop overall policies and procedures for effective management. from a corporate perspective. of the development and

use of micros. The following

checklist points out some key

areas in the development of oper*

ating guidelines for microcomputer users within a large

organization:

Wbat will be tbe primary

objectives of microcomputer use

in tbe organization? These objectives might include providing Improved support for executive decision making, in- creasing the volume of clerical work performed with existing

staff or improving the organization's competitive position in the marketplace.

In wbicb areas of tbe organization will microcomputers be

utilized? Factors that might influence

this decision are the potential impact on bottom-line profits; the urgency of the need to provide mi- crocomputer support; the implementation cost for utilizing

micros within specific areas; and

the visibility to top management if areas selected for implementation

are pilot test sites for microcomputing.How will users be trained?

Will they be self-trained by means of vendor-supplied docu- mentation? Will they be trained

internally by the organization's

training department? Or will training be supplied by the new

breed of firm that specializes in microcomputer training? What

will the training cost, and how

will its effectiveness be assessed? Wbat corporate resources

will be supplied to tbe microcomputer users? What resources will be supplied

for maintaining systems, evaluat- ing new microcomputer software, diagnosing problems and assist- ing in the many other areas where

microcomputer users will require assistance? Will micro resources be supplied by the DP department,

the administrative department or another area of the organization?

How will communications

be bandied?

How can internal and external developments within the micro

area be effectively communicated

to users? How can duplication of individual user efforts in developing software or programs be pre- vented?

Several corporations have ad- dressed this issue by establishing corporate computer user groups, microcomputer newsletters, technical libraries and even their own

stores where users can shop for and evaluate hardware and software that have been approved for corporate purchase.

How will software and

hardware evaluation and selection be bandied?

Will users be permitted to pur- chase their own micro hardware

and software from a local computer store? If so, the result may be a

lot of incompatible equipment,

which would prevent computers

from communicating with each

other and from efficiently access- ing data maintained on other mainframe computer systems.

This purchasing pattern also

could result in higher acquisition costs by not taking advantage of the combined purchasing power

of the corporation. Factors that could be used to evaluate hardware and software

are capacity requirements; extent

of vendor support; availability and quality of help functional In- corporated in software; complete- ness and quality of system

documentation and system and

software training materials; soft- ware operating mode, such as menu-driven vs. command-driven

software; the extent to which the software utilizes special hardware

function keys; and the transferability of data to other software

packages.

Who will be responsible for data, program and system

backup?

What approach will be utilized

to provide adequate back-up facilities for micro programs, data and

individual systems so that key

processing functions can be per- formed when system problems

occur?

Who will respond to u ser and technical problems?

When users experience problems with microcomputer iaard- ware and software. hc>w will these problems be addressed?

Several corporatlcns h.ive an

internal consulting group t' j assist

in addressing these problems In addition, many corporatlo ns have

established a help desk manned

by a knowledgeable individual who responds, to request s for as- sistance. Such an appro, ich often includes maintaining a 1 ogof user and technical problctris so that the use of micros an d related problems can be rcv'.ewed and

monitored periodically. Will employees be permitted to take advanti igc of contracts and compute r discounts

negotiated by tbe co rporation In purchasing micros I 'or tbeir own

use?

For larger organl zatlons. these discounts can amo unt to 20% or more. Permitting en lployees louse

corporate discount’ * for mlrrocom

puter purchases ci in help them to become more k nowlrdgrable

about their compt iters T

he aliov e areas arr only a few cx amples of Issue*

that mi jst be addressed in developing ef fertlvr operating

guidelines for microcomputer us ers In addlt Ion to these user

guidelines, in iportant pollrv and

procedural I ssues must he ad

dressed If a t orporate framru»>rk

for managing the use of micro* i* to be cstablfs hed

Computerworid OA Copyright 1983 by CU Connunications/lnc.. Froninghan. ftA 01A 11 k printed ft

ccriPurFRuuRi n oFFicr nunmiiUN or errmmmatt // / x/rp -
O/K

Page 16

These managem ent guidelines

Include the followln g: How will doth i communications be bandied?

Will the corporation's micros be equipped with modems, which

permit these systems to access, update and communicate with

each other? If microc omputer data communications is p ermitted, will the organization allow micros to access and update mainframe

data? How can the security and

Integrity of this type < >f processing be ensured? Will mfcros be per- mitted to access on-1 Ine information services such asi Dow Jones and Dialog? How wil 1 the on-line access and communications costs related to these services be

controlled? How can the uite of micro*

be audited to ensure that data

created on tbeae syi items i* au- thorized, accurat e and complete?

The use of micros presents a unique set of auditing problems

which cannot always be addressed by conventional computer

auditing techniques.

Mil microcomputer user

a

be permitted to develop tbeir own custom computer pro- gram*?

If these programs are not properly documented and developed and if the programmer leaves the

organization at a future date, the

effort that went into developing

the program may be of no value. Other users will have no method

to maintain the program

effectively. How will microcomputer*

be integrated into the organization'* corporate information

system?

The corporate information sys- tem may include mainframe computers, minicomputers, word

processors and corporate communications networks. How will it be determined when

a microcomputer Is more suitable than a mainframe computer for a business application ? How will microcomputer

hardware be maintained?

Industry estimates indicate

that outside maintenance contracts for micros can cost from 20% to 30% of the initial purchase

price of the equipment.

What will be the policy on

portables?

Will the corporation purchase

portable computers for executives

to use while traveling? What crite- ria will be used to authorize a user's purchase of such equipment?

How will all micros owned by the corporation be physically controlled to discourage theft of these

devices from the organization? Will micro* be used a*

competitive weapons?

Will the corporation utilize micros outside of the organization as

a marketing tool — for example,

by providing them to corporate customers as an added-value ser- vice? Several major banks offer mi- crocomputers to personal banking customers to provide banking at home. Other banks are offering micros to corporate customers to assist them in more effectively

managing their cash flow by permitting access to commercial cus- tomers’ cash management

accounts.

In summary, the era of micro- computing has arrived at the door- step of major corporations. Will the problems that result over the next 10 years cause major corporations to look back with regret, or

will the opportunities provided by

microcomputers revolutionize American business in a positive way?

The answer won't be found in the capabilities of microcomputer hardware and software. Rather, it lies in the approach that corporations take today, in developing a well-conceived plan to promote

the effective use of this new

technology. Ok

Girard is an OA consultant in the Data Systems Technical

Consulting Services Group of the New York offices of Ernst and

Whinney. an international certi- fied public accountingfirm.

Computerworld QA
Page 17

MICRO MISSION

A SILLTON-DOllAR company

-IMPLEMENTS AN INNOVATIVE

PERSONAL COMPUTER POLICY.

^ 7

’ "Versonal computing is so important that its implemen- *• A tation and proliferation cannot be left to chance.

.

Individuals can now have powerful computing capability

at their desks. At one time, computers were expensive,

and people's time was less expensive. Today, computing

power is cheap and getting cheaper. The economy of

computing has swung dramatically, and this change

requires a rethinking of how information resources are managed. It is wise for organizations to take advantage

of the new economics and adapt to the personal computing trend. Setting a personal computing policy is complex and

has many implications. Here is a case history of.how.one

company established its personal computing policy. It V * By Walter Ulrich

s /

involves a billion-dollar company

headquartered in a major industrial

city Corporate and divisional office

staff exceed 1,000 employees in the headquarters city. The company has over 20,000 employees and sells products throughout the U.S. The company saw that personal computing offered great opportunities to improve productivity and ef- fectiveness and to save money. It also recognized that deploying personal computers was complex and not without significant risk. Inaction was

seen as an invitation to chaos. The company has a substantial in- vestment in software, hardware and

training in an IBM mainframe envi- ronment. The applications develop- ment backlog was consequential. Over a year ago, the company estab- lished an office automation task force to review and evaluate the implications of office automation. The

task force was composed of executives and middle managers repre- senting the operating divisions, administration, finance, purchasing,

data processing and other staff functions. The issue of personal computers was one of several topics on the task force agenda. One of the operating

divisions had already purchased two

microcomputers. One was in a divi- sion manager's office. The other was

used for division planning. Within

the division, one forward-looking manager and one technically orient- ed staff member were internal champions for the personal computer. They used the micro extensively Com puterworld/ Extra!

At the outset, members

of the task force made

three critical observations about personal

computing. First, personal computers and office automation should

become part of the

company culture in a conscious and planned

way, rather than in a chaotic and disorganized way. .

.

themselves and trained interested co-workers in its use

In this nonthreatening and supportive environment, microcomputer use grew steadily By the time the

task force began meeting, the micro was being carefully scheduled so

that it could be used by the many

people who needed it. Individuals within the division and throughout

the headquarters were requesting

their own micros and were asking

for personal computer support

At the outset, members of the task force made three critical observations about personal computing

First, personal computers and office automation should become part of the company culture in a conscious

and planned way, rather than in a chaotic and disorganized way. Sec- ond, there is enough information

available to make sound decisions about the implementation of a per- sonal computer policy. Third, the company had never implemented a personal computer policy before. There were important technical, cultural and business issues involved. Outside expertise was seen as invaluable in light of the considerable impact micros were expected to have. The company selected a consult- ing firm to assist in the office auto- mation and personal computer area. The key criteria for selecting a consulting firm were competence,

breadth of experience, complete in- dependence and professionalism. References were checked carefully. The consulting firm was given

reasonable opportunity for data col- lection and was named as advisor to the office automation task force on

matters of microcomputer policy. The firm was assigned to advise the

task force on its full range of alternatives, and the task force would make

the policy recommendations to the corporate officers. Thirteen issues that merited consideration for this particular company were identified. These issues in- cluded initiation, justification, product selection, compatibility, pro- curement, implementation, training, programming, maintenance, user support, monitoring, control and

general education While each of the issues was important to this company, four Issues

. . . Second, there is enough information

available to make

sound decisions about

implementing a personal computer policy.

Third, the company

had never implemented a personal computer policy before.

required considerable attention and

discussion. Each of these are dis- cussed below

Perhaps the most critical question

in any company is who will be re- sponsible for monitoring and imple- menting personal computing In ev- ery company, there are four groups, each with an important role These groups are the information systems department, communications, end

users and office administration

Personal computer evaluation, se- lection and implementation are complex technical undertakings In general, the information systems depart- ment has the charter to understand and implement Information technol- ogyWhile many personal computers

are used on a stand-alone basis today

it is clear that they will need to com

municate tomorrow The communications will be to the corporate mamCofjyright. 1981 by CU ConnunicaLions/Irtc. . Franinghan. HA 01701 ffi-pr/ott-d //. * C0HPUTERU0RL0 OFFICE AUfCHATlUN or CCnPUltRUORLO tXlRA "
Paqe 18

MICRO MISSION

frame, to specialized minicomputers,

to public data bases, to other personal computers and to a variety of other

services. The ultimate success of micros depends on establishing an ade- quate communications infrastructure. The communications function can play an important role. End users have been the personal computer pioneers in many companies. Personal computers are confusing to them in some ways, bu? end

users see the need and understand

the benefits. They are demanding

personal computing. As pioneers, they have had direct control of their micros. Now that microcomputers

are becoming accepted, it is no wonder that end users are reluctant to give up that control to a staff organization. Office administration has been

serving the needs of the office and

clerical worker for a long time. Office services people understand the needs of the professional, administrator, secretary and clerk. They have been focusing on the individuals' re- quirements for decades and can

claim insight of the culture into which microcomputers must be

placed. Their job has been thankless

at times, but they have learned how

to be responsive on a personal level. In the subject company, as in most

corporations, the pros and cons of who would be responsible for per- sonal computers were complex. The

information systems department had

genuine interest in micros. At the same time, information systems was

implementing a major new system

that was seen as essential to accomplishing overall corporate goals and

objectives. The applications develop- ment backlog was already substantial. In addition, the information sys- tems department had developed

procedures for handling the big sys- tems projects. Resources were al- ready in short supply, and the infor- mation systems department was not oriented to serving individual users. In this company, communications

responsibilities were divided among

different departments. Therefore, no

communications department was positioned to play the leadership role

for personal computers. End users were the first users of micros. They did not want their use

to be impeded or obstructed in any

material way. At the same time, the

users recognized that resources had

to be made available to nurture and

support personal computer users

companywide. The user divisions were willing to share some control over personal computing if they were provided specialized support and greater assistance. Corporate administration and other staff departments were the first in the company to identify the need for overall office automation planning. The administrative staff examined many of the personal computer alter- natives and were early supporters of micros within the company. They

had been a catalyst in the formation End users have been

the personal computer

pioneers in many companies. Personal computers are confusing to them in some ways,

but end users see the

need and understand

the benefits.

of the office automation task force and had exercised leadership in eval- uating advanced office technologies. The issue of responsibility and

control was ultimately resolved. Currently, the chief administrative manager is responsible for implementing

microcomputer policy, setting micro

standards and providing micro support to the end users. The information systems department provides

the technical and advisory staff to support the end users. The division executives have the final authority

for the implementation of micros within their division. These executives also have the ultimate responsibility for monitoring personal computer use. This approach does not fit every company, but answers all the major concerns of this company. The deci- sions for control of personal computers fit the corporate culture and

match the skills of the different indi- viduals. The administrative executive ensures that micros address the needs of the individual office worker. The information systems depart- ment provides qualified technical employees.

Personal computer technical staff stay on the information systems staff to ensure that an adequate career path is available and to provide add- ed technical guidance. While this kind of dual reporting would be a nightmare in some environments, it works well for this company. The division managers are held

accountable for their respective division's performance.

It was agreed that their authority must be final with re- gard to micros within their divisions. In practice, divi- sion management will look

to the personal computer

support staff for guidance.

Division management will not often overrule the support staff as long as the support staff has the proper

business and service orientations. Another major question

that arose was whether to standardize on a single micro

vendor, select a few standard

products or open the door to any micro that best meets the needs of a particular application.Selecting a single vendor

had both advantages and dis- advantages. A single vendor would greatly simplify train- ing, concentrate support

skills and offer purchasing

leverage. The ability to tie the micro together in the fu- ture would be greatly simplified, and the problem of ac- cessing the mainframe would only have to be solved

a single time. On the other hand, a per- sonal computer that is good

for one task may be unsuit- able for others. As technol- ogy evolves, integration problems that look awesome

today may soon become trivial. One vendor may not be

able to address all the company's needs at a reasonable

price. The company's policy decisions with regard to standardization are similar to those made in some other companies. The approach

has broad applicability. A

small number of products are approved as standards. Products are then chosen from

the approved list to meet

specific applications needs. The technical staff reviews new products and recom- mends changes to the ap- proved list when it is necessary to do so. In the event a job cannot

be accomplished practically from the approved list, there

is a mechanism established

to allow deviations from the

list.Purchasing is assigned the

responsibility to procure the hardware and expedite its delivery. Purchasing is ac- quainted with the applicable technologies and is expert at negotiating the best terms. The company had tradi- tionally viewed every pur- chase with great care and deliberation. How much

justification would be re- quired and who would be re- sponsible for putting the jus- tification together? The task force recom- mended that several personal computer requests by end

users be approved on a com- monsense basis without for- mal justification. The feeling was that more experience with personal computers in end-user departments was

needed before the full benefits could be appreciated. After this experience, it would

be easier to list the benefits and justify the micros.

The task force felt that it could not infringe on the di- visions' authority to establish its own justification pro- cedures after the initial personal computer place- ments were made. The end

users would be responsible

for making their own case to their own division management. The personal computer support staff would advise and assist the users, but it was the requester who was

responsible for getting approval. The consensus of the task force was that too-elaborate

justification would be detri- mental Since each part of the company was represent- ed on the task force, it is ex- pected that micro requests

will be encouraged and that the justification efforts re- quired will not be disproportionate to the size of the in- vestment. The company decided to offer micro support through

a corporate personal computing center. The primary objective of the personal computing center was to serve end users by: • Helping evaluate micro

solutions to end-user infor- mation problems.

• Providing personal computer training and simple support to the end users. • Making personal computers available so that end

users could test drive them. • Monitoring micro de- velopments.

• Offering a sympathetic

ear and helpful hand to users with personal computer

problems. The personal computing

center could be characterized

as a personal computing

store within the company.

Users could get specific in- formation or they could

browse. A micro hot line was

also implemented so that a frustrated user could tele- phone with a question while

still sitting in front of his mi- crocomputer. Finally, some

services from the information center concept would be made available to help meet

Today, the com- pany has a personal computer

policy in place.

Microcomputer

use is encouraged,

and its benefits are expanding. It

is expected that

micros will ultimately be an integral part of the

information/office architecture.

some of the end-user computing needs that were poorly suited to personal computers.Today, the company has a personal computer policy in place. Microcomputer use is encouraged, and its benefits

are expanding. Since the policy was established with an

eye toward overall office automation objectives, it is expected that micros will ul- timately be an integral part of the overall information/

office architecture. The key elements of this company's policy-making

success can be summarized

as follows: • Establishing a high-level task force representing all the parts of the company and

dominated by no single divi- sion.• Seeking the assistance of experienced, professional and objective consultants. • Understanding all the

issues and exploring all the options before trying to make any decisions. • Discussing the critical decisions openly and elicit- ing the views of all interest- ed parties. • Putting the policy and

first-level procedures in writing, explicitly assigning

specific authority and re- sponsibility. • Keeping a broad per- spective and considering the

implication of other infor- mation, communications and

office technologies. Microcomputers can and

should be a powerful tool in your company. They are so important that they must be implemented in an intelli- gent and forward-looking way. The development of a corporate personal computer

policy is essential. Ulrich is president of Walter

E. Ulrich Consulting, Houston.

Com puterworld / Extra!
Page 19
Pane 20

FOCUS

Purchasing

Micros

No one is surprised anymore to see microcomputers ap- pearing with greater frequency on employees' desks. But questions about how the product gets from the fac- tory to the user’s desk have not yet been fully answered.

The acquisition question is critical, not only from the important budgetary standpoint, but also from future

support, software and integration standpoints. There is no single best way to purchase microcomputers. The in- dividual needs of a corporation will dictate the best

method of acquisition.

Most corporations with more than 1,000 employees now have some committee or job function with the set By Aaron

purpose of determining what personal computers to use, who gets to use them and how to use them. Management

information systems (MIS) has the critical role in this process. Not only does MIS have computer expertise, but

also it will necessarily be Involved in a few years, when

these users want access to the host. One key part of any

successful plan for implementing personal computers

will be directing purchases and resultant support and

service issues. As the number of dollars spent on per- sonal computing increases, it will be necessary to have

detailed plans in place in order to maximize discounts

and minimize related costs. Goldberg

The most striking devel- opment in this large corporate market in the last 12 months has been the

speed with which these or- ganizations have learned, planned and started to im- plement personal computing. During June of 1982.

at least half the large cor- porations in an International Data Corp. (IDC) survey had no plan for per- sonal computers in place; of this group, many had

not even developed a committee. Exactly one year later, the situation has totally changed. Fewer than 10%

of all large companies are without a written plan for personal computer usage;

of those without this blueprint. nearly all are devel- oping one for implementation in the next year at the

latest. Despite moving at

the corporate equivalent of the speed of light, however. users continue to pur- chase personal computers

on an ad hoc basis. The time and expense

companies spend developing these plans would seem to Indicate that methods and sources for buying these systems are

written In concrete. This Is most certainly

not the case. IDC research has shown that, for all the personal computer Inventory the MIS group lists, double or even triple this

number of personal computers are often in use in the corporation — and

without sanction. Al- though this trend Is abating. especially in companies with proactive MIS groups, eliminating

end-user purchases is al- most Impossible.

Buying Patterns for

Corporate Personal Computers: The corporate cus- tomer can purchase

personal computers (both multiple and single units) from a number of different

places. Figure 1 shows the source of personal computers for corporate customers’ for both 1982 and

1983. This data is evi- dence that more and more

personal computer pur- chases are being made

from resellers and fewer from the direct manufacturer sales force.

The implications of this trend are Important Al- though the headlines tell of thousand-unit pur- chases and million-dollar

deals, the preponderance

of resellers in the charts

indicates smaller deals are

still more common In fact, the large increase in dealer business is very indicative

of the importance of local support and service. When this data is col- lected for 1984. the per- centages will undoubtedly have changed even more.

At some point in time, the

largest percentage of sales

to the corporate environ- ment will go to the direct sales force of the manufacturers. Two trends support

this: the growing dis- counts available to those who order large numbers

(more than 200) of personal computers, and the

trend toward mandating

personal computer use among professional and

technical employees. As fewer systems are purchased on an ad hoc

basis, the big losers will

likely be the retailers and

dealers. The overriding

comparison that will guide users in choosing one

channel over another will be low price/low support

vs. high price/high

support. Relative Pros and Cons

for Different Channels:

Deciding on a distribution channel for the purchase

of a personal computer

will have far-reaching ef- fects on the use. support and price paid. Each channel of distribution has

strengths and weaknesses.As the market for per- sonal computers In the

large organization exploded. cognoscenti agreed

that the direct sales force would have the easiest time selling to the large user and that the IBM

salespeople who had had

the account for the last 20 years would be hard to

beat. The direct sales force has Important advantages;

They should be able to of- fer the lowest price — af- ter all, they do build the

box. In addition, the direct salesman has account

knowledge: he knows your operation and what you

need. He also represents a

large organization that will support the user and pro- vide maintenance. These three strengths

would seem to provide an- swers MIS employees seek, but there are problems.

Delivery of systems can

take anywhere from two weeks to three months.

Also, when the salesper- son is not around, who can you go to? Telephone tag can present untold miseries when the vice-presi- dent of finance's personal

computer is the one that breaks or that needs extra memory. Dealer/Distributor:

These sellers generally of- fer a higher level of expertise than that available from generic retail stores. Most offer a limited range

of products and are well versed in these products.

These resellers have the advantage of being highly- versed in the personal

computer products and

they offer a high degree of support. In addition, some

degree of customization is available, as well as specific training and maintenance. The primary drawbacks

center around the cost of the systems and the stability of the dealer/distributor. These can be important deficiencies, but they

are occasionally offset bv

the high level of support and training. Retail Computer Store: The retail store Is certainly the most visible channel

for the purchase of per- sonal computers Many

single systems purchased

in an ad hoc manner are obtained from computer

stores. The retail store is often "handier" than other channels and does offer some Important advantages. The support and

service they offer are not

at the same level as the

dealer's, but nevertheless

are highly useful. In addition, users can take ad- vantage of the storefront operation and go there to expedite service, supply or add-on needs. Most computer retail

stores offer a broad range

of products, and this can

be Important to the organi- zation that wants to offer more than one or two sys- tems. Some stores are will- ing to give a discount on

total purchase value re- gardless of who manufactures it. The drawbacks to the

retail store should also be

noted. Most stores do not offer the high level of training

and support many users

will demand, and equip- ment service is usually- done on a depot basis. In

Source 1982 1983

% %

Direct Sales 90 47

Dealer/Distributor 10 50

Retail Store 30 31 Other — 4 No Answer/Not Sure 7 16

Figure 1 . Source of Micros

Deciding on a distribution

channel will have far-reaching

effects on the use, support and

price paid.

Copyright 1981 by CO Cormurucdtions/Tnc

.

, Fi&tinghaa. fM 01/01 Reprinted fro*

coigncruorld errice nunmnm or caipureRomo oora

m Computerworld QA
D aqe 21

FOCUS

Mandate Ignore

Hardware Only hardware

used is provided by MIS

Certain models

or vendors are suggested

Anything goes

No end-user developed Some end-user developed Some end-user developed

Software Limited number

of packages

offers

Reliance on package

software

Package

software used

Some MIS- developed

software

Little MIS- developed

software

No MIS-developed

software

Support MIS provides

Significant support

MIS provides Some, but not

all support

MIS provides no support

MIS

Involvement MIS controls every aspect MIS and end- user share

control

User controls

all aspects

Figure 2. The MIS role

.iddltion. l he viability of the speIf I' • "mputer store has yet to be

proven. One wild card exists In the area

• •I distribution — the in-house

niiiputer store It could be the

best answer for a number of large rc.ml/.itlons Gillette Corp. has

been a pioneer In this area and Is a good example of Implementation

i if the In-house computer store al- ternative The in-house computer

si , re offers a number of benefits. Servo i and support are now under i hr direct control of the organi/alion as Is training, which can

be critical for implementation

sue < ess From an organizational synergy standpoint, one benefit

truly stands out MIS will be in- volved and knowledgeable about

personal computers because in most eases. MIS runs the store. From the corporate political

standpoint, the benefits are twotold MIS is perceived as being respi msi vc to user needs, and MIS is given more resources to perform

I his larger job However, the in-house computer store does have drawbacks. The

costs involved in setting it up are usually quite large. Staffing can

In i nine a problem, especially if in-house employees have to be

trained and educated. In addition,

il the store experiment'' turns

into a fiasco, it may leave the MIS

department in a difficult position. Buying Personal Computers

and the Role of MIS: The most

important part of deciding upon a method of purchase for your organizations' personal computers is assessing the MIS group's role in relation to personal computers.

Three distinct paths are open for the MIS organization: Mandate. Recommend and Ignore. In the Mandate plan. MIS approves everything. and systems are allowed only as MIS dictates — in short. MIS controls every aspect.

In the Recommend plan. MIS

provides some urging and reasons

for following suggestions, but users are allowed to make some de- terminations on their own. The

support carrot is the tool most of- ten used as a spur by MIS. Under the Ignore plan (also known as the Ostrich approach),

personal computers are totally ig- nored. Three years from now. when the 500 different personal

computers become part of the dis- tributed resource system. MIS will realize this was not a good plan.

These short names Imply a great deal; Figure 2 contains a more detailed outline of each of these approaches. It should be understood that certain approaches

will work for some companies and

not for others. These approaches

may differ, but certain undeniable

truths cannot be Ignored. In nearly all cases, large corporate pur- chases are far less expensive than

ad hoc purchases on a per-system

basis. Integrating 10 different

types of systems is easier than In- tegrating 100 different models. Both for the present and future, key areas are cost and Integration, and Improvements In these areas cannot be ignored. MIS cannot wait and let collec- tive wisdom dictate exactly how

personal computers will be bought and used. MIS must be proactive

so that the personal computers

that are Installed are Installed

successfully, and all economies

are taken. This is easily possible under both the Mandate and Rec- ommend options. Companies that choose the Ignore strategy should

at least reevaluate their options. Impact on Software: The impact of centralized vs. decentralized buying can easily be seen in the software environment. A

number of benefits obtained from

centralized buying are reflected in software: Training is far easier when only one version of the package exists. FOCUS

It is not uncommon for the same package to differ

greatly when used on two

different systems — function keys, commands and

device addressing are com- mon problems.

Although rare, corporate licenses are sometimes available for some

software products, and a one-time $20,000 fee is a clear savings when contrasted with 100 copies of a S300 program Programs can be quality

tested. Good products can

then be endorsed: if prob- lems are found, it can be recommended that those programs be avoided. A

planned method of dis- seminating this information is far better than

relying on word of mouth.

Centralized buying also provides an Important le- ver with the software company. Corporate accounts

Centralized

buying provides a lever

with the soft- ware company,

resulting in a higher level of

support.

are critical, and software

firms are likely to provide

a higher level of support to an organization that bought 100 copies of the program than to an indi- vidual who bought one

copy.

From the end-user

standpoint, it is very effi- cient to be able to give a

fellow employee a copy of your diskette with the in- formation on it and to al- low that employee to manipulate it. Diskette sharing can almost be a primitive form of a network. a physical packet. In addition, it is comforting to know that if my program

disk crashes, someone rea- sonably near me has a copy of the same program

for the same system. MIS can also develop for the program add-ons or forms — for example, a

Visicalc template — that can be used by many of the prospective and present

personal computer users

Centralizing buying has numerous advantages

from the software standpoint. Although the number of options available to

users may be limited, savare not yet fully dependent

on their systems. In time, the professional's personal computer will be as im- portant as the MIS 30

series. Centralized buying pro- vides important advantages in maintenance. If only a limited number of models are purchased. MIS

can possibly stock systems

to be used as spares or even to be cannibalized for ings in the areas mentioned above often outweigh this disadvantage. Effect on Service and

Maintenance: Because

most systems are relatively new and repairs are minimal, service and

maintenance problems of personal computers have

not yet assumed the Im- portance they will in the coming years. Also, users

the necessary board or component. Some organizations are training their own employees In personal

computer maintenance, so

that service Is also done In- house — a concept that

fits very well with the In- house computer store. In summary, the benefits of centralized buying

can be very large for some

organizations and the

costs saved substantial However, each plan must

work synergistically with

the organization It serves Centralized buying will work for most companies,

but It must be tailored to provide the best results aa

Goldberg Is research

manager oj Information systems at International Data Corp in Framing

ham. Mass.

Computerworld GA
Page 22

& ggUISfifTOl
D aqe 23

[Selection by Rebecca Houck Fear of Buying

Rebecca Houck may not be starting up where Erica Jong left off, but she does intend to

remove, once and for all, the intimidation and uncertainty surrounding your decision to buy a

computer system. Don’t begin by selecting models—first analyze your needs and examine your

reasons for believing that computerizing your procedures will aid your business. We doubt you

will find a more thorough and systematic treatment than the one offered in this guide.

I

f there exists a business professional

who is not intimidated by the sight of

a computer salesperson, I have yet to meet him. Managers and small business owners who are looking for computer

systems generally perceive computer

salespeople with a mixture of fear, suspi- cion and contempt. A common complaint is, “They are trying to sell me

something I don’t need.” 1 won’t argue with this. After all, a salesperson’s job is to sell. But whenever I hear this complaint, my immediate question is this: if they sell you something you do not need,

whose fault is that? “But I’m not a computer expert,” the

business manager will argue. “How am I supposed to know which computer is best?" Well, let’s back up a step. Maybe

business professionals are not asking the

right question. Instead of asking “which

is best?” they should first ask themselves

“best for what?” What do you, as a busi- ness owner or manager, want out of a computer system? This might seem like a pretty simple question, but in practice it

is far from trivial. It is also where many

fail when buying their first computer. . . or even their second or third. Think about it You would hardly expect a large cor- poration to buy a multi-million-dollar computer system without having clear objectives and a master plan. In order to ensure that the company gets a system

that meets all its needs, extensive studies

are done to “define requirements” and

translate them into “system specifica- tions” for a computer that will do the

job. The penalty for not doing such

studies would likely be wasted dollars for an inadequate system, which will end up

not being used by the people who should

benefit most. Of course, a small business is not a multi-million-dollar corporation. But

your dollar investment in a small computer system is every bit as important to you as that company’s millions are to it. To protect that investment, you owe it to yourself to take as much care in choosing a system as that company would. Yet

very few would-be computer buyers take the time to examine their actual needs when shopping for the “right” system.

The result is often a lot of frustration when the eventual product does not live up to expectations.

Very few would-be

computer buyers take the

time to examine their

actual needs when

shopping for the ‘right’

system.

So what is the answer? Companies and

organizations in the private and public

sectors have found it in their interests to adopt formal methodologies for evaluating and selecting computer systems.

These methodologies, though called by

different names and using different ter- minology, all consist of a well-defined set of steps to follow when buying a computer. These steps are designed to ensure

that the buyer (1) knows exactly that s/he wants and (2) gets it. In a very large organization, these steps can take many months of effort. In a small business, they might take weeks. As a rule, the time and effort involved would be proportional to the size and

complexity of the organization and the

system.

The following, then, is a description of

a general, commonly used methodology

for buying a computer system. This

methodology is applicable to any size sys- tem and organization. More importantly, it allows the business professional to determine and describe his or her needs

in terms of business functions, not hard- ware and software.

Step 1 —define your objectives

You may have a set of objectives in mind when looking at computer sys- tems. Put these objectives into writing

and examine them carefully. Are they

specific? Are they measurable? An objective such as “more efficient handling of accounts” is next to useless. The term “more efficient” offers nothing to aim for and gives no measure to determine if a system meets the objective.

A good objective is one that can be ex- pressed in numbers or some other concrete terms. For instance, an objective

might be to tighten inventory control to allow a ten percent reduction in the number of parts kept in stock. Or an objective might be to cut sales-ordcr-pro

cessing time in half. Often a business professional does not have enough familiarity with what a computer can do to be able to determine

specific objectives. One of the better ways to learn about this is to visit other companies that are already using < < >m- puters for similar jobs. By looking .it the operation, how data are entered, what

kinds of reports are produced, what task . are being performed by whom, and so on, you can get an idea of how a comput

er would fit into your company Ask

others about the problems they have cn

countered and the lessons they have

learned. Time spent in this way i an help you to establish some reasonable <bjet

tives and a viable course of action.

Step 2 —identify constraints

Any constraints on your choice of sys

Desktop Computing February 1983 “Fear of Buyinq, " Rebecca Houck. Oeskjop rnnpujjnq. / ebruon, 196) P6QP9 4f 9) SO, hi. Reprinted by (remission. Copyright ft by Uoyrto tireoo fm 196J *

RIGHTS RESERVED
Page 24

r

tem should be identified at the outset. The most obvious constraint is money.

An analysis of the company’s budget

should be done with an eye to how much

of that budget can be allocated to a computer system. A point to remember in

this type of consideration is that the cost of a computer system does not stop at the one-time purchase of the system.

Consumables such as printer paper and

floppy disks will become a permanent

part of the budget.

Other constraints besides the budget

may influence your choice. The nature

of your business may require filing cer- tain types of reports with government

agencies, auditors, and so on. You might

also do well to check any Internal Revenue Service restrictions on computerization of accounts. When putting your

business on the computer, you should

consider anything that restricts the way

you do business.

Step 3 —analyze your work load

In order to decide how large a system you will need and what kinds of peripheral devices (e.g., disk drives and printers) you should have, you must first know

what work your system will do. An

analysis of your work load involves examining your current operations and deter- mining what processes are done, how

many transactions are handled, how

often various transactions are processed

(hourly, daily, monthly), and so on. By going back through past records, you should be able to determine that you

sent out, for example, 100 invoices a month on an average. Your invoices av- eraged about 5.3 lines with an average of 30 characters per line. Knowing this will help to determine how fast your printer must be to get all the invoices out, as well

as how much storage you will need to hold the transactions being processed.

You will also need estimates of file sizes. How many accounts, how many

customers and the size of inventory are a few numbers you will need to help you and the salesperson decide how much

storage capacity you will need and how

much information the system will be ex- pected to handle. Analyzing your work load will help to communicate to the salesperson the capabilities and capacities you will need. But the analysis is only half the job. To

be sure that your system is useful for a number of years, you must allow for growth. Therefore, the current work

load must be projected into the future to predict how fast it will grow in the next few years. One approach is to use statistics from

past years to determine a rate of growth, then carry that rate of growth into the

future. For instance, if two years ago you

averaged 80 invoices a month, last year you sent out 96, and this year you are av- eraging 115, you can translate this into a 20 percent growth rate. Next year you may expect to average approximately

138 invoices a month. Of course, such

analysis has to be done with an eye to

factors that could affect the rate of growth. Such factors might include re- cession, competition and industry

trends. An estimate of these factors is an

educated guess, but it could help you

avoid outgrowing your system in a year.

Select ion Step 4 —estimate the benefits

Benefits from a computer system are ei- ther quantifiable or non-quantifiable. To

justify the expense of purchasing the sys- tem, you should be able to calculate some savings or revenue increase. These

quantifiable benefits can be weighed

against the cost of a system to decide if it

is a good investment.

First, you should analyze your ac- counting operations and inventory to identify those benefits that can

reasonably be expected. A thorough

analysis would then involve multiplying

the estimated benefit by the probability

Checklist items

1. Does the system have adequate storage?

First, you must have sufficient main

memory to hold the largest program you will be using. Most software packages have a minimum memory re- quirement, so be aware of it. Second, you must have sufficient disk storage

to hold all the records necessary for processing.

2. How long does the system

take to process a typical batch of

transactions?

Systems vary in their processing

speeds, both because of the speed of

the processor itself and because of the

efficiency of the program.

3. Can the system be easily

expanded?

At a later date you may want to add more disk drives or upgrade to a fast- er printer. Systems vary in the ease with which such improvements can

be made.

4. How reliable is the

equipment?

Many components of computer sys- tems have associated “mean time be- tween failure” (MTBF) statistics. This

will give you an average for the life of

the component before repairs will be

necessary.

5. What kind of warranty is in- cluded, and what does it cover? Some may include parts and labor, while others do not. Mail-order sys- tems are particularly limited in the

warranties given.

6. How long has the system been on the market?

Although it is often tempting to get the most state-of-the-art equipment, new systems are often full of bugs.

These bugs are usually discovered by

customers and reported to the vendor

for correction. If you do not want to be part of the debugging period on a new system, it is best to go with older, proven systems. (Older in the computer world, by the way, is measured

in months, not years.)

7. Does the system perform the

required functions?

Make sure you have a list of the functions you require for your operation.

8. Is the system easy to use? The term “friendly” is used to describe how easy the system is for inex- perienced users to learn and use. Does

the software provide easy-to-use

prompts, menus and directions? Does

it require an inordinate amount of memorization of obscure mnemonics

and commands? Is the screen easy to

read? Is the keyboard easy to use? This

is where the person who will be inter- acting with the system should get in- volved. An important consideration

is how easy the user’s manuals are to read. System documentation can run anywhere from good to really rotten. Sound documentation is very often an indication that the system is respectable.

9. What is the system cost?- System cost includes not only the total cost, but also the costs for supplies

and maintenance.

February 1983 Doiktop Computing
Page 25

Selection

th.it that benefit will be realized. This

figure, then, is your probable benefit from computerization. For example, if you were to achieve your objective of reducing the parts in the inventory by ten percent, this may

translate into a savings of, say, $5,000.

Yi hi are not certain that you can actually

accomplish this, however, so you are w illing to give it an 80 percent probabilb

tv of success. Your probable benefit in

this case is $4,000 (i.e., 80 percent of

$5,000). This is the figure you would use

to compare benefits versus costs in vari- ous systems. Not all benefits are so easily quantifiable, of course. Suppose you could serve

i ustomers faster or offer a new service not currently available. How much

would this benefit your business? Al- though these types of benefits cannot be

expressed easily, they can be very important in deciding whether to buy a sys- tem. Try to identify as many of these non-quantifiable benefits as possible,

and make a list to help you evaluate what a new system has to offer.

Step 5 —explore the alternatives

In this case, the term “alternatives” does not simply mean an Apple versus a TRS-80. Many options are available to a business manager planning to computerize. One alternative, for instance, is not

to buy a computer, but to subscribe to a computer service. A timesharing service

offers all the advantages of computerization without the responsibilities of supplies, maintenance and programming.

Timesharing can be expensive, but it of- ten offers more services and flexibility than you would have with your own

system.

Whether you are alone

or with an expert, insist

that the salesperson talk

in your terms.

Before purchasing a new system, you

should investigate another alternativerental. The low cost of microcomputer

systems will generally make rental too ex- pensive as a long-term solution. Short- term rental, however, is an excellent way

of trying out a new system without making the commitment to purchase. Most

dealers who rent systems have lease-toDesktop Computing February 1983

purchase options that allow rental pay- ments to go toward the purchase price. This is a good way for you to decide not

only which system is best, but also whether computerization benefits your

business. It can also give you a tremen- dous psychological lift by lessening the

“fear of failure” in installing a new

system, since failure does not mean as great an economic loss. The final alternative, and perhaps the most important to consider, is the “do

nothing” alternative. After you have analyzed the business so far, you should ask

yourself, “Do I really need a computer?”

If you do not feel confident that a computer will help your business, perhaps

the best alternative is to wait a while. Step 6—write system specifications

System specifications are simply those

features that you want to be included in your system. These are derived from

your work load analysis. System specifi- cations serve to communicate to the

salesperson exactly what you need. Ideally they should be written as much as possible in terms of business functions and

should avoid equipment descriptions. For example, instead of saying “must have an 8-inch, double-density disk

drive,” it is better to say “must be able to store one month’s transactions on line for processing.” Not only are these “functional” specifications easier for a business manager to formulate and understand, but they also emphasize the end results and allow flexibility in how

the system accomplishes them.

To write specifications you may want

to get help from someone with computer

expertise, either a consultant or a knowledgeable acquaintance. Knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of computer systems will help in creating realistic specifications. Because you are most

familiar with your business, however,

avoid the temptation to let a consultant do all the work. Stay actively involved to ensure that all your needs are expressed. After some specifications have been

drawn up, you can look back at your objectives and decide which of your specifi- cations are mandatory and which are desirable. Mandatory requirements arc those without which the system simply does not meet your needs. These are im- portant and so should be identified. Desirable features are those that would be

nice, but without which you could live if you had to. Identifying desirable and

mandatory features allows you to see where you can make compromises and

trade-offs without sacrificing the useful- ness of the system.

Step 7 —shop around

Most first-time computer shoppers buy

from the first vendor they visit. While

there was a time whe n your opt ions were

limited by the small amount of hardware

and software being offered for sm all busi- ness applications, that day is gone. Today

the market is highly competitive, and the

choices available in hardware and' soft- ware make shopping around a must

.

Computer stores are appearing i,n all major cities and many small towns.

These stores provide an excellent opportunity for buyers to see many of the s ys- terns on the market. Do not hesitate >to ask to try out a system. You may eve n want to take along some of your employ - ees to ask pertinent questions and be- come familiar with the systems.

Step 8—evaluate the systems and

the vendors

Evaluating the systems involves weighing the costs against the benefits project- ed in Step 4. Because systems vary in capabilities and costs, this is often more dif- ficult than it sounds. A handy tool to have is a checklist of important features

to help you make a direct comparison be- tween systems. The sidebar on page 47

contains some questions to include in such a checklist. At this point, I must discuss a ve ry im- portant point to keep in mind when

evaluating systems. A computer s ystem

actually consists of two parts: the hard- ware and the software. The soft w are is the set of programs that performs tl ic job

and, therefore, is the primary concern in choosing a system. Hardware is important only in how it executes the soft 1 ware. Some software packages are written to be run on only one model of computer.

In this case, the choice of a specific of software would dictate what hardware

you will purchase. Often the software

has versions written to run on a num her of different machines. While one computer may run the program quickly a nd

efficiently, however, another system mnv

be slower and less efficient with the same

program. In this case, the goal is to find

the optimum combination of hardwni <• and software. Evaluating the systems themselves is only part of your job. An evaluation of

the vendor is an important part of

choosing a system. To get an idea of how

the vendor rates on customer support,

ask the salesperson or sales manager to

give you the names of some of their pre vious customers. A short chat with cu’ tomers who arc using that vendor's s\ s terns can reveal any problems thev mnv
Page 26

have getting repairs or other service. Here are a few items you should check:

• How lo ng before the system can be delivered a.nd running?

• What kind of training, if any, is available?

• Hovr fast is service?

• Wil.l the vendor offer assistance in set- ting up the system?

T'ne evaluation of the system and ven- dors may be another area where you will want the recommendations of a consulta nt or someone with some expertise.

Whether you are alone or with an ex- pert, insist that the salesperson talk in your terms. Do not let the experts get carried away with computerese and leave you in the background. Ask questions,

and keep asking until you understand

the answers.

Step 9—choose your system

Eventually you will have to make your

choice. This is the hardest step. Many

buyers; get themselves caught in the pro- crastination trap. “If I wait a little longer, the price will drop,” or "a newer, better model will be coming out.” Although

this is very often true, it is also true that you could postpone your purchase for- ever w aiting for that new system or lower

price.

If you have done the previous eight

steps well, you should be able to have

confidence that the system you choose

will do your job. And after all, that’s the name of the game.

Last thoughts

These nine steps outline a very general

methodology that virtually anyone can

adopt when buying a computer system.

In addition to these steps, four other

rules are important to a satisfactory computer acquisition.

• Rule 1 —write things down

Writing down your thoughts and ac- tions in journal style is a handy habit to develop. Obviously, you will be writing

down your work load analysis, specifica- tions and checklists. You should also write down decisions you make, your

reasons for making those decisions, and

observations you have on your business and on various systems you evaluate. Documenting your activities serves three purposes: it helps you remember

what has happened and keep things in perspective; it allows you to backtrack and make changes along the way; and it keeps a record of lessons learned for next

time (or for writing a magazine article).

• Rule 2—plan ahead

A timetable is a useful item to keep

events on track. If you have a slow sea- son around the holidays, for instance, you may want to plan the installation and conversion for this period to mini- mize the disruption of business. Plan the time you will allow yourself for the analySelection

ses, specifications, evaluations, and so on, so that you can anticipate when the system will be purchased.

Also decide which business functions

will be put on the system first and which

ones can wait. Plan as far ahead as you

can, but remember that surprises will oc- cur unexpectedly. Very often a manager

finds that after a computer is in, new applications crop up that s/he did not

consider.

• Rule 3—do not be afraid to appear

ignorant

We are all ignorant about something.

If you are ignorant about computers, do

not let the “experts” take advantage of

you. Ask questions, and use this as your

opportunity to learn. The difference be- tween ignorance and stupidity is that the

stupid person does not ask questions.

• Rule 4—do not put blind trust in methodologies

Everyone looks for recipes on how to make decisions. Such recipes do not exist. A good methodology is general and

flexible, not a recipe to which you must

adhere. Always remember, when you are faced with a new situation, common

sense is one of your best tools.

The author is a computer systems analyst for the US

Navy. She is currently teaching computer system acquisition to mid. and senior-level government executives. For more information, write to her c/o Desktop

Computing.

February 1983 Desktop Osmpatiaf
Pane 27

How to Choose a Portable

Factors to consider before you take the plunge

Just a year and a half ago the

Osborne 1 portable microcomputer

had no competitors. Today at least 50

portables fight for a share of the

market, and new machines are an- nounced almost daily. There's definitely something going

oh out there, and it bodes well for the consumer. Manufacturers, trying to outdo the competition, are offering

better, more powerful, and more at- tractive portable computers. It's the

free market at its best. The only problem with this abundance of portables

is that buyers often don't know

where to begin. To that end, we'll

start with an explanation of what a portable computer is and then ex- plore its various components. While

that won't tell you which portable to buy, it will provide some signposts to help you make an informed choice.

TTie sudden appearence of portable

computers results from a convergence of technologies. Many fea- tures found on portable computers

have been used and refined on products such as digital watches and

pocket calculators. In addition, the

products of the years of research and

development that went into creating

today's desktop microcomputer have

finally come together in the portable

computer. What we have is reliable hardware and proven software in a machine that can be shuttled easily

from office to home or wherever. Portable computer users include busi- ness people who like the flexibility of working at home or on the road,

scientists and engineers who take

their portables into the field for onsite computer applications, and people who simply like to take their computing power with them.

What Is a Portable?

A portable computer is, of course,

a computer first and foremost. It must have a central processing unit,

memory, a method for data entry, a

by Stanley J. Wszola

device for or method of displaying

data output, and usually a means of storing data. A portable computer must be easy

to carry from place to place. Don't confuse "portable" with "transportable." Any computer can be trans- portable if you have a big enough

truck. For the purposes of this article, a portable computer is one that can be carried by one person—but

not necessarily easily carried. Currently, portable computers can be

divided into three rough categories:

Pocket computers: These can be

characterized as pocket-size, batterypowered, lightweight computers

with a 1-line display, limited memory

(0.5 to 10K bytes), and usually BASIC

in ROM (read-only memory). Most

use cassette tape for data storage. The

keyboards on these computers are not suitable for touch-typing, and the

1-line display is adequate only for simple programming. Many of these

computers can accept accessories

(i.e., printers, serial- and parallel-port

interfaces, and modems) to increase

their usefulness.

Briefcase computers: As the name

implies, these computers are small

enough to be placed in a briefcase. They usually have a 4- to 8-line display, a full-size keyboard, provision

for increasing internal memory, serial and/or parallel ports, and AC or bat- tery power. Most briefcase computers

feature BASIC in ROM, and some in- clude applications programs for word

processing, telecommunications, and

appointment scheduling. Data stor- age can involve micro- or full-size cassette tapes, auxiliary floppy-disk

drives, or bubble and CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) memory cartridges. Most have

full-size keyboards that are suitable

for touch-typing. Their light weight

(5 to 10 pounds) and small size let you use them almost anywhere. One

example of a briefcase computer is the Radio Shack Model 100. Transportable computers: These

are the heavyweights of the portablecomputer field in terms of size, weight, and capabilities. I've used the term transportable because some so- called portable computers are nothing more than a boxed desktop

computer with a handle on top. Most

are the size of a small suitcase, weigh

15 to 40 pounds, and usually have a CRT (cathode-ray tube) display with one or more floppy-disk drives. Most

Any computer can be

transportable if you

have a big enough

truck.

use CP/M-80 or CP/M-86 and MSDOS operating systems. These computers can do anything the desktop

models can do, but their portability

is limited by the necessity for AC

power or a heavy battery pack. The

Osborne Executive is a transportable

computer.

Power Sources

The growing use of low-power

CMOS RAM (random-access read

write memory) chips and CMOS

microprocessor chips, such as the

80C85 used in the Radio Shack

Model 100, has decreased dependency on AC power sources. Batterypowered portables can be used

almost anywhere. But batteries can be a curse as well as a blessing, they

add overall weight to the package and

always run out just when you need

them most. Most portable computers can run from 2 to 10 hours before they need

a recharge. Battery life depends on

the power requirements of the com

puter, the length of time it has been

September 1983 © BYTE Publications Inc.

Iron "How to Choose a Portable", by Stanley ./. Usrola. appearing tn <p, Septenber. 190J Issue of PYJE nagasine. Copyright (e) io#< t>y tlcGrau-Hill, Inc. , New York, NY 10020.
Page 23

operating, and the rating of the battery. Some portables have low-voltage

indicators to alert you when the batteries run low. The transportable

models are more power hungry than

the smaller portables. The CRT and

the disk drives in the transportables

require a lot of energy. Some briefcase computers use CMOS memory chips and an auxiliary nickel-cadmium battery to preserve data in memory if the main

batteries fail. For example, the nickel- cadmium batteries in the Model 100 can maintain data for 8 to 30 days,

depending on how much memory

the computer has. This gives you an

extra margin of safety if you are unable to replace or recharge the

main batteries right away. Many transportable computers

have auxiliary battery packs as options. Of course, you still face the

problem of carrying the batteries as well as the computer. Finally, some

manufacturers offer an optional auto

adapter, which lets you plug your

computer into your car's cigarette

lighter. They recommend using the

computer with the engine off to eliminate lost data due to voltage

spikes and surges. That's just as well; you don't want to be downloading a program and downshifting at the same time.

Video Displays

The new portables use one of three types of displays: CRT, LCD (liquidcrystal display), or ELD (electroluminescent displays). CRTs have

been around for a long time and are

a proven medium. LCDs, although

limited in their ability to display

graphics, are lightweight and don't consume too much power. The newer ELDs have the same display capabilities as CRTs with an extra advantage—their flat shape makes them

ideal for use in portables. I'll explain

each in detail. The most commonly used display

for portable computers is the reliable,

flexible, and easy-to-use CRT. Most

users are already familiar with it. Its primary disadvantages are a bulky

shape and high power consumption.

The CRT itself, a large, fragile glass

tube, must be protected from harsh

environments and airport baggage

handlers. But the advantages of the CRT out- weigh the disadvantages. First, it is a luminescent display—it produces

light. Therefore, it can be used under

poor lighting conditions. Second, it

is extremely flexible. Given a monitor

with sufficient resolution, you can

display any type of image upon it, in- cluding color, such as with the Commodore Executive 64. Finally, there's enough software available to take ad- vantage of that flexibility. The second most popular form of display is the small, lightweight LCD,

which usually requires little power

and is relatively immune to damage.

One disadvantage is that an LCD's

response time is slower than that of

a CRT display in terms of speed re- quired to write and erase a character on the display. Additionally, the LCD

bit-mapped graphics are at best crude

because the individual pixels (picture

elements) aren't small enough to give

sharp definition. And at temperatures below freezing, the LCDs may

slow down even more or stop

altogether.

The Sharp PC-5000 has the largest

LCD currently available on a portable

computer, 8 lines by 80 characters Whether such a display

is large enough for effective work is a matter of personal taste. Portable computers with a 1-line display are minimally usable. The HP-75 has a

1-line by 32-character display. The

Epson HX-20 has 4 lines by 20 characters. The Radio Shack

Model 100 has an 8-line by 40-character display. You can work with all of these displays, but they are only

a fraction of the size of a standard

CRT display of 80 characters by 24

lines. You should carefully consider

the display size in terms of your particular application and choose the

portable that best fits your needs.

Word processing on a 4-line display

is awkward at best.

Finally, the new ELD and gas- plasma display technologies provide

still another choice. ELDs use a chemical coating and a wire grid

placed between two glass plates. The

chemical coating emits light when an AC voltage is applied to the wires.

Alphanumeric characters can be

formed by applying the voltage to the

correct sequence of wires. The gas- plasma display is similar to the ELD

except that a gas fills the space be- tween the two plates. The Grid Compass computer has an ELD screen. ELDs combine the advantages of the CRT and the LCD. They can dis- play a full 80 characters by 24 lines, offer good bit-mapped graphics res- olution, and their flat shape makes

them ideal for portable applications.

The only disadvantage is that both

their price and power consumption

exceed the level of other displays. For now, field testing will have to deter- mine whether the electroluminescent

and gas-plasma displays are economical and reliable enough to replace

the CRT display for portable

computers.

Data Storage

Developments in data-storage tech- nology have enabled portable computer users to take their data along

with them. The newer half-height

5V4-inch and 3V2-inch floppy-disk

drives have as much storage capacity as the older 8-inch drives. Hard

disks are also becoming portable. For example, the Kaypro-10 has a built-in 10-megabyte hard-disk drive. Some

portables feature bubble-memory

cartridges for convenient long-term

data storage.

Memory is the working medium of any computer, and portables are no

exception. Yet portables, because they

incorporate the latest technology, of- fer more memory options than stan- dard desktop computers. You can have a portable with CMOS RAM,

bubble-memory cartridges, mini- or micro-floppy- disk drives, or hard

disks. Each option has its own particular advantages and disadvantages.

CMOS memory is widely used in briefcase computers because of its low power consumption. The recent improvement in chip-manufacturing

technology has lowered the price and

increased the performance of these

memory devices. CMOS chips are

still slower in operation than cor- responding TTL (transistor-transistor

logic) memory devices, but their

September 1983 © BYTE Publications Inc
Page 29

speed is improving. In actual use the

speed of a CMOS memory chip does

not adversely affect the operation of

a portable computer.

Bubble-memory cartridges have

been around for a while but haven't

been widely used because of their high price. But, like CMOS memory,

their price is dropping and their use

is increasing, especially for the brief- case computers. Bubble-memory car- tridges offer several advantages over

other storage media such as floppy

disks. They operate like a floppy-disk

drive but much faster; they have no

moving parts and no disk-drive head

to move from track to track. Data is stored in the cartridge as a pattern of magnetic bubbles, and when the car- tridge is removed or power fails, the

stored data is retained. The cartridges

do not require an auxiliary battery to retain data. They require very little power to operate and are much more

rugged than conventional floppy

disks. Floppy disks are still very much the

medium of choice for people who

work with portable computers. They

are widely used, dependable, and

have a broad base of available soft- ware. With the introduction of half- height and microfloppy-disk drives,

floppy disks remain the primary

data-storage medium. The disadvantages of floppy disks include occasional incompatible recording for- mats for 5V4-inch disks and the con- fusing differences between the

various standards for the microfloppy-disk drives. Before buying a portable or trans- portable computer, find out if it can

read and write to disks from other

computers. The Kaypro II for example, can read and write

to disks created with a Xerox 820-11. And the Kaypro Users Group has

software available that will enable the Kaypro II to read other disk formats.

Rather than carry a lot of floppy

disks, you can opt for a portable with

a built-in hard-disk drive. Portables

such as the Kaypro-10

with its 10-megabyte hard disk and

the Starlite HD20 with

its 20-megabyte hard disk can serve users with very large data-storage

needs. Both have a staggering

amount of storage for a portable computer system and can handle almost

any application.

Hard-disk-drive manufacturers

carefully studied the typical environment of a portable computer and

have developed drives that have

special shock mountings and headpositioning controls to withstand

shock and vibration. For example,

both the Kaypro-10 and the Starlite HD20 have utility programs to position the read/write head in a “safety zone" on the disk that is isolated

from the data tracks; if a head crash occurs while the computer is in transit, you will probably be able to recover your data. In addition, the

read/write heads have been redesigned to be lighter and less prone to shock.

Hard-disk drives are an expensive

option, but their price is dropping.

However, they are heavier than

floppy-disk drives and consume

more power because the disk is constantly spinning while it's on. Another potential problem is the possibility of data loss due to a head crash. This occurrence is more serious with

a hard disk loaded with great quantities of data than for a set of floppy

disks. For most of the transportable computers that use the Z80 microprocessor, the de facto operating system

is CP/M. Compatibility is reasonably

assured regardless of the type of computer, magnetic media, or dis- play used. Practically every major

software application package is avail- able in a CP/M format. By using a standard operating system, you have

access to a tremendous number of programs, programming utilities, and

languages.

But the issue of compatibility

becomes much more complicated

when computer manufacturers try to make their computer emulate the

functions of another machine, as is the case with the many IBM Personal

Computer work-alikes. This continues to be a confusing issue

because three levels of compatibility

have emerged.

Incompatible disk formats or differ- ent-size media characterize the first level. For example, the DOT computer uses an 8088 microprocessor

and runs MS-DOS, but it uses the

Sony 3V2-inch floppy-disk drives,

which are not compatible with the

standard 5V4-inch drives used on the

IBM. As a result, you would have some work to do to transfer programs

from the IBM to the DOT computer.

The second level is data compatibility. Most "IBM-compatible" computers fall into this category. With a data-compatible portable, you can

transfer data created on an IBM disk

to a portable computer. But you can- not transfer the program used to create those data files. For example,

you can create a data file with an elec- tronic spreadsheet program on the

IBM and use that data on a compatible portable as long as you have the same version of the spreadsheet pro- gram for the portable.

The last level of compatibility in- cludes computers that are "almost a clone." These systems, such as the

Columbia VP offer the same graphics capabilities and keyboard as the IBM and use the same

software. They differ from the IBM

PC only with respect to the information stored in ROM. The PC has a copyright notice in its ROM. Some

programs such as Visicalc only work

correctly after locating the copyright

notice in ROM. Most software will work correctly, but in some cases you

need to get a version of the program

specifically tailored to your computer.

Before choosing a portable, find the

software you want, and then make

sure it runs on the computer you like.

Software

Bundled software is a great value.

It lets you get the computer up and

running as soon as you take it home.

Manufacturers usually offer wordprocessing, electronic spreadsheet,

database-manager, and perhaps communications packages. Some portable computers have as much as $2500 worth of software bundled

with the hardware. Bundled software

also enables you to try the various

programs before you buy a complete

system. But don't let the lure of bundled

software sway your decision on

which portable computer to buy. You

46 September 1983 © BYTE Publications Inc
may not like a particular software

package that is included with the portable computer you choose.

Selecting software is sometimes a very subjective decision. The soft- ware and hardware must combine to meet your needs. If they don't do

what you need, you shouldn't buy

them.

Defining the Workplace

When considering the purchase of

(EDITOR’S NOW:

Paae 30

a portable computer, ask yourself one more question, "Where do I need a computer most?" Do you really need

a heavy-duty CP/M system that can

be transferred from the office to home? Or do you need a computer

that can go on the road for data col- lection in the field? You may be the

ultimate computer junkie who likes

to work in pajamas in bed at 2 o'clock in the morning. Your ideal working

environment is critical in your choice

of a computer.

Summary

Choosing a portable computer isn't easy. The number of portables and

the variety of available features make

the choice a tough one. But with the

right background and some in-depth

research, you'll be able to find one

that suits your needs.

Stanley J. Wszola is a BYTE technical editor.

Excerpt from original article - directory

of portable computers extracted).

September 1983 © BYTE Publications Inc.
Multi-user Systems

Offer Substantial Savings

Page 31

Its Ken Pedersen

Efficiency goes up as costs go down.

Buy eight computers for the price of

three? If that is an offer that in- terests you, perhaps you should be considering a multi-user desktop computer

for your business. These systems can pre- sent a unique savings opportunity for you and still provide the flexibility for expansion tomorrow—if you understand their

limitations. As more and more multi-user desktop

computers are announced by manufacturers on an almost daily basis, the potential buyer of these systems will find him or

herself confronted with a set of little- known problems and issues unique to this type of computer. The customer needs to understand and be familiar with these issues in order to judge whether this invest- ment is right for him or her. There are many kinds of multi-user sys- tems, but they can be reduced to two

basic forms: single processor and multi- processor. Each of these has its own ad- vantages and disadvantages relating to

cost, performance and the number of

users that system will support. The choice

that a particular business might make re- lates directly to its own required mix of

these factors. In order to get a better idea of which system might be right for vour

business, let’s take a brief look at each.

Single processor

The single-processor-based system, as

the name might imply, is based on one

central processing unit, or CPU. This

type of system allows more than one user

to run programs by allocating a portion of

its memory to each user and servicing each user when the CPU has time avail- able. Thus, even the microprocessor and

the system memory in this configuration can be regarded as shared resources. Cost effective as this is, there is a major

disadvantage. Because many users must

share the CPU, response time (that is, the

length of time between a user request and

the computer response) can often be longer than desired. The limited speed of tcv day’s popular eight-bit microprocessors, such as the Z-80A, makes it generally

unrealistic to expect these systems to sup- port more than three or four users at a time. At the same time, these are usually the least expensive of the multi-user computers, and, on a per-unit basis, are usually less expensive per user than single-user

and multiprocessor systems.

Finally, as newer systems sport faster and more powerful microprocessors, these

multi-user, single-processor systems will be able to support more users and give

better performance than the eight-hit sys- tems they are replacing.

Multiprocessor

Multiprocessor systems are generally more powerful than singlc-pnxcvor sys terns in that they provide more than one CPU per system. Typically, each user is given one microprocessor and a full com

plement of memory to service his or her

particular processing needs. With one ex

ception, this allows the user to run completely independent from other users The exception concerns disk access Since these systems share disk storage

units, they must wait for other users who

might be getting data from the disk Multi-user systems in general have Wine hosier hard-disk systems because their capa< us

UesA tap iOAput lng

Copyright (cJ hr

Single Processor Architecture

Memory

Banks

B

D

Single-user portions

of memory

allocated

as needed

Terminal

One CPU services all resource allocations, input/output and processing requirements

Desktop Computing December 1982 7luJ ti -User Systems Offer Substantial Savings. " fen Pedersen.

Oecenber 1982. pages 48~S0.fi'. Reprinted by permission

Uayne Green Inc., 198P. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Page 32

Selection

and speed are generally a generation more

advanced than floppy disks. The hard

disk, then, can more than handle the re- quirements made on it by the multi-user environment, and the user is, practically

speaking, independent from the other

users.

Efficiency trade-offs There is, of course, a price for this extra performance. Since every user owns, so to speak, his or her own CPU and memory,

these items are not shared, and the dupli- cation of them adds extra cost to the sys- tem. The result of this duplication, however, allows the system to support more

users and give a faster response time.

Finally, there are variations between

single and multiprocessors that do not

function independently, but assist the main CPU in increasing speed and reducing response time. In order to increase the

physical number of users the system

might support, some multiprocessor sys- tems physically separate each set of CPU

and memory from the others. In such

cases, each system resides in the terminal,

and cable connections are used to bring

stations together at the common hard

disk. Since the cables have relatively slow

data transfer rates, this approach can slow down the speed of the system, but it provides flexibility in the number of users the system can support. Perhaps the most straightforward way

of seeing the financial benefits of multi- user desktop computers is in their ability to share resources. Let us take, for example, a business that requires five user sta- tions to meet its particular needs. If that business bought five single-station personal or business computers, it would also be

likely to need a printer and a floppy or

hard-disk drive for each station. These pe- ripherals alone could easily cost as much

as $15,000.

A multi-user system, however, has the

ability to share these expensive peripheral resources by controlling them from a common, centralized unit and thereby al- low the five users in our example all to have common access to one printer and

all to store their individual data and pro- gram files on one disk-storage unit. Therefore, the cost per user of these systems can

be substantially reduced from the single- user systems.

Software issue A similar, but less well-defined situa- tion, exists with software. Most software companies require that the end-user buy one copy of the particular software package for each physical machine that the

software is to run on. Since a multi-user system is one physical machine, there

generally is no need to buy the multiple

copies of software that would be necessary on single-station desktop computers.

The growing popularity of multi-user systems, however, has been of increasing concern to some software vendors. They

see lost revenues growing as more and more business managers choose to take advantage of multi-user cost savings. For example, MicroPro International, the vendor of Wordstar as well as other popular software packages, announced in May 1982 that owners of multi-user systems would be required to buy, on a slid- ing scale, multiple licenses of the product

dependent on the number of users that the system could support. It remains to be seen whether this becomes an industry trend or whether user and dealer re- sistance and poor enforcement will make

this an isolated case. Nevertheless, shared

resources remain one of the better rea- sons for considering a multi-user desktop

computer.

Multi-user issues Now that we have a basic understanding of the differences between the various

types of systems and how they can save the buyer money, we can address the is- sues that are unique to multi-user systems

in general. These problems arise out of the same factors that make the multi-user en- vironment desirable in the first place: the

ability to have more than one individual use common resources at the same time. The issues we will consider include the

following:

• Data integrity. What happens when

two people try to update the same data at the same time?

• Proper protection of your data.

• Security. How do you control access to

sensitive data files—for example, payroll

files—and other powerful capabilities of

the computer?

We will discuss these issues with the in- tent to understand what the business professional needs to know in order to make

an educated decision for his or her partic- ular business needs.

Data integrity

The term data integrity refers to how

we assure that the information in our

data files is what we believe it to be. For example, an airline data entry operator, inquiring as to seat availability for a particular flight, receives a response from a computer that there is one seat left on the

flight. In just the instant after the infor- mation was delivered to that operator, however, another operator working with

the same computer sells that last seat and

December 1982 Duktop Computing

Multi-Processor Architecture

a .an.

Terminal Terminal Terminal

CPU

and

Memory

Master Processor handles all input/output and resource allocations, but programs run with separate CPU and memory.
Page 33

Selection enters it into the computer. Our first operator now believes that there is a seat available on the flight, when it really no

longer exists. What happens now if our unsuspecting

first operator tries to sell that now nonexistent seat? Unless the system knows specifically how to deal with the situation, the results will be unpredictable. We do

not know for certain what has happened

to the data file, and therefore the file no

longer has integrity. As you can see, a single-user computer

will never have this problem because

there will never be more than one operator using the system at any given time. But the prospective business professional

considering a multi-user system must make sure that the above type of problem

never occurs in his or her accounts receiv- able or inventory system. The most simple and straightforward

solution is to assure that, in the environ- ment where the computer will be used, each user station is assigned a specific function that only it will perform. For ex- ample, bookkeeping functions will take

place only at the accountant’s user sta- tion, and inventory updates will only be

allowed from the warehouse user station. In this way, the issue of simultaneous updates will never arise. This is, however, not always practical. Perhaps it is desirable to run a single pro- gram in a multi-user environment where more than one user will he updating the same file (for example, a sales order entry

system). In this case, the computer itself must safeguard the integrity of the files. Some vendors of multi-user systems

have supplied their computer’s operating

system (the computer program that controls the computer’s resources) with a “record-locking” capability. Most simply

stated, record locking means that, when

data (or records) are being updated, no

other user can slip in and change the data during the update. This prevents the problem we have been discussing and

gives the data the integrity that we have

been searching for.

Still not sufficient Unfortunately, after saying these

things, there remains one last problem.

The mere presence of the record-locking

capability in an operating system does not mean that the application program actually uses that capability. Similar to a parachute, the record-lock- ing feature gives little benefit until it is ac- tually used by the application program. If the program is not specifically designed to use the operating system’s particular rec- ord-locking capability, this feature gives

no protection. Thus, when making a soft- ware decision for multi-user systems

where record locking is an issue, it is necessary for the prospective buyer to make

sure that the application programs as well

as the operating system offer and imple- ment the record-locking feature. Does this mean that all your software must implement record locking? No. For example, word processing usually does not require it because it is unlikely that there would be a need for having two people edit the same letter simultaneously.

When there are data files critical to your

business, however, and more than one

user will have access to them, you must make the decision as to how you will deal

The multi-user system is part of the logical

development of desktop

computer technology. As

the microprocessor

continues to become

more powerful, we will

see more and more

computers capable of

supporting multiple users simultaneously.

with the integrity problem. Popular ac- counting packages that business profes- sionals might be familiar with on single- user systems could require modification or be entirely unacceptable because of their

inability to work reliably in a multi-user environment.

Proper backup of company data is criti- cal to all computer systems, but is especially important in a multi-user environment.

More than one user is now depending on

the system. You might have more data on

the computer than a single-user system

would have. Thus it is necessary to make

sure that your multi-user system has an adequate backup mechanism other than

a floppy disk for a backup.

Why not a floppy-disk backup? Let’s step back briefly. The system you choose

will most likely use a hard disk as its stor- age medium. Hard disks can hold much

larger amounts of data and are also much

faster. This benefits the user in two ways.

First, users avoid having to run back and

forth switching relatively low-capacity

floppy disks in and out of the machine.

Also, hard disks are much faster than

floppy disks, and, with the possibility of

simultaneous requests for data, floppy

disks generally give too slow a response to be considered effective. Keeping these facts in mind, it can take up to 40 floppy disks to back up a medium

volume (20 megabyte or 20 million characters of memory) hard disk. This method

can take up to several hours, be difficult to manage properly and, for today's business

professional, is impractical.

Cartridge-tape-backup mechanisms, on

the other hand, cost relatively less (ap- proximately $2,000 to $4,000), are reliable and can back up in 15 minutes the same

hard disk that took 40 floppy disks and

two hours. For this reason, a backup

method similar to cartridge-tape backup

should be written in as a part of the mini- mum cost for the system. The possibility of vandalism, sabotage or mechanical

failure makes this extra precaution a good

and necessary investment.

Security considerations

The last issue we will consider here is one that is too often overlooked when

purchasing a multi-user desktop comput- er—the issue of software security. The

problem of security is simple: how to give

users of the computer the power they

need to perform the specific functions they are responsible for, without allowing

them access to, capabilities and sensitive data files that they do not need to have. Some of the capabilities we are con- cerned with here include the ability to do

the following:

• Delete files from the disk unit. • Modify files, such as payroll or payables.

• Rename files. As we have seen, multi-user systems

have the cost-saving advantage of sharing

resources. But now we see that we must have some way of protecting and control'

ling the confidentiality of key data files, is well as prevent others from unknowingly

or maliciously invoking powi rful ing system commands that will he harm

ful to the integrity of the system in general.

One way for a business professional to protect the security of the system is to purchase application programs <

! at have a security feature built ini then

In this type of arrangement, the user must type in a pas sword t the pi ••

after invoking it and is not allowed a* cess to the program if s he cannot sup

ply the correct code. This solution, however, i* not idc.,! First, not all applications have passu, r j support. Second, it is often relatively ras*. for a jx-rson with some programming

knowledge to outsmart this kind of ,ie\ i, c and gain entrance to the program with

Desktop Computing December 1982
Page 34

: Selection out knowing the password. Thus, the password protection becomes little more

than a temporary annoyance for the indi- vidual who is really determined to get ac- cess to the information. Finally, password

protection of application programs does

not address the critical problem of re- stricting the availability of powerful

operating system commands to the unqualified user. Therefore, a better solution

is to implement the password protection on the operating-system level, instead of

the application level. Operating-system-level protection re- fuses the user access to the computer sys- tem in general until s/he enters his or her

personal password. This password is given

to the user by the person responsible for the computer installation. This person de- termines what capabilities each user of the

system will need and what programs the

user should be able to use. The password

tells the operating system what kinds of programs the user should be allowed to use and the kinds of system commands

that the particular individual may use. Thus, when an individual logs on to the computer, the system automatically

knows the limitations that it will impose on the particular user. The data entry opProper backup of

company data is critical

to all computer systems,

but is especially

important in a multi-user

environment.

erator will be allowed access to the data

entry program only and not be allowed to

delete files, thus ensuring that the system

is secure. While no system is foolproof, this meth- od seems to be better than the previous one discussed. It is much more difficult to break into, and the user need know only one password, as opposed to remembering a password for each program. Unfortunately, not all multi-user desktop computers offer this type of sophisticated operating system security feature. Prospective buyers need to measure their particular security needs in light of the systems

that they are considering.

Summary

The multi-user system is part of the logi- cal development of desktop computer

technology. As the microprocessor continues to become more powerful, we will see more and more computers capable of supporting multiple users simultaneously.

Further, multi-user desktop computers

can offer substantial savings today as long

as the buyer understands the issues that

are unique to these types of systems. While no one system performs all the

functions discussed here equally well, the

multi-user desktop computer is an important option for those considering a computer solution to the challenges of doing

business today.

Ken Pedersen has a philosophy degree and is actively

interested in electronic and computer-generated music. You may address any comments to Mr. Pedersen in care of Desktop Computing.

Ten Steps for Choosing

a Multi-user Desktop Computer

1 * Determine how many user sta- tions you need now. If you need more than eight, multi-user desktop

computers are probably not yet ready for you. 2 • Figure how much hard-disk ca- pacity you need. Although this varies widely between applications, a good

rule of thumb is to have five megabytes

(5 million characters) per user station.

» Determine the dollars that you

are willing to spend. If your figure is less than $2,500 per station (including tape backup and printer, but not in- cluding application software), go back

to step one and revise downward or realize that your budget is not yet ready

for a multi-user desktop computer. If your number is between $3,000 and

$4,000 per user station, you will have a wide variety of choices. 4 Determine your processing power needs. Are your applications

mathematically intensive? Will you

run more than three users simultaneously now or in the near future? Is fast response time a critical requirement? If so, then you probably need a multi- processor or at least a 16-bit single- processor system. 5 Prepare yourself to do business with a single vendor. Because of the

special integrity and security issues in- volved with multi-user systems, find a vendor who is sensitive to these issues and is prepared to provide software

that meets your unique requirements,

as well as installation and training. Al- though this may cost a bit more, the comfort of knowing that you have a

single source for help is important.

6 Determine which applications

will have more than one station access- ing common files simultaneously. Is it practical to restrict this activity to a single-user station? If not, the software

that you purchase should implement some type of record-locking protection. 7 Determine your security require- ments. Will there be data files that cer- tain individuals in the organization should not have access to? If so, the operating system or the application soft- ware that you buy should have a de- monstrable security feature. 8 » Make your vendor demonstrate

the multi-user environment you are in- terested in. Too often, computers are purchased without the buyer seeing the computer in question running as a multi-user system. If you are considering a five-user system, and the vendor

can only show a single-user configuration, how do you know that the sys- tem will meet your performance re- quirements?

9 Be sure the system provides a backup. Tape backup is probably

best here, but the system should offer some backup system besides flop- py disk.

• Buy a maintenance contract. This is true for all computers, but is es- pecially important here. By purchasing

a multi-user desktop computer, you

are by definition trying to increase more than one person’s productivity.

A reasonable rate is between one and

two percent per month of the hardware’s retail price for 24-hour service. Be glad to pay it in order to keep your

people up and running.

Desktop Computing December 1982
Page 35
Page 36

Technology by Ken Sheldon Bit By Bit

My eighth-grade mathematicsteacher explained the Theory of Permutations and Combinations (a fancy

way of saying “possibilities”) in the following manner: suppose you had a coin in front of you. There would be only two

ways to display the coin, heads or tails. If you had two coins, there would be two

possibilities for each coin and a total of

Much excitement has been created by the development of the 16-bit computer. Its greater memory, increased speed and multiplied functions have outstripped the capabilities of the more conventional 8-bit machines. There may be important implications here for users of

small computers. Many such users, however, are quite in the dark about just what all this talk of bits and buses is about. Read on and Desktop will make you, if not an expert, at

least an informed layperson on this “bit" of important technology.

that computers use microscopic electrical switches with ON and OFF (which we

represent as 1 and 0), rather than coins with heads and tails. Each 0 or 1 is a bit, each 8-bit grouping is a byte, and each

byte represents either a piece of data or the address of the location of that data in the computer’s memory. Data might in- clude a letter of the alphabet, a number or

The location of a piece of data—as op- posed to the actual data—travels to and

from memory via a pathway known as the address bus. Because an address bus

that is 8-bits wide allows only 256 differ- ent locations for data storage in the memory, most 8-bit computers, by convention, have address buses that are two

bytes wide. The number of possible locafour possible arrangements: heads-heads,

heads-tails, tails-tails and tails-heads. Three coins would have eight arrange- ments, four coins would have 16, and so on. For each coin that you added there would be twice as many arrangements as before. This might not have seemed exciting to my classmates, but to those of us reared on a diet of secret codes in comic books,

the implications were obvious. With very few elements, one could devise a code

with an infinite number of possible ar- rangements, each one to stand for a particular letter or word. For example, with

just five two-sided coins, one could have

32 possible sequences, enough for all of

the letters of the alphabet, plus punctuation marks. And with eight coins, one

would have 256 (two to the eighth power)

distinct sequences. There you have it—the basic theory

behind an 8-bit desktop computer, except

Dnktop Computing March 1983

a punctuation mark, according to the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). For example,

in ASCII, the 8-bit code for the letter A is 01000001. An 8-bit computer then, has 256 possi- ble character sequences—which may seem

like an excessive number until you recall that there are both upper and lowercase

letters, numbers and punctuation marks

that need to be represented. These ASCII

codes account for half of the sequences, which are standard on all computers. The

remainder of the codes are designated by

the individual desktop computer manufacturers to represent functions available through special function keys, and to organize the way in which the computer

will enter and retrieve information—the

Basic Input/Output System (BIOS).This kind of information travels to the computer’s memory via an 8-bit pathway

known as the data bus.

tions in memory is thus 256 x 256 or

65,536. One K of memory equals 1,024

bytes, and 65,536 bytes equals 64K, which

is the maximum memory for most 8-bit computers. In concrete terms, this is equivalent to 32 double-spaced typewrit- ten pages of material. The width of address buses for 16-bit computers varies, but generally, the upper

limit is 24 bits—one 8-bit and one 16-bit sequence. The number of different pieces of information that can be addressed with

this system is two to the 24th power or a

little more than 16 million bytes of infor- mation, the equivalent of 8,000 pages of

information.

Faster than a speeding 8-bit Not only do 16-bit computers store more information than 8-bit machines,

they can process it faster. This results from the fact that in a 16-bit computer,

the registers—the devices that hold infor- 7'it bv Sit, ~ Ken Sheldon. Desktop Conputinp. (lurch 19S.\ popes IS. Seprjnted by pernission. Copyright ( ( .) by Ugyne itreen Inc . ML MOWS RESERVED.
p aqe 37

Technology

mation while it is being processed—are twice as long as those in 8-bit machines.

This is akin to having two accountants in- stead of one—they can get more work

done. A number of other computer functions

are improved through the use of 16-bit technology. They include:

1. The use of complex application packages. The extra speed and memory of

16-bit computers have made possible the development and use of integrated soft- ware packages with a number of functions on a single disk, such as Lotus Develop- ment Corporation’s 1-2-3.

2. Friendlier use. It takes a lot of instruc- tions to the machine to make a computer

truly “user-friendly” and 16-bit machines

have the room to do this.

3. Improved graphics. Computers that can address a greater number of locations can support higher-resolution graphics.

4. Faster computational speed. “Number

crunching,” or mathematically manipulating numbers, is made faster and more

efficient through the use of 16-bit machines.

5. Multitasking options. The additional memory and speed of 16-bit computers

can allow them to do two things at once, such as editing one file while another file

is being fed to a printer. This, plus faster computational speed, gives 16-bit computers a high throughput, or level of productivity.

6. Multi-user options. The increased per- formance of 16-bit machines makes the

addition of satellite terminals easier and

gives them more power.

Is 8-bit dead?

Given the impressive abilities of 16-bit computers, one might wonder how much

of a future 8-bit computers have. A recent

issue of InfoWorld queried industry leaders

and found that, in their opinion, 8-bit computers were far from dead. The rea- sons given by most were the high cost of

16-bit machines, the lack of software

available for them, and the fact that the 64K of memory available from 8-bit computers is probably sufficient for most users

at present.

Inevitably, however, the cost of 16-bit machines will come down, more software

will become available, and their advantages will attract increasing numbers of

buyers. A study released by Advanced

Resources Development of Medfield,

Massachusetts, predicts that by 1986,

16-bit systems will account for 68 percent

of the business-related desktop computer

market. Manufacturers are already gearing up

for this market, with a spate of new 16-bit machines. Desktop Computing’s New

Products section for this month alone contains announcements for new

machines from Altos, Eagle, Fujitsu,

Microcomputer Technology and

Televideo. Like IBM PC-compatibility,

16-bit technology appears to be a band- wagon, and more manufacturers are jumping on every day.

Straddling the fence

A. number of manufacturers, such as Fujitsu, are planning ahead for the coming wave of 16-bit software, without writ- ing off 8-bit technology completely. In its newly released Micro 16S, Fujitsu has in- corporated both 8-bit and 16-bit microprocessors. This strategy gives users access to the large base of 8-bit software that is already in existence, but will allow them

to use 16-bit software as it is developed.

Given the present pace of desktop computer technology, the 8-bit microprocessor in this type of machine may someday

be an interesting but obsolete evolu- tionary footnote, much like the human

appendix.

For now, there is some controversy over what makes a “true” 16-bit desktop

computer. As we mentioned earlier, 8-bit computers have data paths that are 8-bits wide and address paths that are 16-bits wide. A true 16-bit desktop computer has

a data path that is 16-bits wide and an address path that is up to 24-bits wide. Then there are the "sort of’ 16-bit computers—depending on your point of view—that are built around microprocessors with 8-bit data paths and

address paths of up to 24 bits. The Intel 8088 microprocessor, around which the IBM PC and the majority of its imitators

are built, is just such a chip. The end

result of this technology is a computer

that has a larger memory capacity than

8-bit machines and is much faster, although not as fast as a true 16-bit ma- chine—which may bother some sticklers. Finally, there are an increasing number

of manufacturers developing computers

based on 32-bit microprocessor chips or dual 16/32 chips such as the Motorola

68000. Hewlett-Packard and Callan Data

Systems recently joined the ranks of companies with 68000-based systems, includ- ing Radio Shack, Fortune Systems, Corvus and Charles River Data Systems. Does anybody really need that much

processing power? The answer is “Yes" for some business users and “No” for the average user. After all, almost everybody

needs a car, but not everyone needs a sta- tion wagon, let alone a Mack truck. In the 32-bit desktop computer range, the distinction between a "super-micro”

(buzzword watchers, take note) and a minicomputer is beginning to be difficult to discern, if not nonexistent. Bit by bit, desktop computers are growing more

powerful and—at least in terms of memory—larger. Fortunately, all that power is

still being packaged in systems that can sit on a desktop, and are well within the control of the individual user.

March 1933 Dafcttf Owyt Uj
page 38 ^ Community: Business

Purchasing Computer Power

Use a four-step outline to weigh the cost versus the

benefits of memory or storage expansion for a small business.

Mark Phillips

“Purchasing Confwtcr Power. " Hark Phillips. PC_jtojJd. Pay 19PJ. pages 292-

296. Reprinted by remission Copyright (c) PC Uorld. ill RIGHTS RtStRVCU.

Volume 1, Number 4
Page 39

In a world where successful busi- nesses are made or broken by rela- tively small changes in productivity,

the benefits provided by storage and

memory expansion devices for the IBM PC can be critical. Many manufacturers have entered the field with

hardware and software products

ranging in price from under $100 to several thousand dollars. These products include hard disks for storage ex- pansion, RAM boards and electronic

disk emulation software for memory

expansion, and software utilities such

as print spoolers for increased

flexibility.

The Business Plan

Choosing the best storage and memory expansion devices for a company

is difficult enough for those who are knowledgeable about computers. But

the choice is more difficult for the

typical business person who is unfamiliar with the latest hardware and

software developments. He or she must research technical information

as well as balance business require- ments against budgetary restrictions.

In general, purchasing additional storage for the PC should be ap- proached in the same way as pur- chasing any large fixed asset; while

not as large as some investments,

storage devices such as hard disks carry the same kinds of long-term consequences. Determining the fixed assets a company needs most requires an un- derstanding of a firm’s general busi- ness plan, methods of operation,

predicted growth, and future markets. Surprisingly, many companies,

both large and small, neglect to for- mulate a plan before plunging into business. However, this plan is the key to successfully understanding a company’s goals and determining

where improvements in productivity

are most needed.

The Decision Process Once the business plan is established, the next step is to establish a logical

procedure for choosing appropriate

storage devices. Doing so requires

following a specific outline in order

to identify what a business expects to achieve with storage and memory ex- pansion and to determine the most

cost-effective purchase. The outline should include the following four

steps:

1) Analyze the features of the vari- ous storage and memory expansion

devices. Businesses can choose

among a number of products to en- hance the productivity of the PC. Roughly, these devices fall into three

categories: hard disk drives capable

of mass storage, increased RAM ca- pacity and multifunction RAM

boards, and special software utilities such as print spoolers that allow the PC to perform several tasks simul- taneously (see Table 1). A more detailed discussion of these products

will follow later. 2) Examine the nature of the business. Does the firm require access to and storage of very large numbers of documents, customer files, or similar data? If so, a hard disk would be a good choice because of its large stor- age capacity. Does the company use software (such as WordStar) that re- turns frequently to a disk drive for program instructions or additional data? If so, memory expansion with

RAM boards and electronic disk emulation software might be the wiser

choice.

3) Consider the office environment

and the employees who will use the storage devices. Are space, noise, or

aesthetics critical? Who will operate

the PC? Is there a sufficient budget to cover the cost of the device and possible training? Is there more than one PC or are other units a future consideration? Does the business work with

copy-protected programs that can't be transferred to a hard disk?

4) Create and implement a comparative rating system. This system

should evaluate the business require- ments determined in the previous

two steps against the advantages of each product analyzed in the first step. Budgetary restrictions must also be considered at this point.

Hardware and Software Options

Researching the alternatives for stor- age and memory expansion to deter- mine the most cost-effective options

for a business requires substantial time and effort. After considering the

benefits and disadvantages of each

option, discuss the final contenders

with a knowledgeable salesperson or

consultant.

Hard Disk

For the company that manages a great deal of information, a hard disk provides the greatest benefits. Al- though it’s usually the most expensive

addition to a computer system (typically $1500 to $3000), the hard disk

offers tremendous amounts of stor- age, is relatively easy to use, and operates more rapidly than floppy disk

drives. If used as a centralized disk from which information is shared, a hard disk can support several computers in a network.

Some hard disk drives for the PC

can be installed internally (in place of one of the regular floppy disk drives). An internal hard disk significantly re- duces the fan noise of external units and makes efficient use of space in smaller offices. External units are mounted in cabinets designed to complement the PC’s styling. Tecmar

offers a subsystem cabinet that is identical to the PC system unit. Inside are a separate power supply, additional expansion slots, and the hard

disk drive in either 5- or 10-megabyte

versions. Two alternatives are the new XT, which comes with a hard

disk installed, or the IBM hard disk expansion unit for both the PC and

the XT. Computer consultants report that businesses frequently forget about

data backup. This issue becomes

important when you are dealing with

the large amount of data stored on a hard disk. Critical data may be next

to impossible to duplicate without a backup system. One consultant says

that some of her clients had thought

they could effectively rely on floppy

disks to back up data from a hard

disk. They had never stopped to real- ize how much time and energy this

PC WORLD
Page 40 • Community

backup method would take each day.

Various backup systems are available. Corvus has designed a system that

stores backup data on a videotape re- corder.

Increased RAM

The memory expansion obtained

with RAM boards is cheaper and more easily accomplished than the storage expansion a hard disk provides. Anywhere from 64K to as much as 512K can be obtained on memory expansion boards for the PC. Prices range from $200 to $1000.

The additional memory is helpful

with many programs. With more memory, for example, WordStar per- forms print spooling and block moves more efficiently, and VisiCalc produces larger spreadsheets. An

added benefit of RAM boards is that they don’t use desk space. Many manufacturers include elec- tronic disk emulation software free or at a nominal charge with the pur- chase of a RAM board. This soft- ware addresses available memory just

like a disk drive. Electronic disks function with much greater speed

than mechanical disks. One risk in- volved in using electronic disks, however, is that all stored information is erased if the power fails or is turned

off. As a result, data must be trans- ferred to some other medium or it will be lost. Electronic disk emulation is es- pecially useful to businesses that have

heavy word processing demands, be- cause it allows faster access to data than mechanical disks. Even mass

mailings on a limited scale can be handled when appropriate mail- merge software and an address list are loaded onto the electronic disk. Competition has brought multi- function RAM boards into the pic- ture. With only five slots in the PC

main system unit, expansion space is at a premium. Adding combination

boards is an easy way to ensure sys- tem growth in the future, and they

usually don’t cost much more than boards containing RAM alone.

Software Utilities Perhaps the most cost-effective pur- chase for increased productivity is a multitasking program such as a print

spooler, which dumps a file to be

printed into memory and frees the PC to handle other chores. This type

of software usually costs under $100,

so it should bring an immediate re- turn on the investment as a result of time and salary savings. Using multi- tasking programs in conjunction

with RAM expansion should further increase productivity.

Rating System

To decide which method of storage

and memory expansion is likely to bring the highest return on your in- vestment, use a comparative rating

system. First, list the hardware and

software options under consideration and then your business goals in order

of priority. Assign a weight to each

goal according to its priority. Out of

four priorities, for example, the highest priority receives a weight of 4, the next highest a weight of 3, and so on.

Hard Disk

Access time faster than floppy disk drive

Flexible, relatively secure mass storage

Easy to connect and operate

Requires extra controller board and modification of PC-DOS to address hard

disk Backup more difficult than floppy disks (can use removable cartridge, cassette

tape, and videotape)

Large external units require additional office space; internal units replace one

floppy drive inside PC chassis Some units may have objectionable fan and operating noise Can operate in a network environment

Illegal to transfer copy-protected programs to hard disk

Expensive: S 1 795 to $5000

RAM Board

Extremely rapid access (faster than hard disk) to electronic storage; certain programs (WordStar, SuperCalc) will operate more rapidly Data stored in RAM sub|ect to loss through power outages

Easy to operate Easy to copy data to other medium (floppy disk or hard disk) No desk space required

Quiet; fully electronic Other functions (clock/calendar, additional printer ports) combined on some

boards

Electronic disk emulation and print spooler software increase flexibility Moderate Cost: $200 to $1000 (depending on optional functions such as clock/calendar and printer ports)

Electronic disk emulation software free or at a nominal charge with purchase

of RAM board

Software Utilities

Permit multitasking such as print spooling

Operation easy and fast; improve productivity and speed of office tasks

Quiet

Inexpensive: $40 to $150

Table 1: Business Considerations for Hard Disk, RAM Board,

and Software Utilities

Volume 1, Number 4
Page 41

Next, assign a score to each option

according to its ability to achieve your goals. For example, if mass stor- age takes your number one spot, give

the hard disk the highest score, say a

10, and the other devices proportionally lower scores. If speed and

ease of operation weigh more heavily

in your business, give the high score

to RAM expansion. Do the same

with each business goal.

To produce a score that reflects the importance of each option in relation

to your business goals, multiply the assigned weight of a goal by the as- signed score of an option. Total the scores and see which option brings

the greatest benefit.

The following discussion takes the hypothetical XYZ Company through

an analysis of the best hardware and

software options to meet its business requirements.

The Business

XYZ Company sells office supplies

and equipment to small- and medium-sized businesses throughout a

city of some 500,000 people. During

each of the past three years, XYZ has shown a 10 percent annual increase

in sales, which has been mostly offset by inflation. This year, as a result of

the poor economy, the firm expects

income to remain flat, with sales of

computer. Smith purchased in- ventory, spreadsheet, and word processing software. The company’s

budget prohibited additional purchases.

Smith is now interested in accounts

receivable and accounts payable management. While the company could

rely on its floppy disk drives for the bulk of its current requirements,

Smith realizes account management

would be easier and quicker with

larger mass storage. At the same

time, she wants to manipulate more

of XYZ’s sales and inventory records

to predict sales trends. However,

sales analysis software requires at least 128K of memory.

Hard Disk RAM Board Sales Analysis Software

Accounts Receivable/ Payable Software

Weight Business Goals Assigned Weighted Assigned Weighted Assigned Weighted Assigned Weighted

Factor (in priority order) Score Score Score Score Score Score Score Score

4 Sales Analysis and

Projections

3 12 10 40 10 40 1 4

3 Cost Containment 2 6 10 30 8 24 8 24

2 Ease of Operation 7 14 10 20 3 6 5 10

1 Improved Business Management Techniques (accounts

receivable/payable)

8 8 5 5 5 5 10 10

Total Scores 20 40 35 95 26 75 24 48

Price Range $1795-5000 $200-51000 $350-$500 $800-51000

Table 2: Comparative Rating System for XYZ Company

Finally, decide which of the highest-scoring devices are most affordable. If the top-scoring choice

exceeds the budget, consider the sec- ond choice or a combination of less expensive alternatives. The process of elimination will determine the most

beneficial, cost-effective options for your business.

approximately $1.5 million. XYZ

maintains some 650 regular accounts and has from 100 to 150 walk-in cus- tomers daily. The average sale in- volves seven items totaling nearly

$100. XYZ extends 30-day credit to

its regular clients. Last year, to help track inventory

and handle correspondence, XYZ in- vested in an IBM PC with 64K of memory and two double-sided disk

drives. Smith, the owner, and her as- sistant are the only people using the

Complicating matters, a new of- fice-supply company down the street with extremely competitive pricing has begun to attract XYZ’s walk-in

retail traffic. XYZ’s budget allows

the firm to spend a maximum of $4000 for both hardware and soft- ware this year. But obviously the company would like to keep over- head low by reducing expenditures

for fixed assets.

PC WORLD
Pane 42

# Community

XYZ’s dilemma can be summarized this way: the firm could concentrate on the relatively inexpensive

RAM card and see much more im- mediate amortization of the cost. Or

it could select a hard disk and opt for

a more long-term capital expenditure, which conceivably could result

in manpower and other overhead

savings.

Goals

To begin a logical analysis, Smith re- views the business’ needs and establishes a list of goals for any new PC

accessories, including secondary

areas of convenience such as ease of

operation, space, and noise. Next,

she examines the time spent each month on bookkeeping. While the firm could realize some manpower

savings through automating its ac- counts, competition is the more im- mediate concern. XYZ is reasonably secure in its steady corporate customer base be- cause the new firm refuses to extend

credit. But walk-in business appears

vulnerable. In spite of its inventory

control system and an attempt to hold the line on prices, XYZ is having difficulty meeting the price competition from the nearby store. XYZ

must continue to attack overhead and

excess inventory, and reexamine its market position.

Smith believes her money will be

better spent on a more powerful sys- tem for analyzing and forecasting

sales and reviewing XYZ’s market

segment than on automating the

firm’s account management tech- niques. Analysis of current sales could lead to better inventory control. This in turn would help hold down costs and reduce lost sales re- sulting from items not being in stock. So Smith values the company’s

need for automated accounting sys- tems below sales analysis. Although

these systems would be helpful.

Smith decides XYZ’s manual systems could be used for another year.

XYZ’s final business priorities are: 1) sales analysis and projections 2) cost containment 3) ease of operation and

4) improved account management

techniques.

Options

Smith then evaluates the hardware

and software best suited to XYZ’s re- quirements. First she reviews hard

disks and RAM expansion boards.

Earlier research showed the importance of increased internal memory

with RAM for any complex analyses.

While a hard disk would make ac- count storage more efficient, without

the expanded memory the hard disk

really couldn’t assist the store’s imPurchasing additional

storage for the PC

should be approached in

the same way as purchasing any large

fixed asset.

mediate goals of sales analysis and

cost containment. The sales analysis

software is a higher priority than the accounting software because it addresses the firm’s primary goal of achieving a better competitive position; however, accounting software

would reduce labor costs.

Rating

Smith lists XYZ’s business require- ments in order of priority and then

lists the hardware and software options that could support those re- quirements, as well as the cost of

each. She judges the ability of each

option to achieve every goal by using

the comparative rating system de- scribed earlier. For sales analysis and projections.

Smith assigned the hard disk 3 points, cost containment 2 points.

ease of operation 7 points, and im- proved business management tech- niques 8 points—a total score of 32. She applied the same approach to a RAM board and the sales analysis

and accounting software (see Table 2). Upon reviewing the capabilities

and costs of both software packages,

Smith finds a hidden benefit. With

the money saved by not purchasing a hard disk this year, the company

could purchase the accounting soft- ware as well as the RAM board and

sales analysis software. With the ac- counting software in place, XYZ

could begin to phase in an automated

business management system this year, thus accomplishing an even lower priority goal. Total cost for all purchases would run approximately

$1900: $400 for a multifunction

RAM board, $500 for the sales analysis software, and $800 to $1000 for the accounting software. The succinctness and flexibility of

this comparative rating system make

it ideal for analyzing the cost versus

the benefits of any major purchase.

Additionally, for those who use a spreadsheet program, the listing and

scores fit the format of VisiCalc or

similar programs. With a spreadsheet, managers can perform any number of “what if” analyses to see how various combinations satisfy

both business requirements and budgetary restrictions. Small businesses can easily follow

the four-step analysis presented in this article. After doing so, a company can rest assured that its decision about storage and memory expansion

has a foundation in a logical appraisal of reasonable alternatives, rather than leaving decisions concerning profitability to luck.

Mark Phillips specializes in business and financial writing in the Seattle area.

Volume I, Number 4
Page 43

he printer is to the computer system what the speaker is to the

stereo: it is the device that enables the computer to communicate with the outside world. And the choice of printer is as

important to the usefulness of your computer system as the

speaker is to the performance of your stereo.

HOW TO CHOOSE A PRINTER FOR

Your

Personal

Computer

BY BRUCE THATCHER

Choosing the right printer among the hun- dreds available can be very confusing. How

fast should your printer print? How much should you spend? What kind of print quality should you

choose? How do you know whether the printer

will work with your computer?

The need for a printer with a personal computer is threefold. First, computer output is easier

to read on paper than on a video display terminal. Second, printed output provides a hard copy rec- ord of the computer’s transactions. And third, a printer enables a computer user to share information with others. Printers are used in so many places and for so many applications that no one model — or even

one technology — answers all users’ needs. For some users, speed (or “throughput”) is the single

Bruce Thatcher is Di- rector of Peripheral Product Marketing for NEC Information Systems, Inc. based in Lexington, MA.

most important factor. For others, it's the print

quality. For still others, the most important factor

is low cost. The printer marketplace has grown

right along with users’ needs, and printer man

ufacturers are constantly developing new tech

nologies to meet those needs, as well as refining the technologies employed in existing pi

All computer printers fall into one of two bn >.id categories: impact or non-impact. Thepnnt head, an electromechanical device, controls the sjxed

and output quality of most printers

Non-impact pnnters transfer images to paper

without actually striking the paper Some inrx pensive non-impact pnnters employ thermal r electrostatic print head technologies Lower

quality printing and high paj < printing methods for many user ^ Ink jet printing

LIST ~Hou to Choose a Printer for Your Personal Conputer. “ Bruce /hatcher. I IS/. Spring 1983, pages 108-110. Reprinted by permission. Copyright (c) /<4v f by Redgate Publishing Co. ALL RICHTS RESERVED.
Page 44

while high-quality and high-speed, is expensive, requires selected paper, is not very reliable and is available in only a handful of models. Impact printers employ a mechanism

for striking paper through a ribbon like the one in a typewriter. What actually strikes the ribbon is either a fully-formed character or a set of pins that form a character. The print thimble, daisy wheel, print cup and golf-ball print mechanism are used with fully-formed character

printers. Their chief advantage is the

ability to print characters that look as though they were produced by a typewriter or printing press. Character sets, or sizes, may be changed on fully-formed character printers by a change of the thimble or wheel. Despite the acknowledged use of computers in virtually all business en- vironments, resistance yet remains to a work product .that looks computer-generated. Documents bearing corporate

letterhead, in keeping with the corporate

image, destined for delivery outside of the office are more appropriately printed

by a fully-formed character printer. rUHARACTER

PRINTERS

As the personal computer buyer may

soon outgrow the memory, or electronic storage of information on silicon chips, or

the system by the creation of an ever- expanding database, so too may the

printer become outmoded unless it fea- tures the versatility and flexibility that only a fully-formed character printer can

provide. A well-planned printer pur- chase will include consideration of the volume of forms processed by many

businesses every day. A variety of user- installable forms handler can substantially reduce time-consuming

forms preparation and thus benefit

productivity. The fully-formed character printer is not without trade-offs, however. They

include relatively high cost, and slow

speed, with multi-copy letter quality out- put at 20 to 60 characters per second

(cps).

Dot-matrix

printers

Dot-matrix printers, which are faster and typically less expensive, strike the ribbon with pins carried in one or more

matrix print heads. One advantage of the dot-matrix printer is that it can print more character sets — even foreign lan- guages — without changing heads. The print head or heads in a dot-matrix printer hold a series of pins (sometimes called needles) that strike the

ribbon in matrix pattern, with one pre- determined pattern for each letter or number to be printed. The design of the

print head must be such that the pins

strike the ribbon with just enough force

to produce a clear imprint. The more dot

imprints there are in the character, the

closer it comes to approximating a fully- formed, typewriter-like character. Typically, print heads have a9x7or9x9

matrix, although newer ones can have a matrix as large as 18 x 6. Dot-matrix dual-pass printing im- proves print quality without adding additional pins, where the print head makes

two passes across each line of print, with

the dots in the second pass slightly off- set. The effect is to “fill-in” each letter, increasing density and thus its legibility, while reducing the effective print speed.

The leading drawback of dot matrix

printers is the print quality. For docu- ments that will remain in-house, such as memos and status reports, these

printers will adequately address printed

document needs. The low cost (the dot- matrix has fewer moving parts) will likely prove attractive to users with limited document distribution. Low cost dot-matrix printers print

unidirectionally, like a typewriter. That

is, the print head prints from left to right and then returns to the left side of the page before starting the next line. TTHROUGHPUT

Bidirectional printers print one line from left to right and the next from right to left, increasing throughput. Some

printers increase throughput further

with "look ahead” or “short line seeking"

logic. With this print method, the printer searches its memory while one line is printing to determine the optimum place

to begin printing the next, so that the

print head does not waste time passing over empty spaces. This is particularly useful for applications in which printer volume is important.

Print heads vary in the number of characters they will print before wearing

out. Some will print more than a half

billion characters before they need re- placing and are considered permanent. Others must be replaced more fre- quently and are considered disposable.

One company that manufactures

printers offers a ribbon with a life of more

than 400,000 characters for the first pass, producing letter-quality characters. The ribbon is then flipped over, printing 400,000 correspondencequality imprints, and can be turned again and again, to print hundreds of thousands

of draft quality characters. A serial printer has one print head and

prints one character at a time, in series. A line printer has a number of print heads

which strike the paper simultaneously,

printing an entire line at a time. Line

printers are faster than serial printers, so they are particularly useful for very heavy workloads. They are also more

expensive.

NTERFACING

The signals that determine what the

printer will print are generated by the computer, and they must be conveyed

from the computer to the printer in a form in which the printer can receive them. The device that enables two elec- tronic devices to communicate with each

other is called an interface. The interface is usually a printed cir- cuit board and cabling which together act

like a translator. There are many kinds of

interfaces, but they all fall into one of two

categories: they are either serial or parallel. If the computer sends all the bits of data needed to generate a character one

at a time along a single wire, the printer needs a serial interface.

If the computer sends all the bits needed to generate a character simul- taneously along parallel wires, the

printer must have a parallel interface.

Serial transmission is slower, but can be used over longer distances. Serial transmission is also used whenever the computer and the printer must communicate over a telephone line. Serial transmission may be either syn- chronous or asynchronous. In syn- chronous transmission, the computer

must know exactly when each bit is to be

transmitted to the printer. This means

there must be a precise timing clock built into the transmission mechanisms.

With asynchronous transmission, the receiver (printer) and the transmitter

(the computer) are synchronized by a

start bit and a stop bit for each character. The number of bits transmitted per

second is called a “baud” rate.

All the printer buyer needs to know is what type of computer he has: IBM,

Apple, NEC. The dealer will recommend

the right interface.

LIST SPRING 1983
Page 45

Printers employ three kinds of paper

feed mechanisms: friction feed, pin feed and tractor feed. With friction feed, single sheets of pa- per are fed through the printer just as they are in a typewriter: gear-driven

rollers hold the paper in place, and move

it up when it is time to print the next line. The user must either feed the sheets through manually or use a device called a "cut-sheet feeder,” which feeds the

sheets through automatically. With a pin-feed printer, you can use

"continuous forms”: rolls of paper with

horizontal perforations at regular inter- vals and sprocket holes along the sides. Metal pins on the rim of the printer’s platen, or roller, fit into the sprocket

holes in the paper to keep it aligned as it feeds through.

The limitation of the pin feed mechanism is that it accepts only one width of

paper. With a tractor-feed mechanism,

the pin feed sprockets are adjustable so you can use varying paper widths—typically from three to 16 inches. Your choice of printer should be dic- tated by what you’re going to do with it. If you need print quality that looks as though it came out of a typewriter or off a printing press, you may need a fully- formed character printer. If you simply need a low-cost printer to use once in a

while, one that prints 80 to 132 characters per line on 8 V2 x 11 paper will probably do the job. If you want a faster printer

that offers block graphics and prints on

paper up to 16 inches wide, buy one that

prints 136 to 224 characters per line at 120 cps. For correspondence print

quality, dot addressable graphics and

speed, look for a printer that prints from

200 to 350 cps, with up to 231 characters per line. D

n RELIABILITY—

THE KEY FACTOR

The single most important factor to consider in choosing a printer is probably

reliability — both of the printer itself and

of its manufacturer. The best printer in the world would be a bad buy if the manufacturer could not supply parts or you

could not find a place to have it serviced. As with anything else, it pays in the long run to choose a printer made by a reputable manufacturer — one with a long his- tory of providing quality equipment and

service. The quality will not necessarily

translate into a higher purchase price. Quality is a function of a design decision

at the start of the manufacturing process where it is built in along with reliability. In deciding how reliable a particular

printer is likely to be, ask about its MTBF and MTTR ratings. MTBF

means “mean time between failures,” and the rating is usually given in hours. If a printer’s MTBF rating is 4000 hours,

that means testing by the manufacturer

has shown the printer will typically run

for at least that long before anything goes wrong — probably longer. MTTR

means “mean time to repair, ” and is usually expressed in minutes. A 15-minute MTTR means it usually takes about 15 minutes to repair that particular printer. Buying a printer is a little like buying a

car —making the right choice is a matter

of weighing alternatives and deciding what features and options you need. The difference is in the range of options. Printers range in price from about $300 to more than $500,000. Obviously,

the person shopping for a printer to be used at home or for a small business will be looking for one priced on the low end

of the range. After deciding how much

you can afford, your choice becomes a matter of deciding what speed and

features you need and want.

Printer manufacturers are constantly

seeking new ways to increase throughput, improve print quality, and increase

the printer’s useful life. There are al- ready dot-matrix printers with variable matrices that provide different speeds

and print qualities for different applications. And soon printers will have self- diagnostics: they will, in effect, be able

to tell the user what’s wrong. As the cost of memory comes down,

printers will have even more buffer (memory) storage than they have now. They will be part of electronic newspaper and mail systems in the homes and

offices in the years ahead. For the printer, as for the computer,

the possibilities for the future are infinite.

LIST SPRING 1963
COMMUNICATIONS

Page 46

The Basics of Modems

What to look for in a modem —from asynchronous dialups to synchronous full-duplex capability.

by Kenneth R. Guy

When Alexander Graham Bell in- vented a device that allowed people to talk

to each other over wires, he did not know

that someday business machines would

communicate over the same wires. Since

the telephone network is designed to carry

the continous tones of the human voice, it cannot handle digital patterns unless a conversion process takes place. Telephone

equipment is compatible with the analog sounds of the human voice, but it is unable to handle the on/off or Morse Codetype signals of a business machine.

However, a terminal or other data communications device can transmit in- formation over phone lines if the digital output of the business machine is converted to analog format. The conversion

from one transmission scheme to another

is accomplished by modems. In effect, a modem MODulates a digital signal into analog form and DEModulates the analog

signal back into digital form at the other end. Thus, the word for modem is derived from the process for which it is used.

In normal practice, a modem must be used at each end of a data communications

line. First, the digital output of a business machine must be changed into analog form

for transmission over the phone network. When the transmission reaches its destination, the analog information must be changed again into digital form so that it can be understood or read by a computer or other business machine. (See Figure 1 .)

When humans talk over telephone connections, they use certain, procedures to greet each other and establish who is call- ing. Machines also must use handshaking

and similar electronic sequences so that an

orderly exchange of information can take

place. Data transmission can occur in either asynchronous or synchronous

modes.

Asynchronous mode involves the transmission of individual characters each

time a key is pressed by a terminal operator. Devices which utilize this type of

transmission generally have no buffer, so

the communications link remains in a wait mode until the next key is pressed. Asynchronous (or start/stop) devices generally

operate at low speeds ranging from tele- typewriters at 50 bps up to terminals which

transmit at 2,400 bps. Depending on modulation schemes and similar technical

criteria, the upper limit of asynchronous

data transmission is in the 1,800 to 2,400

bps range. Most asynchronous modems use fre- quency modulation or FSK (frequency

shift keyed) modulation. These modems

transmit a signal at one frequency to indi- cate a space, and they transmit at a differ- ent frequency to indicate a mark. The most

popular modems in this class are the Bell 103/1 13 which operate at 300 bps and the

Bell 202 which operates at 1,200 bps.

Modems from independent suppliers are often described as being compatible with

one of the basic Bell modem types. Since modems are needed at each end of a line to modulate and demodulate, they must be

used in pairs which are compatible, since they must use the same modulation

scheme to talk to one another. While asynchronous transmission is suitable for low-speed, low volume data, higher speeds and continuous data streams

require a more efficient line utilization method. Synchronous modems transmit characters in a continous transmission with no break between each character. (See Figure 2.) Both transmitting and re- ceiving modems must maintain exact timing through the use of an oscillator or “clock” which synchronizes the units. A

continous stream of characters is divided

into blocks. A wide variety of block

lengths are possible, from only a few characters to hundreds of characters. Characters are stored in a buffer until a complete

block has been assembled. The block is then transmitted at the maximum speed of

the modem together with added bits of in- formation used for error checking and

similar housekeeping functions. Synchronous-transmission modems

begin at 2,400 bps and can range to much

higher speeds, limited mainly by the upper

boundaries of available technology. From

a practical standpoint, the upper limit of modems available for standard voice lines

is 9,600 bps. Beyond that speed, special

line quality and other technical characterTERMINAL

OVER COMPUTER

CABLE

LINE OVER COMPUTER

CABLE

MODEM MODEM

c

“LTLTL p

U

KS!TM- OVER^PHONE 5!9LT»,L

Figure 1

The basics of tiedtins. " Kenneth R. Guy. Hardcopy, Septenber 1981, pages 84, 86, 90. September 1983/Hardcopy

Reprinted by pe.rnission- Copyright (c) by So

J

din Publishing, Inc. hit RIGHTS

RESERVED.
Page 47

COMMUNICATIONS

RANDOM TIME INTERVALS - START

BIT

BIT VALUE 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 ASYNCHRONOUS BIT FLOW

0 0 \ / 10 0 0

IDLE MARK CONDITION

1 = MARK

0 = SPACE

THIRD DATA

CHARACTER

SECOND DATA

CHARACTER

FIRST DATA

CHARACTER

bit value

LTLTI

0 1 0 1 000

r1 00 11 0 1 0011_000 1111

SYNCHRONOUS BIT FLOW

Figure 2

istics are needed. Synchronous modems

employ a variety of modulation schemes

which become more complex at higher

speeds. The Bell 201 modem operates at 2,400 bps in sychronous mode and nominally defines this class of unit. The Bell 208 modem operates at 4,800 bps and the

Bell 209 operates at 9,600 bps, but neither of these higher speed devices have a com- mon set of characteristics. Many independent suppliers produce synchronous mod- ems at higher speeds that are not compatible with Bell units. Data can be transmitted over a tele- phone line in several ways. When a line operates in half duplex mode, data travels

in each direction, but only one data stream

in one direction can be handled during a given time period. If terminal A transmits

to terminal B, then B must wait to reply to A until the first transmission has been

completed. The line is then turned around

in that B transmits to A and data flows in the opposite direction. When full duplex

transmission is employed. A can transmit

to B at the same time that B is also trans- mitting to A. The most common mode of transmission is half duplex since most terminals cannot handle two-way communications

at the same time. Full duplex facilities may

be used to transmit data in one direction, while the second data path is used to collect control information to monitor the

status of the communications link. It is also possible to use a data link in "simplex

mode" — data traveling only in one direction. This is seldom used for data trans- mission since there is no return information path.

Dial-Up vs. Private Lines

Each of the data transmission attri- butes described thus far can be used on

either dial-up or private lines. As the name

implies, a dial-up line is established when

the site that wants to transmit data dials the number of the site that will receive the

data. The connection is established through existing telephone company central offices over the public switched net- work. Dial-up lines can be expensive for data users. Long distance calls are charged on a time-sensitive, minute-by-minute

basis that can make lengthy data trans- missions uneconomical. However, when

data is transmitted on an infrequent schedule to a number of different locations, dial-up lines are usually the best type of connection. Users who transmit large amounts of

data on a regular basis to a fixed location may also use private (or leased) lines. These lines are technically similar to dial- up facilities but they are reserved and continually available for the exclusive use of

the customer. In effect, the business or- ganization reserves a discrete path through

the telephone system from point A to point

B for a fixed monthly charge. If a user can

transmit data over a private line for enough

hours each month to justify the fixed cost, then a private line is usually more economical than dial-up connections. In order to make an exact comparision between the cost of dial-up and private lines, such factors as transmission length (in miles) and

total time of data calls, must be carefully evaluated along with cost of modems, ter- minals, etc.

Some customers utilize a private line for both voice and data. Many modems in- clude a switch that allows normal voice conversations when data is not being trans- mitted. Private lines give users more control over the communications link and

allow the utilization of phone company

conditioning to control noise interference.

It also allows users to perform line tests to assure that their transmission is not inter- rupted by degrading line quality. An important benefit of private lines is the ability of the user to install equipment that will allow the use of multiple data streams so

that line utilization can be optimized.

In order to standardize the connection

of modems to terminals and business machines, the Electronic Industries Assocation (EIA) has developed a common

standard. Designated the EIA RS232C in- terface, the standard defines a pm arrange- ment of data signals, timing signals, control signals, and ground wires that are needed to complete data transmission over

a dial-up or private phone line (Sec Figure

3.) The RS232C connector is the most commonly used method of linking terminals and modems, and it is functionally

similar to the CCITT V 24 interface that is used for the same purpose in other countries.Modem technology changes rapidly.

Hardware costs are decreasing while mod- ems are becoming more sophisticated with

features designed to avoid errors and im- prove the reliability of data transmission Most modems have indicator lights to sig- nify that communication lines are operating correctly. This is usually provided by

indicators that correspond to the most imSepterrDef i96J>«0'C}cooy
Page 48

COMMUNICATIONS

-Transmitted data (BA)-

-Received data (BB) — >

.Transmitted signal element timing (DA)--*

-Transmitted signal element timing (DB) —«• Received signal element timing (DC)

-Received signal element timing (DD)

MODEM

(DATA

SET)

-Request to send (CA)-

Clear to send (CB) —

•Data set ready (CC)-

•Data terminal ready (CD)

-Ring Indication (CE)

-Data carrier detector (CF) -Data modulation detector (CG)-

Speed selector (CH)

-Speed selector (Cl)

Data

Signals

Timing

Signals

DATA

TERMINAL

Control

Signals

-Protective ground (AA)-

-Signal ground (AB) -> Grounds

(CONNECTIONS SHOWN AS DOTTED LINES OPTIONAL)

EIA STANDARD

RS232C interface

(or CCITT recommendations V.24)

Figure 3

portant signals in the RS232C interface. For example, when a connection is established with the phone line (or data carrier),

a carrier indicator will be illuminated. This

tells the operator that the phone line is ready for data transmission. Many modems also have features to check the status of a line between modem

pairs by sending a test signal. This type of loopback shows the operator whether the

line can send data in both directions correctly. Loopback tests are also available on more advanced modems to check whether modems and their attached busi- ness machines are functioning correctly.

Modem and line testing can become highly

technical with the use of specialized diagnostic equipment. This level of expertise is normally employed on nationwide privateline networks that must remain operational 24 hours per day. Most users can get by with less de- manding test capabilities. Dial-up customers often keep spare modems available to help isolate faults. When a malfunction in a modem is suspected, an operator can

substitute a spare unit to see if the problem

is eliminated. In the same way, an alter- nate dial-up line can be called up if line

problems are affecting transmission. Pri- vate line users can configure their modems

to switch to dial-up connections when a

failure is detected in the leased line. Many modems now perform automatic

functions that previously had to be initiated by an operator. An automatic-an- swer feature allows a modem to respond to an incoming call and automatically connect to data terminal equipment (DTE).

This capability is useful at a remote site which has data stored in a terminal and

ready to send. During night-time hours,

when data traffic drops off or dial-up rates are lower, a computer center can dial the remote site and receive the previous day’s

business information — all without the in- tervention of an operator. Modems with

auto dial features have similar capabilities

in the areas of initiating calls automatically- Modem Costs

Modem costs are a moving target. The

general trend incorporates steadily in- creasing features at progressively lower

costs. Many suppliers provide volume dis- counts for large purchases, and total cost may also depend on whether on-site maintenance is needed. For customers

who operate with several lines and a small number of modems, the following price ranges apply: • A 1 ,200 bps dial-up modem with

intelligent auto dial is priced be- tween $550 and $1 ,000. • A 2,400 bps full duplex dial-up

modem costs just under $ 1 ,000. • In the synchronous modem do- main with full-duplex capability and

a standard array of test features, a 2,400 bps unit ranges from $650 to $750; a 4,800 bps modem costs be- tween $1,600 and $1,800, and a 9,600 bps device ranges from

$2,500 to $3,000. Customer data needs typically expand

and network requirements escalate. As

equipment becomes more powerful, users

often can improve the utilization of exist- ing phone lines by acquiring more versatile transmission devices. It is common for large corporations with national networks

to save thousands of dollars per month of

existing phone bills by transmitting multiple data streams over existing phone lines. Users transmitting less data can employ

similar methods to enjoy economies of

scale that produce higher transmission throughput at lower cost without upgrading existing facilities. A typical data user with a VAX pro- cessor at a central site may operate with two data lines to a remote location. A 300- bps line operates with teleprinters to send

administrative messages between the two

locations. A higher speed 1 ,200-bps link is utilized to send order-entry information from a remote display terminal to a VAX

processor. Such a company might expand the re- mote location by installing seven more dis- play terminals to handle the sharp rise in orders. The company might look for ways

to avoid using a separate phone line with two modems for each communicating ter- minal, a total of 14 additional modems and

seven new data lines. The manager of data processing might investigate the possibility of installing a pair of 2,400 bps modems, together with a pair of multiplexers,

to concentrate the individual terminal data onto a single phone line. This option ap- pears to offer increased transmission capability at lower cost. 0E Kenneth R. Guy is direction of sales and

marketing of ComDesign Inc., Goleta, Calif

(Editors Note: Next month Kenneth R. Guy will discuss the basics of multiplexers).

September 1983/Hardcopy
Page 49
FOCUS

Page 50

Software

Evaluation

By

Michael Hammer

Anew cliche is abroad in the land of office

automation. Pundits, analysts and commentators have concluded that software, not hardware,

is the key component of an QA. system.

Software is clearly the rage. Venture capitalists are falling over each other to fund the start-up of new software companies, and existing companies are being bought out at incredible prices. This discovery

of software comes as a surprise only to those who

regularly watch television when nothing is being

broadcast. Except in the case of a few old hard-wired

machines, the functionality of a modern office sys- tem is delivered by software applications running on

a hardware base. Hardware is just a pile of electronics until complemented by software. Why, then, the

' as.' ion ' One reason is .".Arawarr ;s increasingly be-

„vrr ~.£ a commodity. both literal- ly and figuratively There is growing standardization (or at

least similarity! among the hard- ware components that form an OA system. Systems integrators have been increasingly acquiring

these components from the same

small set of suppliers. As a result, both value-added and differentiation are more and more often coming from the soft areas: service, marketing, support and, In particular. software. Moreover, the last three to four years have seen the flowering of software packages, especially in the office systems arena. Until re- cently. office systems software was almost always bundled with

the hardware: tt was developed

[directly or otherwise) by the sys- tems vendor and sold together

with its hardware base. As a re- sult. the customer typically

bought a complete, fixed-function system. The notion of software as

a separately configured, priced and purchased product was not

widespread.

H

istorically, software

products (packages) were confined to relatively narrow segments of the DP industry. Although packages were built and sold In wide varieties, their major successes were In three

areas:

• Large-scale and complex sys- tem software products, such as

data base management systems, whose construction would have exceeded the capacity of user

organizations.

• Nonstrateglc applications for large DP users — typically financial applications from payroll to general ledger — where the ad- vantages of ln-house development

(In terms of functionality) were

more than outweighed by the cost, timeliness and reliability advantages associated with package

acquisition.

• Applications for small organizations with neither the expertise nor the resources to develop soft- ware themselves. The personal computer was a Computerworld QA

major force In bringing the soft- ware package to the office envi- ronment. The personal computer

delivers to an Individual s desk

the computational resources of a significant general-purpose computer. Software Is at the heart of

this capability. Such an Individual could not be expected to write all required software, and a host of suppliers sprang up to develop and distribute this software. For the first two years of the

personal computer era, personal

computing and office automation were widely viewed as disjoint. QA

products were closed-end, limited- function devices without even the

capability of running additional

software. More recently, however,

the Industry has recognized that

lurking under every QA product Is a general-purpose computer, ca- pable of supporting additional software packages and thereby

acquiring a broader functionality.

“The industry

recently recognized

that lurking under

every QA product is a general-purpose

computer that can

support additional

software.”

It Is now widely recognized that

the personal computer Is a funda- mental component of an office system, and personal computerlike capabilities (In the form of personal computer operating sys- tems) are increasingly being add- ed to products otherwise labeled

office systems. As a result. Indi- viduals responsible for OA must now also develop guidelines and

techniques for evaluating and ac- quiring software packages for per- sonal computers and office

products. This responsibility represents a major new challenge to OA and DP

groups. Vendors developing OA

software and distribution channels that bring these products to the customer differ significantly from those with which many orga- nizations are comfortable and fa- miliar. In addition, OA and

personal computer software sys- tems have different characteristics and objectives from software products used In more conventional DP environments. Fbr these reasons, organizations must de- velop criteria and means for as- sessing the appropriateness and

quality of software products. The contemporary software

scene is awash In hyperbole and

cliches. Such terms as "powerful," "flexible," "user-friendly"

and "easy to learn" are tossed about with careless abandon. No

one Is quite sure exactly what

these terms mean. However, ev- eryone seems to agree these characteristics are all good things, and

all vendors are certain their packages have them In abundance. More than any other, the issue

of user Interfaces and their ease

of learning and use Is one in which Imaginations are given free rein and extravagant claims are

the norm. T

horeau once said. "Patrio- tism Is the last refuge of the scoundrel." Today,

that remark might be better applied to "user-friendly." There Is no agreed-upon definition for the term nor any standard for what

constitutes a truly usable system. "Ease of use" often seems to be

like pornography: We may be unable to define It, but we know It when we see It. "Ease of learning" and "ease of use" are often used Interchangeably. The two concepts have some

relationships, but they are quite

distinct and often antithetical. On

the whole, ease of learning refers

to the simplicity with which a novice casual user, unfamiliar

with the system, can develop a

sufficient comprehension of the system and Its capabilities to ac- complish some useful work with

It. Ease of use usually refers to how readily a more sophisticated

and experienced "power" user can exploit the potentials of the

system. The factors that make a system easy to learn are often

very different from — and In fact may be inconsistent with — those

that make It easy to use. The key issue In making a soft- ware package easy to learn Is to reduce the user’s anxiety factor by making the system as familiar as possible. A system is easy to learn If In fact there Is not very much new about It that the user has to learn. The goal Is for the user to approach the system al- ready familiar with many of Its concepts and much of Its terminology. A system that requires a ca- sual user to learn a new mode of thinking and an entirely new vo- cabulary can prevent a novice from coming to grips with It. All too often, computer Jargon finds

Its way Into systems designed by

even the most well-intentioned. Tb a non-technically oriented

individual, software systems ap- pear to operate by magic, and this

”A system that requires a casual user to learn a new

mode of thinking

and new vocabulary can prevent a novice

from coming to grips with it. ”

Is often overlooked in user Inter- face design. Users who do not pos- sess an understanding of the

Internal operation of a system

treat It like a black box and Induce

a model of Its operation from their observation of Its behavior. People

Inevitably build conceptual models of tools they use. Such models

are not expressed In technical

terms, but In terms of elements and structures from other do- mains with which the user te fa- miliar. (Fbr example, the user of a word processor may think of his screen as corresponding to a sheet

of paper and the operations per- formed as corresponding to activi- ties that could be done with a

"Softvnre Evaluation", Michael Manner, ConputerUorld. June 15. 1985. pages 55

54. 56. 58. 59. Reprinted by pernisxion. Copyright (c) by Or. Michael Manner

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
FOCUS

Page bl

typewriter.)

It Is Important that the user'si conceptual model be operationally

correct A user should be able to predict accurately the effect of any command by thinking about

It In terms of the analogous model

basis for use. An easy-to-learn system must

be designed to be learned. Novices

are rarely able to comprehend the

full capability and utility of a sys- tem when they first approach It. They should not have to learn sys- tem facilities and concepts they do

not need. In order to use those

they do need. Modular design Is a

principle that applies not only to the Internal design of software

systems, but to their Interfaces as

well. The style of an Interface

should be such that the user does

not confront things he does not understand until he Is ready for them. The command set should be

organized In such a way that min- imal subsets can be readily

learned and used. To reduce a novice’s anxiety

factor, the system should provide

assistance, feedback and a forgiv- ing working environment. Helpful

system prompts, menus, on-line documentation and the ability to

roll back regretted actions are among the techniques employed

to achieve this kind of pleasant

context. B

alanced against the factors that make a system

easy to learn are those

that make It easy to use for some- one who has already learned it. The simplicity, helpfulness and

friendliness that characterize an

easy-to-learn system are usually

annoying and often counterproductive for more experienced users. The experienced user has

already Internalized a model of the system and Its capabilities. Fbr a "power” user, the princi- pal design objective Is efficiency. The experienced user knows what

he wants to do and. usually, how

he wants to do It. He needs a sys- tem that allows him to get his work done quickly and painlessly and that keeps out of his way. It should also provide a rich set of powerful tools. The casual user may find these tools sophisticated and even complex, and their number overwhelming. However, they

offer relief from frustration and

drudgery to a "power user," who

has Invested the requisite time In learning and understanding these

features. While perhaps not userfriendly. a powerful and flexible system Is often most usable be- cause it allows a user to extract from the computer the maximum

functionality with a minimum of overhead. Thus, the designer of an easyto-use system must anticipate the broad range of users' needs and

provide a set of commands that al- lows such users to accomplish

their objectives as directly and

quickly as possible. Minimization

of overhead and conceptual effi- ciency are key design objectives. The experienced user Is likely to find a small set of easy-to-learn

features terribly difficult to apply

Computervrorld QA

to any Interesting complex problem. The utilization of such primi- tives often entails additional

steps, both In formulating a mode

of attack and In carrying It out. The user wants a system that al- lows him to accomplish directly what he wants to do. A large col- lection of powerful commands Is often the hallmark of an easy-to- use system. However, simply tossing together every possible desirable feature, plus the kitchen sink, does

not yield ease of use; It yields a mess. Consistency and a set of unifying principles are the glue

that holds together what would

otherwise be a chaotic collection

of unrelated features. The entire system must have an underlying

logic that, when appreciated by

the user, provides a reliable means of remembering the sys- tem's capabilities and even deduc- ing the meaning of new constructs. Even a sophisticated user

will not use all parts of a system

with equal frequency, and there- fore requires assistance In re- membering features used less

frequently. Moreover, this user Is likely to explore the fringes of a system, searching for advanced

capabilities, and should be

equipped to do so on his own.

Natural and familiar concepts

may be Inadequate to carry this

off. But, although they may be In- dividually complex, the set of

principles underlying the system must be few In number. When basic concepts or exceptions to the

rules proliferate, harmful complexity results. Part of a system’s efficiency Is determined by how well It assists the user in avoiding errors and

waste. The virtues of systems that allow for graceful recovery from

mistakes have been well-publicized. Attention should also be

given to design features that Inhibit making such mistakes In the

first place. Careful keyboard lay- out and command naming are major steps to achieving this end. A frequent user should also be

able to personalize the system, whether to rename commands In a fashion more congenial to him,

to create new commands from se- quences of old ones or to cause

certain activities to be performed

automatically at designated times. In the best of all possible

worlds, a system would be both

easy to learn and easy to use. It would achieve this by presenting

to the novice a subset of Its capabilities that are useful, but not so powerful as to be Intimidating.

The user could acquire this easy- to-learn part of the system and

gradually come to terms with Its more powerful features.

Alas, such designs are rare, and

not just because of the blindness

of system developers. Many appli- cations do not readily lend themselves to such a multilevel

Interface. In reality, we must confront the question, "How important Is user-frlendllness?" We

must confront trade-offs and

compromise. User-frlendllness Is usually achieved at the expense of some factor, typically system capability or ease of use for the more

experienced user. The question of the Importance

of ease of learning cannot be an- swered In general; It depends In a major way on the characteristics

of the Individual application. If an

application has a very high value

to the user, the Interface must be he has developed in his mind.

Confusion, not Ignorance, Is the enemy of ease of learning. If a

novice does not know what a com- mand means, no great harm is done. Trouble begins when he In- correctly thinks he knows what It means and his observation of Its behavior does not match his expectation. At this point, the user’s frustration boils over; he throws up his hands and declares the sys- tem makes no sense. It is very Im- portant that the system be

designed In such a way that the

user’s apprehended model of Its operation provides an accurate

-very bad Indeed to prevent him

from using It. For applications of marginal value, where the user Is not compelled to employ the sys- tem. a hard-to-learn Interface may discourage a user from ever

getting started. O

n the whole, the issue of user-frlendllness is currently being overplayed.

In the long run, the success of a software system will be deter- mined more by functionality and

ease of use than by whether It can

be learned in one hour or two. The

factors that militate toward ease

of learning at the expense of other

criteria are temporary and declin- ing in significance. These include such issues as user populations unfamiliar and uncomfortable

with computer systems, and a milieu In which the use of automated systems Is still something of a

novelty. We are Inevitably heading into an era In which computer

literacy is the norm rather than

the exception, utilization of computer systems is the standard mode of operation and extraction of maximum capability from

available tools Is essential. In this environment, users can be ex- pected to make the Investment

needed to learn a system, provided

It offers them substantial functionality that can be effectively harnessed. In other \rords, the ca- sual user may be an artifact and a

transient phenomenon.

Which brings Us to another

contemporary fad; the all-inclusive. integrated software package

that provides a range of capabilities. typically with a more or less consistent Interface across the

functions, as well as the ability to move conveniently from one sub- system to another. The particular functions vary from system to system, but typically they Include word processing, records processing. spreadsheet and graphics

tools. They may also Include such

things as electronic mall and a calendar. Although It Is certainly preferable to have a collection of Integrat- ed tools rather than the same tools on a nonlntegrated basis, the simple fact of bundling and integrat- ing these tools will not compensate for deflciences In their individual functionalities.

Office automation Is not synergistic. A collection of mediocre com- ponents remains mediocre and

does not achieve additional value because of its integration. As a

rule, an office system user does

not need rudimentary capability

in a number of areas. Rather, the user requires extensive functionality in a particular area — the motivating application driving the use of the system. Other functions. while desirable, cannot be provided at the expense of the

core capability. Other factors besides functionality, ease of learning and ease of use contribute to the quality of an QA software package. The quality

of the documentation, both as a learning aid and as an ongoing

reference. Is of major Importance. The software Itself Is Just part of

“The success of a software system will be determined more

by functionality and

ease of use than by

whether it can be

learned in one hour

or two. ”

the extended product that in- cludes the documentation, train- ing and support provided by the

vendor. The vendor itself must be

evaluated as part of the software

selection process. Can Its claims

be believed? Does It have the re- sources to remain on the scene at least for the expected lifetime of

its products?

Although careful evaluation of prospective QA and personal computer software packages Is Indi- cated. a lengthy and costly

evaluation process Is often out of the question. User demand for software Is very high, and an QA

organization that delays Its users

while It conducts lengthy evaluations will soon acquire a reputation for heel-dragging

In any event, there are too many software packages, with new ones being Introduced all the

time, to allow a user organization

to do a thorough review of all the

alternatives QA departments will have to Identify external sources

of Information and evaluation upon whom they can rely for as- sessments of software packages — assessments that will have to be Interpreted In the light of the organization's unique require- ments and experience as

Hammer Is president of Ham

mer and Co., a Cambridge

Mass., management consulting firm specializing In the Impact of new technology He Is also an as

soclate professor of computer

science at MIT
Page 52

LAW

Copying Computer Software:

What Risks, What Penalties?

A

branch of the law specializing in

i computers and electronic infor- mation dates back to the first mainframes. Much of this early computer law was concerned with contracts with vendors for hardware and soft- ware. Today those and other concerns are coming into prominence

with the advent of personal computers as a consumer purchase. Some of

the legal questions raised by the de- velopment ofpersonal computers are

traditional legal questions recast for

the electronic medium; others are wholly new questions raised by the personal computer’s unprecedented

capabilities. In this new column on computer

law. Personal Computing intends to explore these questions and what

they mean to you, the personal computer user. This month the first col- umn explores copyright law, and ex- amines the legal implications of

copying or modifying software. The

column was prepared in consultation

with Daniel T. Brooks of Computer

Law Advisers in Springfield, Va. In- volved with computer lawfor two decades, Brooks holds degrees in law

and electrical engineering from

Stanford University. He is also the secretary of the 1 0-year-old Computer Law Association, a professional society independent of the American Bar Association.

The author of a software package

can protect his rights of ownership in four bodies of law: trade secret, contract, patent, and copyright. In fact, a given software package may actually be protected by more than one set of

laws. But commonly, personal computer software is protected under

copyright law. Copyright is federal protection of

intellectual property. According to the 1976 Copyright Act, works writ- ten after January 1, 1978, are auto- matically protected by copyright.

Registration of that copyright with

the Copyright Office of the Library

of Congress is an elective procedure.

Two elements are needed in order

to take out a copyright—the author’s

ideas, and the tangible expression of those ideas. The idea for a plot of a

novel is not subject to copyright, but

the novel itself—the expression of

those ideas—is. Similarly, the idea

for a spreadsheet computer program

cannot be copyrighted, but a specific

computer program written to do the spreadsheet can. Congress specifically intended the

1 976 Copyright Act to cover computer programs as a subcategory of liter- ary works. Compressing the sub- stance of several sections of the Copyright Act into a single state- ment, copyright law protects 1 ) origi- nal works of authorship 2) fixed in tangible media of expression 3) from

which they can be perceived, re- produced or otherwise communicated

4) directly or indirectly, with or with- out the aid of a machine or device 5)

for a period of more than transitory duration. Under the Copyright Act, the author of the computer program is the owner of the copyright. Generally the author of the program is the person who writes it. The major exception is for employees who wrote the program

as part of their job; in that case the employer is considered the author. The copyright owner has five exclusive rights. He is the sole owner of the

rights to reproduce his own work in copies, prepare derivative works

based on the original, perform the work publicly, display the work publicly, and distribute the work to the

public. Those rights are divisible

that is, the owner can split them up

and assign them to others as he desires. He can, for example, sell distri- bution rights for his program to a software manufacturer.

What the user gets

What you get when you put down

your money for the package in your

local computer store depends on

whether you acquired your particular copy of the program through sale or through lease. In the case of personal

computer software that distinction may not always be obvious.

If the disk of the program was sold

to you so that you own it (as you own

the copy of a book you buy), then under Section 1 17 of the 1976 Copyright Act you have two statutory

rights. First, you have the right to make as many copies of the program

as you need in order to use it or to store it for backup or archival purposes. You do not have the right to make and distribute extra copies of

the original program to someone else any more than you have the right to photocopy Moby Dick and hand out

copies. Second, you have the right to modify the program to make it appropriate for your use. But you don’t have the right to distribute the modified version of the program—even though part of it is your own work. When you put down your money

for the disk at the computer store, thinking that you bought the soft- ware package, you may in fact have

leased the disk for a one-time fee. How can you tell? If the disk of the program is leased, the license that comes with the disk (sometimes vis- ible through the shrink-wrap) should make that distinction clear. (If it May 1983 PERSONAL COMPUTING

Reprinted uith pernission iron Personal Computing, flay 1983. pages 131.

132. 134, and Copyright (c) 1983. Hayden Furnishing Conpany.
Page 53

LAW

doesn't, in most retail situations you

probably have a purchase.) The li- cense accompanying a leased copy is a contract which spells out the rights

you have. To ensure its enforceability, some manufacturers require

that a prospective user sign and re- turn a copy of the license agreement

before the company will deliver a fully executable version of the software. Usually the license terms for a leased

disk are more restrictive than the ones governing owned copies under

copyright law. The basic principle

with licenses is that unless the license says you may do something, you may

not do it. Unless the license gives you

explicit permission, you may not copy

the program. You may not modify it in any way. You certainly can’t make

copies and distribute them. There is a concept of “fair use” in the Copyright Act covering how much use you may

make of someone else’s literary material for your own purposes, but per- sonal computers are so new that it is not clear how fair use applies to computer software. Assuming you bought the disk, or

that the license agreement permits you to modify the program for your own use, one common question is how

much do you have to modify a pro- gram before it’s yours? The answer is you can’t modify it enough to make it yours. If you add new ideas, logic,

coherence and design while retaining

parts of the original program code,

it’s not clear what the resultant work

is. It’s probably two works: your adaptations and the author’s original.

In that case, if either of you wants to distribute the modified program, you

have to get licenses from each other. When infringements are pursued

The typical home user doesn’t really care about all these legal points. He’s

going to copy or modify a program

because he needs to. So is the average computer user in an office. The single

biggest threat to the distributors of computer programs is the copying

that goes on in the commercial context. About 85 percent of microcomputer sales are to Fortune 500

companies and professionals, making

business users the biggest segment of

the market. In the office environment

the employer is often the purchaser

and copies are routinely made for the

benefit of fellow employees.

In order to pursue an infringement,

the author or manufacturer has to find out that a violation has occurred. That may seem obvious, but discov- ery isn’t always easy. The individual user in the home or office is often immune from prosecution simply be- cause it’s impossible for the manufacturer to police every individual

personal computer user in the country. There are instances where manufacturers have pursued computer

clubs for wholesale copying. Microsoft’s reported action against the Home Brew Computer Club on the San Francisco peninsula in 1976 is one example. And there are many

stories of manufacturers’ representatives making unannounced visits to computer clubs to warn members

against copyright violations. Software manufacturers rarely sue

a commercial customer who buys in large volume and whom they’d like to keep. So they don’t often pursue a

violator if they think a lawsuit will put a damper on future relations. More often they go after the professional pirate who is making and dis- tributing black market software.

They also tend to pursue an employee

who goes out the door with the tape

trailing from his pocket and sets up a competing business, or the bitter rival down the street who tried to steal their secrets. There are case£ of

customer-competitor lawsuits in which a user licensed a program,

made some modifications and

thought he had his own program, and then went into business in competition with the original

manufacturer.

Finally, it has to be worth it to the prosecuting party to pursue charges.

If the cost of a lawsuit threatens to

outweigh the money to be gained by

bringing suit, the manufacturer will probably drop the charges.

Penalties for infringement

The copyright owner is entitled to actual damages. In the case of a $200

computer program, it’s difficult to specify what those damages would

be. One form of damages might be

the purchase price that wasn't re- ceived for the lost sales. But actual damages are complicated and diffi- cult to show, so the 1976 Copyright Act also provides for so-called stat- utory damages that can be invoked

instead. The statutory damages are

not less than $250 and not more than

$10,000 per infringement. The

amounts vary with the number of works infinged upon, but not with the number of pirate copies generated at any one time.

In addition, the manufacturer can

seek an injunction against the vio- lator and impoundment of the in- fringing copies. Injunctions are typically what people use copyright law

for, and they are a very powerful deterrent. If the case goes to trial, the lawsuit can run for years. Even before the case comes up, one alternative available to litigants is the temporary restraining order or prelimi- nary injunction. The certificate of copyright registration is prima facie evidence of the rights assigned under

the Copyright Act: “Here, your honor, I am the owner of the copyright of

this particular work, and this guy's

made copies of it. They weren't authorized copies. Make him stop " Often that is enough to get the copyright owner a preliminary injunction

If that preliminary injunction is granted, in most circumstances the case is over right there. Basically the defendant is out of business, with an enormous incentive to settle. Finally, there are criminal penalties for copyright infringement Fines of up to $10,000 or one year's imprisonment. or both, arc possible pun- ishments for willful infringement

PERSONAL COMPUTING May 1983
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LAW

“for purposes of commercial advantage or private financial gain.” Be- cause it’s such a headache to bring

suit against individuals in the home

or office, manufacturers try to dis- courage casual illegitimate copying

by coding programs so as to make

copying difficult (which has, by the way, given rise to a whole new industry of nibble copiers to defeat those

codes). Manufacturers also structure

their support to deny service to those with black market copies. Often the most important thing to a private

user is his ongoing relationship with

the manufacturer. He relies on this for updates, modifications, follow-on products, help with problems and

questions, and essential long-term

maintenance. If, for example, you try

to call some software companies for help, the first thing they want to know before they talk to you is the

serial number of your particular copy

of the program. Sometimes this is honored more in the breach than in the observance, but the serialization process does give the manufacturer

the power to exclude you from the support that is critical to you. Rule of thumb

In general, if you make copies or modifications for archival purposes

or for your own use alone, you’re not

violating copyright law, and you may

not be violating a license. But once you hand a copy of either the unaltered or the modified work to someone else while retaining the original or a copy for yourself, chances are

excellent that you have infringed on someone else’s copyright.

//you have legal questions regarding

personal computing and the law that you would like to see discussed in future columns, address them to: Trudy E. Bell, Associate Editor

Personal Computing

50 Essex Street Rochelle Park, N.J. 07662

Sorry, we cannot personally an- swer or acknowledge questions. S3

PERSONAL COMPUTING May IV8J
Page 55

See what free software

you can snare for little more

than your time and phone costs.

ESSAY

Free Software:

Is It Any Good?

There are some powerful programs that are yours

for the asking—if you know who to ask

by James E. Fawcette, Executive Editor

I

f you're as skeptical as I am, you probably think free software is worth exactly what you pay for it. After all, if getting powerful applications programs or clever computer

games were as easy as logging onto a public computer bulletin board or ex- changing disks with friends at a local user's group, how could vendors get

away with selling programs for hundreds of dollars a copy?

The answer is straightforward: Al- though there are authors who offer valuable software free to any user, finding these programs and figuring out how to use them is a challenge not everyone is willing to face. But if you

truly enjoy using—and experimenting with —your computer, searching

for these few diamonds in the rough

can be a rewarding experience. It’s an

excellent way to learn about personal

computing, particularly how to use telecommunications facilities—and,

as an extra bonus, you may turn up some good software in the process. Sometimes the independent pro- grammers who write free software

are bit-freaks for whom programming is an ali-consuming hobby, but

often they're businessmen who began

using computers at work and became

proficient at writing their own applications programs. These amateur

software authors may then offer their programs to the general public to show off their achievement, to share

their accomplishment with their

peers, or to genuinely help other people solve a common problem. Often,

programs of widespread interest are not only widely adopted, but go

through a series of refinements as users add their own revisions, find and debug problems, or expand the program's capabilities.

As a result, some free programs

have been thoroughly tested by thou- sands of users, and checked and re- written by dozens of skilled pro- grammers. But finding these gems

can be difficult, since they’re hidden

among literally thousands of free programs, most of which are utilities written to solve extremely narrow,

specific problems, or systems pro- grams of interest only to serious

programmers. None come with guarantees. (But then, what software

does?) Few have any kind of documentation, and the only kind of support you’ll find is from other users. If you’re enthusiastic enough

about personal computing to be will- ing to tackle these hurdles, then let’s take a look at some ways to search for useful free software, and give you a sample of a well-traveled public program. Many free programs are widely

circulated among user’s groups,

simply through exchanging floppy

disks. You can find specific user’s groups for each major brand of computer in most parts of the country.

Try asking the salesman at your computer store. But if you don’t have the time or inclination to become in- volved in these groups, you can still enter the world of free software as

easily as dialing up a computer bulletin board. Literally hundreds of these

services have sprung up across the country. In essence, they are a form

of electronic mail, allowing users to leave or retrieve messages from the computer-equivalent of a post office box. Creators of free software can

leave their programs in these elec- tronic mailboxes for anyone to use. To access a bulletin board, all you’ll

need in addition to your computer is a modem, communications software,

and a telephone line. The more capable your system is, however, the easier it will be to download files. If large

files are needed or extensive on-line time is anticipated, a powerful sys- tem with large memory, say 256k or more, a 1200-baud modem, and a software buffer is desirable, though

not essential. Most users tap into public software with machines ranging from Ataris to Apple I Is, Bulletin boards range from vsidclyused commercial services such as CompuServe to small networks sup

ported by local groups of enthusiasts A list of 400 bulletin boards for Apple, IBM, Atari, Radio Shack, and

other personal computers can be ob

tained by calling the People s Mcs

sage System (Santee, Calif ) at (619)

561-7277. CompuServe already lists

January 1984 PERSONAL COMPUTMG

Reprinted ujt/i permission t'ron Personal Comput ing, January J <484. pane: 247

C45, 24/, and Copyright (c) 1/S3, Hayden Publishing Conpanv

.
Page 56

Are any of these

programs truly useful?

“Absolutely. ”

ESSAY

free software for the Radio Shack

Model 100 lap-size computer, written by a special interest group. Log onto one of these services and

you’ll see for yourself what you can

snare for little more than your time

and phone costs. For instance, by

dialing up P-Chicago, a new bulletin- board service, you can find Chess (a computer chess game, obviously).

Chasm, a Macro Assembler for MSDOS programming, and PC-Talk

III, a popular communications pro- gram for the IBM Personal Computer. (PC-Talk’s writers ask for a modest $35 donation.)

Getting our toes wet

But are any of these programs really useful? “Absolutely,” says Woody

Liswood, a senior compensation and

benefits consultant with A.S. Hansen, Inc., a Larkspur, Calif., consul- tant group—and an enthusiastic

computer user. “Often, they’re better than their commercial counterparts.

I regularly use a number of public

domain programs in my work,” he

says. “Every CP/M user should have

a copy of either Wash or Sweep 38, a pair of disk managers, for example.

There are many other good programs

for accounting, statistical analysis

and curve fitting.”

With Liswood’s help, we dug up a copy of a public domain program to try out the concept of using free soft- ware, with interesting results. Lis- wood gave us a copy of Regression

Analysis, written by a programmer

named Ronald Kennedy. We re- ceived a disk with no documentation

other than a handwritten label that said, “Try running Hello and

Hello2.” This might be opaque, and

perhaps intimidating, to novice users. But we were brave enough to simply

slip the disk in the computer’s drive. The program booted just fine. After

the disk spun a bit, a pretty, graphic

image came up, framing the words

“Apple II Computers,” and below it “Y = f(x) Regression Analysis by

Ronald Kennedy—Press space bar to begin.”

With no manual to guide us, we

pushed on bravely. After we pressed

the space bar, the program’s main menu appeared:

Y = f ( x ) REGRESSION

ANALYSIS

1. ENTER/CHANGE DATA

2. ENTER DATA FROM DISK

0 DATA ENTRIES NOW IN

MEMORY

TYPE NUMBER OF CHOICE,

THEN PRESS RETURN KEY

NOTE: THE PRINTER ROUTINES USED IN THIS PROGRAM ARE DESIGNED FOR

USE WITH THE GRAPPER

BOARD AND THE EPSON

PRINTER

The typo was a bit disconcerting

(Orange Micro’s graphic board is the grappler , not grapper).But lookingat

the menu page was even more troubling. Menu entries 3 to 7 were missing. Where were they? Another wor- risome question was whether we

could get any kind of printout, since we lacked the specified hardware.

There was no need to worry. As we

worked with the program—simply

following the menu—the missing menu elements appeared as needed,

and we got printouts of all the graphic images. The missing entries all per- tained to manipulations of data,

which were irrelevant until user in- formation had been typed or loaded

into the program. After we chose “2. ENTER DATA FROM DISK,” we

promptly got a catalog of the disk contents, and chose some data files Liswood had kindly included for us to fiddle with. Regression analysis deals with

data that can be plotted against X-Y

coordinates. It provides various algorithms (procedures) for creating

graphic curves that best fit and ex- press the data. Our program allowed

us to plot the data points, then calculate and graph four different types of

curves, each using a different equation to represent the relationship be- tween the four variables: linear, exponential, logarithmic, and power

curve fit. Inspection of each curve usually

makes it obvious which one best ex- presses the data. Our free program

made good use of color, plotting the curves in green, purple, orange, and

blue, making it easy to compare the curves when all four are overlaid on one graph. Distinguishing their plots on a monochrome monitor is more

difficult, however, but this isn’t a substantial problem since each can be

displayed separately. After running

through the other menu-driven

prompts, we were able to select the appropriate curve-fitting scheme, define the X and Y coordinate ranges,

print out the equations and X, Y

values, and plot the graphs.

Our experience with Regression

Analysis was encouraging. It’s a good

example of public domain software —it’s easy to use, does the job it’s supposed to and does it well. Plus, you can’t beat the price.

Sample some of the hundreds of computer bulletin boards yourself

and try to find a few sparkling gems

bobbing in the flotsam and jetsam of

free software. And while you're capturing these treasures on disk, your search will be valuable as an end in itself. Seeing

first-hand, not in a manual, what other users have been able to accomplish

on their computers can be an eye- opening introduction to the art of

personal computing. And there isn't a better way to experience the power of telecommunicating by computer than by tapping into a few electronic bulletin boards and mail services and see- ing what’s available. Free software is worth the price—and more. SI

January 1984 PERSONAL COMPUTING
Page 57

Special Report

Choosing What’s Best For Tonr Purposes

The Family Tree 0!

Computer Languages

BY BERNARD COLE

To update an old saw, English is for talking to gentlemen, French is for talking

to women, German is for talking to engineers, and BASIC is for talking to Apples. But what about all those other computer languages? Are they secret

tongues of exclusive programming societies? A few minutes of reading personal

computer literature will prove that languages such as

Pascal, FORTRAN, COBOL, C, and FORTH are alive and well in the world of microcomputers. But how

does the uninitiated user unravel the pros and cons of

all these options? In this introductory article we’ll try

to help by presenting some guidelines for understanding computer languages. Then we’ll do a little genealogical work, tracing the development of five of today’s major languages and six of the less common

cybernetic tongues. With this background, you’ll be

ready for the more detailed descriptions of individual

languages beginning on page 90. Divide and Conquer

To make sense of the 200 or more distinct computer

languages, it helps to begin by broadly categorizing

them as low-level or high-level, general- or special- purpose, procedural or problem-oriented, compiled or

interpreted, structured or unstructured, and interac- tive or noninteractive. Naturally, no computer language can be pigeonholed

as neatly as these categories suggest—most actually

fall at some point along the ranges defined by those extremes. Nonetheless, this approach should yield a valuable overview of both the individual languages as well as their relationships to one another.

Low-level versus high-level: Low-level languages

give programmers direct control over details of computer hardware such as memory locations, microprocessor registers, and input/output ports. High-level

languages distance programmers from these details,

forcing them instead to work with abstractions such as

files, arrays, and variables. The lowest level is machine language, and the highest level (at least in theory) is a “natural language’’ like English.

To appreciate the benefits and drawbacks of a lowlevel language take a look at machine language, the

most fundamental way of communicating with a computer. It consists of a microprocessor’s instructions

represented in binary form as on-off patterns of microelectronic switches. Assembly language is one step

higher than this level; it uses alphabetic abbreviations

for instructions and symbolic names for memory cir- cuits and data. Compare a machine-language command

(00100001 10001111 00001000) with an assemblySeptember 1888 Popular Computing Fron "The Fanily Tree oF Computer Inagujgei ~ hy Bernard Cote ov>. , ar m,

the Septeither 19$} issue of Popular Conoutina nagauno opyright

Byte Publications. Tnc. Used ui th the Remission at' ftvic n>’b/- .m •" />
Page 58

language command (LD HL,MEMLOC) and its meaning Goad register HL with the value of the variable

MEMLOC). Programmers can work more accurately

and efficiently in assembly language than in machine

language; an assembler program translates their

assembly-language code into machine language.

Machine or assembly language provides almost total

flexibility in tapping a computer’s capabilities. For ex- ample, a section of program code may be treated as data or vice versa, and program code can even be

modified while a program is running. Machine-language programs can harness the specific strengths of a

particular microprocessor and its input/output facili- ties. In applications such as systems software (operating systems and the like), this level of efficiency and

flexibility is mandatory.

On the negative side, low-level languages require a great deal of technical knowledge and attention to

detail, creating potential stumbling blocks for beginning programmers. Even professional programmers

find assembly-language programming slow work com- pared to programming in high-level languages.

H

igh-level languages, in contrast, take care of the hardware details automatically and

allow the programmer to think in terms of the application at hand. The single BASIC

command PRINT USING “###.##”; 1/100

might replace scores of machine-level instructions. However, with this convenience comes an inevitable

loss of efficiency and flexibility. Few high-level pro- grams can attain the speedy performance of machinelanguage code. A few languages such as C and

FORTH offer some of the efficiency of machine lan- guage together with the power of high-level lan- guages. However, these languages are not well suited

to the beginning programmer.

General- versus special-purpose: Most languages

are created to serve specific purposes such as teaching

programming concepts, controlling industrial robots, or creating graphics. However, many languages are

extraordinarily flexible, and their ultimate uses far ex- ceed the concrete plans of their designers.

General-purpose languages include BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL (business data processing), LISP Gist processing), and, more recently, ALGOL, Pascal,

APL, and PL/I. The majority of programming applica- tions have been written in BASIC, FORTRAN, or COBOL.

Special-purpose languages, on the other hand,

enable programmers to solve narrowly defined problems or unusual applications such as systems programming, where one must be able to control the details of

the hardware. Special-purpose languages include C,

FORTH, Modula-2, and Smalltalk—all for systems

programming—PILOT for computer-aided instruction, and PROLOG for logic programming.

Procedural versus problem-oriented: Procedural

programming languages require the user to specify a

set of operations to be performed in a specific se- quence. Unlike native machine and assembly lan- guages that require instructions in a form very specific to a particular microprocessor, procedural lan- guages are designed to be independent of particular

machines. These languages relate to the procedures

being coded, not to the specifics of the computer’s ar- chitecture. A program written in a procedural lan- guage can be executed on any computer that has a translator for that programming language. Most of to- day’s general-purpose languages are procedural.

W

hile a procedural language specifies how

something is to be accomplished, a problem-oriented language specifies what is to be accomplished. The closer the pro- grammer can come to stating a problem

without specifying the steps that must be taken to solve it, the more nonprocedural the language. Ex- amples of such problem-oriented languages are pro- gram generators such as System 80, The Tool, Savvy,

and The Last One.

Many professionals who program in procedural lan- guages say that problem-oriented systems are not pro- gramming languages at all and that their use does not

qualify as true programming. But according to James

Martin, author of Applications Development Without

Programmers (Prentice-Hall, 1982), and other experts

who have studied the issue, the net effect of problemoriented programming is exactly the same as any

other sort of programming. Just as high-level pro- cedural languages were developed to relieve program- mers of the burdens of dealing with machine-level

coding, problem-oriented languages make it unnecessary for the user to get involved in specifying the pro- gramming steps that must be taken to solve a problem. Moreover, just as procedural languages generate

object code written in the computer’s machine

language, so problem-oriented systems now available

for personal computers generate programs written in a particular symbolic code, whether assembly or pro- cedural. Interpreted versus compiled languages: On the

most basic level of hardware, a computer can execute

only instructions written in its native machine code. This means that a program written in a high-level lan- guage must be translated into machine code before it

September 1983 Popular Computing
Page 59

will run. Two types of high-level language translators can do this: compilers and interpreters. A compiler

performs the translation in two steps. It first translates the whole program into machine language, and

then the machine-language version is executed by the

computer. An interpreter performs the operations

contained in the program as it reads them line by line, using a built-in dictionary that gives machine-language

equivalents of high-level commands.

While the interpreter must repeat the translation of

a given statement every time it occurs—a rather ineffi- cient process—the compiler can repeat the necessary statements without translating each time, a much

faster process. The drawback of the compiler is that it makes it difficult to modify or alter statements within

the program. Usually the entire program must be

translated over again if changes are required. Thus for programs undergoing changes, revisions, or improvements, which is often the case for the inexperienced

programmer, an interpreted language is better

because it permits interaction with the program dur- ing execution and makes changes immediately.

Depending on the specific application, various pro- gramming languages tend more toward one approach

than the other. COBOL and FORTRAN are usually

compiled while APL is generally interpreted. Of the

available BASIC translators, about half are compilers

and half interpreters.

Structured versus unstructured: Here we’re deal- ing not so much with characteristics of particular lan- guages as we are with the qualities of programs themselves, whatever the language they’re written in. Lately much discussion has focused on the pros and

cons of structured programming, but all computer pro- grams have some sort of structure. A more accurate

distinction is between good (logical) structure and bad

(illogical) structure. I

n the same way that it’s relatively easy to learn

the grammar and syntax of a foreign language

like French or Spanish, it’s not too difficult to master the basics of a particular programming

language. What is not so easy is writing a pro- gram in a clear, logically organized manner.

According to Kenneth Orr, author of Structured

Systems Development (Yourdon Press, 1977), a pro- gram is well structured if (1) its routines and subroutines are in a modular form in which each module is a program segment containing a complete, logical

thought; (2) its modules are hierarchically organized in such a way that within each module there are nested

logical subunits that are themselves structured and

contain further subunits; and (3) it uses straightforward, readable code rather than slightly more effi- cient but obscure code. A

well-structured program has at least four ad- vantages. It is easier to debug during devel- opment because the logical connections be- tween various instructions, routines, and

subroutines can be clearly seen; it is more

likely to be correct the first time around because of the

care that went into its design; it usually takes less time to create because it has fewer bugs to find and

fix; and it is far easier to maintain, that is, to update

or correct at a later date.

Most programming languages allow you to design

well-structured programs, and numerous books explain how to do it. But what many programming lan- guages (especially the older ones) also allow is the

design of poorly structured programs. Only the newer

computer languages such as Pascal and recent revi- sions of older languages such as SBASIC actually pre- vent you from using procedures that lead to illogical

program structures. Many of the problem-oriented

program generation languages require that you enter

information about your application in a logically struc- tured way.

Interactive versus noninteractive: As with struc- tured programming, the advantages here all lie on the

side of interactive languages. Surprisingly, though, of the traditional general-purpose procedural languages

only APL and BASIC were designed from the start

for interactive operation. Moreover, Logo, PILOT,

and Smalltalk are the only members of the newer generation of languages that may be characterized as

truly interactive. In an interactive language you can communicate

directly with the computer both when you’re typing in the program and when you’re running it. In addition

to faster response time, here are a couple of other ad- vantages that would lead one to choose an interactive

language:

•Interactive editing: The process of developing a pro- gram alternates between running the program and

changing or editing to correct the errors the pre- liminary runs turn up. While noninteractive languages

separate the editor and the translator, the interactive

program integrates the two, eliminating a number of time-consuming intermediate steps.

•Immediate error detection: If you type an incorrect

line, a good interactive language will report it im- mediately. You can then correct the error while the

purpose of the line is still in your mind. If the error was due to a misconception that you corrected, you

also avoid repeating the error on subsequent lines. Noninteractive programs support the detection and

subsequent correction of errors only after the entire

program has been typed in. A Brief Survey

Each programming language, of course, does not fit neatly into one or another of the broad types we’ve

defined. Most languages fall into more than one of the

categories. This is particularly true of the more

recently developed programming languages, and the

categories are likely to get fuzzier in the future. As the

following chronological survey of widely used pro- gramming languages indicates, the newer languages

tend to be on higher levels of abstraction, less pro- cedure-oriented, more multipurpose, more natural and

English-like in their syntax, and more structured than

the older languages.

FORTRAN (1956): Initially developed for solving

problems in mathematics, engineering, and science. FORTRAN has found its way into such areas as busi- ness and education because of its popularity as a teach- ing tool in colleges and universities. Almost always

compiled, its grammar, symbols, rules, and syntax are

Bernard Cole is a freelance writer living in Berkeley, California

September 1983 Popular Computing
Page 60

similar to mathematical

and English-language

conventions. FORTRAN

treats arithmetic operations with commands that

evaluate expressions and

substitute the results for current values of vari- ables. String manipulation in FORTRAN is dif- ficult but not impossible.

Graphics-processing programs, database management

systems, and word-processing programs all have been

written in the language.

COBOL (1960): Developed specifically for business

and commercial applications, COBOL is characterized

by programs stated in precise, easily learned natural

words and phrases that can be read by nontechnical

users. The language offers many important file- organizing features and can deal with variable data

lengths. Input/output procedures and report generation are its strong points.

ALGOL (1960): A particularly powerful language,

ALGOL was originally developed as a general-purpose language for expressing formal problem-solving

procedures known as algorithms. Although similar to FORTRAN, it is more comprehensive and flexible. Also, thanks to its more formal structure it poses

fewer exceptions and is more readable. LISP (1960): Featuring impressive list-processing

capabilities, LISP is the choice of researchers in artifi- cial intelligence. The language is designed specifically for the manipulation of nonnumeric data that often changes considerably in length and structure during

the course of a computer run. Because LISP defines a

list simply as a set of items given a specific order, it of- fers a convenient way of representing such data as English sentences, mathematical formulas, positions

in a game, logic theorems, or computer programs. This

capability makes the language a powerful tool in ap- plications such as the generation and verification of mathematical proofs, pattern recognition, algebraic

manipulation, simulations of human problem solving,

information retrieval, heuristic programming,

linguistic analysis, computerized translation of numerical languages, and explorations of new non- procedural programming languages.

BASIC (1964): Incorporating features of both FORTRAN and ALGOL, this language was designed to be

very simple to learn and inexpensive to implement and

use. From the start it has been an interactive lan- guage; the user gets an immediate response to what is typed into the computer. Its major advantage to beginning programmers is that it is available in both

interpreted and compiled

versions. In an inter- preted version, anyone

can write a program and

then inspect, modify, and

correct it with a mini- mum of inconvenience.

Microcomputer versions

of BASIC have increased

in power to the point that today they are more than

adequate for a large number of business and commercial applications.

PL/I (1964): Designed as a multipurpose programming language for solving both business and scientific problems, PL/I incorporates features of both FORTRAN and COBOL. On the FORTRAN side PL/I has

simple, concise statements, but like COBOL it has the

ability to manipulate and input or output grouped

records or files quite easily. It uses basic building

blocks called procedures, which are blocks of instruc- tions designed to perform stated functions. One pro- cedure can be hierarchically incorporated into an- other, and any data declared in a procedure is auto- matically available to all procedures nested within.

PL/I can handle strings of alphanumeric characters or

strings of bits. It also allows programmers to describe

data in terms of arrays and other sophisticated

“pointer” structures. APL (1967): Among the general-purpose procedural

languages available for personal computers, APL has

the most comprehensive set of primitive operators to carry out such functions as random-number generation, index generation, factorial computation, and

matrix formation and inversion. A very powerful lan- guage with operators that carry out actions requiring

dozens of statements in other languages, APL is very

popular among statisticians due to the speed with

which algorithms can be developed and tested. But

APL is not limited to numeric applications; it is used in a wide range of business applications such as document production, graphic analysis, data retrieval, and

financial analysis. The main reason for this is that APL was designed to be a highly interactive, conversational language. Thus even a beginner can do meaningful work within minutes and still have a language of great power and range. Pascal (1971): Designers of Pascal wanted to create a language that encourages (some would say demands)

structured programming. With a syntax similar to ALGOL’s, Pascal is a “small” language in that it does

not allow a large number of different syntactic con- structs (unlike PL/I, for example). Pascal is intended

to be easy for programmers to learn and retain.

nnovative languages were

part of computing’s New Frontier

in the early ’60s, when COBOL,

LISP, and BASIC were developed.

September 1983 Popular Computing
Page 61

Smalltalk (1972): Conceived as a tool kit that

would enable students

and teachers to explore a

subject or solve a problem, Smalltalk uses a wide range of graphic

“objects.” As little as a year ago Smalltalk could

be considered a specialpurpose language used

almost exclusively in the

academic research world, but now that a number of business-oriented computer manufacturers (including

Apple) and software designers (such as Visicorp) have

used it in their newest products, it could well be on its way to a place in the mainstream of general-purpose

applications languages.

PILOT (1973): Originally designed to introduce

children to the fundamentals of computer perfor- mance, PILOT is now most often used in writing pro- grams for computer-aided instruction in all subjects. It

is especially tailored for such instructional tasks as

drills, tests, and dialogues and allows convenient comparisons between words or portions of words. PILOT

is not a good choice for complex computational problems.

C (1974): A structured programming language that

lends itself to systems programming as well as to more mundane programming tasks, C produces code that

approaches machine language in density and efficiency

while still offering some high-level language features

such as structured programming and systems pro- gramming capability. A C compiler is simple, compact,

and easily written—a professional programmer using

current technology can prepare such a compiler for a new machine in no more than a few months. Because C

is independent of any particular machine’s architec- ture, it is suitable for writing portable programs.

FORTH (1975): Like C, FORTH is a kind of a highlevel assembly language designed for systems pro- gramming. FORTH is unusual in that it offers many

interesting features not normally associated with in- terpreted languages, such as allowing you to add new

commands. It maintains a system library of command

calls that is actually a list of addresses of routines that execute the commands. You can use any of the exist- ing library commands to build up more complicated

ones. FORTH is not as fast as assembly language, but it’s much faster than interpreted BASIC. Its special fea- tures allow you to customize the language for a specific application. By defining new special-purpose com- mands and adding them to the library, you can make

any of the noteworthy

languages created in the

1970s—especially FORTH and

C—were designed with systems

programming in mind.

FORTH into a language

that conveniently meets

your particular needs.

For example, if a statisti- cal language is required,

the necessary functions can be added to the

library and subsequently

used as new commands.

Similarly, the library

could be easily customized for sophisticated

electronic filing or complex financial calculations. What the Future Holds

It is clear that over the short term traditional pro- cedural languages will continue to dominate in most

personal computer applications. Experts expect that

such languages will continue to evolve and that major new languages will be introduced occasionally.

Despite the enormous increase in the number of per- sonal and small-business computers, development of programming languages will be much slower than in the past. This is because the rapid proliferation of per- sonal computers has drastically changed the environment in which programming languages are developed.

On the one hand, software companies that find themselves unable to produce enough canned programs to satisfy the demands of all the new users of computers

are looking for ways to increase the productivity of

their professional programmers. On the other hand,

though, many personal computer users want to write

their own programs but have neither the time nor the

inclination to learn a procedural dialect. According to the experts, these demands will favor

greater development of nonprocedural program generation languages. Such software packages are now

becoming available for use on personal computers. A

good example is The Last One, which generates

BASIC source code. One drawback (if it can be called that) of these first- generation program generators is that they relieve

you of the coding only. You still have to go through the

process of developing the overall design of the pro- gram. Indeed, such nonprocedural program generators literally force the user into designing a structured

program. As such, they are not for the old-school, seat- of-the-pants professional programmer or for the

novice programmer who is unfamiliar with structured

programming. Artificial intelligence research centers and software companies are working on “expert

systems” that not only relieve you of the coding but

also help you structure programs. We can expect such

expert systems to hit the market within a few years.

September 1983 Popular Computing
COLUMN DEBUT

by Terry Tinsley

Datz and

T. Lloyd Dalz

Welcome to The Processed Word," a new column devoted to word processing on

the pc and XT. In the coming months we 11 review word processing programs and such

related software as spelling and grammar

checkers. We ll emphasize new and innovative programs of special interest, including

VisiCorp's VisiWord, Bruce & James's lA/ord- Vision, PFS: Write, MultiMate, WordPerfect, and the new entry from NB1, a manufacturer of dedicated word processors. But we ll start by surveying the various

features word processing programs may

offer and defining some of the terms we ll be using later on. This column will be very general and elementary; if you're altogether new

to word processing and haven't yet decided which program to use, you may find this in- stallment a handy reference of features to consider when shopping for a program.

Terry Tinsley Datz is a freelance

writer and F. Lloyd Datz is a faculty member at the University of Utah Medical School. They have

recently completed a book on word

processing for the IBM pc.

Overall Program Design

Menu-driven versus Command-driven

Softivare. The overall organization of a word

processing program is what determines how

user-friendly it is. Menu-driven software

lists all command choices on the screen, dis- playing more specific menus as general choices are made. In contrast, commanddriven software provides no menus and only

minimal prompts; consequently users must

be familiar with all the commands. Most

people find menu-driven programs easier to learn.But the choice between menu- and command-driven software is not as obvious as it might seem. The helpful menus and prompts

that make software so easy to learn also make it run considerably slower. Once

you re familiar with most of your word

processor's commands, you'll want to get the job done as quickly as possible without stop- ping to respond to screen messages or wait

for a succession of menus to appear. Fortunately, some programs allow you to adjust

the level of help to your particular needs.

for the IBM Personal Computer August 1983

WORD This means that all the menus and prompts

are available to help you learn the program, and then as you become more proficient, you

can turn off the prompts to speed the pro- gram up and leave more of the screen free for text display.

Mode. Another fundamental difference

in the way word processing programs are or- ganized has to do with modality. Programs

that require you to make extensive mode

changes are like cars with manual transmissions: You must keep them in the correct gear" by entering and exiting the appropriate modes. For example, if you are typing

along and then decide to go back and delete a few words, you have to shift out of insert mode and into delete mode, erase the un- wanted words, shift out of delete, and go

back into insert to continue typing. Each program handles mode changes dif- ferently. Some automatically return to in- sert when you exit another mode, while

others return to a "neutral gear between mode changes. Many require mode changes

for certain features but allow you to access others directly. Programs that keep mode

changes to a minimum are, for obvious rea- sons, less awkward to use.

Text Entry and Editing Features The Editing Screen. Most word processors display a status line at the top of the screen to provide you with such information as the name of the document in memory, the command currently being executed,

the page, line, and column position of the cursor, the line spacing, and the current mode. In addition, there may be a "ruler that indicates the settings for tab stops and

left and right margins. A new trend, however, is to display fewer elements on-screen;

this leaves the editing screen free of clutter. Word Wrap. This standard word proc- essing feature functions as an automatic car- riage return. Instead of looking up at the end

of each line to decide where to place the car-

"Ihe Processed Uord* by Jerry Tinsley Datz and f . L loyd Datz, Softalk, August 1983, pages 49-53. Reprinted by pernission. Copyright (c) by

Softalk Publishing Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Page 63

ridge return vou just keep typing, letting the computer decide where to end the line. When tvping extends past the right margin, any words that won t fit on that line are automatically moved down to the left margin of the next line. This feature is a real timesaver but it may be a while before you

quit reaching for the return key when you

near the end of a line. On some occasions you'll need to control line breaks more precisely. Most, but not

all word processors allow you to turn off word wrap when you're typing highly for- matted text such as tables, forms, addresses, or programs.

Cursor Movement When you generate

text on a typewriter, the words originate

where the typing element strikes the paper. On a word processor, text originates at the cursor position which is usually indicated by a blinking line or square. Since entering

or editing text requires that you first move

the cursor to the desired location, cursor movement commands are the most fre- quently used editing commands.

The best word processors give you a variety of ways to manipulate the cursor. In addition to horizontal movement by character and vertical movement by line, most pro- grams give you the option to move by the word, sentence, or paragraph; to the left or

right margin: to the top or bottom of the

screen: or to the beginning or end of the manuscript.

The trend in word processing programs

is to allow you more and more flexibility in cursor movement. For example, most pro- grams now allow you to jump to a specific page or character This means, for example,

that you can quickly add an entry to a res- ume by moving the cursor directly to the desired page number instead of having to browse through several pages until you find

the page you need. Programs that won't jump to a specific page number sometimes

permit you to place markers at strategic locations to which you may want to return later. Scrolling Scrolling allows you to review

a document by scrolling the text up or down

as if it were one continuous piece of paper. Many programs allow you to vary the scroll- ing speed, so you can slowly scrutinize the

text for errors or quickly scan it to find a particular passage. Some word processors

are capable of extensive horizontal scroll- ing; this is a big help when you're working

with oversized documents, such as those used in accounting. If you routinely work

with wide documents, look for a word processor that can horizontally scroll at least 132

columns. WordStar, the all-time champion of

horizontal scrolling, goes far beyond the call of duty to scroll 32,000 columns!

Insertion and Deletion. To add text to a document you insert it at the position of the

cursor. To prevent what has already been

typed from being written over, text in front of the cursor is pushed forward as you enter

the new words. If you're a fast typist, you

might be able to enter text faster than it can

be pushed forward. Therefore, some pro- grams have a type-ahead buffer that acts like

a scratch pad, saving any text entered too rapidly to be displayed. When you pause,

the computer catches up, inserting the text it has stored. If the buffer fills up, a message is displayed asking you to wait a few seconds

for it to empty.

Other programs split the text at the point

of insertion and move everything in front of the cursor off the screen entirely. Although

this approach prevents you from losing keystrokes, not being able to see the remainder

of the sentence you're editing can be dis- concerting.

When insertion mode is turned off, new

text is typed over the characters under the

cursor. Overstrike mode is useful for correcting typographical errors. Deletion. While all word processors let you delete one character at a time, most also allow you to delete larger amounts of text- such as a word, a portion of a line, a screenful, or an entire document—by means of one

or two keystrokes. Because deleting is so simple, you have to be careful not to erase

text accidentally. Programs that automatically save deletions in a buffer graciously

give you the opportunity to recover from

such accidents. Cut and Paste. What makes word processing such a powerful tool is the ability it gives you to rearrange sentences, para- graphs, and full pages of text with the press

of a few keys. Changes that would normally

require you to retype an entire manuscript

can be accomplished in seconds. Before you can manipulate a block of

text, you have to mark the beginning and

end of the passage. Then you can move the block, copy it to a second part of the document, or delete it. With some programs,

block operations can be performed between

two different files, so that text can be trans- ferred from one document to another. The

size limit for block operations is a function

of both the word processing software and

the memory capacity of the computer.

Search and Replace. Suppose you have a

file containing several chapters of a book

and you decide to edit Chapter 6 Instead of

scrolling through the text until you find the chapter heading, you can use the search or

find command, telling the computer to lo- cate the heading "Chapter 6" and bring that portion of the book to the screen The search function can also be used to locate every occurrence of a word or phrase

Keep in mind, however, that the computer is literal to a fault: If you ask it to find all occurrences of the word he, the letters he

will be found even if they are part of another

word. Some programs give you the option of circumventing this problem by marking the word only if it appears as a whole word (en- closed by spaces or punctuation). Capitalization can also cause problems. A word processor should be able to ignore case, if you

wish, so that it will find both "computer"

and "Computer" in response to the same command.

Related to search is a very important

function called replace. Once a word or phrase has been searched for, replace lets you automatically exchange it for a differ- ent expression. In addition to doing a global

replacement, some word processors will al- so replace the specified word or phrase only

the first x number of times it appears or will show each occurrence to you in context and

ask your permission to replace it. The ability to discriminate whole words is even more

important with global replace than it is with

global search. Without that capability, if you

changed man to person, you would also, for example, change all occurrences of manipulate to personipulate.

The search and replace commands have a variety of uses. Form letters, contracts, or other documents with standard wording can be modified and used again and again, never losing their personal touch. Also, you can

reduce typing time and errors by entering a symbol like for lengthy or hard-to-type

phrases. For example, when typing the manuscript for "2010: Odyssey Two,"

Arthur C. Clarke could have typed

every time he referred to Sivasubramanian

Chandasegarampillai, the creator of the computer HAL Then he could have used the global search and replace command to change every occurrence of to the untypeable name, thereby saving himself considerable time and effort. Columns. Arranging text or numbers in columns does not come easily to most word

processors. As a result, programs vary sig- nificantly in their column-handling capability. Unfortunately, some do not recognize

columns as independent portions of text This means that any changes you make in one column will affect other columns that you

have set up, thus destroying your carefully

planned (and laboriously achieved) format

In short, if you frequently use columns or

tables in your documents, look for a pro- gram that has a specific mode to handle

them.Some word processors that can work with columns go a step further to perform simple mathematical calculations, such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing

across columns or generating subtotals totals, and grand totals down columns

Split-Screen Editing Sometimes also

called windowing, this feature enables you

to view different parts of the same document or portions of two or more separate documents

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at the same time. In this way you can, for example, view the first draft of a manuscript in one window while you type the re- vision in the other. Although this feature is not a standard one, it is becoming more

widely available. If you need windowing,

look for a program that lets you scroll the

text in either window regardless of which

window the cursor is in. Having to move the cursor back and forth between windows

each time you want to scroll just a few lines makes the windowing feature less efficient.

Formatting and Printing

A word processor's formatting and

printing capabilities allow you to control the layout of your document. The best pro- grams use on-screen text formatting, dis- playing the text exactly as it will appear on

the printed page. An alternative is the use of nonprinting embedded commands to direct the printer to underline, right-justify, double-space, or perform numerous other for- matting functions. In this case, the text ap- pears on the screen unformatted, with the embedded commands scattered throughout.

Many programs compromise between these two approaches, requiring embedded com- mands only for some of the more special- ized features. Not being able to see the final appearance of your document before printing

makes it difficult to set up complex formats. Some programs will "print'' to the screen

first so that you can get a preview of what

your document will look like on paper, but

usually you have to get back into the editor

to make any changes. Many users are satis- fied with this approach and even prefer it, while others demand on-screen formatting. General Layout. Text layout is controlled by means of a series of format settings. These are usually preset to commonly used

default values, which can easily be changed.

Some programs allow you to change the default values permanently; others require that they be reset each time you turn the computer on. A new trend is to store each document's settings on disk as part of the docu- ment file so that the format is ready to go whenever you work on that document.

Parameters commonly subject to format

setting include the following: paper length,

line height, pitch, line spacing, and tab stops. Paper length is the total number of lines on a page, including top and bottom margins. Usually page length is set to sixty-six

lines on a standard 8V2 X 11-inch page. Line height controls the vertical spacing

of the text. It is usually stated as the number

of lines per inch. A line height of six lines per inch is standard and compatible with a paper length of sixty-six lines per page. Margins can be set just as they are on a typewriter. The top and bottom margins are

the number of blank lines between the edge

of the paper and the text. The left margin

setting depends on the pitch (see following

paragraph) and is the number of blank col- umns from the left edge of the paper to the

text. With pica type, ten columns represent a one-inch margin. The right margin is set by

entering the number of columns per line. A

standard setting is sixty-five. Pitch refers to the number of characters per inch. The most commonly used pitches are pica (ten characters per inch) and elite (twelve characters per inch). Unlike typewriters, word processors allow you to vary

the pitch without changing the print ele- ment (assuming you're using a dot-matrix

printer). This means that you can change the

pitch in the middle of a manuscript without

interrupting the printout. Line spacing can also be varied as needed. Although manuscripts are usually either

single- or double-spaced, many programs al- so allow you to specify more generous spacing between lines. Tabs are commonly preset to intervals of

five columns. Most programs let you change

these settings to any column, making it easy

to format outlines and indented text. In addition, if decimal tabs are offered, numbers

can be aligned automatically by their deci- mal points.

Justification. The feature that sets text created on a word processor apart from type- written text is full or right justification. Fully justified text looks like it has been typeset, because the right margins are perfectly

straight. A word processor accomplishes this by inserting just enough extra space be- tween words to align the last word on each

line precisely at the right margin.

Inserting extra spaces between words can produce unevenly spaced text with large gaps between some words. Microspace justification, also called incremental spacing,

improves the appearance of fully justified text by inserting tiny spaces (about l/120th

of an inch) between both words and letters. This evens out the spaces, giving the text a more pleasing appearance.

Proportional Spacing. Ordinarily, both

typewriters and word processors set aside

the same amount of space for each letter. Proportional spacing can be used to pro- duce a more professional, typeset look by as- signing different widths to different characters. This means that an "i" takes up less than half the space of a "w" on the printed page. If you produce camera-ready material or if your documents must have a very professional appearance, be sure that both the word processing program and the printer

that you purchase can achieve proportional

spacing. Automatic Page Numbering. Most pro- grams will print page numbers at the top or bottom of the page, either centered or at the

left or right edge. If your documents are to

Page 64

be bound, make sure that page numbers can

be printed alternately at the left and right

margins.

Headers, Footers, and Footnotes. A header is text that appears at the top of each page, prominently displaying such information as the name of a chapter or the title of a report. Footers, as the name implies, provide the same sort of information at the bottom of the page. Although many word processors automatically print specified headers and/or

footers on each page, some programs limit them to a maximum of one line. Footnotes present the formatter with a real challenge. The program must decide how much space to reserve at the bottom of

the page, even though it doesn't know how

long the footnotes will be or whether the

wr-iter will place an additional one just be- fore the end of the page. Therefore, some

programs do not even attempt to offer foot- note capability. Programs that do support

them vary as to how automatic the function

is. The more powerful programs handle this problem beautifully, automatically numbering each footnote and moving it to the appropriate page when its referring text is moved. Be sure to check on length limitations; some programs set miserly limits, while others allow footnotes up to a page or more in length.

Pagination. Page breaks are usually indi- cated on-screen by means of a dashed line or other marker. This allows you to spot the

inevitable first and last lines of paragraphs

that are destined to be printed at the top or bottom of the page, isolated from the rest of

the paragraph (these are often called orphans and widows, respectively). By adjusting the page breaks before you print your document, you can eliminate these unsightly

creatures. Some programs automatically

control orphans and widows by seeking out

isolated lines and repositioning page breaks

to eliminate them. A related feature allows you to set conditional page breaks to ensure

that groups of lines which absolutely must

stay on the same page (such as tables) do so. Hyphenation. While some people feel that hyphenation is unnecessary and never

use it, others are convinced that it is absolutely essential for creating attractive, fully

justified text. If you routinely work with full justification, you will no doubt find that the extra spaces inserted to even out the margins make the words look too spread out unless some form of hyphenation is used. Word processors handle hyphenation in various ways. A surprisingly large number

ignore the problem altogether. Others allow you to insert ghost hyphens (also known as discretionary hyphens) at appropriate breaking points in long words; these word processors will then divide a word at the ghost

hyphen, if the word falls at the end of a line. Another common approach is to show you

for the IBM Personal Computer August 1983
Page 65

words that are likely candidates for hyphenation— those destined to be wrapped

down to the next line because of insufficient space on the current line. Usually the program places the cursor at a suggested break point but allows you to overrule its choice before it inserts the hyphen. The hyphen inserted in this manner will not print if further editing moves the word away from

the right margin. A few programs hyphenate automatically, dividing words into sylla- bles according to a set of built-in rules. This approach often leads to grammatically in- correct breaks, because of the large number

of words that are exceptions to the rules. Automatic Paragraph Reform. During the editing process, paragraphs may take on a disorderly appearance as you insert, delete, and otherwise rearrange text. Normally, in order to prevent your getting a printout with some lines dangling past the right margin

and others consisting of only one word, you

must remember to reform each paragraph in- dividually as you finish it. Some of the newer programs perform this task automatically so that you can edit to your heart's content without worrying about cleaning up the mess afterward. These programs follow be- hind you, reformatting each paragraph ac- cording to the margin and line-space set- tings you've selected. Special Printing Features. Provided that your printer cooperates, many word processing programs allow you to create special

printing effects, including some not possible on a typewriter. Underlining (underscoring) is supported by most word processing programs, as is double strike; the lat- ter produces a darker, solid-appearing print

by having the printer strike each character

twice Boldface print can also be generated

by having the printer type each character

twice, with the second impression slightly to one side of the first. This produces a very

dark, thick print, suitable for titles, headings, and key words.

Strikeout is the superimposition of dashes over characters. It's sometimes used

to indicate deleted text in a revised version of

a manuscript; it's also commonly used in le- gal documents. Overprinting is similar to strikeout, except that any character can be

printed over another, making it possible to generate accent marks over letters in foreign

languages and to combine several characters

to form a symbol not found on the print wheel Many word processing programs al- so enable you to create superscripts and subscripts, provided that your printer can handle them.

Special-character printing is done by

sending a code to the printer so that characters present on the print wheel but not on the keyboard can be printed. In addition, on

printers with ribbon-color selection, ribbon

shift causes marked text to be printed in an

alternate color, usually red.

File Handling

File Directory. Most word processing programs begin by displaying a directory of

the files stored on disk. This directory often contains several pieces of useful information about each document, such as its name,

its length in pages or bytes, the author's or operator's initials, and the date the docu- ment was created or last edited. Information about the length of the file is especially useful, since it gives you an estimate of how

much disk space is still available. Some pro- grams keep a tally of the amount of space used by all the files on each disk and tell you how much free space remains on each. This

helps you avoid creating documents larger than the available disk space.

Ability To Save and Continue Editing. If the power going to the computer is inter- rupted or your equipment bombs out on

you, the document in memory can be lost. Therefore interrupting your writing fre- quently to save your work on disk is a very good idea. Programs allowing you to exe- cute a save without leaving the editor en- courage you to save your work more often. On the other hand, those programs that make file-saving difficult and time-con- suming will tempt you to court disaster by

not saving your document often enough.

Automatic Backup. Some programs automatically save the last version of a file each

time you begin a new revision. Then, if dis- aster strikes, your original text will not be

lost. Such automatic backup, however, is not

a complete substitute for saving your work

frequently.

Automatic Disk Buffering. The maximum-size document that can be edited is re- lated to one of two factors, depending on the word processing program. Some programs

load the entire document into RAM; with

these programs, file size is limited only by

system memory. Other programs are capable of automatic disk buffering; in these, document length is limited only by the avail- able disk space. Automatic buffering sys- tems write and read portions of your docu- ment to and from disk as you edit. If you jump to a remote part of the document, the program stores the portion you're working on and loads the new section into memory

Although this means that you can edit lengthy documents in their entirety, it also retards program operation, since the pro- gram must occasionally ask you to wait while it goes to disk. The newest approach is to keep only one

page of text in memory at a time This means

that as soon as you finish a page, it is automatically stored on disk, safe and sound in the event of unforeseen disaster and readily accessed by page number for future editing

Keyboard Macros. Keyboard macros are

small segments of text, such as a standard

closing for a business letter, that can be set up for quick insertion into documents. A

collection of often-used phrases or sentences can be created and stored in a file; each of these phrases can then be assigned a specific key combination (such as control-A)

or given a short name for identification When you need one of the macros, you just press the appropriate key combination or enter its name, and the text is written to the screen almost instantly. Macros can also be used to make format changing quick and

easy.Document Assembly. The most powerful

word processors allow you to put docu- ments together with the help of various files that you've created and stored on disk pre- viously. This file-merging process (sometimes called boilerplating) can be automated

to help you create personalized letters from a mailing list or assemble several standard paragraphs to produce a final document,

such as a contract or a will. Document-assembly capability varies widely among word

processors; some require you to interface a second program with the basic word

processor.

Printer Control. A word processing pro- gram's file handler usually gives you several options for controlling the printing process. A document can be printed one page at a time using single-sheet feed or a continuous

feed if the paper is tractor-fed Some pro- grams also allow you to print multiple copies

of the same document with a single

command.

If your computer has adequate memory

background printing may be possible

Normally, when a document is being

printed, the computer cannot be used until the printing is completed Background print

ing frees a portion of the computer s memory so that you can edit one document while

printing another If you produce many long

documents or if rapid throughput is impor

tant to you, you 11 appreciate t hi*- feature Batch printing can also be used to save

printing time Programs that support this feature allow you to specify a list of docu- ments to be printed this list is sometimes

called a print queue The word processor au- tomatically supervises the printing process making as many copies of each document as you need Since printing can be done with- out intervention, you re free to work on

other projects

In Coming Months. Next month we I! get down to business and start reviewing w-ord processors available for the pc First on the schedule are two programs from Satellite Software International WordPerfect and its baby brother. Personal WordPerfect A

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Page 66

Database Management by Edward. F. Sayle Assessing Your

Data Management Needs

Before buying any database management system, you should determine what your data management needs are and what kind of system is required to satisfy them. What kinds and quanity of data should be entered? How many ways do you need to access it? What

types and how complex will the reports be that are drawn from it? Ed Sayle surveys the

entire spectrum of data management to help you decide how elaborate and extensive—or how simple and limited—a system you may need. Perhaps the biggest obstacle a new- comer to data management must

overcome is that of semantics. The confusion only begins with such terms as file, multifile, sequential, random access, ISAM, hierarchical, Codasyl, networking

and relational. After observing countless demonstrations, the newcomer might

gain confidence that finally the several types are understood, only to have a sales- person say, “It stores data in a hierarchical mode, but recovers it in a relational mode,” or something equally as disruptive to the naive. A published review of a new

database program might warn that al- though it is advertised as relational, the

reviewer suspects it to be of the networking type. Each dealer visited has a recom- mendation, but with so many systems on

the market the prospective buyer may be

assured that the suggestions will be in

conflict. What it boils down to is the user’s desire

for a data management system that will collect the information s/he wants and

retrieve it conveniently. Those in business might want mailing or customer lists, cor- respondence files, personnel records, in- ventory or accounting. In the professions the need might be for an appointments

calendar, client files, bibliographic refer- ence, research data manipulation, check- book control or patient billing. Software programs to perform such

functions range from less than $50 to $1,000 or more. Obviously, there has to be a difference, and that rests with the in- tended use. Put another way, to deliver firewood, do you need a truck or a luxury

sports car? Borrow from the jargon of database systems and address the prob- lem “sequentially” before pulling out the checkbook:

• Do you need a data creation and management system?

• What data will you put into it? • How many entries do you anticipate?

• How many ways will you want to be

able to access the file? • What type of reports will be drawn from

the file and how complex must they be?

Will you need elaborate forms or will simple listings suffice? Will the reports require calculation—averages, medians, and so

forth?

If you have problems with any of these

basics, the best advice is to go back to the drawing board. There are far too many

options ahead which must be grounded

in these factors. Level one

At the low end, for example, the need

may be for a small filing system on a given

topic, which will be used later for a single purpose. Your word processor may be more than adequate to create and maintain a research file. Once located, a desired item may be printed out or writ- ten to another file using those word processing commands with which you are al- ready familiar. Similarly, most word processors will produce a mailing list and

print address labels at a speed limited only

by the capacity of the printer used. Also

possible is rudimentary manipulation of the information—searching, sorting

(name, zip and reference fields are the most common needs), and merging into

specific fields of other documents, the

so-called mail-merge function (“Among

my many satisfied customers in Keokuk

who purchased the 1980 Superblatt, Mr. Smith, you have been selected to receive this special trade-in offer”). Rereading your word processor manual

may establish that the number of entries you will maintain, the ways you wish to

access them, and how you desire them to be printed may already be at your

disposal.

Level two

Single-purpose files are the most common requirement in business and the professions. Hundreds of available business

software packages address it, each offering

advantages. The better mailing list pro- grams, for example, include utilities for adding, changing, deleting, reordering,

sorting and printing from easily understood menus (options). Other programs

provide filing of correspondence by key

words (subjects or topics) and recovery for review or printing of those meeting the

criteria established by a key word search. A host of bibliographic or research sum- mary programs offer a range of recovery and printing options. Some inventory programs maintain data sequentially, by

indexed sequential access method

(ISAM), or on a random access basis, again menu-driven, to document the addition or dispersing of items and extract- ing a list of those items that have reached

or dropped below the reorder level. What? The reader may have stumbled

over this last one; the terms “sequential,"

“random access” and “ISAM” were in- troduced deliberately as a lead-in to another question: if the program does what you want it to do, does it really matter how it does it? For now, the answer must be an obvious “no.”

In sum, if a single file system meets all your requirements and is easy for you and

your employees to master, settle on it with

only one caveat: it is probably not configurable. This means that it will do what

it is supposed to do, but probably cannot

be adapted to serve different requirements

which may arise in the future.

Level three

But what if your data management

needs require you to work with more

than one type of data located in more

than one file? The single-purpose software packages you have decided on in all probability will store their data in different

Desktop Computing March 1983 "Assessing Your Data Hanagenent Needs, “ Eduard E. Sayle, Desktop Conputjnq,

/larch IMS. pages JD- il , Reprinted by pernission. Copyright ('ey hy uayne

Creen Inc., 19SJ. ALL RICHIS RESERVED.
Page 67

Database Management

ways. This is no problem when the per- sonnel files need not interact with inventory or other support files. You may,

however, desire interaction between per- sonnel files and payroll. Or you wish to mesh information from both inventory

and invoices. In each case, the single- purpose packages in use may be incompatible. More and more publishers of software have addressed the multifile problem, exercising methods both simple and complex. For the average user, the answer may be a consolidated file, one which

holds all the information that might

otherwise be held in separate files, and is at once compatible with all the operating programs one needs. This is the basis of

the multifunction software packages now

reaching the marketplace. Such software

integrates all the operating pieces into a master program which will do word processing, spreadsheet, graphics and data- base management, working interactively with the same data. Multifunction offer- ings by Lotus, VisiCorp, MicroSoft,

MicroPro and others may be all that are needed to address the multifile dilemma.

Other off-the-shelf multifile software programs work interactively. Sometimes

the interaction is invisible to the user, but

generally it requires conscious response. For example, a high-end accounting package will automatically post information to accounts receivable, accounts payable, in- ventory, and so forth, based on the entry one makes to the general ledger. The

desktop computer operator need do nothing more. At a lower technical level, but

frequently favored by many who want

personal assurance that remote postings

have been made, is software requiring

disk-swapping. With these, as an example, once the general ledger entry has been made, the computer prompts, “Load

accounts receivable disk.” Depending on

the software, the entry is then posted

without further command, or the user must do so manually. A popular text stor- age program, which recovers correspon- dence and the like by key words, stores the key words and their index on the main disk. At conclusion of a successful search it prompts the operator to load the

disk it designates so that the full text may

be examined and manipulated.

Time for another decision

If it appears to you that a software pro- gram of the type described at these first three levels will satisfy your needs, your

decision making is now reduced to only two questions: • Will it do everything you will ever want

it to do?

• Can the system be operated easily so

that you and your employees will never

hesitate to run it? A positive response to both questions

ends your search for a data management

system. It has also saved you $500

or more.

Level four

There is a quantum jump, financially

and technically, at this level, the so-called Database Management System (DBMS).

Purists will insist that this level consists of two types: Data Management Systems

(DMS) and DBMS; for this discussion they will be combined. In the main they

are, as one writer put it, “complicated lit- tle beasts.” Yet, they transform the desk- top computer into a powerful tool per- forming functions that only a few years ago were limited to powerful “mainframe”

computers.

This type of software should accept data in the format you establish, process the data as you wish, without your having

to know how the information is stored. They usually permit accessing more than one data file at a time when posting, comparing, consolidating, printing or generat- ing a new file is required. Your inventory

and suppliers files, for example, could be

instructed to interact and provide a list of vendors and competitive prices for order- ing that next batch of paper. Or you may

wish to compare the performance of

salespeople in a specific district with the

salary levels described in personnel

records. The product desired is limited only by one’s imagination and the scope of the specific DBMS.

The prospective purchaser of such a sys- tem will again have to cope with the se- mantic challenge. Publishers of this type of program have been shown to be quick

and easy in calling a specific software “re- lational,” yet by technical standards it might not be so. It may be “hierarchical” or “networking,” or more than likely a combination of two or more of the types. From the user’s point of view, the actual type seldom should be of importance, despite sales pitches, if it is efficient, performs

all the housekeeping chores necessary and

completes its tasks with the speed desired. To aid in fighting your way through the hyperbole and jargon, a short tutorial on

the various types may be of some

assistance.

1. Hierarchical. As one manufacturer

touts it, “This sensible ‘family tree’ type of

design starts with the main subject and

then branches out to related information.” The aloof B-tree has now become a more friendly “sensible family tree," made

up of the founding root, followed by

ancestors, to parents, sons/daughters and

descendants. In technical terms, this means that all data is divided into “owners” and “members” in a rigid hierar- chy not unlike a genealogical chart. Such

software usually assumes that all the data

will be processed in a certain sequential order. An inventory program might

designate a firm’s various departments as “owners,” with merchandise as their respective “members.” Descend the tree to the department and, in turn, by further branching, the desired merchandise item

is located. For most inventories this would be ade- quate. But as anyone knows who has at- tempted to locate an item in a major mail- order catalogue, “hooks” may be found

throughout the catalogue, depending on

type and the department that sells them. A drawback of a hierarchical design in such cases is that should one wish to

locate all “hooks” carried by the firm, every “owner” and every branching path

to “members” would have to be explored

to render the final tally. The same might prove the case if one desired to know

which department carried the “XYZ

brand hook.”

2. Networking. Complexities arise in the

hierarchical design when one attempts to make data modifications (add, delete, up- date and retrieve), particularly when sev

eral people are using the system. The re- sult is commonly error or unreliability

What were called Codasyl proposals in- troduced “networking” as a solution to some, but not all, of these problems. (If you are confused at this point, consider

that purists now refer to hierarchical sys terns as “sub-systems” of networking, yet many will admit that network designs arc hierarchical in structure.) Using what arc called “pointers” to relate the items t each other, the network system permit-,

much greater flexibility in accessing and

exploiting these relationships. The um r ; allowed to view the network of file- and',

wend through them. New connect i< in- between such items can be establish' 1 a time and circumstance dictate The drawback is that pointers take .. space. In establishing a complex datab.i < with branch paths to satisfy differ--:,

r

needs and users, it is p- that the space required for pointers could - -- : the space of the data itself. Hus n i . • always undesirable to achieve greater cess to information. There is t .. complexity in moving the data ar, and some rigidity of stt alteration, but for most user, th' fra

is well worth it—this may be all th--. ever need.March 1963 DnJrtof Oaapaltaf
Page 68

Database Management

3. Relational. This structure organizes the data into rows and columns, making

it possible to query any possible relation- ship between the various elements. Al- though the user does not see it, each of

the individual files is dumped into one

large database in this format, making it possible to address only those portions

needed for a specific report. Ever-changing combinations of data may thus be merged to meet ever-changing require- ments, tasking the desktop computer to

its full potential. There are distinct advantages to a relational structure, yet all may

not be incorporated into a specific brand

package:

• A single source of data with no redun- dance of information. Thus, if customer

information should change, only one cor- recting entry is necessary. In contrast, with other database management types in which structures maintain different list- ings, each list would have to be entered and changed. This is no small task in a large-scale mailing-list environment

where, for example, a person is on one list alphabetically, on another list by zip code,

and so forth, each of which must be al- tered when there is a name or address change.

• Greater consistency and accuracy. Applications programs are relieved of the

task of managing the data. Searching,

sorting and accessing data may require

less programming and time. • More flexibility in the manipulation of

data. The user does not have to know

where or how the data is located or how it

is recovered in order to link elements

together in new ways to generate different types of reports. Other factors to consider

This idyllic view of data management is marred by reality; the piper must be paid

to gain the advantages. Not consistently, but in general terms, the features of a specific brand software package are dependent on price. A few of the things to look for are the following:

1.

Capacity. The DBMS program, with

little doubt, will be the largest program in one’s desktop computer system. Data

storage requirements often become im- mense, despite elimination of duplication of data. Accessory programs which ease querying and reporting consume even

greater resources. It is often advertised that a “relational” DBMS reduces the amount of storage when compared to the

other types. Our advice: look again. Since

introduction of a DBMS often tends to require an upgrading of both the comDMkt«p Computinf March 1983

At least one manual

examined by this writer

was incomprehensible

and so loaded with data

management theory and

scant on practice that it would be useless to the

beginner. Documentation

will be a day-to-day

crutch for you and your

employees. Be sure that it will fulfill that purpose.

puter and storage media to be used with

it, the prospective purchaser must ensure

initially that existing hardware or that in- tended for purchase will be adequate.

2. Word processor interface. Does the in- tended DBMS coexist (“handshake” is the buzzword) with one’s existing word

processing software, or will yet another

word processing procedure have to be

learned? Some DBMS have complicated

editors with far too many new commands

to remember and require learning a confusingly different series of multi-keystrokes.

3. Language. Since the DBMS must be

instructed to perform the many tasks of which it is capable, some programming

language is required. This, by itself, limits a few packages to experienced programmers. Others, although heralded as not

requiring one to be adept at programming, are still far too difficult for the

novice. Some use interactive or compiler

languages with which the user might be

familiar, easing the task somewhat. Yet, the user who feels comfortable with an in- terpreter Basic, for example, must remember that its relative slowness will be

echoed in the processing time of the DBMS. Other languages are said to be

English-like, use English-like syntax, or words to that effect. Whatever the ease or complexity, the language must be

learned to exercise the DBMS. To this, the prospective purchaser must insist, “Show me.”

4. Menus. The first-time user will need

all possible assistance in navigating

through a DBMS. Here, menus play a

vital role. Some software packages forego

all but the most basic type of menu;

others overwhelm the user with endless pages of menu selections. Find one with

which you are comfortable that will per- mit you to eliminate some of the menu se- quences as you become more adept in us- ing the DBMS.

5. Documentation. Considering the cost of most DBMS packages, dealers should be willing to let a potential buyer take the documentation home to be examined at

leisure. This is essential. At least one manual examined by this writer was incomprehensible and so loaded with data management theory and scant on practice that it would be useless to the beginner.

Some examined were only marginally better if one ignored the stud charts and

railroad track schematics. Documentation will be a day-to-day crutch for you

and your employees. Be sure that it will

fulfill that purpose.

6. Accessory programs. Relief for those wishing to embark on DBMS may be

found in the several accessory programs

being marketed to ease database use with- out learning fully the DBMS’ “language.

’

These convenient utilities assist in in- structing the DBMS to accept input, process queries and format output. They are

function-oriented, thus costly if a wide

range of utilities is required. They also consume even more space in memory and on disk (see “capacity” above). On bal- ance, examine the available utility pro- grams at the same time you compare

DBMS. Be warned that there are few

such utilities for appointment calendars, accounting, inventory and the like, for the majority of DBMS packages. Your

final selection of a DBMS may hinge on

available accessory programs.

7. Security. All the data of an organiza- tion eventually get dumped into the DBMS if it is to display full efficiency and

potential. Some of this information is private, privileged or proprietary, and re- quires protection. If such is the case with your intended application, examine the

security-access provisions of each sys- tem. Some have no such security mechanism and may be scratched from the

list at an early stage.

8. Error recovery. Does the proposed

DBMS have data safeguards? Since in- structions must be in “exquisite detail,” what provision does it have to prevent you from sending data to a bottomless pit from which it may never be recovered? What capabilities does the program have

in the event that you make what is often

called a “fatal error?” Will it “crash” and

lose all or a significant portion of your

database, or does it recover neatly with- out such impact? One clue seen often in
Page 69

Database Management

the manuals is a warning, “At this point

make a back-up disk of your main data

file . . . ” Your data is an asset just as is the equipment you use or the merchandise you sell; it deserves equal protection

from loss.

9. Forms. Without employing the more

ambitious forms-generator utilities, most DBMS expect the user to conform to

their creators’ program design. With a few, you might as well change your line of work; your records, forms and cross-refer- encing must be changed that dramatically. Some dealers warn of the chaos that may result in attempting to adapt data- base forms to those used currently in manual systems. It may be that your existing forms are not of this era and some compromise is not untenable

with progress.

10. Speed. In general, the more complex

the database program, the slower it will run. Placing too much of a burden on

some systems mires them down. Ask for an identical, predetermined function to be performed on each package examined

if speed of processing is one of your important considerations.

11. Training. Excellent training pro- grams are available for many of the ad- vanced database systems. Consider their cost in your projections.

12. Time. How much time are you will- ing to devote to training yourself or your

employees to manipulate the database program? If you have employee turnover,

are you willing to allocate time and

money for training new workers, either on the job or through outside facilities?

13. Abilin to update. Among the

finalists in your selection process, try each

for various updating applications. Add an

item, delete one and change another. The

relative ease of some will surprise you; others will be condemned to a deserved fate.

14. Human factcrrs. So far, this checklist has shown that to achieve the efficiency

and productivity of a DBMS it may be

necessary to work at making the dream come true. The small businessperson or

professional probably has considered use of a DBMS to facilitate in a more convenient and timely fashion work being done

by office personnel or outside contractors. There is no intent to hire a full-time computer operator or systems manager. Your

office accountant, for example, is being asked to continue to perform the function

for which s/he has years of training and

experience. Now, added to the job will be

the functions of computer operator, sys- tems analyst and auditor. The DBMS

and the accessory programs you select to make this transition, in final analysis, must hold the human factor paramount.

So far unsaid, but apparent in our

review of the advanced systems at level four, and some at the other levels as well,

is dealer support. Product selection should not be by whim. It requires a dealer to work closely with you to choose the best system for your particular operation, to write a library of those commands you

will use most often, and to install the pro- gram for you. The services of a dealer

qualified in applications of the software and capable of giving the initial training, first-echelon maintenance and continuing advice will pay dividends on your substantial investment.

The author is a regular contributor to Desktop Computing. Address any correspondence to him do Desktop

March 1903 DeafcUf 0ia>irtM
Page 70

SOFTWARE

New spread-sheet packages

do more than model

ALAN HIRSCH, Datapro Research Corp.

Highly evolved first-generation programs are giving way

to integrated second-generation packages

Electronic spread-sheet packages are the most

popular business application programs for microcomputers. More than l million spread-sheet packages have

been sold since VisiCalc was introduced in 1979, one for every five microcomputers sold to date. More than 50

VisiCalc clones are on the market, but a new wave of

“second-generation” spread sheets threatens to make

them obsolete. These second-generation programs

are billed as powerful, flexible, friendly, all-in-one microcomputer software solutions, but they are best

understood as the direct descendants of last year’s

diverse spread-sheet software offerings.

Spreadsheet basics

Why have business people embraced spread sheets so

heartily? The reason is that ledger-sheet analysis is a

singularly tedious, repetitive and error-prone task. Imagine this scenario: a manager of a large company

must submit a report that projects income for the next

five years. The manager must assume values for sales revenues, overhead costs, interest rates, repeat busi- ness and cost of materials. The manager makes a ledger

sheet containing all the information and submits it to the company’s controller, who asks that the repeat

business be assumed at 80 percent instead of 76

percent. The manager must then recalculate all the

ledger values that have been affected by this one change in the repeat-business category. Manually

recalculating the effects of this single change is so arduous and time-consuming that very few managers

make more than two assumptions per category.

A spread-sheet program transforms a microcomputer screen into a huge ledger sheet. By simulating the rows and columns of a ledger sheet, the program lets a

MINI-MICRO SYSTEMS/June 1983

user work with a large number of interrelated values. When a user changes a given value on the spread sheet,

the program automatically recalculates any affected values in seconds. The program not only makes

managers’ projections less time-consuming and more

accurate, it also encourages them to ask more “what-if”

questions and to make more complex assumptions.

Although originally intended for accountants,

spread-sheet programs are now being used by nearly

everyone with a microcomputer who needs to juggle

figures. Spread-sheet programs are used to produce

budgets, action and profit plans and sales forecasts. They also help produce income statements, cash-flow

projections, currency conversions, expense reports and

job-cost analyses.

Advanced first-generation spread-sheet packages are

concise but powerful tools. They are available for 8- and

16-bit microcomputers running CP/M, MS/DOS, Apple,

UNIX and other operating systems. First-generation

packages support analysis “grids” of hundreds of

lettered columns by hundreds of numbered rows. The

packages allow horizontal and vertical scrolling across the grid and split-screen displays for simultaneous

display of distant portions of the grid.

First-generation programs support column, row and

cell (single-value) editing. With more advanced editing,

columns, rows and cells can be right-, left- and

center-justified and can contain dollar, decimal, numeric and alphanumeric data. Columns, rows and cells can

also be displayed with underlined, flashing, reverse

video and color characters. Users can sort entire grids

by column or row values and can find and replace

specified data values. Spread sheets allow user-insti- gated and automatic recalculation in user-specified or

~Nev Spread-Sheet Packages Do Here Than ftodel. ’ Plan Hirsch. ftini -fficro Svstens. >Ajne 1983, pages 205. 206l 208. 21J. 212. Reprinted by pemission

.

Copyright (c) by Cahners Publishing Conpany. Division of' Peed Holding Inc. DLL RIGHTS RCSTRVtO.
SOFTWARE

machine-optimized order. “If-then-else” and other

Boolean commands can be used to manipulate values,

and preprogrammed average, depreciation, logarithmic, percentage and trigonometric commands are often

available. Many spread-sheet programs have been

optimized for specific applications, and an active

after-market of third-party spread-sheet models (templates) designed to run on popular programs has

emerged.

Support and documentation

Manufacturer support is of prime importance to spread-sheet resellers and end users alike. Manufacturer support may include providing future program

enhancements or simply being available to answer

occasional dealer or user queries. The buyer should

understand the manufacturer’s support program before

buying or licensing a spread sheet. Vendor support can include: • training aids in the form of audio and video

cassette tapes and on-line, interactive tutorials supplied as part of a main program or on a separate

diskette; • newsletters for dealers and users that offer suggestions on new program applications; • telephone hot lines (preferably toll free) to answer

dealer and user questions; • free product upgrades distributed through dealers

or directly to end users; • dealer sales aids, including product displays and

video cassette- or diskette-based demonstration packages. Given the complexity and flexibility of spread-sheet

programs, good documentation is vital to user satisfac- tion and reseller success. Documentation should be

organized and indexed for the convenience of both

novice and experienced users. It should include illustra- tions of “real-life” screen situations and many application examples. Sample models should be provided

either on diskette or in the manual. There should be a

glossary to help the user understand the vendor’s

colloquialisms, and a pocket reference or command

summary for users who have already read the main

manual.

Physical appearance may provide a clue to the

relative strength or weakness of documentation, but

the user should be aware that typewritten, photostated, staple-bound manuals may be less effective than

offset-printed, loose-leaf manuals with color and graphics. Looks are not everything though; at least one vendor provides obscure and outdated documentation

in handsome, glossy, slipcased binders. In gathering material for the preparation of this

article, Datapro Research Corp. was particularly

impressed with documentation from Lotus Development Corp., Hewlett-Packard Co., VisiCorp, Business

Planning Systems, Microsoft, Context Management

I

Page 71

Systems and Access Technology. These companies each

provide a pull-out or separate reference guide in addition to a user’s manual. Access Technology and

Chang Laboratories supplement their manuals with

separate, well-written booklets on the use of their

products.

Second-generation spread sheets

The first wave of second-generation spread sheets is here, at least according to the vendors and their

advertising campaigns. The number of advertising

pages devoted to new spread-sheet software is staggering. Underneath the gimmicks, though, secondgeneration spread sheets share some basic characteristics. They require more main memory to run (typically

128K bytes or more), but they can address almost

unlimited amounts of memory. Many packages use

virtual memory to accommodate one or more large

models, and can compare and combine several models.

Software Products International’s ProCalc permits

simultaneous viewing of four models.

The new packages also offer easier interaction with

other applications. Spread-sheet data can be trans- ferred back and forth between word-processing, database-management and graphics programs, and spreadsheet vendors are beginning to build similar programs

into their spread-sheet packages. Graphics are an

especially popular extra feature. Context Management’s MBA program was one of the first to offer graphic representations of spread-sheet-produced

grids, and HP, Lotus Development, Desktop Computer

Software and others now offer integrated spread-sheet

graphics.

Two programs are emerging as leaders among

second-generation spread sheets. Microsoft’s Multiplan

has quicklv become the most popular. Some of its advanced features include sorting, global search and

replace, menu prompts and an English-like language in lieu of formulas to facilitate user interaction with the

program. Multiplan also permits as many as six noncontiguous parts of a model to be viewed simultaneously via window splitting. And, like most secondgeneration spread sheets, it is fully compatible with

VisiCalc-produced files. Microsoft has marketed this program very aggressively through an okm sales department, and more than 50 word-processing, portable-computer and microcomputer manufacturers have

licensed the program to offer with their products. In addition, Multiplan runs on virtually any microcomputer, with versions available for Apple, <T m-ho and

MS/DOS systems. IBM Corp. recently announced it had

licensed Multiplan for its Personal Computer despite

already offering VisiCalc.

The 1

-2-3 program from Lotus, which runs on the

ibm Personal Computer and compatible microcomputers, is one of the most complete spread sheet s available,

requiring 128K bytes of memory. It too Vi * ah

file-compatible and even uses the same k < \ <

< |

• 1 «

• r

. <

• < to initiate commands. Some of 1-2-3’s distinguishing

attributes include an excellent interactive, on creen

tutorial; very versatile cell editing; enriched help
Page 72

menus, a generous 255-column x 2048-row grid; and

fast recalculation, on-screen sorting and graphic representation. 1-2-3 is priced at $495, or twice the cost of Multiplan or VisiCalc. Computer manufacturers offer- ing an MS/DOS-compatible product can turn to Lotus for

licensing, but may be restricted unless their system

supports graphics.

Although some of 1-2-3’s graphics are quite crude and

do not fully exploit the IBM PC’s graphic capabilities,

the fact that a spread-sheet array can be specified and

quickly converted to color or monochrome bar charts

signals an end to the days of reading eyestraining

spread-sheet reports. Graphics capability is defining a new category of spread-sheet programs—decisionsupport spreadsheets. Standard spread sheets made it easier to generate ledger-style financial analyses, DSS

spread-sheet programs will make it easier to understand them.

VisiCorp, once the runaway leader, now finds itself scrambling behind well-mobilized and powerful competitors. It is readying its Visi0" “operating environment”

for delivery in December. Visi0" simultaneously sup- ports multiple applications and allows them to be freely

interchanged. Besides its spread-sheet capabilites,

Visi0" supports word processing, database management

and graphics. The user interface to Visi0" is a mouse

that connects to the game-control adapter port on an IBM pc. Undoubtedly, VisiCorp will find itself not only

competing with systems such as Apple’s Lisa, but also with software companies such as Quarterdeck Soft- ware, Microsoft, Digital Research and other firms that

will certainly introduce similar operating “environments.”

The essence of a electronic spread sheet lies in its ability to assess the bottom-line effects of changes in components. But a few target- or goal-seeking spread

SPREAD-SHEET SOFTWARE GLOSSARY

Electronic spread sheets have

brought a set of terms unique to the computer industry. Even the most

experienced computer user may be

hard pressed to decipher some of the terms and expressions that accompany these programs, and they’re more

than enough to baffle a novice. To make matters even more difficult, many vendors use different terminolo- gy to describe the same things. • Active block: the cell on the

matrix that is highlighted by the

cursor. Information can be entered,

altered or deleted by a user when the

cell is active. • Active cell: same as active

block. e Average: a function that computes the average of the values in a

range or block of cells. • Blank: a command that will erase the contents of a cell or a range

of cells. • Cell: a coordinate position on the

display. The number of columns

multiplied by the number of rows

usually equals the total number of

cells. • Columns: horizontal divisions of the worksheet that are usually, but not always, Identified with letters. Together with rows, columns serve to form

the spread-sheet mairix. • Coordinate: the intersection of two numbers and/or letters that uniquely identify the column and row

or a cell. • Clear: a command in many

electronic spread-sheet programs that

irretrievably erases all information on

the worksheet. • DIF: a format in VisiCalc that allows other unrelated programs to share stored VisiCalc files. • Edit mode: available in many

programs, the edit mode permits easy

modification of cell contents without rekeying the entire entry. e Entry: the value or information contained with a specific cell. e Exponentiation: a function that enables the user to calculate the power of a number. For example, the

result of 8

e can be calculated in a

single step without multiplying sxs

x e etc. e Function: a process through

which values with dependence on

other values are calculated. • Goto: a command that permits

the user to locate any cell immediately

by specifying the coordinates. • Global symbols: symbols that are designated to be displayed in every appropriate cell. Examples of global symbols include asterisks () for crude graphics displays, and dollar signs ($) to denote finances. • Grid: the display of a model

composed of columns and rows. • Gridsheet: same as grid, spread

sheet, or worksheet. • Label: the name or title of a column or row assigned by the user. • Lookup: a function that compares a value with a block range and

delivers corresponding values from

adjacent cells. • Matrix: same as a grid. • Model: a grid that represents

calculated and stored data created by

the user to assess the interrelation- ship of variables. • Order: a command found In most

programs that permits the user to determine the order of calculation. For example, it may be necessary to caculate row-by-row across Instead of column-by-column down or viceversa. • Plansheet: same as worksheet,

spreadsheet. • Protect: a command found in

some programs that permits the user

to lock in The contents of a cell, column or row permanently so that the contents cannot be altered. e Protected cell: an entry that has

been locked in and cannot be

changed. The unprotect statement

frees this cell. • Range: the identifying coordi- nates of a block of cells. e Replicate: a command that allows a row, column or block to be

duplicated and placed in another designated position of the model. • Rows: vertical divisions of the worksheet that are usually, but not always, identified with numbers.

Together with columns, rows serve to form the spread-sheet matrix. e Split screens: two or more

noncontiguous portions of one or more worksheets displayed on the screen and viewable at the same

time. e Spread sheet: the grid of columns and rows on the screen. e Sum: a function that adds the values in all the cells of an entry range. e Template: same as model. e Title: same as label. • What If?: the premise on which most spread-sheet programs operate.

New values can be substituted to determine the resultant effect on the other values. • Window: the view of the worksheet on the screen. This term is frequently used when the screen is split into two or more windows. • Worksheet: same as spreadsheet. • VisiCalc: the first and most

popular electronic spreadsheet pro- gram. It stands for visible calculation. e Zap: Same as clear.
Page 73

sheets allow users to define a result and work backward

to see how it could be achieved. The target is entered

into the spread sheet, and the program holds it constant by changing or asking the user to change other

variables.

Software Arts introduced the first dedicated “howcould” program optimized for target seeking in March.

Although not a spread sheet, it employs several

spread-sheet principles. Software Arts offers the

program, tk! Solver, with a catalog of optional

application-specific templates. Software Arts will sell the program directly to the public and through OEMs.

It is apparent that vendors of this new generation of

integrated, extended-capability spread-sheet programs

intend to break new ground. Next year, many will offer enhanced packages that will integrate word processing,

database management and graphics so skillfully that it will render the current crop obsolete. First-generation

and early second-generation spread-sheet programs

are still not the complete personal-computer software

environments their vendors promote, but they are among the most powerful microcomputer tools

available.

Alan Hirsch is an associate managing editor at Datapro

Research Corp., Delran, N. J., specializing in the analysis of microcomputer hardware and software.

Electronic Spreadsheet Vendors

Access Technology, Inc. 6 Pleasant St. South Natick. Mass. 01760

(617) 655-9191

Circle 824

American Business Systems, Inc. 445 Union Blvd. Lakewood, Col. 80228

(303) 989-3730

Circle 825

Antech, Inc. 788 Myrtle St. Roswell. Ga. 30075

(404) 993-7270

Circle 826

Business Planning Systems Two North State St. Dover. Del. 19901

(302) 674-5500

Circle 827

Dynabyte, Inc. 521 Cottonwood Dr. Milpitos, Calif. 95035

(408) 263-1221

Circle 835

Ferox Microsystems

1701 North Ft. Myer Dr., 6th Fir. Arlington, Va. 22209

(703) 841-0800

Circle 836

Grid Systems Corp. 2535 Garcia Ave. Mountain View, Calif. 94043

(415) 961-4800

Circle 837

H & A Computer Systems, Inc. 30 Hotaling PI., Suite 204 San Francisco, Calif. 94111

(415)434-3517

Circle 838

Microsoft Corp. 10700 Northup Way

Bellevue. Wash. 98004

(206) 828-8080

Circle 846 NEC Information Systems, Inc. 5 Militia Dr. Lexington. Mass. 02173

(617) 862-3120

Circle 847

Osbome/McGraw-Hill

630 Bancroft Way

Berkeley, Calif. 94710

(415) 548-2805

Circle 848

Peachtree Software, Inc. 3445 Peachtree Rd., N.E.. 8th Floor

Atlanta. Ga. 30326

(404) 239-3000

Circle 849

Sorcim Corp. 2310 Lundy Ave. San Jose, Calif. 95131

(408) 942-1727

Circle 857

Structured Systems Group

5204 Claremont

Oakland. Calif. 94618

(415) 547-1567

Circle 858

SuperSoft, Inc. Box 1628 Champaign, III. 61820

(217) 359-2112

Circle 859

Systems Plus, Inc. 1120 San Antonio Rd

Palo Alto. Calif. 94303

(415) 969-7047

Circle 860

Businessoft International Corp. 24 Jean La. Monsey. N Y. 10952

(914) 352-0021 Cirde 828

Chang Laboratories, Inc. 10228 N Sterling Rd. Cupertino. Calif. 95014

(408) 725-8088

Circle 829

Comshare

1935 Cliff Valley Way, Suite 200

Atlanta. Ga. 30329

(404) 634-9535

Circle 830

Context Management Systems

23864 Hawthorne Blvd., Suite 101 Torrance. Calif. 90505

(213)378-8277

Circle 831

Creative Software Concepts, Inc. P.O. Box 349 Binghamton, N.Y. 13902

(607) 722-3235

Circle 832

Cromemco, Inc. 280 Bernardo Ave. Mountain View, Calif. 94043

(415) 964-7400

Circle 833

Desktop Computer Software, Inc. 303 Potrero St. Santa Cruz, Calif. 95060

(408) 458-9095

Circle 834

Hewlett-Packard Co. 19447 Pruneridge Ave. Cupertino, Calif. 95014

(408) 725-81 1

1

Circle 839

Hourglass Systems

P.O. Box 312 Glen Ellyn, 111.60137

(312) 690-1855

Circle 840

Information Unlimited Software 240 Marinship Way

Sausalito, Calif. 94965

(415) 331-6700

Circle 841

Intelligent Systems Corp. 225 Technology Park Norcross. Ga. 30092

(404) 449-5961

Circle 842

Lifeboat Associates

1651 Third Ave. New York, N.Y. 10028

(212) 860-0300

Circle 843

Lotus Development Corp. 55 Wheeler St. Cambridge, Mass. 02138

(617)492-7171

Circle 844

MicroPro International Corp. 33 San Pablo Ave. San Rafael, Calif. 94903

(415) 499-1200

Circle 845

Professional Software Technology,

55 Wheeler Ct. Cambridge, Mass. 02139

(617)497-2077

Circle 850

Radio Shack One Tandy Center

Fort Worth, Texas 76102

(817) 390-3549

Circle 851

Ross Systems, Inc. 1860 Embarcadero

Palo Alto. Calif. 94303

(415) 856-1100

Circle 852

Simple Soft, Inc. 480 Eagle Dr. Suite 101

Elk Grove. III. 60007

(312) 364-0752

Circle 853

Software Arts, Inc. 27 Mica La. Wellesley, Mass. 02139

(617)237-4000

Circle 854

Software Products International 10343 Roselle St., Suite A

San Diego, Calif. 92121

(619) 450-1526

Circle 855

The Software Toolworks

14478 Glorietta Dr. Sherman Oaks. Calif 91423

(213) 986-4885

Circle 858

Inc. United Information Services, Inc. 6626 Convoy Ct San Diego. Calif 921 1

1

(619) 560-7070

Circle 861

United Software Co. 2431 E Douglas

Wichita. Kansas 6721

1

(316) 684-5281

Circle 862

Vector Graphic. Inc. 500 N. Ventu Park Rd Thousand Oaks. Calif 91320

(805) 499-5831

(800) 235-3547

(800) 322-3577 (Calif > Circle 863

VisiCorp 2895 Zanker Rd San Jose. Calif 95111

(408) 946-9000

Circle 864

MINI-MICRO SYSTEMS June IB*)
MICRO MISSION

Page 74

is increasing and will continue to do

so. The type of situation that requires business graphics places a special burden on the department, creating a problem for the information manager providing graphics. Executives operate in a data environment funda- mentally different from production

applications. Decision support and

the presentation of analysis often re- quire data over a longer time frame. They involve more summarization and less detail. When the analysis in- volves current or projected data, that data is often dynamic, sometimes

variable or uncertain and often diffi- cult to define.

In addition, the situation giving

rise to the demand is different. Ad

hoc needs and last-minute changes

are frequent, making rapid turn- around essential. Presentation graphics are often customized, re- quiring close interaction between

the manager and the program. When all graphics capability is lo- cated in the DP department, the in- creased demand for nonstandard

output places a new strain on the facility. One solution is to cut loose those nonstandard, nonroutine tasks by implementing microcomputer

graphics software. Business graphics on microcomputers resolves the problem from

both sides. Use of micros relieves DP

services of tasks that are unnecessary

or inappropriate. From the managComputerworld / Extra!

THE NEW WAVE

OF COMPUTER

GRAPHICS

By Alexis Driscoll and Robin Howard

C

omputer graphics in business applications is fast becoming an essential tool for time-pressured managers.

Sales of graphics software are projected to grow at a rate of

40% per year through the '80s, making graphics one of the

fastest growing markets in software. What can DP managers do to meet the growing need for graphics without

increasing the drain on their personnel and systems? One

solution is distributed graphics for microcomputers.

Graphics is a valuable tool for managers for several reasons. Studies have shown that visual presentation of

information markedly increases both the speed and volume

of comprehension. Meetings are on the average 28%

shorter, which is a boon to managers who are estimated to spend up to 60% of their time in meetings. Ease of

comprehension aids the manager in reviewing and analyzing data. In addition, graphics presentations are attractive to business users because they have been shown to be more

persuasive. As a result, the demand for business graphics

(Continued on Page 78)

When all graphics ca- pability is located in

the DP department,

the increased demand

for nonstandard output places a new strain on the facility. One so- lution is to cut loose

those nonstandard,

nonroutine tasks by

implementing microcomputer graphics

software.

er's perspective, the ability to interact with the program eliminates the problems of an intermediary be- tween the manager and the system. Managers can get the graphs they want. This interaction is essential both to analysis of data and to cus- tomizing graphs. Secondly, since they or their staff create the graphs

themselves, they control the turn- around time. They get the graphs

when they want them. Turnkey systems, which provide hardware (usually minicomputers)

and software dedicated to graphics,

offer some excellent graphics capabilities. However, when they are contrasted with personal computers

that have off-the-shelf software,

there are several trade-offs to consider. The first trade-off is cost. Turnkey

systems cost in the range of $35,000

for up to approximately six units. Add-ons cost approximately $12,000

to $15,000 each. By contrast, a stand- alone micro unit including hardware and software costs less than $5,000.

In many cases, the hardware is al- ready in place, reducing the expense

to a range of $200 to $600. The second trade-off is the cost- benefit ratio. In the realm of micros,

cost is not the distinguishing feature. Even if both the cost of the micro and

software are considered, when compared with a turnkey system, it is possible to purchase approximately 80% to 90% of the capability for 10%

to 15% of the cost — or less. The last trade-off involves the tactical issues raised by a turnkey sys- tem's cost. A high price provides an argument for centralization of the expensive resource in order to maxi- mize utilization. This centralization

is directly contrary to the intent of distributing graphics capability to the user. Much of the ease of access,

if not ease of use, is sacrificed. Before evaluating programs, it is essential to determine the needs that

the programs must serve. Until re- cently, presentation was the primary

function of business graphics, and it is still the most basic and first-used application. The more important the presentation is, the more aesthetic options are required of a program. How much

control over the visual image is re- quired? User needs may be defined

within the following parameters: • Graph types. How many are there and how sophisticated? Can

you overlay one graph on another, such as a line above bars? Can you

place two graphs side by side on one

axis, such as a line beside bars? Can

you create horizontal bars? Can you

have more than one graph on a sin- gle page? • Range of axes. How many vari- ables can be displayed, including

legible labels? Some programs can

accept many data points but cannot

legibly display 24-month labels. Can

you control the frequency or appear- ance of labels? • Control of axes. Does the pro- gram calibrate the range? Can you set the range? • Color selection. How many colors

are available for screen presentations and slides? How many can be dis- played on the screen at one time? Can the users specify background as well as foreground color? Does a col- or program display on a monochrome monitor?

Copyright .198.1 ny CP Co/vrunicatJons/Inc. , Franinghan, no lit701 Reprinted Cron COM’UmwaRLD OFFICE PUTOIPTION or CCTtPUTtRUORLD EXTRA".
Page 75

• Text on graphs. How many titles are there? What types: axis or leg- ends? Are they vertical as well as horizontal? Can titles be placed any- where on the graph such as numbers

on top of bars? How many fonts are

possible? Can you create word

charts? How many fonts can appear on one screen? • Selection of fill, line, mark and grid type How many options are there? Can you specify them or are they in a fixed cycle? As managers have become more

accustomed to visual data through

the use of presentation graphics, de- mand for analytic graphics has in- creased and will continue to in- crease. Many simple forms of analysis may be performed within cer- tain micro graphics programs.

It is essential to determine the so- phistication of the analysis to be per- formed. Trend analysis should be

considered. Is spotting trends visually the extent of analysis or is curve

fitting required? How much statisti- cal analysis is required? Is drawing a trend line sufficient or should the program generate points along the curve as well? Data transfer and manipulation

should be considered. How extensive is the data? How much manipulation does it require? Some pro- grams transfer data, with varying

degrees of ease, between spreadsheet programs and graphics programs. Some programs allow simple data manipulation within the program it- self.Do managers receive information

routinely? If so, there are programs

that allow the creation of standardized graphs similar to those pro- duced on a mainframe. Parameters of

the graphs can be established once, and subsequent users need only edit

data.Once an application profile has been developed, there are two other

variables to consider: desired output and time. Output varies considerably

in quality, time and cost. For particular informal presentations, monochrome charts produced on a printer

are quicker and less expensive than

color charts produced on a plotter. These options, as well as the ability

to create slides and transparencies,

are not only a function of the hardware, but also of the software's abili- ty to interface with it. Some pro- grams also allow the presentation of sequenced displays on the monitor

in place of slide shows. Where software is concerned, less time is not necessarily a function of more money. Some programs that are comparably priced are slower than

others. Programs vary in the time it takes to process an entry. More importantly, programs vary in the time

it takes to load, change graph styles, change data and transfer data. When

multiple charts are produced, time becomes an important factor. Once users' needs are determined,

the programs to meet those needs

can be evaluated. There are several

criteria to apply. A program chosen for one application, such as analysis or presentation, should contain a breadth of options

associated with that application. If the program contains several applications, such as analysis and presentation, opt for sophistication. Some

multiple applications programs, particularly within integrated pro- grams, are excellent introductions to graphics, but are outgrown very

quickly even by inexperienced users. Expect user sophistication to grow

rapidly at first. Similarly, expect a proliferation of data requests and opt

for a program that most easily seif the program contains several applications, such as analysis

and presentation, opt

for sophistication. Expect user sophistication to grow rapidly at

first. Similarly, expect

a proliferation of data

requests and opt for a program that most easily acquires data from

a multitude of sources.

quires data from a multitude of

sources. Currently, there are no truly portable graphics products available for microcomputers. However, some

products can become standards in a micro environment if the same pro- gram is available on several of the major brands of micros. In an envi- ronment in which several brands are already in place, user training is simplified. In addition, user retraining is not required as users change or add

different brands. The addition of peripherals will constitute the richest and most prolific growth where graphics is concerned. The ability to grow in a logical and controlled pattern requires

software that interfaces with a broad

range of peripherals. Software must be able to utilize the logical intelligence of peripherals. Without this ability, the perfor- mance of peripherals such as plotters and printers will be constrained with

regard to such items as scaling, fill types, font styles and color. The importance of ease of use can- not be overstated. Managers need a program that is easy to learn and

easy to use. The first prerequisite is either menus or English-like commands. Menus have the advantage of being easy to learn at first, but a com- mon complaint is that more experi- enced users find them awkward and

slow. If a high turnover of users is expected, then menus may be the

best choice. However, users who ex- pect to use the program frequently

will likely opt for a command inter- face with English-like commands.

If the program is meant to customize graphics or experiment with data,

it should be easy to use. Standard for- mats are only easy for producing

standardized graphs. It should be

easy and quick to change your mind

about the type of graph, graph ele- ments and data input. It should be

easy to preview the graph while it is being created. When choosing between two comparable programs, choose the one

with better documentation. Documentation that is thorough and easy

to understand is the key to users learning the program and developing their skills. It should include a tutorial with exercises for the novice and a variety of reference materials

for the experienced user On-screen

tutorials are an excellent tool for overcoming reluctance to interact with the program. Look for a comprehensive reference section within

the manual and , foldout or pocket

charts for quick reference. In addition, look for comprehensive Help

screens within the program. Telephone customer support, in which the manufacturer answers

user questions about the program,

can deflect much of the onus of train- ing and troubleshooting from infor- mation managers. Support varies among vendors. Some have formal customer support programs, while

others deal with questions on an ad hoc basis. Some have toll-free numbers; others do not. Since questions

will continue to arise as user skills develop and equipment is added,

quality customer support is an essential time-saver. When micro graphics is intro- duced to a firm, the use of graphics and its variety of uses tend to mushCOMPUTER GRAPHICS

room shortly thereafter When first surveyed, many potential users can- not conceptualize their graphics

needs. However, once graphics is ac- cessible to them and they become fa- miliar with its capabilities, either di- rectly or through others, applications

multiply. Users also become more so- phisticated in their skills. In addition, some of the demand for graphics comes from the recipients of graphs, not the creators. Executives soon discover the value of graphics

presentations and demand more of them. For all these reasons, it is wise

to allow options for expansion when

making initial purchases. Although expansion may be an upgrading to more sophisticated pro- grams or hardware, it may also be

just a proliferation. The two should

not be mistaken. Not every application requires an 8-color plotter or a

statistical package. Planned expansion will consider upgrading equip- ment, but also the provision of a vari- ety of options regarding speed,

quality and capacity. The micro invasion of the office is a fact. But microcomputing is personal computing. The name is an index

of its use. It is not a replacement for the tasks normally performed by DP

departments* but rather a supple- ment. It has the added advantage of

relieving DP of current tasks that drain its resources, tasks that are better performed elsewhere

Graphics is an excellent example

of such a task. With the advent of mi- crocomputers, many nonstandard, ad hoc graphics tasks can now be locat- ed where they belong — with the

user.Graphics is just being introduced

into the business environment in quantity. Now is an ideal time for professionals concerned with infor- mation management to intervene to assure that this new wave of infor- mation processing is properly managed.

Driscoll is a marketing consultant and

a Masters candidate at MITs Sloan

School. Howard is a product manager

for Business 6r Professional Software.

Inc., Cambridge, Mass

Computerworld/ Extra!
# Review

Page 76

The Communicators

Larry Jordan

Telecommunications can broaden your horizons and

make your computer more useful. This look at the most

important features of communications programs will help you select the one that's right for you.

When my IBM PC was delivered in February 1982,

I selected a communications software package easily. The only two available were COMM.BAS, which came

on the PC-DOS disk, and the IBM Asynchronous Communications Support package. I did not know much

about personal computer communications at the time, but the thought of being able to operate the office mainframe from my house intrigued me. Without knowing

what I was getting into, I immediately purchased the IBM Asynchronous Communications package, a Hayes

Smartmodem, and an asynchronous communications

adapter. After putting all the pieces together and making

several awkward attempts to communicate with the office Prime computer, I really started rolling. I could use my modem to converse with the Prime, and the modem

would dutifully follow my every whim. I could also churn out hundreds of lines of FORTRAN without going

anywhere except to the refrigerator for a soda. I felt I had

all I would ever need for communications until I dis- covered electronic bulletin boards. The first time I called a local bulletin board I learned that my communications software was not quite

as capable as I had thought. There were software patches

(a fancy word for software enhancements or error corrections) and games available on the board, but I had no way of capturing the program listings as they scrolled by on my monitor.

By talking with friends I learned that I needed soft- ware that would transform my IBM PC into a smart ter- minal with the ability to send and receive disk files. The

IBM Asynchronous Communications package was sup- posed to provide that capability, but it had many limitations. After several futile attempts at modifying the IBM

package, I gave up and started adding enhancements to the COMM.BAS program. It was at about this time that

I received my first copy of an absolutely wonderful communications package called PC-Talk. Not only did this package give me the smart terminal capabilities I needed,

but also excellent documentation and easy-to-follow source code.

Since those early days of PC communications, many

powerful smart-terminal communications programs have

been released for the PC. Some were initially designed

for CP/M-based computers and have been converted to operate under PC-DOS; other new packages have been

written specifically for the IBM PC. My latest count showed over 20 commercially available packages and 5

public domain packages. Due to the large number currently available, it is more difficult than ever to choose a package. To make the task easier for a PC owner just get- ting into communications, I have described the characteristics and capabilities of communications packages. I have also briefly reviewed 12 communications packages

and developed a summary matrix that shows how well communications capabilities have been implemented in these packages.

Essential Characteristics and

Capabilities

As with any other software package, no single communications program is likely to satisfy all wants and needs. The best one can hope for is to find a package that provides most of the essential features and some additional nonessential but desirable features. Although business and personal applications of communications software are often different, some common communications capabilities are required by

both. Business and personal applications must usually

have the ability to send and receive disk files and to communicate in terminal or conversation mode. Business

software, however, will often have to support the volume

of large files that are transferred in many business communications applications. The following paragraphs dis- cuss the common capabilities needed in these two types of software. The unique features of each are discussed

later in this article.

Communications Parameter Selection

To properly communicate with another mainframe or microcomputer (called the host system), you must be able

to select the appropriate communications parameters re- quired by the host system. These parameters include baud rate, number of data bits, type of parity error- Volumc 1, Number 5 “The Co/municaters. “Larry Jordan, PC dorId. June 1983. pages 74. 76. 78. 79-87. 84. Reprinted by permssi on. Copyright (c) by PC Porld. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
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# Review

checking, and number of stop bits. The communications

software may provide default values for these parameters, but it must also provide the option of modifying

the default values both before and after a connection is made with a host system.

Duplex Mode Selection

A communications package should provide a way to switch between half-duplex and full-duplex modes, be- cause business and personal communications applications often require connection to both half-duplex and

full-duplex host systems. Most information services and

bulletin board systems operate in the full-duplex mode,

but other microcomputer and mainframe systems may

operate in half-duplex mode.

Command and Conversation Modes

Communications software should be operable in a com- mand or a conversation mode. The command mode is required for off-line communications between the PC

keyboard and the communications software to perform

functions that do not involve the remote host system. For example, operations such as changing a telephone numI felt I had all I would ever need for

communications until I discovered

electronic bulletin boards.

ber in a dialing directory or viewing selected communications parameters have to be conducted without

interaction with the remote host system. When off-line command mode functions have been completed, however, the software must be able to return to the on-line conversation mode to continue interactive communications with a host system.

Error Handling

A software package’s ability to handle data errors is vi- tally important. A good package should either warn you

before an error occurs, so that preventive action can be

taken, or provide a clear error message when an error does occur. The package should also allow you to continue with communications despite a minor error. Operations that can result in significant errors should also be

designed to let you abort a command before the error is made. For example, if an attempt is made to return to the operating system before captured data has been

saved, you should be told that the data will be lost. You

then should have the chance to go back and save the data

before finally returning to the operating system.

Feature

Data capture direct to disk file Data capture to memory buffer

On-line display of capture buffer

On-line editing of capture buffer

Filtering of received control characters

Optional add/delete of linefeeds Upload wait for host prompts

Upload text throttle (delay between lines) Menu of prestored uploadable strings

Transmission of prestored strings

Transmission of a true break signal

Tab to space conversion XMODEM protocol file transfer

Protocol error-checking file transfer XON/XOFF support during file send/receive Non-ASCII (binary) file transfer

Operation with non-auto-dial modem

Auto-dialing telephone directory

Auto-dialing modem support

Auto-redial of last telephone call

Auto-redial of last call until connect Modem/telephone hangup

Return to operating system without hangup

Elasped time of call display

On-line switch between originate/answer

On-line selection of duplex with toggle

On-line selection of comm parameters

On-line listing of selected parameters

On-line printer on/off toggle

On-line viewing of disk directories

On-line viewing of disk files

| Deletion and renaming of disk files 1200 baud receive/download operation

Save/reload of customized parameters

Batch operation from operating system

Command file power/flexibility Remote takeover and operation

Efficient use of available memory

Display of help files

Line 25 abbreviated help menu

Ease of command key use

Quality of user manual

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Data Capture

Data capture, also called downloading, is the process of

storing received data in memory or in a disk hie. Most

communications applications will require this capability.

Some packages allow data capture directly to a disk hie, whereas others allow data capture to random access memory for later storage in a disk hie. Some packages

provide both options. Most hobbyists don’t need capabilities other than direct-to-disk capture, but some business

applications require the memory capture option so that the captured data may be modihed before it is written to disk. Some communications packages also let you select the type of data to be captured. You can elect to capture

only incoming data transmitted from a host system, only

outgoing data entered from the PC keyboard, or both in- coming and outgoing data. This option is good for busi- ness applications, but most hobbyists can live without it.

If only local keyboard input is being captured, a hie can be opened and a series of batch mode commands entered

into the hie. Then the hie can be closed and immediately

put into operation. Frequent use of this option can im- prove the efhciency of data communications and reduce

communications costs for a business.

Data Upload

The term upload is used to describe the process of trans- ferring a local disk hie to a remote host system. Both

business and personal communications make use of this capability to transfer hies containing memos, reports,

data, or programs to remote Computer systems.

Data Capture to Printer A communications package should have the ability to si- multaneously display and print out data as it is received over the phone line. Sometimes it is necessary to print a computer conversation with another person or the menu

of hies that can be downloaded from a bulletin board to eliminate repeat listings of the menu during download

hie selection. You may also want to get a printed record

of sessions with time-sharing systems for future refer- ence. This feature is particularly useful when transactions result in fund transfers. A single key toggle that turns the print function on and off without interrupting the transfer of data is also a desirable feature. This option allows the user to send text

selectively to a printer by pressing one or two keys. Soft- ware that requires you to go into the command mode to turn the print function on is cumbersome and requires

either an interruption of incoming data flow or a pause

in outgoing data transfer before printing can be initiated. This frequently results in the loss of desired data as it scrolls off the screen.

XON/XOFF Support

File transfer applications that involve data transmission

rates greater than 300 baud often require the XON/

XOFF communications speed-matching protocol. This

protocol allows the software designer to use less memory

(RAM) for a communications receive buffer (an area re- served to hold incoming data) because communications

You should not have to reboot the

computer each time a communications session is completed.

speed-matching will not have to be handled solely by the

buffer. When the buffer begins to fill up as the result of a speed mismatch, the software tells the host to stop sending data by issuing an XOFF character. When the buffer

is emptied, the software signals the host to resume sending data by issuing an XON character. Most mainframe

computers use this XON/XOFF protocol, so business applications that involve Hie transfers with mainframe computers can make use of the capability.

Manual and Auto-Dial Modem Support

Even though you might have only a manual-dial modem,

when selecting a software package it is a good idea to get a package that will support both manual and autodial modems. Having a communications package that supports only manual-dial or auto-dial modems limits

flexibility in hardware configurations. With the current

rapid increase in modem capabilities and the rapid drop

in modem prices a new' auto-dial modem may become a necessity long before expected. An auto-dial modem

might also have to be relinquished for a period of time

for repairs, resulting in the need to use a spare, manualdial modem.

Dialing Directory

When a software package allows the storage of tele- phone numbers that can be used with auto-dial modems

to access remote systems, the package should also allow

the user to list the directory of available telephone numbers. Numbers that are buried in command or batch files are inconvenient to locate when they have to be dialed without using the command or batch file. It is also good

to have a brief summary listing of the major communications parameters that will automatically be invoked when

a number is dialed from the directory.

Originate/Answer Mode Switch

To receive a call from a remote terminal or another computer, the modem must be switched from the originate

Volume 1, Number 5
mode to the answer mode. Manual-dial modems provide

a switch that activates the mode change, but intelligent

modems may be switched manually or through software

control. Communications packages often allow you to switch from one of these modes to another by pressing one or two keys.

1200 Baud Modem Support

A communications package should be able to support

both 300 and 1200 baud (bits of data per second) communications. The ability to upgrade from a 300 baud

modem to a 1200 baud modem without buying a new

communications package can save software and training

costs. Almost all communications packages use different commands to perform the same function, so changing to

a new package means that communications users have to learn new commands.

Return to Operating System

A communications package's ability to return control to the operating system is often overlooked when a package

is being evaluated. You should not have to reboot the computer each time a communications session is completed. Entering a simple command should enable you to leave the communications program and return to the operating system to perform other computer operations.

Many packages use a function key or an Alt-key combination to provide a shortcut back to the operating sys- tem. Other packages require you to go through a series of menus before returning to the operating system. Either

option is acceptable, but the single- or dual-key shortcut

is faster to execute and easier to remember.

Disk Directory Listing

Another useful feature is the ability to list the disk directories of all disk drives. When you are uploading files, this function allows you to select files for transfer. When

you are downloading files, it allows you to select file names that are not currently in use. If the program stores communications parameters in disk files, the disk direc- tory listing provides a menu of parameter files. For pro- grams that support batch file operation, this option

allows a menu of available batch files to be displayed.

Prestored Strings

Frequent communications with systems that require log on commands can meah a great deal of repetitive typing.

In such cases prestored character strings that can be

transmitted to a host system are a useful feature for both

business and personal applications. Many communications software packages for the PC allow prestored

strings to be uploaded with one or two keystrokes, making this feature even more convenient. When prestored

strings are provided by a package, the user must be able

Page 79

to list the strings quickly while logged on to another sys- tem; it is easy to forget which string goes with each key, so a quick reminder is sometimes necessary.

Break Signal

Many mainframes and some information services require

a break signal to interrupt program execution. A communications package should be able to send a 200- to 600-millisecond sustained high signal (equivalent to a logical 0) with one or two keystrokes. This signal will interrupt a program in progress or get the immediate at- tention of an information service system.

Operating System Required

Care should also be taken when selecting a communications package, because available packages may operate

only under PC-DOS, CP/M-86, or the UCSD p-System.

Some packages will run under only one of these systems,

but others are available for more than one operating sys- tem. A package designed to run under one system will not operate under another. Files downloaded using a CP/

M-86 communications package cannot be accessed later under PC-DOS because the disk formats are different.

User Help Files Help files are important in frequently used communications packages. They are also helpful for the user who is not accustomed to a particular package. Help files are not a replacement for a good user manual, but they provide a quick reference for the keys required to perform

certain functions. These help files should be readily ac- cessible and written in clear, concise English.

Documentation

A communications package is incomplete without a good

user manual. A package that contains all the features de- scribed above is of little use without a manual that tells how to use the features. A manual does not have to contain the background information on communications,

but it must fully explain each feature.

User Support

When all else fails, you must be able to get support from

the software publisher. Good user support means that a technical person is available when needed to help solve applications problems. No communications software- package is perfect, particularly new ones on the market,

and most of the problems encountered cannot be solved by a software salesperson. Before purchasing a software

package, you can check with local IBM PC user groups

and other people who own and use the package to be

sure it is well supported.

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Additional Desirable Features

Many commercial communications applications require

several software features beyond those described in the previous section. The PC must deal with mainframe

communications idiosyncrasies, which may include communicating in more than one character code (for example, ASCII and EBCDIC). Business communications may

also require frequent large file transfers or multiple file transfers beyond the scope of personal communications.

Differences in work hours and time zones may also re- quire unattended-operation communications capabilities.

Upload Throttle

When files are being uploaded to a mainframe system, it may be necessary to match the file transfer rate with the response of the mainframe. Some host computer systems

will not allow you to send a line of data until you are prompted to do so. The prompt, a signal indicating that the mainframe is prepared to receive more data, may be

a letter, a character, a number, or a combination of all three. Data sent before the prompt is received are usually

lost. Uploading a file to such a system without providing

a mechanism to wait for prompts results in the truncation of each line; a subsequent listing of the file will show the beginning of each line missing. To match the upload speed of the IBM PC with the system response of

a mainframe, it is sometimes necessary to throttle the upload.

Communications software packages provide several types of upload throttles. The three major types are time

delays, character receipt delays, and character prompt delays. A time-delay throttle allows you to select the length of the time delay between the upload of each line of

data. A character-receipt delay throttle allows you to specify the number of characters that must be received from the mainframe before a new line of data is uploaded. A character-prompt delay allows you to specify

the exact character string that must be received from the mainframe before a new line of data is sent.

Linefeed Control

Some communications software packages add linefeeds

after each carriage return received or transmitted, but

others do not. Business communications software should

let you decide whether to have linefeeds sent following

each carriage return or added after each received car- riage return. Without this capability, transferred files may have to be edited to remove or add linefeeds and

conversation mode communications may be difficult to perform.

If a linefeed is being added to each transmitted line by a remote system and another one is being added by

the PC’s communications package, the received data will have a blank line between each line of data. If linefeeds are not being added to the end of each transmitted line

by the host and the PC’s communications package is not adding one, the data received by the PC cannot be listed and edited until linefeeds are added. If data is being re- ceived in the conversation mode and neither the IBM PC

Prestored character strings that can

be transmitted to a host system are a

useful feature for both business and

personal applications.

software nor the remote station software is adding line- feeds at the ends of data lines, each line will overprint

the previous line on the PC monitor, making it difficult to read the data.

Binary Data Transfer

A full-featured communications package should allow

the transfer of non-ASCII files. It is often necessary to

transfer machine code files, rather than source code, to protect the source code from being stolen or modified.

Some BASIC language communications software will not send or receive machine code, because some of the bi- nary strings contained in the files appear to the communications program as end-of-file markers, causing the transmit or receive mode to terminate abnormally. Busi- ness applications usually require that communications

software be designed to overcome this problem.

Protocol File Transfer

The term protocol file transfer is used by many software

vendors to describe special file transfer techniques. These

techniques are different for each package, but they generally do the same thing. The protocol signals (sometimes

called handshaking) used by these packages allow them

to transfer text, data, and machine code files and to per- form sophisticated error checking to be sure files are transferred properly. The handicap in using these protocol file transfer techniques is that the computers on

both ends of the communications link must be using the same software; there is no standard that governs these protocols and no two are exactly alike. This means that a business must standardize its communications software

to take advantage of protocol transfers.

Remote Control

Some IBM PC communications packages allow users to

call in from a remote location and take over the operation of a computer as if they were sitting in front of it. To perform this function both systems must be using the same software. Businesses can use this capability to

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transfer files to or from an unattended computer. For ex- ample. a branch office can send a file to the home office

in another time zone before or after normal working

hours.

Command Files

C ommand files allow the storage of several parameters in

a disk file tor repeated use. These files may contain many

or all the software package commands that can be entered from the keyboard. Communications parameters

such as parity and number of data bits may be modified,

and a telephone number can be automatically dialed by a command file.

Batch Mode

Batch mode operation is similar to command file loading

and execution, but it supports several commands not supported by command files. A command file can modify communications parameters and dial a telephone

number when used with an auto-dial modem, but a communications operator must take over to continue the ses- sion after the communications link is established. A

batch file can modify communications parameters and

dial a telephone number, but it can also continue the communications session after the connection with the re- mote system is established. Log on messages can be sent and tiles transferred between the IBM PC and any other

system without operator assistance. A batch file may also be written to delay execution until a specified period of time has elapsed.

Character Filter Some mainframe and microcomputer communications

software transmits control characters. These characters do not print on most computer terminals, but the characters are printed on an IBM PC. To eliminate these annoying and sometimes confusing characters, the program

must filter them out of the incoming stream of data. Some PC software packages allow the user to turn the

filter on or off by executing a command string. Business

applications that require remote demonstrations of soft- ware running on a computer that transmits control characters would benefit from the filter option.

Translation Table

Translation tables allow the program to redefine incoming or outgoing character codes. Any of 256 codes can

be redefined so that a different character code is passed

to the IBM PC than the one received, or a different character code is sent out through the communications port

than was entered at the keyboard. EBCDIC code for a given character can thus be converted into ASCII code. Certain characters can be redefined as nulls or spaces or can be left out of the translation table entirely so that they will be filtered out of incoming or outgoing data.

Tab-to-Space Conversion

The IBM PC sometimes uses tab (Control-I) characters

to represent spaces in stored files. These tab characters save valuable disk space by representing up to 8 spaces

each. Other systems, however, do not always follow the same convention. To keep files that contain tab characters intact, it may be necessary to convert tab characters

into spaces. Several IBM PC communications packages

provide a facility for turning this automatic conversion on and off by issuing a command from the keyboard.

Telephone Hangup

Some business communications involve systems that do

not automatically break the telephone connection when

you log off. To break a connection with one of these sys- tems, you should be able to execute a software command

that “drops the line” when an auto-dial/auto-answer mo- dem is being used. Without this option the modem

might have to be turned off to break the connection, and

frequent off/on cycling of a modem may shorten its life.

External File Manipulation

It is often necessary during a commmunications session to delete old files as new ones are created. It may also be

necessary to rename files created by a communications

software package (for example, a command file) or those

that have been improperly named during file downloading. It may also be necessary to run a BASIC program or execute a DOS command (for example, a FORMAT or CHKDSK command) during a communications session. These operations can be done more quickly and easily if they can be performed without exiting the software

package. The IBM PC communications packages that provide these options should save a company time and

money if fiie transfers are performed frequently.

Auto-Redial

Some local information services used by hobbyists run on microcomputers and allow only one user at a time,

while others have a limited number of incoming connections. The telephone numbers of these services are fre- quently busy. Instead of manually redialing a number

from the keyboard, an auto-dial modem may be soft- ware controlled to redial a telephone number until a conThe XMODEM protocol can be

used to receive binary files, but the

host computer must be able to send

files using that protocol.

nection is made. Software packages that offer this capability also provide an alarm signal that gets the

Volume 1, Number J
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# Review

user’s attention when the carrier signal of a remote sys- tem is finally detected. It is often necessary to use an

auto-redial to get through to a bulletin board system on weekends or holidays.

Elapsed Time of Call

It is convenient to have an elapsed-time-of-call indicator when communicating with a time-sharing information

service. Information services generally charge a rate based on connect time, so the elapsed-time indicator can

help save connect-time costs. This feature can also serve

as a reminder of costs when calling a long-distance number to get in contact with a host computer system.

XMODEM Protocol

Most CP/M bulletin board systems use the Ward Chris- tensen XMODEM protocol to transfer files. This protocol is similar to the protocol file transfer technique

described earlier in this article in that it requires a pro- tocol-matched system; the XMODEM protocol, though,

is in the public domain. (See “XMODEM Comes to the PC.”) Software that supports this file transfer technique

allows the user to take advantage of 99.6 percent errorfree file downloading from CP/M bulletin boards. The

XMODEM protocol performs checksum error detection

for transferred blocks of data, and blocks containing er- rors are automatically retransmitted.

Evaluating Communications Software

The evaluation and selection of a communications pack- age may not be an easy task. Changing needs and capabilities in a business environment and changing budgets

in a hobbyist situation contribute to the complexity. But

as is the case with other software packages, decisions have to be made based on the best information available.

The initial step in selecting a software package is to assess your communications needs. A list of all essential features should be developed, followed by a list of desir- able features. Only then should available communicaPublic domain and inexpensive

BASIC programs are excellent

learning tools.

tions software packages be considered. An evaluation matrix similar to the one shown in Table 1 allows you to place communications packages in proper perspective by

showing their strengths and weaknesses graphically.

As part of the evaluation of communications soft- ware, experience with any package is valuable. Public domain and inexpensive BASIC programs are excellent learning tools. You can experiment with these simple

programs and learn a great deal about communications

through trial and error. There are many bulletin board

and private host systems operating in major metropolitan

areas that can be used as guinea pigs during this learning

process. Mastering a simple BASIC communications pro- gram will help you evaluate the capabilities you will need

for serious communications.

Larry Jordan is a freelance writer who manages power

plant startup engineers for the NUS Corporation. He has

coauthored the book Communications and Networking

for the IBM PC, to be published this summer by the Brady Company.

(EDITOR'S NOTE: Excerpt from origins.! article - discussion of

specific communication packages extracted)

.

Volume 1, Number 5
Q\ Page 83

( V N (

' u. -W i.l.l v .XI

flic iiiimiiiiu; ol "integrated soft- ware" can vary from one soll- wai'c vendor lo another. For

users, however, the lerin clearly

eomhines two elements: ease ol use and software availability, be- cause ease ol use and software

availability are kev issues in the

selection of desktop computer

hardware, it is appropriate lo ex- amine how they are influencing

desktop development and jnsl what is meant bv integrated

sol t ware. The various integration levels of current mieroeompnter soil- ware oi l crimes can best be understood through an examination of the following key issues: open vs. closed systems, user interlaces,

lilc compatibility levels, multi- tasking vs. single-tasking and

hardw are sol (ware requirements.

Some current offerings will be

examined with an eve to how

Ihev address these issues. Open vs. closed systems: Will the number or Ivpc of a ppl it a- tions that can be performed be

restricted bv the software and

how the software is employed'.’ If not. the svslcm is an open svs- lem. II applications are restricted,

it is a closed system. Context Management Systems. Inc.'s MBA is a closed svslcm.

The open vs rinsed ismh- also addresses the relationship be- tween hardware and suit ware. Is there unvtlmig in the way the hardware and soli ware interact

that afleets where and how the integrated software can be used'.’ Apple Computer. Inc.'s l.isa ex- emplifies this type ol system.

User interface: The most im- portant part ol an casc-of-use cri- terion m, tv be a common

command structure that presents

a consistent user interlace. Base

of use provided bv the integrated

sol I ware should also respect the

user's growing proliciencv or iti- l're(|iient usage. This may impjy some sort of intelligence in the software at least the ability lo suppress or resurrect levels ol help. The decree of integration is also reflected in the levels ol help

offered, such as the use of graphics-bascd guidance (or icons), menus, mice, mneinoiiies or online textual help. File compatibility: File enmpatibilitv is frequent Iv an important reason behind t he

development of a desktop computer aeqnisil ion policy . Simply

put. hie eompat ibility is the abili

iv to move easily iiianipiilatahlc

information between applieal ions programs. In tile most advanced

form, this ability should lake

place regard less ol location (on

coresident programs, between

peers or to a higher processing

level the mini or mainframe).

In higlilv integrated software.

( halites made in one application

would be reflected automat teallv in all relevant ol hers. Multitasking vs. single-tasking: Does the software provide

the ability to perform more Ilian one application .it the same lime ’ Multitasking capability (also

known as concurrency) is provid

ed bv some of the integrated soli ware vendors. It allows the user

lo work on multiple tasks concur

rcully. switching among ilicm in a way that reflects ordinary work

patterns. Single-tasking capahili

tv is the operating procedure ol stand-alone applications pack

awes; it is also the operational

mode of some integrated pack

ages, although Ihev have reduced

the lime required to switch lie tween applications by pulling

them all on a single disk

CnncuiTciil processing, pariicii

l.irlv m conjunction with windowing. laeililales quick referencing

and inlormalion transfer be tween ap|iliealions. to (lie end ol mimicking the way a poison

works on a given pro|eel

Mi ill il .isk lug should not In- < mi

I used wiili mull iproeessing. a In lure desktop computer capabililv

Mull ilasking is a subset ol mi ill • processing Multitasking Is ,i lea- lure ol some integrated software

Copyright 1983 by CO Comunications/Inc. . Franinghan, fM 01701 - Reprinted Iron

COUPUTERUORL0 OFFICE OUT(71ATION or COIPUTEROORLD EXTRA"

.

Computer-world QA
Page 84

o\

Decreasing memory prices — which

encourage the utilization of fixed-disk

options — and increasing processor

speeds will continue to spur the

incorporation of multitasking into

desktop hardware and software.

packages [and the concurrent CP/M operating system); multiprocessing Is generally not employed

at the microcomputer level be- cause of the limitations of most

current microprocessors.

I

n a multitasking environment, the processing power

of the unit Is shared among

multiple applications on a one-at- a-tlme basis. The user works on

one application with the processing power of the desktop computer

directed to that application. The

user may stop work, suspending

the actual processing of the appli- cation while he switches to another application. Because of the

speed Involved, the suspension of processing Is often totally trans- parent to the user.

In a multiprocessing scenario, the processing power Is split

among applications. All applications appear to the user to be pro- cessed simultaneously. The

processor Is In fact still processing them one by one, but alternating instructions from each Just enough to process them as Jobs. An analogy of multiprocessing

could hr based on the circus per- former who sets a series of spin- ning plates In motion. The

performer must move from plate

to plate, setting each In motion, then returning to each to give It enough of a push to keep It spinning till he is able to return with the second, third and fourth

pushes and so on. Visualizing how application

windows would work In both

types of environments helps to il- lustrate the differences between

multitasking and multiprocessing. In a multitasking environ- ment, one application (or more) appears in freeze-frame, while

another single application is live in another window. With multi- processing. all of the windows,

representing more than one appli- cation. are live. Decreasing memory prices —

which encourage I he utilization of fixed-disk options — and Increasing processor speeds will continue

to spur the incorporation of the

multitasking capability Into desktop computer hardware and soft- ware In addition, the increasing

use and availability of 256K-byte

iti - coprocessors will encourage

t In incorporation of multiprocessing capabilities at the desktop

computer level. Hardware/software require- ments: i lie hardware and soft- ware required to make the

Integrated software operational

varies by package Those at the higher levels of Integration have more specific hardware require- ments In terms of processor

speed, mass memory and so on. How providers of Integrated soft- ware address each of these Issues

Illustrates the diversity In the definition of (he term "Integrated.'' Although categorizing can be

hazardous, particularly In as fast- paced a market as desktop computer software, the Yankee Grouj

has established four categories ol Integrated software;

• Hardware/software Integrateds.

• Software Integrators.

• Integrated software.

• Associated software. The hardware/software inte- grated* are epitomized by Apple's

Lisa; their systems (both hard- ware and software) have an ex- tremely tight, synergistic

relationship. In Lisa's case, the operating system Is proprietary, and applications that can be per- formed are limited to those initial- ly provided by the vendor or

developed by a third party under

license.

In either case, the required ad- herence to a proprietary operating

system means the hardware/soft- ware lntegrateds are essentially

closed systems. Data General Corp. and Honeywell, Inc., with their Desktop Generation Series and Microsystems

6/10 and 6/20 respectively, have

sidestepped this problem by split- ting their operating environment. Each of these units supports an

operating system proprietary to the company and compatible with

its minicomputer line. Their soft- ware and hardware therefore are highly Integrated, which ensures

file compatibility at both the desktop, level and above, as well as a common user Interface throughout the product line. What opens these systems Is that each also supports industry- standard operating systems —

CP/M and MS-DOS — that allow

the desktop computers to take ad- vantage of vast quantities of avail- able applications software written by third parties. The advantage to the user of a hardware/software Integrated

unit Is the guaranteed common

command structure and total file compatibility of applications. In

addition, the safety of single vendor sourcing means that, if something is wrong, only one vendor Is to blame. With hardware/soft- ware Integrated units from mini- computer vendors, the benefits of a coherent family of processing

units Is also achieved. Some entry-level desktop computer users not partial to a certain minicomputer family may be con- fused by the seeming myriad of hardware and software choices. They may adopt the hardware/

software lntegrateds. such as

Lisa, as the safest route to desktop

computing. However, the desktop

computer with only a proprietary

operating system might not be- come a standard with high-vol- ume sales. In that case, vendor

software development may lag, and third parties may lose the in- terest and Incentive necessary to develop applications. The user must be willing to ac- cept the limitations imposed by a

restricted set of embedded appli- cations software and be content to wait until the vendor or licensees are ready to provide additional applications he may want. The hardware/software inte- grateds provide a multitasking capability; In the case of Lisa, two or more applications can be run concurrently. More than one applica- tion can be worked on. each

viewed on a single screen in a series of windows. Graphics-based

guidance and selection by pointing by means of a mouse are user- interface devices designed to make desktop computer usage

easier. These user interfaces were

first used In Xerox Corp.'s Star to address the ease-of-use issue. The

Importance of that issue is evident

in the adoption of these devices by

the hardware/software integrateds. However, the incorporation of

these Interfaces into the less pric- ey desktop computers Is and will continue to be a result of the

greater availability of memory and

faster processing. The use of graphics-based guid- ance is more advanced in Lisa than in the DG and Honeywell ex- amples. Their strength lies in

their file compatibility with other members of their product families. something Lisa fails to

provide. The software integrators pro- vide an environment that is at

least hardware-independent, unlike the software lntegrateds, which are tied to hardware and a proprietary operating system. Software integrators function

with industry-standard, not proprietary, operating systems — for example, CP/M, MS-DOS and,

soon, Xenix for the 8-, 16- and 32-

blt processors.

In theory, software integrators can accept an unlimited number

of applications packages — possi- bly from diverse sources — and

run them concurrently. Therefore, these software integrators

provide an open system in contrast to the software lntegrateds'

closed system. Windowing capability Is a fea- ture the software Integrators

share with the lntegrateds. Files are transferable between applications that can be performed concurrently. Tb varying degrees, the software integrators also provide

a common command structure or consistent user interface and are supported by specific hardware

requirements. The principal ex- amples of software integrators are

Visicorp.'s Vision and Quarter- deck Software's Desq, each of which requires 256K bytes and a

rigid disk. These two examples il- lustrate that, even within the neat

yet general category of software

integrators, distinctions exist. The distinctions reflect the raison d'etre of each of the providing

companies.

V

isicorp., of San Jose.

Calif., touts Vision as an

applications environment, not an operating system.

Vision is alleged to be independent of both machine and operat- ing system, sitting on top of the

operating system and providing a nesting place for a variety of applications packages to be run con- currently. Initially, it will be

offered for the IBM Personal Computer, Wang Laboratories. Inc.'s and Texas Instruments, Inc.'s Professional Computers and one

of Digital Equipment Corp.'s desktop computers.

Is Vision open or closed? Theoretically, It is open — applications

that can be run under Vision are

not limited by the hardware/soft- ware configuration, except for memory requirements of each application. However, in order for third-party software vendors to

link with Vision, certain Visicorp. specifications must be met. No

data transfer Is possible between

applications without it. Vision's windowing capability

The desktop computer with only a proprietary operating system might not

become a standard with high-volume

sales. In that case, vendor software

development may lag, and third parties

may lose the interest and incentive

necessary to develop applications.

Computerworld QA
Q\ Page 85

allow s the multiple applications

bring performed to be visible on

one screen concurrently. Its "consistent user Interface” uses a mouse and nine English commands. A bar of commands sits at the bottom of the screen, plus

commands unique to each appli- cation In every window. Initial applications supported are spreadsheet. WP. data management and

graphics, all from the Vlsi-stable

of applications packages. Vlslcorp. Is after all. In the applica- tions software business.

Therefore, the applications of the

host house will come up first and

will be more synerglstically

Integrated. Vision was Introduced In No- vember 1982. with promises of

availability by summer of 1983.

Currently. Vision is not expected

to ship until at least late fall of

this year. In designing Vision as It has. Vlslcorp. has attempted to trade on its rather impressive rep- utation and to consolidate Its hold on a huge installed base of Vlsl applications users. By providing a means of linking all Visi applications together. Vision extends the

life of individual single-application packages In an Increasingly

integrated desktop computer

world. The licensing of third-party software vendors (plus provision

of development tools and so on) can help to extend the life of exist- ing Vlsl products by expanding

the applications line. Desq. from guarterdeck soft- ware. Inc. in Santa Monica. Calif.,

is a software integrator that uses

its lack of a software Installed base to Its advantage. Instead of trying to protect its past revenue

base. Quarterdeck | S seeking to be

a universal link. Quarterdeck claims Desq will offer users the ability to integrate

their favorite MS-DOS-based off- the-shelf applications packages

-— regardless of their source —

Into a common-command, multi- tasking vehicle. This ambitious

plan makes Desq the ultimately open system. Like Vision, Desq al- lows users proficient in certain applications packages (or from

companies that have standardized on certain software formats) to bring that expertise with them

into the integrated environment. This means familiar command

formats resident in those packages can be used or, with Desq, In- tercepted by the Desq program

and front-ended by a common set

of Desq commands. Quarterdeck

claims to be able to handle any

package that runs under MS-DOS,

except those whose performance

is somehow tied to actual hard- ware. According to Gary Pope,

Quarterdeck's executive vice- president and founder, the firm has successfully tried about 70

packages in-house. Desq provides another interest- ing feature, which results from its “artificial intelligence-like" lan- guage. said to be similar to Smalltalk and Lisp. It allows the system

to learn functions as performed

by the user, to be stored and re- used — a sort of program-as-yougo feature. It allows the system to truly mimic the way a user works. This kind of almost porous soft- ware that accepts Its program

content from the user will be an

Increasingly Important feature of desktop computer software. Windows and mice are also a

feature of the Desq system, but

the keyboard can be used equally

well. In terms of hardware require- ments, Desq is not much different from Vision. It, too, requires

256K bytes and, minimally, a 5Mbyte disk. Quarterdeck introduced Desq at Comdex — Spring in At- lanta in April and promised its re- lease for September of this year. Company sources now schedule

the release for October —Just like Vision. Of the two announced software

integrators, Desq's approach may

be the best immediate solution to the complexity of today's desktop

computer software market. Its proclaimed ability to support a myriad of products reflects the di- versity of currently available soft- ware packages and the trouble users now face in Integrating

them. However, both Desq and Vi- sion still have to prove their merit

in actual operation. Questions exist as to how Desq's close to uni- versal approach can retain the nuances of Individual packages it supports. Integrated Software: Two cur- rently available integrated soft- ware packages meet the criteria assigned to our category of the same name. Their physical inte- gration, common command struc- tures and Internally compatible

files place these two packages in the category of Integrated soft- ware. MBA from Context Manage- ment Systems, Inc. (Torrance.

Calif.) and 1-2-3 from Lotus De- velopment Corp. (Cambridge.

Mass.) offer a given set of applica- tions resident on a single disk. This differs from examples of the two previous groups: In the hard- ware/software lntegrateds. soft- ware and hardware are bundled:

in the software integrators, the

software offering serves as the in- tegrating repository for a variety

of single application packages.

By basing its offerings on a sin- gle disk, each of these integrated software packages addresses a major ease-of-use issue. The user

is not required to swap diskettes with each application change — a time-consuming and possibly er- ror-prone process, but a neces- sary one with nonlntegrated

software. These integrated soft- ware packages also offer the ad- vantage that all files are

Internally compatible and a com- mon command and help structure

is provided.

H

owever, the software

that is available to the user is limited in this type of system to a given set. Therefore, although one of the cri- teria for desktop computer product purchase — ease of use — is met, the other — software availability — is not addressed. Priced at 8695, MBA offers

spreadsheet, graphics, data man- agement and some WP (8,000

characters). At $495, 1-2-3's

principal application Is spreadsheet, which is enhanced with

graphics and limited data management capabilities. The 1-2-3 WP is basically nonexistent and

will be added later this year. Given

the fact that WP closely follows spreadsheet as the second most

frequently performed application,

this capability is a necessity. Be- cause the applications set Is limit- ed in both cases, these integrated software vendors provide closed

systems. Both Integrated software packages are seeking to make their of- ferings, if not open, at least less closed. Lotus in particular Is working to connect 1-2-3 to the

outside world — to the service bu- reau offerings of ADP Network

Services via ADP's Datapath and

to corporate mainframes through

Its relationship with McCormack & Dodge Corp.'s Interactive PC. In both cases, data resident else- where can be downloaded Into

1-2-3 at the desktop level, manipulated and uploaded, without

reformatting.

Although both MBA and 1-2-3

are slngle-dlsk-based. closed applications systems using Internally consistent user Interfaces, some significant differences do

In the hardware/software lntegrateds,

software and hardware are bundled. In

the software integrators, the software

serves as the Integrating repository for

a variety of single application packages.

exist. Under MBA. applications

are performed concurrently and

can be viewed simultaneously In a

series of windows. Lotus' 1-2-3 performs its applications serially and does not use windows, al- though it is very easy to switch be- tween spreadsheet and graph.

The multitasking vs. singletasking approaches manifest

themselves In different hardware

requirements. MBA requires 256K

bytes; 1-2-3 requires only 128K

(Release 1A. which is compatible with the IBM PC-XT and several other computers and peripherals

requires 192K). Both require two

double-sided disk drives. Both of these packages are

mouse-free and rely on keyboard

commands, mnemonics and highlighting for commands. Both come

with tutorial/demonstratton

disks. Associated Software: Associated software is the final form of the so-called integrated software

discussed here. The term "associ- ated" reflects the loose degree of applications integration provided

by package vendors. As with pre- viously categoried offerings, some

applications are more closely as- sociated than others. High-end associated software Is defined as a series of individual applications packages (usually from the same vendor) that share

a common user Interface. In addition, a common file structure al- lows the transference of data

between applications that run ei- ther serially or concurrently. Low- end associated software can be

defined as a series of applications

packages — again, usually from a

single vendor — that share file compatibility potential, which can be loosed through a utility program.

Microsoft Corp.'s Multl-Tbol ex- pert systems will probably be the most closely related high-end asEach type of

integrated software

provides atility for the

broad spectmm of

desktop computer

users today.

soclated software offerings Two

are currently available. Financial Statement and Budget, and are

billed as "powerful additions ' to Microsoft's best selling MultIpUn

electronic worksheet Both ran

run on Apple II. 11+ and lie with 64K bytes and one disk drtvr. or under MS-DOS with I28K bytes

The associated nature of the software provides a file transfer capability and a common com

Computerworld QA
OK Page 86

mand structure, in an effort to promote follow-on sales to a user base familiar with the applications vendor's general modus ope- randl. This group consists of users with whom Microsoft has

developed a reputation for reli- ability — a large group, given the prevalence of Apple and MS-DOSbased desktop computers.

Multi-Tool Word is another ad- dition to the Multi-Tool series, with the same hardware require- ments. It differs from the previous two in its heavy use of a mouse for selecting and executing commands. An expert level allows the user to abandon the mouse and

utilize command keys. This package also provides up to eight win- dows within its single WP

application for viewing a series of documents and moving text among them. Multi-Tool Word can

also Incorporate printed files from

Multiplan and other Multi-Tool

application packages. With its reliance on the mouse.

Multi-Tool Word is a step toward an advanced hardware version of other Multi-Tool applications

packages. They will most likely be designed to run under a 3.0 ver- sion of MS-DOS, providing multi- tasking capabilities, windowing, mouse cursor control and possibly

Icon graphics. These features will Increase the hardware require- ments, no doubt to Include 256K

bytes and a hard disk.

Each type of Integrated soft- ware discussed provides utility for the broad spectrum of desktop

computer users today. None of them may prove to be long-term

solutions for integrated desktop

computer applications. Based as it is on a prevalent, industry-stan- dard operating system and providing a compatibility and a common

interface for a large number of di- verse applications packages, Desq

may be the short-term solution to software integration. This could be true particularly In cases of user proficiency or some substantial user investment in diverse

software, according to the Yankee

Group.

For the long term, two of the abovementloned types, reflecting different market populations,

may have greater success. In larg- er organizations, certain hard- ware/software lntegrateds may

provide the best solution. These

are the hardware/software lnte- grateds that combine a proprietary operating system with an

Industry-standard operating sys- tem, thereby providing file compatibility, common user Interface and a large amount of available software at and above the desktop

processing level. Examples are Data General, Honeywell and, before too long. IBM. Hardware/software lntegrateds without a bridge between their

proprietary operating system and

the industry standards or an additional processing level to communicate with will find themselves

with a dearth of applications soft- ware. Fbr this reason, Apple may

elect to support MS-DOS with Lisa before the end of 1983. For smaller organizations where requirements for communications to internal mainframes and mints is not an issue, the soft- ware lntegrateds may provide the

best solution. The software lnte- grateds could provide a core appli- cations package — spreadsheet,

WP, graphics, data management — with a receptacle for an industry-specific applications package. These packages would be written by third parties, to be loaded in by

the user. In addition, links to outside data bases such as those be- ing pursued by 1-2-3 could

provide access to additional data. Again, a common command and

help structure would be provided and file compatibility ensured.

In both cases, how successfully

the issues of user interface, help

and file compatibility are addressed will determine the market success of the Integrated

software. ca

Carr is a consultant at the Yankee Group, a consultingfirm based In Boston.

Coniputerworld QA
FOCUS

Page 87

npraditional roles of data processing and busiJL ness professionals are being revolutionized.

Business users are increasingly asking for automation to simplify department management, development of business plans and scheduling of personal

activities. In response, the computer professional is becoming less of a project design specialist and more

of a consultant in grooming the business professional for computer self-sufficiency. These new relationships mark a healthy spirit of cooperation among

key corporate resources, and that in turn has led to the emergence of the information management center, the personal computer and fourth-generation

languages as resource facilities for companies.

These tools bring self-sufficiency

to end users and guide them In be- coming responsible for the devel- opment and maintenance of their own tasks. O

ne management Information systems (MIS) manager described his department's philosophy this way: "We give our users the tools and guidance they need to auto- mate their own solutions. They

can create exactly what they need

at the time It's required. If needed, we re available with the assis- tance and guidance they may need

to be successful." With experi- ence, business users become

adept at using the computer as a

tool to solve tactical and strategic problems, and DP staffs can focus

attention on the operational prob- lems of the corporation.

In addition, the latest wave of personal computer products has dramatically influenced what

managers and professionals have come to expect from their computer resource. Fbr the business user who has experienced the frustration of waiting in the DP backlog queue, the promise of these new

tools that solve problems at a more individualized level and with

a minimum of effort has great appeal. Management is no longer In- terested in the computer solely for

Its role in handling conventional

operational tasks such as payroll, accounts receivable, purchasing and order entry. Now It is seen as

a management tool for Identifying

and analyzing long-term trends and issues of strategic importance

to the business. There are several ways of per- sonalizing the computer. Obviously, one can use a personal

computer. Personal applications,

such as the many spreadsheet

systems, are also available today. These options are the best known

because of the newness of the

technology and the resulting media Interest in the explosive

growth of this new marketplace.

Perhaps less well known but

equally powerful are the fourth- generation personal computing

languages. These general-purpose software tools are easily applied on a larger organizational scale to accomplish the same personalized

approach to solving individual and departmental problems.

Originally offered in the mid1970's, fourth-generation lan- guages have recently come Into their own, often acompanying

data management systems. Many

also have links to related special- purpose functions, such as word

processing, document retrieval and financial modeling. With

these integrated fourth-generation language systems, the user

has ready access to multiple functions on a single hardware system and does not have to be concerned

with loading on new software for each operation.

Fourth-generation languages

are appealing for a number of rea- sons. They incorporate familiar English commands that are easy

to understand and to apply. The

commands are powerful: A few

words accomplish complete tasks,

for example, designing a file (DEFINE), adding data (ADD), locating information based on very specific criteria (RESELECT FOR) or

printing a report (REPORT). With one day of training, computer

novices can implement a complete

application from describing the

data file, designing a unique for- matted data entry screen, to writ- ing special reports. On the other hand, systems analysts can proto- type and test an entire application

in less time than would be spent on the system specification using

conventional methods. Fourth-generation languages

provide tremendous flexibility. Focused departmental applications are quickly developed to ac- complish a single purpose, as in establishing an order flow track- ing system. This system, or ele- ments of it, can easily be linked or

merged with selected information

in production, purchasing and

billing systems. When internal re- sources are combined in this manner, each department or

individual becomes responsible

for the information it references

or acts upon, rather than for an

entire system. The focus is on the

specific business problem or activity, not on the preparation and

manipulation of data. As a result, users of these languages feel comfortable with the computer as a

tool to solve their own problems.

DP departments have found

that fourth-generation languages

enable them to provide faster re- sponse to their user departments,

particularly in handling ad hoc

queries and reports. These are of- ten time-sensitive requests for summary reports or minor

changes to standard reports; they

may look like simple cosmetic

changes, but they typically re- quire a fair amount of system

staff time to format or reprogram. With the fourth-generation lan- guages, end users can easily col- lect and print only the information they need. When end users

are able to handle these requests themselves, applications backlogs

are reduced dramatically and the DP professionals can focus their expertise on larger applications.

The advent of personal computing languages has given DP pro- fessionals and business end users

a choice of tools for a given appli- cation. Personal computing lan- guages are preferable under the

following conditions:

• Quick application Implementation is key.

• It's a one-time request.

• Modifications to the application are anticipated.

• Leverage through Integrated

tools such as business graphics or word processing Is desirable.

• Local control and maintenance is preferred. For a personal computing tool to be an effective end-user sup- port resource, it must contain

some key features. Ease of use Is most important. The language must be as comfortable and clear

to use as English. Ease of use also extends to the ability to create a

file and perform simple data entry. More complex data entry, aid- ed by formatted screens, editing and data manipulation is also im- portant to ensure that information is entered accurately. Another key criterion is the

ability to reference a file and

quickly produce reports that in- corporate specific information and calculations. And. while rela- tional data management may not mean much to an end user. It Is an

Important consideration; it allows that user to extract information from multiple file sources and to build a customized view of a prob- lem. Relational data structures

replicate traditional manual sys- tems and allow the user to concentrate on results, not data How is the fourth-generation

language Integrated Into the modern business entity? Based on the type of business, the computing

resource may be centralized and managed exclusively by the DP

department or distributed to users. Applications development

may also be handled completely

by MIS or by the end user Often It is a combination of the two The

personal computing phenomenon

is clearly stimulating the move to ward the localized use of the re source and Increased end-user

responsibility for applications

development.

Overall, we can Identify four common computing environ

ments: traditional centralized computing, departmental sys- tems. OA and personal compui

Ing. The first two are classical examples of computer use within organizations QA and personal

computing are new Implementa

tlons. often discussed but still In the process of formal definition Traditional computing Is moat

familiar because It has been used

longest. Here, the computer re

Computerworld OA

Copyright 1983 by CV Coruvjnications/Inc. , Framrtghor. HA 01/01 Rppnnico trc^

CCtlPUTPRi/ORL D OFFICE AUTOMATION or COfIPUTERUORLD EXTRA"
Page 88

fOCUS

source Is centralized In one self- contained department that handles all the computing re- quirements of the entire organization. In this environment, the fourth-generation language Is used both as a prototyping tool for designing and testing complete

application systems and as an applications development tool used by programmers and analysts to design and maintain departmental level applications. With fourth- generation languages, projects are complete and ready to use In one- quarter to one-tenth the time re- quired by conventional methods. Departmental systems are a

variation of the centralized computing theme. Local departments

have their own computing re- source for managing local Infor- mation requirements. In many

companies, departments have use

of a dedicated minicomputer for

this purpose: In others, many de- partments share a common com- pany system. Fourth-generation

languages expedite the design and

Implementation of systems to automate departmental activities and give the administrative and

professional users basic tools for self-sufficiency In data entry, file Inquiries and customized reporting. The centralized DP resource

carries on the design and mainte- nance of key operational applica- tions and is available to the department as a technical re- source for problem resolution.

In QA and personal computing,

the computing tools (terminals

and software) are applied purely

at the discretion of the individual or department. Many organizations are tending to overlap or merge these two departments.

In QA, the focus is twofold. The

most common use is to enhance

the productivity of secretarial and

administrative staff In preparing

and handling documents. However, QA tools like text manage- ment and document retrieval systems also enhance the decl- slon-maklng effectiveness of managerial and professional

staff. Fburth-generation language

systems with their inherent data management capabilities have

been linked with word processors,

text management systems and

document retrieval systems to satisfy the requirements of these office professionals. P

ersonal computing, the

fourth environment, Is entirely subjective. The pur- pose of the personal computing

tool — the computer, the computing software system or the computing language — Is to equip the user to define a problem in his own terms and summon the re- sources of the computer to sojve that problem. Used In this way,

the fourth-generation language and Integrated software tools for data management, business planning, business graphics and docu- ment retrieval can be applied to Improve managerial Insight and

effectiveness at a highly Individualized level. Regardless of the computing

environment and management

orientation, the fourth-generation

language Is the one tool that can

be integrated at all levels. Today, ease-of-use fourth-gen- eration language systems link word processing, financial modeling and business graphics with

data and text management and

even with specialized departmental applications. This new ability to combine information manage- ment resources with special-pur- pose tools has made possible new

and better ways to handle tedious and cumbersome manual processes and to gain insight for problem

solving. Professionals can now

use electronic filing and retrieval systems for access to documents

for litigation support or competitive research. Data and text management systems can be used for producing an analysis of a budget

vs. actual Incorporating variance explanation. Business planning

systems can be linked to informaFOCUS

tlon management for cost estimating and sales

analysis. A

s powerful and

productive as the fourth-generation language systems

have been In responding to the demands of the per- sonal computing revolution. they are not the final answer. Products able to respond to a broad range

of application require- ments today — from data management, to QA. to fi- nancial modeling — are

still In the evolutionary

state, the result of linking

several separate products. The Ideal Is a single

complete product specifi- cally designed to accommodate all the computing

needs of the business pro- fessional with one consis- tent user interface. A

single product that runs

on the personal micro, the departmental mini and the corporate mainframe Is the key concept. By this

definition, the true fifth- generation language cannot be an adaptation of systems available today. The fifth-generation

language systems now In development promise to be

a completely new class of product and are destined

to redefine the concept of user-friendly. We'll see a much higher level user In- terface than Is currently

available, with new fea- tures that combine the

best of today's hardware

and software products.

They will be self-prompted

systems requiring only a cursory orientation and

minimal training because

of their close similarity to conversational English

and the extensive reference cues embedded in the user Interface. The work- ing screen may be spilt Into multiple windows to allow several processes to be monitored at one time. Multiple functions will work simultaneously so documents can be prepared with text, charts and

models, "cutting and past- ing" on-line. At a minimum, the

fifth-generation language

will combine data management. business graphics,

WP, free-text retrieval, spreadsheet analysis and

electronic mall. They will also incorporate the best of communications and

networking technologies to expedite corporatewide

sharing of Information, re- gardless of the geographic

location of the business facility. All the mechanics of the transfers will be trans- parent to the user.

The fifth-generation

language will be crosscompatible with the oper- ating systems of all major

computer systems —

mainframe, minicomputer and microcomputer. Infor- mation will be able to be

accessed for Individualized problem solving, regardless of where it is located. The ultimate objective

of the fifth-generation sys- tem is to make the computer terminal as comfortable

a business tool as the

desk, where business doc- uments are always within reach — to be touched,

read and filed. And working with that Information

will become as easy as

wielding a pen. As dramatic as these

concepts may sound today, the new generation is clearly in sight. In fact, el- ements of it are already

available. Windowed

screens, pointers to symbolic pictures and touchsensitive screens are here

today. Software products are beginning to merge

multiple functions into one package. These are key events on

the way to the final solution — one product, with

relational data management at the core, a single consistent user interface, compatibility with com- mon operating systems

from micro to mainframe

and networked for infor- mation sharing on a global perspective. This solution

will provide truly integrat- ed software systems for

decision support. QA

Cochran Is president of Henco Software, Inc., a software firm In Waltham, Mass.

Computenrorld QA
Page 89

7.
Page 90

RANDOM ACCESS

pfleopli

Communicating with

A Mainframe

leople in business are beginning

to appreciate that technological co- existence between computers of different sizes and capabilities is becoming easier to achieve. Underlying this is the awareness that teaming a personal computer with

its big mainframe brother can be

very useful. Such a partnership

allows for more efficient use of both computers. The hefty mainframes can concentrate on large,

unwieldy jobs—number crunching

and dealing with huge databases—

and the personal computer can handle the lesser tasks. While a personal computer user might have any number of good

reasons for tying in with a mainframe, the following advantages

are most often cited: • Program or data transfer.

Because mainframes are more

powerful, it’s sometimes easier to prepare data on a personal computer and then copy it to a mainframe for programming work. If you have an IBM 370 at your office and an Apple at home, you can take

a project home in the evening for review and then put it in the mainframe in the morning to continue

working on it. • Resource sharing. With access to a mainframe, a computer user can

typically use high-speed printers

and plotters for creating hard copy. In addition, mainframes usually

have some kind of archiving facility so data can be stored easily and

reliably for an extended period of time. This particular safeguard

reduces the burden of making

backup copies with your own per- sonal computer. Another benefit of resource sharing is that information stored in a mainframe is ac- cessible to any number of people

who might need it. • Remote computing. While you’re

away from the mainframe location,

the personal computer can be used

to prepare commands and input

data for the larger machine. Thus,

a manager with a number of sales- people in the field might give each one a personal computer to input

records and prepare figures and

then consolidate all the information

from a given territory in the mainframe.

• Remote-user capability. Using

telephone interfaces, personal computers can function as though they were native terminals for larger

systems. The capability for remote

use can tie the personal computer

to a public subscription service for stock market updates, news, travel reservations, bill paying, shopping,

and more. Programs can also be run on the service’s computers,

and its databases can be used for information storage.

• Database access. There are nu- merous private and public specialinterest databases on larger sys- tems that can be accessed by a microcomputer. Whether they’re

from your company’s library or a pay-by-the-hour service, these

larger databases effectively

enlarge the world your personal

computer is privy to. • Mail services. Many mainframes

with online services have mail sys- tems that allow users to read messages from senders who may be in another office down the hall or around the world. A personal computer user would have access to the mail system from his or her

home and be able to receive and

transmit replies from the comfort

of a living room. So how do you talk to a mainframe? By far the most popular

method of connecting with a heavyweight is the modem. Modems are commercially available from computer stores and range in price

from $100 to $1000 depending on

transmission speed, features, and

immunity to telephone-line noise.

Modems let personal computer

users be geographically independent, but because popular modems

are generally limited to no more

than 120 characters per second,

transmission of large amounts of data may be too slow.

If you use your personal computer at work, it’s possible to run

direct lines from it to the mainframe. Your computer specialists

will probably connect the two using an RS-232C (or RS-422) interface to a port on the mainframe. Because

each line takes up a port of its own,

however, the connection can be

quite inefficient and expensive

unless you put in at least four solid hours of use per day.

A, more efficient way to connect

to a mainframe is with a local net- work (sometimes called a local area network or LAN). Such a network

can concentrate many users and

sometimes other equipment such

as printers into one special highcapacity port. Xerox’s Ethernet

and Datapoint’s ARCnet are two

local networks that have often been used to establish communications between mainframes and

microcomputers. Local networks

are in their infancy and admittedly

still have substantial standards

problems that need to be overcome

before they reach their full potential. Some custom engineering is usually required for each installa- tion. Most connections with mainframes also require special soft- ware. The connection that you do

establish is only as good as the soft- ware program that tells your computer how, when, and where to look for or send data. Because most

personal computers come with an RS-232C port installed, you

shouldn’t need special hardware

for your machine.

If you work with a mainframe

and are interested in hooking up a microcomputer, talk to your data- processing personnel. If you’re in- terested in linking to a public subscription service, your computer

dealer should be able to give you more information.

—Mark Levine and Joel Williams

April 1983 Popular Computing

Iron "'Connunieating Uith a ftainfrane " by FIark Levine and Joel Billions,

appearing in the April issue oF Popular Conputlng nagarine. Copyright (e) 1981

Byte Publications, Inc. Used uith the Pernission of Byte Publications, Inc.
Page 91

Finding a Proper

Translation

How to exchange information between different computers

without re-entering all the data? Some surprising

solutions are available for this nagging business dilemma.

By Amy E. Smith

Anne D., of Acme Inc., got an Apple computer

several years ago for word processing and spreadsheet

applications. This worked fine until last year, when

Acme yielded to the microcomputer invasion and

purchased several dozen IBM pc’s for its employees,

including Anne D. Anne was faced with somehow

getting all her old files into her new computer, a problem compounded by the fact that both machines were entirely different in terms of hardware and

operating systems. Anne’s husband, Steve, faced a similar problem in his job as a corporate accountant. His department had a CP/M multiuser system. The people in sales, however,

had 16-bit MSDOS systems. When Steve and his staff requested information from sales, it had to be printed

out because the cp/m computer couldn’t read msdos

diskettes. Steve’s secretary often ended up entering all that information into the department’s computer.

If these situations sound familiar, they should. They’re on the rise these days in many businesses.

People now are increasingly faced with the problem of

trying to get two different computer systems to

exchange information, usually because they are upgrading to a new system or because they have to

share lnformation with someone who has a different type oLcomnuter. While users often feel they have no

other choice but to re-enter everything, there are some

solutions available. Users have to surmount three types of translation

problems: exchanging data files, exchanging programs

and transporting data o_n differently formatted

diskettes. The difficulty of overcoming each problem

varies with the type of computer — whether

microcomputer or mainframe — under consideration

and the method that one attempts to use to deal with

the situation. Most microcomputers have common communications

protocols and codes that enable them to exchange

information fairly easily. For instance, microcomputers

Amy E. Smith is a staff writer for Business Computer

Systems.

BUSINESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS/SEPTEMBER 1983

tend to utilize ascii (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) for encoding data, ascii code

includes alphanumeric characters as well as some

standard typing commands like tab and carriage

return. Thus, according to Jack Bader, vice president of

The User Group, St. Louis, Mo., a data-processing

consulting firm, an ASCII file sent from one

microcomputer to another can probably be read by the

receiving computer with little problem.

The crux of the problem is getting the files from one computer to another. By far the most popular method

of doing this is to literally phone it in. Modems and

special communications software, like Crosstalk from

Microstuf, Atlanta, Ga., and bstam, from Lifeboat

Associates, New York, N.Y., are required at both the

sending and receiving ends. One user dials up the other

computer via the modem, and the communications

software enables the computers to exchange files. One of the most popular communications software

packages, Modem 7, is free. A “public domain”

program, Modem 7 is generally available from cp/m

user groups. A computer user with Modem 7 on his computer can communicate with any other computer

that uses Modem 7. Modem 7 is also widely used for downloading (sending data from a larger system to a smaller one) and uploading (sending data from a smaller

system to a larger one) software to and from computer

bulletin boards.

A problem often encountered with this method,

however, is ensuring that all of the file comes over the

line. “Errors creep in because you’re dealing with Ma

Bell,” says Jack Bader. “If a lineman jiggles the wires,

you’ll probably lose bits.” To avoid this, many

communications software packages include error

detection and correction —a method of double checking

that the information leaving the computer is intact upon

its arrival at the other. If the data does not arrive

complete, it is retransmitted until its integrity is confirmed.

A word about text formatting commands used in data

files: most of these are control characters (e.g. PB in WordStar, the command for boldface print) and vary

’"Finding <? Proper franslotion “ Any E. Smth. Business ConputQt s'v\tr*\ 198J. pages 86,88-90. Reprinted by permssion. copy/ 1 on t c) bv CHWltn

PuttUsiting Conpany, Division of Peed Holdings Inc. Ail RIGHTS RTSTA
Page 92

with software. Therefore, text

formatting commands may not be

recognized with the rest of the file. If the receiving computer runs the same word processing software

originally used to format the file, then the commands may be recognized also. Users don’t have to worry about

receiving a total jumble of characters, however. Remember, carriage

returns, spacing and tabbing are all printable ascii characters, meaning

that they are standard code

sequences and would be sent with

the file. Bank on it Users also can take advantage of

public data banks as aids for exchanging files with other computers. Some data banks, like The

Source or CompuServe, provide

storage areas and limited translation capabilities for subscribers. To

use such storage space, users call the data bank via a modem and

deposit the files to be sent to another computer. Later, the files are downloaded in a form that the

receiving computer can use.

If two computers are located near one another, they can take advantage of common serial communications protocols by being directly

connected via their RS232 ports,

rather than using modems (and

therefore costly telephone line

time). Three lines are wired —

ground, transmit and receive — and

data communications software is used at either end. Connecting

computers this way often eliminates

the problems inherent in telecomPublic data banks like

the Source and

CompuServe offer

users a way to

exchange files with

other computers.

munications, such as data loss. Communications through RS232

ports also is faster than that over phone lines — up to 19,200 bits per

second versus 300 to 1200 bps for most common modems.

Tight-lipped

Getting larger systems like minicomputers and mainframes to exchange information with each

other or microcomputers can be more difficult. Larger systems often use non-ASCii code sequences, for example, IBM’s EBCDIC (Extended

Binary Coded Decimal Interchange

Code). Even if microcomputer users can get a file from the mainframe,

the computer won’t be able to read

the file because it can’t read the

encoded data. Some companies make and sell devices that enable ascii and

non-ASCii computers to exchange

information. One company, Affiliat- ed Concepts Inc., Santa Barbara,

Calif., accomplishes this through a type of media conversion — from

magnetic tape used as back-up

media on larger computers to microcomputer diskettes. According to Dominic Camardella, vice president of marketing for Affiliat- ed Concepts, Affiliated’s Tapexchg

converts non-ASCii files on mainframe magnetic tape to ASCII code on a diskette for S-100 microcomputer systems. The Tapexchg sys- tem consists of software and a

circuit board that plugs into the

computer. All that is needed is a tape drive connected to the microcomputer.

Another company, Nuf Computer

Co., Newton Upper Falls, Mass.,

makes a similar product to convert

both tape and disk media formats

into disks for the Xerox 820

microcomputer. Nuf president John

Marlin points out one of the device’s

main advantages: “It’s simpler, and

politically more astute, to be able to take magnetic tape off the mainframe and get data files that way,

instead of dropping 3270 ports

(gateways from remote terminals to mainframes) into an office or department. It’s also easier for edp

operators to simply hand you

magnetic tape when you request

data; they’d rather not be bothered

trying to get it to disk.” Cracking the code

Getting a program that runs on one type of computer to run on a

different one is more difficult, legally and logistically. Depending

on the owner’s software licensing

agreement, it may be against the

law to copy commercial software,

like VisiCalc or WordStar, for use on other computers. However,

users often have programs they’ve

written themselves on one system

that they wish to use on another;

while this is not outside the law, it is trickier logistically.

A computer program has two

kinds of codes. The source code, or English-like programming lan- guages like fortran, basic, or COBOL, is fairly similar on all computers. Object code is the

machine language the computer

understands and is specific to a microprocessor. The source code is reduced to object code, with the

help of intermediary software

known as compilers and assemblers.

The compilation process is proces- sor specific, Jack Bader points out. “A cp/m compiler will be different from one used on an IBM PC or Wang

Professional Computer, because the

object codes of all those machines

differ. Source codes have to be

compiled to two different object

codes on different processors.”

The recommended method for translating a program from one computer to the other is to treat the source code as a data file. The “data

file” is sent, like any other data file, to the receiving computer via

telecommunications or by directly

loading a diskette. Once the file arrives, the user recompiles it to the object code for the new

computer. At this point, the

program is in fairly good shape to be

used by the new computer, although

it may have to be debugged to some

extent. Translation of programs can’t be

done as universally as for data files because object codes vary. A

program written for a Z80-based,

CP/M computer won’t run on an IBM

PC. Programs can be translated

between computers with the same

processor, however. A Z80-based

Intertec SuperBrain computer can probably run a program for a

TeleVideo computer.

Another translation dilemma

users face is moving data between

differently formatted diskettes. Unlike the IBM standard format on

8-inch floppies, 5V4-inch diskette

formats vary widely. For example,

it’s not possible to take a disk from a CP/M machine, pop it into an MSDOS

microcomputer, and expect it to work. However, it is possible to

BUSINESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS/SEPTEMBER 1983
convert data on diskettes formatted one way so that they can be read by

another computer.

Staying on track

Format is the manner in which

data is arranged on a diskette, and

it varies with the type of computer

and drive used. Some formatting

characteristics, such as track density, sectoring, and whether diskettes are single-sided or double-sided,

depend on the drive. Some drives

only read double-sided, softsectored disks with a track density

of 96 tracks per inch. Others can

only use single-sided, hard-sectored

diskettes with 48 tracks per inch. Tracks are circular areas on a

diskette. They are divided into sectors, the number of which

It’s not possible to

take a disk from a

CP/M machine, pop it

into an MSDOS

microcomputer and

expect it to work.

depends on whether the diskette is hard- or soft-sectored. Hardsectored diskettes have a fixed number of sectors, each indexed

with a minute hole in the diskette’s surface. The number of sectors on

soft-sectored diskettes is determined when the diskette is formatted by the operating system, as is the identifying information used to mark the beginning and end of each

sector and things like pause and

timing information.

For a diskette to be read by a computer, the diskette first has to be physically compatible with the

disk drive. This doesn’t make for complete compatibility, however.

IBM PCs and Osborne Is use 40

track, soft-sectored diskettes, yet

neither machine can read the other’s

diskettes. The bottom line, then, is how the

system formats the disk. Operating

systems differ in the way they

arrange sectors on the disk to hold

data, and the coded information

used to identify data contained in each sector. Sectors can be thought

of as bookshelves in a library. Both

hold information, one in the form of data bits, the other in the form of books. And both have directory

information identifying the data

they hold. The varying formats used among

different computers are just differ- ent ways of arranging the bookshelves. The Boston Public Li- brary’s books on antique cars may

be on the third floor, while the

similar collection in the Kankakee

Public Library may be on the first floor. Format to format

There are software packages that convert data from one diskette

format to that of another. Rene

Vishney, founder of Award Soft-' ware Inc., Los Gatos, Calif.,

developed one such package —

Crossdata. Vishney cites speed and

convenience as the chief advantages

of his product. Says Vishney: “The

conventional means of exchanging

data by telecommunications (a) never works, and when it does, (b) it takes forever.”

Crossdata converts msdos files on one disk into cp/m format on

another, and vice versa. The disks can both be read and written to. All users have to do is load Crossdata

into the machine that they want to read the files, put the data disk in along with another disk, and

Crossdata does the conversion.

Essentially, files are rewritten in the desired format.

Moreover, Crossdata converts

data of either operating system into the other’s format, and back. Say a person has a cp/m computer at the

office and an IBM-compatible portable at home. He could bring home

work on a cp/m disk, and convert it to msdos so his portable microcomputer could read it. The files can then be brought back to the office the next day and converted back to CP/M.

With Crossdata, Vishney says

that programs can be translated at source code level from one format to the other. Crossdata also translates formatting commands. A WordStar

file with all its formatting com- mands can be converted just as it’s written.

Wintex Computer Corp.,

Schaumburg, 111., markets a package for cp/m to iRMX-86 conversions. Like Crossdata, any files —

Page 93

text files and source code — can be

converted, but once converted, the

file cannot be changed back with the

Wintex utility.

VDisk, a software package from

Compuview Products Inc., Ann

Arbor, Mich., enables an IBM PC to format, read and write to more than

20 disk formats, such as Altos,

Digilog, Eagle II and Osborne. Not

only can a blank diskette be

formatted for use on the target

computer, but with VDisk the PC

can read and write to the disk. A “black box” called the Pirate

that supports 38 different CP/M disk

formats and converts a diskette

from one format to another is available from Advanced Consumer

Technologies, San Diego, Calif. The

Pirate consists of an 8-inch drive

and two 5V4-inch drives. According

to Stan Tomlinson, a senior consul- tant with Advanced Consumer,

users instruct the drives, with

special software, to read and write

in desired formats. Users can then

switch files from one disk to the

other. Furthermore, Tomlinson

says, the Pirate makes verbatim

copies of files — there are no

alterations, and formatting com- mands are tranferred.

Allenbach Industries, Carlsbad,

Calif., also has a system that

transfers files among cp/m formats,

as well as pcdos and msdos.

Allenbach does not sell it, however,

but does the conversions for customers. “We were formerly just a software duplicator,” says

Allenbach president Phil Kessler.

A California firm will

transfer files from one

format to another for

about $100 a disk.

“A lot of our cp/m customers wanted

to hit a broader market. They

wanted to put their software on an Osborne or TeleVideo, for example.

So we undertook to convert and

duplicate software for as broad a computer base as possible.”

Allenbach limits software and file conversion primarily to customers

who want to duplicate their

SEPTEMBER 1983 BUSINESS COMPITER SYVTTMS
Page 94

software and large end users such

as banks. Despite a cost of $100 per

diskette, Kessler explains that it is entirely cost effective. “Consider

what you’d pay someone to key in all that data, not to mention the cost of computer time.”

Sending software and files out for translation may be the best solution

for a large corporation with a lot to convert. Conversions can be done

quickly and accurately by people

who have the right equipment and

know what they’re doing.

Who does these conversions?

There are specialized software

conversion houses, like Allenbach

Industries. WBG Inc., McLean,

Va. , is another software conversion

company. According to Richard G. Harrison, president, WBG would

take about two weeks to convert the

largest data base anyone is likely to put on a microcomputer for about

$5,000 to $6,000.

A matter of survival

Dedicated word processors, like Wang office systems or Lanier

systems, often pose a special

translation problem, because each

system utilizes different formatting

commands. Word processor files can

also be sent out to word processing

service bureaus and typesetters for conversion.

“It’s a matter of survival,” says Dana Pekunece, a salesman for Altertext Inc., a word processing

service bureau in Boston, Mass.

“Incompatibility among systems is a major problem among typesetting

firms, because they’re often faced

with the problem of putting a Lanier or Wang disk on a Compugraphic typesetting system that

can’t read them.”

“Survival” usually means devel- oping systems that will convert word processing and typesetting

system diskettes. Altertext, for example, offers its disk reader for lease or sale. The disk reader

supports 12 different systems.

Users can put in an 8-inch Wang

floppy disk and have the files converted to a Lanier or Compugraphic diskette. Itek Composition Systems, Nashua, N.H., claims that its Converter

translates disk formats among

about 20 models of word processors and microcomputers. It is sold primarily to word processing equipment vendors as a selling tool. If

potential customers are reluctant to implement a new system because of the conversion problems involved,

vendors can offer a ready conversion service. Perhaps the ultimate solution to any translation problem is one

offered by Shaffstall Systems Co.,

Indianapolis, Ind. Shaffstall sells customized hardware-software in- terfaces that allow transmission of data from a disk in any system to any other system over serial

communications lines. According to president Timothy Shaffstall, the

interfaces accept data, translate communications protocols (for ex- ample, IBM’s sna/sdlc to RS232

handshaking protocols) and convert

formatting codes. Users can trans- mit converted data directly to another machine or produce a floppy

disk compatible with the receiving

machine.

Translation problems are not

totally without solution —there are ways to get information from one computer to another. The solutions,

however, are often costly and

difficult to implement. For now the

brunt of the problem has to be borne

by users.

BUSINESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS/SEPTEMBER 1983
Page 95

Part ! One

by Bruce Churchill

A PRIMER ON

The following is the first in a series of arti- cles excerpted from the book Communications and Networking for the IBM PC, by

Larry Jordan and Bruce Churchill, to be published this month by the Robert ]. Brady Co.

Local area networking is a term that describes a form of computer communications

generally used to transfer data internally in an organization. Internally, in this context, means within the confines of an office, a group of offices, a building, or a closely

spaced group of buildings. In its most elementary physical form, a local area network (LAN) is two or more

computers connected together by some type

of wire or cable; the wire or cable forms a data path between the computers. Once established, a local area network allows the ex- change of program and data files among users connected to it. Such a network also al- lows users to send files to a printer or a hard

disk attached either to another computer or

directly to the network.

What benefits do local area networks offer for business applications?

First, local area networks allow the shar- ing of expensive resources—such as letter- quality printers and high-capacity hard disk

drives. Second, local area networks allow the high-speed exchange of essential information between key people in an organization

If properly done, this sharing promotes

greater efficiency and productivity and leads

to more sophisticated computer applications, such as electronic mail Finally, local area networks act as a catalyst to increase the range of potential applications for the per- sonal computer.

Figure 1 illustrates a simple local area network. The printer and hard disk are shared resources, since all of the users have

access to them. The hard disk in this example is attached to the network as a separate device through an interface box its also possible to attach the hard disk directly to one of the personal computers, just the way

the printer is attached in figure 1

for the IBM Personal Computer July 1983 "v f-Tiner on Netvorkino. " Srucc Churchill. ot talk. ulv / pot*

9/100. 103. Reprinted hy pcrnission Copvripht fri hv sort.rl* Publishing Inc. ALL RICHIS RtStRWD.
Page 96

BASIC LOCAL AREA NETWORK BASIC LOCAL AREA NETWORK

Figures 1 and 2 show two types of logical processes that may occur in a local area network. Figure 1 depicts a user at pc #1

sending a word processor file to a user at pc

#3. This file transfer could have been ini- tiated by either user. The user at pc #3 can

interact with the file as if it had originated at his own pc; he can, for example, write the

file to a local floppy disk or use it as input

to a word processor. Figure 2 shows a user on pc #3 printing a

file at the printer attached to pc #1. It also shows a user on pc #2 storing a locally cre- ated file on the remotely connected hard

disk. An interesting consideration relating to pc #1 in figure 2 is the degree to which net- work software will allow that computer to support a local user and at the same time

control access to its attached printer. We ll return to this subject later. Theme and Variations. There are two ways to look at a local area network: as communications technology and as a multiuser computer installation. Before we go further

in our discussion of LAN fundamentals, it would be useful to characterize LANs in the context of other communications systems and other types of multiuser data-processing systems. Two primary characteristics of LANs

distinguish them from modem networks, such as Telenet, Tymnet, Arpanet, and the public telephone system. First, LANs are de- signed to work in a restricted geographic

area, generally limited to thousands of feet or closely spaced building complexes; and

second, LANs operate at relatively high

speeds, compared to the typical modem net- works currently in use. LAN data-transfer speeds may be as high

as fifty million bits per second (fifty megabits per second), or slightly more than six million characters per second (rates of one to ten million bits per second are more typical). Compare this to the maximum datatransfer speeds of fifty-six kilobits per sec- ond (seven thousand characters per second)

for high-grade telephone company digital trunk lines, or the 300/1200 baud (30/120

characters per second) transmission speed

typical of most personal computer communication systems. At the higher speeds.

SHARED RESOURCE ARCHITECTURES

Dumb terminals

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

IBM PC

Physical path

Logical path

>

IBM PC

Shared Resources “ IBM PC

lllllli ii ilP^IIHlli ii ilF^llllli ii I

Figure 3.

softcilk
Page 97

LANs operate at a rate exceeding that at which many current microprocessors conduct data transfers to and from random ac- cess memory. As multiuser data processing installations, LANs are a logical alternative to the

classic' multiuser system. The latter usually consists of a central processing unit, several terminals connected to the CPU, and

a multiuser operating system, such as MP/M-86, Oasis-16, or Xenix. Terminals in

a traditional multiuser system are generally not capable of standalone data processing;

instead they rely on the central computer to assign a portion of its main memory to, and

execute applications for, each terminal's

user.In contrast to the traditional multiuser

setup, each workstation in an LAN is an in- dependent, standalone computer, capable of executing its own applications programs.

Both types of systems—LAN and traditional multiuser— can reduce peripheral costs by al- lowing users to share such resources as printers and hard disks. The physical differences between a sin- gle-CPU multiuser system and a local area network are illustrated in figure 3. Terminals on a single-CPU system are physically connected to serial input/output ports on the central computer, and their users are usually assigned specific segments of main

memory for program execution and data storage (because these terminals are not standalone computers, they're sometimes

called "dumb'' terminals). Users in a singleCPU system are typically assigned their own

private areas of a shared hard disk for mass

storage. (Each user in an LAN may also be

assigned private mass-storage space on a hard disk.) The combination of a dumb ter- minal, its assigned area of main memory, and

its share of the CPU execution time is functionally equivalent to a single workstation on a local area network. The Basic Components. Now for some

more details about the LAN setup shown in figure 1. Bear in mind that this is a very simple LAN; much more complex ones are possible, but this one illustrates the fundamental concepts. The hardware components of this net- work system are three IBM Personal Computers, a printer attached to pc #1, and a hard disk unit. Each pc has an adapter card

in one of its peripheral slots; this card goes by a number of different names, depending on which vendor produced it. Some of the more common names for such a card are net- work adapter card, bus interface unit, and communications interface unit. Whatever its name, this card functions in this network in much the same way that an RS-232 card functions in a modem network. The network data path is commonly

formed by a coaxial cable similar to that used on a 75-ohm television antenna (one of the two common types of antenna cable). Some systems use a cheaper means of data transport— the twisted-pair wire similar to that used in telephone installations. The usual method of making connections between each of the pcs and the data path is by means of standard T-connectors on the backs of the adapter cards, as shown

in figure 4. Before we go further, let's stop to assimilate some vocabulary. The pcs and the hard

disk interface shown in figure 1 are known

as network devices, or nodes. In general, each device or node is connected directly to the network cable, or data path.

The terms transmission medium (plural media) and bus are commonly used syno- nyms for data path. The word bus appears in other contexts as well; the IBM pc system

bus, for example, is the data path by which

the 8088 processor communicates with

RAM and with I/O devices attached to the pc. The term server refers to any device that

interfaces a non- or semi-intelligent peripheral to the network. The most common of these devices are disk servers (also known as

file servers), print servers, and modem servers (also known as communications servers). And, as mentioned before, the IBM pcs included in an LAN are commonly called workstations, particularly in an office auto- mation context. The body of rules allowing an orderly,

reliable transfer of data among all the net- work devices is known as a protocol.

The terms transparent and virtual are of- ten used in discussions of local area net- works. A process is transparent if it exists but does not appear to; a process is virtual if

it doesn't exist but appears to. For example, a virtual memory process writes text to a flop- py drive when the RAM text buffer overflows; a word processor operator enjoying

the use of virtual memory may not know

when internal memory has been used up. Another use for the term virtual is illus- trated by the single-CPU multiuser installa- tion shown in figure 2. That combination of

terminal, RAM segment, and CPU time slice for a single user forms a virtual workstation. LAN data movement is a good example

of transparency: It obviously occurs, but how it occurs is not apparent to the LAN

user.The term throughput refers to a measure that describes the quantity of useful data that can be moved by a local area network

in a given time interval. Contrast this with

the term data rate, which merely means the

rate of speed at which data moves on a network. The term multiuser, in this discussion.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

HARDWARE (Typical)

refers to configurations of several users sharing a common CPU, central memory,

and set of I/O devices. The term could, of course, also describe a local area network,

but we'll restrict its meaning here in order to distinguish single-CPU setups from LANs.

Multitasking is the sharing of a single

CPU by more than one process; the term

concurrent is sometimes used as a synonym

for multitasking.

One more term: direct memory access (DMA). This is an important concept, be- cause direct memory access is commonly

used in local area networks. Simply stated

direct memory access allows input/output

devices to conduct data transfers directly to RAM, without CPU intervention. In the context of local area networks, the I/O de- vice is the pc's network adapter card, which

contains the logic chips necessary to conduct DMA data transfers. DMA is a prerequisite for the high-speed operations typical of local area networks. High-Speed Data Movement. One of the major factors characterizing local area net- works, as you already know, is the speed at which data moves on the network Table 1 contrasts the speed of a one megabit per sec ond LAN with speeds of other forms of data movement to and from, or within, an IBM pc The important thing to notice here is that the speed of network data movement is on the same order of magnitude as that of data movement within a computer (that is. when

you take into account the fact that parallel transfers use eight data lines simultane

ously).

The fact that internal data transfer* oc- cur even a little faster than data transfers across the network however necessitates the buffering, or temporary storage, of data on its way into the network It is the (ob of the network adapter card to compensate for data-rate and throughput mismatches As you'll note in table 1. the Ethernet

protocol allows a considerably faster rate of data flow than other systems this is a topi.

for the IBM Personal Computer July 1983
Page 98

Transfer Type Operation

Typical

Maximum speed

(megabits/sec)

Serial Network data flow 1.0/10.0*

Parallel RAM read/write 9.5

Parallel DMA transfer 9.5

Parallel Processor-initiated I/O 7.6

Parallel Hard disk I/O 6.5 — 8.0

Parallel Floppy disk I/O 0.25

Serial Multiuser terminal (RS-232) 0.0192

Serial *Ethernet Modem at 1200 baud (RS-232)

Table 1. Data transfer rate comparison

0.0012

to which we'll return in a subsequent article. Network Data Movement (Data Structure). Since the network shown in figure 1 must distribute processing and data-storage

tasks among a number of users who may re- quire near-simultaneous access to the net- work, data flow must be structured in a controlled manner. Control implies an orderly means of allowing each device access; it also implies a degree of service that allows data to arrive at its destination virtually error-free and in the same sequence it was transmitted. A prerequisite to logical network control is the placement of data streams into for- matted packets, which are then transmitted

in accordance with network protocol.

The demands on a local area network sys- tem follow the irregular patterns of individual-user processing requirements. The ir- regularity, or randomness, of data transmission associated with these demands constitutes a form of data transfer called bursty

communications. Network speeds are de- signed so that system demands, such as re- quests for file access, are fulfilled with no

apparent delay attributable to the network

itself. This type of system design, incorporating random bursts of data packets travel- ing at high speeds, is in stark contrast to what usually happens on modem network

communication systems. Communications

over a modem network are limited by the low-speed capability of that network; thus modem network sessions tend to be continuous in nature and typically last for at least several minutes, tying up a communication channel for the duration of the connection. LANs and Distributed Processing. Once

a local area network is physically assembled and the communications rules are established, some interesting challenges present themselves. These concern the concepts and

rules by which the shared resources will operate. One obvious problem concerns access to the hard disk drive: Which user has priority and how are multiple requests to access data from the same open file or files arbitrated? The answers lie more in how the accompanying software (the operating system or applications program) is designed than in the mechanics of data movement from point to point on the network. One popular way of handling the matter

is to partition the hard disk drive and assign

a segment to each specific user. Each seg- ment can contain several files, which will then be accessed just as a user accesses flop- py disk files. We ll refer to such segments as volumes and consider them logically equivalent to floppy disks. Another design challenge in local area networks is the handling of requests for floppy disk or printer access from the network while the pc workstation to which

these devices are attached is in use by its operator. This situation is best handled by in- terfacing the network to multitasking or multiuser operating systems on the host pc; examples of these operating systems are Concurrent CP/M-86, MP/M-86, or the UCSD p-System. Existing solutions range from not allowing local use of a pc when it provides a shared device to not using a pc for attaching such shared resources. Prospective users should investigate carefully the operating systems that a particular network

will support, as well as any restrictions in the use of a network pc as a shared resource. Obviously there are a good many considerations that go into the choice of a localarea-network configuration. Some of the key

decisions concern the operating system or systems to be used, the design of applications programs to exploit the power of local networking, the amount of mass storage to include, and the need for modems and modem network resources. Another—more fundamental—decision must be made by the cost-conscious business user: whether to use an LAN at all or to go with a multiterminal, multiuser, single-CPU system. The relevant variables to consider in se- lecting a local area network are summarized

in figure 5. Next month's installment will take up the subjects of capacity, types of physical connection, and access rules.—Ed. A

FACTORS IN LOCAL AREA NETWORK SELECTION

Devices

Printers? IBM PC's? Modems?

Hard disks? Server?

o o

O Data path

Coaxial? O

Twisted pair?

o ®

Capacity

Broadband?

Baseband?

Access rules Token passing?

CSMA?

CSMA/CD?

Polling?

Applications programs

Physical connection

Star? Ring?

Distributed bus?

Operating systems

Single user: PC DOS 1. 1/2.0, CP/M-86?

Multi-user: MP/M-86, Xenix, Oasis-16?

Multi-tasking: Concurrent CP/M-86, UCSD p-System?

Network: CP/NET?

Database management?

Electronic mail? Terminal/host communication?

Word processing? Software development?

Integrated accounting?

o

o

Figure 5.

softcilk for the IBM Personal Computer July 1983
Page 99
Paqe 100

IN FOCUS

INFORMATION UTILITIES

ByJohn Markoffand Tom Shea, IW Staff

Six months have gone by since you bought your personal computer. Sure, it's an electronic spreadsheet and accounting package

for your business, and you have your word processor and data base, and maybe the kids can play games with it in the evening. Now, what

else will it do? For many, the next step is to turn the personal computer into an

information and communications tool. Traditionally, utilities have provided necessary services such as

electricity, gas and water to consumers.

By the middle of the last decade, it became apparent that a new

type of utility was on the horizon: the information utility. Information utilities perform the service of providing electronic information that can be organized and tailored to users' needs.

In the future, a new generation of information utilities will use

protocols that are different from or extensions of the standard ASCII character set to permit the transmission of graphics. These systems may be accessible to personal computers that run

special software to interpret the new protocols. They will, however, be targeted principally at users who have a computer hidden in a tel- ephone or television. Currently, most commercially based information utilities are ac- cessible by standard ASCII terminals and microcomputers.

The principal difference between electronically delivered infor- mation and other sources of information is its greater selectability. Instead of having to search through vast libraries, users of an infor- mation utility can direct a computer to perform the task. This much—selectability—is clear about information utilities, but perhaps little else is. The information-utility business today is a reflection of the topsy-turvy growth of both the computer and communications industries. Personal-computer users can subscribe to information utilities that are run by companies as diverse as publishing houses, newspapers, banks, an aerospace contractor, a tax-accounting firm and, soon, by TV networks and the phone company. The subject matter in the data bases is astonishingly diverse. Sci- entific data for petroleum engineers, UPI world news, the race rec- ords of 900,000 thoroughbred horses foaled since 1920 and

information of use to sausage makers are all available. The new industry is now also known by a potpourri of different names: information utility, videotex, teletext and viewdata, for example.Not only are the sources of electronic information dissimilar, but

so are the means of transmission. Your information utility can re- ceive bv telephone line, cable-TV network, radio and TV transmission and, now, satellite broadcast.

Little wonder that this new industry is surrounded by confusionl

Yet despite the disarray and in the midst of a recession, information utilities have continued to blossom. The Source, now owned by the Header's Digest corporation, adds

2000 new subscribers a month; Dow Jones News and Retrieval Service, long a mainstay of the financial community, is widely advertised as being profitable and is considered the financial success story of the information-utility industry. More recently, two traditional suppliers of on-line data bases

to large corporations and institutions, Lockheed Dialog and BHS, have decided that there are already enough personal computers

to warrant special information-utility

services. Mike Rawl of The Source, in McLean, Virginia, notes that people who have purchased a personal computer traditionally wait nine months

to a year before deciding to subscribe

to an information-utility service. He

says that The Source is now seeing the

fallout from the current personal- computer boom.

At the same time as large corporations are beginning to explore and

market electronic-information ser- vices, grass-roots systems are also springing up. Called BBSs,'' or electronic bulletin boards, these systems are usually software programs that run on home

computers Other users can connect

their computers to the bulletin boards

over phone lines and leave messages

or even upload and download

professional-quality software The following is a brief intoduction

to the world of information utilities, ranging from getting started to what

electronic information Is available and how much it costs.

Getting started

Starting out can be as simple as buying a used dumb terminal, hooking it up to an acoustical modem and dial- ing up an information utility through a telecommunications network.

It can be as complex as linking a per- sonal computer to the transceiver of a two-foot earth station, which is de- signed to receive streams of digital data from space. For personal-computer users the es- sentials are a 300- or 1200-haud mo- dem and a telecommunications

software program Modems range from simple acoustical couplers to intelligent modems

that couple to personal computers

through RS-232 interfaces or couple

directly to the computer's bus A new generation of modems made

by companies such as Hayes, Novation. Ventel and several others are "programmable"—you can write your own software program to control

them. Alternatively, they can be controlled by special custom-built communications software that allows you

to store access numbers and codes for

a variety of remote computers, auto- matically log on to systems at the

press of a single key and, in several

cases, allows you to download files of information automatically and save them to disk. The Hayes Smartmodem and Smart- modem 1200, for example, can lie pro- grammed to dial a number, to redial the last number, to answer automatically after a set number of rings and to switch between Touch-Tone and

Pulse Dialing modes. The Smartmodem 1200 version can switch between

300 and 1200 baud under program

control Telecommunications software

ranges from simple terminal emulators to advanced programs that support file transfer, with handshaking

protocols that check for errors in transmission. The trend in communications

software is toward adding intelligence and offering transparency" to users.

In fact, soon programs will emerge

that can handle all of the complex communications chores and give

users a visual electronic mailbox to check. Communications software will simplify the now arduous task of logging on to information utilities and labo- riously searching through long strings of menus for information.

In the future, log-on protocols and

search strings will be programmed

into communications software. As a

result, users will be able to get infor- mation at the push of a single button.

Already. TVmshare s Scanset, a compact. desktop terminal that has a builtin modem, allows host computers to download and store a specific log-on

siting that can then be used to access

specific information in a data base Hayes Microcomputer Products re- cently announced the Smartcom II communications program, which will

support unattended file transfer and

allow users to define and save separate profiles and log-on strings for dif- ferent remote computers Some of the best communications

software is free. In the CP/M world,

there is Ward Christiansen’s X-Modem

program, which supports file tranfers with error checking. X-Modem is in the

public domain and in the program li- braries of CP/M user groups. For the IBM PC, PC World editor Andrew Fluegelman has written PC- Talk Inow available in version 3.01 PCtalk is part of Fluegelman s freeware scheme, which suggests that you

send a payment of $25 to the author if you find the program useful It now

supports Christiansen’s error- checking file-transfer protocol and has

a directory for auto-dialing 60 phone

numbers.

Data bases

Keeping track of all the on-line data bases that have proliferated over the

past decade requires a data base itself Knowledge Index, the recently an- nounced subset of Lockheed Dialog, is designed for personal-computer

users. It contains data bases that focus on subjects as diverse as agriculture, engineering, corporate news and computers and electronics. Typically, on-line data bases allow

users to perform on-line searches and

Volume 3, Number 13

tnfoWortd

Copyright (c) 1983 by Popular Conpuung Inc., a subsidiary of CU Comunicauons

Inc. Reprinted fron IntoUorld. W60 harsh Road. Menlo Park. CD 9402b.
Paqe 101

In Focus

to retrieve citations of relevant articles and documents Scientific data-base providers such as Dialog will also make the full texts of cited articles available for an extra fee. In the future, it is likely that full-text, on-line retrieval of articles will be more common Already, data bases such as Meads Nexis provide full-text keyword-searching ability for the Encyclopedia Britannica and for a range

of journals and periodicals. Mead is currently not available to personal-computer users. It is pro- vided only on dedicated terminals

leased by the data-base company.

Another experimental venture, the Adonis Project, sponsored by several publishers, involves electronic deliv- ery of scientific journals. Electronic mail With the proliferation of personal computers, electronic mail Is becoming more viable. As does snail mail,' information utilities offer users a

unique address To send someone a

letter all you do is call the electronic- mail routine when on line, write the

text and then instruct the computer to send the message to the correct address. To check to see if there is mail in your mailbox on The Source, you simply type the command MAILCK"

from the command line. Advanced electronic-mail systems

allow users to scan messages, save them on a file, send mail to multiple

addresses, deliver mail on a specific date, password-protect a message,

search through mail files by keyword

or date and request a return receipt.

On-line Support

As information utilities mature, more uses will emerge. One area that

is a natural and that is sure to grow

quickly is on-line support for personal-computer users. Currently, The Source and Digital Research are in

the final stages of creating a service

that will allow CP/M users to access a

special data base that will give support

information on CP/M.

Bulletin Board Systems The electronic bulletin board or

bulletin-board system (BBS) phenomenon has become a true grass-roots ex- plosion in recent years. Across the country, literally thousands of personal-computer users have set up

their systems as homespun information utilities.

It is not unusual to hear of home

systems that have 1200-baud modems

and ten megabytes of hard-disk stor- age to support uploading and

downloading of software. Many BBSs focus on a specific topic, such as one type of personal computer or software. Others now support

feature articles and on-line documentation, as well as public and private

messaging services. Most bulletin boards don't charge

fees and can be accessed for the cost of

a single phone call. Some systems as- sign passwords to users. Part of the BBS phenomenon is a thriving computer underground Pi- rate BBSs are now spread throughout

the country, and users exchange infor- mation about software piracy. One of the first BBS "Dick Tracy" in- cidents happened in Silicon Valley

several years ago. Local police, the FBI and private security agents who had a warrant kicked down a door in an apartment to get a BBS system on

which users were discussing phone

"phreaking.” No arrests were ever made.

Probably the best way to keep track ofwhich BBSs are currently active ts to subscribe to the On-Line Computer

Telephone Directory published by Jim Cambron. Subscriptions cost $9 95 and can be obtained by writing to PO

Box 10005, Kansas City, MO 64111

InpnWttrld lo/umr.V N umber fj
OA Page 102

Videotex

As users turn to data bases to meet

their information needs, videotex will

become a common office tool.

By Bemell Wright

Software is being developed to take into account the user's level of computer literacy, and methods

are being found to make it easy and pleasant for users to deal with computer-based productivity.

Software brings the promise of an

appropriate interface to facilitate the man-machine dialogue — re- ferred to here as ''user-driven” solution. Videotex can allow the econo- my, control and flexibility needed

for successful implementation of white-collar worker automation. However, for videotex to exploit Its service attributes In the business

arena, new approaches to the sys- tem configuration will be needed. The traditional emphasis on mass

market or residential users has

helped to obscure the application- oriented use of videotex as a com- ponent In OA executive workstation Implementation.

Before exploring the role of vi- deotex In QA, however, we should

review briefly the development of the concept of office automation. QA Is frequently divided Into four evolutionary phases:

• Data processing, starting in the late 1950s.

• Word processing, starting In the mid-1960s.

• Integration of WP with other functions. For example, WP

merges with communications to produce electronic mall.

• A period of customization. Office communications system control will be customized for managers and professionals, some recognition of the multi- function workstation will be

achieved and extreme userfriendliness will be emphasized.

No one correct method for automating an organization exists nor will it probably ever exist. While networking may

be the answer for one office, a platoon of personal computers may the answer for another. And as the technology continues to develop, users may find themselves working with

videotex to facilitate office automation in certain organizations.Heavily influenced by increasingly sophisticated auto- mation, the U.S. and major parts of Europe are shifting

from industrial to information economies. Evidence of this trend has existed in the office environment for some time.

Only recently, however, has this shift invaded the executive/professional work place, and as corporate managers

plan and implement office automation systems in the ' 80s, the invasion may become a full frontal assault. Knowledge

workers will be called upon to interact with data bases and

mainframe-stored informatioi

the computer literacy to do so. I

n the U.S. particularly, we

are In the third stage of office automation. Today's litera- ture Is awash with product an- nouncements that extol the

Integration of discrete functions

to produce the convergence of

voice, video, image and data capabilities. This trend should generate optimism among users, but these vendor-driven solutions have rarely been developed with

the user In mind.

In truth, many of these vendordriven solutions have been aimed

at creating a franchise for that vendor’s equipment. This was

clearly the strategy of Xerox Corp. with Ethernet. Although local- area networks have been and will continue to be major contributors

to the advance of OA Implementation, they do not fulfill knowledge

workers’ needs for user-friendly

tools. Videotex can add new ele- ments of user-friendly systems

design, namely, communicators’

control and cost-containment.

This front-end-processor videotex

solution supports:

• Screen bypasses through

multiple entry point In logical

fashion.

• Command-level functions

that provide an alternative to pre- specified screen fields and

formats.

• Alternative screen formats

for knowledge workers at differ- ent levels of computer literacy. When and If these events happen, videotex technology will ap- pear transparent to users, a key

issue to knowledge workers seek- ing better solutions to existing

problems or applications. The tra- ditional stand-alone videotex ter-

. and they may not possess

mlnal will be replaced by

multifunction terminals that suport the merging of Internal and

external sources of data, voice, Image and video routinely via lo- cal-area nets. Data base organization schemes will serve the user's needs, and the user-driven aspects of videotex could emerge as

a major contribution to fourthgeneration office automation. What is videotex? Historically, videotex, first known as viewdata, has undergone many definitions. One of these comes from Europe,

In the form of a standard for vi- deotex. Set by the Conference of European PTTs (Cept) this, stan- dard incorporates the national ef- forts of British Tfelecom's Prestel and the French authorities' Antlope. The Cept standard can best be seen as a political accommodation to two competing system

technologies from the continent as they approach the world

market. A North American standard

also exists for videotex. This standard, also known as the Canadian

CRC Technical Note No. 709E, in- corporates the AT&T Presentation

Level Protocol with Canadian Tfcll- don technology. The standard pro- vides for encoding text and

graphics information for optimal

communications. It Is a display

standard, which, from a systems

architecture focus, defines the

presentation layer within the In- ternational Standards Organization's multilayer Open Systems

Interconnections Reference

Model. The issues Involved In setting the above two standards are very Important, but they fall to cover

product and market development

issues. A broader definition Is more useful here. Videotex Is:

• A generic term used throughout Europe and North America for two-way information retrieval systems using telecommunications lines, mainframe and computer/terminal configurations.

• An umbrella term for lowcost, easy-to-use Interactive Infor- mation retrieval systems.

• A series of attributes with

technological alternatives that

displace current status quo solu- tions with lower cost or value-add- ed solutions (productivity

enhancements).

V

ideotex, then, is really a concept that includes at- tributes and technology

directed at placing more of the burden of man/machlne dialogues on the machine and less on the man. This Is the real meaning of

‘ user-frlendllness” in the computer context.

In this larger sense, videotex should be seen In the same light as the new computer terminals symbolized by Xerox's Star and

Apple Computer Inc.’s Lisa. While

the hardware of both Is signifi- cant, the real story is In the way

these products approach soft- ware. Instead of making the target knowledge worker learn computer

commands, they allow him to manipulate pictures that let work be performed In ways the user finds

familiar. Carrying this concept to

its natural conclusion, videotex and personal computers with template command processing can be

considered as a transitional techComputerworld QA

Copyright. 1001 t>y CO Connonications/Inc. , Iraninghen, HA 01701 - Reprinted Iron CaiPUriRUORLD OFFICE AUTOMATION or CCHPUTERVORLO EXTRA ".
Paqe 103

“Videotex could emerge in the form of

new options on timesharing bureaus, as well as on information retrieval

services. ”

deotex technology has also under- gone several changes In topology.

In fact. In the QA context, videotex Is an expansion of network ac- cess and data base organization

Issues, all culminating In front- end-processor technique. An evo- lution of videotex network

architectures follows:

• Prestel: Targeted at the resi- dential market: low-cost, slmpleto-use. closed data source.

• Blldschlrmtext: Targeted at the residential market; low-cost, slmple-to-use, opening of data

source gateway concept, closed

user groups.

• French Vldeopad/AT&T pro- posed standard: Boolean logic, closed user group extended, use of a packet-switched network or full connectivity via public switched

telephone network (PSTN), to unlimited data source.

Prestel began as a closed sys- tem that linked Internal data

bases for Information only. Further. because Prestel pages were

preconstructed prior to transmission, no concept of merging Inputs was possible. Blldschlrmtext,

with Its gateways or windows to external or third-party data bases, opens up the network and supports X.25 access. Business users without networks can become

closed user groups and treat the

Blldschlrmtext backbone as a ser- vice bureau of value-added net- works. Analysts will see the

nology. The ultimate In user- frlendllness for knowledge

workers Is achieved through voice recognition/synthesis technology.

An example of this Is digital

speech Interpolation (DS1) which

promises unlimited personalized

Information processing and trans- port at home, office and in between. However, no products have yet reached this level, and the tech- nology Is still some years off. How is videotex deployed? VIslmllarltles to the new IBM Infor- mation Network and American

Bell's Advanced Information Services Net 1000 offerings. The now-developing French VI- deopad program and AT&T pre- sententation level protocol

activity brings traditional busl1 ness user search technique —

specifically, boolean search or logical connectors using “and,” "or" represented by a comma and

"not." In addition, they bring a

PSTN backbone network for full connectivity or packet-switched

network for Interoffice and ln- traoffice communications and

transaction processing.

Videotex in the QA initiative. Videotex can be a part of the OA

evolution because of the concept

of front-end processing. The vi- deotex front-end processor gives vendors and users two major capabilities: communications control and screen management.

We expect to see front-end flexibility as a part of user lmplemental solutions. This means users

will have an ln-house base of In- telligent workstations. Intelligent terminals can perform videotex

processing of information off-line, which will allow users to control the actual telecommunications

session and Its cost. The ability to provide cost-containment and In- formation management through

gateway and screen management

capabilities of videotex are key in- puts to QA users. Communications control Is be- coming Increasingly Important In an environment where multiple

delivery schemes — voice, video, Image and data — are becoming

available. Cost-justification for various communications media is now a central task in evaluating

Implementation. With the in- creasing flexibility of communications comes an increased need for protocol conversion. As more de- vices are Interconnected, a com- mon protocol Is needed; since

there Is no common protocol, pro- tocol conversion becomes

Important. Not surprisingly, protocol conversion Is one of the value-added services that AT&T’s new ABI

subsidiary will supply. It Is also one of the value-added functions

that a videotex front-end processor can supply, where the primary conversion Is from Ascii or IBM

protocols Into videotex protocols.

The videotex protocol itself is one

of the emerging major standardized languages for text and graphics. As the videotex standard Is resolved in the next two years and

its ability to serve as a common

reference point for data communications emerges, the ability of time-sharing and telecommunications entities to use videotex for protocol conversion will be greatly

enhanced for users. The second capability —

screen management — Is derived from the issue of protocol conversion. Screen management is the

capability to merge data Interacti- vely from an external or an inter- nal source with user-friendly

videotex format. The videotex

page serves as a mask for the non- videotex-format information

source. In this light, videotex truly becomes a communications vehicle, rather than a new stand-alone

rigid information format. The

front-end processor’s screen management capability supplies

the necessary flexibility to allow

videotex systems to be employed

in a cost-effective fashion In of- fice information environments.

In this context, videotex is no

longer videotex perceived as a dis- tinct and somewhat limited Infor- mation format. With the screen management capability. It be- comes a common friendly context

for all information needs. The re- sult Is a complete management in- formation system for knowledge

workers. This Is, of course, the

goal of many QA and Information

vendors. When examining the movements In videotex toward a cost- effective solution for communications and screen management. we can see videotex Joining

office automation by becoming a

solution that can be Implemented

by the end user. Vendors In Europe were early In sensing this. Aregon Group Ltd. and Redlffuslon Computers. Inc. In the U.K. have become QA videotex vendors by supplying turnkey systems for end-user implementation. Both

are now In the U.S., as are scores of turnkey software systems

houses. Videotex could then emerge as new options on time-sharing bureaus, as well as on information

retrieval services. The basic question is why — given the fact that graphics are nice, but not essential to most DP/lnformation re- trieval applications In use today.

One answer is that the knowledge

worker/end user has no allegiance

to the DP department. He Isn't seeking a formal data base management system, but an integrat- ed nonproprietary management

Information system. He isn't look- ing for Increased data flow, but

rather for Increased decision capability. Graphics help when they

are recast as syntheslzors of detail. For example, a pie chart depicts all distribution outlets for a product, a time series depicts

years of sales performance. Another answer Is that videotex technology Is volume-dependent — knowledge workers will open up a new class of low-cost termi- nals and terminal enhancements

that will make computer power

from ln-house or remote Installa- tions more available. One more subtle answer —

borne out by the apparent success

of Rediffusion's Viewdata Plus program — Is that videotex serves as a nonproprietary approach to data management. Videotex Is a

generic data management system

readily understood by users who

may not know the Ins and outs of a proprietary data base manage- ment software offering. With the quickly developing offerings by IBM Information Network and

ABI's Net 1000 In addition to oth- er time-sharing computer processing services, videotex may be

a sales strategy component. Vi- deotex front-end solutions are

likely to leverage some vendor of- ferings because the videotex capabilities will appeal to the decision- making team that Includes

high-level end users as well as tra- ditional MIS planners. QA

Wright Is manager of the vi- deotex programs at Link, a re search company based In New

York.

Computerworld QA
Page 104
Page 105

INFORMATION RESOURCE CENTERS - ORGANIZING TO SERVE END USERS

Thomas N. Pyke, Jr.

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

Abstract

This paper summarizes the motivation for

and issues associated with organizing to support

end user direct access to computing resources.

A combination of information center functions to provide access to large mainframes and support

to end users in their access to microcomputers

is included. Various issues are identified and

discussed that will help organizations develop

supporting organizational structures for end user computing.

Introduction

Direct access by end users to computing

resources is becoming commonplace. Organizations are developing a variety of ways to assist

these end users. Some organizations have established information centers to hold the hands of

end users of mainframe computers. Another form

of support is the microcomputer center, to help

end users in selecting and using their desktop

computers. There are advantages to integrating

organizational support for all forms of end user

computing, both to assure that individual users

and their applications are matched with the most effective computing resources, and to assure that

overall organizational objectives and constraints

are met.

In describing this integrated approach, this

paper uses the term "information resource center."

An information resource center provides information, consultation, technical assistance, and

training to end users. An "end user" is anyone

at any level in an organization who has a require- ment for computer-based support, who is not a professional programmer, and who does not expect

to become one.

Motivation for End User Computing

Objectives

An information resource center can provide

better delivery of all forms of support to end users of computer-based systems. This can result

in better and more timely decisions being made at

all levels within an organization. In many

cases, it can decrease computing costs. Some organizations may see a significant benefit in encouraging user-driven computing in itself, and

this may become a primary objective in the

establishment and operation of an information resource center. In addition, organizations

have begun to realize the need to establish

organizational constraints on end users, such as to assure integrity of data, auditability of the

results of computing, and data and program

security.

Driving Forces

The environment in which these objectives

have been identified and in which end users are

coming on their own is one in which managers'

demands for data and data analysis are growing.

This is happening concurrently with a general

growing public awareness of the availability of

computers, especially microcomputers. Schools

and homes are fast becoming hotbeds of hands-on

activity involving microcomputers. Newspapers,

magazines, business periodicals, and many other

publications have feature articles on the use of

computers. Advertisements for personal computing

appear frequently in all forms of the mass media

as well as in business and trade publications.

Traditional data processing support staff

are spread thin, especially with the continuing

burden of maintaining existing software coupled

with efforts to meet new demands. Substantial

application backlogs exist. 1 These include documented applications waiting for attention from

data processing support staff as well as an "invisible" backlog of applications which have not yet come to the attention of data processing

support staff because end users believe such an effort would be futile given these applications'

priority and the data processing staff availability. End user concern about not being able

to rely on the data processing staff is apparently

especially strong for the creation of small programs and making quick changes to existing

programs

.

A substantial amount of attention has been

given over the last few years to "user friendly" or "user oriented" application packages, for both

mainframes and microcomputers. Packages such as

U.S. Government work. Not protected by

U.S. copyright.
Page 106

VisiCalc* have been heralded as major breakthroughs

in providing computing support directly to end

users. In addition, very high-level languages,

including those related to database management

systems, can frequently be used by end users with

only minimal assistance.

Finally, computer hardware technology, including logic, main memory, and peripherals, has evolved rapidly over the last several years, to bring substantial computing capability at acceptable cost to the individual for business and home.

In the next two parts of this paper, the two currently predominant forms of end user computing

support that respond to these driving forces, the IBM information center concept and microcomputer

support centers, are discussed. This is followed

by a presentation and discussion of the issues

involved in providing integrated support for end user computing.

IBM Information Center Concept

The concept of the "information center" was developed by IBM Canada in the mid-1970's, and has been accepted and implemented in several different

forms. It is reported that over 40% of medium

and large scale IBM computer installations already

have an information center supporting end users in operation. IBM-style information centers assist

end users in directly accessing a set of software

packages that operate on inhouse mainframe

computers. The software packages are carefully

selected so as to be of major benefit to end users

in setting up new applications with minimal support

from information center professional staff and

without the use of professional programmers. Information centers are usually "captive" of an organization's inhouse data processing operation,

and serve to promote centralized, mainframeoriented support, typically under the control of

mid-level data processing managers.

Organizations have reported end user satisfaction with the establishment and operation of

information centers. At the same time, the crea- tion of information centers has resulted in a need

for additional mainframe computer capacity. Many

organizations supporting information centers have

had to upgrade their CPU and other computing

resources. In some cases, entire new mainframes

have been installed to satisfy direct end user demand stimulated by having an information center. The long term effect on end users of the availability of information centers is open to speculation. It has been suggested that information centers may only whet the appetites of end users for more computing capacity and related services.

Registered trademark. The naming of products and

organizations in this paper is solely for the purpose of identification in order to make certain

points in the paper, and no endorsement by NBS or

any other meaning is intended.

Microcomputer Support Centers

A number of organizations have reported success in helping end users through the establishment of microcomputer support centers. For example, the American Can Company operates a major microcomputer center that provides hot lines

for end users, opportunities for sharing experiences in the use of specific programs, general

knowledge about micros, and "tips" on micro

use. Training is provided to end users, and

assistance ip custom programming is provided when

appropriate. 5

Travelers Insurance Company has established a Personal Computing Center, which is operated as an internal store similar to commercial computer

stores. 6 It is reported to be operating as a part

of an information center within Travelers to provide centralized coordination and support to end users.

A number of Federal agencies have established

microcomputer support centers along with initial

operating policies for the acquisition and use of

microcomputers. One example of such an activity

is the Department of Agriculture's Information

Technology Center, which provides demonstrations

of microcomputer equipment and assistance in acquiring and setting up new systems.

Integrated Support

for End User Computing

End user access to mainframes and use of

microcomputers are part of a larger picture of

supporting end users in an integrated manner. An information resource center can provide effective

integrated support to end users.

Deciding Among Alternative Forms of End User Computing

An objective, unbiased source of assistance

to end users can help them to consider using

desktop computers, accessing inhouse mainframes,

or using remote computer services outside the organization. Each application or class of

applications can receive special attention, with

all relevant information made available to the end user to decide which alternative form of

computing is best. The end user can be helped to determine required functionality and the level of

performance necessary to satisfy known requirements and to evaluate alternatives against these

requirements.

End users can be provided general information

and evaluations of specific hardware and software

products, as new alternatives continually become

available. Emphasis can be given to planning for

a transition to newer technological solutions

as they become viable, while supporting existing

and current applications effectively with

currently available technological solutions.
Page 107

Assistance in Selecting Software

The information resource center can maintain

a catalog of information about available applications software for alternative system configurations. Because of the impossibility of a relatively small staff having detailed information

about many applications packages, the information

resource center can provide a "window" to sources

of first hand information about each package. End

users can be helped to select and use application

and program generators as appropriate, in addition

to very high-level languages. It has been

reported that over 30% of the information centers

in operation support the use of FOCUS, over 15%

support RAMIS, and over 60% support SAS.

The staff of the information resource center

can provide minimal application analysis. Training can be provided or arrangements can be made

for training of end users. When necessary, end

users can be referred to inhouse or other available data processing staff for extensive programming or more detailed application analysis.

Common Focus for Data Administration

Although centralized data administration

support is already provided within some organizations, an information resource center represents

an opportunity to address some of the data-related

problems created through end user computing. End

users can be informed of what data exists and how

they can access it. They may be assured of the

availability of data where and when needed through

the use of the alternative forms of end user computing.

Appropriate organizational controls can be established to assure data integrity and accuracy.

This support can assure that decisions made

throughout an organization are based on consistent

and rel iable data

.

Satisfying Organizational Constraints

Implied in the data administration function

is an organizational need to control data. This

includes assuring the confidentiality of data

within the organization and controlling the extent that it may be externally accessible. , Auditing the use of data and programs may also be required.

The input and use of data by end users employing microcomputers may lead to the use of

practices that are generally unacceptable in more

traditional data processing operations. Logic

and range boundary checking of data as it is entered beyond the context of the immediate data

entry may be desirable and may require continuing

access to a larger data base as data is entered.

Organizational Placement

The use of the terms "objective" and

"unbiased" above implies that the information

resource center not be an advocacy organization

for any particular form of end user computing.

It also means that the center should be separate

from any inhouse, operational data processing

installation so as not to be captive of the

orientation of the management of such an installation. It is important, however, that an information resource center operate under the auspices of

the organization's senior official responsible for

information resources management. This individual

should encourage an open-minded attitude in supporting the appropriate use of the alternative

forms of end user computing. This contrasts with

the viewpoint of the manager of an ADP installation or the manager of a microcomputer support

center, which itself may be an advocacy group for

microcomputers

.

Although the information resource center may

be thought of as a "logical" entity which may be distributed organizationally, a central group in each organization can avoid redundancy in providing all forms of end user support. It can also

provide a comnon focus for the interconnection of

desktop computers, the direct use of inhouse

mainframes, and access to remote computing and

data services.

"Helping" Vs. "Controlling"

End users will have a perception of an information resource center in terms of whether

it is "supportive", as a source of information and

assistance, or "controlling", in the sense of

being an obstacle or hindrance rather than a help.

This perception is likely drawn as much from the methods used to exert whatever controls are applied as to the existence of the controls themselves. For example, the use of incentive-based

techniques that encourage end users to select

microcomputer hardware and software that has been

determined to be desirable from an overall organizational viewpoint can provide both assistance to end users and control at the same time. Assistance in accessing data, such as in downloading it readily into microcomputers from the mainframe,

can be both a service to end users as well as a means for controlling data consistency within the

organization.

Concluding Observations

All of the forms of end user computing

identified in this paper are proliferating

rapidly. The International Data Corporation

projects that in 1986 U.S. desktop computer ship- ments totaling $14.2 billion will exceed U.S. mainframe shipments of $13.7 billion. This

astonishing projection exemplifies both the r v- and rapidity of change in both public and private

organizations

.

End users are coming more into their own, with senior program managers, who are or represent senior end users, gaining more pow< r' within organizations relative to information

systems managers. One interesting question is
whether the eventual domination of computing

decisions by end users is a fait accompli or whether this trend is being accelerated by the

establishment of information centers, microcomputer support centers, and other forms of

commercial and inhouse support of various forms

of end user computing. Although one may specu- late as to the "chicken and egg" nature of end user demands versus support for end user demands,

there is now no doubt that end user computing is

a powerful force. It must be dealt with effectively and quickly by all levels of management

within each organization. The ideas and issues

discussed in this paper directed toward considering end user computing in an integrated fashion are proposed as a contribution toward a better

managerial and technical basis for handling the

inevitable demands of, and support required by,

end users.

References

1. "DPers 1 No. 1 Headache? Applications

Backlog," Computerworld, April 11, 1983.

2. L.W. Hammond, "Management Considerations for

an Information Center," IBM Systems Journal,

Vol . 21 , Number 2, 1982.

3. James Martin, Application Development Without

Programmers , Chapter 19, "Information Center Management," Prentice-Hall, 1982.

4. Richard G. Canning, EDP Analyzer, Vol. 20,

Number 6, June 1982.

5. J. Fioravante, "American Can Company's Micro

Center Turns into Smash Hit," MIS Week,

February 17, 1982, page 27.

6. "Travelers Insurance Company Makes it a Policy: Personal Computers for Everybody,"

Computerworld, July 19, 1982.

7. Dennis Gilbert, E. Parker, and L. Rosenthal,

"Microcomputers, a Review of Federal Agency

Experiences," National Bureau of Standards,

Special Publication Number 500-102, June 1983.

8. W. R. Synnott, "Microcomputers Threaten

Central Data Control," Information Systems

News, November 29, 1982, page 15.
Page 109

FOCUS

Computer

Based

Training

By Kate Barnes

Office automation and end-user computing are

often characterized as being easy, quick and

efficient. All those things are true — once you get

the hang of them. However, achieving that first fa- miliarization can be a threatening experience for many users. In addition, when a user does become fa- miliar with one machine or software package,

switching to a different machine or package can pre- sent a new threat. Most users of automated tools have one thing in common. They want to reap the benefits of automation without wading through pages of accompanying

documentation. The president of a major software

company recently acknowledged that the majority of users want simply to insert a disk in their machines

and get started — but to- day's software Just Isn't friendly enough for that

approach.

A

s learning tools, vendor manuals

and documentation can be difficult to master, and technology Is

still too complex to plug In and use. With users In a hurry to learn and technology hard

to understand, a gap exists. In an attempt to keep

this gap from widening, some vendors have re- sponded with classroom

Instruction and self-paced learning manuals. A brisk business has also emerged

In third-party publishing

of training guides. However, problems still exist. Classroom training

Is expensive on a widescale basis. Training

guides, whether produced

by the vendor or a third

party, can still lose the user's Interest and/or understanding. An alternative method Is the use of com- puter-based training. In computer-based training, a specially designed pro- gram teaches the student how to use a given piece of automated technology.

The user Is prompted and

guided by the computer In learning about the technology. Most users seem to ap- preciate learning via the computer, and some outright enjoy It. Fbr example.

Individual Software, Inc.'s "The Instructor" has successfully taught several of my neighbors how to use

the IBM Personal Computer keyboard. Perhaps user reactions to computerbased training are best

summed up by one user's response to a hands-on

demonstration at a recent

trade show. After working

half-way through a train- ing program on Wordstar, she turned to her companion and said, "Exactly

what I want!” Computer-based train- ing offers many advantages over classroom or manual-directed alternatives:

• Environment: The

user can get right to work

on the machine he will be

using.

• Simulation: Computer-based training pro- grams typically simulate

the characteristics of the machine or the software

package being taught. Users are able to learn while

doing. This all occurs In a controlled setting that pre- vents the student from get- ting lost In the system.

• Customization: No two students have the same

needs. With computerbased training, no two stu- dents will have exactly the same learning experience.

The computer Is able to re- spond with helps, branch- ing and reviews as required.

• Speed: The most-used

characteristics of the soft- ware can be taught In a matter of minutes or

hours.

• Convenience: Training can conform to the stu- dent's time schedule.

• Cost: Computer-based

training is easy on the

budget.

• Success: There Is less chance the student will be seriously frustrated be- cause computer-based

training controls the

learning experience Many

educators also believe computer-based training

produces a higher rate of retention than other pre- sentation formats. P

resently, computer-based training

la Just gaining a foothold In the business

arena According to com- pany representatives. If you purchase an office system from Wang Laboratories. Inc. or a Dieplaywrlter from IBM. your

training alternatives will be limited to classroom

training or self-lnatructlonal manuals IBM does have computer-based

training available for some

of Its other office products Both companies use the computer to assist In Inter- nal staff training

OA alternatives Involv- ing personal computers of- fer more training cholres

Several companies are drCopyright 1983 by CU Connunications/Inc. , Franinghan. fM 01701 - Reprinted iron

CCHPUTEPUORLD OFFICE hUJOTMTION or COlPUrERUORLO EXTRA*.

Computer-world (M
FOCUS

Page 110

veloplng and marketing computer-based training for popular of- fice packages such as Visicorp's Visicalc. Micropro's Wordstar,

Xyquest. Inc.'s Easywriter II. Multiplan, Ashton Tate’s Dbase II and

others. T

hese training packages

typically are offered for a purchase price in the

neighborhood of S50 to $100 per course. Considering that most

personal computers in the busi- ness environment represent a payout of $4,000 to $10,000, in- cluding software, a quick, sure way of learning to use the personal computer is certainly worth the Investment. One of the first questions users ask about software is whether to make or buy it. If the training you

seek is available in CBT form, I’d emphatically recommend buying

it; in terms of both hard dollars and labor, it will be less expensive. Before buying, you should ask yourself the following

questions:

• Is the it easy to use? You don't want to have to be trained to use

the training.

• Does it teach what it says it will teach?

• Is it compatible with your

hardware?

• Is it engaging? Will it hold the

learner's attention by means of graphics, varied activities and

student involvement? Stay away

from passive training that re- quires the user only to press the RETURN key. Questions, simulation and effective humor all keep

involvement high.

• Does it use effective teaching

methods? True/false and multiple-choice questions are good test- ing devices, but may not be the

best ways to teach students how

to use a software package. Simulation controlled by the computer

can often give the student a more

practical experience.

• Does it offer complete cover- age? Don't be fooled into believing that spending less time in training means learning the subject

thoroughly.

• What is the reputation of the company among its customers?

• Does the vendor provide tele- phone and on-site support

services? What do you do if computerbased training is not available for your particular need? If that need

is large in scope, you may want to investigate the “make CBT" option. Before you dive in, take a

close look at the cost in terms of time and money.

First, decide if your problem is suited to this kind of training. If it

is. determine whether an authoring system is available. Using an

authoring system means you de- sign the training and input the

data. The system then generates much of the computer code. Authoring systems can be costly. In addition, some authoring systems

are prohibitive because the author

essentially has to learn a complicated system language. Of course, CBT programs can be coded line by line, but I don't recommend

"If your need is large in scope, you

may want to Investigate the 'make CBT’

option. Before you

dive in, take a close

look at the cost. ”

this approach unless the time,

money and programming talent

are readily available. Suppose your organization has

a fairly complex customized corre- spondence/data base office sys- tem. Because of turnover and

staff expansion, 20 people must

be trained to use the system each month. That can add up to a lot of time in training or a lot of system

misuse. If an IBM mainframe

computer is part of the system,

IBM's QS authoring system might

be an alternative. If you are using a configuration of Apple Computer. Inc. computers, Apple Pilot may be useful. Or, If you have a

variety of personal computers, an

authoring system like Coursemaster (Digital Research. Inc.'s CP/Mbased) may meet your needs.

After Identifying the means of creating the CBT, you should then move on to costing out the project, Including the labor and time In- volved, the hardware and soft- ware needed for course develop- ment and the cost of duplicating

the CBT training to make It avail- able for many users. The Importance of technology

to organizations Is growing; the popularity of computer-based

training seems likely to grow

along with It. OK

Barnes. West Coast manager, telecommutes from Tucson,

Arlz., to Deltak Microsystems,

Inc. In Naperville, III. Deltak Mi- crosystems offers computerbased training on a variety of QA

and computer-related topics.

Computerworld QA
Page 111

For the uninitiated to succeed in computing,

they need training, the right equipment—

and good coaching.

END-USER

GAME PLAN

by Hugh Ryan

Systems departments can’t keep up with user demands for their services. Recently, end- usercomputing environments have been tout- ed as the way to cut through the dp services backlog. And, because of the microcomputer’s rapidly increasing popularity, more

and more end users find themselves in a computing environment. Many people are wondering if they should be moving in this direction; what will it mean for them in one year, or in five years? Of greater concern, these people need to know what factors will make

their end-user computing environment pro- ductive and successful. After working in numerous client or- ganizations, 1 have observed that the following factors are necessary to create such an environment:

• relevant user training,

• coaches,

• evolutionary development of systems,

• appropriate data delivery systems, and

• effective use of fourth generation software

tools. Each of these factors should be part of short- and long-term end-user computing strategies. Walk into any end-user computing

environment and you will probably find that the users come from a variety of back- grounds, ranging from shop floor machinists

to MBAs. They are likely to have equally varied levels of knowledge about computers and

systems development. Training is needed to build a common foundation of knowledge among these users. They must be trained not only in the tools of the end-user environment

but also in computer fundamentals and the rudiments of systems development.

Training must begin at the most basic

level. For example, inexperienced users will most likely encounter difficulty translating

their computing demands into suitable machine form, organizing the logic so the machine can follow the intention of the designer, and determining the time requirements of

the job.Training, like systems, must be de- signed and developed. The first step is establishing a curriculum that defines the courses

and their sequence, and includes an overview

of each course’s content. The curriculum must begin with such basics as turning the terminal on, signing on, and interpreting sys- tems messages. Courses should build on each

other, until topics like software products and

system development are covered.

It is essential to realize that for end

users, the computer is a tool, not a career.

Interest in the machine lasts only as long as it assists them in their work. Therefore, users should never leave a course without learning some things that help them in their daily work.

In addition, because users have a limited amount of time for training, the curricu- lum should be organized into short modules

of one half to two days per course unit. Software vendors often provide material that can be used to train end users, but some customization is usually required Ex- amples related to the user’s specific enterprise are helpful. Promotional and technical data from the vendor will need to be deleted

or moved to a later curriculum sequence As users advance through productoriented courses, they’ll also need to know

about systems development. Therefore, a methodology for systems development and

training should be established. Methodologies are now being defined for the end-user computing environment which should facili- tate teaching users how to develop a system

COACHES Even when the training CAN SOLVE anc* me,hodoiogy are ***• unanticipated problems

PROBLEMS wi „ For exampie, I know of a user who was unable to sign on by himself, because in class the terminals had already been on. In another case, a top management person was delayed over a weekend in his task because of confusion

about how indexes worked To prevent these problems from happening, people variously

called coaches, consultants, or advisors are needed. By any name, they are key to the success of end-user environments One cannot simply designate any in- dividual as a coach and expect success Good

coaches must have several innate qualities

DECEMBER ' M3

0 . (r) (c)

Reprinted Uith Peimssion of DATAMATION naganne. Copyright Py TEcntlCAt

PUBLISHING COMPANY, A DUN 6 BRADSTRIEI COMPANY, 1981 - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
End users become nonusers when they perceive that

their coaches know little more than they do.

Page 112

The characteristic I have observed most fre- quently in successful coaches is a “can do’’

attitude. 1 know of a coach who, upon learn- ing that a user needed some data that required numerous approvals prior to release to end

users, slipped into a tape room, removed the tape under a coat, copied it, and then returned

it. While 1 cannot recommend such an action,

it is indicative of the coach’s “can do” atti- tude. In this case, the user drew some signifi- cant and timely conclusions with the contra- band data. The successful coach likes to work on many different, short-term projects, and can

estimate the effort required for proposed projects. Data processors who derive great satis- faction from long-term projects that require continued analysis of the same area will not be happy as end-user coaches. Good coaches

can also make quick decisions on whether a project is suitable for the end-user environ- ment or the systems department.

The coach should be knowledgeable

about one or two of the tools employed by end users. End users quickly become nonusers when they perceive that their coaches know little more than they do. This is particularly important when introducing the user to an information center; she must believe the coach possesses a craftsman's knowledge of

all the necessary details. While coaches need an in-depth

knowledge of one or two tools, they must

also understand the capabilities and limits of

fourth generation software tools. Indeed,

fourth generation tools in the wrong environ- ment can be counterproductive. The inexpe- rienced user needs a coach to judge which

tool is right. Coaches must get along with end users. A coach should be assigned to an end

user based on at least a superficial review of

the personal characteristics of the two. Moreover, the assignment should be an ongoing

arrangement rather than one based on whoever is available when the user calls. An end

user will feel the arrangement is unproductive

if she must continually explain the problem to new faces. The coach must also learn the end user’s business. The systems that end users

write are closely related to their businesses. They are written in terminology the user knows and are performed as the user would

expect. The coach and end user must communicate in the end user’s language. I know of one coach who became so involved that he was eventually absorbed into his end user’s department, where one of his ongoing tasks is further system development. As the coach works with higher-level management, the ability to understand and

solve business problems is crucial. In the top

levels of management, coaches can become

valued advisors, serving almost as a machine

interface to get management the information

it needs.End-user systems tend to evolve

through many versions. Such development is difficult for most data processors to accept, because it means users won’t know their re- quirements until they see the system. This seems contradictory but can, in fact, be re- solved through iterative development of dif- ferent system versions. The emphasis

changes from “What do you want to do with

the data?” to "What data do you want?” It is reasonable to expect an answer for the first question, but management cannot answer the second question without seeing the data. Another feature of evolutionary de- velopment is the speed of delivery in any

iteration of the system. The system user must

see a cycle completed quickly enough to be

assured the system is moving forward. While

there are many definitions for “quick

enough,” a common guideline suggests no more than 100 person-days per iteration. This

is an upper limit. Many iterations require only a few hours.

COMMITTED

USER

REQUIRED

A third feature of evolutionary development is a committed, involved

user—meaning the user must often write logic for execution. Users

will certainly be involved in the heavy initial use of the system and will direct each iter- ation of the evolving design. This commit- ment is particularly key to evolutionary de- velopment since early versions of the system may be rather rough and may suffer from

such problems as program aborts, data exceptions, and logic flows. In this phase, users must see progress toward a desirable system

or their efforts will cease.

1 know of a system that was devel- oped on an evolutionary basis with extensive

user involvement in design coding and test- ing. The user went through all the problems

of the early states—incomplete screens, lost data, and execution time problems. At a later phase, several extensive inquiries were added

to the system. After additional criteria were added to one inquiry, run-time increased from one to two minutes to four to six minutes. Yet the user took great pride in the run- time increase because it reflected the additional problems his staff had experienced

when doing the inquiries manually. The user was truly committed to the system.

In a successful multi-end-user system

environment, expect a proliferation of enduser data stores, along with the problems of

synchronization and coordination with the original data source. A typical architecture defined for an end-user environment consists of iteratively developed software, normally

using a fourth generation language. The sys- tem uses an end-user data store usually devel- oped for the specifics of the end-user system;

that is, one end-user data store serves only one or a few end-user systems. The end-user data store is maintained by a data delivery system (DDS). The DDS component takes data external to the data

store and puts it in a suitable format. Depending upon the tool, there may be a vendorsupplied product that loads the data into the data store. Most systems have more than one

DDS. The data source is external—it may be a transaction system database or data supplied

by a vendor. Given the wide range of possible sources, a dds will probably be designed and implemented for each data source. The dds is one of the most complex

components of an end-user environment. ddss must handle all the typical problems of a transaction system—such as data validation, reformatting, and extraction—in a typically high-volume situation. In addition, it should

address the question of synchronizing the end-user data store and the data source. This

alone can be very difficult when adjustments

are made to the data source. A well-designed DDS is important to a reliable end-user data

store and, in the long term, to the viability of

the end-user environment. The dds is one of the most underesti- mated parts of an end-user environment. In the initial enthusiasm about the new environ- ment, selection of suitable hardware and support receives great emphasis; the dds components may be no more than an extract and

load to the end-user data store. To get things

going, this quick and dirty effort is reasonable and often advisable. The problems arise when this initial version becomes the model

for subsequent dds efforts. In two to three years, the lack of validation and controls will result in an unreliable end-user data store, and everyone will wonder how it happened. The dds is a crucial, but often unac- knowledged, portion of the typical end-user environment. It should be used not only to extract and load data but also to validate, cross-check, and apply controls in a high- volume environment. In addition, it must be coordinated and changed as the external data source changes.

ACHILLES’ These requirements imply

Qp that a viable data delivery

system is similar to a clas- SYSTEM s j ca) transaction processing system and should be developed using the techniques and tools of that environment.

This in turn implies that when an end user contemplates a new system, which requires a new data store, then a DDS’s component will be developed by dp, using third generation

tools. Developed at third generation speeds.

DATAMATION
The DDS is a crucial but often unacknowledged

portion of the typical end-user environment.

Page 113

this component is often the Achilles' heel of

the end-user environment because of the long

lead time for delivery and the embedding of ongoing third generation components with

their inherent inflexibility. Conversely, when

done incorrectly, this can lead to serious data

integrity problems because of bad or obsolete

data. The presence of fourth generation software tools such as Focus or VisiCalc does

not always indicate end-user computing.

Many sites have fourth generation tools spin- ning on disks where they arc rarely, if ever, accessed.End-user computing, however, can

be greatly facilitated by fourth generation software tools if they are understood and

properly used. Such tools are fundamentally

different from previous software tools, with new and varied capabilities. Three distinctive features of the fourth generation software

tools arc:

• a facility to describe data outside the pro- cesses that use the data;

• an assumption on the underlying data design permitting the generation of procedural

logic based on nonprocedural descriptions;

• an assumption on the underlying technical

architecture providing a place to “put" generated logic. The need for description of data is not obvious to the end user. For instance, users don't see why it is important to the computer

that a field, such as order number, is 10 characters long, or why it is equally significant

that order amount is found in a record prior to order cost. For these reasons, most fourth generation tools provide some means to describe data externally. The facility can be used by a dp person to define initial detail descriptions of data that the user can then access in a variety of ways. A more subtle point of an assumed

underlying data design is that fourth generation software is built upon the principle that data structure implies program structure. As a

result, one can find report writers that extract from flat files, hierarchical files, or network

structures, but it’s rare to find efficient hier- archical report writers that can cope with net- work data structures and flat file report writers that can deal with hierarchical files. Similarly. many on-line generators can cope with

a single record per screen but have problems

with multiple records. Or. numerous spreadsheet handlers assume that the application re- quirements can be mapped into a matrix data

structure. The point is that program generators arc built explicitly or implicitly around

an assumed data structure, and it is essential

to understand these structures. The software also makes a set of as- sumptions about technical architecture. Is it batch or on-line? If on-line, is it conversational? If conversational, will it protect rec- ords across exchanges? If batch, can it be invoked by the user program? The user and/

or coach must be aware of the assumptions. Yet the need for awareness seems to contradict the concept of fourth generation

software. Why is it necessary to be aware of assumptions when the software is supposed

to free users from computer concerns? In the beginning, one can stay within the assumptions because of the simplicity of initial efforts. But with experience, the end user be- comes confident and desires to do more.

Eventually, unless the assumptions of the

tool are understood, they will be violated, making the tool counterproductive. When

this occurs, one must wait for the mythical “next release” of the tool, or stop doing whatever created the problem.

FOURTH

GEN TOOLS

USEFUL

Fourth generation tools are prevalent in end-user envi- ronments. They provide

large productivity gains

when requirements conform to the design as- sumptions of the product. They also provide

productivity disasters when the data and ar- chitecture assumptions are ignored or misunderstood by end users and their coaches. Does the basic nature of systems de- velopment change in an end-user computing

environment? Practitioners in the field consistently say yes. Over the last year, 1 worked

on a project that evaluated the suitability of

classic methodologies for an end-user envi- ronment. The model we used identifies six major phases in an end-user environment sys- tems development:

• define functional requirements—establishes what the system is expected to do;

• define data design—develops a data design

to support the system, based on functional requirements;

• design technical architecture—describes

the system's major processes and how they

interrelate;

• system design—delineates the system

based on data design and technical architecture;

• implementation—transforms the system design into a machine-executable format;

• testing—ensures the system performs the expected functions.

In our model, data design precedes and largely dictates system design. Such a methodolo- gy is referred to as a data-structurcd develop- ment methodology.

We found that the evolutionary devel- opment approach and fourth generation tools used by most end users implied some funda- mental changes to the development process

as described in the data-stmetured methodology. First, functional requirements arc not defined in end-user computing; rather, the

question is what data are needed. This question is not the typical functional requirements

view. Second, in data-structurc methodology, the database design is driven by how the user will use the system. In end-user environ- ments, these functional requirements arc not available before the system is designed, but

instead evolve with the system. As a result, we could not do data design as typically de- fined in a data-structured methodology. Fi- nally, technical architecture and system de- sign are driven from the data design, which,

of course, is not available. Fourth generation languages impose a data design on the user as well as a technical

architecture. These two observations proved

key in defining a development methodology

for end users. The first point means that rath- er than do a data design, one should understand the language's underlying data design

assumptions and fit requirements into this data design. And, rather than design a technical architecture for a fourth generation lan- guage, the objective should be to fit the de- sign to the technical architecture provided by

the language.

ACCESS TO

EXPERT IN LANGUAGE

The successful user of a fourth generation language

should have access to an

expert in the language

ideally the coach mentioned earlier. The

coach's knowledge and experience arc central to the effort’s success. A methodology for end-user computing was established in the project; it is itera- tive in nature with great emphasis on user involvement in fitting requirements to the fourth generation tools' assumptions

We have had enough dp experience to know there are no general solutions to all the problems. End-user computing is one more way to get information to the people who

need it. As such, it offers an exciting opportunity, but we must be aware of the problems

Certainly, end-user computing provides real benefits. If it is to succeed, a few key moves

must be made initially, which will lead to long-term success in this new and fascinating

field. •

Hugh Ryan is a partner with Arthur Andersen & Co He joined the firm n 1971 with a master s in mechanica

engineering Over the last six years he has concentrated on structured mein

ods for software engineering

REPRINTS AVAILABLE

Reprints of all Datamation articles are available m quantities of 100

or more Details may be obtained

by telephoning Mary Ann Hariton (212) 605-9729

DATAMATION
Page 114

^ervlce by John Butler Hard Facts on

Hardware Service

In that old bluegrass song, “The Arkansas Traveler," the old man fiddled in the sun all day, said he didn’t need to fix his roof until a rainy day. Try that piece of homespun

wisdom with the new computer system you just bought, or are about to buy, and you are

liable to take a very costly bath indeed. John Butler offers some very practical advice about

options available for the care and repair of computer hardware guaranteed to benefit end

users, big and small.

I

n deciding to purchase a desktop computer, many people often overlook one

very important consideration—hardware

maintenance. The reason for this oversight stems usually from one of two

sources: the purchaser is a first-time computer user who fails to realize how much

s/he will come to rely on the system; the person believes the particular system is such a world-beater that s/he cannot conceive that it could ever possibly break down. While desktop computers are much more reliable than their predecessors, they do sometimes fail. And when

they do, service becomes an important

consideration. Unfortunately, not everyone realizes the importance of considering service until the computer fails—and then it is often too late. Therefore, we must consider the question of when should you think about

service.

Planning ahead

The best time to consider service is before you buy a computer. First of all, after a tentative selection of a particular system has been made, you would want to find a service organization that will handle all of the products you have chosen. Say, for example, if you find that there is no ser- vice available for the particular printer that you had in mind, you may want to go with an alternative for which there is service available. Another point to consider is that you will find it easier to deal with one service organization. So, if possible, select all of the components with an

eye toward total service through one

vendor.

If you have already purchased your computer, the best time to think about service

is now. If you wait until your system fails, you may wind up taking a form of service that is unsuitable to your needs and very

costly in the long run. The time to locate a

fire extinguisher is before the fire.

Dttktop Computing March 1983

Also, if you put off the matter of service

until after your system breaks down, your

system is likely to stay down for a considerable period of time. There are four main types of service available to the end user: (1) carry-in ser- vice, (2) mail-in service, (3) self-service, (4) on-site service. Which of the four is best for you de- pends on a number of factors. Can you af- ford to be without your computer for any

length of time (up to four weeks on some

mail-in service)? Can you afford to pay for on-site service? Can you transport your

system to the nearest repair facility? Are

you qualified, and do you have the time,

to repair the system yourself? There are other factors to consider but these should

set you thinking along the right lines.

Carry-in service

Typically, carry-in depot contracts are 35 to 50 percent less expensive than an

on-site contract. You can also pay for carry-in service on a per-incident basis, which may be less expensive in the beginning but become more expensive in the long run. The majority of carry-in service can be completed, while you wait, in two

hours or less, although some problems

may require leaving the equipment

overnight.

The major drawback to carry-in service

(as with mail-in service) is that you must

determine which unit (central processor, disk drive, printer, video display unit, tape drive, and so on) is failing. This is usually easy to determine, but in some

cases it can be very confusing. For example, if when you try to load the operating

system (boot the system) nothing appears on the screen, is the failing unit (1) the sys- tem disk? (2) the disk drive? (3) the central processor? (4) the video display? or (5) a cable? Occasionally, a video display, or printer, or disk drive can affect another unit in

the system because they are all connected

to the central processor and are interactive. In certain cases, an attached unit can

even damage another unit. While the problems I have pointed out may not be very common ones, they do

occur, and you should be aware of them.

Mail-in service

This service is even less expensive than

carry-in service. You must determine which unit is defective, usually to the point of the defective circuit board or major mechanical assembly, and then ship it directly to a depot or to the manufacturer. This service can be charged at a yearly

rate for a contract or at a flat rate for the

particular unit returned. This flat rate re- mains the same, even if you end up sending a good unit to the manufacturer, be- cause they will still have to charge you to

test the item sent. If you are paying for an

annual contract, the only additional charge will be the cost of shipping it to the

depot. The repair depot will normally in- clude return shipping in the price of the

contract, unless you request special freight or air service.

If you do not have an annual contract

for mail-in service, the depot will require that you call them to get a shipping au- thorization number prior to sending anything to them. Without this authorization they may refuse to accept the package.

The depot will normally tell you what the charge will be for their service in advance

so that payment can be enclosed with the

defective part, unless billing has been ar- ranged in advance. With mail-in service the most important factor to consider is time. If you figure on three days to ship the unit each way

and add the time to process your part and

make the repair (this can take from one

day to four weeks), it is easy to see the drawback to this type of service. The bot- tom line, however, is that you can save

“Hard Facts on Hardware Service. “John Butler, Desktop Conputirtg. Bareft 198J. pages 60-62. Reprinted by permission. Copyright (c) by Uayne Green Inc., J98J. DLL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Page 115

Service money—provided you can do without the system for some length of time. You can also save time and money by

shopping around for the mail-in depot

that is closest to you. This saves you

shipping time and costs. With the devel- opment of third-party repair depots na- tionwide, this becomes an even more desirable option because they are all competing for your business, which brings the level of service up while driving the

cost down.

Self-service

If you, or someone you know, can ser- vice the system safely (remember you are dealing with potentially hazardous volt- ages of up to 12,000 volts once you re- move the covers), then you can save money by making your own repairs. With self- service your cost is limited to replacement

parts plus your time, but you must consider if you can afford to leave your normal

duties while you repair a computer, and

who might repair the computer when you

are out of town or out sick. Another

point to consider is the availability of

spare parts. Self-service is normally best suited to the home hobbyist who enjoys working on his system and whose business is not

tied to the computer.

On-site service

This is the most costly of the four cate- gories (typically one percent of the list price of the equipment per month). A

common desktop computer that sells for $3,600 costs $36 per month for an on-site

service contract. For this price you are entitled to have a field engineer come to your location and make all needed re- pairs. All parts, labor and travel (if you

are within the service area) are included. On-site service is usually best suited to businesses that rely heavily on their computers. Such users need their systems up

and running because they will simply be

losing too much money when systems are down. The cost may appear high, but when you consider that you receive technical and parts support as well as the fast- est repair possible, the price is quite reasonable. When evaluating on-site service options, there are several factors to keep in mind. The price for on-site service is higher than for other types, so you should be

sure you are receiving good value for your money.

1

.

Parts support. Does the field engineer/

technician carry a supply of common-usage parts with him? If so, he can usually

fix your computer rapidly, often in under

an hour. If not, he must order the re- quired part and make a second trip to complete most repairs. This is the differ- ence between getting the computer up in hours rather than days.

If you need a part that the field engineer does not carry with him, how fast can he

get it? This is a measure of the depth of the

parts support that you will get. Some

companies will normally be able to get an

emergency part delivered to the field engi- neer overnight.

2. Response time. This is measured in two ways. First, when you place a service

call, how long will you have to wait for your field engineer to call you back? Many

problems can be resolved with a phone

call. If you get a phone response from

your field engineer within an hour, you may be back up and running in another

hour. Second, after you call for service, how

long will you have to wait before the field engineer arrives at your location ready to begin the repair? This could vary from as

little as a few hours to the next day or even longer.

3. Technical support. Even the best field service personnel are stumped by a prob- lem from time to time. In such an in- stance, is there a technical support group

to back up the engineer?

4. Education. How does the service company train its field engineers and update

such training as new products and devel- opments in computer technology come on

the market? Obviously, you want a qualified field engineer to respond to your

problem, and nothing shatters your confi- dence more than the field engineer who

walks in and announces, ‘Tve never seen one of these things before, but I’ll do

my best.”

5. Tools. Does the field engineer carry an oscilloscope with him? Some problems can be fixed by a simple adjustment (disk drive head alignment for one), but to do

this an oscilloscope is required. Can he

get an alignment disk or other special equipment if needed?

6. Diagnostics. Can the field engineer run diagnostics to identify failing components and solve intermittent problems?

7. Full service. Does the service com- pany service the entire system? Some

companies will service the central processor, but if you have a printer or a video

display that is made by someone else, they

often cannot service them. In practice, it

is much easier for you, the user, to deal with one and only one service vendor.

The benefits are immediate and obvious. When you have a problem, you do not have to determine which component in the system is at fault. If the printer prints

incorrectly, it is probably the printer that

is at fault, but in some instances the central processor or even the disk drive could be the cause of your problem. If initially you call the printer people for a problem

caused by your central processor, you

eventually will have to call the central processor people. The printer service company will then have the option of charging you for a service call not connected with a problem in your printer.

8. Preventive maintenance (PM). You need

not wait for your system to break before

calling for service. Often a problem can be prevented from surfacing through the proper preventive maintenance program. A good example of the value of preventive maintenance involves a small manufacturing firm in New Hampshire, which

had purchased a desktop computer with an 18-megabyte hard disk drive. After 18 months of trouble-free operation, disk problems developed, and a field engineer was called in. Results: the disk drive was

replaced at a cost of $1,700 plus labor at $72 per hour. The cause of this financial

disaster: a two-inch by two-inch filter that had become clogged with dust and caused

the disk drive to overheat. This is one

problem that could have been avoided

completely by the proper preventive

maintenance program.

9. Size of the service force. How many

field engineers does the company have in your area who are trained to work on

your system? While it is comfortable to deal with the same field engineer, it is ap- parent that no one is at work every day of the year. Vacations, sicknesses, accidents,

and so forth all take field personnel out of the field at one time or another. Also,

when your regular field engineer is working on someone else’s emergency when

you need him, is there adequate back-up

or will you simply have to wait ? The depth of the service organization with which you are dealing is a direct indi- cation of how reliable their serv ice will he

10. Mileage charge. Will the service com

pany charge you extra because you are be yond its service area? Remember, not .ill service companies have the same area of

service coverage.

1 1 . Inspection fee. Some service companies charge you to inspect a system to determine if it is eligible for a maintcnam c contract, while others make no charge for such inspections.

March 1963 Desktop C«mp«tln|
Page 116

Service

.

Service contracts As indicated earlier, you usually have a choice of paying a fee (monthly or annually) for a service contract, or paying a per- incident charge each time you need ser- vice. The plan you choose, of course, de- pends on your situation, but it is clear that you will, in the long ran, pay more

for per-incident service than you will pay

for an annual contract. Operating on a per-incident basis, ser- vice companies cannot plan ahead adequately, and thus they will have to keep on hand more parts and more personnel than necessary, or they will have to make

customers wait for service. Therefore, the

service company has a very clear, vested

interest in your choosing a service contract. As such, they will price the contracts versus per-incident charges so that you will be induced to take out a contract, allowing them to operate on a more sta- ble—and hence profitable—basis.

If you only use the system on a very limited basis, say, as a hobbyist, then it may

be best for you to go with a per-incident

plan. If you plan to use depot service

(either mail-in or carry-in), you should

realize that, in most cases, you will have to come up with a large, one-time fee in ad- vance in order to use the per-incident

plan of payment.

If you wish to use on-site service and

pay on a per-incident basis, be aware

that not all service companies allow this. Some will only service your computer

on-site with a contract, or if you agree to purchase a contract after the first per-in- cident call. Two final matters to consider with ser- vice contracts concern adequate notice—ort the company’s part or on your own—of cancellation of the contract and

of planned rate increases. In both cases, the common practice in the data process- ing industry is 90 days. Your service company should match this practice and

state it in the contract.

The author is a field engineer with MAl/Sorbus, an

independent service organization. Address any corre- spondence to him c/o Desktop Computing.

Desktop Computing March 1983
Page 117

INSECURITY

IN

NUMBERS

By Fred W. Weingarten

I

i

i

!

|

!

i

I

G

overnment executives have

long been warned that their agencies' computerized data systems need to be protected. Federal computer center directors have fought

a continuing battle to focus high-level attention on threats against agency in- formation resources and to obtain funds

for computer security. Besides having to cope with a skeptical bureaucracy, they

have had to adapt to constantly changing technology. Vet despite the relatively slow pace of much Federal EDP pro- curement, new applications are constantly being installed, and each change

brings the potential for new threats, vulnerabilities and losses. Now, just as Federal agencies seem

to be heeding the call to secure their data operations, another technological

revolution is taking place: automated

office systems. First as word processing, now as desk-top computers, information technology is moving out of the

traditional domain of the operations

center. Whether via smart terminals connected to a central mainframe, ter- minals linked to a shared minicomputer, or ubiquitous desk-top computers,

data processing power is moving into the hands of office users. This trend poses completely new se- curity and data control problems to agencies. And there is a new need to de- velop hardware and software products

to protect the new system architectures. An even more challenging problem is developing appropriate manageFred W. Weingarten is program manager, communications and information

technologies at the Office of Tech- nology Assessment, which is the analyti- cal arm of the Congress.

Now, just as they 've heeded the call to secure

their data operations

,

Federal agencies are confronted by completely

new data controlproblems

posed by distributed

office automation.

rnent and operational controls for automated data processing that is physically distributed over an entire agency.

It cannot be too soon to think about

these problems; later on, when computers become common office tools, and

when applications, bureaucratic proce- dures and habits are set, establishing controls will be much harder to impose

and enforce. Along with the rapidly increasing

number of small office machines, capabilities are also expanding. Sixteen-bit machines, such as the IBM PC, which,

offer substantially more computing

power, are beginning to replace the

"first generation" eight-bit models such

as the Apple II and III. Inexpensive hard

disk storage systems are also now be- coming available for small systems. For

a few thousand dollars, a user can add

tens of millions of bytes of on-line disk storage to a desk-top computer

The software marketplace for small business machines is also growing. Publishers are creating increasingly elaborate spread sheet, word processor, and

data-base systems — programs that until

now have amazed users merely by being available for small systems. The lat- est fad is to integrate these various packages to provide elaborate work sta- tions used for performing quantitative

analyses, searching data bases and pre- paring reports. Perhaps most importantly, communications technology is moving rapidly,

motivated by both deregulation and

innovation At the office level, computer vendors are developing local area networks (LANs), through which desk- top computers can communicate with one another, with the office word processors and with an agency's main computer system.

And new regional, national and inter- national data communications services are being developed that can link desk- top computers with information sys- tems anywhere in the world

Sixteen-bit desk-top computers now

on the market will be challenged by

32-bit models in just a few years And

there is reason to expect that by the turn

of the century, an inexpensive desk-top

computer will have the power of the

largest computers of today Data communication paths capable of carrying

several hundred thousand baud will be commonplace, as will on-line data stor age systems (optional disk or bubble

memory) that contain billions of bytes

of data F

ACED WITH these trends and as- suming the Federal Government

follows private sector fashion and

becomes a maior user of small systems

the security problems confronting Fed

eral ADP executives wiM be enormous

Problems will be both technological as computers and communications svs

'Insecurity in Numbers, ” Fred V. Ueingorten, Government nuts Systems. July/August government data Sys t ems

198J' paRes 8* 9- Reprinted by permission. Copyright (c) by fledie Honrons Inc

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

,
Page 118

terns change) and administrative (as tra- ditional lines of authority and control

are altered).

• As costs for hardware and software drop and users become more

sophisticated, the number of applications will increase

dramatically. Greater use means that security analysis will have to account not only for an

increase in sheer volume of information

to be protected, but for new types of in- formation that will be collected to sup- port new applications. New applications will come about because the de- creasing cost of computing will make

them cost-effective; more users will think up new uses; and the trend toward

office automation will reinforce pres- sures for increasing productivity.

• Office automation will bring new

legal requirements for protecting

electronic documents and data. Security experts are used to performing risk analysis on automated systems

that handle financial or personal data. But desk-top systems add a new ele- ment to their calculations. The pro- fessed ultimate goal of office automation enthusiasts is the "paperless

office," in which all or most documents

are electronically kept on floppy disks, hard disks or other electronic media. Our experience is limited with threats to and vulnerabilities of this type of data.

Clearly, compromise of electronic of- fice information would be painful to an

agency, to its employees and to its cli- ents. Law and regulation require that agency correspondence and administrative documents be kept and pro- tected for specific lengths of time. If a controversy arises, an agency may be

required to establish the authenticity of a record. But the courts are still strug- gling with the status of electronic rec- ords as evidence.

For years, the media have reported

that stolen memos, letters, draft reports and the like have been and can be used

to attack an agency's actions and decisions. Are electronic files more or less subject to such leaks? There will also be new situations when internal access to documents

must be carefully controlled, so employees cannot see, copy, or alter

files created by other employees.

• Administrative and procedural

controls will be made more difficult by decentralized use. Many central computer centers have

lived in a state of uneasy truce with

their users. Control of information, considered a source of bureaucratic power,

has traditionally resided in the computer center. Distributed office automation systems now offer the chance for users to capture some of that power.

Despite the bureaucratic merits of centralized data control, there is no

question that the central computer center can still be the focus for establishing

and enforcing a strong security policy. But data controls that are practical for a centralized system may be inappropri- ate in a distributed environment. Rules

for the handling of disk files or physical access restrictions do not belong in the average office environment.

Many users will resist rigid controls that inhibit how they use their systems

or what they use them for. Given cur- rent unprecedented technological opportunities, many users will want to as- sert their own tastes in word processing software or data base management sys- tems. Those decisions used to be made

by the computer operations staff; now

they will be in the hands of the computFew users ofdesk -top

computing realize the

risks they and their

agencies face as a result

ofhow they use

their new systems.

er users. Wrestling back control may be

a difficult task once users have tasted freedom

In some cases, it may not be in an

agency's best interest to give in to the

natural desire to reassert central authority. The conflict is between the benefits of flexibility, convenience and di- rect user access that characterize small computers and the need to continue

central control over use of technology.

Insisting on controls may counteract

the benefits of the new systems.

Perhaps most importantly, it may be

technically and administratively impossible to enforce controls on distributed desk-top systems. Power is in the hands

of the users; computers are in offices and on desks. Unless users perceive self- interest, they may disregard rules that proscribe certain types of use, standardize systems, define the types of data

that may be stored, and establish control procedures over system use. Short of bursting into an office unan- nounced with a surprise audit or shuffling through desk drawers in an employee's absence, enforcement may be

impossible.

Ultimately, workers who feel that

computers could substantially help

them (but that administrative controls stand in the way of those benefits) have

the option of using a computer at home.

EXHORTATION 1: Account for office automation and desk-top computing

in the security analysis. This task only sounds simple. The

computer operations staff may be the

last to know about or have any responsibility for office automation or desk-top

procurements. Computers are sneaking

in the back door as increasingly intelli- gent typewriters and calculators — devices for which computer operations

have never had previous responsibility. Even if the computer center security group has access and authority to examine office automation applications, a new world of vulnerabilities and potential losses confront them.

Regardless of administrative and

technical difficulties, it remains important for an agency's data security as- sessment to include the desk-top computer, and designate someone to start worrying about it. EXHORTATION 2: Stress organization

aspects of controls. Technological controls on small computers and office automation are not likely to be immediately useful for providing security. Data processing se- curity analysts are likely to find that

their biggest problem in any risk assess- ment is dealing with bureaucratic resis- tance. Controls should be carefully de- signed to accommodate office clerical and administrative staff. Employee training is an essential part

of any security program. Rather than

deal with the relatively few program- mers in a central facility, a security pro- gram that covers desk-top systems must

educate thousands of users, each run- ning their own machine. Few of those people have any idea of the risks they

and their agencies face as a result of how they use their new systems.

EXHORTATION 3: Start now, while the problem is tractible. Not all Federal offices are auto- mated. And many of those using desktops and word processors'have not yet adopted sophisticated technology such

as shared systems. Local area networks

are just starting to appear. Security

analysts have the opportunity to put ad- ministrative controls in place now be- fore bad habits become embedded, be- fore office products in the same agency

diverge, and before new applications

(not in an agency's long-term best inter- ests) can be installed and incorporated

in office operations. Q

JULY/AUGUST 1983
Page A-l

APPENDIX

This selected readings was compiled from the following

magazines and journals from December 1982 through January

1 984.

8usi.ng.ss Comp uter Systems

Cahners Publishing Company, 221 Columbus Avenue,

Boston MA 02116

BIIE

70 Main Street, Peterborough, NH 03458

Comgutgcwotild

CW Communications/Inc., Box 880, 375 Cochituate

Road, Framingham, MA 011701

Cng-i-tLY-e Computing.

PO Box 789-M, Morristown, NJ 07960

Ds.tama.tiPQ.

875 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022

He.§ktgg Computing.

Ceased publication, December 1983

GgY_epnmen.t Data Systems

475 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016

Hardcopy

187 W. Orangethorpe Avenue, Suite 1A,

Placentia, CA 92670

inf.pW.pc.id

530 Lytton, Palo Alto, CA 94301

LIS.X

Redgate Publishing Company, 3407 Ocean Drive,

Vero Beach, FL 32960

Mini-M.i£.Lg Systems

221 Columbus Avenue, Boston MA 02116

PC Wopld

555 De Haro Street, San Francisco, CA 94107

Pepsonat Computing

50 Essex Street, Rochelle Park, NJ 07662

E.gpuiap Computing

70 Main Street, Peterborough, NH 03458
Sgttalk

11160 McCormick Street, North Hollywood,

91601

Sy.sfc.em.§.

50 Essex Street, Rochelle Park, NJ 07662

8.0. Hi.Q.c.0.

80 Pine Street, Peterborough, NH 03458
NBS-114A (rev. 2 »eo) U.S. DEPT. OF COMM.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET (See instructions)

1. PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO.

NBSIR 84-2878 ^

)

2. Performing Organ. Report No. 3. Publication Date

May 1984

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Selected Articles on Microcomputers

5. AUTHOR(S)

Lynne S. Rosenthal

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than NBS, see instructions)

national bureau of standards

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

7. Contract/Grant No.

8. Type of Report & Period Covered

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street, City. State. ZIP)

SAME AS ABOVE

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

| | Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

11. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here)

An abundant amount of information is being written about microcomputers and its

related products. The reader is often overwhelmed at where to begin. This

document provides the reader with basic microcomputer information and provides

a starting point for further examination of the subjects. The readings cover

a broad range of topics including management and technical aspects of hardware,

software, communications, and support.

12. KEY WORDS (Six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only proper names; and separate key words by semicolons/

Communication; Management; Microcomputer; Micro-Mainframe Connection; Personal

Computers; Selection-; Software

13. AVAILABILITY

1 | Unlimited

|2§ For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

"H Order From Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

20402.

| | Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA. 22161

14. NO. OF

PRINTED PAGES

15. Price

UlCOWM*OC 4043-PlC