National Institute of Standards and Technology

Technology Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce

NISTIR 6770

An Approach for Measuring Reductions in

Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs for

Educational Facilities

Robert E. Chapman

Office of Applied Economics

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899

An Approach for Measuring Reductions in

Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs for

Educational Facilities

 Robert E. Chapman

 Sponsored by:

 National Institute of Standards and Technology

 Building and Fire Research Laboratory

 and

 Subcommittee on Construction and Building

 Committee on Technology

 National Science and Technology Council

 Office of Science and Technology Policy

 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW

 Washington, DC 20502

January 2002

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Donald L. Evans, Secretary

TECHNOLOGY ADMINISTRATION

Philip J. Bond, Under Secretary for Technology

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

Arden L. Bement, Jr., Director

U.S. Department of Commerce

Technology Administration

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Office of Applied Economics

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

NISTIR 6770
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Abstract

The Construction and Building Subcommittee of the National Science and Technology

Council is developing baseline measures of current construction industry practices and

measures of progress with respect to each of the seven National Construction Goals. The

seven National Construction Goals are concerned with: (1) reductions in the delivery time

of constructed facilities; (2) reductions in operations, maintenance, and energy costs; (3)

increases in occupant productivity and comfort; (4) reductions in occupant-related

illnesses and injuries; (5) reductions in waste and pollution; (6) increases in the durability

and flexibility of constructed facilities; and (7) reductions in construction worker

illnesses and injuries. This report provides a detailed set of baseline measures for

National Construction Goal 2 (reductions in operations, maintenance, and energy costs)

for educational facilities. As such, it describes data sources, data classifications, and the

metrics used to develop the baseline measures. Extensive use of charts and tables is

made throughout this document to illustrate the process by which the baseline measures

were developed.

Keywords

building economics; construction; costs; economic analysis; educational facilities; energy

costs; maintenance costs; metrics; operations costs
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Preface

This study was conducted by the Office of Applied Economics in the Building and Fire

Research Laboratory (BFRL) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology

(NIST). The study was sponsored by the Construction and Building Subcommittee of the

National Science and Technology Council. The BFRL project, of which this study is a

part, seeks to develop baseline measures and measures of progress with respect to each of

the seven National Construction Goals. These measures are to be disseminated both

through publications and, ultimately, electronically via the World Wide Web. The

intended audience for this report is the Construction and Building Subcommittee member

organizations as well as construction industry representatives and other interested parties.
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Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank all those who contributed so many excellent ideas and

suggestions that he has attempted to incorporate into this report. The author wishes to

thank Dr. Jack E. Snell and Mr. John Talbott, Co-Chairs of the Construction and Building

Subcommittee, and Dr. Andrew J. Fowell, Secretariat of the Construction and Building

Subcommittee, for their guidance, suggestions, and support. Special appreciation is

extended to Drs. Harold E. Marshall and Sieglinde K. Fuller of the Office of Applied

Economics at NIST’s Building and Fire Research Laboratory (BFRL) for the

thoroughness of their reviews and for their many insights and to Ms. Catherine Linthicum

and Mrs. J’aime Maynard for their assistance in preparing the manuscript for review and

publication. Special appreciation is also extended to Messrs. Karthy Kasi and Daniel

Cardy, formerly with BFRL’s Office of Applied Economics, who helped immensely with

the data collection and analysis effort during their summer internships. Thanks are also

due to Ms. Christine Izzo of BFRL's Office of Applied Economics for her comments on

the earlier drafts of this report and for her assistance in interpreting the results of the data

analysis effort.
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Table of Contents

Abstract.............................................................................................................................. iii

Preface..................................................................................................................................v

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................. vii

List of Figures.................................................................................................................... xi

List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xii

List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................. xiii

Executive Summary...........................................................................................................xv

1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................1

1.1 Background.............................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Purpose..................................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Scope and Approach ................................................................................................ 3

2. The National Construction Goals: A Tool for Promoting Competitiveness Within the

Construction Industry ....................................................................................................5

2.1 Description of the National Construction Goals...................................................... 5

2.2 Baseline Measures ................................................................................................... 8

2.3 How This Document Helps...................................................................................... 8

3. Overview of the Construction Industry.........................................................................11

3.1 Value of Construction Put in Place........................................................................ 12

3.2 Overview of the Commercial/Institutional Sector ................................................. 17

3.3 Characteristics of Educational Facilities................................................................ 21

4. OM&E Measures for Educational Facilities.................................................................29

4.1 Data Considerations: Sources, Availability, and Constraints ................................ 29

4.2 Baseline Measures for Educational Facilities........................................................ 32

4.2.1 Baseline Measures for K-12 Facilities............................................................ 32

4.2.2 Baseline Measures for College and University Facilities................................ 34

4.2.3 Energy Conservation in Educational Facilities............................................... 42

4.3 Summary of Baseline Measures for Educational Facilities ................................... 51

5. Summary and Suggestions for Further Research..........................................................53

5.1 Summary................................................................................................................ 53
x

5.2 Suggestions for Further Research .......................................................................... 53

References..........................................................................................................................55
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List of Figures

Figure 3-1. 1997 Breakdown of $657 Billion Construction Market.................................18

Figure 3-2. 1997 Breakdown of $206 Billion Commercial/Institutional Sector ..............20

Figure 3-3. Total Number of Educational Facilities by Size Category: 1995 .................23

Figure 3-4. Total Educational Floorspace by Building Size Category: 1995..................23

Figure 3-5. Total Educational Floorspace by Building Size Category and

 Number of Floors: 1995................................................................................24

Figure 3-6. Total Number of Educational Facilities by Year of Construction:

 1995................................................................................................................26

Figure 3-7. Total Educational Floorspace by Year of Construction: 1995......................26

Figure 3-8. Total Educational Floorspace by Year of Construction and Number

 of Floors: 1995..............................................................................................27

Figure 4-1. Distribution of Major Repair Costs by Building Element Over

 a 50-Year Period ............................................................................................34

Figure 4-2. Selected Annual Operations Costs for College and University

 Facilities.........................................................................................................38

Figure 4-3. Annual Building and Custodial Maintenance Costs for Colleges

 and Universities by Number of Students .......................................................38

Figure 4-4. Annual Electricity Cost by Funding Source for Colleges

 and Universities .............................................................................................39

Figure 4-5. Annual Mean Gas Cost by Funding Source for Colleges and

 Universities ....................................................................................................39

Figure 4-6. Sum of Annual Major Fuel Expenditures of Educational Facilities

 by Building Size Category.............................................................................43

Figure 4-7. Sum of Annual Major Fuel Expenditures of Educational Facilities

 by Year of Construction.................................................................................43

Figure 4-8. Heating Equipment Usage in Educational Buildings by Building Size

 Category..........................................................................................................45
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Figure 4-9 Building Cooling Equipment Usage in Educational Buildings by

 Building Size Category.................................................................................46

Figure 4-10. Building Lighting Equipment Usage in Educational Buildings by

 Building Size Category................................................................................47

Figure 4-11. Educational Facilities Shell Conservation Features by Building

 Size Category................................................................................................48

Figure 4-12. Educational Facilities HVAC Conservation Features by Building

 Size Category................................................................................................49

Figure 4-13. Educational Facilities Lighting Conservation Features by Building

 Size Category................................................................................................50

List of Tables

Table 3-1. Value of Construction Put in Place in Millions of Constant 1997

 Dollars.............................................................................................................14

Table 3-2. Value of Construction Put in Place in Millions of Current Dollars ................15

Table 3-3. Value of Construction Put in Place: Sector Totals and Sum Total in

 Millions of Constant 1997 Dollars..................................................................16

Table 3-4. Value of Construction Put in Place: Sector Totals and Sum Total in

 Millions of Current Dollars.............................................................................17

Table 4-1. Annual Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs for K-12

 Facilities..........................................................................................................33

Table 4-2. Most Costly Major Repair Tasks Over a 50 Year Period................................35

Table 4-3. Annual Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs for College and

 University Facilities........................................................................................36

Table 4-4. Selected Annual Operations Costs for College and University

 Facilities by Funding Source, Region, and Number of Students....................37

Table 4-5. Annual Mean Electricity Usage for College and University Facilities

 by Funding Source, Region, and Number of Students....................................40
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Table 4-6. Annual Mean Gas Consumption for College and University

 Facilities by Funding Source, Region, and Number of Students....................41

Table 4-7. Summary of OM&E Baseline Measures for Educational Facilities................52

List of Acronyms

Acronym Definition

APPA The Association of Higher Education Facilities Officers

AS&U American School and University

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

BFRL Building and Fire Research Laboratory

C&B Construction and Building

CBECS Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey

CEFPI Council of Educational Facility Planners, International

DOE Department of Energy

EIA Energy Information Administration

ERIC Educational Resource Information Center

FTE Full-Time Equivalent

HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

NCEF National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities

NCG National Construction Goal

NIBS National Institute of Building Sciences

OM&E Operations, Maintenance, and Energy

RD&D Research, Development, and Deployment
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Executive Summary

The National Science and Technology Council, a cabinet-level group chaired by the

President, is charged with setting federal technology policy and coordinating R&D

strategies across a broad cross-section of public and private interests. It has established

nine research and development committees, including the Committee on Technology

(CT), to collaborate with the private sector in developing a comprehensive national

technology policy. The purpose of CT is to enhance the international competitiveness of

US industry through federal technology policies and programs. The Construction and

Building Subcommittee of CT coordinates and defines priorities for federal research,

development, and deployment related to the industries that produce, operate, and

maintain constructed facilities, including buildings and infrastructure.

The mission of the Construction and Building Subcommittee is to enhance the

competitiveness of the US industry, public safety, and environmental quality through

research and development, in cooperation with US industry, labor, and academia, for

improvement of the life cycle performance of constructed facilities. To accomplish its

mission, the Construction and Building Subcommittee has established seven National

Construction Goals in collaboration with a broad cross section of the construction

industry.

Data describing current practices of the US construction industry are needed to establish

baselines against which the industry can measure its progress towards achieving the

seven National Construction Goals. The Goals are: (1) reductions in the delivery time of

constructed facilities; (2) reductions in operations, maintenance, and energy costs; (3)

increases in occupant productivity and comfort; (4) reductions in occupant-related

illnesses and injuries; (5) reductions in waste and pollution; (6) increases in the durability

and flexibility of constructed facilities; and (7) reductions in construction worker

illnesses and injuries. Baseline measures and measures of progress will be produced for

each National Construction Goal in each of the four key construction industry sectors.

The four sectors are: (1) residential; (2) commercial/institutional; (3) industrial; and (4)

public works.

This document provides a detailed set of baseline measures for National Construction

Goal 2 (reductions in operations, maintenance, and energy costs) for educational

facilities. Industry performance in 1994 is used as the reference point from which the

values of the baseline measures are calculated. Goal 2 was identified as one of the

highest priority National Construction Goals by the construction industry.

This document has five chapters. Chapter 1 explains the purpose, scope, and general

approach. Chapter 2 introduces the National Construction Goals, describes how a welldefined set of metrics is used to develop the baseline measures, and outlines the project

approach. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the construction industry. The overview

provides the context within which the baseline measures are developed. Chapter 4
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presents the baseline measures. Chapter 5 concludes the document with a summary and

suggestions for further research.

Chapter 2 provides perspective on the overall effort to develop baseline measures for

each of the seven National Construction Goals. First, each National Construction Goal is

introduced and described. Next, the process for developing baseline measures for each

Goal is described. This process involves: (1) specifying data relationships; (2) collecting

and compiling the key data and supporting information for the base year, 1994; (3)

defining metrics for each goal/sector combination; and (4) producing the metrics in a

summary form (i.e., figures and tables to depict the metrics). Criteria are then presented

which ensure that the data selected for analysis are well defined, consistent, and

replicable. The chapter also outlines a strategy for using the baseline measures to drive

performance improvement.

Chapter 3 provides a snapshot of the US construction industry. It provides the context

within which the baseline measures are developed. An extensive set of statistics has been

compiled on each sector; many of these statistics are included in Chapter 3. These

statistics are useful not only as a tool for defining the baseline measures but also as a

resource reference for readers with a wide variety of interests in the construction industry.

Information is first presented on the value of construction put in place to show the size of

the construction industry and each of its four sectors. The four sectors are residential,

commercial/institutional, industrial, and public works. Information on the commercial/

institutional sector is then presented to focus on its importance within the overall

construction industry and to define its key components. Educational facilities are shown

to be a key component of the commercial/institutional sector. Special emphasis is then

placed on detailing the key characteristics of educational facilities (e.g., building

floorspace and year of construction). Detailing the key characteristics of educational

facilities is crucial because investments in these facilities affect not only new construction

activities, but additions and alterations and maintenance and repair activities as well.

The construction industry is a key component of the US economy. A key indicator of

construction activity is the value of construction put in place. Data published by the US

Bureau of the Census are used to establish the composition of construction expenditures

by type of construction. These expenditures are then assigned to one of the four key

construction industry sectors.

Table ES-1 summarizes both the annual sector totals and the sum total. Since 1994, the

value of construction put in place has risen from $571.3 billion in 1994 to $734.3 billion

in 2000 in constant 1997 dollars. The largest component of construction over this period

was in the residential sector (about 45 percent of the total), with the smallest component

in the industrial sector (about 6 percent).
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Table ES-1. Value of Construction Put in Place in Millions of 1997 Dollars: Sector

Totals and Sum Total

Source: US Bureau of the Census.

Chapter 4 presents the baseline measures. These measures are based on data published

by four sources: (1) the Energy Information Administration (EIA), a part of the US

Department of Energy (DOE); (2) the Association of Higher Education Facilities Officers

(APPA); (3) the American School & University (AS&U) Magazine; and (4) Whitestone

Research. Section 4.1 describes each of the data sets. The baseline measures are

reported and described in Section 4.2. Section 4.2.1 covers K-12 facilities. Section 4.2.2

covers college and university facilities. Section 4.2.3 uses data from the EIA’s

Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) to establish the national

average energy cost per unit of floor area and the rates of utilization of energy conserving

features and practices. The chapter concludes with a summary of the various baseline

measures for operations, maintenance, and energy (OM&E) costs for educational

facilities.

Because the OM&E baseline measures presented in Chapter 4 are drawn from several

key documents, a comprehensive list of OM&E cost components are identified and

defined. These components include the following:

• administration - includes all administrative costs for the facility including payroll

costs, equipment, supplies, communications, computer rental, accounting costs, and

training costs

• work control - includes all costs necessary for the proper planning, scheduling, and

dispatching of maintenance work, including payroll, database maintenance,

supervision, and cost estimation

• engineering/architecture - includes all design and engineering costs

• project management - includes all costs associated with actual estimating,

contracting, inspecting, and final approval of new or renovated construction

• building maintenance - includes in-house and contracted services for routine repairs,

minor corrective maintenance, preventive maintenance and service calls for HVAC,

plumbing, electrical, painting, glazing, and elevators

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Residential 266,876 266,089 295,555 294,244 311,248 331,705 341,738

Commercial/ 

Institutional 152,521 165,828 184,237 205,703 215,774 221,308 233,329

Industrial 33,440 37,511 38,844 37,738 40,393 33,521 29,925

Public Works 118,434 117,111 115,034 118,944 125,459 128,671 129,280

Total - All 

Sectors 571,271 586,539 633,670 656,629 692,874 715,205 734,272

Sector

Value of Construction Put in Place ($ Millions)
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• custodial maintenance - includes interior and exterior functions such as window and

building cleaning, snow removal, and operating costs such as towels

• grounds maintenance - includes landscaping and grounds maintenance costs for

parking areas, irrigation systems, and fencing

• utilities operations - includes all costs for heating, cooling, lighting, and other

utilities for physical plant operations, excluding cost of fuel and purchased utilities

• solid waste disposal - includes all costs associated with refuse removal

• hazardous waste disposal - includes all costs associated with hazardous waste

removal

• security - includes all security expenses such as traffic, parking, and building security

Table ES-2 summarizes the baseline measures for educational facilities that are presented

in Sections 4.2.1, 4.2.2, and 4.2.3 of this document. The table is organized to serve as a

quick reference; it includes a brief description of each measure, the year for the data, the

value of the measure in dollars per square meter ($/m2

) and dollars per square foot( $/ft2),

and the source of the data. Two sets of summary OM&E measures are presented first—

one for K-12 facilities and one for college and university facilities—followed by a more

detailed set of measures.

Chapter 5 discusses additional areas of research that might be of value to government

agencies and private bodies who are concerned about reducing operations, maintenance,

and energy costs in educational facilities. These areas of research are concerned with: (1)

the dissemination of more detailed information on building characteristics and energy

consumption by EIA that would facilitate the construction of measures for K-12 facilities

and for college and university facilities rather than general measures for educational

facilities as a whole; and (2) the measurement and evaluation of progress toward

achievement of National Construction Goals 2 in educational facilities.
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Table ES-2. Summary of OM&E Baseline Measures for Educational Facilities

DESCRIPTION YEAR BASELINE SOURCE

OM&E: K-12 Facilities 1996 $35.74 /m2 ($3.32 /ft2) AS&U

OM&E: College & University

Facilities

1996 $37.78 /m2 ($3.51 /ft2) AS&U

Average Custodial (Cleaning)

Cost

1993-

1994

$9.81 /m2 ($0.91 /ft2) APPA

Average Grounds Cost 1993-

1994

$2.96 /m2 ($0.28 /ft2) APPA

Average Solid Waste Disposal

Cost

1993-

1994

$0.56 /m2 ($0.05 /ft2) APPA

Average Hazardous Waste

Disposal Cost

1993-

1994

$0.40 /m2 ($0.04 /ft2) APPA

Average Security Cost 1993-

1994

$3.81 /m2 ($0.35 /ft2) APPA

Average Building Maintenance

Cost

1993-

1994

$9.63 /m2 ($0.90 /ft2) APPA

Average Electricity Cost 1993-

1994

$10.61 /m2 ($0.99 /ft2) APPA

Average Gas Cost 1993-

1994

$3.54 /m2 ($0.33 /ft2) APPA

Average Water and Sewer Cost 1993-

1994

$0.43 /m2 ($0.04 /ft2) APPA

Sum of Major Fuel Expenditures:

All Educational Facilities

1995 $9.90 /m2 ($0.92 /ft2) CBECS
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1

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

The National Science and Technology Council, a cabinet-level group chaired by the

President, is charged with setting federal technology policy and coordinating R&D

strategies across a broad cross-section of public and private interests. It has established

nine research and development committees, including the Committee Technology (CT),

to collaborate with the private sector in developing a comprehensive national technology

policy. The purpose of CT is to enhance the international competitiveness of US industry

through federal technology policies and programs. The Construction and Building

Subcommittee of CT coordinates and defines priorities for federal research, development,

and deployment related to the industries that produce, operate, and maintain constructed

facilities, including buildings and infrastructure.1

The mission of the Construction and Building Subcommittee is to enhance the

competitiveness of US industry, public safety, and environmental quality through

research and development, in cooperation with US industry, labor, and academia, for

improvement of the life cycle performance of constructed facilities. To accomplish its

mission, the Construction and Building Subcommittee has established seven National

Construction Goals in collaboration with a broad cross section of the construction

industry.2

Data describing current practices of the US construction industry are needed to establish

baselines against which industry can measure its progress towards achieving the seven

National Construction Goals. The seven National Construction Goals are concerned

with: (1) reductions in the delivery time of constructed facilities; (2) reductions in

operations, maintenance, and energy costs; (3) increases in occupant productivity and

comfort; (4) reductions in occupant-related illnesses and injuries; (5) reductions in waste

and pollution; (6) increases in the durability and flexibility of constructed facilities; and

(7) reductions in construction worker illnesses and injuries.

Although information having relevance to the seven goals is available, for the most part,

this information has such a narrow focus that a consistent set of baseline measures and

associated measures of progress cannot be produced without first conducting a significant

research effort. Specifically, information from a wide variety of data sets needs to be

collected, reviewed, analyzed, and critiqued to ensure that the baseline measures and

measures of progress which result are:

 

1

 Wright, Richard N. 1995. "Government and Industry Working Together." Construction Business Review

(January/February): pp. 44-49.

2

 Wright, Richard N., Arthur H. Rosenfeld, and Andrew J. Fowell. 1995. Construction and Building:

Federal Research and Development in Support of the US Construction Industry. Washington, DC:

National Science and Technology Council.
2

(1) adequate (i.e., they not only capture the complexities of the US construction

industry, but also represent a consensus among experts in the field); and

(2) suitable for dissemination to the public.

It is essential to have baseline data and associated measures of progress to determine the

success of actions taken to improve the competitiveness of the US construction industry.

In addition, baselines and measures of progress will make it possible to demonstrate the

benefits of advanced technologies and practices, and to guide decision makers in

prioritizing potential programs.

The goal of this project is to develop a suite of products that support the measurement

and attainment of the National Construction Goals by the four key construction industry

sectors. The four industry sectors are: (1) residential; (2) commercial/institutional; (3)

industrial; and (4) public works. Three basic sets of products are envisioned:

(1) Baseline Measures: Develop baseline measures that characterize current industry

performance with respect to each of the seven goals. The averages of current

practice (defined in this document as industry performance in 1994) will become

the baselines for measuring progress towards achieving each of the goals.

(2) Measures of Progress: Develop methods for measuring progress. These “results”

measures are envisioned as a composite of performance measures offering a

means not only for monitoring actual performance, but also for marshaling

support for improving results.

(3) Periodic Reports: Provide information on each of the seven goals. This

information will be made available to interested parties both through publications

and, ultimately, electronically via the World Wide Web.

1.2 Purpose

The purpose of this document is to provide a detailed set of baseline measures for

National Construction Goal 2 (reductions in operations, maintenance, and energy costs)

for educational facilities. As such, it describes data sources, data classifications, and the

metrics used to develop the baseline measures. Extensive use of charts and tables is

made throughout this document to illustrate the process by which the baseline measures

were developed. The focus of this document is on educational facilities. Readers

wishing a comprehensive set of baseline measures for each sector of the construction

industry are referred to a companion document.3

 

3

 Chapman, Robert E., and Roderick Rennison. 1998. An Approach for Measuring Reductions in

Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs: Baseline Measures of Construction Industry Practices for the

National Construction Goals. NISTIR 6185, Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and

Technology.
3

The intended audience for this document is the Construction and Building Subcommittee

member organizations,4 four private sector organizations with interest in specific building

sectors,5 designers and managers of educational facilities, construction industry

representatives, and other interested parties. In addition, because this document includes

both detailed information on the baseline measures for National Construction Goal 2 and

a compilation of statistics on the four sectors and the construction industry as a whole, it

is anticipated that this document will serve as a resource reference for readers with a wide

variety of interests in the construction industry.

1.3 Scope and Approach

This document has four chapters in addition to the Introduction. Chapter 2 introduces the

National Construction Goals and describes how a well-defined set of metrics is used to

develop the baseline measures. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the construction

industry. The overview provides the context within which the baseline measures are

developed. Chapter 4 presents the baseline measures for educational facilities. Key

baseline measures are summarized in Table 4-7, which appears at the end of Chapter 4.

Chapter 5 concludes the document with a summary and suggestions for further research.

 

4

 The following Federal Agencies are members of the Construction and Building Subcommittee:

Department of Agriculture, Department of Commerce, Department of Defense, Department of Education,

Department of Energy, Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Housing and Urban

Development, Department of Interior, Department of Labor, Department of Transportation, Department of

Veterans Affairs, Environmental Protection Agency, General Services Administration, National

Aeronautics and Space Administration, and National Science Foundation. 5

 The four private sector organizations are: (1) National Association of Home Builders Research Center

(residential); (2) National Institute of Building Sciences (commercial/institutional); (3) Construction

Industry Institute (industrial); and (4) American Public Works Association (public works).
4
5

2. The National Construction Goals: A Tool for Promoting

Competitiveness Within the Construction Industry

2.1 Description of the National Construction Goals

The Construction and Building (C&B) Subcommittee has studied research priorities

expressed by the construction industry. These priorities translate into the following seven

National Construction Goals:

1. 50 % Reduction in Delivery Time

2. 50 % Reduction in Operation, Maintenance, and Energy Costs

3. 30 % Increase in Productivity and Comfort

4. 50 % Fewer Occupant-Related Illnesses and Injuries

5. 50 % Less Waste and Pollution

6. 50 % More Durability and Flexibility

7. 50 % Reduction in Construction Worker Illnesses and Injuries

To make the National Construction Goals operational, they are based on the values of a

well-defined set of baseline measures. The values of the baseline measures for each goal

are averages of industry performance in 1994. The year 1994 was established as the basis

for computing the values of the baseline measures because it was the year when the

National Construction Goals were first formulated.6

Two priority thrusts—better constructed facilities, and improved health and safety of the

construction work force—were defined as the focus of C&B-related research,

development, and deployment (RD&D) activities. The objective of the C&B-related

RD&D activities is to make technologies and practices capable of achieving the goals

under the two priority thrusts available for general use in the construction industry by

2003.

Achievement of the National Construction Goals will: (1) reduce the first costs and lifecycle costs of constructed facilities in the four key construction industry sectors (i.e.,

residential, commercial/institutional, industrial, and public works); (2) result in better

constructed facilities; and (3) result in improved health and safety for both construction

workers and occupants of constructed facilities. Achievement of the goals will convey

benefits to each of the four construction industry sectors (e.g., housing will become more

affordable through reductions in first costs and life-cycle costs). However, depending on

the goal and the construction industry sector, the beneficial impacts are expected to vary.

To gain a better appreciation of the importance of the National Construction Goals, both

individually, and taken together, and of their relationship to the four key construction

 

6

 Wright, Richard N., Arthur H. Rosenfeld, and Andrew J. Fowell. 1994. Rationale and Preliminary Plan

for Federal Research for Construction and Building. NISTIR 5536. Washington, DC: National Science

and Technology Council.
6

industry sectors, a brief description of each goal follows. The descriptions are patterned

after those given in the report by Wright, Rosenfeld, and Fowell.7

Goal 1: 50 % Reduction in Delivery Time

Delivery time is defined as the elapsed time from the decision to construct a new facility

until its readiness for service. Delivery time issues affect both industrial competitiveness

and project costs. During the initial planning, design, procurement, construction, and

start-up process, the needs of the client are not being met. Furthermore, the client’s needs

evolve over time, so a facility long in delivery may be uncompetitive or unsuitable when

it is finished. Delays almost always translate into increased project costs due to

inflationary effects, higher financial holding costs, and reduced productivity.

Furthermore, the investments in producing the facility cannot be recouped until the

facility is operational. Owners, users, designers, and constructors are among the groups

calling for technologies and practices to reduce delivery time.

Goal 2: 50 % Reduction in Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs

Operations, maintenance, and energy (OM&E) costs are a major factor in the life-cycle

costs of a constructed facility. In some cases, OM&E costs over the life of a facility

exceed its first cost. However, because reductions in OM&E costs are often associated

with increased first costs, facility owners and managers may under-invest in cost saving

technologies. Furthermore, undue attention on minimizing first costs may result in a

facility which is expensive to operate and maintain, wastes energy resources, is

inflexible, and rapidly becomes obsolete. Finally, because OM&E costs tend to increase

more rapidly than the general rate of inflation, facility owners and operators are often

forced to reallocate funds to cover OM&E costs. Reductions in OM&E costs will

produce two types of benefits. First, constructed facilities will become more affordable

because facility owners and operators are making more cost-effective choices among

investments (e.g., design configurations) which affect life-cycle costs. Second, these

same facilities will better conserve scarce energy resources.

Goal 3: 30 % Increase in Productivity and Comfort

Industry and government studies have shown that the annual salary costs of the occupants

of a commercial or institutional building are of the same order of magnitude as the capital

cost of the building.8

 Occupant comfort depends largely on the nature of buildings,

building furnishings, and indoor environments. The quality of indoor environments also

has a large impact on occupant health and productivity. Improvement of the productivity

of the occupants (or for an industrial facility, improvement of the productivity of the

 

7

 Wright, Richard N., Arthur H. Rosenfeld, and Andrew J. Fowell. 1995. Construction and Building:

Federal Research and Development in Support of the US Construction Industry. Washington, DC:

National Science and Technology Council.

8

 Building Owners and Managers Association. 1994. Experience Exchange Report, National CrossTabulations, 1994. Washington, DC: Building Owners and Managers Association.
7

process housed by the facility) is an important performance characteristic for most

constructed facilities.

Goal 4: 50 % Fewer Occupant-Related Illnesses and Injuries

Buildings are intended to shelter and support human activities, yet the environment and

performance of buildings can contribute to illnesses and injuries for building users.

Examples are avoidable injuries caused by fire, natural hazards, slips, and falls; disease

from airborne microbes, often associated with a workplace environment; and building

damage or collapse from fire, earthquakes, or extreme winds. Reductions in illnesses and

injuries will increase building users’ productivity as well as reduce the costs of medical

care and litigation.

Goal 5: 50 % Less Waste and Pollution

Improvement of the performance of constructed facilities provides major opportunities to

reduce waste and pollution at every step of the delivery process, from raw material

extraction to final demolition and recycling of the facility and its contents. Additional

reductions come from reduced energy use, reduced water consumption, and reductions in

waste water production, which are considered in part by Goal 2.

Goal 6: 50 % More Durability and Flexibility

Durability denotes the capability of the constructed facility to continue (given appropriate

maintenance) its initial performance over the intended service life. Flexibility denotes

the capability to adapt the constructed facility to changes in use or users’ needs.

Increased durability and flexibility of constructed facilities reduces life-cycle costs and

prolongs the economic life of the facility (i.e., the period of time over which an

investment in the original facility is considered to be the least-cost alternative for meeting

a particular objective).

Goal 7: 50 % Reduction in Construction Worker Illnesses and Injuries

Health and safety issues exert a major effect on the competitiveness of the US

construction industry. Construction workers die as a result of work-related trauma at a

rate which is higher than all other industries except mining and agriculture. Construction

workers also experience a higher incidence of nonfatal injuries resulting in days away

from work than workers in other industries do. Although the construction workforce

represents less than 6 % of the nation’s work force, it is estimated that the construction

industry pays about 15 % of the nation’s workers’ compensation.9

 

9

 The Center to Protect Workers’ Rights. 1997. The Construction Chart Book: The US Construction

Industry and Its Workers. Report D1-97. Washington, DC: The Center to Protect Workers’ Rights.
8

2.2 Baseline Measures

As noted earlier, the baseline measures for each goal are averages of industry

performance in 1994. Thus, with regard to the baseline measures, 1994 is the “base

year.” Consequently, data from 1994 drive the data collection effort culminating with the

development of the baseline measures for each National Construction Goal.

The process for developing baseline measures used in this project involves: (1) specifying

data relationships; (2) collecting and compiling the key data and supporting information

for the base year, 1994;10 (3) defining metrics for each goal/sector combination; and (4)

producing the metrics in a tabular summary form and, where appropriate, producing

charts and graphs to depict the metrics. If the goal/sector combination has components

and subcomponents, then metrics are defined for each. This process is employed because

the metrics represent not only a statement of current construction industry performance,

but tools for measuring an individual organization’s performance as well. By providing a

small set of well-defined metrics, individual organizations can construct their own

performance baselines. For example, individual organizations can see how a collection

of their projects performs vis-à-vis the “national” data. To summarize, the basic

philosophy behind the baseline measures is that they are not a static tool whose sole

purpose is quantifying the value of the goal, but a means for driving performance

improvement within individual organizations.

Criteria are needed to ensure that the data selected for analysis are well-defined,

consistent, and replicable. Because data are so important to the baseline measures for

each goal, BFRL reviewed many potential sources (e.g., journals, technical publications,

and electronic media) of baseline-related data/information. This review suggested three

criteria which must be met by any data in order to be accepted for analysis. These criteria

are:

(1) Published by a reliable, nationally-recognized organization and available to the

public;

(2) Updated on a regular basis; and

(3) Able to be normalized to account for changes in the building stock and the level

of construction activity.

2.3 How This Document Helps

This document is part of a series. As such, it provides perspective on the overall effort to

develop baseline measures and measures of progress for each of the seven National

 

10 If data are available for years in addition to 1994, then these data are collected at the same time as the

base year data and used to illustrate trends; these data are also used to compute the associated measures of

progress.
9

Construction Goals.11 It also serves to highlight how these measures and their associated

metrics can be used to drive performance improvement.

On a deeper level, this document provides step-by-step descriptions of how to construct a

well-defined set of baseline measures, their components, and associated metrics for the

specific goal of reducing operations, maintenance, and energy costs for educational

facilities. Information on data classification, data sources, and data collection and

analysis provide the underpinnings for the results presented in this document. It is

anticipated that once users of this document have understood the vital role of metrics as a

process improvement tool, they will see how the National Construction Goals will benefit

both their organization and the US construction industry.

 

11 Three earlier companion documents focused on National Construction Goals 1, 2, and 7. For information

on reductions in delivery time (Goal 1), see Chapman, Robert E., and Roderick Rennison. 1998. An

Approach for Measuring Reductions in Delivery Time: Baseline Measures of Construction Industry

Practices for the National Construction Goals. NISTIR 6189. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of

Standards and Technology. For information on reductions in operations, maintenance, and energy costs

(Goal 2), see Chapman, Robert E., and Roderick Rennison. 1998. An Approach for Measuring Reductions

in Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs: Baseline Measures of Construction Industry Practice for

the National Construction Goals. NISTIR 6185 . Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and

Technology. For information on reductions in construction worker illnesses and injuries (Goal 7), see

Chapman, Robert E. 2000. An Approach for Measuring Reductions in Construction Worker Illnesses and

Injuries: Baseline Measures of Construction Industry Practices for the National Construction Goals.

NISTIR 6473. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
10
11

3. Overview of the Construction Industry

The construction industry is a key component of the US economy and is vital to its

continued growth. Investment in plant and facilities, in the form of construction activity,

provides the basis for the production of products and the delivery of services. Investment

in infrastructure promotes the smooth flow of goods and services and the movement of

individuals. Investment in housing accommodates new households and allows existing

households to expand or improve their housing. Clearly, construction activities affect

nearly every aspect of the US economy.12

This chapter provides a snapshot of the US construction industry. The chapter contains

three sections. Each section deals with a particular topic. The topics progress from

general in nature to very specific, as described below.

Section 3.1 presents information on the value of construction put in place to show the size

of the construction industry and each of its four sectors. The four sectors, which taken

together define the construction industry, are residential, commercial/institutional,

industrial, and public works. Data from the past seven years (i.e., 1994 through 2000) are

used to highlight the magnitude of construction-related investments in each sector. Data

from 1997 are then used to establish the relative shares of construction-related

investments for each sector.

Section 3.2 uses information on the commercial/institutional sector both to focus on its

importance within the overall construction industry and to define its key components.

Information on investment activity, the number of commercial/institutional buildings, and

the amount of commercial/institutional floorspace is used to identify both those

characteristics that are changing and those that are remaining constant. Educational

facilities are a key component of the commercial/institutional sector. Information

showing the relative share of construction-related investments in educational facilities

vis-à-vis the other components of the commercial/institutional sector is also presented.

Section 3.3 places special emphasis on identifying and detailing the key characteristics of

educational facilities. Information detailing key characteristics of educational facilities

(e.g., building floorspace and year of construction) is crucial because investments in these

facilities affect not only new construction activities, but additions and alterations and

maintenance and repair activities as well.

 

12 Readers interested in learning more about construction statistics, their sources and interpretation, are

referred to the document by Rogers (Rogers, R. Mark. 1994. Handbook of Key Economic Indicators. Burr

Ridge, IL: Irwin Professional Publishing).
12

3.1 Value of Construction Put in Place

This section provides information on a key indicator of construction activity—the value

of construction put in place. Data published by the US Bureau of the Census are used to

establish the composition of construction expenditures by type of construction/function

(e.g., non-residential/office building). These expenditures are then assigned to the four

key construction industry sectors. The reference document used throughout this section

is the Current Construction Reports series C30 publication Value of Construction Put in

Place.13 A brief description of the “C30 report” follows. Special attention is given to the

organization of the data in the C30 report and how these data map into the four key

construction industry sectors. The section concludes with tabular and graphical

summaries of the value of construction put in place.

Construction expenditures data are published monthly in the Current Construction

Reports series C30 publication Value of Construction Put in Place. Construction

expenditures refer to actual construction rather than planned or just initiated activity. It is

noteworthy that the C30 report covers both private residential and non-residential

construction activities and public sector construction activities.

The value of construction put in place is a measure of the value of construction installed

or erected at a site during a given period. For an individual project, this includes: (1) cost

of materials installed or erected; (2) cost of labor and a proportionate share of

construction equipment rental; (3) contractor’s profit; (4) cost of architectural and

engineering work; (5) miscellaneous overhead and office costs chargeable to the project

on the owner’s books; and (6) interest and taxes paid during construction. Expenses do

not include the cost of land nor do they include maintenance and repairs to existing

structures or service facilities.

The C30 data are compiled via survey and through indirect estimation. In the context of

the C30 survey, construction includes the following: (1) new buildings and structures; (2)

additions, alterations, conversions, expansions, reconstruction, renovations,

rehabilitations, and major replacements (e.g., the complete replacement of a roof or a

heating system); (3) mechanical and electrical installations (e.g., plumbing, heating,

electrical work, and other similar building services); (4) site preparation and outside

construction of fixed structures or facilities (e.g., sidewalks, highways and streets, water

supply lines, sewers, and similar facilities which are built into or fixed to the land); (5)

installation of boilers, overhead hoists and cranes, and blast furnaces; (6) fixed, largely

site-fabricated equipment not housed in a building (e.g., petroleum refineries and

chemical plants); and (7) cost and installation of construction materials placed inside a

building and used to support production machinery (e.g., concrete platforms, overhead

steel girders, and pipes).

 

13 US Department of Commerce. 2001. Current Construction Reports: Value of Construction Put in

Place. C30. Washington, DC: US Bureau of the Census.
13

The data presented in the C30 report are summarized in Tables 3-1 and 3-2. To facilitate

comparisons between this report and the C30 report, Tables 3-1 and 3-2 use the same row

and column headings as are used in the C30 report.

Tables 3-1 and 3-2 record annual values for the years 1994 through 2000. Table 3-1

records annual values in millions of constant 1997 dollars. Table 3-2 records annual

values in millions of current dollars.14 Reference to Table 3-1 reveals that total

construction expenditures in real terms have increased modestly over the seven-year

period (i.e., from $571.3 billion to $734.3 billion). When the effects of inflation are

included, the rate of increase is more pronounced. Table 3-2 shows total construction

expenditures in current dollars.

Tables 3-1 and 3-2 are organized to allow for in-depth analyses of the components/

subcomponents of total construction expenditures. To facilitate such analyses, the data

presented in Tables 3-1 and 3-2 are initially divided into two parts: (1) private

construction; and (2) public construction.

Private construction contains two major components--residential buildings and nonresidential buildings--plus a number of subcomponents. Both the two major components

and the various subcomponents are shown as headings in the first column of Tables 3-1

and 3-2.

The residential buildings component includes new private housing and improvements.

New private housing includes new houses, apartments, condominiums, and town houses.

New private housing units are classified as “1 unit” or “2 or more units.” The value of

improvements put in place are a direct measure of the value of residential additions and

alterations activities.

The non-residential buildings component includes industrial, office buildings, hotels and

motels, and “other commercial” (e.g., shopping centers, banks, service stations,

warehouses, and other categories). Also falling under the non-residential buildings

component are religious, educational, hospital and institutional, and “miscellaneous” nonresidential buildings.

 

14 Inflation reduces the purchasing power of the dollar over time; deflation increases it. When amounts are

stated in actual prices as of the year in which they occur, they are said to be in current dollars. Current

dollars are dollars of any one year’s purchasing power, inclusive of inflation/deflation. That is, they reflect

changes in purchasing power of the dollar from year to year. In contrast, constant dollars are dollars of

uniform purchasing power, exclusive of inflation/deflation. Constant dollars indicate what the same good

or service would cost at different times if there were no change in the general price level to change the

purchasing power of the dollar. For additional information on conducting economic analyses using either

constant dollars or current dollars, see Fuller, Sieglinde K., and Stephen R. Petersen. 1996. Life-Cycle

Costing Manual for the Federal Energy Management Program. NIST Handbook 135. Gaithersburg, MD:

National Institute of Standards and Technology.
14

Table 3-1. Value of Construction Put in Place in Millions of Constant 1997 Dollars

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

571,271 586,538 633,670 656,630 692,876 715,203 734,273

439,110 449,367 489,838 501,749 537,585 553,609 576,813

262,659 261,129 290,341 289,014 306,260 326,447 337,030

184,639 180,951 197,385 198,063 218,041 233,527 238,508

169,156 162,066 176,395 175,179 194,119 208,020 213,225

15,483 18,885 20,991 22,883 23,922 25,507 25,282

78,020 80,177 92,956 90,951 88,220 92,920 98,523

132,262 144,146 158,963 172,990 185,651 183,216 189,229

31,829 35,919 37,409 36,739 39,410 32,655 28,881

24,386 27,040 28,801 34,305 41,106 43,582 50,145

5,111 7,508 11,270 12,898 14,423 14,916 14,764

41,290 45,030 49,769 51,809 52,176 53,477 55,338

4,254 4,567 4,683 5,777 6,419 7,016 7,265

5,302 5,799 6,963 8,693 9,441 9,156 10,226

13,490 11,875 12,167 13,546 13,427 12,750 13,125

6,600 6,409 7,901 9,223 9,249 9,664 9,485

3,547 3,182 3,778 3,815 4,170 4,165 4,645

37,464 37,856 34,244 33,638 38,966 37,066 43,299

11,129 11,711 12,198 12,416 12,974 14,246 16,203

26,335 26,145 22,047 21,222 25,992 22,820 27,095

3,673 3,704 4,542 4,922 5,584 4,602 3,805

16,403 14,832 11,579 11,325 12,053 13,155 19,010

5,161 6,629 4,877 4,006 7,124 3,669 3,377

1,097 981 1,048 969 1,231 1,393 903

3,178 3,054 2,511 2,292 2,537 2,715 2,611

132,161 137,170 143,833 154,882 155,291 161,595 157,460

54,370 60,971 65,554 71,867 71,333 72,706 74,088

4,217 4,960 5,214 5,230 4,988 5,258 4,708

1,611 1,592 1,435 999 983 866 1,044

22,388 27,219 29,528 34,385 35,273 37,176 39,225

4,344 4,472 4,769 5,152 3,802 3,713 3,608

21,809 22,727 24,608 26,100 26,288 25,693 25,503

41,145 39,711 40,759 44,105 47,228 50,098 46,905

2,549 3,179 2,676 2,556 2,462 1,976 2,104

6,997 6,659 6,205 5,739 5,302 5,618 5,416

9,566 8,889 10,120 10,392 9,898 10,464 9,263

5,110 4,971 5,802 6,419 6,649 7,114 6,239

12,426 12,791 12,717 13,803 12,417 13,621 13,444

Type of Construction Millions of Constant (1997) Dollars

Total Construction

Private Construction

Residential Buildings

 New Housing Units

 1 Unit

 2 Units or more

 Improvements

 Nonresidential buildings

 Industrial

 Office

 Hotel, motels

 Other commercial

 Religious

 Educational

 Hospital and institutional

 Miscellaneous

 Farm nonresidential

 Public Utilities

 Telecommunications

 Other public utilities

 Railroads

 Electric light and power

 Gas

 Petroleum pipelines

 All other private

Public Construction

 Buildings

 Housing and redevelopment

 Industrial

 Educational

 Hospital

 Other

 Water supply facilities

 Miscellaneous public

 Highways and streets

 Military facilities

 Conservation and development

 Sewer systems
15

Table 3-2. Value of Construction Put in Place in Millions of Current Dollars

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

519,539 555,591 613,535 656,630 711,759 764,233 815,414

399,346 425,658 474,273 501,749 552,236 591,561 640,554

238,874 247,351 281,115 289,014 314,607 348,826 374,274

167,919 171,404 191,113 198,063 223,983 249,536 264,864

153,838 153,515 170,790 175,179 199,409 222,280 236,788

14,081 17,889 20,324 22,883 24,574 27,256 28,076

70,955 75,947 90,002 90,951 90,624 99,290 109,410

120,285 136,541 153,912 172,990 190,711 195,776 210,140

28,947 34,024 36,220 36,739 40,484 34,894 32,073

22,178 25,613 27,886 34,305 42,226 46,570 55,686

4,648 7,112 10,912 12,898 14,816 15,939 16,396

37,551 42,654 48,188 51,809 53,598 57,143 61,453

3,869 4,326 4,534 5,777 6,594 7,497 8,068

4,822 5,493 6,742 8,693 9,698 9,784 11,356

12,268 11,248 11,780 13,546 13,793 13,624 14,575

6,002 6,071 7,650 9,223 9,501 10,327 10,533

3,226 3,014 3,658 3,815 4,284 4,451 5,158

34,071 35,859 33,156 33,638 40,028 39,607 48,084

10,121 11,093 11,810 12,416 13,328 15,223 17,994

23,950 24,766 21,346 21,222 26,700 24,384 30,089

3,340 3,509 4,398 4,922 5,736 4,918 4,226

14,918 14,049 11,211 11,325 12,381 14,057 21,111

4,694 6,279 4,722 4,006 7,318 3,920 3,750

998 929 1,015 969 1,265 1,489 1,003

2,890 2,893 2,431 2,292 2,606 2,901 2,899

120,193 129,933 139,263 154,882 159,523 172,673 174,860

49,446 57,754 63,471 71,867 73,277 77,690 82,275

3,835 4,698 5,048 5,230 5,124 5,618 5,228

1,465 1,508 1,389 999 1,010 925 1,159

20,361 25,783 28,590 34,385 36,234 39,725 43,560

3,951 4,236 4,617 5,152 3,906 3,968 4,007

19,834 21,528 23,826 26,100 27,004 27,454 28,321

37,419 37,616 39,464 44,105 48,515 53,532 52,088

2,318 3,011 2,591 2,556 2,529 2,111 2,337

6,363 6,308 6,008 5,739 5,447 6,003 6,014

8,700 8,420 9,798 10,392 10,168 11,181 10,287

4,647 4,709 5,618 6,419 6,830 7,602 6,928

11,301 12,116 12,313 13,803 12,755 14,555 14,930

Type of Construction

Millions of Current Dollars

Total Construction

Private Construction

Residential Buildings

 New Housing Units

 1 Unit

 2 Units or more

 Improvements

 Nonresidential buildings

 Industrial

 Office

 Hotel, motels

 Other commercial

 Religious

 Educational

 Hospital and institutional

 Miscellaneous

 Farm nonresidential

 Public Utilities

 Telecommunications

 Other public utilities

 Railroads

 Electric light and power

 Gas

 Petroleum pipelines

 All other private

Public Construction

 Buildings

 Housing and redevelopment

 Industrial

 Educational

 Hospital

 Other

 Water supply facilities

 Miscellaneous public

 Highways and streets

 Military facilities

 Conservation and development

 Sewer systems
16

Rounding out the private construction component are farm non-residential, public

utilities, and “all other private.” These are generally of a non-residential nature, but are

not part of non-residential buildings. Farm non-residential construction includes

structures such as barns, storage houses, and fences. Land improvements such as

leveling, terracing, ponds, and roads are also a part of this subcomponent. Privately

owned public utilities construction is categorized by industry rather than function of the

building or structure. This subcomponent includes expenditures made by utilities for

telecommunications, railroads, petroleum pipelines, electric light and power, and natural

gas. “All other private” includes privately owned streets and bridges, sewer and water

facilities, airfields, and similar construction.

For public construction, there are two major components--building and non-building.

Both the two major components and the various subcomponents are shown as headings in

the first column of Tables 3-1 and 3-2. The building component contains subcomponents

similar to those for private construction, with educational buildings being the largest

subcomponent. Expenditures for the non-building component overwhelmingly consist of

outlays for highways and streets, with sewer systems being a distant second

subcomponent.

To get the sector totals, each subcomponent was assigned to a sector and summed. The

sector assignments are identical to those used in Chapman and Rennison.15 The sector

totals and the overall total are recorded in Tables 3-3 and 3-4. Reference to the tables

reveals that sector totals vary considerably, with residential being the largest and

industrial the smallest.

Table 3-3. Value of Construction Put in Place: Sector Totals and Sum Total in

 Millions of Constant 1997 Dollars16

 

15 Chapman, Robert E., and Roderick Rennison. 1998. An Approach for Measuring Reductions in

Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs: Baseline Measures of Construction Industry Practices for the

National Construction Goals. NISTIR 6185. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and

Technology.

16 Note that due to rounding the values entered in the “Total – All Sectors” row in Table 3-3, differ slightly

from the values entered in the “Total Construction” row in Table 3-1.

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Residential 266,876 266,089 295,555 294,244 311,248 331,705 341,738

Commercial/ 

Institutional 152,521 165,828 184,237 205,703 215,774 221,308 233,329

Industrial 33,440 37,511 38,844 37,738 40,393 33,521 29,925

Public Works 118,434 117,111 115,034 118,944 125,459 128,671 129,280

Total - All 

Sectors 571,271 586,539 633,670 656,629 692,874 715,205 734,272

Sector

Value of Construction Put in Place ($ Millions)
17

Table 3-4. Value of Construction Put in Place: Sector Totals and Sum Total in

 Millions of Current Dollars17

Table 3-3 reveals that the commercial/institutional sector is the only sector to have grown

consistently in real terms over the entire seven-year period. In real terms, expenditures in

the commercial/institutional sector grew from $152.5 billion in 1994 to $233.3 billion in

2000, an increase of almost 55 %. Real expenditures for two of the four sectors,

industrial and public works, were essentially constant over the same seven-year period.

Real expenditures for the residential sector exhibited a cyclical pattern.

The data contained in Tables 3-3 and 3-4 provide the basis for calculating each sector’s

relative share of total construction expenditures. Each sector’s relative share of total

construction expenditures is shown graphically in pie chart form in Figure 3-1. It was

constructed using 1997 data from Table 3-4 (i.e., current dollar expenditures). Figure 3-1

reveals that in 1997 the commercial/institutional sector accounted for 31 percent of total

construction expenditures (i.e., 31 % of $656.6 billion). The commercial/institutional

sector’s relative share of total construction expenditures is exceeded only by the

residential sector, which constitutes 45 % of the total. In addition, the

commercial/institutional sector’s relative share exceeds the combined total for the

industrial and public works sectors.

3.2 Overview of the Commercial/Institutional Sector

The commercial/institutional sector, defined in economic terms, consists of

establishments that provide services. Defined in this way, the commercial/institutional

sector is extremely varied. It includes office buildings, service businesses (e.g., retail and

wholesale stores, hotels and motels, restaurants, and hospitals), as well as a wide range of

facilities that would not be considered “commercial” in a traditional sense (e.g., public

schools, correctional institutions, and religious and fraternal organizations).

 

17 Note that due to rounding the values entered in the “Total-All Sectors” row in Table 3-4 differ slightly

from the values entered in the “Total Construction” row of Table 3-2.

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Residential 242,709 252,049 286,163 294,244 319,731 354,444 379,502

Commercial/ 

Institutional 138,710 157,078 178,383 205,703 221,654 236,482 259,113

Industrial 30,412 35,532 37,609 37,738 41,494 35,819 33,232

Public Works 107,709 110,932 111,379 118,944 128,878 137,492 143,567

Total - All 

Sectors 519,540 555,591 613,534 656,629 711,757 764,237 815,414

Sector

Value of Construction Put in Place ($ Millions)
18

Figure 3-1. 1997 Breakdown of $657 Billion Construction Market

Expenditures by establishments in the commercial/institutional sector for the built

environment include construction expenditures (e.g., new construction and additions and

alterations) as well as expenditures for facility operations, for maintenance and repair

activities, and for energy. Consequently, it is instructive to first define what is included

in each type of expenditure and then examine the characteristics of commercial/

institutional buildings that affect these expenditures.

Construction expenditures include both new construction activities and additions and

alterations.

New construction activities include the complete original building of structures and

essential service facilities and the initial installation of integral equipment (e.g., elevators

and plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning supplies and equipment).

Additions and alterations include construction work that adds to the value or useful life

of an existing building or structure, or which adapts a building or structure to a new or

different use. Included are major replacements of building systems (e.g., installation of a

new roof or heating system).

Facility operations include all non-process or end-product related activities required to

operate a building or structure (e.g., water consumption, trash removal/environmental

costs, cleaning services/janitorial, and security services/life safety costs), with the

exception of maintenance and repair activities and energy. In some cases, fixed

operations components may also be included (e.g., real estate and other taxes, insurance,

and leasing expenses).

Residential

45%

Industrial

6%

Public Works

18%

Commercial/

Institutional

31%
19

Maintenance and repair activities include incidental construction work that keeps a

building or structure in ordinary working condition.

Energy is defined as including all non-process or end-product related energy

consumption required to operate a building or structure. Energy consumption can be

categorized by energy source (e.g., electricity, gas, and oil) and by end-use (e.g., space

heating, cooling, and lighting).

Construction expenditures in 1997 for the commercial/institutional sector were $205.7

billion in current dollars (see Table 3-4). Total expenditures include expenditures from

subcomponents listed under both the “private construction” and “public construction”

headings in Tables 3-1 and 3-2. The subcomponents included under the private

construction heading are: office, hotels and motels, other commercial, religious,

educational, hospital and institutional, miscellaneous, and farm non-residential. The

subcomponents included under the public sector heading are: educational, hospital, and

other. Because the commercial/institutional sector is so varied, it is useful to group these

subcomponents into a small number of key components. For convenience, these

subcomponents are grouped into four key components, three of which are fairly

homogeneous. The four key components are: educational, office, hospital, and other.

The relative share of the overall commercial/institutional sector’s construction

expenditures for each of the four key components is shown graphically in pie chart form

in Figure 3-2. It was constructed using 1997 data from Table 3-2 (i.e., current dollar

expenditures). Reference to Figure 3-2 reveals that in 1997 the educational facilities

component accounted for 21 percent of the commercial/institutional sector’s construction

expenditures.

A report18 by Chapman and Rennison included information on operations, maintenance,

and energy costs for the commercial/institutional sector. Wherever possible, Chapman

and Rennison normalized data on a per unit area basis. If the data were sufficiently

detailed, as was the case with energy data, they were classified into “bins” within which

certain characteristics were homogeneous (e.g., building type, size, and age) and then

normalized on a per unit area basis. Although there are a number of data sets which

allow such in-depth analyses, the data associated with the Department of Energy’s

(DOE’s) Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) is the source of

preference for summarizing the characteristics of the commercial/institutional sector’s

stock of buildings.

 

18 Chapman and Rennison, An Approach for Measuring Reductions in Operations, Maintenance, and

Energy Costs.
20

Figure 3-2. 1997 Breakdown of $206 Billion Commercial/Institutional Sector

The CBECS collects information on physical characteristics of commercial buildings,

building use and occupancy patterns, equipment use, conservation features and practices,

and types and uses of energy in buildings. The survey also collects information on the

amount of energy consumed and the costs for energy in commercial buildings. The

survey is conducted in two stages, the Building Characteristics Survey and the Energy

Suppliers Survey. The focus of this section and the next is on the Building

Characteristics Survey. Readers interested in the CBECS and its associated micro-data

files are referred to Section 4.1.

The most recent DOE Commercial Buildings Characteristics report19 provides detailed

information on the size, age, and other characteristics of commercial/institutional

buildings. In 1995, there were 4.58 million commercial buildings and 5.46 billion square

meters (58.78 billion square feet) of commercial floorspace in the United States. The

mean size of all commercial buildings was 1,193 m2

 (12,840 ft2).20 The DOE report

grouped buildings into eight size categories and into eight age categories. The vast

majority of commercial buildings were found in the smallest size categories, with more

than half in the smallest category and three quarters in the two smallest categories. Most

commercial buildings, once constructed, are expected to last for decades or longer. New

buildings are constructed each year and older buildings are demolished, but the

commercial buildings stock at any point in time is dominated by older buildings. More

 

19 US Department of Energy. 1997. Commercial Buildings Characteristics 1995. DOE/EIA-E024695.

Washington, DC: Energy Information Administration.

20 Values of floorspace expressed in square meters are denoted by m2

. Values of floorspace expressed in

square feet are denoted by ft2

.

O ffice

17%

Educational

21%

Hospital

9%

Other

53%
21

than 70 percent of all commercial buildings and total floorspace were constructed prior to

1980, and more than 50 % of buildings and floorspace were constructed prior to 1970.

The DOE report also examined whether any changes in major characteristics had

occurred between 1989 and 1995. The report concluded that the profiles of major

characteristics of commercial buildings showed no statistically significant changes from

1989 to 1992 to 1995, the years in which the last three surveys were conducted.21

Significant changes between surveys would occur if characteristics in the newest

buildings (i.e., those constructed since the previous survey) were quite different, or if

changes were made to buildings in the existing stock. However, each three-year

increment of new buildings and floorspace was generally small compared to all buildings

and floorspace in a given category and the changes that did occur were not great enough

to be statistically significant.

The profiles of major characteristics which showed no significant changes included the

total number of buildings, the total amount of floorspace, the distribution of floorspace by

principal building activity (e.g., office buildings), the distribution of buildings by size of

building, and the distribution of floorspace by census region. Consequently, the total

floorspace associated with each of the major components shown in Figure 3-2 has

remained constant over the same period of time. If this trend continues, then total

floorspace for each key component will continue to remain constant. It is important to

note that during the period covered by the last survey the commercial/institutional sector

experienced steady growth in construction expenditures relative to the rest of the

construction industry. Even during this period of growth in construction expenditures,

total floorspace in the commercial/institutional sector remained constant.

3.3 Characteristics of Educational Facilities

In 1995, there were 309,000 educational facilities in the United States. Collectively,

these 309,000 educational facilities had 719 million m2

 (7,740 million ft2) of floorspace.

Educational facilities had a mean size of 2,453 m2

 (25,100 ft2).22 Although there are a

number of very large educational facilities, the key category of educational facilities is

actually dominated by smaller buildings. On the other hand, the mean size of all

educational facilities is nearly twice the mean size of all commercial/institutional

buildings (1,193 m2

 (12,840 ft2)).

Figures 3-3 through 3-8 provide detailed snapshots of the nation’s stock of educational

facilities. In each figure, information is classified along one of two major dimensions,

either by building size, measured in terms of total floorspace, or by building age,

measured in terms of year of construction. Each set of figures (e.g., Figures 3-3, 3-4, and

3-5) uses the same bar chart format to facilitate comparisons of characteristics.

Figures 3-3, 3-4, and 3-5 record the distribution of the number of educational facilities

and total educational floorspace by building size. All three figures use the same eight

 

21 Commercial Buildings Characteristics 1995, p. vii. and p.10. 22 Ibid., p. 5.
22

size categories specified in the DOE report. The DOE size categories are specified in

customary units; they range from 1,001 ft2 to 5,000 ft2 (93.0 m2 to 464.5 m2) for the

smallest size category to over 500,000 ft2 (over 46,451.5 m2) for the largest size category.

The eight size categories, as defined in this section, are used throughout this report. To

facilitate reference to the DOE report, customary units are shown on the left-hand axis

and SI units on the right-hand axis of each figure.

Figure 3-3 records the distribution of the number of educational facilities by building

size. Figure 3-3 shows clearly why smaller buildings dominate the key category of

educational facilities. Nearly one third of the stock of educational facilities (100,000 of

309,000) is contained in the smallest size category, and more than one half (160,000 of

309,000) in the two smallest size categories. By contrast, only 12,000 buildings are

contained in the three largest size categories, and less than 1,000 in the largest category.

Figure 3-4 shows a very different snapshot of the stock of educational facilities than was

seen in Figure 3-3. Figure 3-4 records the distribution of total floorspace by building

size. When the total floorspace associated with each size category is tabulated, the

floorspace in the two smallest size categories and the largest size category are much less

than the intermediate size categories.

Figure 3-5 introduces an additional characteristic, the number of floors in the building.

This characteristic serves to sharpen the distinctions between the buildings in each size

category. Figure 3-5 uses the same classification scheme as employed in the DOE report.

DOE grouped educational facilities into one of five categories, based on the number of

floors. These categories are one floor, two floors, three floors, four to nine floors, and ten

or more floors. Each floor category is coded by shading; a legend is provided on the

figure to match the floor category to a specific bar in each of the eight size categories.

Figure 3-5 shows clearly how the distribution of total floorspace shifts as building size

increases. For example, buildings with one and two floors dominate total floorspace in

the three smaller size categories. As building size increases, the total floorspace in

buildings with four or more floors rises quickly and then remains fairly steady.

Figures 3-6, 3-7, and 3-8 record the distribution of the number of educational facilities

and total educational floorspace by year of construction. In all three figures, the years of

construction are grouped into seven multi-year periods (i.e., categories). It is important

to note that these seven year of construction categories differ from the eight year of

construction categories specified in the DOE report. This is because the last two DOE

year of construction categories have been combined. The last two DOE year of

construction categories were 1990 to 1992 and 1993 to 1995. These categories were

combined to form the 1990 to 1995 year of construction category. The year of

construction categories used are 1919 or before, 1920 to 1945, 1946 to 1959, 1960 to

1969, 1970 to 1979, 1980 to 1989, and 1990 to 1995. The seven year of construction

categories, as defined in this section, are used throughout this report.
23

Figure 3-3. Total Number of Educational Facilities by Size Category: 1995

Total Number of Educational Facilities (1995) = 309,000

100

60 62

26

3 0

9

49

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1,001 -

5,000

(93.0-

464.5)

5,001 -

10,000

(464.6-

929.0)

10,001 -

25,000

(929.1-

2,322.6)

25,001 -

50,000

(2,322.7-

4,645.1)

50,001 -

100,000

(4,645.2-

9,290.3)

100,001 -

200,000

(9,290.4-

18,580.6)

200,001 -

500,000

(18,580.7-

46,451.5)

Over

500,000

(Over

46,451.5)

Building Floorspace in Square Feet (Square Meters)

Number of Educational Facilities (Thousands)

Figure 3-4. Total Educational Floorspace by Building Size Category: 1995

Total Floorspace of Educational Facilities (1995) = 7,740 Million Square Feet

 = 719 Million Square Meters 

1752

981

250

1045

1825

1235

247

404

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

1,001 -

5,000

(93.0-

464.5)

5,001 -

10,000

(464.6-

929.0)

10,001 -

25,000

(929.1-

2,322.6)

25,001 -

50,000

(2,322.7-

4,645.1)

50,001 -

100,000

(4,645.2-

9,290.3)

100,001 -

200,000

(9,290.4-

18,580.6)

200,001 -

500,000

(18,580.7-

46,451.5)

Over

500,000

(Over

46,451.5)

Building Floorspace in Square Feet (Square Meters)

Total Floorspace (Million Square 

Feet)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Total Floorspace (Million Square 

Meters)
24

Figure 3-5. Total Educational Floorspace by Building Size Category and Number of Floors: 1995

0

100200300400500600700

1,001 -

5,000

(93.0-

464.5)

5,001 -

10,000

(464.6-

929.0)

10,001 -

25,000

(929.1-

2,322.6)

25,001 -

50,000

(2,322.7-

4,645.1)

50,001 -

100,000

(4,645.2-

9,290.3)

100,001 -

200,000

(9,290.4-

18,580.6)

200,001 -

500,000

(18,580.7-

46,451.5)

4

Building Size/Floorspace in Square Feet (Square Meters)

One FloorTwo FloorsThree FloorsFour to Nine FTen or More F
25

Figure 3-6 records the distribution of the number of educational facilities by year of

construction. Figure 3-6 shows that five sixths of the stock of educational facilities

(249,000 of 309,000) has been constructed since World War II.

Figure 3-7 records the distribution of floorspace by year of construction. Note that

approximately one half of all educational floorspace was constructed between 1946 and

1969. In addition, educational floorspace put in place has been declining since 1970.

Figure 3-8 introduces information on the number of floors. Begin by comparing Figure

3-8 with Figure 3-5. Recall that Figure 3-5 showed a definite shift in the distribution of

total floorspace among the floor categories as building size increased. When year of

construction is the characteristic under investigation, a different pattern emerges.

Basically, since 1946, the distribution of floorspace among the floor categories within a

given year of construction category is skewed towards low-rise buildings. For each year

of construction category since 1946, total floorspace for one and two floor buildings

tends to exceed the floorspace for educational facilities with three or more floors.

Although this outcome may seem puzzling at first, it is easily rationalized. In any

extended period, say 1960 to 1969, the distribution of building sizes tends to take on the

characteristics (e.g., shape) of the distribution of building sizes for the overall population.

Thus the characteristics of the building size distribution for the 1960 to 1969 year of

construction category would be similar to Figure 3-5, the distribution for the overall

population. Consequently, summing across building size for each floor category would

produce a declining staircase-type distribution with a relatively higher value of total

floorspace for low-rise buildings.
26

Figure 3-6. Total Number of Educational Facilities by Year of Construction: 1995

Total Number of Educational Facilities (1995) = 309,000

18

42

72

30

66

45

36

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1919

 or

 Before

1920-

1945

1946-

1959

1960-

1969

1970-

1979

1980-

1989

1990-

1995

Year of Construction

Number of Facilities (Thousands)

Figure 3-7. Total Educational Floorspace by Year of Construction: 1995

Total Floorspace of Educational Facilities (1995) = 7,740 Million Square Feet

 = 719 Million Square Meters

521

1080

1232

614 531

1921 1841

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

1919

 or

 Before

1920-

1945

1946-

1959

1960-

1969

1970-

1979

1980-

1989

1990-

1995

Year of Construction

Total Floorspace (Million Square Feet)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

Total Floorspace (Million Square 

Meters)
27

Figure 3-8. Total Educational Floorspace by Year of Construction and Number of Floors: 1995

0

100200300400500600700800900

1,000

1919

 or

 Before

1920-

1945

1946-

1959

1960-

1969

1970-

1979

1980-

1989

199

199

Year of Construction

Total Floorspace (Million Square Feet)

One FloorTwo FloorsThree FloorsFour to Nine FloorsTen or More Floors
28
29

4. OM&E Measures for Educational Facilities

This chapter traces the development of the OM&E baseline measures for educational

facilities. Data sources are described and matched to the key types of educational

facilities (i.e., K-12 and colleges and universities). The OM&E baseline measures are

then derived from the source data. Information on energy conservation features is also

included. The chapter concludes with a summary of the various OM&E baseline

measures for educational facilities.

4.1 Data Considerations: Sources, Availability, and Constraints

Preliminary data searches for the commercial/institutional sector indicated that there were

a variety of organizations that are carrying out systematic surveys of selected types of

educational facilities, but that there are few surveys which cover all types of educational

facilities. The most detailed survey of educational facilities which has been located by

the author is carried out by the Energy Information Administration (EIA), a part of the

US Department of Energy (DOE). Information from EIA, and other selected

organizations, was examined in detail to determine how it might best be used to develop

baseline measures for educational facilities. The principal data sources that are used in

this document are described below.

Data from the Energy Information Administration

The DOE Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) is used to

establish the sources for two key data items: (1) the national average energy cost per m2

(per ft2); and (2) the rates of utilization of energy conserving features and practices.

CBECS is a national sample survey that collects energy-related building characteristics

and consumption and expenditure data for US commercial buildings. CBECS was first

conducted in 1979 and then triennially since 1983.

In the 1995 CBECS, there were 6,590 sampled buildings of which 5,766 were

successfully interviewed. Energy-related characteristics of the buildings are obtained in

an on-site personal interview with the building managers, owners, or tenants during the

Commercial Buildings Characteristics Survey. Energy consumption and expenditures

information are obtained from the energy suppliers to the responding buildings during the

Energy Suppliers Survey. The CBECS defines commercial buildings as enclosed roofed

and walled structures used predominantly for commercial purposes with floorspace

greater than 1,000 ft2

. This definition includes buildings such as schools, health care

buildings, and religious institutions, as well as office buildings and retail stores.

The survey includes characteristics of each building sampled. One of these

characteristics, principal building activity, is used to separate educational facilities from

other types of commercial buildings. Readers interested in a detailed description of the
30

1995 CBECS are referred to the recent report by the Energy Information

Administration.23

The information presented in this chapter is derived from data contained in the CBECS

Public Use Files. The Public Use Files are microdata files that contain 5,766 records,

representing commercial buildings from the 50 States and the District of Columbia. Each

record corresponds to a single sampled building and contains information for that

building about the building size, year constructed, types of energy used, energy-using

equipment, energy consumption and expenditures, conservation features and energy

management practices, and energy used for nine end uses. The nine end uses are space

heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, water heating, cooking, refrigeration, office

equipment, and other.

The CBECS sample was designed so that survey responses could be used to estimate

characteristics of the entire commercial buildings stock nationwide. In order to arrive at

national estimates from the CBECS sample, DOE calculated base-sampling weights for

each building. Therefore, a building with a base weight of 1,000 represents itself and 999

similar, but unsampled buildings in the total building stock. The base weight is further

adjusted to account for nonresponse bias. In order to obtain a weighted estimate, each

sample building’s value must be multiplied by the building’s weight.

Data from APPA: The Association of Higher Education Facilities Officers

APPA is an organization with more than 4,500 members representing learning

institutions across the US and Canada, with universities and colleges representing the

largest segment of the membership. APPA promotes the effective operation and

maintenance of educational facilities through education and technical support of facility

managers and others in the profession. The APPA 1993-94 Comparative Costs and

Staffing Report for College and University Facilities (the second biennial report), 24

provides detailed information on facilities management costs and staffing information. It

is based on 516 surveys carried out for the 1993-94 fiscal year. Data are presented which

describe operations, maintenance, and energy costs for facilities, sorted by facility

funding source, type, geographic location, and size of student population. Data from

APPA are available through its Internet site (URL: http://www.appa.org) or through

paper publications.

American School & University (AS&U) Magazine

AS&U Magazine serves chief administrators, facility managers, business officials,

purchasing directors, and architects. The focus of the magazine is on facilities/business

 

23 US Department of Energy. 1998. A Look at Commercial Buildings in 1995: Characteristics, Energy

Consumption, and Energy Expenditures. DOE/EIA-0625(95). Washington, DC: Energy Information

Administration.

24 The Association of Higher Education Facilities Officers. 1995. 1993-94 Comparative Costs and Staffing

Report for Colleges and University Facilities. Alexandria, VA: The Association of Higher Education

Facilities Officers.
31

administration, including public and private schools and colleges and universities.

AS&U also conducts and publishes an annual survey of maintenance and operations

costs. Data from the 1996 AS&U Maintenance & Operations Case Study25 were used to

produce "summary" measures of OM&E costs for K-12 facilities and for college and

university facilities.

Data from Whitestone Research

The Whitestone Building Maintenance and Repair Cost Reference 1996 is the second of a

series of annual reports produced by Whitestone Research26 which presents estimates of

50 year maintenance cost profiles for 24 different building models. Example building

types are elementary schools, fast food restaurants, motels, auto service garages, offices,

supermarkets, and movie theaters. These cover a good portion of the commercial/

institutional sector. The profile for each model includes a building description, a list of

major building components, and forecasts of maintenance and repair costs at various

levels of aggregation over the service life of the building. These can be adjusted for

selected metropolitan areas, and modified to include different building components. The

Whitestone Reports are available in paper form from Whitestone Research.

Data from Other Sources

• National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities (NCEF). The NCEF is an

information resource for people who plan, design, build, operate, and maintain K-12

schools. NCEF is funded by the US Department of Education and is an affiliated

Clearinghouse of the National Library of Education’s Educational Resource

Information Center (ERIC). The National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS)

manages the NCEF.

• The Council of Educational Facility Planners, International (CEFPI). CEFPI serves

individuals and firms who are responsible for planning, designing, creating,

maintaining, and equipping educational facilities. CEFPI sponsors an exchange of

information, professional experiences, best practices research results, and other

investigative techniques concerning educational facility planning.

• School Planning & Management Magazine is written and edited to meet the business

and information needs of the district-level buying team, including school board

presidents, superintendents, business officials, facility planners, technology directors,

and other school administrators working in public school systems serving K-12. The

focus of the magazine is on solutions to management and operational problems in

such areas as construction, facilities, technology, and purchasing.

 

25 American School & University. 1996. 1996 AS&U Maintenance & Operations Cost Study. Overland

Park, KS: American School & University.

26 Lufkin, Peter S., and Anthony J.Pepitone. 1996. The Whitestone Building Maintenance and Repair Cost

Reference 1996. Seattle, WA: Whitestone Research.
32

4.2 Baseline Measures for Educational Facilities

The OM&E baseline measures presented in this section are drawn from several key

documents. To promote a better understanding of the terms employed in this section, a

comprehensive list of OM&E cost components are identified and defined. These

components include the following:

• administration - includes all administrative costs for the facility including payroll

costs, equipment, supplies, communications, computer rental, accounting costs, and

training costs

• work control - includes all costs necessary for the proper planning, scheduling, and

dispatching of maintenance work, including payroll, database maintenance,

supervision, and cost estimation

• engineering/architecture - includes all design and engineering costs

• project management - includes all costs associated with actual estimating,

contracting, inspecting, and final approval of new or renovated construction

• building maintenance - includes in-house and contracted services for routine repairs,

minor corrective maintenance, preventive maintenance and service calls for HVAC,

plumbing, electrical, painting, glazing, and elevators

• custodial maintenance - includes interior and exterior functions such as window and

building cleaning, snow removal, and operating costs such as towels

• grounds maintenance - includes landscaping and grounds maintenance costs for

parking areas, irrigation systems, and fencing

• utilities operations - includes all costs for heating, cooling, lighting, and other

utilities for physical plant operations, excluding cost of fuel and purchased utilities

• solid waste disposal - includes all costs associated with refuse removal

• hazardous waste disposal - includes all costs associated with hazardous waste

removal

• security - includes all security expenses such as traffic, parking, and building security

4.2.1 Baseline Measures for K-12 Facilities

Data from the 1996 AS&U Maintenance & Operations Cost Study and the Whitestone

Building Maintenance and Repair Cost Reference 1996 are used to develop baseline

measures for OM&E costs for K-12 facilities. Both sets of information are needed

because the AS&U data do not include estimates for major repairs and replacements.

Although the Whitestone data include estimates of both maintenance and repair costs, the

Whitestone maintenance cost data are aggregated totals and hence provide less detail than

the AS&U maintenance cost data. All data presented in this subsection are recorded in

1996 dollars.

Table 4-1 presents selected median operation, maintenance, and energy cost data for K12 facilities. These data are grouped into four major categories. These categories are: (1)

in-house labor; (2) outside labor contract; (3) energy and water/sewer; and (4) supplies.

The last row of the table records the total median OM&E costs for K-12 facilities.
33

Reference to Table 4-1 reveals that more than half of the OM&E cost total is for in-house

labor. The next largest cost category is for energy and water (i.e., fuel, electricity, and

water/sewer). Supplies and outside labor contract services account for the remainder.

Table 4-1. Annual Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs for K-12 Facilities

K-12 Facilities Cost Category Dollars per Square Foot Dollars per Square Meter

Payroll ($)

 Custodial $1.22 $13.13

 Maintenance $0.48 $5.17

 Grounds $0.17 $1.83

Outside Labor Contract $0.20 $2.15

Fuel $0.25 $2.69

Electricity $0.56 $6.03

Water/Sewer $0.17 $1.83

Equipment & Maintenance Supplies $0.23 $2.48

Grounds Equipment & Supplies $0.05 $0.54

Total OM&E Costs $3.32 $35.74

The distribution of major repair costs is recorded in Figure 4-1. This distribution is based

on data published by Whitestone Research. The data are classified into major cost

categories according to ASTM’s Standard Classification for Building Elements and

Related Sitework—UNIFORMAT II.

27 The repair cost data are based on a 47,000 ft2

elementary school. The total (undiscounted) major repair cost per gross ft2 over the 50

year period used by Whitestone Research for this facility is $69.00.

Figure 4-1 reveals that more than one third of major repair costs are associated with

interior finishes. Only three other systems exceed ten percent of the total major repair

cost per gross ft2

 over the 50-year period. These systems are: (1) HVAC; (2) Electrical;

and (3) Plumbing.

Table 4-2 records the most costly major repair tasks. These tasks are ranked in

descending order. Associated with each task is a task cost in dollars per ft2

 and a percent,

expressed as a percent of the total maintenance and repair cost per gross ft2

 over the 50

year analysis period. Notice that the most costly major repair tasks are due to the

replacement of fluorescent lighting fixtures $90.31/m2

 ($8.39/ft2), the refinishing of

plaster wall finishes $86.97/m2 ($8.08/ft2), the replacement of quarry tile floors

$81.27/m2

 ($7.55/ft2), and the refinishing of plaster ceilings $67.28/m2 ($6.25/ft2).

 

27 American Society for Testing and Materials. 1998. Standard Classification for Building Elements and

Related Sitework—UNIFORMAT II. E-1557. West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and

Materials.
34

Figure 4-1. Distribution of Major Repair Costs by Building Element Over a 50-

Year Period

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

B20 Exterior Closure

B30 Roofing

C10 Interior Construction

C30 Interior Finishes

D20 Plumbing Systems

D30 HVAC Systems

D40 Fire Protection Systems

D50 Electrical Systems

4.2.2 Baseline Measures for College and University Facilities

Data from the 1996 AS&U Maintenance & Operations Cost Study are used to produce a

set of “summary” measures. These data are recorded in Table 4-3. Table 4-3 presents

selected median OM&E cost data for college and university facilities. These data are

grouped into four major categories. These categories are: (1) labor; (2) energy and

water/sewer; (3) supplies; and (4) equipment. The last row of the table records the total

OM&E costs for college and university facilities.

Reference to Table 4-3 reveals that more than half of the OM&E cost total is for labor

(i.e., salaries plus fringe). The next largest cost category is for energy and water.

Supplies and equipment maintenance/purchases account for the remainder.

Data from the Association of Higher Education Facilities Officers (APPA) are used to

establish detailed OM&E baseline measures for college and university facilities. These

data were collected in 1995 for the 1993-94 fiscal year. It should be noted that data

presented here represent only the most general of the data available in the APPA

Comparative Costs and Staffing Report for Colleges and University Facilities.
35

Table 4-2. Most Costly Major Repair Tasks Over a 50 Year Period

Task Cost 1

Major Repair Task

Dollars

per

Square

Foot

Dollars

per

Square

Meter

Percent 2

Replace Fluorescent Lighting Fixture, 160 W $8.39 $90.31 6.0 %

Refinish Plaster Wall Finish $8.08 $86.97 5.7 %

Replace Quarry Tile Floor $7.55 $81.27 5.4 %

Refinish Plaster Ceiling $6.25 $67.27 4.4 %

Replace Pipe & Fittings, 2" Copper, Cold Water $4.09 $44.02 2.9 %

Place New Membrane Over Existing Built-up Roof $3.45 $37.14 2.5 %

Replace Vinyl Tile Flooring $3.40 $36.60 2.4 %

Replace Chiller, Reciprocal Water-Cooled Hermetic, 165 Tons $3.40 $36.60 2.4 %

Replace Air Handler, Multizone, 50,000 Cfm $2.64 $28.42 1.9 %

Membrane Removal & Replacement, Built-up Roof $2.54 $27.34 1.8 %

Replace Pipe & Fitting 3/4" Copper, Cold Water $2.40 $25.83 1.7 %

Repair Chiller, Reciprocal Water-Cooled Hermetic, 165 Tons $1.96 $21.10 1.4 %

Replace Cooling Tower, 200 Ton $1.50 $16.15 1.1 %

Replace Air Handler, Multizone, 15,000 Cfm $1.42 $15.28 1.0 %

Refinish Concrete Exterior Wall 1st Floor $0.89 $9.58 0.6 %

Replace Carpet, Nylon 20 oz., Low Traffic $0.81 $8.72 0.6 %

Replace Pipe Insulation, Cold Water $0.77 $8.29 0.5 %

Replace Smoke Detector $0.75 $8.07 0.5 %

Replace Transformer, Dry, less than 15,000 V $0.72 $7.75 0.5 %

Replace Pipe & Fittings, 3/4" Copper, Hot Water $0.67 $7.21 0.5 %

Replace Circulation Pump 5 Hp, Chiller & Condenser Water $0.65 $7.00 0.5 %

Replace Gas Boiler, 2500 Mbh $0.61 $6.57 0.4 %

Replace Solid Core (w/ Safety Glass) Painted Interior Door $0.55 $5.92 0.4 %

Refinish Concrete Block (Painted) Wall $0.41 $4.41 0.3 %

Replace Motor Starter, 21-50 Hp, <600 V $0.36 $3.88 0.3 %

Replace Water Heater, Gas/Oil 130 Gph $0.31 $3.34 0.2 %

Replace Receptacle and Plug $0.29 $3.12 0.2 %

Repair Cooling Tower, 200 Ton $0.28 $3.01 0.2 %

Replace Pipe Insulation, Hot Water $0.26 $2.80 0.2 %

Replace Tankless Water Closet $0.22 $2.37 0.2 %

1

 Task cost $742.72/m2 ($69/ft2) over 50 years (undiscounted).

2

 Percent of total maintenance and repair costs $1517.72/m2 ($141/ft2) over 50 years (undiscounted).
36

Table 4-3. Annual Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs for College and

 University Facilities

All Colleges and Universities Cost Category Dollars per Square Foot Dollars per Square Meter

Salaries $1.42 $15.28

Benefits $0.40 $4.31

Energy $1.07 $11.52

Water/Sewer $0.11 $1.18

Supplies $0.29 $3.12

Equipment Maintenance $0.11 $1.18

Equipment Purchases $0.11 $1.18

Total OM&E Costs $3.51 $37.78

Table 4-4 Part A and Part B presents selected aggregated mean operations, maintenance,

and energy cost data for college and university facilities grouped by funding source,

region, and by number of Full-Time Equivalent (FTE) enrollment students at the facility.

Figures 4-2 through 4-5 show selected mean operations costs in dollars per gross m2 (ft2).

Figure 4-2 compares selected operations costs for all college and university facilities

combined. The figure shows that building maintenance, custodial maintenance

(cleaning), and utility operations (which exclude the cost of fuels) are the largest cost

components, in addition to fuel costs.

Figure 4-3 compares building and custodial maintenance costs for colleges and facilities

by the size of the establishment (as measured by the number of FTE students). Reference

to the figure indicates that there is no apparent downward trend in unit costs for larger

facilities as might be expected. Figure 4-4, which is based upon data presented in Table

4-5 Part A and Part B, shows electricity costs for educational facilities by funding source.

The figure indicates that private institutions have approximately 10 % lower electricity

costs per unit area compared with publicly funded facilities. Reference to Table 4-5 also

indicates that there are significant regional differences in total electricity costs in the US.

The mean electricity cost for all facilities combined is $10.75/gross m2

 ($0.99/gross ft2).

Figure 4-5, which is based upon data presented in Table 4-6 Part A and Part B, shows gas

consumption by funding source for all educational facilities. Reference to the figure

indicates that privately funded facilities have higher consumption costs than publicly

funded sources. Comparison of Figure 4-4 and Figure 4-5 shows that private and

publicly funded facilities have comparable energy costs per unit area when electricity and

gas costs are combined.
37

Table 4-4. Selected Annual Operations Costs for College and University Facilities

 by Funding Source, Region, and Number of Students

Part A: Dollars per Square Foot

Carnegie 

Classification

Administrative 

Costs 

Work 

Control

Engineering & 

Architecture

Project 

Management

Building 

Maintenance

Custodial 

Maintenance

Grounds 

Maintenance

Utilities 

Operations

Solid 

Waste 

Disposal

Hazardous 

Waste 

Disposal

Security

Funding 

Source

Private 

Institutions 0.258 0.087 0.106 0.104 0.989 0.846 0.280 0.698 0.066 0.048 0.355

Public 

Institutions 0.264 0.076 0.114 0.114 0.851 0.942 0.273 0.554 0.046 0.032 0.353

All Institutions 0.262 0.079 0.112 0.112 0.895 0.912 0.275 0.594 0.052 0.037 0.354

Region

Eastern 0.314 0.089 0.158 0.170 0.988 1.022 0.260 0.635 0.079 0.031 0.487

Southeastern 0.240 0.071 0.087 0.106 0.953 0.846 0.303 0.548 0.054 0.030 0.406

Midwest 0.238 0.079 0.092 0.058 0.825 1.003 0.244 0.678 0.037 0.029 0.291

Central 0.202 0.062 0.080 0.053 0.695 0.716 0.207 0.536 0.027 0.032 0.246

Rocky 

Mountain 0.208 0.082 0.090 0.101 0.810 0.807 0.264 0.597 0.032 0.021 0.209

Pacific Coast 0.367 0.084 0.138 0.130 1.117 1.013 0.440 0.509 0.060 0.075 0.351

Number of 

Students

0-1,999 0.278 0.100 0.095 0.128 0.946 0.817 0.268 0.753 0.060 0.048 0.271

2,000-4,999 0.289 0.090 0.120 0.155 0.912 0.966 0.300 0.666 0.058 0.025 0.374

5,000-11,999 0.234 0.075 0.151 0.139 0.846 0.991 0.284 0.425 0.051 0.038 0.430

12,000-19,999 0.300 0.055 0.081 0.065 0.897 0.907 0.253 0.897 0.907 0.253 0.564

20,000+ 0.162 0.063 0.081 0.055 0.831 0.915 0.218 0.606 0.041 0.031 0.343

Part B: Dollars per Square Meter

Carnegie 

Classification

Administrative 

Costs 

Work 

Control

Engineering & 

Architecture

Project 

Management

Building 

Maintenance

Custodial 

Maintenance

Grounds 

Maintenance

Utilities 

Operations

Solid 

Waste 

Disposal

Hazardous 

Waste 

Disposal

Security

Funding 

Source

Private 

Institutions 2.776 0.936 1.141 1.119 10.642 9.103 3.013 7.510 0.710 0.516 3.820

Public 

Institutions 2.841 0.818 1.227 1.227 9.157 10.136 2.937 5.961 0.495 0.344 3.798

All Institutions 2.819 0.850 1.205 1.205 9.630 9.813 2.959 6.391 0.560 0.398 3.809

Region

Eastern 3.379 0.958 1.700 1.829 10.631 10.997 2.798 6.833 0.850 0.334 5.240

Southeastern 2.582 0.764 0.936 1.141 10.254 9.103 3.260 5.896 0.581 0.323 4.369

Midwest 2.561 0.850 0.990 0.624 8.877 10.792 2.625 7.295 0.398 0.312 3.131

Central 2.174 0.667 0.861 0.570 7.478 7.704 2.227 5.767 0.291 0.344 2.647

Rocky 

Mountain 2.238 0.882 0.968 1.087 8.716 8.683 2.841 6.424 0.344 0.226 2.249

Pacific Coast 3.949 0.904 1.485 1.399 12.019 10.900 4.734 5.477 0.646 0.807 3.777

Number of 

Students

0-1,999 2.991 1.076 1.022 1.377 10.179 8.791 2.884 8.102 0.646 0.516 2.916

2,000-4,999 3.110 0.968 1.291 1.668 9.813 10.394 3.228 7.166 0.624 0.269 4.024

5,000-11,999 2.518 0.807 1.625 1.496 9.103 10.663 3.056 4.573 0.549 0.409 4.627

12,000-19,999 3.228 0.592 0.872 0.699 9.652 9.759 2.722 9.652 9.759 2.722 6.069

20,000+ 1.743 0.678 0.872 0.592 8.942 9.845 2.346 6.521 0.441 0.334 3.691
38

Figure 4-2. Selected Annual Operations Costs for College and University Facilities

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

Administrative

 Costs

Work Control

Engineering &

Architecture

Project 

Management

Building

Maintenance

Custodial

Maintenance

Grounds

Maintenance

Utilities

Operations

Solid Waste

Disposal

Hazardous

Waste Disposal

Security

Type of Expense

Average Cost in Dollars per Square Foot

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

Average Cost in Dollars per Square Meter

Figure 4-3. Annual Building and Custodial Maintenance Costs for Colleges and

 Universities by Number of Students

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

1.10

0-

1,999

2,000-

4,999

5,000-

11,999

12,000-

19,999

20,000+

Number of Students

Average Dollars per Square Foot

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

Average Dollars per Square Meter

Building Maintenance Custodial Maintenance
39

Figure 4-4. Annual Electricity Cost by Funding Source for Colleges and

Universities

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

Private Institutions Public Institutions All Institutions

Funding Source

Average Dollars per Square Foot

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

Average Dollars per Square Meter

Figure 4-5. Annual Mean Gas Cost by Funding Source for Colleges and

 Universities

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

Private Institutions Public Institutions All Institutions

Funding Source

Average Dollars per Square Foot 

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

Average Dollars per Square Meter 
40

Table 4-5. Annual Mean Electricity Usage for College and University Facilities by

 Funding Source, Region, and Number of Students

Part A: English Units

Carnegie

Classification Cost per kwh

Kwh per

Gross

Building

Square Foot

Cost per

Gross

Building

Square Foot

Kwh per FTE

Student

Cogeneration

Cost per kwh

Funding Source

Private Institutions 0.069 13.1 0.904 6,725 0.040

Public Institutions 0.059 17.2 1.015 4,186 0.042

All Institutions 0.062 15.9 0.986 4,983 0.041

Region

Eastern 0.077 14.3 1.101 4,718 0.050

Southeastern 0.056 19.5 1.092 6,372 0.037

Midwest 0.059 16.6 0.979 5,292 0.037

Central 0.053 16.1 0.853 5,115 0.043

Rocky Mountain 0.053 13.0 0.689 2,839 0.040

Pacific Coast 0.067 14.0 0.938 3,842 0.040

Number of

Students

0-1,999 0.067 14.1 0.945 7,430 0.061

2,000-4,999 0.062 15.2 0.942 4,612 0.045

5,000-11,999 0.061 16.9 1.031 3,711 0.044

12,000-19,999 0.063 16.3 1.027 3,310 0.039

20,000+ 0.053 19.5 1.034 4,547 0.032

Part B: SI Units

Carnegie

Classification Cost per MJ

MJ per Gross

Building

Square Meter

Cost per

Gross

Building

Square Meter

MJ per FTE

Student

Cogeneration

Cost per MJ

Funding Source

Private Institutions 0.019 507.6 9.730 24,210 0.011

Public Institutions 0.016 666.5 10.924 15,070 0.012

All Institutions 0.017 616.1 10.612 17,939 0.011

Region

Eastern 0.021 554.1 11.853 16,985 0.014

Southeastern 0.016 755.6 11.755 22,939 0.010

Midwest 0.016 643.3 10.543 19,051 0.010

Central 0.015 623.9 9.186 18,414 0.012

Rocky Mountain 0.015 503.8 7.417 10,220 0.011

Pacific Coast 0.019 542.5 10.097 13,831 0.011

Number of

Students

0-1,999 0.019 546.4 10.169 26,748 0.017

2,000-4,999 0.017 589.0 10.145 16,603 0.013

5,000-11,999 0.017 654.9 11.097 13,360 0.012

12,000-19,999 0.018 631.6 11.054 11,916 0.011

20,000+ 0.015 755.6 11.125 16,369 0.009
41

Table 4-6. Annual Mean Gas Consumption for College and University Facilities by

 Funding Source, Region, and Number of Students

Part A: English Units

Carnegie

Classification

Cost per 100

Cubic Feet

Quantity per

Gross Building

Square Foot

Cost per Gross

Building Square

Foot

Quantity per FTE

Student

Funding Source

Private Institutions 0.48 0.80 0.38 357.20

Public Institutions 0.42 0.73 0.31 201.10

All Institutions 0.44 0.75 0.33 248.30

Region

Eastern 0.53 0.72 0.38 223.50

Southeastern 0.51 0.62 0.31 178.00

Midwest 0.38 0.92 0.34 334.80

Central 0.35 0.73 0.26 295.80

Rocky Mountain 0.42 0.89 0.37 206.70

Pacific Coast 0.43 0.64 0.27 182.00

Number of

Students

0-1,999 0.47 0.86 0.40 430.10

2,000-4,999 0.46 0.61 0.28 219.20

5,000-11,999 0.44 0.72 0.32 146.20

12,000-19,999 0.42 0.67 0.28 159.50

20,000+ 0.35 0.98 0.34 228.40

Part B: SI Units

Carnegie

Classification

Cost per 100

Cubic Meters

Quantity per

Gross Building

Square Meter

Cost per Gross

Building Square

Meter

Quantity per FTE

Student

Funding Source

Private Institutions 16.95 .24 4.13 10.11

Public Institutions 14.83 .22 3.30 5.69

All Institutions 15.54 .23 3.55 7.03

Region

Eastern 18.72 .22 4.11 6.33

Southeastern 18.01 .19 3.40 5.04

Midwest 13.42 .28 3.76 9.48

Central 12.36 .22 2.75 8.38

Rocky Mountain 14.83 .27 4.02 5.85

Pacific Coast 15.19 .20 2.96 5.15

Number of

Students

0-1,999 16.60 .26 4.35 12.18

2,000-4,999 16.24 .19 3.02 6.21

5,000-11,999 15.54 .22 3.41 4.14

12,000-19,999 14.83 .20 3.03 4.52

20,000+ 12.36 .30 3.69 6.47
42

4.2.3 Energy Conservation in Educational Facilities

As noted earlier, the DOE Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS)

is used to establish the sources for two key data items: (1) the national average energy

cost per m2

 (per ft2); and (2) the rates of utilization of energy conserving features and

practices. CBECS is a national sample survey that collects energy-related building

characteristics and consumption and expenditure data for US commercial buildings.

Figures 4-6 through 4-13 summarize the information on educational facilities extracted

from the CBECS microdata files. With the exception of Figure 4-7, which is organized

by year of construction, all of the figures record building size on the horizontal axis. The

same eight size categories introduced in Chapter 3 are used in each figure. Tic marks on

the horizontal axis are used to help separate the size categories. Two different measures

are recorded on the vertical axis. For Figure 4-6 the vertical axis records the annual fuel

expenditure per unit of floor area. For Figure 4-7 the vertical axis records the annual fuel

expenditure by year of construction. For Figures 4-8 through 4-13 the vertical axis

records the percent of total floorspace covered by the factors (i.e., end-use equipment and

energy conservation features) under analysis. It is important to recognize that portions of

a building’s floorspace may be covered by more than one factor. Consequently, the sum

total across all factors may exceed 100 % of total floorspace.

Figure 4-6 shows how annual energy expenditures per unit of floor area vary by building

size. The figure also records the national average energy expenditure per m2

 (per ft2).

Reference to the figure shows that the national average energy expenditure is $9.90/m2

($0.92/ft2). Examination of the figure shows considerable variability about the national

average across the eight building size categories. With the exception of the two smallest

size categories, the figure does not show any trend towards higher or lower energy

expenditures per unit of floor area as building size increases.

Figure 4-7 shows how annual energy expenditures per unit of floor area vary by year of

construction. The figure also records the national average energy expenditure per m2

 (per

ft2). Examination of the figure shows a slight upward trend in annual energy

expenditures per unit of floor area, for facilities constructed prior to 1990.

Figures 4-8 through 4-13 are concerned with end-use equipment and energy conservation

features. Energy is used within buildings by end-use equipment. End-use equipment

refers to the specific type of equipment that is used to perform a given end use. Types of

end-use equipment include heat pumps, furnaces, packaged air-conditioning units, central

chillers, fluorescent light fixtures, and compact fluorescent bulbs. Figures 4-8 through 4-

10 record information on end-use equipment.
43

Figure 4-6. Sum of Annual Major Fuel Expenditures of Educational Facilities by

 Building Size Category

Fuel Expenditure National Average = $0.92 per Square Foot

 = $9.90 per Square Meter

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

1,001 -

5,000

(93.0-

464.5)

5,001 -

10,000

(464.6-

929.0)

10,001 -

25,000

(929.1-

2,322.6)

25,001 -

50,000

(2,322.7-

4,645.1)

50,001 -

100,000

(4,645.2-

9,290.3)

100,001 -

200,000

(9,290.4-

18,580.6)

200,001 -

500,000

(18,580.7-

46,451.5)

Over

500,000

(Over

46,451.5)

Building Size/Floorspace in Square Feet (Square Meters)

Fuel Expenditures per Square Foot

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

Fuel Expenditures per Square 

Meter

Figure 4-7. Sum of Annual Major Fuel Expenditures of Educational Facilities by

 Year of Construction

National Fuel Expenditure Average for Educational Facilities = $0.92 per Square Foot

 = $9.90 per Square Meter

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1919

 or

 Before

1920-

1945

1946-

1959

1960-

1969

1970-

1979

1980-

1989

1990-

1995

Year of Construction

Fuel Expenditures per Square 

Foot

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

Fuel Expenditures per Square 

Meter
44

Educational facilities use a variety of features to conserve the use of energy by end-use

equipment. Energy conservation features include those related to the building shell,

HVAC systems, and lighting systems. Figures 4-11 through 4-13 record information on

energy conservation features.

For Figures 4-8 through 4-13 the factors under analysis are listed in a box beneath the

legend for the horizontal axis. The number of factors analyzed in each figure range from

a high of seven (see Figure 4-8) to a low of four (see Figure 4-12). Each factor is crossreferenced to a bar in the figure. This is done by shading each bar, and for selected bars

bolding their border. Each factor is indicated by a small shaded box and a factor name

pairing. To identify a specific factor, start at the top and read from left to right across the

shaded box/factor name pairings until the factor of interest is found. Note that each

factor is recorded for each size category in Figures 4-8 through 4-13. Due to different

building characteristics, some factors will have a zero value for some size categories. In

such cases, a gap will appear between one or more bars. The positions of each bar,

however, will be the same as indicated by the order of the shaded box/factor name

pairings. As noted earlier, portions of a building’s floorspace may be covered by more

than one factor. Consequently, the sum across all factors may exceed 100 % of total

floorspace.

Information on space heating equipment for educational facilities is presented in Figure

4-8. Three types of heating equipment were used extensively in educational facilities:

packaged heating units, boilers, and district heat. Although all three types were used

extensively, their use in educational facilities of different sizes varied considerably. For

example, boilers and district heat were used more in larger buildings, while packaged

heating units were used more in smaller buildings.

Information on cooling equipment for educational facilities is presented in Figure 4-9.

Reference to the figure reveals that packaged air-conditioning units and central chillers

were the most widely used type of cooling equipment. However, the two most widely

used types of cooling equipment showed significant differences in use by size of

building. Packaged air-conditioning units showed relatively greater use in the smallest

educational facilities. Central chillers were used primarily in the largest buildings. That

equipment type cooled more than 40 % of the combined floorspace of the three largest

size categories, but less than 5 % of the combined floorspace of the three smallest size

categories.

Information on six types of lighting equipment is summarized in Figure 4-10. The six

types of lighting equipment are incandescent, standard fluorescent, compact fluorescent,

high-intensity discharge, halogen, and other. Standard fluorescent lighting fixtures were

found in nearly all educational facilities (more than 80 % of all floorspace). Incandescent

lighting was also widely used (around 60 % of all floorspace). The three newer kinds of

lighting technology, high-intensity discharge, compact fluorescent, and halogen, were

used primarily in larger educational facilities.
45

Figure 4-8. Heating Equipment Usage in Educational Buildings by Building Size Category

0

102030405060708090

100

1,001 -

5,000

(93.0-

464.5)

5,001 -

10,000

(464.6-

929.0)

10,001 -

25,000

(929.1-

2,322.6)

25,001 -

50,000

(2,322.7-

4,645.1)

50,001 -

100,000

(4,645.2-

9,290.3)

100,001 -

200,000

(9,290.4-

18,580.6)

200,001 

500,00

(18,580.

46,451.

Building Size/Floorspace in Square Feet (Square Meters)

Percent of Total Floorspace

Furnaces Heat Pumps Individual District Heat Boilers Packaged HOther
46

Figure 4-9 Building Cooling Equipment Usage in Educational Buildings by Building Size Category

0

102030405060708090

100

1,001 -

5,000

(93.0-

464.5)

5,001 -

10,000

(464.6-

929.0)

10,001 -

25,000

(929.1-

2,322.6)

25,001 -

50,000

(2,322.7-

4,645.1)

50,001 -

100,000

(4,645.2-

9,290.3)

100,001 -

200,000

(9,290.4-

18,580.6)

200,001 

500,000

(18,580.7

46,451.5

Building Size/Floorspace in Square Feet (Square Meters)

Percent of Total Floorspace

Residential Type - Central A/C Heat Pumps Individual A/CDistrict Chilled Water Central Chillers Packaged A/C UOther
47

Figure 4-10. Building Lighting Equipment Usage in Educational Buildings by Building Size Category

0

102030405060708090

100

1,001 -

5,000

(93.0-

464.5)

5,001 -

10,000

(464.6-

929.0)

10,001 -

25,000

(929.1-

2,322.6)

25,001 -

50,000

(2,322.7-

4,645.1)

50,001 -

100,000

(4,645.2-

9,290.3)

100,001 -

200,000

(9,290.4-

18,580.6)

200,001 

500,000

(18,580.7

46,451.5

Building Size/Floorspace in Square Feet (Square Meters)

Percent of Total FloorspaceIncandescent Standard Fluorescent Compact Fluorescent High-Intensity Discharge 
48

 Figure 4-11. Educational Facilities Shell Conservation Features by Building Size Category

0

102030405060708090

100

1,001 -

5,000

(93.0-

464.5)

5,001 -

10,000

(464.6-

929.0)

10,001 -

25,000

(929.1-

2,322.6)

25,001 -

50,000

(2,322.7-

4,645.1)

50,001 -

100,000

(4,645.2-

9,290.3)

100,001 -

200,000

(9,290.4-

18,580.6)

200,

500

(18,5

46,4

Building Size/Floorspace in Square Feet (Square Meters)

Percent of Total Floorspace

Roof or Ceiling Insulation Exterior or Interior ShaStorm or Multiple Glazing Tinted, Reflective, or SWall Insulation
49

 Figure 4-12. Educational Facilities HVAC Conservation Features by Building Size Category

0

102030405060708090

100

1,001 -

5,000

(93.0-

464.5)

5,001 -

10,000

(464.6-

929.0)

10,001 -

25,000

(929.1-

2,322.6)

25,001 -

50,000

(2,322.7-

4,645.1)

50,001 -

100,000

(4,645.2-

9,290.3)

100,001 -

200,000

(9,290.4-

18,580.6)

200,

500

(18,5

46,4

Building Size/Floorspace in Square Feet (Square M eters)

Percent of Total Floorspace

Variable Air-Volume System Economizer Cycle HVAC Mainten
50

 Figure 4-13. Educational Facilities Lighting Conservation Features by Building Size Category

0

102030405060708090

100

1,001 -

5,000

(93.0-

464.5)

5,001 -

10,000

(464.6-

929.0)

10,001 -

25,000

(929.1-

2,322.6)

25,001 -

50,000

(2,322.7-

4,645.1)

50,001 -

100,000

(4,645.2-

9,290.3)

100,001 -

200,000

(9,290.4-

18,580.6)

200,

500

(18,5

46,4

Building Size/Floorspace in Square Feet (Square M eters)

Percent of Total Floorspace

Specular Reflectors Natural Lighting Control Sensors Occupancy SenTime Clocks Manual Dimmer Switches Energy-EfficieOther
51

Figure 4-11 summarizes information on building shell conservation features. Figure 4-11

shows that most educational facilities had some type of building shell conservation

feature. The feature most often found was roof or ceiling insulation; utilization of roof or

ceiling insulation ranged from 70 to 90 % of total floorspace within each size category.

Figure 4-12 summarizes information on HVAC conservation features. Comparison

between Figure 4-11 and Figure 4-12 shows that HVAC conservation features were, in

general, less common than building shell features. HVAC maintenance, the most widely

practiced of the HVAC conservation features, was performed in about 80 % of the

floorspace. For the five largest size categories, HVAC maintenance was performed in 90

% or more of the floorspace.

Reference to Figure 4-13 reveals that a significant percentage of educational facilities

floorspace employed some type of lighting conservation feature. The most widely used

lighting conservation feature was energy-efficient ballasts. About two-thirds of

educational facilities floorspace was covered by energy-efficient ballasts. Comparisons

between Figures 4-11, 4-12, and 4-13 show that both HVAC and lighting system

conservation were more often found in larger educational facilities.

4.3 Summary of Baseline Measures for Educational Facilities

This section summarizes the baseline measures for educational facilities that are

presented in Sections 4.2.1, 4.2.2, and 4.2.3 of this document. These measures are

presented in Table 4-7.

The table is organized to serve as a quick reference; it includes a brief description of each

measure, the year for the data, the value of the measure in dollars per m2

 (per ft2), and the

source of the data. Two sets of summary OM&E measures are presented first—one for

K-12 facilities and one for college and university facilities—followed by a more detailed

set of measures.
52

Table 4-7. Summary of OM&E Baseline Measures for Educational Facilities

DESCRIPTION YEAR BASELINE SOURCE

OM&E: K-12 Facilities 1996 $35.74/m2 ($3.32/ft2) AS&U

OM&E: College & University

Facilities

1996 $37.78/m2 ($3.51/ft2) AS&U

Average Custodial (Cleaning)

Cost

1993-

1994

$9.81/m2 ($0.91/ft2) APPA

Average Grounds Cost 1993-

1994

$2.96/m2 ($0.28/ft2) APPA

Average Solid Waste Disposal

Cost

1993-

1994

$0.56/m2 ($0.05/ft2) APPA

Average Hazardous Waste

Disposal Cost

1993-

1994

$0.40/m2 ($0.04/ft2) APPA

Average Security Cost 1993-

1994

$3.81/m2 ($0.35/ft2) APPA

Average Building Maintenance

Cost

1993-

1994

$9.63/m2 ($0.90/ft2) APPA

Average Electricity Cost 1993-

1994

$10.61/m2 ($0.99/ft2) APPA

Average Gas Cost 1993-

1994

$3.54/m2 ($0.33/ft2) APPA

Average Water and Sewer Cost 1993-

1994

$0.43/m2 ($0.04/ft2) APPA

Sum of Major Fuel Expenditures:

All Educational Facilities

1995 $9.90/m2 ($0.92/ft2) CBECS
53

5. Summary and Suggestions for Further Research

5.1 Summary

The Construction and Building Subcommittee of the National Science and Technology

Council is developing baseline measures of current construction industry practices and

measures of progress with respect to each of the seven National Construction Goals. The

seven National Construction Goals are concerned with: (1) reductions in the delivery time

of constructed facilities; (2) reductions in operations, maintenance, and energy costs; (3)

increases in occupant productivity and comfort; (4) reductions in occupant-related

illnesses and injuries; (5) reductions in waste and pollution; (6) increases in the durability

and flexibility of constructed facilities; and (7) reductions in construction worker

illnesses and injuries. This document provides a detailed set of baseline measures for

National Construction Goal 2 (reductions in operations, maintenance, and energy costs)

for educational facilities. As such, it describes data sources, data classifications, and the

metrics used to develop the baseline measures.

Chapter 1 provides background information about the project, its purpose, and scope.

Chapter 2 introduces the National Construction Goals and describes how a well-defined

set of metrics is used to develop the baseline measures. Chapter 3 provides an overview

of the construction industry. The overview provides the context within which the

baseline measures for educational facilities are developed. Chapter 4 presents the

baseline measures for educational facilities.

Extensive use of charts and tables is made throughout this document to illustrate the

process by which the baseline measures were developed. Sufficient data have been

collected to establish baseline measures for OM&E costs for educational facilities.

However, the level of detail of the baselines is highly variable, depending on data

availability.

5.2 Suggestions for Further Research

The work for this document uncovered areas of research that might be of value to

government agencies and private bodies who are responsible for the operations and

maintenance of educational facilities. These areas are concerned with: (1) additional data

collection; and (2) evaluation of progress toward achievement of National Construction

Goal 2.

The Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) provides a wealth of

information on educational facilities. The CBECS micro-data files proved invaluable in

establishing the characteristics of educational facilities. Unfortunately, the CBECS

micro-data files do not provide a means for separating K-12 facilities from college and

university facilities. Thus, the characteristics presented in this document are for the

educational sector as a whole rather than for K-12 facilities or college and university

facilities, respectively.
54

If such data were collected and made available, it would result in a much better

understanding of the characteristics of both types of educational facilities (i.e., K-12 and

college and university). It is important to note that the 1995 edition of the CBECS

questionnaire contains the type of information needed to distinguish among different

types of educational facilities.28

Having such detailed information would prove of value beyond measuring energy-related

characteristics and expenditure patterns. For example, an expanded CBECS information

resource represents an opportunity to measure a particular facility’s performance against

national characteristics for a similar type of actual facility. This information would also

prove of value in establishing prototypical facilities from which non-energy-related

estimates for operations and maintenance costs can be derived and used as metrics

against which an actual facility’s performance could be measured and evaluated.

Finally, in order to be able to measure progress toward National Construction Goal 2,

periodic reports need to be produced which re-visit the same data sources used to

generate the baselines, and refine or expand the original baselines as necessary to meet

the changing needs of the stakeholders in the educational sector.

 

28 The types of educational facilities covered in the CBECS questionnaire include: preschool, elementary,

junior high, senior high, college or university classrooms/laboratories, and vocational school.
55

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