Linking for Learning: A New Course for

Education

November 1989

NTIS order #PB90-156969
Recommended Citation:

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Linking for Learning: A New’ Course for

Education, OTA-SET-430 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, November

1989).

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 89-600723

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325

(order form can be found in the back of this report)
Foreword

Neighbors share resources and come together to create community, enhancing the special

qualities of individuals while enriching the well-being of all. Electronic links, used for

learning, are creating new neighbors among schools, classrooms, teachers, students, and other

members of the community.

Rapidly developing telecommunications technologies, becoming cheaper even as they

become more powerful, are changing American life. Enlisted over the past 5 years to meet the

needs of geographically isolated schools, these technologies, united with trained and

enthusiastic teachers, are beginning to enrich all our school environments. Another fascinating

aspect of distance learning is that the private sector is an active participant, joining hands with

educators, higher education, and government.

This study of distance learning was requested by the Senate Committee on Labor and

Human Resources and endorsed by the House Committee on Education and Labor. OTA was

asked to analyze various technological options, examine current development, and identify

how Federal, State and local policies could encourage more efficient and effective use. This

report complements OTA's assessment of use of computers in elementary and secondary

education, Power On! New Tools for Teaching and Learning.

Throughout this study, the Advisory Group. workshop participants, and many others

played key roles in defining major issues, providing information, and championing a broad

range of perspectives. OTA thanks them for their substantial commitment of time and energy.

Their participation does not necessarily represent an endorsement of the special report, for

which OTA bears sole responsibility,

,,,

Ill
Linking for Learning Advisory Group

Rich Gross, Advisory Group Chair

Dean of Telecommunications, Kirkwood Community College

Cedar Rapids, IA

Lionel Baldwin

President

National Technological University

Fort Collins, CO

Gregory M. Benson, Jr.

Director

Center for Learning Technologies, Policies,

Research and Development

New York State Department of Education

Albany, NY

Louis Bransford

President

Public Service Satellite Consortium

Washington, DC

Dee Brock

Senior Vice President

Education Services

Public Broadcasting Service

Alexandria, VA

Ron Hartman

Vice President

Continental Cablevision

Lansing, MI

Harry R. Miller

Associate Director, External Affairs

New England Telephone

Burlington, VT

Kurt Moses

Vice President

Academy for Educational Development

Washington, DC

Robert Pearlman

National Consultant on Educational Technology

American Federation of Teachers

Cambridge, MA

Charles Terrett

Superintendent

Fulton County Schools

Hickman, KY

Robert Tinker

Executive Director

Technical Education Research Centers

Cambridge, MA

Joan Wallin

Supervisor

Media and Technology Unit

Minnesota Department of Education

St. Paul, MN

Debra Willson

Teacher

Satellite Telecommunications Educational

Programming Network

Spokane, WA

NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the advisory group members,

The advisory group does not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full responsibility

for the report and the accuracy of its contents.

iv
Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

OTA Project Staff

John Andelin, Assistant Director, OTA

Science, Information, and Natural Resources Division

Nancy Carson

Science, Education, and Transportation Program Manager

Linda G. Roberts, Project Director

Kathleen Fulton, Analyst

David Wye, Research Analyst

Robert Garfinkle, Research Analyst

Cheryl Garnette, U.S. Department of Education*

Matthew Josephs, Intern

Marsha Fenn, Technical Editor

Madeline Gross, Administrative Secretary

Kimberley Gilchrist, Secretary

Contractors

Bruce O. Barker

Texas Tech University

Richard E. Clark

University of Southern California

Christopher Dede

University of Houston-Clear Lake

Richard T. Hezel

Hezel Associates

Michael G. Moore

Pennsylvania State University

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory

Donald C. Holznagel

Jason Ohler

University of Alaska Southeast

Lloyd O. Otterman

TI-IN Network

Larry G. Patten

St. Louis Community College

Vivid Inc.

Kenneth Ratkiewicz

● On detail,
Chapter 1.

Chapter 2.

Chapter 3.

Chapter 4.

Chapter 5.

Chapter 6.

Contents

Page

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Distance Education in Today’s Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

States: Catalysts for Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Federal Activities in Distance Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Appendix A. Distance Education Activities Across the Nation: A State-by-State Profile . . . . 155

Appendix B. Sample Costs of Transmission Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Appendix C. Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Appendix D. Contractor Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Appendix E. Workshop Participants and Other Reviewers and Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

vi
Chapter 1

Summary

.

“*w,

Photo credit: W Skog. The D41y Inter Lake. Kalispdl, MT
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DISTANCE LEARNING TODAY

Meeting Educational Needs . . . .

Advances in Technology . . . . . . .

EFFECTIVENSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THE ROLE OF TEACHERS . . . . .

CONTENTS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

STATE ROLES AND CHALLENGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FEDERAL ROLES AND REGULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

POLICY ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .... .... . .,..,.... ,, . . . .

Issue 1: Telecommunications Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Issue 2: Research, Evaluation, and Dissemination ., ... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Issue 3: The

Issue 4: The

Box

Teacher’s Role... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Infrastructure for Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

l-A. Satellite Telecommunications

l-B. The Telelearning Project. ,...

Boxes

3

4

5

8

11

11

13

15

18

19

19

20

20

Page

Educational Programming Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

l-C. Teacher-LINK: An Electronic Network for Prospective Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

l-D.An

1-E. The

Figure

l-1.The

[nformation Highway for Iowa.

Jason Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Jason Transmission System, . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...,.. !.,. 14

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Figure

Page

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 1

Summary

INTRODUCTION

“Ohayoo gozaimasu, Moore-sari.” So began

the warm-up exercises in Japanese between

Mississippi 12th grader Albert Moore and his

telephone instructor, Chizuko Takechi in

Omaha. For 1 hour a day, 2 days a week Albert

practiced his spoken Japanese with Mrs. Takechi over the telephone. On alternate days, Albert

participated in the Japanese class taught live via

satellite from the Nebraska Educational Television studios in Lincoln, Nebraska. Albert and

his counterparts in Houlka, Iuke, North Forrest,

and South Panola High Schools were part of a

small group of Mississippi students able to take

the course. According to Albert, distance learning presented both challenges and opportunities:

There is no teacher to hang over our shoulders, so

we have to supply our own motivation and desire to

succeed in the class . . . [at the same time, this

experience] provided me not only with classes I

would otherwise not be able to take, but an opportunist y to work with some of the most advanced

technology of today, which is a learning experience

within itself. 1

On the last day of the school year, the 9,000

teachers and administrators from every school in

the Dallas Independent School District came

together to discuss AIDS, a growing crisis in

their community. Not even the convention

center could hold the group, and there were

clearly not enough experts in the community

available to travel to each of the 235 schools in

the district to discuss the topic in the single day

allotted for inservice training. The district’s

solution was to use the cable system recently

installed in all school buildings to link all the

teachers and experts at the same time. During

this day-long meeting, time was set aside for

each expert to discuss AIDS and its implications, for educators to react after each presentation, and for questions from the sites and

answers from the experts.2

Next February, as the school day winds to a

close, a small group of high school teachers will

sit together in a classroom in their school located

in remote northern Maine. They will begin a

graduate class in teacher education taught from

the University of Maine campus located 150

miles to the south. Instead of having to drive 4

or 5 hours each way in snow and subzero

temperatures, along secondary country roads,

these teachers will take this class without having

to leave their own school building. Using the

Community College of Maine/Telecommunications System, they will see and hear their

instructor and discuss educational concerns with

her and fellow teachers on campus and at other

school sites. The format for this class will be

repeated in other offerings for high school

students, college students, and adults in Maine

who will have the equivalent of a community

college system for education and professional

training. Special seminars, workshops, and

meetings will also be offered.3

In these examples of distance learning,

technology transports information, not people.

Distances between teachers and students are

bridged with an array of familiar technology as

well as the new machines of the information

age .

4 What sets today’s distance education

efforts apart from previous attempts is “. . . the

I A]~fl Mmrc, testimony ~forc tie Sena(e Subcommittw on Education, Ar-M and Humanities of the Committee on Labor ~d Hw~ RCSOWCCS,

field hearing, Jackson, MI, Apr. 27, 1989.

ZD1~a Radsplnner, ~abi~ ~ommwlca(ions coordinator, D~]as 1n&pen&nt s&ool I)istrict, personat communication, Ju]y 1989.

3]n Septem&r 1989, the community Co]]cgc of Maine~lccommunlcations sy~em b~~e operatiorla] in 23 high schools, a]l university CWlpUSCS,

11 off-campus centers, the vocational/technical institutes, the Maine Maritime Academy, and the Maine Public Broadcmting Network through a mix

of leased filwr optic cable and construction of a microwave and instructional Television Fixed Service network. Courses can be transmitted from any

campus to [he off-campus centers and high school sites in its region or to all locations throughout the State. See University of Maine at Augusta.

Community College of Maine Newsletter, March, May, and !$epmmber 1989.

4Jason Ohler, university of Alaska sou~cast, “Distance Education and the Transformation of Schooling,” OTA contractor report, May 1989.

-3-
4 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

possibility of an interactive capacity that provides learner and teacher with needed feedback,

including the opportunity to dialogue, clarify, or

assess.” 5 Distance learning relationships can be

maintained in many ways from the simple

exchanging of printed material via post or

facsimile to two-way interactive, crosscontinental television or computer networks.

New technological advances and reconfiguration and combinations of older technologies

offer an expanding array of learning options.

Distance learning has changed dramatically in

response to new technologies and new needs.

Technologies for learning at a distance are also

enlarging our definitions of how students learn,

where they learn, and who teaches them.

At the request of the Senate Committee on

Labor and Human Resources, the Office of

Technology Assessment (OTA) examined the

use of technology for distance learning to

improve the quality of education for students

and training for teachers. OTA analyzed the

technological, economic, institutional, and policy barriers to further development of distance

learning. This study focused principally on

applications in elementary and secondary (K12) education. Distance learning is defined in

this study as the linking of a teacher and students

in several geographic locations via technology

that allows for interaction.

OTA finds that while distance learning

initially served isolated rural schools and

some urban systems, current uses go beyond

these needs. Systems carry advanced and

specialized courses and training and seminars for teachers. They link learner communities with each other and bring a wide array

of experts and information to the classroom.

If distance education is to play an even

greater role in improving the quality of

education, it will require expanded technology; more linkages between schools, higher

education, and the private sector; and more

teachers who use technology well. Federal

and State regulatory policies will need to be

revised to ensure a more flexible and effective

use of technology for education.

DISTANCE LEARNING TODAY

Distance learning in K-12 education has

increased dramatically over the past 5 years.

Five years ago, few States or districts had either

projects or plans for distance education at the

K-12 level. Fewer than 10 States were promoting distance learning in 1987; 1 year later

two-thirds of the States reported involvement.6

Today virtually all States have an interest or

involvement in distance education. Within

States, a growing number of efforts involve

local districts, regional education service centers, nearby universities, and community colleges. At the same time, an increasing number of

districts are using services offered by public and

private educational telecommunications providers. These multistate projects have experienced

dramatic growth in student enrollment. 7 T h e

Federal Star Schools program, begun during the

1988-89 school year, established a new multistate network and greatly expanded three others.

Nevertheless, many students and teachers do

not now have access to needed but distant

resources.

Although spotty in terms of national distribution, distance learning has been aggressively

adopted in many areas due to two factors:

. Specific educational needs can be met.

One need is the provision of instruction in

mandated courses or advanced, specialized

courses in schools where teachers are not

available or are too costly to provide for a

limited number of students. A second need

is the provision of training and staff development for teachers in locations where experts and resources are difficult to obtain.

5DCWI Bradshaw and Patricia Brown, The Promise of Distance faming, technical paper (San Francisco, CA: Far West Laboratory, 1989.

6National Governors’ Association, Resuffs m Education: 1988 (Washington, DC: 1988), p. 29.

71n 198(j When the Sa[e]lite lit]ecornrn~ica[ ims Educational Programming Network began operation, it offered 5 high school courses to 13 School

districts in Washington State. Only 2 years later, the network served more than 800 students in 58 school districts in 8 States.
Chapter 1--Summary ● 5

Photo credit: Kenai Peninsula Borough School Dtstrtct, Soldotna, AK

Students at Homer High School on Alaska’s Kenai Peninsula can study Japanese, thanks to a course delivered by the Satellite

Telecommunications Educational Programming (STEP) “Network in Spokane, Washington. -

● Recent rapid development of technology

has resulted in systems that are powerful, flexible, and increasingly affordable.

The base of available technology resources

is increasing. Information technologies

continue to develop with dramatic speed.

Possibilities for audio and visual interaction are increasingly wide. Much has been

learned about connecting various forms of

technology into systems, so that the ability

to link systems one to another is growing.

Meeting Educational Needs

State-mandated curriculum reform, especially increased requirements for high school

graduation or college admission, is driving

many efforts. For example, the Oklahoma State

University’s Arts and Sciences Teleconferencing Service (ASTS) began to offer German

by Satellite in 1985 in response to requests from

local districts seeking help in meeting new State

foreign language requirements. This provider

and others have responded to similar needs in

other States (see box 1-A). At the same time,

some districts have created local and regional

distance education applications to share their

existing pool of teachers and students more

efficiently and meet new requirements.

Maintaining quality within the teacher work

force requires up-to-date skills and information;
6 ● Linking for Learning; A New Course for Education

Box I-A-Satellite Telecommunications Educational Programming Network

“Live! Via satellite from Educational Service District 101 in Spokane Washington! It’s Advanced Senior

English!” So began the start of class last fall for Heather L-owes, a student at Warrenton High School in Astoria

Oregon, and her fellow students.] In this case, however, Heather was the only student in the classroom—her

“classmates” were students located in about 80 other high schools spread across an eight-State area. Although

physically separate, these students shared one teacher, Penny Cooper, who greeted them each morning in her Texas

drawl with an enthusiastic “Waaall, good morning!” They also shared the demanding curriculum, which meets the

content requirements of many college humanities courses and prepared Heather and her peers to take the Advanced

Placement examination in composition.

With such a large and diverse “classroom,” Ms. Cooper had to find new techniques to involve individual

students and make everyone feel apart of the class. For example, while leading a discussion on The Illiad, she paused

to ask various students to phone heron the toll-free 800 number to ask questions; as the students responded, their

schools’ names were flashed in 1arge letters on the screen and their home State was superimposed on a map of the

United States. Other students can call the part-time assistants (called TAGs— “telephone answerers and graders”)

who answer questions raised by students and classroom facilitators and help grade student papers. From Monday

to Thursday the students participated in the 50-minute satellite class, with Fridays set aside for the students to take

tests previously sent from Ms. Cooper, review content, or complete individual or group assignments. Because

classes are sometimes missed due to illness or scheduling conflicts in the home school (e.g., sports activities and

assemblies), Fridays are also used as makeup days, when students can catch up by viewing a tape of the missed

session.

Similar scenarios occur each day in high school classes all across the Northwest in the schools subscribing to

the Satellite Telecommunications Educational Programming (STEP) Network. Like many distance learning

systems, STEP was created to meet a relatively localized but common problem. School superintendents in

Washington’s Educational Service District (ESD) 101 service area needed help in delivering high school credit

courses in subjects where they were unable to provide certified teaching personnel. They went to their ESD, which

traditionally acts as a liaison between local school districts and the State education department and assists local

schools in meeting instructional and administrative needs.

In considering distance education as a way to meet the need for courses, a number of technologies were

considered. Satellite was chosen because ESD administrators wanted the capability to broadcast to the entire State

of Washington, and because, fortuitously, an uplink capacity was available through Eastern Washington University

(EWU) in Cheney, 20 miles south of Spokane. An agreement was reached with EWU and in September 1986 four

high school courses were broadcast from an EWU studio to 13 sites in Washington. By the end of the second year,

l~j~ ~XaPle j~ t~en fi~ Job F~~eyer, “you~s’ ~fiy (’jo~s Met Vja s~elljte,”T& DdyAtir@t, MM% OR, Sept. 22, 1988,

p. 3.

changing demographics and curriculum reform meet and talk with national experts, visit other

give urgency to professional and teacher educa- classrooms, take courses, or collaborate with

tion efforts. Technology can be a tool to reach teaching colleagues 5 or 5,000 miles away.8

teachers with training, information, and resources that enhance their skills and expand Distance learning networks that provide

their knowledge. The National Aeronautics and courses can also bring people and experiences to

Space Administration (NASA) teleconferences the classroom to expand traditional instructional

via satellite, the Dallas district inservice training practices (see box 1 -B) or provide entirely new

via cable, the Maine telecommunications sys- alternatives. Networks that connect classrooms

tern, and efforts under the Star Schools program to the home, business, and locations in the

are examples. Technology allows teachers to community provide ways to reach parents, offer

~FO~ ~X~PIC, ~XPn lcaChcrS in ]ow~ ~c]CO~lc ~rospcc[lvc l~~cheri Into thclr classrooms vIa sale]] itc, while two tcachcrs in COMUtICU~ Join

classrooms wa a fiber optic network to [cam teach and build on [hclr studcn[s skills: one group with expcrtlse m Spanish grammar and literature, the

other group wl[h na[lvc Ianguagc fluency and cullurc.
Chapter 1--Summary ● 7

STEP had a membership of over 40 districts, including several in neighboring States and a modem uplink and

production facility, the result of a partnership formed between ESD 101 and RSL Communications. Today there

are over 100 STEP subscribers in 12 States.

STEP operates as a public, nonprofit cooperative. Costs are distributed among users. The operational budget

is financed from the subscribing districts through installation, annual subscription, and tuition fees. While the

director’s salary is paid by ESD 101, all other costs (teachers’ salaries, production costs, TAGs, and other support

costs) are financed through member fees. According to the director: “NO special funding-not one dime-has come

from State or Federal sources to support STEP programming.”2 ESD 101 makes available to new subscribers an

equipment package that includes a downlink satellite dish and associated television classroom and telephone

equipment and maintenance. Districts can also make arrangements to obtain their own equipment. In either case,

first year capital equipment items required typically range between $5,000 and $6,000.3 New members pay a $4,750

initial membership fee, which is renewed at $3,000 per year. Interestingly, membership fees for districts who elect

not to receive staff development are higher, $6,000 for the first year and $4,750 each additional year. Charges for

high school credit courses are based on a per student, per course, per year fee. Courses include Japanese I and II,

Spanish I and 11, Calculus, and Advanced Senior English.

Enrichment courses are also offered, and reach down into elementary and middle schools. These programs are

broadcast on Fridays, when regular STEP classroom instruction is not being broadcast. Student enrichment

programming is optional, assessed at $350 per program or $1,000 for a total package of 10 programs.

As the fee schedule indicates, staff development is an important part of STEP programming. Course credit is

available through EWU and Whitworth College, or teachers may take the courses for “clock hours” credit for

advancement. Effort.. are under way to make it possible for teachers to complete a master’s degree program via

distance learning.

In the future, STEP programming and services may become part of a national network of similar providers.

A step in that direction will begin in fall 1989 when the ‘H-IN Network markets the STEP calculus course to its

subscribers. “We would hope that there is more coordination between vendors, higher education, and the public

schools, so that we could each exploit our strengths and offer affordable and high-quality services on a nationwide

basis." 4

2W R~her, ESD 101 STEP adminisvator, personal communication, in Bruce Barker, %xas Tbch hiVtXShy, “Distance bing CtlW

Studies,” OTA contractor report, June 1989. In 1988, STEP applied for a grant under the Federal Star Schools legislation, but was not selezted

for funding.

3s~p ~Wmmefi~ a 2,&~eter s~~abl~ downllnk digh ~~ is ~Ui@wi~ bofi a Ku- dc-bad fedhom, so local Whds will then

have the flexibility to pick up additional satellite programs besides STEP. Barker, op. cit., footnote 2.

41?xi Rowher, JXjD 101 STEP administrator, personal communication, Aug. 30.1989.

after-school help with homework, or form new tion. This fact has great significance because of

communities of learners (e.g., students, parents, the widespread current interest in restructuring

business leaders, and librarians). In the future, a many aspects of education. Distance learning

number of 1arge urban districts plan to build networks that link universities, schools, and

their own network so that common needs and informal learning institutions, such as museums

rich resources can be shared.9

and public libraries, lead not only to expanded

services but to new relationships.

Distance education makes feasible the 1 inking

of all levels of education--elementary, junior, OTA finds that successful applications of

and senior high to higher and continuing educa- distance learning have been shaped by the

~publlc ~c hool ~~rlllnl~lra[or~ ~n ~hlL ago, D~]l~s, N’cw York CIIY, Phl Iadclphla, and S~n [-ranclw’o h~~ c form~d thc Nallonal ~ducullon TCC~OIOI!)

Tru\t (NETT), a consonlum to cs[abllsh a \ Idco/daIii communlcauon~ nctwvrk “ th~t will provldc a link bctwccn ~mdcnts, staff, parents, and

community mcmbcri from Iargc L itic~ across our natmn “13cmwd Solomon, The School DI}trIc[ of Philadelphia, personnel commu.mcatmn, July 5,1989.
Box I-B-The Telelearning Project

The Telelearning Project administered by the Delaware-Chenango Board of Cooperative Educational Services

(BOCES), is one of the pioneer distance learning projects in New York State. Begun in 1985, this audiographics

network links 10 of the 18 school districts throughout this rural area of dairy farms and gently rolling hills, located

about 50 miles northeast of Binghamton. Many of the 4 schools in the region art small and have had difficulty

providing a full curriculum; many of the students have had little exposure to the world outside of the small villages

that make up their remote communities. Sharing instruction via audiographics became art attractive means to expand

high school credit offerings and to enhance educational opportunities for students.

In each of the first 3 years of operation, approximately 40 students at about a dozen schools took advantage

of the three to five courses offered on the system. Last year only two courses were offered and student participation

dropped to 15 students from 10 participating schools. The reasons for the decline included problems in scheduling,

changes in the New York Regents core curriculum requirements, four different project administrators in as many

years, and decreased State aid for schools, which made it difficult for some schools to pay membership fees and

program costs. One of the key problems was teachers:

When we first started the project we hired outside teachers (from the nearby university) who did an excellent

job and excited students. Because of teacher union concerns the second year, we released these people and hired

teleteachers within the ranks of teachers already teaching in schools serviced by the BOCES. Several of the teachers

did not adapt well to the technology. Consequently, the students were not as enthusiastic as they had been. l

The current Telelearning Project coordinator has made teacher training a high priority, and is optimistic for the

future. “In the last couple of months we’ve trained 10 teleteachers. We now have a cadre of personnel who want

to teach telecourses and know how to do so effectively. With quality teleteachers teaching courses, the program will

sell itself among students, other teachers, and administrator.”2

Two schools have used audiographics to teach homebound students. At one school, an eighth grade student

was given audiographics equipment to use at home while recuperating from back surgery. The computer, graphics

tablet, and speaker phone made it possible for him to take his regular classes from his bed, to participate in class

discussions, not fall behind in his work, and keep up with his friends during this difficult time.

The project has also made possible the increasingly popular “electronic field trip.” An electronic field trip is

a telephone conference call from one of the schools in the project to an outside authority or classroom. Over 50 of

these field trips are conducted by participating schools in the BOCES region each year. The BOCES administrator

explains the appeal: “Rural students are so isolated and have so little, if any, cross-cultural contact. One of the(ir)

major needs is to come in contact with other people in other areas. The electronic field trip is a very simple and

inexpensive way to give students contact with experts in a variety of areas.”3 The calls can be as close to home as

IF~m~ M WjcMer, ~=utjve @j~r, Bod of Cooperative Educational Services, peraomd mmmticadm, in B~w B~ert RX*

‘I&lJ University, “Distance Learning Case Studies;’ OTA contractor report, June 19S9.

2Lin& G~n, tclele~ng project coordinator, personal communication, in Barker, OP. cit., fOOtnOte 1.

3* Wlckler, op. ciL, fOO~Ote 1$

needs and objectives of education. Today’s fiber optic, and computer connections. New

technology makes it possible to meet these

needs in new ways.

Advances in Technology

Advanced technological capability at lowered

costs increases the options for distance education. Most distance learning systems are

hybrids, combining several technologies,

such as satellite, Instructional Television

Fixed Services (ITFS), microwave, cable,

developments in computer, telecommunications, and video technologies continue to expand the range of choices, and new strides in

interconnecting systems are being made regularly.

The technology is flexible, Existing technology resources in a community are most often the

starting point for system development. Even

though cable systems now reach many commu-
Chapter 1—Summary 9

a sixth grade class interviewing the mayor of Binghamton, or as far away as students in classrooms in Australia,

Alaska South Africa and England. Students on electronic field trips have contacted social activists, artists, authors,

historians, steel mill workers, and even a famous rock musician.

What is the benefit provided by electronic field trips? Some teachers have their doubts, commenting”. . . that

they were not prepared to spend an hour of their class time in order to prove the electronic wizardty of

telecommunications.”4 Yet, a case study in which eight students spent several weeks preparing for their l-hour

interview with a rock musician, suggests that with proper preparation, the students can benefit in many ways when

the outside world can be beamed in to them.s Listen to Bob, a student generally not particularly interested in school:

On Monday it was hard to pay attention during class. AU I could think about was the interview. . . .But this

day was different. At the end of the day we got out of class a little early and setup the equipment for the (conference)

call. Some of the teachers and even parents came to listen to the interview.

Bob and seven other students were about to meet with Paul Kantner, a musician and rock-and-roll star who has

played with the Jefferson Airplane, the Jefferson Starship, and most recently a band known as KBC.

Although originally about 25 students expressed interest in participating in the interview, only those who were

serious enough to do a background research paper were selected. These eight students, a mixed group of aspiring

musicians, college-bound high achievers, and regular kids with no idea what their future may hold, threw themselves

into the project with enthusiasm uncommon for teenagers. One described the interview:

We were all seated at this table; the school board members allowed us to use their meeting room. We had been

preparing for this interview with Kantner for over 2 weeks. When we started the interview 1 had my five questions

but we talked so long I had to think up six new ones. We talked over an hour and 15 minutes. I think Paul Kantner

would have talked longer. He was great because he really talked to us. He asked us questions and then listened to

our answers.

When asked about their preparation, the students noted proudly: “The research was really important because

it helped us ask intelligent questions.” The music teacher, the Telelearning Project coordinator, and the librarian

all worked closely with the students in the weeks prior to the actual interview. And, when the intetview was over,

the students’ enthusiasm lived on. “Kantner spoke to us about things that were important to us.” “We would like

to talk with another musician who has not made it big and compare the interviews.” “My friends asked me about

my interview, even my parents asked. ““It has made school really special for these few weeks. I still get excited when

1 think about it.” They had only one regret: “. . . even our local paper hardly reported what happened. If this had

been a local football game they would have given it two columns of reporting. We hardly got mentioned.”

These students were justifiably proud of the work they had done to make the electronic field trip a success.

Like the football players who get the press coverage, they too had worked hard to win their goal. In the process,

they had learned planning skills, how to organize their thoughts both on paper and on their feet, found out about

a career to which some aspire, and learned to work as a team. As the researcher noted: “While the actual interview

was a little like a familiar telephone conference call, the result was nothing like a casual conversation with a friend.”

‘$pa~ck (j~vin, Te/e/earning and Audiogruphics; Four Cuse Studies (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univemity, June 1987L p. 11.

~The fol]owing section and quotes are all taken from ibid.

nities and the telephone network is ubiquitous,

few classrooms have the basic wiring required

to take advantage of this telecommunications

base. And while satellites can reach locations

thousands of miles apart, less than 10 percent of

all school districts have the equipment to receive

programming.

The schools’ desire for technology resources

comes at an opportune time. Educational requirements for infrastructure coincide with a

growing demand for telecommunications capability and services coming from all sectors of

society. Education needs that parallel the

needs of business, government, and health

care providers create an opportunity to share

costs. Even more important, this paralleling

of needs has stimulated an active marketplace for hardware and services that has

brought industry and the private sector to the

door of the education community. The capability of the technology, and its special ability to
10 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Photo credit: AT&T Photofile

Our telecommunications links have come a long way from the era of the horse and buggy.
Chapter 1-Summary ● 1 1

link groups of users, is creating many commercial activities and broadening markets in which

education is a key player.

EFFECTIVENESS

In most instances, distance learning appears to be as effective as on-site, face-to-face

instruction in the classroom. Extensive research indicates that distance learning is equally

effective in applications for adult learners in

nontraditional programs and for training of

professionals in business, industry, and the

military.

10 Distance learning has proven to be a

powerful delivery system for many subjects and

through many media. Although the evidence is

incomplete in K-12 education, studies point to

the need for competent teachers, valid instructional models, and appropriate institutional

support. The recent development of distance

learning in K-12 settings means that much must

be learned about instructional design, teaching

techniques, and various kinds of interaction that

affect learner outcomes. Current distance learning efforts offer a rich source of data to be

mined.

Distance learning affects the educational

process in a number of ways. Students report

having to take greater responsibility for their

learning and that their experience helps them

make the transition to higher education. Students also report that they benefit from exposure

to a greater range of ideas, peers, and teachers

made possible by the expanded educational

community. At the same time, however, students report that distance learning is harder.

When the distance learning group is large,

students complain about difficulties in raising

questions and obtaining help during class time.

Whether distance learning works equally well

for all students is yet to be determined. Most

applications to date have been with academically advanced high school students and independent adult learners—those who already possess strong study skills, high motivation, and

discipline. Whether the medium of distance

learning works as well with young or academically weak students—and under what conditions—needs further study.

Adult distance education is cost-effective

when compared to traditional methods of instructional delivery, saving on travel and employee time. Experiences in adult learning and

business and military applications have implications for teacher training and staff development.

Few studies have examined cost-effectiveness

of K-12 projects. Where traditional instruction

is simply not available, comparisons of costeffectiveness of distance education and traditional delivery are moot.

Many States and localities have plans to

implement systems in the near future. The next

5 years thus present a critical window of

opportunity, while investment decisions are

being made, for evaluation of and experimentation on distance education in K-12 settings.

Research on technology-mediated learning and

interactivity, instructional design and innovative approaches, and applications of cognitive

theory represent good investments for the Federal Government in order to meet the long-term

needs of the field. Evaluation would be most

usefully concentrated on practical questions

about educational quality, such as what are the

learner outcomes of various teaching techniques

and technology models.

THE ROLE OF TEACHERS

The critical role of teachers in effective

learning means that all must have training,

preparation, and institutional support to

successfully teach with technology. ]] Distance

learning has dual impacts on teachers: as a tool

for teaching and as a means to upgrade their own

skills and professional development. Few

teachers have had either teacher education or

IOSw M1ch&] M~~~, pemsylvmjastatc Unlvcrslty, “Effe~tsof Distance ~~@: A sllmm~ of the Literature,’’OTA~On~ac[or report, May 1989.

I IS=US. CongeM, office of T~hnOlogy &~SSment, Power On? New Too/s for Teuching and Learning, OTA-SET-379 (Washington> ~: ‘.s.

Government printing Office, September 1988), ch. 5,
12 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Photo credit: Apple Classroom of Tomorrow, Cupertino, CA

Students look up information in a database and share their work with others on the electronic network, developing skills in

communication and cooperation as they conduct their research. These activities spark self-reliance and excitement for learning.

field experiences that enable them to be

effective distant teachers or successfully use

technology in their own classroom.

Although it is the technology that removes

barriers and expands opportunities for learning,

it is the teacher who teaches. In distance

learning, teachers find that they are required to

change their method of teaching and give more

attention to advanced preparation, student interaction, visual materials, activities for independent study, and followup activities. Many distance education teachers report that the experience has improved their teaching skills. It has

forced them to become more organized and has

challenged them to become innovators.

Teachers who work with other colleagues via

distance learning systems are finding opportunities for new relationships: sharing parts of a

course, team teaching, and learning from master

teachers. The technology itself could be a

mechanism for boosting the professionalism of

teachers, by fostering access to experts and

making high-quality training and professional

development available to teachers wherever

they are located. It can also aid in the process of

learning how to be a teacher (see box I-C).

Teacher concerns about being replaced by

technology must be taken into consideration in

planning distance learning efforts. Teachers are

concerned about the quality of instruction and

the need for interaction with students. Involving

teachers and the teacher unions early in the

process can help to allay these fears when

teachers see the opportunities created by distance learning. Teacher input not only shapes

development, it assures long-term support.
Chapter 1--Summary 13

Box 1-C—Teacher-LINK: An Electronic Network for Prospective Teachersl

The Curry School of Education at the University of Virginia created Teacher-LINK, an electronic bulletin

board system, to link student teachers in the field with their university professors. The system is supported by a $1

million equipment grant from IBM, $15,000 in conferencing software donated by Metasystems Design Group, and

a grant from the Centel telephone company to defray part of the cost of installing phone lines in teachers’

classrooms. The remaining costs have been absorbed by the school systems.

Students receive an account on the network when they enter the Curry School of Education, and their accounts

are retained until a year after graduation,2 They can communicate with professors, classmates, professors at other

schools of education, and classroom teachers. At the university, students access the communication system through

a number of public computers in the education building and in their dormitories. During the teaching internship,

they exchange lesson plans with advisers, obtain support from peers during difficult periods, and share teaching and

curriculum ideas with others. It is hoped that “. . . by graduation, they will use the network as fluently as the

blackboard and become the first generation of teachers trained to use an extended academic community as an

instructional resource.”3

One faculty member noted these benefits:

Because I have different students, in different schools, teaching at different times, it is not easy to set up art

efficient observation schedule by using the telephone. The electronic mail system has made the task of scheduling

very easy, I can coordinate all my observations and also schedule around tests and quizzes, school assemblies. and

other non-instructional sessions,4

About 80 teachers and 40 student teachers in 2 local school systems are now linked on the system. By 1990,

the Curry School expects to link all the student teachers in the seven participating school districts. Future plans call

for a computer network between the University of Virginia and local schools across the State that can be accessed

by a local telephone cal1.

IEW] ~W@, university of Illinois, Urbana, “Computer Networks in Elemen@y and Secondary Education” (NTIS order number PB

88-194 675/AS), OTA contractor report, October 1987. Also James Cooper, dean, Curry School of Educat]on, University of Virginia,

Charlottesville, persmat communication, July 1989.

2Mu~h of his discussion comes from Glen Bu]l et a],, “me E]ecwofic ~~emica] Villa&,*’ JOWM/ of Teacher &fuc@kvf, Ill press.

31bid., p. 16.

41bid., p. 9.

STATE ROLES AND

CHALLENGES

can present barriers to development-or opportunities for flexible new arrangements. States

and local districts that want to use out-of-State

States are key players in distance educa- resources have had to bend the rules or adopt

tion. States are important because they set policy interim policies, and have in some cases been

that shapes what is taught, who can teach, and thwarted.

what students learn. States provide funding and

they also regulate telecommunications. In some

cases, they develop statewide networks. Planning for the Iowa telecommunications network

illustrates the importance of State leadership and

support (see box 1 -D).

State responsibility for teacher certification,

curriculum, and evaluation brings States directly into the development of distance education—particularly efforts that cross local district

boundaries. Once efforts cross State boundaries.

differences in State requirements and guidelines

Increasing the utility of distance education, accessing a wider range of instructional

resources, and developing creative solutions

to meet educational needs will require a

reexamination of State policies, rules, and

regulations that were written in the context of

traditional educational settings. States may

need to revise their definitions of classroom

location and course credit, instructional roles,

and funding formulas. Equally important, States

may want to develop new standards and criteria

for certification of teachers and evaluation of
14 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Box 1-D--An Information Highway for Iowal

More and more States are recognizing that telecommunications systems are the highways of the21 st century.

A good telecommunications system can make rural Iowa a logical choice for a business location or expansion. It

can also help our schools prepare students to compete in a world economy.2

Iowa had a head start in educational telecommunications because of the pioneer efforts undertaken in the 1970s

by Kirkwood Community College to reach beyond their local campus and provide courses to students in outlying

communities. In the process of expanding its services to a broader audience of students, Kirkwood established

relationships with other colleges, secondary schools, business, industry, labor, and the telecommunications

industry, These partnerships were a key to Kirkwood’s success.

Over the last decade, other community colleges, universities, and secondary schools in the State followed

Kirkwood’s lead and built or planned educational telecommunications systems of their own. By 1986, the Iowa

General Assembly decided that statewide direction was needed. A goal was established to extend what was offered

in better served portions of the State to those not reached by the community college or university system, and to

extend educational links to elementary and secondary schools. Planning began in December of 1986; 8 months later

a formal report outlining the Iowa Educational Telecommunications Plan was presented to the legislature.

The first step was to meet with educators at all levels across the State. At these meetings top officials of the

State universities, the community colleges, the area education agencies, school districts, and businesses discussed

their separate and common concerns and identified regional resources that could contribute to the system. In order

to provide a common definition, a manual was prepared to give the organizations involved a better understanding

of the technology systems available. These meetings caused potential users to look beyond their immediate needs

and helped solidify support for a statewide telecommunications system.

Organization was the next concern. Because of their extensive community contacts, the 15 area community

college districts were chosen as hubs for the system. The community colleges created a planning framework

integrating educational telecommunications in their mission statements and confirming their willingness to become

coordinators for their geographic area, Each of the other educational organizations in their regions were consulted

to assure that they were comfortable with the community colleges’ coordinating role.

One institution at the State level was needed to coordinate the entire system. Because it already had statutory

responsibility for telecommunications, Iowa Public Television (IPTV) was considered the most viable organization

to provide that coordination. A Narrowcast Advisory Committee that includes IPTV, representatives of the 15 area

groups, and all other users was formed. The committee serves as a place where differences among users are aired,

problems are resolved, and operational procedures and fees for the use of the system are set.

I.meal involvement in the planning process was high, fostered by town meetings to explain what was being

planned and ways it could serve the community. These grass roots discussions encouraged a spirit of cooperation

critical to the success of the project.

After all portions of the State were surveyed, a Request for Proposal (RFP) was sent out forbids on a statewide

system with the capability of communicating on a local, statewide, regional, national, and international basis. The

system called for the use of multiple technologies including microwave, Instructional Television Fixed Service

(ITFS), fiber optics, and satellite. The RFP resulted in an award for the fiber optic portion of the system for $60

million; $20 million for the backbone system and $40 million for telelinks to the other sites-links consisting of

microwave, ITFS, and cable systems. However, a recent challenge to the RFP and contract award was successful

and, as a result, the RFP is being revised and the contracting process will be recompleted,

In the meantime, the legislature has awarded $50 million to fund the plan, and negotiations are expected to

move forward. The Governor has made the educational telecommunications plan a linchpin to Iowa’s economic

growth.

1 Much of his di,wussion comes from Larry G. Patten, “Future %kOlogifX,” OTA contractor repcm, May 1989; and OTA si(c visit,

March 1989.

‘Terry Branstad, Governor of Iowa, ‘LCondltion of the Stale,” speech delivered to 73rd General Assembly, Jan. 10, 1989.
Chapter l-Summary ● 1 5

students to assure that the quality of educational

services is maintained or improved through the

use of these resources.

In many States, impetus for distance education is coming from the State legislature, the

Governor, the higher education commission, or

the State education agency. In practice, the locus

of control over distance education varies from

State to State, and responsibility for educational

telecommunications may reside within the State

education agency or outside it. Educational

leadership will be a critical factor for planning efforts that draw together public and

private sector interests, use resources efficiently, and meet a broad base of educational

needs. Interagency cooperation, shared cost

arrangements, and connections between secondary and higher education are benefits of

statewide efforts.

Telecommunications regulations that are

most critical at the State level were not developed for distance learning. For example, State

regulators control the pricing of telephone

services as well as the development of the local

telephone infrastructure. If States are concerned

about effective use of telecommunications resources in distance learning, regulations and

policy will need to be revisited.

FEDERAL ROLES AND

REGULATIONS

Though important, the Federal role in funding

distance education has been modest and has

come from several diverse programs, most of

which were not targeted to distance learning in

K-12 education. Growth of distance education

can be expected to continue for some time

without increased Federal involvement. A commitment to a major development, however,

such as a national telecommunications infrastructure for distance learning, will require a

change in the Federal role.

Federal funding for the Star Schools Program

has accelerated the growth of distance education

Photo credit: South Carolina Educational Television

This school, a site for the Federal Star Schools grant to the

Satellite Educational Resources Consortium (SERC),

offers Russian to its students.

in the United States through direct purchasing

power as well as the familiar leveraging power

of Federal money. Star Schools funded the

development of four multistate, public/private

partnerships for distance education, establishing

one new network and greatly expanding three

others. The Star Schools legislation, and the

national attention it gave to distance education,

served as a catalyst for planning and development beyond the projects that were funded in the

first round. This groundswell of interest, enhanced by 2 subsequent years of planning and

experience should manifest itself in an even

greater interest in the second round of Star

Schools funding. A total of

originally authorized over

approximately $67 million

first 2-year cycle of grants.

Several Federal programs

distance learning hardware.

$100 million was

a 5-year period;

remains after the

provide funds for

The Public TelecommunicationsFacilities Program at the National Telecommunications and Information

Administration, established in 1962, has funded

the purchase of equipment used in distance
Box l-E—The Jason Project]

Last May, a quarter of a million students in grades 4 to 12 explored the floor of the Mediterranean Sea as

participants in the Jason Project. Their guide was Dr. Robert Ballard, discoverer of the sunken Titanic and marine

geologist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. Ballard conceived of this project as a way to expose students

to the actual process of scientific discovery, igniting their interest in science as an exciting career. As the

remote-controlled robot vessel, the JASON, skimmed along the floor of the Mediterranean, its cameras sent live

video images via a fiber optic cable link to the mother ship. (See figure 1-1.) Ballard and the other scientists on the

ship recorded and interpreted for the students the archeological artifacts and oceanographic wonders being seen for

the first time. These live images were sent by international satellite to an Earth station in Atlanta for transmission

to science museums in the United States and Canada. Each of the 12 science museums in the Jason network had

a command center mock-up replicating the shipboard command center. The student undersea explorers had studied

a specially developed curriculum in science, social science, and history prior to attending the museum event. Each

class expedition lasted 1 hour and included taped background materials, as-it-happens viewing of the scientists and

the marine environment they were exploring, and question-and-answer sessions with Dr. Ballard and the crew.

The Jason Project is a partnership among many sectors. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, a private

nonprofit marine research facility, is the coordinating organization for the project, and also is responsible for the

7-year development of the ARGO/JASON vehicles (funded by the Office of Naval Research). Electronic Data

Systems provided the communications technology, equipment management, and staging at each museum site, as

well as substantial funding contributions. The Quest Group, Ltd., a group of private individuals highly supportive

of deep-sea exploration, is underwriting part of the project costs. Turner Broadcasting coordinated the live and

preproduced portions of programming at a reduced fee. The National Geographic Society, producers of a film on

the project, coordinated the involvement of the 12 museum sites around the country. National Science Foundation

funding went to the National Science Teachers Association, which wrote the science curriculum for the project, with

help from the National Council for the Social Studies. The total project budget was about $7 million, approximately

three-quarters of which was for equipment and curriculum development, start-up costs that would not require

support in future years. All parties are committed to doing the Jason Project again next year, using Lake Champlain

and Lake Ontario as the sites for exploration.

The Jason Project is inspired by the advanced technology for seafloor exploration found in the ARGO and

JASON systems developed by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The ARGO system, used to locate the

wreck of the Titanic in 1985, is a series of television cameras and sonars that transmit both wide angle and close-up

shots of the ocean bottom while maneuvering in the ocean. The JASON is a remotely operated vehicle that can

negotiate the seafloor, retrieve samples, and do the basic reconnaissance needed prior to manned exploration.

Together, the ARGO/JASON technologies represent a significant improvement in the speed with which

oceanographers can explore the deepest parts of the ocean. Also, advancements in fiberoptic technology allow four

high-quality television images to be transmitted from ARGO/JASON to the surface ship via a 4,000-meter cable.

The curriculum developed for the Jason Project takes advantage of the many educational opportunities

provided by such a unique and advanced scientific effort. The science of oceanography is addressed, as well as other

topics surrounding such exploration that fall under the physical sciences, biology, history, and geography. In

addition, the Jason curriculum includes lessons on the telecommunications technology used to bring the pictures

to the students, and the robotics needed to build and operate the ARGO/JASON exploration vehicles. Short lessons

in mythology and creative writing connect the myths of Jason and the Argonauts to the current effort.

The Jason Project is a provocative vision of the future of distance learning. To date, most distance learning

projects have attempted to replicate as closely as possible the existing classroom model of face-to-face instruction.

In this traditional view, transmitting the image and voice of the teacher from a remote location into the classroom

is seen as a necessary evil, a second choice. This view assumes that it is always better to interact with students

face-to-face, rather than through a limited medium like television. Body language, the dynamism of a great teacher,

puzzled faces, boredom—all of these elements of classroom management are perceived as compromised in distance

learning.

In projects like Jason, however, the traditional classroom setting is reversed: instead of the teacher coming to

the students, the students are electronically transported to a new site where teaching can occur. And rather than the

media being a compromise, it now makes possible experiences previously out of the reach of students, and, for that

matter. out of the reach of most adults as well. Distance learning technologies “. . . can be used to approximate
Chapter 1--Summary . 1 7

experiments or experiences that are too dangerous, expensive or otherwise impractical in real life, such as flight

simulation, working with radioactive materials, or a trip to a foreign country.”2

Field trips, a standard academic

outreach experience, are transformed in two different ways. First, in experiences like Jason, traditional field trips

to the local museum can be greatly enriched by remote explorations of deserts, ocean bottoms, and tropical

rainforests. Secondly, electronic field trips beamed directly into schools that have satellite receivers (a possibility

being explored for subsequent Jason experiences) can substitute for traditional field trips. This can be especially

important to isolated schools where a traditional field trip to locations with significant cultural and museum

resources is an expensive and often improbable notion.

The Jason Project seeks to combine the power and reach of the media with the experience of live,

see-it-as-it-happens scientific research. Such experiences, built into a valid pedagogical framework, have the

potential to broaden and invigorate the educational experience for children.

10TA site vlsi[ and interviews, May 1989.

2Jawn Oh]er, university of Alaska sou~emtt “Distance Education and the Transformation of Schooling: Living and Learning In the

[nforrnatlon Age,” OTA contractor report, May 1989.

Figure 1-1 —The Jason Transmission System

JASON .

—

As JASON travels on the seafloor, It sends video Images via fiber optic cable to the

Phoro credit: Tom Kleindinst, Woods Ho/e Oceanographic InstItutIon

Meet JASON, the remotely operated robot vehicle that

travels along the seafloor, sending pictures and data to

scientists and students sharing in this live undersea

exploration

ARGO control vehicle on to the ship Star Hercules, research base for the

expedition. An uplink sends the images and live commentary to an international

satellite, which relays them to the broadcasting station in Atlanta, GA for addition

of prerecorded sequences From Atlanta another uplink sends the programming to

a domestic satellite, which sends signals to the 12 participating science museums

in the United States and Canada, where students watch the whole process delayed

only by seconds

SOURCE National Smnce Teactwrs Assoclatl on, JASON Curriculum 1989
18 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

learning efforts. 12 The Rural Electrification

Administration has provided loans for efforts

with educational components to rural telephone

cooperatives in Minnesota, the Oklahoma Panhandle, and the Papagos Indian reservation,

among others. Title III of the Higher Education

Act has supported part of the University of

Maine’s telecommunications network. Another

area of Federal activity in distance learning is in

training and information dissemination. Distance delivery of training for both civilian and

military personnel has been used extensively for

a number of years.

Some Federal agencies use distance education in executing their mission, while others

fund curriculum development specifically targeted to remote learning environments, or

provide technical assistance for planning and

development. NASA’s involvement with educational telecommunications began with launch of

the first communication satellites that were used

for education in 1974 and has continued with

many activities, including the transmittal of

images from vehicles in space, the teacher in

space program, and an ongoing videoconference

series for teachers. *3 The National Science

Foundation (NSF) provided support for science

curriculum development on the Jason Project

(see box l-E) and numerous computer network

projects. The Department of Education Star

Schools projects spend 25 percent of their grants

on courses for students and programs for

teachers. Several Federal education laboratories

provide information that is used by State and

local planning groups.

Federal and State telecommunications

policies, while promoting more industry

competition and choices for schools than in

the past, still limit the number and kind of

telecommunications services available for

distance education. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and Cable Act restrictions on the provision of video services by

telephone companies, for example, mean that

schools may have to bypass the local phone

system, the most ubiquitous network in the

country, if they want to deliver interactive video

telecourses to students.

FCC also controls the availability of telecommunications channels through its licensing of

ITFS channels, microwave links, and satellite

launching and uplinks. As transponder capacity

becomes scarce and channels are used up,

pressures for FCC regulation will likely increase. Although the issue of set-asides for

education is not new, policies in a deregulated

system may need to be rethought.

Telecommunications pricing, unregulated for

many transmission systems, is too high for some

potential distance learning applications. This is

an area that could involve Federal or State

assistance, in the form of a special rate for

educational telecommunications.

POLICY ISSUES

Distance learning is a growing force in K-12

education in the United States. More and more

States are exploring the issue, and several have

committed to building systems. A number of

districts have also initiated efforts, working to

link schools in their locality or reach out to

neighboring districts. Many efforts involve

schools, government, and the private sector.

Distance learning’s value to higher education

and industry, and the rapid expansion of those

121n 1988, the ~roflm fmded nine s~cia] nonbroadcas( projects ala level of $2.25 mil]ion ( ] 2.5 Wrcent of the Public Telecommunications Facilities

Program budget). These grants include funding for the purchase of equipment for satellite uplinks, three new Instructional lklevision Fixed Services

(ITFS) syslems, expansion of two ITFS systcms, and a microwave system; grantees include community colleges, universities, a county office of

education, and community telecommunications networks.

13The Natlon~ Aeronautics ~d Space Adminis~a[ion estimates that 20,()()0 teachers from all 50 States viewed the November 1988 conference on

“Living in Space.” William D. Nixon, Educational Affairs Division, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, “NASA Distance

Learning---satellite Videoconferencing for Education,” unpublished document, May 17, 1989.
Chapter l---Summary . 1 9

efforts, reinforces the continued interest in this

educational delivery system. States, localities,

the Federal Government, and the private

sector all have roles to play in planning,

funding, and implementing distance education. Future development will require involvement of these sectors in four major

areas: telecommunications policy; research,

evaluation and dissemination; the teacher’s

role; and the infrastructure for distance

learning.

Issue 1: Telecommunications Policy

Telecommunications policies can be barriers

to implementation or they can expedite development. They require immediate attention at the

national level.

Because communication technologies can

serve as educational tools, they have always

been valued as educational resources. 14 I n

policy debates over radio spectrum allocation in

the 1920s, the value of radio for education was

debated, but the Federal Radio Commission

gave preference in spectrum allocation to commercial radio providers. The debate over television spectrum found a more organized and

aggressive education community, aware of the

special needs of education in a limited-resource

marketplace. 15 The debate resulted in the Public

Broadcasting Act of 1967, which reserved

channels for educational television. Since then,

the effect of telecommunications policy on

education has not been explicitly debated at

national levels even though the telecommunications industry has undergone a complete transformation with the advent of new technologies

and changing governmental policies and regulations.

In a deregulated telecommunications marketplace, education may be at a disadvantage.

However, education could prove to be a significant market, as shown by the variety and number

of service providers who have already entered

the field. For the promise of distance learning to

be realized, the education community must

make its requirements and needs known to the

telecommunications policy makers, and policymakers must ensure that these needs are

considered.

Telecommunications policies affect costs,

capacity, and types of services available to

distance education. Yet the Federal policy issues

in this arena have not been reviewed in light of

this fast-growing phenomenon. As Congress

confronts telecommunications issues in the

1990s, and sets the direction for the 21st

century, it will be critical to review and shape

those policies to reflect the Nation’s educational

needs.

Issue 2: Research, Evaluation, and

Dissemination

With the dramatic proliferation of distance

learning projects in the last 5 years, many

questions regarding effectiveness, methodology, and design have been raised. Many States

and local districts plan to implement systems in

the next few years. Research on distance learning would be a valuable investment for the

Federal Government. Evaluation that explores

learner outcomes based on various techniques

and technologies is needed by States and

schools, as they seek to match the right systems

to their specific needs. The Federal Government

can, through its traditional function as the funder

of research, contribute greatly to the quality and

effectiveness of distance education in this country. Also, because the use of distance learning in

K-12 education is so new, many working

systems still need fine-tuning. This means

applying research and calling on the expertise

and technical assistance of those with experience. The Federal education laboratories already

serve dissemination and technical assistance

MU.S. conwe5s, office of EchoIow Assessment, Critica/ connectwns: communications for the Future, OTA-CH’-4O7 (Washingm Dc: us.

Government Printing Office, in press).

15~e Orgmlzatim ~hind tie education commmity’~ effo~ w~ tie F~d for Adu]t ~ucation, which SCZLK~ the reservation of stations, the

activation of these stations, and the establishment of the Educational and Radio Center. Robert J. Blakely, To Serve the Pub/ic Interest (Syracuse, NY:

Syracuse Umversity Press, 1979), ch. 4.
20 ● Linklng for Learning: A New Course for Education

functions for the States and school districts, and

could be well utilized. Many groups, including

State agencies, institutions of higher education,

and even private industry could serve as focal

points for sharing information, perhaps with

Federal leadership. Federal programs, such as

Star Schools, and agencies, such as NSF or

NASA, could convene meetings, working

groups, and teleconferences on distance learning for school administrators and teachers.

There are significant educational resources

owned by the Federal Government that might

apply to distance learning curricula and instructional effectiveness. It is difficult to gauge how

much of this material would be applicable to

K-12 education, because so little evaluation or

transfer is being done. The Department of

Education Training Technology Transfer Office

authorized in the Omnibus Trade Act of 1988

should generate momentum for this needed

effort.

Issue 3: The Teacher’s Role

Technologies for learning at a distance, while

reaching a small but growing number of teachers

today, will clearly affect the teaching force of

tomorrow. Some will teach on these systems,

others will use them to provide additional

resources in their classrooms, and many will

receive professional education and training over

them. Few will be unaffected.

Given the current focus on improving the

Nation’s schools, enhancing the quality of the

teaching force becomes more than a local

concern. Congress is now considering how to

help prepare new teachers and encourage more

to enter the profession. Funding for teacher

preparation institutions could support training in

the use of distance learning technologies. Similarly, distance learning technologies can be

powerful tools in the continuing professional

development of teachers, and could be supported in an effort to upgrade the teacher work

force. And, as the technology base in schools

and colleges across the country is expanded, the

concept of regional or national distance learning

programs for teachers, similar to the system now

in place for engineers, becomes more feasible.

Federal and State support for planning and

development could make this a reality.

Although States hold primary responsibility

for setting standards for those who teach within

their boundaries, distance learning raises issues

of concern to the Nation as a whole. As barriers

of place are removed, it is possible to think of

teachers as national resources. A democratic

country demands that every child has access to

excellent teachers. Just as television made

Sesame Street and Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood

part of everybody’s community, today’s technologies make it possible for students to learn

from teachers across the United States. While

not advocating a national curriculum, the Federal Government has supported the development

of curricular resources; similarly, there may be

ways of making teaching resources available

nationally.

If we look at teachers as one of our greatest

national resources, barriers of State regulation

and control may need to be reconsidered. The

National Board for Professional Certification

has already taken one step in suggesting that

there be national standards for teachers, beyond

the minimum licensure requirements of individual States. The Federal Government could play

a role in convening States, on a national or

regional basis, to assess their common needs and

resources. These meetings could take place over

distance learning systems. Federal support

could also fund demonstrations of alternative

entry and certification, compensation, and evaluation approaches for teaching that cross State

lines.

Issue 4: The Infrastructure for

Distance Learning

Distance learning is a viable, effective educational delivery mechanism to address important

student, teacher, and systemwide needs in this

time of educational reform. The number of local,

State, and multistate efforts already in place or

planned suggest that this resource is attractive

and accessible. Transmission technologies have

proven to be readily connectable; systems that
Chapter 1--Summary ● 21

are linked by cable can be connected to others

that are linked by fiber, microwave, or satellite.

Projects using one technology may face only

modest costs to connect to a different technology. The growing infrastructure for distance

education is composed of many systems, with

varied administrative and technical characteristics.

National leadership could expand distance

learning to those communities without resources and extend the reach of installed systems. Two approaches can be taken. The first is

to build upon existing programs and structures,

allowing the system to grow in response to local

and State needs and experiences. This approach

would consist of specifying expenditures for

distance education in current Federal programs

and providing continued support for hardware

and software needed to interconnect systems.

The Star Schools Program, the Public Telecommunications Facilities Program, the Rural

Electrification’s telephone loan program, and

Chapter 2 funds from the Department of Education all contribute to the distance education

infrastructure. The last three programs would

have greater impact on distance education if

program priorities targeted funds for distance

education.

The second approach would be to commit to

a set of national goals for distance education and

to help with State and regional planning and

development. Once goals are set, funds could be

made directly available, through a grant program, to actively encourage States and localities

to enter the system and expand the infrastructure. This approach would not replace existing

systems; it would weave them together more

quickly and thoroughly than would occur without national leadership.

Together with planning and funding for

development, Federal commitments to teacher

preparation and training, research, and dissemination will also affect the speed of implementation and the quality of the national distance

learning effort. National leadership could bring

in all the players and encourage effective

collaboration between the public and private

sectors. Most importantly, national leadership

could focus investments toward the future,

ensuring that today’s distance learning efforts

carry our educational system into the 21st

century.
Chapter 2

Distance Education in

Today’s Classroom

-.PROVIDING ACADEMICS COST EFFECTIVELY —

A range of public and private sources provide distance learning programs and materials to schools today.
CONTENTS

FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SNAPSHOTS OF DISTANCE LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Where Has Distance Learning Taken Hold? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Who Is Being Served?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

What Is Being Delivered? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

How Are Educational Materials Being Delivered? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Who Are the Providers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

How Are Distance Learning Systems Being Paid For? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Is Distance Learning Effective? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Boxes

Box

2-A. The Star Schools Program in Mississippi . . . . . .

2-B. Kids Interactive Telecommunications Project by

2-C. Panhandle Shar-Ed Video Network . . . . . . . . . . . .

2-1.

Table

2-10

2-2.

1

Shar-Ed Video

Figure

Network . . . . . . . . . . .

25

26

27

28

31

33

38

43

44

Page

. . . . . .,,,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Page

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Page

Growth unselected Distance Learning Projects Between 1983-89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Whole Courses Offered in the United States in 1988-89 by Selected Distance

Learning Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Chapter 2

Distance Education in Today% Classrooms

Distance education can be broadly defined as the

transmission of educational or instructional programming to geographically dispersed individuals

and groups.l This form of instruction has evolved as

telecommunications and information technologies

have advanced. Correspondence courses, the earliest

form of distance education, began in the late 19th

century. As early as 1938, educators concerned with

the distant learner formed the International Council

for Correspondence Education.2 Instructional television (ITV) was a much-touted distance learning

model in the 1960s; although ITV fell far short of

early expectations, today’s telecourses and educational programs reach many learners in diverse

settings.

Today, distance education is flourishing in this

country and abroad. Large numbers of students in

higher education in the Soviet Union, East Germany,

and China are distant learners.3 Britian’s Open

University is a long-standing model for comprehensive educational services delivered at a distance.

In the United States, at the adult level, distance

education has been embedded for many years in the

corporate, military, and university continuing education sectors. The technological spur for the rapid

expansion of distance learning efforts in the past 5 to

10 years was the advent of video teleconferencing

technologies, which allowed two-way interaction. In

1987, there were over 40 generic delivery systems

that provided video conferencing to business, in

addition to the many private networks in place. The

National Technological University is a network

providing about 500 engineering post-graduate

courses from 24 major universities to over 100

workplaces. 4

The widespread adoption of computers in schools

and the ability to connect them expanded opportunities for two-way interaction among distant locations. Recent technological advances, including

development of fiber optics, have expanded the

capabilities for two-way interaction even further.

The more important spur for the growth of

distance education in K-12 applications, however,

has been the needs of the education community

itself. Specific problems led to the trend, especially

shortages of fully qualified mathematics, science,

and foreign language teachers, increased standards

for high school graduation, more stringent admission requirements by colleges, and increased demands for inservice training and professional development. These challenges, combined with opportunities presented by new information technologies,

caused educators and policymakers to look beyond

traditional approaches and consider distance education.

In this study, distance learning is defined as

teaching-learning arrangements in which the

teacher and student are separated physically; in

these applications, a portion or all of the learning

interactions occur in real time. Although distant

delivery of information via broadcast, computer data

links, and other means also provides important

resources for the classroom and valuable tools for

learning, they are not the principal focus of this

special report. This chapter describes the current

picture of K-12 distance education in the United

States and examines key issues for planning and

future development.

FINDINGS

Providing courses for underserved or advanced students is the principal application of

distance learning for K-12 education. A n

increasing number of efforts, however, include

modules and enrichment activities for classroom

instruction, and staff development and inservice

IEl]en D. Wagner, ‘*In~mction~ Design and Development: Contingency Management for Distance Education,” paper presented to The American

Symposium on Research in Distance Education, July 24-27, 1988, p. 12, This broadly sketched definition serves as an appropriate departure point for

this special report.

21n 1982, tie 1n@rn~lon~ co~ci] for Comspondence ~ucation Chmged i~ n~e (0 he Intemationa] Council for Distance ~ucation, in

recognition of the variety of media that seine education. Michael G. Moore, Pennsylvania State University, “Effects of Distance Leaning: A Summary

of the Literature,” OTA contractor report, May 1989.

3~ Chim, almost 50 percent of postsecondary students use distance learning; in the Soviet Union, 30 percent; in East Germany, 25 percent. fbid..

p. 7.

41bid., pp. 2-3.

–25–
26 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

●

●

●

●

training for teachers and administrators. Despite

the explosive growth of distance learning in K-12

education, access to these resources varies nationwide.

Distance education has brought new providers

into the education field. Business and higher

education, two groups with long track records

using distance learning, are now providing educational programming and services to the K-12

market. Schools are learning from the experiences

of other distance education users, engaging in

innovative partnerships, and choosing from a

range of technical and programming alternatives.

New coalitions across State and district boundaries, new networks of educators, and geographically dispersed schools receiving programming

from common providers exemplify changing

relationships in the education community. Educators involved in interactive instruction, computer

networking, and instructional television, although

developing separately, are coming together. Connections now being established across geographic, instructional, and institutional

boundaries provide opportunities for collaboration and resource sharing among many

groups for the coming years.

Telecommunications and information technologies are increasingly flexible tools, providing

links to other resources for problem solving,

communication, and manipulation of data, and

enabling students and teachers to expand educational horizons. There is no single best model

of distance learning. The quality and effectiveness of distance learning are determined by

instructional design and technique, the selection

of appropriate technologies, and the quality of

interaction afforded to learners.

Most K-12 distance learning activities for students are video-based. However, there are many

technological options for delivering education

over a distance, and the ability of the teacher

and students to see each other may not be a

necessary condition for effective distance

●

●

learning. Models of teaching strategies based on

computer applications, for example, are emerging

that may be equal to or more effective than

video-based instruction or traditional instruction.

Further research and experimentation with

innovative teaching strategies and technologies

is needed.

Distance learning has proven effective in adult

learning and training settings. This suggests that

distance learning can be effective in the elementary and secondary schools, but research in

K-12 applications is limited. However, existing

research, project evaluations, and anecdotal

evidence strongly suggest that distance education is an effective means for delivering instruction and educational resources to students and teachers.

Telecommunications systems that serve education can also benefit the community at large,

and vice versa. New uses include the application

of information and educational resources for K-12

students, adults, senior citizens, local government

and organizations, and business. In rural areas

especially, telecommunications systems and

services are tied increasingly to economic

development and community survival.

SNAPSHOTS OF DISTANCE

LEARNING

The picture we have of distance education in

today’s classrooms is at best a series of snapshots.

This is because efforts are new and continually

changing. The snapshots in this report are based on

the OTA 1988 survey of State technology activities,5

other information provided by the National Governors’ Association and the Council of the Chief State

School Officers, seven case studies of distance

learning,6 and OTA site visits and participation in

various conferences on distance learning. Additional

information on various projects was provided by

program offices in several Federal agencies, and by

SThis ~ey WaS conducted as part of OTA’S assessment on educational technology in elementary and secondary education. See U.S. Congfess,

Office of ‘IWUIO1OSY Assessment, Power On? New Too/s for Teac~’ng und harning, OTA-SET-379 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office, September 1988).

6Bmce Btier, lkxas lkch University, “Distmce Learning Case Studies,” OTA contractor report, May 1989.
Chapter 2--Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms ● 27

a number of State education agencies.7 Finally, OTA

was contacted by various projects across the country

who shared information on their efforts.

There are several clear trends. Distance learning

is expanding. Until recently, few States or districts

had either projects or plans for distance education at

the K-12 level. Fewer than 10 States were investing

in distance learning in 1987; 1 year later two-thirds

of the States reported involvement.8 Today, virtually

all States have an interest or effort in distance

education. 9 Within States, a growing number of

efforts involve local districts, regional education

service centers, nearby universities, and community

colleges. Student enrollment in distance education

courses provided on a local, regional, or national

basis has increased. (See table 2-1.) While a national

survey of representative school districts indicated

that an estimated 22 percent of school districts now

use distance learning, some 33 percent expect to be

using these resources by 1990.10

The second trend is more subtle. Distance learning is changing educational boundaries—

boundaries traditionally defined by location and

by institution. In the pooling of students and

teachers, distance learning efforts reconfigure the

“classroom.” No longer bound by the physical space,

classrooms extend to other students in the same

district, to other districts, to other States, or even

across national borders. When this happens, institutional arrangements necessarily change. Thus, a high

school course in German may be taught by the local

high school teacher, the German teacher four districts away, or a university professor.

The assortment of educational providers, institutional arrangements, academic subjects, and technologies is striking. Boxes throughout this report

illuminate this diversity of efforts and interests. The

balance of the chapter shows more snapshots, and

highlights many characteristics of current distance

education efforts.

Table 2-1--Growth In Selected Distance

Learning Projects Between 1983-89

Minnesota Distance Learnlng projects

Earliest operating projects: 1983

Number of projects: 1983-84-1

1988-89-17

Number of courses: 1983-84--less than 10 courses offered

1988-89-139 courses offered

Number of students: 1983-84-information not available

1988-89-3,869 students

Number of sites: 1983-84--4 districts

1988-89-107 districts

Arts and Scieces Teleconfernencing Service (ASTS)

Year begun:

Number of courses:

Number of students:

Number of sites:

Staff development:

TI-IN Network

Year begun:

Number of courses:

Number of students:

Number of sites:

Staff development:

1984; pilot program offered in fall of 1985

1985-86-1 course offered

1988-89--7 courses offered

1985-86---333 students

1988-8&2,500 students

1985-86-50 districts in 2 States

1988-89-236 districts in 19 States

1985 -86--video teaching workshops

offered

1988-89 programs, each 2.5 hours

1985

1985-86-14 courses offered

1988-8%25 courses offered

1985-86-350 students

1988-89--4,000 students

1985-86-50 schools in 3 States

1988-89-780 schools in 32 States

1986-87-offered 400 hours of

programming yearly

1988-89-offered 400 hours of

programming yearly

Satellite Telecommunications Educational Programming

(STEP) network

Year begun: 1986

Number of courses: 1986-87—5 courses offered

1988-89--5 courses offered

Number of students:1986-87—230 students

1988-89--855 students

Number of sites: 1986-87—13 school districts in 1 State

1988-8%58 school districts in 8 States

Staff development: 1988-89-offered 20 different programs

1986-87-offered 2 different programs

SOURCE: Office of Teetmology Assessment, 19S9, from data prowded by

the projeets listed above.

Where Has Distance Learning Taken Hold?

Impetus for K-12 distance learning has come

primarily from the Nation’s rural schools. Shifting

economic and demographic patterns have left many

7some stak~ have ~mpleted extensive Sweys and ~~ssrnerlts of distance learning activities in K-12 education; others hwe ~SO Pr~PWd the

groundwork for either statewide or regionat efforts that will begin in the near future. See for example, Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction,

Report to the Legislature on Link”ng for Learning: K-12 Educational Telecommunicatwns Plan (olyrnPia. WA: December 1988); Michigan State Board

of Education, lnvenzixy oflnstructional Telecommunications Systems in Michigan (Lansing, MI: Much 1989); andlkxas Education Agency, 1988-2000

Long-Range Plan for Technology (Austin, TX: December 1988).

gNati~~ Governo~’ Association, Results in Education: /988 (Washington, DC: 1988).

9S= ctt. 5. See aISO Sta:e and Iocaf activities profiled in app. A.

lojeme Hayes,Q@i~~ucation Data, Inc., person~ communication, August 1989, from data collwtd in tie QED 1989-~ T~~ology Tr~fi

Survey. Quatity Education Data, Inc., Microconqnuer and Video Purchasing and Usage Plans: 1989-90 School Year (Denver, CO: 1989).
28 ● Linking for Learning: A New course for Education

small and rural schools with declining student

populations and even more limited financial and

instructional resources. At the same time, States

have increased requirements for curriculum, graduation, and teacher training, and colleges and universities have toughened entrance requirements. Solutions such as school consolidation or transporting

students or teachers have often been stretched to

their geographic limits; these approaches are also

disruptive and politically unpopular. The local

school is the heart of the community in most rural

areas. If the community is to thrive and grow, so too

must the school. Increasingly, small rural schools

have turned to distance learning as a way of keeping

their local character while still offering students a

range of educational resources. (See chapter 5, box

5-c.)

Mismatches between student needs and qualified

teachers are not limited to rural schools. Large urban

school districts also face problems hiring qualified

teachers in fields such as English as a second

language, special education, and advanced mathematics and science. In addition, urban districts also

face problems regarding parental involvement,

cultural relations, and staff development and training. Suburban and urban districts are beginning to

look to distance learning to meet some of these

needs. Distance learning, once perceived as a

resource for the geographically isolated school, is

becoming a solution for overcoming other educational deficiencies.

Who Is Being Served?

Grades 9 to 12

Many students served by video-based distance

learning today are high school students taking

courses to fill graduation or college entrance requirements that their schools cannot provide on site.

Many schools cannot afford to hire teachers for

calculus or French if only five or six students will

take the class; other schools cannot convince teachers qualified in these subjects to live in their part of

the country.

Gifted and Talented Students-A large portion

of the secondary school students receiving distance

instruction today are academically gifted and talented students—those whom teachers feel can

“handle” the unique circumstances of being taught

by a teacher outside the classroom. These students

are likely to be more self-motivated, and thus may

not even need to have an adult in the classroom to

keep them on task. It has been assumed (although

empirical evidence is sparse) that distance learning

courses typically require more mature and motivated

students in order to be effective.ll Interaction with

the teacher is changed, and more responsibility is

placed on the learner. Those not committed may find

it difficult to keep up.

Undeserved and Disadvantaged Students-The

Federal Star Schools Program requires that at least

50 percent of funding for projects serve educationally disadvantaged students and schools. This

commitment has spurred the growing trend for

distance learning systems to reach these populations. Some States receive an interactive distance

learning curriculum through the Star Schools Program. (See box 2-A.) Other systems have long had

as a goal providing instruction to culturally isolated

or economically disadvantaged populations. Activities supported by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (B IA)

and by the State of Alaska, for example, reach

underserved populations on Native American reservations and in remote Native Alaskan villages,

respectively. Although few homebound and physically handicapped students currently have access,

they are ideal candidates for interactive distance

education. Telecommunications learning opportunities could be extended to other groups of learners

who, for a variety of reasons, are educationally

disadvantaged or culturally or physically isolated.12

Grades K to 8

Very young students have also begun to benefit

from distance learning technologies. In the lower

grades, classroom teachers often use enrichment

materials provided via telecommunications. Public

television stations have been offering instructional

1 Is* the ~tion, “Is Distan~ ~arning EffWtive?” later in this chapter. Because distance learning has been used so effectively with aduh ieamers,

and is only now being tested with learners who may not be self-motivated, many people assume that such maturity is necessary for a student if distance

learning is to succeed, Little hard evidence for this conclusion cxista; it is possible that as distance learning is applied more to at-risk studems, and

insuuctional design is improved to overcome the barriers of geography or culture inherent in the process, such instructional methwks could be even more

beneficial for students who do not meet the characteristics of the adult learner. See A.W. Bates, “?klevision, brning and Distance Education,” ~ournaf

of Educational Technology, vol. 14, No. 3, 1988, pp. 213-225.

IZFor di~ussion of the VariOUS kinds of isolation that distance learning can overcome, see Jason Ohler, university Of Alaska SOLIthCaSt. “DistanCe

Education and the Transformation of Schooling: Living and Learning in the Information Age,” OTA contractor report, May 1989.
Chapter 2---Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms” ● 29

Box 2-A—The Star Schools Program in Mississippi

Significant Federal resources, as well as some State and local resources, are flowing into Mississippi for

distance learning. Three of the four projects funded under the Federal Star Schools Program serve Mississippi. Two

universities, the State education agency, and the State educational television network are partners in the Star Schools

consortia. A total of 112 schools in the State will be served by the Star Schools grantees (Midlands Consortium,

TI-IN United Star Network, and Satellite Educational Resources Consortium-SERC) in 1989-90; another 50

schools will be added using second-year Star Schools funding. This interest in Mississippi is due, in part, to the

requirements of the Star Schools legislation that at least 50 percent of the funds serve Chapter l-eligible school

districts and the educationally underserved. All of Mississippi’s 152 school districts are Chapter l-eligible.

The Midlands Consortium, through its Mississippi partner, the University of Mississippi, is concentrating

efforts in three areas: placing satellite downlinks and associated equipment in schools, training school personnel

in the use of the technology, and conducting research and evaluation. Sixty-five schools received downlinks through

the Consortium and 100 teacher/facilitators from these schools participated in training workshops in July 1989.

Three research projects on satellite-based distance education are in progress.1

One of the partners in the TI-IN Network, Mississippi State University, is producing teacher inservice courses

in mathematics and science. taking advantage of the university’s noted strength in science and engineering. In

addition, Mississippi teachers will be able to take courses or institutes in teaching junior high science, Earth

sciences, theory of equations, and physics that will be offered throughout the nationwide TI-IN Network during the

1989-90 school year. The Star Schools TI-IN funding also supported the installation of 33 satellite downlinks at

schools in the State; another 25 schools will receive equipment through the second-year grant.

SERC partners include the Mississippi State Department of Education and the Mississippi Authority for

Educational Television. SERC has placed satellite downlinks in 14 schools in Mississippi. SERC offered courses

to selected schools in the 1988-89 school year as a pilot test, and will offer expanded classes and staff development

in 1989-90.

Another factor in the Mississippi picture is the aggressive educational reform effort under way in the State,

Major components of that effort include full-day, statewide kindergarten, teacher aids for K-3 classes, and new

procedures for school accreditation, teacher certification, staff development, and teacher evaluation.2 Governor Ray

Mabus is expected to announce another package of educational reforms including a proposal for a statewide

Instructional Television Fixed Service system.

The State Department of Education plans to evaluate distance learning outcomes. If proven effective, distance

delivery of classes may affect key elements of the State reform efforts. For example, the State has emphasized raising

standards for schools through performance-based accreditation reviews. This has created pressures to close many

small high schools that are unable to offer the full range of courses required by State reforms. If distance delivery

of classes proves effective, consolidation may not be needed.

The State Superintendent of Education’s office and the Star Schools grantees solicited written commitments

for the term of the grants from all the local school boards with distance learning sites. Local commitment is crucial

for ensuring the survival of these projects. However, it is unclear whether all the Star School sites will be able to

fund distance learning once the Federal subsidies disappear.3

One of the primary objectives of the Star Schools legislation was to serve disadvantaged students like those

in Mississippi. Mississippi’s experience with Star Schools may demonstrate interactive distance learning’s capacity

to offer important educational opportunities to students from resource-poor homes and communities. It will be

important to follow the progress of these three different efforts, and to study the dynamics of Federal investments

in distance learning in a State with both a commitment to educational reform and significant educational

deficiencies.

IRo&ti A. Yowg, dirwtor, office of Dist~ce u~ing, University of Mississippi, testimony before the senate Sukornrnlttee on

Education, Ans, and Humanities of the Committee on Labor and Human Resources, Apr. 27, 1989.

20im E. Ray, Spid Assist~t to tie Governor, ~stimony &fore tie se~te Subcommittee on Educti~, .%lS, ~d Hurnanitles of the

Committee on Labor and Human Resources, Apr. 27.1989.

3pat~~e, OfficeofAe Sute Superintendent of Educ~tion, Missiwippi ~p~ent of Education, personal communication, Au@st 1989.
30 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

television for many years for these students and

others .13 3-2-1 Contact, The Voyage of the Mimi, and

The Big A are just three of the many products for the

K-8 audience broadcast or delivered by satellite by

Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) -member stations, Some providers offer special events such as

the Jason Project (see chapter 1, box l-C), and

continuing video seminars by working scientists

who meet with students through the Talcott Mountain Science Center program, On the Shoulders of

Giants. More and more activities are being directed

to these students.

Educators

In addition to student needs, local school districts

and States recognize the role of distance learning

technologies for staff development programs and

teacher inservice training. Often, teachers and administrators must travel hundreds of miles in order

to attend classes, seminars, and workshops. The

time, effort, and expense of travel limit opportunities

for professional interaction. Just as distance learning

offers a way to bring information, enrichment, and

instruction to students, so can the needs of educators

be served. In addition to video teleconferences,

computer networks and computer conferencing give

teachers and administrators a way to communicate

with colleagues and obtain course materials. One of

the largest of these is the Ag Ed Network, an

agricultural database service that links schools in 18

States, and gives teachers access to more than 1,200

lessons and projects. Teachers using this service

reach over 28,000 vocational-agricultural students

in all 50 States. *4 Teachers in BIA schools receive

staff development programming through the Eastern

Navajo Agency Network.15

Many of the multistate video-based providers

have extended their inservice training and staff

development offerings dramatically in recent years.

(See again table 2-1.) The effectiveness research on

distance learning has concentrated on adult learners

and training activities, and has shown that distancedelivered education is usually as effective as face-toface instruction. Teachers and school personnel are

well suited to distance learning. (Chapter 4 discusses

in greater detail the uses of distance learning by and

for teachers.)

Community Members

Telecommunications systems that link elementary and secondary schools during the day can serve

other community members in the evenings and on

weekends. Other communities of learners are

reached through systems and programming provided

by or through universities and other educational

institutions (e.g., museums, libraries, and community centers). In rural communities, especially, the

13~epublic B~~~ting Service (pB!$) and their member stations have been providing instructional programming for all grades since I’BS’ feuding

in 1%9,

1

4

’ ”Ordine Database Aid to Vo-Ag Education,” TH.E. Journal, vol. 16, No. 5, December/January 1988/1989, p. 38.

Is~e netwo~ isoprat~ by tie University of NCW Mexico’s Center for ‘Ik&nology and Education under a contract with the Bureau of Indim Aff~rs.

Paul Resta, director, Center for Wdtrtology and Education, University of New Mexico, personal communication, August 1989.
Chapter 2--Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms ● 31

development of advanced telecommunications and

information systems for both education and economic development are helping rural areas remain

competitive with their more information-rich urban

counterparts.

Kirkwood Community College in Iowa, besides

providing high school and college credit courses,

offers continuing education classes 2 evenings per

week, and training for business and industry. Programming is determined by a local business advisory committee. The Kirkwood network has also

been used for community service programs, such as

updates by area legislators on State and Federal

legislative issues, and information on crop diversification and financial planning for farmers. 16

Some school districts and States have joined

resources with universities, government bodies, and

others when planning systems to share start-up and

installation costs. Maine is installing a two-way

video-based community college system utilizing the

State universities, extension sites, and all the State

high schools. 17 Programming will originate from

university sites for secondary, undergraduate, continuing, and vocational education; learners will be

able to use the various downlink sites for multiple

types of course offerings. (See chapter 5, box 5-A.)

What Is Being Delivered?

Whole Courses

The primary use of video-based distance learning

technologies has been to provide courses not available to schools due to geographic isolation or other

limitations. Most of the need is in foreign languages,

mathematics and science, and humanities; table 2-2

lists some of the most frequently offered courses.l8

Many classes and enrichment activities are videotaped, even if the students view the sessions live.

The opportunity to review complicated material and

ask further questions has proven valuable. The

videocassette recorder (VCR) is a familiar technology to most teachers and is widely used in the

classroom. Although not part of the interactive

environment per se, the VCR is a critical and

ubiquitous element of technology in the classroom.

19

Partial Course Materials

Students also receive “modules” or “units” that

are integrated into the curriculum. For example,

distance learning modules supported under the

Technical Education Research Centers (TERC) Star

Schools project encourage students to collect and

analyze scientific data, and compare it with that

gathered by students across the country. Topics

include the study of radon, acid rain, and weather.

The Jason Project developed mathematics, science,

and social science curriculum for grades 4 to 12 to

accompany the live exploration of the Mediterranean sea bottom. Partial course delivery is a

promising area for innovation in distance learning,

Reforms in science and mathematics education,

particularly, call for more experiences for students

with hands-on activities and cooperative learning;

distance education may grow to meet these challenges.

Enrichment Materials

More and more students receive enrichment

activities delivered by distance education technologies. These activities are generally one-time-only

presentations designed to inform students (and

teachers) on a particular topic. Some are live and

interactive, although many schools tape such materials to use at their convenience. In 1989, the Satellite

Educational Resources Consortium (SERC) offered

six science, technology and society seminars to over

18,000 high school students. Public television stations and independent producers generate a large

body of programs that are used as enrichment

materials. The Telelearning Project takes its students on “electronic field trips,” telephone conference calls to outside authorities, or other classrooms.

(See chapter 1, box l-B.)

16R1ch Gross, dean of ~]~omm~ications, Kirkwood Community college, ‘*The Impact Of Educational Telecommunications-Some Observations,”

unpublished document, May 1989, pp. 3-4.

ITU~verSllY of MAne at Augusta, ComW@ co//ege of Maine IVews/e/ter, VO1, 1, No. 1, M~ch 1989.

18The ~mpha~l$ noted in ~b]e 2-2 is reinforced by a s~ey of represen[at~ve dis(fic[s co~duc[~ by Q@[y EdtiCtttiOn Data, [fl QED ‘S SUfVC~ Of Wkf{

whole courses were king offered in video-based distance learning systems, foreign language courses rartked ftrst, followed by mathematics, sociaJ

studies, computer sciences, and science, When QED’s more detailed categories are combined to match table 2-2’s breakdown, the figures are very

comparable. Quality Education Data, op. cit., footnote 10.

19Qu.dl~y ~ucatlon Data rep~s mat there we 191 ,~ VCRS in e]emcnt~ ad ~ondq schools in the unit~ states, or 2,4 per school. (@dity

Education Data, Inc., 1989-90 Catalog of Educational Mailing Lists and Marketing Services (Denver, CO: 1989).
Table 2-2—Whole Courses Offered in the United States in 1988-89 by selected Distance learning Projects a

Foreign languages Mathematics and Political science Business and Vocational

(119)b science (11 O) Humanities (69) and history (19) economics (16) education (9) Social studies (8) — Spanish (38)

French (26)

German (26)

Latin (12)

Japanese (5)

Greek (4)

Russian (4)

Chinese (3)

Italian (1)

calculus (17) English (28)

Mathematics (12) Art/art history (7)

Psychology/ Composition (7)

sociology (12) Literature (7)

Science (11) Communications (4)

Physics (9) Humanities (4)

Computers (6) Education (3)

Trigonometry (6) Joumalism/media (3)

Algebra (5) Theater arts (3)

Astronomy (4) Music (2)

Pre-calculus (4) Philosophy (1)

Statistics (4)

Chemistry (3)

Health (3)

Technology (3)

Geology (2)

Anatomy (1)

Biology (1)

Biomedics (1 )

Anthropology (1)

Elementary analysis (1)

Entomology (1)

Fish and wildlife (1)

Marine science (1)

Physical science(1)

History (11) Accounting (8) Shorthand (7) Social studies (4)

Law (5) Economics (7) Electronics (1) Geography (2)

Government/ Sales/marketing (1) Home economics (1) American studies (1)

politics (3) Chinese culture (1)

. .,

a Thl~ t~e ~epren~ ~ tot~ numr of coums offer~ in the Sub@ Ilsted In the dlstan~ learning pro@fs in Appendix A. NOW that tkse classes are not of qua! size; e~h CkSS COUkf hfrom 12 to 1,200 students in it.

b N“rnbers that_in ~enthesis repr~nt the total number of courses offered under a general suq~t heading.

SOURCE: Office of Twhnology Assessment, 19S9.
Chapter 2-Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms ● 33

Training and Staff Development

Teachers and educators are using distance learning systems installed in their schools and districts for

seminars, college-level courses, workshops, and

certification classes. Some school districts have

made administrative and professional interaction the

primary focus of their systems. The Los Angeles

Educational Telecommunications Network (ETN),

run by the Los Angeles County Office of Education,

broadcasts exclusively staff development activities

via satellite to most county schools. ETN has been

a leader in statewide staff development efforts,

which are critical to the curriculum reform effort in

California. (See chapter 4, box 4-C.) Although few

of the video-based systems are installed primarily to

serve teachers and staff, almost all quickly see the

utility of this technology for professional development. All the large providers have extensive offerings in staff development and inservice training.

Student and Professional Communications

Students and teachers using telecommunications

technology can also reach’ outside information,

people, and resources on their own. Students tap into

databases, use homework hotlines, and participate in

electronic conferencing with their peers. More than

6,000 schools have the modems necessary to communicate using computers. 20 AT&T's Long Distance Learning Network, in pilot projects, connects

students in grades 3 to 12 in “Learning Circles,”

where they can discuss and learn about specific

topics such as food, writing, and culture. The main

thrust is to encourage students to work cooperatively

on specific projects in key curriculum areas.21 Many

other projects expand the opportunities for student

communications with their peers. Videoconferencing and computer networking linked students

from different countries in the Kids Interactive

Telecommunications Project by Satellite. (See box

2-B.)

Teachers are using computer networks to increase

professional contact with their peers, exchange

curriculum materials and classroom ideas, and

access databases and information sources. Science

teachers in New Jersey are using telecommunications to share resources and support. Teachers attend

workshops every 6 weeks, and between workshops

they use electronic mail and computer conferences

to share curricular ideas and self-developed materials such as laboratory exercises and activity sheets .22

How Are Educational Materials

Being Delivered?

The primary use of the distance learning technologies available today has been to replicate the

experience of face-to-face instruction. The characteristics of traditional instruction retained are instruction in the present (live), and teacher-student

and student-student exchange (interaction). These

qualities distinguish this application of educational

technology from previous attempts, particularly

educational television, where interactivity was virtually impossible.

Live experiences can heighten the interest of

many students and sharpen the classroom activity by

demanding that teacher and student be ready when

programming begins. This demand of timeliness can

also work as a disadvantage; for example, school

districts’ bell schedules often conflict. For programming across districts, this can be a significant

sticking point.

Live With Interaction

Interacting with the teleteacher is the key ingredient in recreating the traditional instructional model.

Whether live or delayed, interaction with the instructor is considered by many as a necessary condition

for successful distance education.23 In many of

today’s systems, interactivity between teacher and

students is accomplished via telephone. The video

image of the teacher is seen in the classroom, but the

teacher cannot see the students in the respective

classrooms; this arrangement is known as one-way

video and two-way audio. Many of the larger

ZOOTA, op. CII., fmmotc 5, p. 192. It is unctcw, however, how many of these modems are being used by students or for uses other than the

administrative communication of data.

ZI M~g~et Rie], ‘*cmPrative ~~ing &rOSS classfoorns in Electronic kwning Circles,” paper presented at the American Educational Research

Association Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA, Mar. 27-31, 1989.

zzHow~d Kimme] et at., “Computerized Collaboration: Taking Teaehers out Of Isolation,” Computing Teacher, November 1987, vol. 15, No. 3, pp.

36-38.

Zssee, for exmp]e, tie OTA case studies of di~~ce le~ing in Barker, op. cit., footnote 6. Sec alSO Wagner, W. cit., footnote 1; Bennett H. Berm~,

International Center for Information Technologies, Washington, DC, “Matching the Distance bm-ning Medium to the Message”; and Desmond Keegan,

Kensington Park College, Adelaide, Australia, “A Theory for Distance Education From Peters to Peters,” papers presented at lhe American Symposium

on Research in Distance Education, Pennsylvania State University, July 24-27, 1988.
34 ● Linkiing for Learning: A New Course for Education

Box 2-B—Kids Interactive Telecommunications Project by Satellite

The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident may have been just a story on the news for American students, but for

European young people living downwind of the disaster, it was a terrifying reality that meant contaminated fields

and poisoned food. Many of these students remain skeptical about nuclear power. This is one of the lessons

American eighth grade students learned when they talked live via satellite with students in Karksruhe, West

Germany. Thanks to a unique consortium involving public secondary schools, higher education, and private

industry, on June 1, 1989 students from three Massachusetts middle schools met with their West German peers to

discuss nuclear power, toxic waste disposal, alternative energy sources, rock and roll, and other global issues.

The 90-minute teleconference was the product of months of work and cooperation between the American

schools, the University of Lowell, the Massachusetts Corporation for Educational Telecommunications (MCET),

Massachusetts Educational Television, German educators, and the Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC). Together they

formed a cooperative international telecommunications partnership, the Kids Interactive Telecommunications

Project by Satellite (KITES).

KITES was launched by a professor at the University of Lowell. Through MCET he approached the manager

of DEC’s corporate video network with a proposal: “Why not use installed corporate telecommunications capacity

to help kids explore important Curricular content in a cross-cultural setting?”1 DEC agreed to make available its

two-way international network. DEC also loaned VT100 terminals and computers to the students and teachers in

Lowell, Dracut, and Chelmsford schools, and to one of the German teachers, so they could communicate

electronically throughout the school year prior to the broadcast.

Staff from the University of Lowell’s College of Education worked with local teachers to develop curriculum

and to offer training in the use of two-way television. To prepare for the international videoconference, KITES

sponsored bi-weekly environmental science classes on the University’s Instructional Network, a fully interactive

two-way television facility that connects schools in seven towns to the four university campuses. The students wrote

to their German peers. The American schools also took field trips to each of the other schools. Project staff found

that the cultural stereotypes between the inner city, suburban, and rural schools were just as large as the stereotypes

between American and West German students.2

The path from project startup to the June 1 teleconference was not a smooth one. The most serious problem

centered on the lack of resources for curriculum development and training. Although the in-kind value of DEC’s

contribution, combined with personnel time from the university and other participating organizations, exceeded

$100,000, there were virtually no funds for teacher release time, materials, or consultant help. Support of this type

is critical for long-term success.

When the day of the teleconference finally came, the serious moments were balanced with light ones. Students

on both sides of the Atlantic started off a bit nervously, but quickly relaxed when the American side played a rap

video, complete with a grafitti-ridden school yard setting and break dancing. The German group then played a video

of their school’s rock band, while the American host, a local television meteorologist, danced with a student to the

universal language of rock. But serious discussion of issues dominated the teleconference, and the students’

preparation on the topics of energy and the environment was evident in their questions to one another. Students

learned that pollution problems are similar in both countries, citing too many cars and airplanes, not enough

recycling, and pesticides as common problems. Still, when they took a straw vote for or against nuclear energy, the

American students voted about 90 percent in favor; the German majority voted against, reflecting Chernobyl’s

impact.

Future videoconferences will explore other curriculum-related themes, expand the number of participating

school sites through Massachusetts Educational. Television facilities, and involve museums, libraries, and

community centers as well. KITES also hopes to create links with other Western European, Asian, Eastern Block,

and Third World nations. KITES’s goal is to give students the tools and knowledge they need to communicate in

the global community that they will inherit.

IJolM ~B~on, c~rdinator and associate profewsor, Kids Interactive lklecommunications %Oject by Sateliite, University of Lowell, MA,

personat communication, July 1989.

2David Singer, ~*~encm ~d W, Ge~~ students Trade Ideas Live,” Minutemun, Bedfad, MA, June 8, 1989? P. 9.
Chapter 2--Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms ● 35

Photo credit: Hillary Levine,BeaconCommunications Corp., Acton MA

Massachusetts students gather at Digital Equipment Corp.’s television studios to discuss global issues with their

counterparts in Germany.

video-based providers are using this model, including Satellite Telecommunications Educational Programming (STEP), Oklahoma State University, and

SERC.

Other systems add two-way video or graphics

interactivity to the almost universal two-way audio.

The Pennsylvania Teleteaching Project uses twoway computer hookups along with two-way audio to

student-teach classes in North Dakota and other

States, This audiographics system is a less expensive

alternative to video-based distance learning, which

allows the teacher and student to converse through

the computer keyboards as well as on the telephone

line.

Two-way video, found usually in small, multidistrict systems, is the closest imitation of the traditional classroom that present technology allows. The

Shar-Ed Video Network, linking four school districts in the Oklahoma Panhandle, is one example.

(See box 2-C.) Minnesota has a number of systems
36 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Box 2-C—Panhandle Shar-Ed Video Network

The Oklahoma Panhandle, a remote, sparsely populated area that inspired John Steinbeck’s novel, The Grapes

of Wrath, seems an unlikely site for a two-way, full-motion, state-of-the-art fiber optic television network.

Nevertheless, this area, once described as “no man’s land,” illustrates how distance learning technologies can assist

those schools most in need of resources, through cooperative efforts of local businesses and schools. The system

allows districts to share teachers electronically and expand high school credit course offerings, provide inservice

training to teachers, hold administrative meetings, and provide community education programs for local residents.

Located in the eastern end of the Panhandle, Beaver County includes four school districts that serve students

spread over long distances. The Beaver School District has 519 K-12 students coming from a 426-square-mile area;

Forgan has 191 students across 397 square-miles; Balko has 159 students across 305 square-miles; and Turpin has

420 students within a 303-square-mile area. The educational problems faced by Beaver County schools are typical

of small, isolated school districts. It is almost impossible to offer advanced courses and specialized subjects on a

regular basis. In the past, these kinds of courses, if offered at all, were provided in alternate years. In addition, low

student enrollment made it prohibitively expensive for each school to employ a full-time certified instructor, even

if one could be found. Attempts to fill the need with “circuit riding” or traveling teachers were not succeeding. Yet

because of increased high school graduation requirements, higher college entrance requirements, demands for

courses for gifted students, and needs to improve staff development, the superintendents agreed that new solutions

were necessary. As the Forgan school superintendent explained: “Each of the districts in the area has a limited

number of teachers and a rather restrictive curricula, and not enough State monies to rectify either of these two

shortcomings. We had to look for new alternatives and for outside funding to help us.”*

Four years ago, Beaver County superintendents and school board members learned about distance learning

projects in Wisconsin and Minnesota. They visited projects and hired consultants to analyze site and technical

requirements, examine alternatives, and plan the system. The four districts, with support from the State Director of

Rural Education, agreed to seek external funding for a two-way full-motion interactive television system for sharing

instruction among their schools. They established the Panhandle Shar-Ed Video Network Cooperative, a partnership

between the four school districts and Panhandle Telecommunications Systems, Inc., a subsidiary of Panhandle

Telephone Cooperative Inc. (PTCI). PTCI is a co-op owned by 4,200 individuals in the three-county Panhandle

region, According to Ron Strecker of PTCI, the Network is an important factor in keeping the schools open and in

assuring the economic viability of the region.

These schools provide education to the children of our members. If any of the schools closed, we knew that

PTCI would realize a loss in additional customers. So it was in our best interest to see that this did not occur. If

any of the schools were to close then our communities would die. We wanted to keep these communities alive and

this factor helped expedite our desire to participate in a joint project.2

To build their distance learning system, the four superintendents sought outside funding. Grants from the

Oklahoma Board of Education, the State legislature, and the Oklahoma Department of Education (Office of Rural

Education) totaled $190,000. Two Oklahoma foundations contributed $75,000 each. These funds ($340,000)

covered startup costs: installation of four-strand and eight-strand fiber optic cable between the four schools, the

telecommunications hookups, and studio classroom equipment (cameras, television monitors, microphones, VCRs,

and facsimile machines). They also covered costs of a 5- year lease of the fiber optic lines that are owned and operated

by PTCI. Districts covered other remodeling costs, including the installation of observation booths so that students

and teachers would not be disturbed by the onslaught of visitors expected. (Continued on next page.)

lmug Rundle, superintendent, Forg~ School District, personal communication, in Bruce Barker, Texas lkch L’niversity. “Distance

harming Case Studies,” OTA conuactor report, June 1989.

2R~ s~~ker, a~l~~~ator, p~~d]e ~lephone coo~rative, Inc., pe~nal communication, in B&-ker, op. cit., f(K)tnolc 1.

that serve four to seven districts each with two-way Live With Limited or No Interaction

video and audio. The capability to transmit signals

from any of the sites in the system makes it possible Materials that are broadcast or transmitted live,

to originate programming from any local site. In predominantly instructional programs on public

many of the Minnesota projects this is the case; each television stations, are often recorded by teachers or

of the schools offers one class a day to students schools for previewing before use in the classroom.

throughout the system. Public broadcasting stations are a ubiquitous, expe-
In its first year (1988-89), the Shar-Ed Network offered four courses among the schools: Art History, Spanish,

Advanced Placement English, and Accounting II (see figure 2-l). While many miles apart, classes operated as if

students were side by side: the teacher and students in all sites could see and hear each other simultaneously. No

class exceeded a total of 20 students, and each receiving class had a classroom facilitator appointed by the principal

who served as proctor. Television teachers were given one additional preparation period. A 5-percent salary bonus

is under consideration. Administrators, teachers, and students have been very positive about distance learning.

Student achievement in courses has been high, and there have been other benefits as well.

Three years in the making, the Shar-Ed Network offers a way to expand resources for the districts yet maintain

local control of curriculum, assure high-quality instruction, and keep the local school/community identity intact.

The greatest tribute to the cooperative approach to the project is the fact that the four school districts have agreed

on a common bell schedule to alleviate scheduling problems for the interactive video classes.

Future plans call for expanding the network to link the other eight school districts in the Panhandle and to

connect Panhandle State University. With the addition of the university, college credit courses and other educational

services will be offered for students, teachers, and members of the community.

rienced source of instructional materials for K-12

classes.

Some of the distance learning systems have large

classes or limited time for questions, which results

in limited interactivity between students and teacher

during the class time. Many of these providers offer

“office hours” when students can call for help, or

tutor time with the on-site teacher.

Computer Networks

Although computer conferences are live events,

much of the activity on computer networks is on a

delayed basis. Computer networks are being used in

innovative ways for both student and teacher activities. To encourage a class of writing-resistant

seventh graders, a teacher paired her class with a

class of fourth graders in another school. The classes

exchanged letters, and the big brother/sister relationships worked to encourage writing by the seventh

graders .24 In a corn growing contest between elementary school students in the United States and

Canada, data on the height of the corn plants were

sent through the network every 3 days. Students also

used the network to ask scientists about farming

strategies and to share results with these experts .25

The Interactive Computer Simulations developed by

the University of Michigan School of Education

uses telecommunications to study public affairs.

such as the Arab-Israeli conflict. The university and

school facilitators guide the students through the

month-long conflict simulation. Students at the sites

send private diplomatic messages, press releases,

Figure 2-1 —Panhandle Shar-Ed Video Network

Forgan

Beaver

Countv

Schools m the Shar-Ed fiber optic network send and receive

courses, broadening the curriculum available to all students In

Beaver County.

~41. Schrum et al , “Today ‘f Tools.”’ The (’ompuunq Teat her, \ol, 15, No 8, May 1988, pp 31-35

~~h”ancy Roberts ct al , lnte~r~[~n~ Tel?( ~wvnun~[ut~on.f /nfo Edw utton ( Engicw ood (’II ffs, NJ Prcnllcc-Hail, In press)
38 ● L.inking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Photo credit: The University of Michigan College of Education

Students at two Michigan schools take on the role of Arabs and Israelis in an interactive computer simulation. They send diplomatic

messages, hold meetings, and take political and military actions over the network.

take political and military actions, and hold meetings, all through the network.26

Recorded Instructional Materials

Many materials are available only in recorded

form. Audiovisual materials and filmstrips are older

media technologies; interactive videodiscs are a

fast-growing, emerging instructional technology.

Together, this category represents the largest use of

media technologies in education; almost all schools

use tapes, films, filmstrips, or other media technology.

27 Such materials are widely used in both

traditional and distance education classrooms.

Current Events Programming

National surveys have shown a startling lack of

awareness on the part of secondary school students

to politics, world events, and geography, among

other subjects. In the 1989-90 school year, three

news programs hoping to address this problem will

begin programming specifically for schoolchildren.

The Discovery Channel will offer Assignment:

Discovery, in two, 25-minute segments each day.

Each day of the week will be dedicated to a different

topic area.28 Cable News Network (CNN) will

produce CNN Newsroom, a 15-minute news and

information program. Both cable-delivered programs will be available to any school that is wired

for cable; three of the largest cable operators in the

country have offered to wire schools in their service

areas at no charge in conjunction with the CNN

program. 29 Another company, Whittle Communications, is offering Channel One, a daily satellitedelivered news program. Two minutes of the 12-

minute program will show commercials. In return

for showing the program to students, the schools will

receive a satellite dish, television sets, and other

requisite equipment free of charge. The admission of

advertising in public schools has generated a great

deal of controversy in the educational community .30

Who Are the Providers?

Telecommunications technologies make it possible to aggregate local, State, regional, and even

national needs. This aggregation, and the expanding education and technology needs of

ZbUnlvemlty of Michigan Schoo] of ~ucation, Interactive Communication Simulations: Inter-School Computer Mediated karning @JIWtUnlt’ieS,

program information packet (Ann Arbor, MI: April 1989); and Edgar C. Taylor, Jr. and Frederick L. Goodman, “Computer-Mediated Simulations: The

Global Classroom, ’’Academic Conwting, vol. 1. No. 1, spring 1987, pp. 52-56.

zT@er 86 ~ment of tie element~ and secondary schools in the United States have at least one VHS VCR; over 50 percent have two or more. Quality

Education Data, Video Purchasing Patterm in Schools (Denver, CO: May 1986).

28~e five subja~ ~em ~~lence ad tec~ology, .socl~ studies, natur~ sciences, ~and humanities, and worldevents and contemporary issues.

Mark Walsh, “Diacovcry Cable Channel Plans Documentary Programs for School Use,” Education Week, vol. 8, No. 35, May 24, 1989, p. 5.

zg’’~mer 10 Launch ‘CNN Newsroom’ in High Schools,” Broadcasting, VOI. 116,No. 18, pp. 116-117.

3osm, fa exmple, pro ~d con ~cles by wl]ll~ s. Rukeyser and Scott D. ?homson in Education Week, section on “on Commercial ~levision

in Schools,” vol. 8, No. 26, Mar. 22, 1989, pp. 23, 25. Also, see Joe Sharkey, “Whittle Sweetens Schoolroom TV Plan to Blunt Criticism of News. Ad

Format, ’’The Wtd/StreetJourna/, June9, 1989, p, B3; and “In School: Subsidized News Is Worth alkst,’’ThefVew York Times, editorial, Mar. 12, 1989,

p. E24.
Chapter 2-Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms ● 39

schools, has brought a widening array of providers to the education market. Many of these

providers are members of the traditional public

education community, while others are from the

private sector. They supply the K-12 community

with a variety of programming, services, and hardware. Teachers and outside experts can be provided

by other districts, the higher education community,

or the private sector. Hardware and software companies offer programming and technical assistance.

Public and commercial broadcasting stations, cable

and local instructional television systems, and local

or regional telephone companies and satellite distributors can provide the means to connect different

sites. Although most schools will continue to offer

much of their own instruction, many are likely to

turn to outside suppliers to obtain educational and

telecommunications resources.

Local School Districts

Many K-12 distance learning projects are locally

based. Local networks enable schools to pool

students and teachers, and to maintain the traditional

involvement and control of local interests in public

education. In Minnesota, two-way interactive video

via microwave, cable television, Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS), or fiber optic cable

links districts with one another; by the 1989-90

school year, one-third of all school districts in the

State will be served by some form of distance

learning. Many sites do not have a teacher, facilitator, or any adult monitor in the remote teaching

classrooms. A school district in Louisiana uses fiber

optics to connect parochial school students to

instructional programming provided by the public

school’s Integrated Learning System.31 The Bismarck, North Dakota school district (the largest

district in the State) originates Spanish instruction

for six small rural schools through a network of

computers and simultaneous telephone conferences.

Each small school pays part of the salary of the

teacher in the host school.

The great appeal of local distance learning projects is community control over curriculum and

instruction. Each district or area uses its own

teachers, and structures courses and other activities

to meet community needs and fit local standards. For

many, these are important qualities that larger

national projects lack. However, the quality of some

local efforts is restricted by the availability of

teachers willing and well suited to teach over these

systems. Some projects are undertaken without

appropriate teacher training or attention to production quality; distance learning can then fall short of

its potential.

Regional Education Service Agencies

Regional education service agencies exist in

almost every State and function to pool local school

districts’ resources to address common needs. Many

local districts have used these agencies to provide

distance education technology and programming.

The STEP network in Washington State and the

Telelearning Project in New York State (see chapter

1, boxes 1-A and l-B, respectively) are both

examples of curriculum provision by regional education service agencies. In Connecticut, the Area

Cooperative Educational Services distance learning

consortium brings together students from Amity,

Hamden, Cheshire, New Haven, and North Haven

high schools. Fiber optics link the sites; students are

offered 14 different classes via two-way video and

audio transmission. Providing Academics Cost Effectively (PACE) is a cooperative interactive television effort spearheaded by the Cheboygan-OtsegoPresque Isle Intermediate School District (ISD) in

northern Michigan. Expansion plans (using fiber,

ITFS, and cable) to reach all districts within the ISD,

and the Charlevoix-Emmet ISD, are under way.32

Like local school district projects noted above,

distance learning efforts produced by regional education service agencies are positioned to be particularly responsive to local needs and interests.

States

The State role in K-12 distance education is

critical in developing infrastructure, providing funding for projects, and promulgating policies and

regulations guiding development for distance learning programming. (See chapter 5.) Few States are

providing programming for students; more are using

their statewide systems to deliver teacher training.

North Carolina, for example, produced short courses

and full courses for their teachers. (See chapter 5,

box 5-A.) Kentucky is presently constructing a

statewide satellite system, with a downlink at each

of the more than 1,300 elementary and secondary

schools in the State.

Slfige]a Mielke et al., “lkaching at the Speed of Light; llte Fiber-Optic Connection,” ZH.E. Journaf, VOL 16, No. 8, April 1989, pp. 77-78.

s~heboyg~-~~g~~esque Isle Intermediate School District, “PACE information Manual,” unpublished document, Jan. 1, 1989.
40 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Photo credit: KLCS-Channel 58, LA Unified School District

The Los Angeles Unified School District offers a Homework Hotline over its educational television station.

After school, students call in questions and get to see their problems solved during the broadcast.

Higher Education

School districts can also turn to local institutions

of higher education for programming and telecommunications resources. In many cases, colleges and

universities have instructional and technology resources that schools can use. The opportunity for

these institutions to expand revenues and make

greater use of existing resources has led to some

cooperative arrangements with local districts as well

as with multistate or national projects, such as the

Star Schools projects.

The Rochester Institute of Technology in New

York State uses audiographics and other technologies to bring its instructors to local schools that pool

money to pay the professors’ salaries. Some of these

classes are dual credit classes, allowing students to

receive college credit while still in high school.33

Western Montana College created the Big Sky

Telegraph Network, a computer network linking 114

one-room schools, librarians, and others throughout

the State. Teachers share ideas, answer questions,

request software and library books, and take classes

over the network; students and economic development specialists are also using the system.

Colleges and universities see these arrangements

as an effective way to recruit students to the

institution and to increase the preparedness of new

students. The benefits for local schools include

access to a wider array of educational and technical

resources, including experts in various fields of

33sUWM. RO~rs, d~tm,r)istmce ~mingProjWts, Rochester Institute of ‘lkchnolo#, personal c~uication. APril 1989.
Chapter 2--Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms ● 41

study, and a greater breadth and depth of educational

materials.

Public Television

PBS and public television stations around the

country reach 94 percent of American households

and can be received by schools that serve 29 million

students. 34 Since its inception in 1969, PBS has been

broadcasting and delivering by satellite enrichment

programming, teacher teleconferences, documentaries, and one-way courses to schools. Familiar fare,

such as Sesame Street and 3-2-1 Con/act, is regularly

incorporated into classroom instruction; Nova and

National Geographic Specials, among other documentary programming, are also used by teachers

throughout the country. PBS often provides print

and other support materials to accompany its educational programming. Teachers can expand their

science curriculum by using The Voyage of the Mimi

series and accompanying text and software in

secondary school science classes.35 Professional

development programming has been greatly expanded in recent years; many live teleconferences

are held each year, and PBS’ Education Clearinghouse offers professional development video programs through “Video File.”36

Future PBS education-related efforts include the

“Education Pipeline,” a project being tested that will

deliver via satellite educational software, text, and

teacher guides and handouts that accompany instructional programming. PBS also offers an extensive range of one-way live courses for college credit

through the Adult Learning Service.

Individual public television stations are also

involved in distance education. WHRO, a public

television station in Norfolk, Virginia, has extensive

telecommunications facilities including satellite

uplinks and downlinks, microwave confections to

other public television stations around the State, and

an ITFS system that transmits distance education

programming to local schools. Nearby, Old Dominion University (ODU) provides programs from its

three electronic classrooms to the WHRO network.37

ODU also produced the three-part USA-USSR Youth

Summit Teleconference Series, including one international teleconference between American and Soviet teenagers. Organized to support international

studies curricula for grades 7 to 12, this teleconference was carried by 155 PBS-member stations.38

Public television stations and PBS provide a

significant resource for education in this country

today. Because of their national focus, and their

investment in and commitment to broadcast technologies, PBS will continue to offer predominantly

one-way programming, both live and delayed. The

ubiquity of the public television and public radio

networks makes them valuable educational providers.

Other Educational Institutions

Other institutions with public and educational

outreach responsibilities are involved in distance

learning. These include museums, laboratories, science centers, and agencies of the Federal Government. The Talcott Mountain Science Center (Connecticut) Sci-STAR satellite program reaches students and teachers in 30 States. The series brings

experts in such fields as superconductivity and

planetary exploration into the classroom electronically, allowing students at remote sites to watch live

experiments, ask questions, and conduct their own

followup activities inspired by the example of these

working scientists. The National Aeronautics and

Space Administration, long a pioneer in distance

education, currently produces four teleconferences a

year for teachers on current issues and suggested

activities related to space science.

A Note on Provision of

Content v. Delivery of Content

In any discussion of providers, especially commercial providers, it is important to distinguish

between content for classrooms and services to

deliver that content. Many organizations that deliver

an electronic signal to the school do not take part in

M~T.s ~p~ent of commerce, Nationa] Telecommunications and Information Administration, Public Broadcasn”ng Coverage in fk? United States

(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, July 1989).

35~e BrWk, ~enlor “Ice president, &fucatiOn Sewices, public Broadcasting Service (PBS), personal cOmInUniCatiOn, July 1989. The \byuge of rhe

Mimi is a widely acclaimed series targeted to grades four to eight, produced by the Bank Street College of Education. PBS does not produce any programs

itself; it obtains and distributes programs from publw television stations, independent producers, international sources, and others. Public Broadca..ting

Service, “The Voyage of the Mimi,” fac[ sheet, 1988; and Public Broadcasting Service, “Facts About PBS,” unpublished document, January 1988.

sb~b]ic Broadcasting Semice, “Elementary/Secondary Service Newsle~tcr,” Januaty, July, and September 1989,

STOTA site visit, M~h 1989.

ss~et Tomczyk, E]emen[~/Second~ Service, Public Broadcasting Service, personal communication, JutY 1989.
42 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

the programming. These include satellite systems

(satellite owners such as GTE and Hughes), cable

television systems (numerous cable operators

around the country who provide channels for schools

to use), and telephone providers (local, independent,

and long distance telephone companies). Many of

the providers discussed in the preceding paragraphs-local school districts, States, higher education institutions-provide the course content, and

then contract with one of these service providers to

transmit their materials to the schools.

In contrast, other providers control both content

and delivery method. ITFS licenses, for example, are

reserved for educational institutions; therefore, in

most ITFS systems the educational entity creates

and delivers the instruction.

The trend is toward combining content and

delivery. Companies previously serving as delivery

vendors, such as satellite owner Hughes Aircraft and

phone companies NYNEX and US West, are attempting to become content providers.39 Cable

providers such as The Learning Channel and Mind

Extension University create some of the educational

material and control part of the delivery of that

material; satellite providers like Oklahoma State

University and TI-IN Network do the same. The

distinction does, however, represent two ends of the

spectrum of offerings.

Commercial Providers

Private sector involvement is increasing rapidly,

due to many factors. Companies want to expand

their markets, improve the quality of education of

their future workers, improve curriculum choices

and quality, and expand delivery of their services.

Commercial providers supply programming, equipment, and technical expertise, although providing

content is prohibited in some cases.40 Some companies (for example, some cable television operators)

are involved in the production as well as the

distribution of education materials.

Satellite--one of the first private companies to

offer courses to local schools was the TI-IN Network. Started in 1986 through a cooperative arrangement with Texas’ Education Service Center, Region

20, TI-IN currently offers 25 courses via satellite to

over 4,000 students at 780 schools in 32 States. PBS

maintains dedicated transponders on a commercial

satellite, and transmits hundreds of hours of programming to schools every month.

Cable—There has been a recent flurry of interest

in educational programming in the cable industry;

several individual cable companies are developing

programming to meet educational needs. The Learning Channel, in existence since 1980, produces a

wide range of programming for high school and

college students, adults, and teachers. Available to

an estimated 20,000 schools and 17 million households through cable television, The Learning Channel offers many complete mathematics, science, and

literacy courses for secondary school students,

college credit courses in many subjects, and seminars on topics such as AIDS and education. Mind

Extension University, launched in late 1987, is a

cable television channel dedicated to educational

programming. Several cable companies have formed

the Alliance for Cable Education, to better serve this

expanding marketplace. Although cable installation

extends to over 80 percent of the country, school

access is still quite limited, and this will be one area

of concern addressed by the Alliance.41

Public Telephone Network—Local and regional

telephone companies serve distance education

through the transmission of voice, graphics, and data

over the public network, and the management of

dedicated (private) networks for video which are

carried through public facilities. Local and regional

telephone companies are prohibited from delivering

video over the public network at this time because of

restrictions resulting from the Cable Act of 1984.

Computer network projects such as the Physics

Forum in Massachusetts42 and audiographics proj3gH@es ~mr~ is consid~ng a plan m prOVl& programming to grades three to five in imer-city schools via satellite. Norman Avrech, SPaCc and

Communications Group, Hughes Aircraft Co., personal communication, September 1989. The telephone companies are actively working to remove the

restrictions that prohibit them from providing video on the public network.

@rbid.

ql~ss t. cable ~i~s CaO mean many things. “Sometimes it means a cable drop has been made near or at the school dcmr, sometimes it ma cable is in the vicinity but not at the school property, and frequently it means the school has been wired but the wire runs to one room, such as a library

or ofilce, and access to the room isn’t easy.” Lyle Hamilton, manager, Broadcast Semices, National Education Association, personal communication,

Aug. 21, 1989. Even with xcess, schools may be limited in their use of cable or other video programming by shortages of television sets and VCRs.

42w ~ysics fimis a network for physics teache~ in IvlMsachttsetts where teachers can exchange kOtI ideas, hold conferences, taP into test

banks, and download public domain software. Ibm M@m, ‘Don’t Be Isolated: ‘lMecommunicate;’ On Cue, vol. 1, No. 3, March 1988, pp. 11, 14.
Chapter 2-Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms ● 43

ects, such as the Delaware-Chenango Board of

Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES) Telelearning Project, use public phone lines to carry

voice, data, and graphics. Telephone companies

have also worked with educational institutions to

provide telephone lines for video-based distance

learning. For example, the Long Island BOCES

project uses a fiber optic private network to provide

two-way video and audio; the fiber optic cables used

are leased from New York Telephone and dedicated

to the BOCES project.

Hybrid Organizations and Consortia

Many distance education providers are really

combinations of the types mentioned above. The

Star Schools projects, for example, are required to

build consortia that bring together local education

agencies, State departments of education, institutions of higher education, public television stations,

and/or private and nonprofit entities. Some or all of

the members of the consortia provide programming

for the network as a whole. (See chapter 6 for a

description of the four Star Schools projects.) Also,

numerous distance learning systems are run for the

benefit of different communities of users. The

Vermont Interactive Television (VIT) project is a

joint venture of the Vermont State Colleges, Vermont Department of Education, Vermont Agency of

Economic Development and Community Affairs,

Vermont Department of Employment and Training,

North Country Area Vocational Center, and New

England Telephone. VIT is gradually expanding

after a successful demonstration year to serve the

videoconference, training, and instructional needs of

State agencies, business and industry, vocational

schools, primary and secondary schools, and higher

education .43

A Note on Institutional Relationships

in Distance Learning

Distance learning has fostered many new institutional arrangements for the provision of curriculum

and instructional services. Reasons for this include

the large start-up costs needed to implement many

systems. Such costs drive districts and providers to

seek out others to create economies of scale. Second,

institutions and people with prior experience in

distance education are usually outside of the elementary and secondary schools. Most often, com -

munity colleges, universities, business users, and

business providers are the local or regional experts

in distance learning provision. Third, the wide

number of technologies available has brought many

technology providers, as well as many content

providers associated with a particular technology

(e.g., cable television) to the education doorstep.

Lastly, demands for telecommunications networks

have emerged in other segments of the community.

Education has been able to forge partnerships with

governments, the business community, and others

with convergent needs; such partnerships can significantly reduce the costs of information highways to

all.

New institutional connections expand the domain

of colleagues and institutional expertise available to

classroom teachers and local school districts. New

resources flow into a school via distance learning.

Greater community involvement and commitment

can be secondary outcomes of expanded roles for

other players in the schools.

These very same connections can also create

significant tensions. Control issues arise along two

dimensions: control of the content and processes of

instruction, and control over the telecommunications resources necessary for delivery. In the area of

education policy, issues of certification and local v.

State control of curriculum become important.

Business or other groups outside of education may

expect more say in how the shared resources are used

in the schools than the local education authority

deems appropriate. In the telecommunications

arena, the needs and concerns of the education

community may be far from the prime concern of

policymakers. In both arenas, educational leadership in planning, goal setting, and allocation of

resources will ultimately determine the quality

and availability of distance learning.

How Are Distance Learning Systems

Being Paid For?

Funding solutions for distance education are as

varied as technical solutions. Arizona, for example,

issued bonds to cover construction costs. The

Kentucky legislature voted $11.3 million to install

satellite dishes on every school in the State, while

the Iowa legislature authorized $50 million for the

construction of that State’s educational telecommudJVemont Smte Colleges, “Vermont Interactive lklevision Evaluation Report,” unpublished document, Sept. 27, 1988. BY 1992, Vermont Inter~tive

Television plans call for W percent of the population of the State to be within 25 miles of a transmission site.

20-955 0 - 89 - 2
44 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Photo credit: Apple Classroom of Tomorrow, Nashville, TN

Do students learn? More research is needed, but evaluations to date have been encouraging.

nications system. (See chapter 1, box 1-A.) The State

of Connecticut has a grant program for local

projects. (See chapter 5, box 5-B.) One of the more

innovative funding solutions is Missouri’s tax on

videotape rentals; revenues are expected to reach $5

million in the first year of the tax.

For small school districts, the question of funding

is especially critical. A high school with only 90 or

100 students cannot afford the thousands of dollars

it may take to get an effective distance learning

project into place. In some cases, districts who need

the systems the most are least able to afford them,

and outside assistance is required to provide any

educational services via distance learning.

Is Distance Learning Effective?44

Much of the research on distance learning evaluates its effectiveness in higher education and business. This effectiveness literature has been quite

consistent: when used in business, military training, and adult learning, there is no significant

difference in effectiveness between distance

learning and traditional instruction methods,

and student attitudes are generally positive about

the experience.45

This conclusion, however, does not necessarily

extend to the K-12 setting. Little research exists that

specifically addresses K-12 distance education, and

u~s ~tlon of tie rep draws heavily on Moore, op. cit., footnote 2.

451bid., p. 7.
Chapter 2-Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms ● 45

what does exist is limited in scope and often

anecdotal. Few long-term evaluations have been

conducted, partly due to the newness of many

systems. One review of the literature, for example,

found 503 documents that related to distance education, of which only 46 examined K-12 applications.

In addition, there were “. . . no studies comparing

effectiveness of instruction across types of population (general K-12, exceptional students), no effectiveness data comparing different content areas, and

none comparing the effectiveness of instruction

using different instructional designs."46 The literature regarding the effectiveness of teacher inservice

and staff development is similarly lacking.47 The

literature that is available, however, is enlightening

for the present and suggests future directions for

research and evaluation in the field.

Effectiveness StudiesA Look at the Literature

Video-based interactive instruction is the distance

learning format that most closely resembles the

traditional classroom. This has been the format of

choice for many distance learning systems. The

primary effectiveness question asked, then, about

video-based, interactive distance learning is: “Do

students learn as much through distance learning as

through face-to-face instruction?” There are, however, other important considerations that go into

assessing the overall effectiveness of learning systems. Some of these outcomes include:

● learner achievement (the above-noted “primary” question),

. learner perceptions and attitudes,

● course and curriculum design considerations,

. inservice training effectiveness, and

● cost-effectiveness.

Learner achievement is the primary question

asked about distance learning: “Do the students

learn as much through distance learning as their

counterparts in traditional classrooms?” One survey

of K-12 and adult distance education literature

suggests that students learn as well in distance

education programs as they do in regular programs.

48 Iowa’s two-way interactive television

(TWIT) project found no significant differences

between these classes and other sections of the same

class taught face-to-face by the same teachers. Daily

lesson scores, test scores, grades, and levels of

participation were comparable for the two groups.49

Similarly, a wide range of elective programming

provided from 1983 to 1986 in rural Minnesota

showed no statistically significant differences in

achievement by the distant learning students compared to students in a traditional class.50 A much

longer list of evaluations of adult learners indicates

that delivery of educational programming via teleconferencing is educationally effective.51

Research has also sought to understand learner

perceptions and attitudes in three areas: assessing

learner satisfaction with the course; discovering

perceptions of the technologies’ effect on the

instructor/student interaction; and examining student perceptions of teaching methods. Two surveys

of K-12 project evaluations reported generally

positive student attitudes.52 In one example, the

Iowa TWIT system reported very positive results: 97

percent indicated no more problems in the televised

classes than in traditional classes, and 67 percent

thought students accepted more responsibility for

their behavior and learning in televised classes. 53

However, a survey of an early satellite project was

~Wi\]lm D. Ei~rman and David D. Williams, statewide Evaluation Report on Productivity Project Studies Related to Improved Use of Technology

to Extend Educational Programs. Sub-Report Two: Distance Educatwn in Elementary and Secondary Schools. A Review of the Literature, ERIC, ED

291350 (Logan, UT: Wasatch Institute for Research and Evaluation, 1987).

dTM~e, op. cit., footnote 2, p. 21.

48Ame Baky ad Richard N, Cowell,f)istmce Educ~ion. An ~e~iew, ERIC, Ef) 278 s ]9 (Pm]md, OR: Northwest Regional Educalionat

Laboratory, 1986).

.tgRo&fl N. Nelwn, 4’Two.waY M1~rowave Tran~i~ion Consolidate, 1rnprOv~ ~~alion,” fVAssP Bulletin, VO1. 69, No. 484, 1985, pp. 38-42.

s~ill Kitchen, “E&tc~ion and nlecommunications: paItners in prOgf3SS,” ERIC, ED 282551, testimony before the Senate Committee on Labor

and Human Resources, Mar. 11, 1987.

51Mme, op. cit., footnok 2. PP. 9-12.

52D. Wl]]im@lmand David D. Wl]llms, stat~ide Eva[l@ion Report on prO&Ctiy@ project s~ies ltelaled to Improved Use of Technology

to Extend Educational Programs. Sub-Report Three Survey of Technology Projects Throughout the Um”ted States, ERIC, ED 291351 (Logatt, UT:

Wasatch Institute for Research and Development, 1987); and Batey and Cowell, op. cit., footnote 48.

53 Ne15m, Op. Ch., foomote 49+
46 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

generally negative: 65 percent believed their televised class to be more difficult than their regular

classes, and almost 70 percent said they would

choose a traditional course over a satellite course.54

Many studies of adult learners indicate generally

positive attitudes toward telecommunications instruction.55 One study looked at student perceptions

of teaching behaviors necessary for effective instruction in both conventional and teleconferencing

instruction. This study found five statistically significant factors in effective teleteaching: effective

teleteachers used students’ names, set out clear

statements of purpose, made use of printed material,

encouraged discussion, and did not speak in a

monotone.56

Research in effective course and curriculum

design has focused on overcoming the differences

between the distant and local classrooms. One study

introduced the concept of “teletechniques,” a set of

components taken for granted in face-to-face instruction but not automatically found in distance

education. These components include the need to

humanize the teaching experience (create rapport

with students); encourage participation (ensure interaction between students, and between students

and teacher); attend to message style (vary tone of

voice and volume, using videos and other visual

aids); and provide regular feedback (monitor student

interest) .57 Other researchers have applied these

criteria to effectiveness studies.58

Inservice training is widely offered via telecommunications. Effectiveness research has been very

limited, but is generally positive. One study of

teachers being retrained in mathematics instruction

found the remote learners doing better than the

face-to-face group. 59 Another controlled study

found that while a majority of teachers felt the

teleconferencing instruction was either acceptable or

preferable, a substantial minority felt it was an

undesirable method. Both the face-to-face learners

and the distant learners in this study rated the

instruction equally effective.60 Distance delivery of

inservice training, like other forms of training for

audiences of professionals, is likely to be effective

if designed well. The literature does not appear to

fully address special needs of this group of learners.

Research questions in the future may include attitude questions, such as whether an audience of

teachers is inherently critical of such instruction (or

more inclined to react favorably), or whether such an

audience feels particularly threatened by the technology.

Assessing cost-effectiveness of distance education is difficult. Many of the benefits of distance

learning, such as increasing parental and community

involvement in the schools and exposing students

and teachers to new technologies, cannot be quantified. Such an analysis requires some comparison

with another delivery method; many distance education projects exist precisely because there is no other

method available. Attempting to establish costeffectiveness begs many questions about what

constitutes effective education, and what value to

place on results.

Some economic models have been devised that

attempt to analyze costs associated with distance

learning. Most of these models analyze costs in

54BmCe 0$ Baker, “The Effects of ~~lng by Satellite on Rw~ Schools,” ERIC, ED 284 693, paper presenkxt at the harning by Sa(e]]ite

Conference, lldsa, OK, Apr. 12-14, 1987.

55J,J. Bosweil et ~., **~lelWture: An E~periment in Remote ~aching,’’~uff ~~er.~hip, VO1. ]6, No. 9, 1968, pp. 321-322, 338; D.P. Hoyt and D.

Frye, Kansas State University, “The Effectiveness of Telecommunications as an Educational Delivery System,” unpublished manuscript, ERIC, ED 070

318, 1972; G.R. Christopher, “The Air Force Institute of Technology-The Air Force Reaches Out Through Media: An Update,” Teleconferencing and

Electronic Convnunication.$, L. Parker and C. Olgren (eds.) (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Extension, Center for Interactive Programs, 1982),

pp. 343-344; and J. Kruh, “Student Evaluation of Instructional Teleconferencing,” Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications II, 1983, pp.

293-301.

56B.A. H~and ~dW.G. Newby, “student perception of Effective ~aching Behaviors: An Examtiation of Conventional and lk!]econference Based

Instruction,” Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications Ill, 1984, pp. 211-217.

S7L. puker ~d M. MonWn, “~]etec~lqucs: & lnsmctional MO&l for ~teractivc ~leconferencing,” The Directional Design Library, VO1. 38

(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational lkchnology Publications, 1980).

58J~e~~ A. H~z~~i~, “~]etwhniques: A c= study in ~p]ementa[ion ad EvaJuati~n,” Telec@ere~@ and El@ron~c co??V?UVlkado?lS V,

1986.

59B.G. N~]ey, University Of ‘kXii$, “A Study of the Effectiveness of IMelecture in the Retraining of Elementary Teachers in Mathematics,”

unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1965.

6oJmeph M. Klmm ~d Jack Gold&rg, “one, way Television with simu]t~eous Telephone Group Conferencing Ustig Sateilite Maps as a

Monitoring Device,” A Report to the Innovative Projects Fund, ERIC, ED 224460, 1980.
Chapter 2-Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms ● 47

business, higher education, and inservice training.61

One suggested approach for K-12 distance education

is the “ingredients method. ’%2 This method involves

the identification and specification of all relevant

inputs; a typical list of ingredients would begin with

personnel, facilities, equipment and materials, and

in-kind contributions from participating sites.63

Effectiveness StudiesA Look at Ongoing Projects

The research literature provides one look at

evaluation efforts going on in distance education

today. Perhaps more useful is a snapshot of current

projects, several of which are generating unpublished surveys and project evaluations that are

providing current, localized feedback.64 Examples

of these unpublished surveys show how existing

efforts are monitoring and correcting their course.

A pilot project in Texas evaluated three different

“telecourse” delivery efforts in the State. This

project had as its goal the development of evaluation

standards for the future.65 Both student test results

and participant reactions were monitored. Student

test results in the telecourses were equal to or better

than their counterparts in traditional classes, but

their perceptions were different. Telecourse students

rated their courses as harder, felt they learned less,

felt that asking questions was more difficult, and

said they needed teacher conferences more often.

Minnesota conducted a study of the State Technology Demonstration Sites; these are a number of

small projects grouping schools in a single district or

across districts, using multiple technologies for

two-way instruction which they call “Interactive

Television” (ITV).66 The study analyzed effects on

students (attitude, achievement, classroom climate

and interaction), on teachers, and on the districts.

Costs were identified, but the evaluation did not

address issues of cost-effectiveness “. . . given the

difficulties associated with fair comparisons of costs

incurred in ITV programs and costs incurred in

traditional forms of schooling.”67

Student attitudes were generally favorable after an

initial adjustment. Only 30 percent of the students

took ITV classes because that was the only way to

take the class. Of the students who dropped out of the

ITV classes, 55 percent indicated that television

influenced that decision; however, just over 50

percent of the students dropping these classes said

they would take another ITV class. Achievement

data overall showed no significant difference for the

student population at large. Classroom interactions

were measured and reported in this study, and

showed no difference between ITV and traditional

classes. ITV magnifies several things (“dead” time,

personal and teaching styles, effectiveness of a good

teacher and weakness of a poor one) but those

teachers who were highly interactive and involving

in traditional classrooms were equally successful on

ITV.

Teacher attitudes were generally favorable toward

ITV; 75 percent said they would choose to teach

again on the system. Seventy percent of those

teachers surveyed believed teaching on ITV required

them to change their style or method of teaching,

which was seen as both a problem and an opportunity. Teachers believed their students liked the ITV

classes, spent as much time on task, and were

frequently more motivated than traditional class

students. Surveyed teachers noted that ITV chalblSarah Rule et al,, “An Economic Analysis of Inservice Teacher Training,” The American JOWMf of Distance Education, vol. 2, No. 2, 1988, pp.

12-22; Alan G, Chute and Lee Balthazar, An Overview of Research and Development Projects at the AT&T National Teletraining Center (Cincinnati,

OH: AT&T National ‘lkletraining Center, 1988), p. 4; Hal Markowitz, “Financial Decision Making< alculating the Costs of Distance Education,”

DMance Educatwn, vol. 8, No. 2, 1987; R.G. Showalter, Speaker Telephone Continuing Education for School Personnel Serving Handicapped

Children: Finaf Project Report 1981-82, ERIC, ED 231150 (Indianapolis, IN: Indiana State Department of Public Instruction, Indianapolis Division

of Special Education, 1983); Christopher, op. cit., footnote 55.

szRichard Clak, University of Southern California, “Evacuating Distance Ixarning Tahnology,” OTA contractor report, May 1989, pp. 20-24.

63HeW~v~, Cost Efectiveness: A Primer (Beverly Hills, CA:Sage ~blications, 1983);and Henry H. Ixwin, Stanford University, “The Economics

of Computer-Assisted Instruction,” unpublished manuscript, May 1988, p. 3. For a broader discussion of cost-effectiveness, see OTA, op. cit., footnote

5, pp. 74-83.

MA lmk at the llst of di~~ce learning proj~~ in his Rm (app. A), reveals a ]imitd numbr Of these evaluative efforts tO date. Most resources

are being committed to immediate Implementation of systems, e.g., hardware purchases and teacher Wtining. One explanation for his is that the needs

being semd by these systems are pressing, creating a strong action agenda.

65The ~= projw~ ~udl~ includ~ a vi~o~wd sp~sh course, inter~tive cour~s offer~ via sa[e]lite ~atewide, ~d interactive courses Off~d

via microwave region-wide, lkxas Education Agency, “Serving the Needs of ‘Rlecourse Students: A Pilot Project to Develop Evaluation Guidelines,”

unpublished document, 1986.

66Diane L. Morehouse et al., “Interactive lklevision: Findings, Issues and Recommendations,” unpublished document, Feb. 1, 1987.

671bid., p. 7.
48 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Photo Credit: Louisiana Educational Resources Network, Southern University--Shreveport

When they are involved in distance learning activities, students learn to manipulate the tools of the information age.

lenges teachers to grow, and enlarges options for

students. Teachers also felt that discipline problems

were greater in ITV,68 movement was restricted in

the classroom because of the cameras, and technical

problems were an obstacle.

SERC, one of the four Star Schools Program

grantees, will be offering high school courses and

staff development courses during the 1989-90

school year to students in 22 States via satellite.

During the second semester of 1988-89, SERC

conducted pilot classes for high school students and

teachers. Two high school classes were offered, with

enrollments of 160 and 204 students, an average of

three to four students per school. An independent

evaluation study was undertaken to profile the

population taking the classes, determine the effectiveness of the classes and the technology that

supported it, compare participants’ attitudes before

and after the semester, and compare interactive

satellite delivery with traditional instruction.69

Many observations were recorded by this survey;

a few are detailed here. Although all classes were

recorded and made available to students, and although many students complained that the class

continued to be transmitted during vacation times,

more than one-third of the high school students

never borrowed a tape for review. Only 40 percent

of the high school students felt there was sufficient

opportunity to interact with the teacher. The students

overwhelmingly approved of the opportunity to take

classes otherwise not available, and two-thirds

would take another class via interactive television.

Facilitators in the remote classrooms were surveyed, and reported that motivating students and

helping students with content questions were their

primary duties. Only three of five facilitators felt

68MOSI of tie clm~s had no f~i]ititor or other adult in the receiving classrooms. Ibid., p. 2.

@Toby I.Ane Communications, Inc., “SERC Pilot Semester Evaluation Project,” vol. 1, unpublished document, July 1989.
Chapter 2--Distance Education in Today’s Classrooms ● 49

prepared to answer student questions. Facilitators

spent 6 to 10 hours a week on SERC responsibilities,

and felt the training sessions, handbook, and hotline

provided by SERC to be helpful. Twenty-five

percent of the facilitators felt that interactive television was not as effective as regular instruction,

although almost all felt the students received excellent instruction. More than 80 percent of them would

be willing to serve as facilitators again.70

Participant reactions such as those noted in the

above examples provide much useful information. It

is from participant reaction data that most unanticipated problems and benefits are uncovered. For

example, the InterAct Instructional Television Network in Houston discovered that students in small

rooms were helping each other a great deal while the

teacher was talking. They could do this without

disrupting the teacher or the other students, and

could prepare responses and then activate the

microphone to join into the discussion or answer a

question. Some of the tutors hired to supervise the

rooms were discouraging this behavior, assuming

that talking indicated a discipline problem. Training

the tutors to encourage this cooperative learning

method is an easy correction resulting from this

participant survey .71

Evaluations are most effective when they are

created and planned for during the initial program

planning. One significant benefit of this approach is

that evaluation plans require an articulation of what,

in fact, are the measures of change sought. This

process will result in clearly articulated goals and

objectives for the entire effort, as well as a commitment to timely feedback.72 For example, the Midlands Consortium, another of the Star Schools

grantees, has proposed a research agenda for the

1989-90 school year.

73 This agenda is directed at

investigating whether instructional television is

especially useful or especially inaccessible to highrisk students. 74 Midlands hopes to target research

questions to evaluate how each different group of

learners perform and react, Because of the Federal

requirement to serve at-risk students through the

Star Schools Program, this research may be valuable

in determining instructional television’s efficacy

with these students.75

A Final Note on Measuring Effectiveness

Some of the most important outcomes of distance

learning may not be reflected in student test scores.

Effectiveness is enhanced by offering students a

chance to interact with peers from a range of

socioeconomic and educational backgrounds at

other schools,76 providing diverse educational experiences for students, increasing parental involvement with courses, and exposing students and

teachers to new technologies. The school environment and the community it serves can also benefit

from distance education because of increasing cooperation between schools and districts and bringing in

classes for adults, among others.77 Overall program

effectiveness is thus a difficult measurement to

make. To the extent that distance education cart

create benefits such as those above, it may be

claimed to be effective even without addressing the

issue of how it impacts learning directly. Evaluation

of ongoing projects can further delineate benefits,

costs, and impacts of telecommunications technologies in the schools. Also, research over an extended

period of time will help answer questions about

whether the novelty of the technology itself may be

producing positive outcomes. If this is so, once such

efforts become routine, effectiveness may fall off

and more accurate measures of the value of the

system may emerge.

Distance education represents more than just a

substitute for the classroom. The ability to manipulate the tools of communication are a critical

requirement for a worker in the information age.

7

01 bid., pp. 6-11.

TIC]Wk, ~p$ Clto, fwmote 62, pp. 7-11; and Barker, Op. cit., foomo~ 6,

TZC]mk, op. cit., footnote 62, pp. 10-12.

73 Al~ough two of tie ~dl~ds p~ers have b~n broadca~ing via mtellite for a few years now, the Midl~ds Consortium itself is beglnnlng i~$

first year. Midlands Consortium Research and Evaluation Committee, “’Midlands Consortium Research Agenda for 1989-90 School Year,” unpublished

document, June-July 1989.

741 bid., p. 3.

T5Mmy Ob=mers ~lleve Mat ~lf-motivated students we ~st able to [tie ~v~tage of dist~ce le~ng opportunities. Extensive USC Of distance

learning for adult learning, training, and gifted and talented classes has reinforced this belief; however, no research has conclusively addressed this issue.

76 Sometimes ~uden~ who we at tie top of heir ~~1 ru~ ~@ schools find it a ch~]enge 10 interact with Of,her bright StU&rlts in diverse distance

classrooms.

77Batey and cowdl, op. cit., footnote 43.
50 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Much of business and industry today is conducted taste of the adult world they will be entering.78 These

through computers, electronic mail, facsimile ma- benefits are largely unmeasurable by effectiveness

chines, and video conferences. Not merely a second research, but suggest the critical impact alternative

choice, distance learning provides students a fore- experiences can have on today’s student.

78Ji~ sLLawrence, SL Froduct.ioIN, personal communication, Septemkr 1989.
Chapter 3

Technology Links:

Choices for Distance

Learning Systems

Microwave radio relay tower, Albany, TX
CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TECHNOLOGIES FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Supplemental Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Broadcast Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Instructional Television Fixed Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Issues and Future Implications

Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Issues and Future Implications

Cable Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Issues and Future Implications

Microwave Systems . . . . . . . . . .

Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Issues and Future Implications

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public Switched Telephone Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Issues and Future Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

COSTS OF TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Figures

53

53

54

54

56

58

59

60

60

62

64

64

64

67

67

68

69

70

71

72

72

72

75

76

77

79

81

Figure Page

3-1. Audio Links for Distance Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3-2. Two-way Interactive Instructional Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3-3. Classroom Equipment for Distance Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

3-4. The InterAct Instructional Television Network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3-5. Satellite Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

3-6. Cable Television Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3-7. University of Lowell Instructional Network.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3-8. Microwave Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

3-9. The Public Switched Telephone Network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

3-10. Information and Communications Services of the Future. .,.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Table

Table Page

3-1. Transmission Technologies for Learning at a Distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3-2. Cost Categories for Distance Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Chapter 3

Technology Links:

Choices for Distance Learning Systems

INTRODUCTION

Ten years ago the technological options for

delivering education over a distance were limited.

Today, they are numerous and growing. Advances

in information and telecommunications technology are rapidly expanding learning opportunities

and access to educational resources beyond those

immediately or traditionally available. These

technologies, both new and old, allow users to

transmit, receive, create, and combine information

in many new ways. Such advances are a major force

in the explosive growth experienced by distance

learning in business, higher education, and now

K-12 schools in the last several years.

Today’s technologies are faster. more powerful,

and more flexible than comparable technologies of

only a few years ago. 1 The technologies of telecommunications and information processing are also

increasingly integrated; technological systems are

more intelligent and are more capable of being

interconnected with other technologies. The use of

digital technology is rapidly changing the nature of

telecommunications and information processing,

allowing more types of information to be sent,

stored, and manipulated more easily and quickly.

Finally, easily customized services and hardware

allow users to choose and combine technologies in

ways that best suit their needs. These developments

give educators and students a new set of capabilities

and opportunities for teaching and learning.

Schools trying to match technological options to

educational needs have a wide range of choices. A

number of technologies and technology systems can

be used, either separately or in combination. Many

of these actual systems were described in chapter 2.

Technical choices are best defined by the specific

demands of each distance learning situation. A broad

examination of the current technologies show what

applications the technologies allow and what restrictions they place on teaching and learning. This

chapter discusses the technologies for distance

learning; analyzes their capabilities and limitations;

and discusses relevant regulatory concerns, issues,

and implications for the future.

FINDINGS

. Many technologies are being used to provide

education over a distance. Transmission systems include: satellite, fiber optics, Instructional

Television Fixed Service (ITFS), microwave, the

public telephone system, and coaxial cable. Any

of these technologies can be interconnected to

form “hybrid” systems. No one technology is

best for-all situations

ent technologies have

and applications. Differdifferent capabilities and

r

Photo credit: Smithsonian Institution

‘Its mighty triumphs are but half revealed, and the vast

extent of its extraordinary power but half understood.”

—an 1851 assessment of the potential of the telegraph.

I For ~ ~omplelc review of the forces driving tc~hnologic~ change, scc U.S. Congress, Office of Technology A==smcnt, criti~’al c~~~ec~iom”

Cornrnunmmom jtir rhe Fufurc, OTA-CIT-407 (Washington, DC: U.S Govcmmcnt Printing Office, in press).

-53-
54 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

limitations, and effective implementation will

depend on matching technological capabilities to

educational needs.

The technologies for accessing, storing, and

manipulating information have more impact

on the distance education experience than the

technologies for transmitting signals. Personal

computers, display technologies, optical memory

systems, facsimile (fax) machines, and graphics

scanners expand the use of information and

resources at distant locations.

Future developments in transmission, processing, and storage technologies promise even

greater capabilities and benefits for education

at the same or lower cost. Advances in digital

compression technology, for example, may

greatly expand the number of channels that can be

sent over any transmission medium, doubling or

even tripling channel capacity. Educational

telecommunications systems may also enable

new and different uses beyond the traditional

school setting. K-12 distance education systems

can serve the needs of adult learners, continuing

education at home or in the workplace, and the

community.

The base of telecommunications infrastructure

available for distance education is wide and

expanding, giving schools an opportunity to

utilize existing local resources and forge innovative partnerships. Local, regional, and even

State distance education efforts can be linked with

telecommunications networks operated by colleges and universities, local businesses, public

broadcasting stations, and State governments.

Increasingly, the private sector, including the

telephone and cable companies, are becoming

active in helping schools expand their teaching

and learning opportunities.

Telecommunications policymaking and regulation is spread across several agencies and levels of

government. There is no single focus of or

direction to telecommunications policy that can

help educators identify the problems and opportunities for educational telecommunications.

Regulatory uncertainties in the telecommunications field make planning for distance education difficult. Public policy changes in the

●

regulation of the public telephone network, for

example, will affect how distance education

can be provided and how much it will cost.

Funding for distance education will compete with

other education needs. Although technological

capabilities continue to increase even as hardware

costs decline, the overall costs for distance

education systems vary widely. The cost of

educational telecommunications systems will be

determined in part by the number of sites,

instructional demands, technical complexity, and

distances involved. Initial equipment costs, while

most visible, do not reflect the full costs of the

system. Operational and programming costs may

require substantial long-term financial commitments.

TECHNOLOGIES FOR

DISTANCE EDUCATION

In the most fundamental sense, what distance

learning systems try to do is to connect the teacher

with the student when physical face-to-face interaction is not possible. Just as highways move

vehicles or pipes carry water, telecommunications systems carry instruction, moving information instead of people. How these systems affect the

educational setting/instructional process depends on

the types of technology used and their design. The

technology at distant locations, including computers, videocassette recorders (VCRs), fax machines, television monitors and cameras, and

even the telephone, are critically important.

Together, these technologies affect how interaction

takes place, what information resources are used,

and how effective a distance learning system is

likely to be. Some systems allow simultaneous,

two-way audio and visual interaction plus an exchange of print materials. Other systems limit

interaction to the one-way communication of voice,

images, or data. Still others permit only delayed

(asynchronous) interaction.

Audio

Live delivery of one-way audio programming is

possible through the telephone system or a broadcast

radio format.2 In this format, the teacher speaks to

the students, but they cannot respond directly. This

lack of direct interaction is compensated for in some

Zsome devel~ing counties using radio-bas~ distance learning systems also deliver programming by mailing audi~as=tte taWs to ~hools ~~

arc too remote or geographically isolated to be reached by radio.
Chapter 3--Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 55

Photo credit: TI-IV

At the push of a button and the twist of a dial, students reach their distant teacher.

radio broadcast formats by a course design that two-way telephone link between a teacher and a

requires students to “talk back” to the radio itself. homebound ‘student or a “homework hotline,” which

Broadcast audio has been used extensively for students dial up to get special tutoring in specific

student learning and teacher training in several subjects. The use of speaker phones at multiple sites

developing countries, but, despite its extremely low connected by an audio bridging system allows a

cost, use in the United States has been very limited.3teacher and students to be connected and talk

simultaneously—an extended “party line.’” TwoTwo-way audio allows both parties to talk and way communication can also take place asynchrorespond. (See figure 3-1. ) This may be a simple nously (not in “real time”). Voice mail systems

3For ~ dl~cu~~lon of “mlou~ radio in~~ction Projwts in tie developing coun~ies, ~c U.S. &cncy for 1ntcmation~ t)cvc]opmen[, Bureau for Scicncc

and Technology, Development Communican”on Report, 1988/Special ISSUC.
56 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Radio broadcast I

Audio conference

Two-way audio

Two-way image

in their instructor’s voice mailbox. The instructor

can respond via voice mail or talk to the student

personally. These voice mail systems often supplement other distance learning systems. If more

immediate interaction is desired, materials can be

sent by fax or other electronic means.

Video

The use of video communications, both one and

two way, has increased dramatically in recent

years. Factors behind this increase include: the

growing availability of high bandwidth transmission

decreasing cost of such transmission, and the

increasing ability to compress video signals.4

There are several formats for transmitting video.

Full-motion video signals can be transmitted on

television broadcast frequencies, on satellite circuits, over coaxial cable, and over fiber optic lines.

Limited-motion or compressed video uses digital

technology to reduce the amount of information it

takes to send a video signal, making the programming cheaper to send. These signals may appear

“smeared” or blurred, but quality is generally good

enough for applications where motion is limited.

d~vmcesin Compressim ~hoIoO me being made veV rapidly. Rates m low as 56 kilobits per second (kbps) are being developed that Wiii trmsmil

video signals. l%e improvement in quality at iower speeds is also noticeable; images transmitted at 1.544 Mbps are much clearer than those of only 1

or 2 years ago. Rob Stoddard, “Compression’s Catching On,” Satellite Corrvnunicarions, vol. 13, No. 4, April 1989, pp. 31-33. The downside to

compression is that the equipment necessary for digital-analog conversion can be expensive, costing up to $60,000. With one codec needed at each end

of a transmission line, like a computer modem, total costs can rise quickly in a digital video system with many sites.
Chapter 3--Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 57

Figure 3-2—Two-way Interactive Instructional Classroom

This two-way interactive classroom can function as either a sending or receiving site.

SOURCE: Tele-Systems Associates, Inc., 1989

Compressed video signals can be used on all types

of transmission systems except basic telephone

lines. For digital video transmission over the public

telephone network, special digital lines may be

required. The only type of video standard telephone

lines can transmit presently is a slow scan or freeze

frame image, such as those used in videophone

applications, in which a still image is sent approximately every 30 seconds. In the future, high definition television (HDTV) may be used in education.

However, standards for HDTV transmission and

production are not set, and the development of

HDTV remains uncertain.

One-way educational programming is broadcast

(point-to-multipoint) via satellite, ITFS, cable television, or public broadcasting systems. In interactive

telecourses, one-way video is supplemented by

two-way audio, allowing students to ask questions

or respond to the teacher in real time. In some

systems, a one-way data/text transmission is broad-
58 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

cast along with the video, allowing the student to

receive printed material such as homework assignments, handouts, and quizzes.

The VCR extends the use of live instruction by

allowing students and teachers to record materials

for later use. Teachers can record programming for

use in their own lesson plans. Students can record

classes, allowing them to “attend class” when it is

convenient for them. This capability also allows

students to replay sections they did not understand

the first time through-in essence asking the teacher

to repeat a missed point.

Two-way video allows full audio and visual

communication between teacher and student. Because two-way video systems take so much bandwidth to transmit, they generally operate as closedcircuit systems using fiber optic, coaxial cable, or

microwave links. These systems are usually local,

and involve a limited number of sites. Students at the

remote sites can see the teacher, and depending on

system configuration, the teacher can see all the

students either simultaneously, or sequentially, by

switching among sites. (See figure 3-2.)

Computer

Computers in today% classrooms can also be

used for distance learning. Personal computers

(PCs) can communicate and share information with

other PCs or mainframe computers in real time or

with some delay (asynchronously) using modems

and the public telephone networks

Computer-based applications in distance education can serve as a stand-alone system, e.g., audiographics or computer conferencing, or as a supplement to another system, such as videoconferencing.

Computers can also be used by students before and

after class either to prepare lesson materials for their

distance learning class, or to engage in other learning

activities (such as computer-assisted instruction).

Computers linked to remote databases or

bulletin board services (BBS) provide students

and teachers with access to a wide variety of

information and resources. Through a BBS, teachers can keep in touch with colleagues or take

professional development classes. Students can

“talk” to each other, share data, or receive instruction. On-line courses allow students at home or in

computer centers to access coursework day or night.

Students work on group projects collaboratively

over time (asynchronously) and leave messages in

personal electronic mailboxes. Messages can be left

24 hours a day, 365 days a year; users can “go to

school” at their own convenience.

With special communications software, teacher

and students can communicate in real time using

their computers. More advanced software allows the

teacher’s computer to control the students’ computers, allowing the group to see and work on the same

screen (text or graphics) at the same time. This

function, known as “electronic blackboarding,”

allows a teacher to reach a homebound student, for

example. If more than two sites are to participate in

the lesson, a telecommunications bridge linking all

users simultaneously would be required,

Computer-based distance learning delivery systems can be expanded in several ways. To enhance

input capabilities, scanners and graphics tablets can

be added. A scanner allows the teacher to send

graphics or drawings prepared on paper. The image

can also be stored in the computer until needed. A

graphics tablet allows teacher and students to write

or draw electronically-on a special digitized pad

with a special pen—just as on a piece of paper. The

computer screens in both locations become electronic blackboards. Adding a printer enables the

teacher to send handouts or homework assignments.

With special software, a fax machine can provide

input to the PC as well as allow the PC to originate

fax transmissions.

The most advanced form of computer networking,

audiographics, augments computer interaction with

real-time audio communication. Not only can the

participants communicate with each other via their

computers, they can also talk to each other at the

same time. Audiographics systems have traditionally required the use of two telephone lines, one for

the audio connection and another for the computer/

data connection. Systems now in use can combine

the two lines onto one phone line.6

s~r~ are cu~en[]y more man 6,()(1(1 schools (7 percent) with modcms, U.S. congress, office Of ~ChtlO]Ogy Aswssmcnt, POWer ~n~ NW TOOf~

for Teuching and Learning, OTA-SET-379 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1988), p. 192, footnote 11.

6A ~ial m~em combines tie Iwo si~~s so [ha~ they Cm bC sent over the same line, thus cutting line COStS in half. The most advanced systems

also have a “screen grabber” capability, allowing color video images such as photographs to be electronically captured, transmitted, and annotated. An

instructor teaching electronics, for example, could scan in an image of a circuit board which could then be annotated by the tcachcr to point out the various

components.
Chapter 3--Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 59

Photo credit: Optel Communications, Inc.

Audiographics systems combine the power of the computer with the personal touch of a telephone conversation.

In the future, more powerful computers, an

improved public telephone network, and a wider

array of peripherals promise to bring even more

capabilities and features to computer users and

distant learners alike. Advances in graphics manipulation and storage are one area of rapid advance.

7 Technologies such as digital videointeractive (DV-1) and compact disc-read only

memory (CD-ROM) are bringing full motion video

display and editing capability to desktop computers,

while advances in HDTV promise even clearer

images and graphics.

Supplemental Technologies

Almost any of the systems described previously

can be supplemented by other technologies to

provide more features and capabilities. Figure 3-3

shows some of these technologies used in the

Kentucky Educational Television system.

Generally, the exchange of hardcopy is the “weak

link” in any distance learning system. Many districts

use courier services or the U.S. Postal Service, but

these can be slow and/or expensive as well as

unreliable. Other methods of delivering hard copy

include: transmission of data in satellite sidebands or

in the Vertical Blanking Interval (VBI) of the

television signal, by fax, or by converting data to

standard television signals. In these cases, special

equipment such as data controllers maybe needed to

receive and print out the material.

7John W. ven~ Md Corle Brown, ‘The Graphics Revolution: A Special Report,” Business Week, No. 3081, PJov. 28, 1988. pp. 142-153.
60 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Figure 3-3-Classroom Equipment for

Distance Learning

Many different technologies are used in the distance learning

classroom. Often, equipment is placed together on a movable cart

that can be rolled from class to class as needed.

SOURCE: Kentucky Educational Television, 1989.

Storage and other information technologies enhance educational material delivered electronically.

The VCR allows students and teachers to tape live

or prerecorded educational programming for later

use. Optical discs combine audio, full-motion and

still video, and data on one disc. They are known by

various names including: CD-ROM, DV-1, and

compact disc-interactive (CD-1 ).8 Consumer applications of such technology already allow disc

players to read both computer CD-ROMs and

compact audio discs.

To increase the amount of interaction between

student and teacher, many satellite-delivered programs now use student feedback devices. These

devices, such as the keypads piloted by Kentucky

Educational Television, allow students to respond

directly to questions posed by the remote teacher.

Responses are transmitted to the remote teacher,

tabulated by a computer, and displayed almost

immediately, allowing the teacher to respond

quickly to student feedback. Such systems allow

teachers to better judge how well remote students

understand the material being presented.

TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES

Transmission technologies also play an important

role in the delivery of distance education. There are

many ways to transmit a signal between two points,

and users may not know (or care) how a signal is

being transmitted-by copper wire, optical fiber,

satellite, or microwave. Each technology has

capabilities and limitations that constrain the

distance learning system, shaping the educational

product. (See table 3-l.) Satellite systems and other

broadcast technologies, for example, do not generally allow the teacher to see the students, a critical

concern for many educators. Other concerns facing

educators as they contemplate distance learning

delivery systems include regulatory requirements,

availability of local infrastructure resources, and

possible technical and economic trends that may

affect these transmission technologies. The following section addresses these areas as they affect each

delivery system. Sample costs for the technologies

can be found in appendix B.

Broadcast Technologies

Broadcast television signals consist of audio and

video channels transmitted from a central point that

can be received by anyone within range of the

transmitter. Television broadcasting requires expensive transmission equipment as well as a large tower

from which to transmit the signal. Viewers, however, need only a standard television set to receive

the signal; no special conversion is required. Geography is a barrier in mountainous regions where

reception may be poor, but line of sight is generally

not required. Most educational programming broadcast over television does not allow real-time interaction with the television teacher, but interactivity can

be designed into live or recorded telecourses in a

8DV.I ~d CD.] me similw in concept, but DV-I operates through a personal computer, while CD-1 works through a videodisc player connected to

a standard television set.
Table 3-l—Transmission Technologies for Learning at a Distance

Technology a Configuration Advantages Disadvantages Trends

Increased use of data/text

transmission

Terrestrial broadcast One-way broadcast of

audio, video, and

possibly data; possible audio return

Two-way audio, data

and video

No special receiving equipment or converters; reaches

most schools and homes

Limited channels and air time; reception limited by geography; high transmission

equipment and production costs

High capacity/speed; channel

capacity easily expandable;

high-quality signal

High installation cost; rights-of-way may be

required to lay new cable

Costs are declining rapidly;

fiber deployment is expanding rapidly

Use of higher frequencies is

expanding

Fiber optic

Microwave Two-way point-to-point

audio, data, and

video

Low-cost transmission time; no

rights-of-way needed

Must be FCC-licensed; tower space or location may be difficult to get; difficult and

costly to expand channels; crowded frequencies; line of sight required

Crowded frequencies, especially in cities;

FCC licensing required; limited transmission range; line of sight required

Digitalization may triple channel capacity; wider coverage

areas using repeaters; rebroadcast of satellite-delivered programming

Expanding fiber installation;

digitization of net-work increasing; increasing intelligence in the network

More use of Ku-band; possible

transponder shortage;

increased use of data;

increased interactive

capabilities

More powerful computers; better software and peripherals

increase capabilities

Capacity increases using fiber;

more addressability and

One-way broadcast or

point-to-point audio,

data, and video; possibility of audio return

Instructional Television Low-cost delivery of video

Fixed Service (ITFS)

Two-way voice; limited

data and video

Wide coverage; low initial cost;

high quality and capacity of

fiber optic links; others handle repair and upgrades

Quality is spotty; limited transmission of data

and video; cost is distance-sensitive

Public Switched

Telephone Network

(PSTN)

One-way broadcast of

voice, data, and

video; possibility of

audio and data return

Wide coverage transmission

cost is distance insensitive

Expensive uplinks; high transmission costs;

FCC licensing of uplinks; receive site microwave interference (C-band) or rain fade

(Ku-band)

Satellite

Low cost; easy exchange of

graphics; uses PSTN

Visual interaction limited to graphic/sktill

video

Audiographics Two-way computer conferercing with audio

interaction

One-way broadcast or

two-way point-topoint audio, data, and

video

Limited capacity; can be difficult to interconnect; not usually designed for interactivity

Wide availability; low delivery

costs

Cable television

systems

two-way capability

aTecf-mobgy Syqms do not have to operate independently; they are Often COmbIned In “h@rd” sYstems.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1989.
62 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

variety of ways, including using the telephone to

link students to teachers or aides or using the VCR

interactively.

In addition to the video signal, television broadcast signals can send text and data simultaneously.

The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) recently

demonstrated potential uses of the VBI, the unused

portion of the television channel (the black band in

the television picture), as part of its Educational

Pipeline project. PBS plans to use the VBI to deliver

student and teacher guides and support materials,

program information, and computer software, including complete interactive computer-based

courses. Another system allows data to be transmitted as a standard broadcast signal. The system could

be likened to a viideo modem.9 Data can be sent

either before or after a telecourse has been delivered,

but cannot be sent simultaneously. This system is

useful for transmitting teacher’s guides or any other

print-based materials.

Low power television (LPTV) may also have a

role to play in the delivery of distance education.

These stations operate on normal television frequencies, but at a much lower power level. This limits

their effective range to 20 miles at most. The

advantage of LPTV over conventional broadcast is

the much reduced cost of operation,

Radio broadcasting has been used extensively in

other countries to deliver education and inservice

training, but its use has been very limited in the

United States.10

Instructional Television Fixed Service

ITFS refers to a band of microwave frequencies

originally set aside by the Federal Communications

Commission (FCC) in 1963 exclusively for the

transmission of educational and cultural programming. There are 20 channels assigned to ITFS, down

from the 31 originally allocated in 1963. These

channels are usually grouped in blocks of four per

licensee. In 1983, there were 88 ITFS systems

operating 644 channels;11 in 1989, that figure rose to

745 licenses to operate 2,358 channels.12 In the last

year, applications have increased dramatically, with

more and more applications coming from rural

areas.

13 Twenty-two of the Nation’s 338 public

television stations use ITFS to deliver instructional

programming.

ITFS uses omnidirectional microwave signals in

the 2.5 GHz band to transmit standard 6 MHz video

signals to remote locations. (See figure 3-4.) In

addition to the main video channel, there are two

subchannels per main channel capable of carrying

audio, data, and still pictures. ITFS usually functions

as a broadcast (point-to-multipoint) television system, except that a special downconverter is needed

to convert the microwave signal to a standard

television signal. The normal range of ITFS transmissions is approximately 20 miles, although range

can be increased by using signal repeaters, by

increasing the height of transmitting and/or receiving antennas, by increasing receiver sensitivity, or

by increasing transmitter power.14 These options

may add substantially to initial system costs. Like

point-to-point microwave, ITFS requires direct lineof-sight to operate; receiving antennas must be

precisely aligned to receive the signal. Areas subject

to high winds or intense storms, for example, may

require sturdy, and more costly, towers.

An ITFS network can serve as a stand-alone

distance education delivery system, transmitting

locally originated programming directly to local

schools or cable companies for redistribution

through their network. ITFS may also function as an

intermediate link, taking a signal from a satellite

feed, for example, and rebroadcasting it to local

subscribers. Most commonly, ITFS is used to deliver

one-way video to schools with telephone hookups

for two-way audio. Two-way video is possible using

gcomputer data is fed into tie modem, which conve~s it to standard video. The si~al is then transmitted as any ordinary television si~al. The

information received is converted by the modem back into digital data and routed into a computer, where it is then available for viewing and printing.

The data signal rides in the primary video channel of the broadcast signal (not in the vertical blanking interval or on a sideband), and appears as a series

of boxes on the television screen.

1OS=, for exapie, U.S. Agency for International &veIopment, 0P. Cit.t foo~ote 3.

1 ls~ly L. Bond, Te/ecomunicatiom.Baed Dista~e ~ar~’ng: A Guidefor~c~Educa[ors (Research Triangle Park, NC: Southeawern Educational

Improvement Laboratory, spring 1987), p. 30.

l~emge Feh~er, FCC ITFS division, personal communication, Ar. 4, 1989.

13~id+

14fir exmple,~~a hi@-powered (so watts) ~msmitter, distances of 50.+ miles we achievable. At 20 miles, a 2-foot parabolic dish CiUI be USd

for reception. For longer distances, larger receiving dishes are needed (the limit without regeneration appears to be 50 miles with a lo-foot receiving

dish)`. Some fading can occur if the signal travels over large bodies of water,
Chapter 3—Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 63

Figure 34-The InterAct Instructional Television Network

Texas

Commerce

Tower

.

Seven channels of programming originate from the Region IV studios; one channel comes from Houston Independent School District.

Thirty-seven districts subscribe to the network and 300 schools receive programming.

SOURCE lnterAet Instructional Televmon Network, Region IV Education ServIee Center, Houston, TX

ITFS (or point-to-point microwave) to transmit back Data or text can be sent over an ITFS system in

from the remote schools. However, this greatly many ways. Data/text sent simultaneously with

increases the cost of the system, and requires double video programming is possible using the VBI or

the number of channels for a given number of sites. subchannels. The “video modem” allows data/text to

Along with the 20 audio/video channels, there are be sent either before or after a broadcast.15 Any of

also 20 corresponding audio channels located to- these methods require the use of additional equipgether at the high end of the ITFS frequency band ment to convert data for transmission as well as

that can provide audio feedback from receiving sites. equipment to decode the data once it is received.

These channels are not used by most systems This equipment enhances system capabilities, but

because regular telephone lines can be used for the also increases system costs.

same purpose. If telephone connections are long

distance, ITFS talk-back maybe more cost-effective Digital technology and compression techniques

in the long term. Two-way audio capability requires may increase ITFS channel capacity so that three

additional electronics (transmitter, multiplexer, and compressed video signals could be transmitted on

possibly a new antenna) at each receive site. each ITFS channel. However, the equipment needed

‘sSee footnote 9.
64 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

to compress and decompress these digital video

signals is still very expensive, and the technology

has not yet been demonstrated. ’b

Regulation

FCC and sometimes Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approval and licensing are required to

operate an ITFS system.

17 FCC approval can take as

long as 2 years. FCC requires and reviews an

engineering analysis of each proposed system. One

problem identified by FCC has been the varying

quality of the applications.18 In some cases, FCC

must do its own analysis; adding even more time to

the process. FCC review of how the system will

actually be used has become more stringent as

competition for ITFS frequencies has increased.

Siting and zoning requirements in local communities may conflict with tower placement or height.

Schools may find that towers cannot be situated on

school grounds or that the height required for

adequate reception is too high for local regulations.

Issues and Future Implications

ITFS channels are saturated in many locations,

especially metropolitan areas. Educators considering an ITFS system, especially at the K-12 level,

may find that channels have already been licensed to

higher education institutions or PBS stations. Many

ITFS channels are not used by educational institutions, but have been leased to Multipoint Distribution Services (MDS) operators, who use the channels to offer premium entertainment channels (such

as HBO) and data transmission services. FCC does

not monitor how many channels are leased, but has

established safeguards to ensure that channels are

used for education (at least 20 hours per channel per

week) and that time can be “recaptured” from

commercial operators if educational needs increase.

The amount of time recaptured by original educational licensees is also unknown, but is thought to be

very small. 19

Because the range of ITFS is limited to 20 miles

and requires line-of-sight, ITFS is best suited to

local or regional applications. However, the scope

and range of an ITFS system can be extended

through connection(s) to such long distance

transmission systems as fiber optic backbones or

satellite.

Satellite

Satellites function as relay stations in the sky. A

communication signal is sent from an Earth station

(called an uplink) to the satellite, which then

retransmits the signal back to Earth, where it is

received by a satellite receiver (downlink).20 Satellites are normally used to transmit audio, data, and

video programming in a point-to-multipoint configuration. 21 (See figure 3-5.) Like other broadcast

technologies, the signal from a satellite can be

received by any dish in the satellite’s coverage area

pointed at that satellite and tuned to the appropriate

channel (transponder) .22 Some channels, however,

are scrambled, requiring a descrambler to receive the

signal.

Two types of satellites orbit the Earth, Geosynchronous satellites maintain a constant relative

position in the sky, meaning that they can always be

“seen” by receiving dishes. Other satellites called

low-altitude satellites orbit the Earth at lower

altitudes than the geosynchronous satellites, and

cannot maintain a constant position above the Earth.

This means that they are only accessible when they

come into view of the receiving dish, two or three

times a day, and then only for a few minutes at a

time. These low-altitude satellites are generally

smaller and cheaper than geosynchronous satellites,

lcFeder~ Communications Commission rcgu]ations governing Instructional lklevision Fixed Service (ITFS) are currenlly based on ~~og

technology. These regulations would probably have to be rewritten to accommodate digital transmission on ITFS channels.

ITFAA approv~ may be required for tall towers that may interfere with low flying phnes.

lsFeh~er, op. cit., footnote 12.

l’%bid.

z-mwe mmy terns for mtellile receive devices, including dish, antenna, television receive only (TVRO), terminal and downlink.

211n ~ditlon t.tie m~n (wldeb~d) video ch~nels ~nt, here~also n~ow b~(jwidth subctiersthat CMI be used to send audio or data signals

to remote sites. Missouri’s Educational Satellite Network system plans to use subcarrier transmission of data to printers at each school, while TI-lN uses

the Horizontal Blanking Interval of the video signal for data transmission. Other methods for transmitting data and text include using the Vertical

Blanking Intcmal in standard video transmissions and the video modem system described in the Broadcasting section. Such systems allow the program

originator to send teachers guides, written homework assignments, and questionnaires to all receive sites.

22Thc ~ea in which a p~CuI~ Sate]lite cm be received is called that satellite’s “footprint. ” Satellites, which can be received all over the continental

United States, provide full “conus” coverage. Receive sites located at the very edges of the footprint require much larger dishes than those in the middle

of the coverage area because the signal gets weaker towards the edges of coverage.
Chapter 3-Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 65

Photo credlt: GTE Spacenet

From 22,300 miles above the Earth, satellites can transmit phone conversations, video programming, and

data communications around the would.

and may lend themselves well to “store and forward” is subject to interference from terrestrial microwave

applications such as computer conferencing or voice facilities, but interference from rain is not a problem

mail in which immediate interaction is not required. as with higher frequency (Ku-band) satellites.

Satellite transponders receive signals from the

uplink and transmit them back to Earth. Satellites

typically have between 12 and 24 transponders that

operate in two frequency bands: C-band and Kuband. C-band satellites are the oldest and most

common type of system in use today. They use a

signal operating at 6 GHz for the uplink and 4 GHz

for the downlink (6/4). Receiving dishes are usually

large (3.2 to 10 meters), making them somewhat

expensive and difficult to install. C-band reception

Ku-band satellites operate at 14/12 GHz, and use

smaller (3 meters or less) dishes that are cheaper and

easier to install than C-band dishes. Ku-band frequencies are not shared with terrestrial microwave

facilities as are C-band, reducing potential interference. Ku-band, however, is much more subject to

transmission problems caused by precipitation. Because of its lower cost and smaller dish size, Ku has

become the most popular band for many satellite
46 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Figure 3-5-Satellite Communication System

●

Satellites can deliver educational programming and courses to schools across the country. Video programming and text materials are

broadcast from a central origination site (uplink) to any school with a satellite receiver (downlink).

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1989

program providers, especially in business, and an

increasing percentage of future satellites will be

Ku-band or Ku/C-band combinations.23

The deployment of Ku-band satellites has also led

to the development of new receivers called Very

Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs). VSATs are

small (1.8 to 2.4 meters), easy to install, and basic

models are relatively inexpensive. They are used

primarily for data communication, but can be

upgraded to provide interactive audio and video

services. Adding such services, however, greatly

increases cost. VSATs cannot usually communicate

with each other directly; they can only send and

receive signals to and from a central site (known as

a “hub”). In order to connect remote sites, a signal

must be transmitted to the hub, which then rebroadcasts it to the receiving site.

Direct broadcast satellites (DBS) are highpowered satellites that transmit programming directly to the general public. Receive dishes used in

DBS systems are very small (1 meter). DBS could

allow programmers to beam educational programming directly to homebound students, providing an

alternative to over-the-air broadcasting or cable

hookups, Although no such services are operating in

23wR is, ~wever, a Imge inq~]~ base of C-band transmitters and receivers, and C-band satellites are expected 10 be used extensively, eswially

by the cable television industry, for many years to come.
Chapter 3--Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 67

the United States,24 a DBS education service serving

European schools plans to begin operation in October 1989.25

Ka-band satellite technology is the most advanced

satellite technology being developed, but no Ka

satellites will be operational until the early to

mid-1990s. Ka-band satellites will use frequencies

in the 30/20 GHz band, allowing them to transmit

much more information. Ka-band receive dishes are

expected to be smaller (1 meter in diameter),

cheaper, and easier to install than today’s Ku dishes.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Advanced Communications Technology Satellite, scheduled for deployment in the early 1990s,

will be Ka-band. Ka-band satellites, using on-board

switching and narrower transmission beams, may

eventually enable direct point-to-point (school-toschool) communication.

Regulation

FCC regulation of satellite communication most

directly affects satellite uplink operation. Every

C-band uplink must be licensed due to potential

interference with adjacent satellites and terrestrial

microwave sources. The licensing process requires

careful frequency coordination, a sometimes lengthy

process. It is much easier to license Ku-band uplinks

because there are no terrestrial interference concerns. Regulations regarding satellite downlinks are

not hard to satisfy. Downlinks need not be licensed

at all for Ku-band receivers and for C-band receivers

only when the user wants to protect against possible

future interference.

Issues and Future Implications

The number of schools with satellite dishes is

growing rapidly. The number of dishes installed

in schools has doubled since last year. Data from

the 1988-89 school year indicates that approximately 7 percent of school districts had satellite

dishes: 68 percent of those districts have C-band

dishes, 40 percent have Ku-band dishes, and 7

percent have dual-band dishes capable of receiving

both C- and Ku-band; 84 percent of dishes owned by

school districts are steerable.26

The amount and variety of programming a school

can receive depend on many factors. Schools wanting to receive many different satellite programs must

be able to access different satellites; use different

frequency bands; decode different audio, video, and

data formats; and adapt to different scheduling

times. Schools have fewer programming choices if

they have a fixed dish aimed at only one satellite as

opposed to a steerable dish, which may be reaimed

to receive other signals. While increased access is an

advantage, the higher costs and sometimes lower

performance of a steerable dish may prove to be

substantial barriers. The type of dish (C or Ku) also

limits programming possibilities. Satellite dishes

can usually only receive one band of transmission.

Dishes that can receive both C and Ku are more

expensive than single band dishes. The trend in the

satellite industry toward Ku-band satellites may also

pose problems for schools;27 it may be difficult or

impossible to upgrade from C to Ku without buying

a new dish.

Access to programming also depends on receiving

electronics. Some receivers, especially at Ku-band,

are preset to receive signals from a certain satellite

(or certain transponders on a certain satellite); even

if a school has a steerable dish, it may not be very

useful in accessing other satellites.

A shortage of satellite capacity (both C- and

Ku-band) may develop. Demand for satellite services has increased rapidly, especially in the business

sector with the proliferation of VSAT networks.28

The generation of satellites currently in orbit,

however, is due to be retired in the early 1990s.29

24~e public Scmlce Saklllte ConW~lum (pSSC), in conj~ction with Advmced Communications COT.,~ FCC-liccnscd DBS operator, hd

planned to offer a dedicated educational channel called “Your Educational Semice.” It was to provide educational programming directly into schools,

especially rural schools. Unfortunately, plans fell through due to a lack of funds. PSSC is continuing talks with satellite suppliers in the hope of using

another satellite. Suzanne Douglas, Public Service Satellite Consortium, personal communication, Apr. 3, 1989.

zs’’E~ostep To ~fer Europe-wide Ckses,” Satellite Communications, vol. 13, No. 6, June 1989, p. 15.

26pBS E1ement~/Second~ Semice, The PBS S~~o/ Sare//ite Swey (Alex~dria, VA: Public Broadcasting Service, July 1989). In addition, PBS

estimates that more than 1,200 institutions of higher education have satellite downlinks.

2.7Mu~h of the comercl~ pro~amlng now avai}ab]e to schools is on C.bad, but m~y progr~ providers, espwia]ly in the business WCIM, WC

switching to Ku-band because there is less terrestrial interference and because receive dishes are smaller and less expensive.

28Tom Ke~er, “Good Idem To pay Off jn ‘89,” satellite co~unicatio~, VOI. 13, No. 1, January 1989, p. 15.

2gIbid.
68 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Nineteen satellites have been authorized by FCC (10

are replacements); these satellites are not expected

to be operational for 4 to 5 years. In the meantime,

demand may outstrip supply of satellite capacity,

possibly forcing up the transponder fees satellite

program providers pay. More seriously, if a shortage

were to develop, occasional users could be bumped

off the satellites in favor of full-time users willing to

pay premium prices. Educational providers (universities, consortia, regional school districts) would

have to lease their own transponders or cooperate

with those who do have access.

Technical developments may ease any potential

shortage. Ku-band transponders can be “split,”

doubling the number of channels that can be

transmitted. 30 This allows a provider to add additional programming without buying extra transponder time.31 Several educational programming providers, including the National Technological

University and TI-IN, use split transponder techniques. Another technique for maximizing transponder capacity is to use digital compression. Systems

under development may allow up to 18 full-motion

video channels to be transmitted over one transponder.

Cable Systems

Cable television systems use coaxial and fiber

optic cable to distribute entertainment and other

services to local subscribers. (See figure 3-6.)

Programmi ng is received from local broadcast

stations and national programming services, such as

HBO, at the cable “headend” and is sent out over the

cable in a tree configuration. A cable headend can

receive many types of signals, such as satellite or

microwave transmissions, which can then be retransmitted to the schools over the normal cable

system. The reach or scope of the system depends on

the size of the franchise area and interconnections

with other companies. A cable franchise area does

not necessarily follow the same boundaries as local

school districts, and in some areas, different schools

or districts may be served by different cable companies. Cable systems vary greatly in size, often

depending on the age of the system.32 In addition to

the actual cable, the equipment required includes:

modulators, demodulators, addressable convertors

(for certain programs such as pay-per-view), and

amplifiers. The life expectancy of this equipment is

approximately 10 years.

Cable television systems are primarily one-way,

broadcast (point-to-multipoint) type systems. Many

systems also have a limited number of reverse

channels that can give some measure of two-way

interactivity to the system. The number of reverse

channels depends on the design of the system. They

are most commonly used for data transmission or

ordering pay-per-view services, but are capable of

transmitting video signals.33 A school could be

assigned its own reverse channel to allow it to

transmit information back “upstream”’ to the cable

headend. Most cable systems make only limited use

of this two-way capability, because additional (reverse flow) amplifiers are needed to move signals

upstream, as well as special filters to keep upstream

and downstream signals separate. Additional equipment also requires increased maintenance.

Most (two-way) cable systems have limited

switching ability; that is, they cannot directly

connect point-to-point. Instead, signals from the

schools are sent back to the headend via reverse

channels, and then retransmitted over a standard

(perhaps scrambled) downstream channel. Anyone

on the system can receive the signal (in addition to

the intended site) by simply tuning in that channel.

Some newer cable systems use addressable decoders

connected to the television set that restrict nonpaying television subscribers, and allow specific programming, such as pay-per-view services, to be

received. Some systems, such as the University of

Lowell cable system (see figure 3-7), do have some

switching ability, but this system is a dedicated

institutional network separate from the public cable

system.

qo~au= most C-band Wmsponders do not have enough bandwidth (36 MHz), this technique is not available MJ tiem.

31Them is a ~~.off ~twmn dish size ~d cos~. If tie signals intefiere wi~ each o~er,power cm & r~uced to ]es~n ~C interference, but hrgcr

and more expensive dishes may then be needed to receive the signal.

3ZCable sys~ms we 1imit~ by tie num~r of times ~ siwa] must ~ ~pl]fi~ to reach a subscfi~ro E~h time tie Signal is ampiificd, more noise

is introduced into the signal, and after 20 to 30 amplifications, picture quatity becomes unacceptable. New developments in fiber optic technology arc

extending distances between amplifiers and improving signal quality.

sgAn innovative Project in Sib]ey county, MN, found ~()~her way to incre~e interaction by connecting f~ machines over the cable television lines.

The benefits realized include greater speed, no telephone charges (new dedicated hrtes and long distance charges), and simultaneous broadcast capability

(most fax IS broadcast sequentially). David Czech, “Fax, TV and the Remote Claw.room,” IH,E. Journal, vol. 16, No. 8, April 1989, pp. 69-72.
Chapter 3-Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 69

Figure 3-6--Cable Television Distribution System

Cable headend

Programming from many sources can be redistributed through a cable television distribution system. Schools can receive educational

programming through the local cable company and some systems can also be used for two-way communication between schools.

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1989

Converting a one-way system to two-way operation may require extensive redesign and upgrading, depending on the age and condition of

the system. Two-way capability can be accomplished by running an additional dedicated cable

from the school to the cable headend to allow signals

to be sent back, but this can be very expensive. (See

appendix B.)

Regulation

The main instruments of regulation of the cable

companies are the Cable Act of 1984 and the local

franchise process and agreement. These franchise

agreements may provide opportunities for school

systems to gain access to cable programming and

capacity. For example, the local public agency

signing the agreement could mandate public access

or require educational channels. School connection

to the local public or institutional cable network

could be required. Many franchise agreements

already specify that a number of channels be made

available for public access or educational uses.

Many schools, however, have limited access or

none at all. As cable franchises come up for

renewal, local educators may increase pressure

on the cable companies to connect unwired

schools.

The growing move to deregulate the cable

industry because of alleged monopolistic practices could have major impacts on educational
70 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Figure 3-7—University of Lowell Instructional Network

On-Line

In Planning Stages

The University of Lowell Instructional Network is a two-way cable television/microwave system that local schools use to share live

interactive classes. Each school can transmit and receive courses or other educational programming.

SOURCE: University of Lowell, 1989.
Chapter 3-Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 71

uses of cable television systems.34 Possible changes

in the Cable Act of 1984 could allow communities

more direct control over cable operations, and could

allow telephone companies to compete with the

cable operators in the provision of video services.35

Cable companies may be bought out by the telephone companies or form new relationships with

them if existing cross-ownership rules are relaxed.

Issues and Future Implications

Cable television systems are an available telecommunications resource in many parts of the

country. Cable penetration to the Nation’s households is now 50 percent, with cable lines passing 83

percent of all American homes.36 An estimated 55 to

60 percent of schools have cable hookups, and 80

percent of the Nation’s schools are in cable franchise

areas.

37 However, even if a school has access to

cable, it may be of limited value if classrooms are

not wired to receive the signals. In many cases, the

cable connection only reaches one classroom or

office. Few schools have all their classrooms wired

to take advantage of cable-delivered programming.

38 Wiring al1 classrooms for cable is expensive,

and communities negotiating franchises might require not only that the school be connected, but that

all classrooms be wired as well.

Access to cable channels that could be used for

distance learning is not assured. In many areas,

commercial programming and other commitments fill existing capacity. Cable operators may

resist reallocating channels for distance education

programs or courses that have limited audiences.39

Current cable system channel capacity is constrained by the limits of coaxial cable; channel

capacity cannot be easily upgraded short of laying

more cable. The deployment of fiber optic systems

by cable companies may alleviate this problem.

Fiber optic cable systems can transmit up to 150

channels. This new capacity combined with more

advanced switching designs could allow cable

companies to offer many advanced services such as

two-way point-to-point video and computer networking. 40

Cable company interest in distance education

varies, but appears to be increasing. In Michigan, for

example, of the 27 projects identified in the State’s

inventory of educational telecommunications, all

involved local cable companies as participants, even

if the system was not cable-based.41 In some States,

districts have had difficulty getting cable companies

to participate in distance education projects; with the

formation of the Alliance for Cable Education by

several major cable company operators and programmers, opportunities to use cable systems for

education are likely to increase.

Microwave Systems

Point-to-point microwave systems, as opposed to

ITFS, operate in various frequency bands.42 They

can transmit audio, data, or video in either a one-way

(simplex) or two-way (duplex) format. These systems require a clear line-of-sight between sender and

receiver, making the signal sensitive to terrain and

qqThe isWe was r~~ in testimony ~fore the Senate Subcornmittce on Antitrust, Monopolies, and Business Rights of the Committee on the Judiciw,

Apr. 12, 1989.

JsThls issue is tie fmus of boti con~ssional and FCC interest. Further Notice of Inquiry and Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in CC Docket No.

87-266, In the Marterof Telephone Cable Television Cross Ownership Rules Sectwns 6354-63.58. The issue also came up at various points in testimony

before the Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust, Monopolies, and Business Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, Apr. 12, 1989.

36u.s. &p-ent of Comerce, N~tion~l Telecommunications and Info~ation Adminiswation, NTf,4 Te/ecom 20(X3 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, October 1988), note 1, p. 563.

37.4~er t. LaMch ‘CNN Newsroom’ in High Schools,” Bro~casring, May 1, ]989, p. 1 ]6. A survey just completed by Jones Imcrcable indicates

that approximately 1,100 of 1,500 schools passed by cable in their franchise areas have access. Gregory Liptak, Jones tntcrcable, personal

communication, July 1989.

38~e D~]as Indemnden[ Schwl District IS Pre=nt]y wiring~1 we c]assroorns in iw school buildings, allowing students and tcachcrs to access cable

television, telephone, and computer services, at a total cost of $3.8 million. Diana Radspinner, director of media services, Dallas Independent School

District, July 1989.

39@e ~reauve ~iuuon Wm found by the South Berkshire Education Co]labmative in Massachusetts. The cable company was in the process of

upgrading the system, and instead of tearing down all the old trunk lines (a costly undertaking), they leased them to the schools for $1 per year.

40~e such ~vtisys~m is now being inst~]ed in Augusta, GA, by Jones ~tercable. The company is instd]ing fiber optic t.tld( ]IIES tO SUppO~

what it calls a Cable Area Network. The system will offer more channels more economically than the present all-coaxial cable network. Also, the company

is laying more fiber cable than it currently needs, giving it a huge unused channel capacity, some of which may bC u~d for education~ applications.

Liptak, op. cit., footnote 37.

4] Mich1gm State Bored of &jucation, ]nven[OTt of /m fractional Te[eco~unicatio~ .$yste~ in Michigan (Msing, MI: M~ch 1989).

42900 MHz, 1.9 GHz, 2.1 GHz, 6.0 Ghz, 12.0 GHz, 18.0 GHz, and 23.0 GHz.
72 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Figure Microwave Communication System

transmission I

Microwave radio

repeaters

School

SOURCE: Offi- of Technology Assessment, 1989.

buildings. (See figure 3-8.) At each transmit/receive

site, microwave systems require towers, antennas,

transmitters, and receivers.

There are two types of point-to-point microwave

systems: short-haul and long-haul. Short-haul systems typically have a range of 5 to 15 miles, suitable

for local communication between two schools, One

university, for example uses a short-haul microwave

link to reach a high school not served by the local

cable company. These new short-haul systems "

. . . are relatively simple to construct and operate,

and require no State regulatory approval or right-ofway.”43 The cost of these systems has fallen

significantly as the cost of the electronic components has declined. Development of digital microwave technologies has also improved performance

for some signal types. All of these changes have

resulted in a dramatic increase in the use of

microwave technology for short-haul applications.44

Long-haul systems typically have a range of up to

30 miles between towers, depending on transmitter

power, geography, dish size, and receiver sensitivity. In the recent past, multiple links of long-haul

microwave were used extensively for the Nation’s

long distance services. At this point, fiber optic

trunks have largely replaced these microwave facilities. Typical equipment lifetime is 7 to 10 years.45

Regulation

Microwave frequencies are regulated by FCC, and

licensing is required for all transmitter sites because

of interference concerns, and is necessary for receive

sites desiring protection from possible new sources

of interference. Local zoning ordinances may affect

placement of towers. In some cases, towers cannot

be built near the school, but instead must be located

some distance away and connected to the school via

coaxial or fiber cable.

Issues and Future Implications

The lower microwave frequencies are very

crowded in high traffic areas. They may be

difficult to obtain. Many of the newer microwave

links being installed, such as the University of

Lowell’s, use the relatively less crowded frequencies at 18.0 or 23.0 GHz.46

dqpeler W. Hu&r, The Geodesic Network 1987 Report on Competition in the Telephone Industry (Washington, DC: U.S. Govemmcnt ~inting Office.

January 1987), pp. 2.13-2.14.

dd%id.

~ssomc of the de~fiptive materi~ in this section comes from Karen Kitchen and Will Kitchen, Two-Way Interactive Television for Distance

Learnin@ Primer (Alexandria, VA: National School Boards Association, May 1988).

46Formorc ~xmp}es, we B~ce Jennings, “sho~-Hau] MicroWave—A Versatile Solution,” Telecommunicatwns, vol. 22, No. 6, Jue 1988! PP. 47~8
Chapter 3---Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 73

Photo credit: Library of Congress

The public telephone network has come a long way since the early days of operators asking, “number please.”

Today’s digital switches connect up to 300,000 calls per hour.

Public Switched Telephone Network figure 3-9.) PSTN has several characteristics that

make it unique among the systems examined so far.

The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) It is a public network; anyone can use it. The

uses a combination of technologies including fiber network is ubiquitous; it goes just about everyoptics, copper wiring, satellite, and microwave to where. 47 It is a switched network. Each user has a

transmit audio, data, and limited video signals. (See unique address (telephone number), which allows

47 Nationa] ~lmommunicaticms and Information Administration, op. cit., footnote 36. p. 20~.
74 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Figure 3-9-The Public Switched Telephone Network

School

\

\

Local telephone

company Local telephone

company

University

School

services today, in the future the public telephone network may become more a public information network, capable of carrying

conversations, computer communications, and video programming.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S9.

the network to connect any two points directly. It is

a two-way network; any site on the network can

both send and receive. Any site can originate

transmission and programming.48

Since the divestiture of the Bell Operating System

in 1984, PSTN has been changing rapidly. Several

trends are driving this change. The network is

increasingly digital. The use of digital fiber optic

lines is pushing implementation of other digital

technology such as digital switches. These switches

(which are actually specialized computers) are

essential for the development of the intelligent

network and the Integrated Services Digital Network

(ISDN), Further, fiber optics and digital technology are the prerequisites for advanced broadband networks capable of carrying high-speed

data and switched video applications. Broadband

48~s iSdiffcnnt, forexmp]e, from cable or satellite systems, which LISU~ly f~ction ~ ~int-to-multipoint broticsst technologies; they have Iit’nitt?d

switching and addressing capabilities. In addition, rhese systems are essentially one-way; they are not usually designed for two-way operation (this is

less true now with satellite data networks).
Chapter 3--Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 75

capabilities in PSTN are not expected to be

widespread for 5 to 20 years.49

ISDN represents the next step in the integration of

voice, data, and video services. ISDN is an end-toend digital network that will allow users to send

audio, data, and video signals over the same line

simultaneously. Although not all the relevant standards have been worked out, manufacturers are

already making ISDN equipment, and there are more

than 60 trials under way. 50 AS yet, no distance

learning projects have been attempted over a public

ISDN facility.

The timeframe for ISDN services remains unclear. Narrowband ISDN technologies (which can

operate at 1.544 Mbps, but cannot offer full-motion

video services) are being offered now, but broadband applications of ISDN, including video, are not

expected to appear until 1995 or be widely available

until 2000. The rate of ISDN (broadband and

narrowband) deployment will depend on technical

factors such as how quickly digital switches are

installed, the implementation of new signaling

systems such as SS7,51 and the cost and availability

of optical fiber. The regulatory environment and the

demand for wide bandwidth services, such as

videophone applications and high-speed data transfer, will also influence the rate of deployment.52

PSTN is becoming increasingly intelligent. New

and varied services give users more control over

their telephone. Hardware and software development is making it easier to control and customize

communications. Network management, services,

and features reside increasingly in software instructions rather than hard-wired connections. These

software-defined switches and networks are more

flexible than in the past and are easier to change. In

many cases, upgrading a system or providing new

features means only changing a circuit board or

software module, not rewiring the whole system.

Such applications may serve as the precursor to more

advanced services including educational services.

For example, users could dial in and gain access to

various multimedia courseware provided by independent providers.

Current regulation has opened up the network to

more competition,53 while stifling the development

of new services and hardware in some fields,

especially new information and video services .54 As

competition intensifies in various parts of the

network, more choices may open up for schools. The

continuing problem for State and Federal regulators

is how to assure innovation and competition while

still protecting the consumer; it is a tense balance

between the opportunities of competition and the

threats of monopoly.

Future development of PSTN is closely tied to

the implementation of fiber optics. Fiber is increasingly being used as the public network becomes digitized. The trends and issues surrounding

the deployment of fiber optic technology will have

a direct impact on PSTN.

Fiber Optics

Fiber optic systems work by converting the

analog electronic signals of voice and video and the

digital signals of data into light signals and transmitting them over thin strands of glass. Usually, these

systems send information digitally, although some

video applications do use an analog format. For

digital transmission, analog signals are converted to

digital bits, and then are transmitted by lasers or light

emitting diodes (LEDs) as pulses of light along the

WAS of 19t3rj, digit~ switches accounted for 40 percent of central office switches. Eighteen percent of Bell Operating Companies (BOCs) swltchcs

were digital in 1986, but the independent telephone companies, which account for more than one-half of the installed base of central office switches had

a much higher percentage of digital equipment. Fifty percent of their access lines are digital, while the BOCS access lines arc only 33 percent digital.

At this point, analog switch growth is limited to additional lines being added to existing analog switches. National Telecommunications and Information

Administration, op. cit., footnote 36, pp. 312, 314; Bob Kecly, district manager, Bell Communications Research, personal communication, Mar.31, 1989.

sOMich~l Warr and Ellis Booker, “Open the Box and Look Inside,” Telephony, vol. 215, No. 24, Dec. 12, 1988, p. 30.

slslw~lng System 7 is tie ]ate~t in control systems for fie pub]ic network. It allows greatly enhanced semices to be provided to users such as

customized 800 services and caller identification.

52 For a discussion of tie fxtors suo~dlng the deve]opmentof ISDN SCC, Rolf T. Wigand, “Integrated Services Digital N’etworks: Concepts, PoI icics,

and Emerging Issues,” Journaf of Corrununicarions, vol. 38, No. 1, winter 1988.

sqAn exmple is the proliferatlon of reglona] backbone networks (which we prim~i]y fi~r-based) hat offer an ahemative to &adiiional ]Ong distance

cmiers. Proposed systems in many States, including Indiana and Wisconsin, have met stiff challenges from local and long dismncc carriers. Mary Walker,

“Competition in the Local Exchange,” Telephone Engineer and Management, Aug. 1, 1988, p. 82.

sqThe M~lficatlon of Find Judgment ~d the Cab]e Act of }984 restfict the phone comp~ics to On]y ~~spofl]n~ video, they may not C)rlglnale Or

own the content passing over their lines.
76 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Photo credit: Bellcore

Is it spaghetti? No. Fiber optic systems use hair thin strands of glass and signals of light to carry voice, video, and data.

fiber strand. Receiving equipment senses these light

pulses, converts them back to electronic digital

signals, and then back to analog form for output. The

cost of analog fiber optic systems is lower than

digital systems because digital systems require

expensive equipment to convert the signals from

analog to digital and back. Digital transmission,

however, allows signals to be combined and compressed, permitting many more signals to be

transmitted. Signal quality is comparable for both

systems. In theory, fiber optics offers almost

unlimited speed and capacity for voice, data, and

video applications. Because information is transmitted as light, fiber optic signals are much less

susceptible to interference from weather, radio

frequency transmissions, or electromagnetic

“noise, ” which limit most conventional analog

transmission systems. In practice, however, the

capacity of fiber optic systems is limited by the

speed of the transmitter and the sensitivity of the

receiver. 55 The capacity of these systems, however,

is still far greater than other transmission media.

Fiber optic systems have been implemented

rapidly by the telephone companies and in large

private networks whose data or video needs cannot

be met by PSTN.56 At first, the high cost of such

systems made them economical only for highdensity applications such as long distance telephone

trunk routes or video applications. As costs have

fallen, fiber has been deployed in many new areas

and applications. Continued advances in fiber optic

technology promise even higher capacities, lower

costs, and more rapid deployment. For example, in

a trial currently being conducted around the country,

fiber is being used to deliver broadcast video from

five television networks to eight cities .57 The system

is expected to offer lower cost, higher quality

transmission, greater security, and the ability to

Mm fut=t fi~r OptiC ~stems commercially available today run at 3.4 giga (billion) bits per second (Gbps); most systems operate at 565 Mega

(million) bits per second (Mbps). The average length between repeaters is approximately 30 miles.

sbFi&r optics is sprang quickly in the Natii)i”, ’s telephone system, l%st used almost exclusively for long distance links on high traffic routes, fiber

is now being installed in the local loop and even to individual (new) homes in some arms, One projection says that most of [he homes in the United States

will be sewed by at least one fiber optic link by 2008. Robert M. Pepper, Through the Looking Glass: lntegrared Broadband Networkr, Regulatory Policy

and Instirutiond Change (Washington, DC: Federal Communications Commission, November 1988), p. 16. Presently, 50 percent of atl intercity traftlc

is now carried on fiber. All the major long distance carriers have extensive fiber networks, and regional networks are proliferating as well. National

Telecommunications and Information Adrninstration, op. cit., foomote 36, pp. 76,219,260.

s7’’Fiber Optic TV Trials Take Key Step,” High Technology Business, vol. 8, No. 12, Decemlxr 1988, p, 37.
Chapter 3--Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 77

deliver as yet undefined services. The development

of digital television receivers will eliminate the need

for expensive video codecs. The accessibility and

availability of fiber optic systems should increase

dramatically in the next several years.58

Regulation

Regulatory decisions will play an important

role in determining how the public network

develops. The huge capacity and high cost of

broadband development present the telephone companies and regulators with a classic problem. At

present there are no services the telephone companies can offer that justify putting in fiber optic lines

directly to end users. Putting in capacity for future

use that consumers pay for now, called “gold

plating,” has not been popular with State regulators.

Development may go slowly depending on demand

for new types of services and features, and how

regulators react.59

The restrictions placed on the Bell Operating

Companies (BOCs) by the Modification of Final

Judgment (MFJ) regarding manufacturing and

design of equipment, provision of long distance

services, and provision of information services

may hamper BOCs’ ability to offer the enhanced

services needed for distance learning. BOCs

cannot offer the complete service schools want, in

many cases, especially when video is desired. In

other instances, BOCs find it uneconomical because

of restrictions or requirements of the MFJ or State

public utility commissions. Telephone companies

are currently prohibited by the Cable Act of 1984

from providing video content, although they can

transport video signals. Easing restrictions may

encourage the telephone companies to make more

resources available to education. The resolution of

the cable/telephone company cross-ownership debate, changes in the Cable Act and the MFJ, and

evolving State regulation will impact what (video)

services the telephone companies provide.bo The

final outcome of these deliberations will significantly affect the range of options for distance

education delivery systems.

Issues and Future Implications

There are a host of issues that will determine how

the public switched network evolves in the next

decade. 60 PSTN may become less a telephone

network and more a general-purpose broadband

network capable of carrying all types of traffic,

including audio, data, and video. Because telephone companies cannot yet provide all the services

many educators want, a few schools have built their

own customized systems. In the future, schools may

not have to bypass the public network. Transmitting

a live telecourse with full audio and video interaction may be no more difficult than making a

telephone call is today. However, because of the

many political, economic, and regulatory issues

involved, the timeframe for the development of

this network is uncertain.

The future of ISDN is unclear. The trials and

services now available are all narrowband applications for which services and pricing are still evolving, 62 Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN), which is not

available yet, will offer users advanced data and

voice services as well as full-motion video applications in addition to existing narrowband services.

Some of the services that broadband fiber optic

networks are expected to offer include: videoconferencing and video transmission, high speed data and

fax, and HDTV.63 (See figure 3-10.) Many of these

services have clear applications in distance learning

projects. Since delivery of these services will require

the capacity of fiber optics transmission, the rate of

fiber deployment may determine how and when such

services become available for school use. B-ISDN

sgpep~r, op. cit., footnote 56.

59~ng ~onlzatlon~d depr~iatlon times, for ex~ple, mea hat ~ phone companies cannot recover COStS on equipment with shofi ]ifecycles.

This may prove to be a disincentive to future investment in the network. The debate about univers~ service and what it should be is also relevant, because

if universal service is redefined to include access to high bandwidth services such as video, the introduction of fiber may accelerate.

@For a discussion of the legal and regulato~ issues surrounding the telephone companies’ provision of video services see Pepper, op. cit., footnote

56.

61The= we diwuss~ in moredct~l in &nnisGilhooly, “The Politics of Broadband,” Telecommunications, VOI. 22, No. 6, June 1988. p. S 1.

62~ey offer s-s of ei~er 144 kbps (ZB+D) or 1.544 ~ps (Z3B+D), Which a]]ow tie ~~smission of enh~ccd voice ~d data services, but only

limited video apphcations.

63-Y see video semlces as ~ving the deployment of fiber optics and the development of a broadband public network, SW Andew C. BURU* “The

Potential of Fiber Optics to the Home: A Regulator’s Perspective,” Public Utilities Fortnight), vol. 123, Jan, 19, 1989; Pepper, op. cit., footnote 56.

A limiting factor in the deployment of broadband video applications is the switching equipment available. Video switching technology is still in the early

developmental stages. Although technically possible, widespread application of broadband switching technology will depend on standardization and

demand, and is still probably many years away. Kecly, op. cit., footnote 49.
78 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Figure 3-10--lnformation and Communications Services of the Future

In the not-so-distant future, schools will have access to a wide variety of information and communications services. Advances in

transmission and switching capabilities will bring audio, video, and data services from many sources directly to the school.

SOURCE: Offi- of Technology Assessment, based on reformation from Bell Atlantic, 1989.

may evolve gradually, as fiber capacity is put in, or telephone companies gain more experience with

it may (in some areas) “leap-frog” existing technolo- video transmission and processing technologies. No

gies, moving users directly to advanced broadband standardized price structure or tariffs exist for

applications. Availability of broadband services will multichannel video service,64 and in many cases, the

be uneven across the Nation for some time. telephone companies have had to price services on

a case-by-case basis.

Because of the newness of these services, prices

have yet to be determined. Pricing policy, especially Integrating the various ISDN “island” field trials

in the area of video services, is evolving as the may be difficult because each trial uses equipment

~~mi~ pe]]mt, ~xautive “ice president, Wle.Systems Associates, Inc., prson~ communication, Aug. 10, 1989.
Chapter 3-Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 79

and software made by different manufacturers.

Schools using ISDN in one part of the country may

not be able to connect with schools served by other

phone companies, or the services and features

offered by one phone company may not be available

outside that company’s service area. As ISDN

moves into the implementation phase, standardized

equipment and interfaces could resolve these differences.

65

One of the fundamental problems schools face

as they try to interconnect their networks is the

lack of uniform national standards governing

digital video and computer interconnection.66

With the proliferation of new technologies and new

competitors, and in the absence of a national

standard-setting authority, many interpretations of

standards have emerged. Uncertainty about standards and compatibility may complicate schools’

hardware and software decisions.

Distance education needs may help justify broadband and ISDN applications. In exchange for

permission to add capacity, telephone companies

may agree to install advanced systems in schools.

Education could bean important factor in expansion

of the telephone network. The telephone companies

are beginning to recognize the potential of the

education market, and schools that want fiber optic

systems will be seeking help from local, regional,

and national telephone companies and providers.

In most instances, schools implementing a fiber

system have to build the system “from the ground

up,” laying new fiber from school to school and

classroom to classroom. In the near future, this

may not be the case. With an increasing prevalence

of fiber in PSTN, and with improved switching

capability, districts may be able to hook onto

existing fiber routes and only have to incur “final

mile” costs to link schools and classrooms. In that

case, fiber may be competitive, for example, with

buying a satellite dish.

Even when ways are found to economically

deliver advanced information and video services

to schools via the public telephone network, most

school buildings lack the internal wiring to fully

take advantage of new PSTN capabilities. Telephone connections in individual classrooms are

rare. To use computer networking, compressed

video, and full video resources, classrooms will

require wiring—a telephone jack, a cable outlet, or

a connection to an outside satellite or fiber equipment. While new schools can be planned and wired

easily, retrofitting some older buildings may prove

difficult and costly.67

PSTN was engineered for analog voice applications. Newer services, such as high-speed data

transmission and videoconferencing, strain system

capacity and switching capability. While long distance lines and major trunk lines are increasingly

fiber-based and have huge capacities, local telephone lines remain largely copper, limiting their

ability to handle high-speed or high-bandwidth

applications. Some copper lines can be “conditioned” to provide transmission rates up to 1.544

Mbps, but even this may not be enough for some

video applications.

COSTS OF TECHNOLOGY

SYSTEMS

[T]here are no simple formulas to help estimate the

cost of a technology system.68

The costs of distance learning technologies are

difficult to analyze because technological options

are so varied and are changing so rapidly. The

technologies used in distance education are more

powerful today than in the past, offering advanced

capabilities and improved performance. At the same

time, costs for the electronic components that make

up these technology systems have been steadily

declining. (Equipment and related costs for individual technology systems are discussed in appendix

B.) These two trends have produced systems that are

increasingly less expensive for the capabilities they

offer teachers and learners. Local schools and

65~= ~b~~~b~d applications av~]ab]e with today’s technology, however. Switched Multi-Megabit Data Service (SMDS) is a setwice concept

that will offer high-speed (45 Mbps) data communication services for computer communication using technology available now. This scnwice will be

available in the early 1990s.

66With elW~onic ~~1 (e.m&]), for ex~p]e, it h~ j~~ ~come possible to ~nd ~ el~~onic message tiough various services or from One COmptlny

to another. All the various e-mail systems have been (and most probably rcmain) incompatible; each has its own formats and protocols, which make

interconnecting them very difficult.

%x footnote 38.

68N~on~ Schml Bo~ds Association, Plannlngfor Teleco~u~”c~io~; A sc~ol ~&r’s Pri~r (W=hington, w: 1989), p. 10.
80 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

districts are finding that they can now afford (often

with some help) the technology tools they need. Five

examples are illustrative:

●

●

●

●

●

The Panhandle Shar-Ed Video Network was

installed at a total cost of $340,000. This

included laying fiber between four schools,

outfitting schools with all necessary hardware,

and maintenance and operation for 5 years.

Annualized costs come to $17,000 per site.

After 5 years the local telephone cooperative

will charge the schools a minimal fee for

continued maintenance and use.

In the Missouri Education Satellite Network,

participating schools pay a one-time fee of

$8,000 for equipment and an annual programming fee of $1,000. Tuition costs for student

courses and staff development are extra. Participating schools that choose to lease hardware

and services pay an annual fee of $3,500 plus

tuition.

The Kentucky Educational Television initiative will construct a satellite uplink, install

satellite downlinks at each of the State’s 1,300

elementary and secondary schools, and build a

new Telecommunications Center, at a cost of

$11.4 million.

Houston’s InterAct ITFS transmitting equipment cost $330,000. This system reaches participating schools within a 50-mile radius

around the city. Participating schools have

invested an average of $12,000 for hardware.

Since 1985, the Pennsylvania Department of

Education has provided $952,000 to fund the

Pennsylvania Teleteaching Project, a statewide

audiographics project. Funding has supported a

pilot program and has purchased equipment for

48 schools. Funds have also been used to

upgrade software and hardware, for staff training, and for maintenance. heal schools pay

telephone charges, about $45 per month depending on use.

Varying equipment requirements, use of local

resources, and the individual nature of each system

makes cost comparisons between different technologies impractical. For example, one study that compared costs at five hypothetical districts linked by a

variety of technologies showed real differences in

the absolute cost of the various configurations,69 but

the results were judged to be of limited value

because the hypothetical construction was too contrived, and because the capabilities of the systems

varied so greatly .70 Key factors affecting overall cost

of distance learning systems include:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Instructional design: what types of connections

are needed? Instructional design requirements,

particularly interaction, will affect the cost and

type of system chosen.

Scope of the system: how many sites will the

system serve? More sites will increase the cost

of the system, but costs per student or site may

decrease as economies of size are realized.

Existing infrastructure: what telecommunications resources are available? Schools with

access to local resources, such as cable television systems or university ITFS networks, may

be able to use those resources at minimal cost.

Other schools may have to build or lease

facilities.

Partnerships: who can schools share costs

with? Cooperative arrangements with business

or higher education can substantially reduce

costs by sharing facilities and resources.

Engineering requirements of the system: what

are the technical requirements of the system?

Longer distance or rough terrain may increase

costs.

Financial arrangements: will it be cheaper to

buy or lease capacity? Many combinations are

also possible, such as owning the hardware and

leasing the transmission channels.

Programming: what types of programming are

desired? Broadcast quality video production is

very expensive. Other forms of audio, video, or

computer materials may be far less expensive.

@Sta~ of MiMegota T* Force on Instructional Ikchnology, State of Minnesota Tdsk Force on instructional Technology: Report to the @@.UUrt

(St. Paul, MN: December 1988).

?OJo~ w~]in, Mim+sota t)epwent of Education, personal communication, June 16, 1989.
Chapter 3—Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems . 81

Table 3-2--Cost Categories for Distance Learning

Initial:

Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Infrastructure and hardware costs, such as satellite dishes, Instructional Television Fixed Service

and microwave towers, computers, fiber optic or coaxial cable, monitors, cameras. (Equipment

and related costs for individual technology systems are discussed in app. B.)

Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Costs needed to actually put the system into operation. These costs cover initial professional training,

program development, materials acquisition, staff support, management, and miscellaneous

equipment. Such costs are valued not only by actual dollars spent, but also in the time invested.

Ongohg:

Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Costs paid to acquire, produce, or use educational programming or instruction. These include

subscription costs, costs for individual courses or materials, and any other costs associated with

producing a course or program.

Operation and maintenance . . . . Costs associated with continued operation of the system. Some costs include: maintenance and

repair; salaries for teachers, aides, and technicians; and expendable materials. Also included in

this category are recurring costs associated with training technical staff, teachers, and aides.

Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Costs of satellite transponder time, or long distance telephone charges, for example.

Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Costs that result from enlarging an existing program. These include: new equipment, personnel, and

management costs.

SOURCE: OTA analysis, from Anne Batey and Richard N. Cowell, Distance Edu@tion: An Ovemkwv (Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational

Laborato~, Technology Program, November 1986).

. Training: who must be trained and what

expertise is already available? Experienced

teleteachers and support staff will need less

training and support. Inservice and staff development costs will vary depending on the types

of technology used and how the course is

designed.

Schools implementing distance learning systems

have two types of costs: 1) initial costs that include

equipment and development; and, 2) ongoing costs

that include programming, transmission, operation

and maintenance, and system expansion. (See table

3-2.) The most visible costs are the startup costs,

which can be quite high, especially if few resources

exist and the system has to be built “from the ground

up.” High startup costs can make some technology

options too expensive for school districts to afford

on their own.

In the long run, the ongoing expenses associated

with operating a distance learning system may be

much more substantial than the initial costs. The

equipment necessary for a school to participate in

Missouri’s Educational Satellite Network, for example, costs $8,000, but annual subscription costs for

receiving programming could soon equal or exceed

that amount and will continue to accrue each year

that schools subscribe. School districts that only use

free programming from public television or cable

programmers may have minimal costs. Districts that

share local teachers and resources electronically

tend to have lower programming costs, although for

districts or schools producing their own programming, costs will be higher. Schools that buy courses

from commercial providers pay subscription and/or

per course costs. Other ongoing costs associated

with distance learning include operating expenditures for maintenance and repair, transmission, and

any costs associated with expanding the system.

Opportunities exist for local schools to reduce (or

even eliminate some) costs by sharing infrastructure

resources and programming costs with other districts or education agencies, private business, higher

education, and State and local government. In the

Panhandle Shar-Ed Video Network, for example,

four neighboring school districts secured funding

from private foundations and from the State and,

working in collaboration with the local telephone

cooperative, are sharing the costs of constructing

and operating a fiber optic system for the schools

and the community. Institutions of higher education,

with technology capacity and instructional resources, become natural partners for K-12 distance

education efforts.

Growing opportunities exist for schools to share

ongoing expenses as well. By expanding the uses of

a system, schools can share costs with other user

groups. The State of Maine, for example, will use its

higher education telecommunications network to

serve other learner communities after regular school

hours. In this way, the resources of the network are

more fully utilized, and costs can be borne by more

users. Local schools can similarly reduce operating

costs and share benefits with local businesses,

governments, and community groups.
SUMMARY

Improvements in telecommunications and information technology have given schools many options

for delivering instruction and educational resources

to distant students and teachers. Further advances in

technology, including more powerful computers and

storage devices, the deployment of fiber optics,

better signal processing and compression, and the

rapid advance of digital technology, promise even

more opportunities in the future. The capabilities of

distance education will expand as information processing and telecommunications technologies continue to converge, as audio, data, and video become

easier to combine, store, and use, and as various

technologies and networks are linked.

This explosion of technological possibilities presents schools and educators with a host of new

challenges and opportunities. Schools will face an

increasingly complex array of technologies and

providers. Many new players, including the telecommunications industry and the post-secondary and

higher education community, can help sort through

the choices. Educational users can become leaders in

advancing the development of new education technologies, applications, and experiences. Education

and industry can work together.

Today, the technical capability exists for schools

to provide effective distance education, and a

growing number of efforts utilize available telecommunications infrastructure and information resources. However, access to telecommunications

resources varies considerably in different locations.

Channels that could be used to provide distance

education are saturated in many areas, high-capacity

fiber optic lines are concentrated in more populous

areas, and schools’ internal wiring is often inade-
Chapter 3-Technology Links: Choices for Distance Learning Systems ● 83

quate. As a result, most efforts will require additions

to existing systems and/or the construction of

entirely new systems.

A major factor in the advance of telecommunications technologies and services is the sometimes

confusing regulatory structure in the United States.

Regulations and policy regarding computer and

telecommunications technologies have been largely

promulgated with little consciousness of the needs

and concerns of education. Transmission costs can

be very high and gaining access to scarce communications channels and resources can be difficult for

local schools. Future changes to telecommunications policy and regulation, especially those governing the public telephone network and the Nation’s

cable television providers, could radically affect the

options available to schools. To protect rising

interest and investment in educational telecommunications, the education community needs a voice in

determining how these policies are defined.

The future promises vastly more sophisticated

telecommunications systems for education. These

systems will generate new and different applications

as the technologies advance and as students and

teachers learn to use the systems more creatively and

effectively. These systems have the capability of

serving more than just the needs of education—

telecommunications is achieving greater importance

in encouraging economic development, training the

work force, and extending the resources of the

information age to all citizens.

Policy options serving immediate needs and

long-term goals could include:

. Support technical assistance to schools and

States planning distance learning efforts.

Experiences of those already up and running

could be shared more broadly.

●

●

Review and shape Federal and State telecommunications policy to ensure a coherent

use of communications technology for education. Assuring adequate capacity on telecommunications systems for education at reasonable rates could expand the use of such facilities

for distance education and promote the improvement and expansion of existing systems,

as well as help to justify investment in new

telecommunications resources.

Support standards and protocols that promote the integration of different technologies and networks. The growing national

infrastructure for distance education is composed of numerous systems with various administrative and technical frameworks. Efforts

to expand the communications infrastructure

for education could build on resources already

installed, while seeking further connections

and flexibility.

Telecommunications and information technologies can advance teaching and learning to new

levels. The potential of technology for addressing

the needs of education cannot be neglected:

Technology has the capacity to do more than aid

the exchange of information and ideas. It can

enhance students’ powers of analysis, sharpen their

capacity to think critically, improve their writing

skills, and increase their ability to develop independent judgments. If used properly, it is likely to alter the

learning environment to such an extent that the old

institutional models of campuses, classes, lectures,

schedules, timetables, and tests will not survive in

their present forms. How, when, what, and where we

teach will change.71

71~~d R. McNeil, “Tcc~o]og 1S a Hot TopiC, But Its lrnp~[ on Higher Mucation Has Been Minimal,” The Chronicle of Hi@er Education, June

7, 1989, p. A44.
Chapter 4

The Teacher Link:

New Opportunities

for the Profession

Photo credit: TI-IN Network

The key to any successful distance Iearning course is a good teacher.
CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

MATCHING EDUCATIONAL NEEDS AND QUALIFIED TEACHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

What Role Can Distance Learning Play in Matching Educational Needs

and Available Teachers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

IMPLEMENTING DISTANCE LEARNING: CLASSROOM CONSIDERATIONS . . . 90

The Need for Teacher Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90

Distance Learning Technologies and Teaching Style: Issues of Interaction and

Instructional Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

What Skills Do Teachers Need To Teach Via Technology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

The Role of the Classroom Facilitator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

DISTANCE LEARNING AND THE PREPARATION OF

NEW TEACHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Classroom Observation for Education Students Via

Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Electronic Networks Linking Student Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

RESOURCES FOR THE ONGOING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

OF TEACHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Inservice Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

Electronic Networks for Linking Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Courses for Credit for professional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

POLICY ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Boxes

Box Page

4-A. Team Teaching Over a Two-Way Video Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

4-B. Guided Observation: Iowa Teachers on Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

4-C. Los Angeles Educational Telecommunications Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

4-D. National Technological University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Chapter 4

The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession

While the intellectual and social demands on teachers have escalated at an astonishing rate since

this century began, the nature and organization of teachers’ work have changed only a little since the

middle of the 19th century. We now live in an age when many elementary school students have their

own microcomputers. These students can put some of the most amazing achievements of modern science

and technology to work in support of their learning. Yet their teachers are still working with the same

job descriptions that teachers had in the mid-1800s, when McGuffey’s Readers and spelling slates were

the leading educational technology.’

INTRODUCTION

Today not every teaching need can be met by

applying the traditional classroom model of 1

teacher standing in front of a class of 25 students. In

some cases, there may be just a handful of students

who need to take a particular course, not enough to

justify hiring a teacher. Or a district may be unable

to find a fully qualified teacher, especially in

specialized or advanced subjects. Because of this

mismatch between student needs and fully qualified

teachers, many districts are turning to distance

learning technologies for help.

Distance learning technologies can bring the

teaching profession out of the age of McGuffey’s

Readers and into the 21st century. The very technologies that can bring better resources into the

classroom to help students can also improve the

quality of the teaching work force.

Teacher quality is a charged term, subject to

debate as to what constitutes teaching excellence.

This much is clear, however: we need to find ways

to bring into teaching people who are better prepared, and to maintain and upgrade the skills and

knowledge of those already in the classroom. We

also need to do a better job of utilizing the human

resources we already have, to share professional

expertise, and to draw on the skills of the most

experienced and talented teachers so that their

wisdom will be available to others. Distance learning technologies offer a resource for meeting these

goals. But to improve teaching via technology,

enthusiasm and excitement for technology must be

matched with careful attention to three critical

factors: involving teachers in the planning and

implementation process, accounting for how teaching with technology can change the nature of

teaching and the teacher’s role, and educating

teachers to take advantage of these teaching tools.

FINDINGS

●

●

●

●

A mismatch between student needs and qualified teachers, especially in areas such as mathematics, science, foreign language, or advanced

placement courses, has driven many districts

to adopt distance learning strategies. The need

to provide inservice training and professional

development to school staff has been another

motivating factor.

The key to success in distance learning is the

teacher. If the teacher on the system is good, the

technology itself can become almost transparent.

Conversely, no technology can overcome poor

teaching; poor teaching is actual] y exacerbated in

distance education applications. But when skilled

teachers are involved, enthusiasm, expertise, and

creative use of the media can enrich students

beyond the four walls of their home classroom.

Outstanding teachers can also serve as “electronic

mentors” to other teachers.

Teachers’ concerns about being displaced by

technology must be taken seriously. Systems

imposed from above are understandably threatening. However, when teachers are involved in all

aspects of planning and implementing distance

learning strategies, they can shape the systems to

meet the needs of the entire school community.

Teachers using distance learning have had to

find new ways to structure student-teacher

interaction. Old styles of teaching may not be

appropriate or effective. The inherent limitations

l~e HO~eS Group, ro~rr~’s Teachers A Report of the Holmes Group (EZM Lansing. MI: April 1986), P. 6.

-87 -
88 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

●

●

●

●

●

in distance learning technologies can be catalysts

for instructional design and teaching techniques

that enhance the learning process.

Distance education systems offer many benefits

to teachers for professional growth. Courses

can make it possible to broaden and update

knowledge, enhance skills, or change specialties.

Electronic networks give teachers a chance to

connect with colleagues and share resources,

experience, and teaching. Teachers delivering

courses over distance learning systems can focus

on their specialties. They can negotiate more

flexible, individualized teaching options.

Teachers must be trained if they are to use

distance learning technologies effectively.

Training opportunities, however, remain limited.

Few preservice and inservice programs focus on

how to incorporate technology into instruction,

create new opportunities for interactivity, or

develop materials and use the media most effectively.

Distance teaching is not for everyone. For some,

nothing can substitute for the intimacy of the

classroom. Those who serve as distance teachers

report that it takes more time to prepare for class

sessions and more effort to compensate for the

separation from their students. They must be more

organized. Being on stage at all times can be

intimidating. But distance teachers are excited

about the opportunity to be innovators, to teach

the subjects they love to a wider audience of

students, and to use technology as a springboard

to creativity.

Classroom facilitators matter. How they work

with the distant teacher shapes the style of

instruction and affects the success of the effort.

The opportunity exists to develop regional or

national resources for teacher development

over distance learning systems, similar to

professional development programs now available for engineers. One of the reasons for the

success of engineering and technical programs is

the support provided by employers. Convinced of

the crucial need for their staff to keep up-to-date

with courses relevant to their work, employers

provide not just tuition fees, but classroom space

at or near the work site and release time so that

employees can participate. If education were to

support similar efforts, the current and developing

nationwide distance learning infrastructure could

make it possible to create a national system of

teacher enhancement, drawing on the best resources around the country.

MATCHING EDUCATIONAL

NEEDS AND QUALIFIED

TEACHERS

Do we have today, and will we have tomorrow,

the number of qualified teachers needed to equip our

young people to meet the social and economic

challenges of the 21st century?2 It is easier to

describe the current situation than it is to project into

the future, particularly since the future of schooling

is being redefined by many forces. Shifting demographics and social needs, advances in technology,

and changing demands on the profession of teaching

all contribute to current school reform and restructuring efforts.

Teacher turnover is the factor that most affects the

demand for new teachers. Districts continually need

to replace teachers who leave the profession before

retirement. Of special concern is the fact that much

of the current teaching force is nearing retirement.

The Department of Education projects that between

1988 and 1997 about 1.6 million new teachers will

be needed.3

School reform efforts have also pushed hard on

the demand side of the equation. State graduation

requirements and prerequisites for university entrance have increased demands for curriculum offerings, especially in mathematics, sciences, and foreign languages. Many schools find themselves

unable to meet this demand. Technically, few

positions for required courses stand vacant, but

many schools have had to use teachers who are not

fully qualified to fill those positions. The 1985-86

2Much of this discussion comes from James B. Stedman, Congressional Research Service, “lkachers: Issues for the IOlst Congress,” issue brief,

June 1, 1989.

3~e ~pment of ~Wation relies on B~eau of Labor Statistics’ estimates of teacher at~tion in 1983-W at4.9 percent for public elementary school

teachers and 5.6 percent for secondary teachers. Some analysts challenge these attrition rates arguing that a higher percentage of teachers leave annually,

raising the number needed by a substantial margin. Ibid., pp. 6-7.
Chapter 4-The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession ● 89

National Survey of Science and Mathematics Education4 found that a majority of high school principals

reported difficulty hiring fully qualified physics,

chemistry, computer science, and mathematics

teachers, among others. The situation among foreign

language teachers is equally troubling. Forty percent

of those responding to a State survey of foreign

language teacher availability reported an existing

shortage at the elementary level; 48 percent reported

shortages at the secondary school level. Furthermore, they expect these shortages to increase: 57

percent anticipated foreign language shortages at the

elementary level within the next 5 years, and 62

percent at the secondary levels

Concern has also focused on the number of

minority teachers in schools today and in the future.

At a time when the proportion of students from

minority groups is expanding rapidly,6 the number

of teachers from minority populations is not keeping

pace. At one time, 18 percent of the U.S. teaching

force was made up of Black teachers. Today the

figure is 7 percent, and some estimates suggest that

the proportion will fall to less than 5 percent by

1995. Only 2 percent of teachers in public schools

are Hispanic.7 Minority enrollment in undergraduate

teacher education programs has remained relatively

stable over the last 3 years, never exceeding 5

percent of the total enrollments

Can the needs for qualified new teachers—

especially in these areas of special need—be met

through traditional means? Are colleges of education producing enough qualified new teachers?

Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, the number

of newly trained entrants graduating from undergraduate teaching programs declined by more than

one-half. However, this was a period when teacher

demand was also dropping. After years of teacher

surplus, in 1985 jobs and job seekers were roughly

in balance.9 Reflecting a number of factors, including ,increased demand for teachers and improved

teacher salaries, enrollment in undergraduate

teacher education programs jumped by slightly more

than 20 percent between 1985 and 1986, and is

expected to reflect an increase of about 10 percent

between 1986 and 1987.10

Teacher applicants are coming from a wider pool

than just the recent graduates of education programs,

however. Teaching is attracting diverse populations,

including many reentering teachers. Data from the

American Federation of Teachers’ survey of States

show that 53 percent of new hires in 1987-88 were

reentering teachers.11 In a recent study of teacher

applicants, 12 school districts reported that about 50

to 60 percent of their applicants for teaching

positions are “recent college graduates,” 10 to 20

percent are “former teachers trying to get back into

teaching,” 10 to 20 percent are “substitute or

part-time teachers seeking full-time teaching positions,” 2 to 5 percent are “mid-career changers

seeking teaching jobs,” and 2 to 5 percent are retirees

wanting to become teachers.13

Many States have created special programs to

recruit and train new teachers in the areas of

mathematics and science. Three approaches are in

use.

14 Two types of programs recruit professionals

(retirees or career changers) who may be interested

in teaching. Some programs provide the coursework

required for full certification, while others (known

as alternative certification) establish less restrictive

criteria for the teaching credential. A third type of

program recruits teachers who are currently teaching

other subjects and gives them the courses they need

4SW ~~ R. Weiss, Report of the 1985.86 iVational Survey of Science and Mathematics Educatwn (Research Triangle pwk, NC: Rescwch Tria.nglc

Institute, 1987).

5J~1e B. Draper, Joint committee for L~guages, State Activities Update: Focus on the Teacher (YOnkerS, NY: Americm co~cil on tie Teac~ng

of Foreign Languages, December 1988).

6BY the yew 2000, one-half of tie student Popu]a[lon Wll] be made up of Blacks, Hisp~& and members of o(her minority gToups. In many school

districts, especially urban disrncts, this is already the case. The Task Force on Women, Minorities, and the Handicapped in Science and Technology,

“Changing America: The New Face of Science and Engineering,” unpublished interim report, 1988.

TMmin Ha~mm, “More Minority Teachers, “ Phi Delta Kappan, vol. 70, No. 10, June 1989, p. 773.

gLynn Olson, “Education Schools’ Enrollment Rises for Third Straight Year, Study Shows,” Education Week, vol. 7, No. 26, Mar. 22, 1989, p. 7.

Qcmegle Fo- on Education ~d the &onomy, A Na[ion prepared Teachers for the 21st Century, The Repofi of the Task Force on Teaching

as a Profession (New York, NY: 1986), p. 26.

IOolWn, op. cit., footnote 8

1 l~encm Federation of Te~her~’ SuNey, cited in c. Emi]y Feis~tzer, T“ac~~ Supp/y and De~~ surveys ]988 (Washington DC: National

Center for Education Information, 1988), p. 7.

‘21bid.

131b1d,

14 For more ,nfomation on hew Progms, we Linda Dm]lng.H~mond et a],, Redesigning Teacher Educati[jn opening the Doorfor NCW Recruits

to Science and Mathematics Teaching (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corp., Center for the Study of the Teaching Profession, 1989).
90 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

to obtain certification in mathematics and science.

Of those graduating from all three alternative

programs, 85 percent enter the teaching profession

immediately after graduation, and about 75 percent

stay in the classroom at least 2 years. Both percentages are comparable to those for graduates of

traditional teacher preparation programs. Sixty-four

of these programs provided about 10 percent of new

science and mathematics teachers in 1986-87.15

These nontraditional programs also appear to be

attracting substantially more minority candidates

than other teacher preparation programs.16

What Role Can Distance Learning Play in

Matching Educational Needs and

Available Teachers?

Distance learning provides a way to overcome

field-specific teacher shortages by offering

classes taught by fully qualified teachers. Because

today’s technology makes it possible to bring a

teacher from any distance to the school electronically, sharing teachers among schools, once a

geographic or physical impossibility, is now feasible. For example, in a recent survey of shortages

in foreign language teaching, 38 percent of the

States reported that they now offer foreign

language instruction via technology (most commonly satellite-delivered courses) as one solution.17

Distance learning can do more than fill the gaps in

an uneven teaching supply. It can allow student

teachers to observe and work with outstanding

teachers-’ ’electronic mentors”-anywhere in the

country. It can provide a way to keep teachers

up-to-date or to develop expertise in new areas. It

can facilitate the preparation of new teachers from

nontraditional sources. And it can bring new resources to enrich the classroom environment, create

opportunities for team teaching, and open up the

walls of the once-isolated classroom.

IMPLEMENTING DISTANCE

LEARNING: CLASSROOM

CONSIDERATIONS

The Need for Teacher Involvement

If distance learning is to take hold, teachers

must be involved in the planning of these systems,

trained to use the tools they provide, and given

the flexibility to revise their teaching accordingly.

Some school reformers and technology zealots have

eagerly embraced technology as the new educational

fix, an all-purpose solution to the educational ills

that beset America today. Those responsible for

running the Nation’s schools typically take a more

conservative, long-term view of change. The physician’s “First, do no harm” may be the unspoken

watchword of school administrators looking at

alternatives to the present system. One requirement

for constructive change is the involvement of those

who will be left holding the reins—the teachers.

Distance learning, like most technological solutions, may instill initial skepticism and apprehension

among parents, students, and teachers. Like the

introduction of computers, some of this apprehension subsides once the technology becomes “demystified. ” When teachers develop experience and an

understanding of how to complement their own

teaching, their outlook changes. With familiarity,

they look at technology as another teaching tool.

But teachers are aware that some schools may try

to take educational shortcuts by buying into distance

learning courses as a way of reducing staff. Teachers

also worry about the quality of instruction students

will receive if distance learning systems are not well

planned. Teacher concerns must be factored into

any planning for distance learning. The National

Education Association has taken a strong stand on

this issue:

The committee believes that the Association and

its affiliates should be involved in the planning,

implementation, and evaluation of long distance

learning proposals and programs to provide students

the highest quality learning experience.18

%id., p. xiv.

]~e~l, 20 ~rcent of tie non~~l[on~ ~mlts ~ Minofity ~up mem~~; 10 prcent Me Blxk. By comparison, the 1985 Survey of Recent

College Graduates found that only 9 pereent of all bachelor’s and master’s degree candidates newly qualified to teach (in all subject areas) were minority

group members; 5.6 percent were Black. U.S. Depanment of Education, Center for Education Statistics, May 1986, cited in Darling-Hammond, op. cit..

footnote 14, p. 49.

17~%r, op. cit., fOOtnOte 59 P. 2.

18Natim~ ~ucaum Association s~i~ Committu on ~hnoloa, “policy Stakment on ~hnology,” unpublished document, July 1989, p. 7.
Chapter 4--The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession . 91

Some teachers fear that they will be replaced by

teachers beamed in from afar, in a Star Trek vision

of the future. Interestingly, this concern diminishes

in schools that have used distance learning technologies; those teaching in distance learning projects are

adamant in their feeling that teleteaching will not

replace regular teachers.19 Other teachers are concerned that they will be forced to teach over these

systems. A more realistic concern is that teachers

will be given distance learning responsibilities as an

add-on to their regular teaching, with no allowance

for the demands of this new role. There is some basis

for this concern. Teleteachers (those who teach a

course over distance learning systems) consistently report that it takes them more time to

prepare for distant teaching lessons, and more

time for followup with students. For example, in

the OTA case studies,20 despite the varying systems,

most teachers strongly agreed that preparing lesson

materials for distant teaching is much more timeconsuming than preparing lessons for regular teaching. These teleteachers estimated that preparation of

a typical daily lesson ranged from 38 minutes up to

41⁄2 hours. Yet, despite the increased preparation

time, fewer than one-half of the teleteachers surveyed in the OTA case studies received a higher

salary for teaching a telecourse than they would in a

regular classroom, and 87 percent were not given a

reduced teaching load.21

Some districts that have not involved teachers

early on have experienced labor-management difficulties. Unions representing teachers want to ensure

that teacher employment and responsibility levels do

not decrease after the implementation of a distance

learning network.22 When faculty feel they do not

have enough input into the planning, implementation, and uses of distance learning systems, the result

can be frustration, confusion, and potentially less

effective use of any system.23

When teachers are involved in the development of

distance learning systems they have been able to

shape the systems to assure appropriate and highquality instruction and to help planners consider a

broader range of services for the entire school

community. More importantly, this planning can

contribute to a rethinking of staffing requirements

and alternative educational arrangements as part of

school restructuring efforts. There has been little

research on the issue of how distance learning can

affect staffing, or how new or desirable teaching

models can be utilized, but alternative staffing

arrangements and flexibility in collective bargaining

issues can be negotiated. Several new possibilities

could be considered.

. Part-time or reduced load teaching assignments.

Teachers who are at home with young children, or

have retired or left teaching for other careers may

wish to keep their hand in teaching on a part-time

basis, specializing in distant teaching. For example,

in Houston’s Region IV Interact system, the 11

instructional television teachers are recruited from 3

alternative sources of public school teachers: retired

teachers, teachers not currently employed full time

in secondary teaching assignments, and full-time

university graduate students who hold teaching

certificates. 24

Using master teachers or subject area specialists for some or all portions of a distance

learning course to supplement the skills of the

home-site classroom teacher.

In one example, a high school in New York State

offered Russian history using faculty from a nearby

university via distance learning.25 The classroom

facilitator was a history teacher who lacked the

special qualifications to teach Russian history. The

teacher took the course along with his students,

collaborated with the teleteacher throughout the

course, and was able to teach the Russian history

class himself the following year. Distance learning

Igsee B~ce Broker, ‘lkxas Tech University, “Distance Learning Case Studies,” OTA contractor report, May 1989.

Z%id.

Zllbid.

22s= for exmple, New York Smte United lkachcrs, Division of Research and Educational Semices, Sumey of Distance kmung projects, No.

868718 (Albany, NY: June 1987),

zqNew York State L@slativc Commission on Science and Twhnology, Distance Learning: The Sky’s the Limit (Alb~y, NY: septcm~r 1988), P.

26.

zqBarker, op. cit., footnote 19.

25 Center for ~m~g ~~ologe~, E~rging Te~hW~gies: f)is~~e ~arning, The ~~ing in New York Te]~onfercnce Series (Albmy, NY:

Depan.ment of Education, Feb. 2, 1988).
92 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

did not displace this teacher; instead, it expanded his

skills and areas of expertise, increasing his teaching

options.

. Employing student teachers, retired teachers,

or paraprofessionals as classroom facilitators.

Here, too, the unique cooperation possible between the teleteacher and the teacher in the receiving

site makes it possible to combine the skills, expertise, and experience of different levels of teaching.

In many distance learning projects, the teleteacher is

a uniquely skilled teacher; a teaching intern could

learn a great deal by working with these teachers as

a site facilitator. Conversely, a retired teacher

serving as a classroom facilitator could bring experience and perspective to enrich the distance learning

course.

● Sharing teaching among several teachers

within a distance learning course (see box 4-A).

Opportunities exist for creating new interdisciplinary courses, combining the expertise of several

teachers from many schools. A district could offer a

course in “Major Issues of the 20th Century,”

highlighting the teaching of a top-notch history

teacher from one school, the literature teacher in

another, and science and technology experts from

other schools. Teachers might welcome the opportunity to participate in special courses if each could

focus on those topics in which they have special

expertise and interest, working with distant colleagues whose expertise complements their own.

In the traditional classroom, one of the barriers to

team teaching has always been scheduling. In

distance learning, scheduling adjustments, while

difficult, are accepted as the norm. In cooperative

distant teaching, changing concepts of time and

place can make team teaching more feasible. The

class environment can remain the domain of the

home school teacher, but it can be expanded by

sharing teaching resources with colleagues.

Distance Learning Technologies and

Teaching Style: Issues of Interaction and

Instructional Design

Clearly, distance learning can add new resources

to the traditional classroom, whether those resources

are specialized teachers or contributions from wise

and unique people from many walks of life. These

resources will change the design of courses and how

teachers conduct their classes. In fact, many teachers

develop new skills and insights that carry over into

their regular classrooms.26

Students, teachers, course material and presentation, and interaction are all affected; distance

learning creates a new context within which the

education process and student-teacher interaction

take place. Old styles of teaching and learning may

not be most appropriate or effective when mediated

by telecommunications technologies. These technologies impose inherent limitations (which vary by

individual technology), but they can also enhance

the learning process.

In attempting to incorporate distance learning into

a classroom setting, or in designing distance courses

or modules, teachers and instructional designers

have had to find ways to restructure interactivity.

Various types of distance learning systems may limit

interaction in different ways. Some systems, such as

audiographics, do not permit students and teachers

to see each other, but they can converse and

exchange written materials, sophisticated graphics,

and visual images. And use of the graphics tablet can

be very effective in courses such as astronomy and

calculus. This interaction, while not face-to-face,

may be equally effective.

In one study27 looking at several projects using

audiographics systems, teleteachers confirmed that

the preparation required for audiographic presentation forced them to rethink the design of their

courses. Many commented that the lack of visual

contact with their students forced them to improve

their communication and listening skills.

Regardless of whether they changed teaching

styles, virtually all instructors claimed they were

better teachers after teaching even one course over

the audiographic system. They attributed this to the

fact that they had to be much better prepared than in

the traditional environment. They began to think

more systematically about what they were teaching

and how best to present the information in spoken

2bBarker, op. cit., footnote 19.

27Kayw. Gllcher ad Sally M. Johnstonc, A criticalReview of the Use of Audiographic COnferenClng $’ste~ by Selected Ed~’atio~l Institutions

(College Park, MD: International University Consortium, University of Maryland, 1988).
Chapter 4----The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession ● 93

Box 4-A—Team Teaching Over a Two-Way Video Linkl

During the 1988-89 school year, two high schools in the Hartford area piloted a two-way video and audio

hookup over the local telephone system. This demonstration project was funded by the State of Connecticut and

Southern New England Telephone (SNET). Bulkeley High School in inner-city Hartford was linked with Hall High

School in suburban West Hartford. A teacher at each school volunteered to participate in the first pilot run of the

compressed video system and to explore applications for teaching advanced Spanish in their districts.

Why were the two teachers in these high schools eager to participate? Mary Foley, Hall High School teacher,

wanted to join the two classes in order to expand her students’ cultural understandings and enrich their course

content. She felt that her students would benefit from experiences that prepared them for learning and working with

people from many different walks of life. And although her students were “advanced” in Spanish, they were not

fluent speakers. Bulkeley’s students, many whose first language was Spanish, had much to contribute. For Bulkeley

High School teacher John DiPietro, the project”. . . provided an opportunity for others to learn about us, and us

about them.”

The two teachers spent man y hours working together, preparing to team teach their advanced Spanish courses

(one Advanced Placement, the other designed for native language students with high levels of fluency). They found

common ground, despite a contrast in their teaching styles, curriculum emphasis, backgrounds of their students, and

classroom facilities.

The first day of team teaching started with both classes coming together for a joint class held at Bulkeley High

School. The day was an exciting one; officials cut the ribbon at the door of the electronic classroom at the high school

and the technology links between the sites were turned on. The classes met in a roundtable forum, conversing in

Spanish, while district, State, school board, and telephone officials watched. Teachers felt that this first “face to face”

meeting was essential. The classes teamed for 1 week during the spring 1989 pilot, and will continue on a regular

basis in the fall. In addition, the two-way classroom link will be used to offer a new course in Italian from Bulkeley

to Hall, adding curriculum resources that neither school had offered before.

How will this joint project influence other efforts in the State? According to Betty Steinberg, State Supervisor

for Curriculum and Instruction, this project will help educators understand the strengths and limitations of distance

learning. She is cautious about the benefits: technologies alone cannot resolve differences in educational resources.

“Let’s not kid ourselves, technologies are not educational panaceas.” Nevertheless, State Commissioner of

Education Gerald Tirozzi believes that these efforts cart open up thinking about sharing teachers and resources

across districts.

From the SNET point of view the project will help telephone companies learn how students and teachers can

use telecommunications, what technical changes are needed to make the system work better, and what creative

applications are possible. As Kathy Buccy, head of the SNET Links to Learning Project notes: “. . . these schools

will use our telecommunications resources to serve their needs--two different schools, two different facilities linked

by the need to share knowledge.”

10TA site visit, Februiq 1989.

and graphic forms. They stated that this improvement in their teaching carried over into the traditional classroom .28

Distance learning teachers have found that, unless

they pay close attention to the need to create an

interactive environment appropriate to the technology, students can and will tune out. One study

suggests:

The best way to learn new information is to

receive it while in an active, rather than passive, state

of consciousness . , . .One simple method the instructor can use to assist the learner . . . is to do

something that is never done on broadcast television:

to talk directly to the distant learner and require a

response at the very beginning of the session .29

In another project, instructors show a short

videotape during the first class session that high28 Ibid,, clled In A~rlcan JOLUWZ[ of Dlstan<c Education, vol. ~, No. 1, 198~, p. ~~.

zgs~iy M. Johnstone, “Interactive Teaching: Breaking Tkleklsion Vlewlng Habm,” ED, The Distance Education Nemork Report, vol. 2, No. 5 (San

Ramon, CA: Applled Business Telecommumcatlons, May 1988), p, 4.
94 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Photo credit: John Hubbard, Colgate University

Teacher and student, though miles apart, work together on a mathematics problem over this audiographics system.

lights the difference between recreational viewing

and interactive instruction via television.30 When

teachers help their students prepare themselves for

active viewing of media, the students are more likely

to overcome the passive habits acquired from

recreational use of media.

Teaching in a distant learning setting challenges teachers to rethink their interaction with

students. Even in the traditional classroom, interaction between teacher and student does not just

happen-good teachers are always looking for ways

to involve their students. Furthermore, student

learning comes not just from interacting with the

teacher; it comes from interacting with other students, and relating new information to prior understanding and knowledge. The distance learning

teacher must deliberately structure opportunities

that encourage students to work together in small

groups, tackle problems on their own, or work with

materials like computer programs to test and reinforce learning when the teleteacher is not available.31 In these instances, the local facilitator can play

an important role. Both the teacher and facilitator

function as instructional guides or coaches, to

explain, answer questions, and go into greater detail.

With less opportunity for traditional forms of

interaction, students may have to take more responsibility for their own learning.

Because of the physical separation between the

teacher and students, teleteachers need to establish

ways for students in the remote classrooms to feel

comfortable contacting them. These arrangements

vary with the type of distance learning project, the

technology used, distances, and the number of

students involved. They include:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

meeting in person with students in each of the

distant classes early in the course;

arranging for all the students to meet together

at least once, ideally at the beginning of a class;

asking students to send in pictures of themselves to personalize their responses to questions on the air;

having telephone office hours when students

can call and discuss the lessons with them, or

with teaching assistants;

setting up assignments for students to handle as

members of learning groups;

using electronic keypads to gauge student

understanding during the lesson, allowing the

teacher to assess if the material is understood

before moving ahead in the lesson; and

assigning computer activities that give students

the opportunity to move along at their own

pace, with feedback enabling the teacher to

assess each student’s strengths or trouble spots.

%ich Gross, Dean of Telecommunications, Kirkwood Community College, Cedar Rapids, IA, personal communication, July 1989.

31 Broker, ~. cit., foo~o~ 19. See also Toby Levine, Communications, 1nC- “SERC Pilot Semester Evaluation Project,” report prepared for Satellite

Educational Resources Consortium, Columbia, SC, July 1989.
Chapter &The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession . 95

Photo credit: Sandy Welch, Kentucky Educational Technology

In some satellite courses, students send answers

instantaneously via electronic keypads. Teachers know at

once who needs additional help.

Teleteachers interviewed in the OTA case studies32 were concerned that distance made one-on-one

communication more difficult. In systems that had

no immediate visual feedback, teachers missed

being able to read their students’ visual cues and

nonverbal behavior. These negative features created

by the technology should not be minimized. One of

the main reasons many teachers chose teaching

and remain in the position is the satisfaction they

derive from working closely with individual

students, listening to their problems, and observing and guiding them in their personal and social

development as well as academic growth, both in

and out of class.33 The implication for distance

learning efforts is important. Not all teachers want

to teach at a distance, especially if the distance

learning system is one in which they teach to an

empty studio and have no classroom that is their

“home class,” or in systems where all students

cannot immediately reach them with questions and

comments. It is easier to maintain interpersonal

relationships between students and teachers in

systems where the distance learning teacher maintains a home classroom and extends his or her reach

to students in distant classrooms, while limiting total

student enrollment to that found in a typical class.

What Skills Do Teachers Need

To Teach Via Technology?

The key to any distance learning system is the

teacher. Not every teacher makes an effective

teleteacher. As suggested by one researcher:

Just as every person in the world is not born to be

a teacher, every teacher is not born to be a

teleteacher. Being a good teleteacher calls for all of

the understanding, experience, and skills of a live

classroom teacher—and lots more. A good voice;

pleasing appearance; stage presence; plenty of self

confidence; a flair for the dramatic, artistic, creative;

being comfortable with the use of the technology;

and a willingness to go the extra mile are all vital

qualities. Most important is art openness to becoming comfortable with the new technology and an

ability to use its strengths to enhance teaching and

learning.34

More is required, however, than just these personal attributes. The critical role of the teacher in

the distance learning setting makes it imperative

that teachers get adequate training not only in the

technical aspects of the system, but also in the

educational applications of the technology.

Teachers’ understanding of how to design a course

and of appropriate and effective communication

skills for teaching at a distance are central to the

success of the effort. These are also the lessons they

will most likely carry with them back to the

face-to-face classroom environment.35

Many teachers have asked for more training on

how to use distance learning systems most effectively. For example, faculty members in the Learn

Alaska Network requested preparation for distance

teaching, identifying the need for assistance in such

areas as:

● the amount of time needed to prepare and teach

distance delivered courses,

. methods to establish and maintain effective

communication with distant students,

. experiences of other faculty members,

32Barker, op. cit., footnote 19.

33 For ~xmple, one study fo~d that r,he majority of teaehers (7f) percent) discuss personal interests or hobbies, current events, attd personal problems

with their students outside the classroom. And, when rhc relationship between teachers and students is described as positive, teachers are more likely

to be perceived as “excellent” teachers; students listen more often in class, and sludents’ pcrfmrnance and enthusiasm for learning are higher. Louis Harris

& Associates, Inc., The Metropolitan Lifie Survey of the American Teacher 1988 (New York, NY: 1988), p. 8.

34Dea Bradshaw, T& proml~e of Di~lance ~arm”ng (San Fr~cisco, CA: FM West Laborato~ for ~ucation~ Research and Development, January

1989), p. 22.

35 Gross, op. cit., footnote 30.
96 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

●

●

●

●

strategies for adding visual components to

audio courses,

strategies for increasing interaction both among

students and between students and faculty,

planning and management of organizational

details involved in distance delivery, and

strategies to encourage group cohesion and

student motivation.36

Unfortunately, many projects throw their teachers

into distance teaching assignments with little preparation. One study suggests:

With only a few exceptions, the best training is

little more than a quick effort at the last moment

before implementation or after problems have already appeared. Often teachers are left to grapple

with the new programs on a “sink or swim” basis

under the assumption that no training is required.37

In OTA’s seven case studies,38 nearly two-thirds

of the teleteachers surveyed (64 percent) had not

received training prior to teaching over their respective distance learning systems.

All the large multistate distance learning projects

have, however, addressed the training of both distant

teachers and facilitators. Some projects give prospective distance teachers screen tests. For example,

in the STEP network, despite the fact that teleteachers are certified high school teachers who have

extensive teaching experience, they all receive

instruction in communication skills for presentation

over television. The training is provided by the

private broadcast studio from which STEP programming originates. As the general manager of the

studio said:

You can’t just walk in front of a camera and start

to talk. Our major role is integrating the teachers’

teaching skills with the broadcast medium. The

producer and director show them how to use the set,

how to move across the set. We emphasize the

importance of maintaining eye contact with the

camera and projecting an image that personalizes

their instruction to the students. We don’t want any

of the broadcast or teaching of the teacher to look

clumsy. The students will recognize clumsy programming and judge the quality of instruction

accordingly. . . .We want the student to see that the

teacher looks smooth, comfortable, under control,

and professional in front of the camera.39

Many teachers are natural actors. The classroom

is their stage. For them, communicating in front of

a camera may not be so different. But teleteachers

must learn how to use the resources provided by the

distance learning system creatively to communicate

with their students, however far away they may be.

Research on collaborating in the workplace and in

“virtual classrooms” (educational communities separated in time and place), suggests new opportunities

for learning and different communication methods.40 In research on computer-supported cooperative work, research focuses on creating virtual

environments similar to human communities and

facilitating emotional bonding and social relationships over distances. The major applications developed so far use video imaging and digital voice to

widen communication as much as possible, so that

users can transfer face-to-face interaction skills into

the new environment. However, while many aspects of virtual environments are similar to

face-to-face encounters, the overall communication style needed to be effective in electronic

interaction is different.

The interchange of ideas in distance learning

requires different communication methods than in

conventional classrooms for a number of reasons:

●

●

●

information technologies are predominantly a

visual medium, rather than the textual and

auditory environment of the conventional

classroom,

the affective content of technology-mediated

messages is muted compared to face-to-face

interaction, and

complex cognitive content can be conveyed

more readily in electronic form because multi36s= Michael Moore, Pennsylvania state University, “Effeetsof Distance Learning: A Summary of the Literature,” OTAcontractor report, May 1989,

p. 23.

sT~e Batey m(j Rich~d N, Cowdl, f)ist~e Educu.tion: An Overview, ERIC, ED 278 519 (Portland OR: Nonhwest Regional EdUCatiOnid

Laboratory, 1986), as cited in Moore, op. cit., footnote 36, p. 22.

38 BWker, op. cit., footnote 19.

~9JWn Vinge]en, R~ comm~cations, sp&me, WA, personal communication in Barker, op. cit.. foo~ote 19! P. 12.

~or a futler discussion of this concept, see Christopher Dede, University of Houston-Clear Lake, “The Evolution of Distance ku-ning:

lkchnology-Mediated Interactive Learning,” OTA contractor report, July 1989.
Chapter 4--The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession ● 97

ple representations of material (e.g., animations, text, verbal descriptions, and visual

images) can be presented to give learners many

ways of understanding the fundamental concept. 41

Training is also an integral part of distance

learning projects that are intended as supplements to, rather than substitutions for, regular

classroom teaching. The training that is given to the

classroom teacher who is responsible for implementing these activities and lessons in the classroom

varies with the depth, sophistication, range, and,

perhaps, novelty of the enrichment materials. For

example, in programs presented by the Public

Broadcasting System, the National Aeronautics and

Space Administration, and Talcott Mountain SciSTAR, advance materials help teachers prepare for

the series with their students. Suggestions and

materials for followup activities are often provided

as well. Other projects take a more intensive training

approach to prepare teachers for an instructional

approach that will be different. The Technical

Education Research Centers (TERC) Star Schools

Project involves the use of electronic databases for

students to record, analyze, and compare scientific

data they have collected in their communities. This

“hands on” teaching approach to science and technology may be novel to many teachers. TERC staff

believe that teaching with databases and telecommunications is new to most teachers and thus teacher

training and ongoing support is central to the success

of the project.

The Role of the Classroom Facilitator

Although the role of the classroom facilitator

varies across distance learning projects,42 training is

important if this individual is to be more than a

“babysitter” for the students in the receiving classroom. Many projects take a hit or miss approach to

facilitator training, despite the fact that this new

position offers opportunities to enhance learning for

students in the remote classroom. The facilitator is

usually responsible for operating the receiving

equipment, monitoring student behavior, evaluating

or distributing homework and materials, supervising

testing, and assisting with educational activities as

assigned by the teacher. 43 Under ideal circumstances, the distant teacher and facilitator work

as a team.44 Before classes start they meet (in person

or electronically) to discuss the teacher’s goals for

the class, instructional techniques, and. most importantly, how the facilitator can contribute to the

students’ learning experience. For example, in some

cases, facilitators allow students in receiving sites to

discuss and explain points to one another during

class, with the talk-back microphones turned off.

This peer tutoring can greatly enhance learning

without disrupting the rest of the class in other sites;

it is an example of structuring the situation to

encourage alternative learning. This would be difficult to manage in traditional classroom settings.

DISTANCE LEARNING AND

THE PREPARATION OF

NEW TEACHERS

Despite the fact that teacher improvement has

been a major issue in recent school reform efforts,

schools and departments of education are not well

funded; and, many are not well respected. Even

though there are some encouraging signs that the

number of students entering education programs is

411bid., p. 14.

dzsome distance ]eaing proj~ts do not involve classroom facilitators. In these projects, no teacher or other adult is present in the rcmotc site with

the students, although a video monitor in the principal or counselor’s office maybe used to keep an “eye”on the students. In these projects, distant teachers

develop a different instructional approach, requiring increased student responsibility for their learning. See Minnesota Department of Educatmn,

Interactive Television Teaching (St. Paul, MN: 1988).

43 Bradshaw, op. cit., fOOtI_IOle 34. P. 23”

44A study of m~tlp]e Clmws t~lng a Gem~.by.sate]]lte cou= found significant differences in tie role of facilitators in tic receiving sites. These

differences corresponded with student success in the course. Students were consistently most successful in those sites where the facilitators had

responsibility for coordination of and assistance with software use, watching all broadcasts with the studerms, encouraging student interaction with the

instructor, learning German atong with the students, troubleshooting equipment, answering or finding answers to simple student questions, providing

additional quizzes or worksheets, solving individual problems, and assisting with use of the modem. The facilitators in these sites were also much more

hkely to have rtxeived training in operation of the equipment and software use. Vicki M. Hobbs and Donald D. Osbum, Distance Learning Evaluation

Study Report 1/: An /nter- and lnrra-Sfate Comparison (Denver, CO: Mid-Continent Regional Education Laboratory, 1989).
98 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

slowly rising45 and that their quality is also improving, 46 the teacher education programs are still of

mixed quality.

Almost every State has taken steps to alter the

education of teachers.47 The reforms include higher

standards for admission, improvements in the

teacher preparation curriculum, and requirements

that prospective teachers pass tests of subject matter

or professional skills as prerequisites for initial

certification. Leading education professionals are

developing a broad agenda for improving the

profession, taking as their charge the goal of

enhancing the intellectual underpinnings of teacher

education while simultaneously improving the profession.48

Educators today have also come to appreciate that

computers, videodiscs, and other technologies

should be basic tools of the teaching trade; nevertheless prospective teachers are not necessarily trained

in their use.49 Although over one-half the States

require or recommend technology training for teachers prior to certification, many schools and colleges

of education are still struggling to find ways to train

teachers to use computers as a general teaching

tool.50 As difficult as the problem is with computers, even fewer programs prepare teachers for

assignments that go beyond the four walls of the

classroom. Few education school faculty are experienced in the use of new technologies, and few

universities tie such training into educational methods courses. In one survey51 of schools of education

and teacher training programs (undergraduate and

graduate) examining the extent to which future

teachers and administrators are trained in distance

education technologies, 84 percent of the institutions surveyed offered training in the instructional

use of computers, 64 percent in the instructional use

of video, and 55 percent in the instructional use of

audio technologies. These courses dealt primarily

with the use of equipment. Only 52 percent of the

institutions offered training in the management of

small groups of students using computers, 37

percent offered instruction in the use of live interactive television for instruction, and only 26 percent

offered courses in the use of audio technologies in

instruction. Fewer than 20 percent of institutions

required this instruction for teachers.

Because of the rapidly changing nature of distance

learning technologies, it is not possible to try to

prepare students for all the situations that lie ahead.

There are, however, some examples of teacher

preparation programs in which prospective teachers

are trained to understand the distance learning

experience. In some cases, distance learning systems

help prepare teachers for classroom work.

At Mansfield University in Mansfield, Pennsylvania, education students taking an elective course in

instructional technologies use audiographics to

teach students in Riverdale, North Dakota.52 Computer screens prepared ahead of time can accompany

lessons, as can pictures, charts, outlines, or other

visuals sent live from the student teacher’s computer

to the distant sites via high-speed scanner technology. Students in the participating Riverdale classrooms send written or graphic responses via computer and talk to their student teachers via telephone.

Riverdale, which has no teacher education institutions nearby, welcomed the opportunity to expand

their curriculum with the mini lessons presented by

the distant student teachers. The project makes it

possible for prospective teachers to develop student

4501son, op. cit., fwmote 8.

tilndicators of qu~ity of ProsFctlve te~hers ~e mixed. One survey noted that the typical teacher ducation student is in the toP one-third of his or

her high school graduating chtss. American Association of Colleges for lkacher Education, Teaching Teachers” Fact & Figures (Washington, DC: 1987).

Nevertheless, other indicators, while showing improvement, still give reason for concern. For example, although the average SAT scores of high school

seniors intending to major in education have risen in the last 2 years, this slight gain follows a period of over 10 years during which scores of prospective

teachers declined at a faster pace than the drop experienced by all college-bound students, and a wide gap remains between prospective teachers and

all other college-bound seniors. Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy, op. cit., footnote 9, pp. 31-32.

47 C*A Smey of Two Yews of ~tion by 5(3 States ~d DC. t. Refo~ tie ~ucation of ~~hers,” Th Chrom’cal o~~ighr Education, Apr. 20, 1988,

p. A31.

48s= T~ Holmes G~up, Op. Cit., footnote ].

49u.s, ConWss, ~fice of ~~olo~ As~ssment, Power on? NW Too/~ j.r Teaching ad ~arning, OTA-SET-379 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, September 1988).

%id,, p. 102.

51J.A. Ricco~no, Instructional Tec~~gy in Hig~r Education: A Natio~ Study of t~ E&catio~ Uses of Telecommunications Technolo~ in

American Colleges and Universities, ERIC, ED 278369 (Washington, DC: Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 1986).

5zB~ker, op. cit., fOOtltote 19.
Chapter 4--The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession ● 99

teaching experience early in their education program, and to learn about distance learning technology through direct practice.

Classroom Observation for Education

Students Via Distance Learning

A major focus in the reform of teacher education

is the clinical teaching experience. Observation and

analysis of classroom practice prepares future teachers for more extensive teaching and clinical experiences. However, many teacher preparation institutions lack the ability to provide a variety of early

observation opportunities. Distance learning technologies can fill this gap. (See box 4-B.)

Electronic Networks Linking

Student Teachers

Another way distance learning technologies can

improve the preparation of new teachers is through

the use of computer networks to link education

schools and novice teachers during their first teaching experiences. These networks provide an on-call

help line, a resource that education faculty, supervising teachers, and beginning teachers find valuable

for asking questions, solving problems and minimizing the sense of isolation many new teachers feel.

(See chapter 1, box l-C.)

Other education schools are establishing networks to communicate with student teachers as well

as recent graduates. Iowa State University has a

network for student and first-year teachers and new

public school administrators, partially supported by

Apple Computer. The Harvard Graduate School of

Education’s Beginning Teacher Network links 50 of

Harvard’s newest graduates with one another and

several faculty from the School of Education.

Information sharing, professional advice, and support for the new teacher in the difficult first year of

teaching are the goals of the network.53

RESOURCES FOR THE ONGOING

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

OF TEACHERS

Distance learning technologies are being embraced by many school districts as valuable resources for the entire school staff, not just the

students. Staff support via distance technologies

ranges from breaking barriers of isolation via

electronic networks to the offering of graduate

degrees. A sampling of these activities include:

●

●

●

●

●

support over networks linking teachers and

other school staff (e.g., librarians, counselors,

and principals) to their colleagues;

live teleconferences or video conferences using

open audio lines (e.g., AIDS information meetings and State education association annual

meetings);

short courses on content or pedagogy based on

new research or newly available materials;

full courses to meet recertification requirements, change teaching specialties, or earn

advanced degrees; and

any variations and combinations of the above.

The major advantages provided by the distance

learning technologies are the same for teachers as

they are for students: expanded curricular access,

opportunities to interact with top quality instructors,

and opportunities to take classes without having to

travel. Yet different factors come into play in the

training of adults than in the training of children, and

it is these factors that make analogies to business

training appropriate. Schools are beginning to use

technology in much the same way as businessesas an efficient means of providing professional

development.

Much of the literature on distance learning

effectiveness has dealt with the training of adults via

distance learning technologies.54 That is not surprising since most of the use to date has been in higher

education, business, and military training applications. The factors contributing to the success of

distance learning involving college students, businessmen, and army personnel also make distance

learning effective for teachers. In training adults,

there is less concern about the physical absence of

the teacher. Teachers, like other adult professionals,

have the maturity, attention span, motivation, and

discipline to succeed in the somewhat unusual

distance learning environment.

53See Office of TedmoIogy Assessment, op. cit., fOOtIIOte 49, p. IM

%x Ch. 2.
100 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Box 4-B--Guided Observation: Iowa Teachers on Television1

At Iowa State University (ISU), student teachers observe exemplary teaching in diverse classrooms across the

State, without leaving the campus. The Teachers on Television (TOT) program, which received a 3-year (1985-88)

grant from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), is now in its fourth year of operation.

The TOT project addresses two concerns in teacher education: preparing preservice teachers to become competent

observers of teaching and learning environments, and providing a diversity of high quality introductory observation

experiences to teacher candidates regardless of their location. TOT was designed to address these issues by using

remote structured observations, supplemented with course material that shows the education students the

relationship of pedagogical theory to real life teaching practice.

The TOT program uses live microwave television broadcasts that are remotely controlled via telephone from

an observation site at Iowa State University at Ames. Classroom teachers are chosen for their diversity in grade level,

curriculum materials, teaching style, and educational philosophy. All are exemplary teachers. Each observation

classroom has a camera mounted on a pedestal with remote pan, zoom, and tilt features. The audio is mixed with

the video signal and returned to ISU via microwave, The receiving site at ISU is equipped with a large video screen,

multiple telephones, a control panel, a broadcast camera and mixing equipment to overlay the facilitator’s

comments onto the classroom signal.

Prior to each broadcast, the participating classroom teacher supplies information about the instructional setting

(e.g., lesson plans, student work, floor plan, teaching philosophy). An ISU education school faculty member serves

as the facilitator, maintains regular contact with teachers, and interprets the class activity during the broadcast,

shown in a second window in the television picture. The facilitator’s role is to bridge education theory with actual

teaching practice. At the end of each broadcast sequence, a followup interview with the teacher allows for discussion

of what happened, identification of successes and problems encountered, and future classroom plans. Education

students are able to observe TOT classrooms live on a drop-in basis at one of two classroom sites, or via videotape

at their convenience.

Evaluation of the original FIPSE project focused on the impact of the TOT program on sophomore preservice

teachers’ attitudes and abilities to recognize effective teaching behaviors, and found positive outcomes in both areas.

Students were enthusiastic about the experience, especially the opportunity to observe real classes on a regular and

convenient basis, and to go back over certain portions of an observation with the use of the videotapes. Curriculum

materials helped guide their observations. Some of the best teachers in the State were available to every education

student at ISU without interrupting their work. The partnerships formed between the participating schools and the

education school faculty also created an unusually high level of university/classroom collaboration leading to joint

research projects, curriculum revision, and national presentations. Classroom teachers enjoyed the challenge of

being role models for a new generation of teachers and found that teaching on television provided an opportunity

for professional growth and statewide recognition while allowing them to remain where they are happiest—in the

classroom.

At first, most of the ISU education faculty viewed the TOT project with skepticism. Education faculty lacked

time and resources to integrate TOT into their courses. Faculty training and discussions focused on how these new

resources could be used effectively. These discussions led to the design of a project funded by the Iowa Department

of Education in mathematics and science instruction using teachers from the TOT classrooms and the ISU faculty.

As the project gained acceptance, transmission costs became a critical factor. A university-wide change in

telephone service resulted in long distance call rates (Ames to Des Moines) jumping from a 50 cents per day flat

fee to an hourly charge averaging $10 per hour and $60 per day. In addition, technical support costs increased when

the university television station became a for-profit enterprise, and charges for service, microwave transmission

satellite transmission, and other activities were no longer subsidized. Both these factors made the project more

expensive than anticipated.

At the conclusion of the FIPSE grant the project sought to become self-sustaining by developing a national

consortium of university subscribers. In 1988-89, there were 7 subscribing institutions, with a long-term goal of 40

participants. Because of economic factors and the difficulties of scheduling broadcasts to other institutions across

time zones, the observations are videotaped and mailed to subscribing institutions rather than being offered live over

satellite.

10TA site visit, March 1989.
Chapter 4--The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession ● 101

Photo credit: /owa Stare University

One of the best ways to learn about teaching is by watching good teachers. Nancy Frazier’s second grade class at Fellows

Elementary School in Ames is beamed live to education students at the university.

Inservice Training

No nationwide figures reveal the number of

teachers who receive staff training via distance

learning technologies. However, of the more than

100 distance learning projects entered in OTA’s

database, one-half include teacher support or training components, Projects in Virginia and California

are illustrative.

Through funding from the National Science

Foundation, the Center for the Liberal Arts at the

University of Virginia (UVA) offered a 14-week

chemistry course by satellite to teachers at nine

regional classrooms across Virginia.ss Two hundred

sixty-three science teachers, or the equivalent of

one-half the chemistry teachers in the State, completed the course. The class was carried live every

Saturday morning to the downlink sites, where

teachers gathered with their local colleagues, Instructors from local colleges served as on-site

facilitators. Each session consisted of 1 hour of live,

two-way audio, one-way video lecture/discussion

conducted by a UVA chemistry professor, followed

by 1 hour of group activity led by the local instructor.

During the third hour of each class. videotaped

laboratory demonstrations and videotours of university research laboratories were sent via the satellite

transmission. In each of the local sites, teachers

collaborated on classroom projects, and at the final

session each regional classroom presented its most

successful project to the other sites via the system.

The course also provided participants an advanced

level textbook and over 50 printed handouts, which

55R. B~ce M~jn, %ofessor of Chemistry and A%sociatc Director, Center for the Liberal Arts, University of Vlrgmia, Charkmesviik person~

communication, AugrJst 1989.
102 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Box 4-C—LOS Angeles Educational Telecommunications Networkl

The Educational Telecommunications Network (ETN), owned and operated by the Los Angeles County Office

of Education, provides staff development via satellite. Programming is provided at no charge to 62 school districts

in the county as well as to 25 other counties around the State. Subscribing counties pay an annual membership fee

of $2,000, plus an additional amount based on their average daily attendance count(15 cents per pupil). Subscribers

and the districts within Los Angeles county can participate in any of the live telecourses offered over the system,

or may record and retain the satellite transmissions for later use. Each series includes leaders’ guides and other

support materials that cart be duplicated and distributed within the participating district or county.

Telecasts for staff development in curriculum reform have been the largest use of the system. From October

to May in the 1988-89 school year, ETN broadcast 54 programs dealing with changes in California curricula (28

in English/language arts, 14 in K-8 mathematics and 4 in preparing for mathematics “A” (9-12), and 8 programs

on leadership issues for administrators charged with instituting the new curriculum). Publishers of English/language

arts and mathematics textbooks sponsored an additional 26 telecasts to review alignment of their texts with the

revised curricula. ETN also offered several hours of programming for teachers on such topics as suicide prevention

strategies, child abuse prevention, AIDS update, and Hispanic parenting, as well as 4 hours for parents on special

education resources. Administrative briefings and special meetings were also transmitted over the system. In

addition, 26 hours of instructional television programs were broadcast over ETN for teachers to copy for later use

in the classroom.

An advisory committee composed of teachers and assistant superintendents for curriculum and instruction

recommend programming priorities, scheduling, key issues, and staff support requirements. Programs are live and

interactive; viewers call in their questions and reactions. Some programs have been designed to be interrupted so

that participants at local sites can discuss ideas and issues among themselves in the midst of the program, then go

back to the presenters with their groups’ questions and comments. Presenters also use video footage from

classrooms to model the strategies and content being discussed in the telecast.

Of special interest in the ETN model is the use of on-site satellite facilitators who are trained in both

technological “know-how” to receive ETN satellite transmissions, and in leading group discussions. The facilitators

work with local district content specialists who are trained to answer questions on the content presented and to

manage the pre-viewing, telecast, and post-telecast activities, and to organize later followup activities. Facilitators

and content specialists receive leaders’ guides that contain a summary of the video conference, masters for handouts,

suggested optional activities, facilitators remarks, and detailed suggestions for followup activities.

The network resources can serve a broader range of training needs. Under a contract with the Los Angeles

County Board of Supervisors, ETN will produce and telecast staff development courses for paramedics, law

enforcement personnel, librarians, and social workers in the county.

10TA SiE visit, February 1989.

included a demonstration handbook and teacher lum reform in English/language arts, mathematics,

resource guide prepared by the collaborative

groups.

56

The California Department of Education distance

learning activities focus on teacher inservice training. This emphasis reflects both the needs of

teachers, who must complete 150 hours of staff

development during each 5-year cycle as a condition

for renewing their teaching credential,57 and the

State mandate for curriculum reform. This curricuhistory/social science. science, and the visual and

performing arts, includes changes in what and how

teachers are expected to teach. The Los Angeles

Educational Telecommunications Network has been

the catalyst for a statewide staff development

program that supports and enhances California’s

curriculum reform efforts.s8 (See box 4-C. )

Many States and localities subscribing to multistate satellite distance learning systems have utilized

56With tie ~ond ph~~ of N’a[lona] ScicnCc Foundation funding, in -lanuary 19$X). the ~’enter will offer a slmllar courw for mlddlc sCh~ol ph} ~lC~

sclencc teachers. All physical science teachers in [he State have been invited LO participate m p] annmg the course to meet the needs thq deem most urgent,

300 will be selected to parhcipatc in the tultlon-free, three-crcdlt course. Ibid.

f7~Ugwc( E, GoCm, $tafe Edlic-uflonuf.$w~d~& In t~t, 50 s’tures An L’pdufe (Princeton, NJ: Educallonal Tcstlng SC~ ICc, M~Ch 1‘~~ ), P 36

58patfic1a Cabrera, dlrec[or/eXecutl\e produCer, E~uCational Te]ecommunlCations Network, ~JS Angeles C’OIM[y oft;cc Of EdUCatlOn, fXr\Ond

corhmumcatlon. July 1989.
Chapter 4--The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession ● 103

Photo credit: ETN, Los Angeles County Office of Education

Facilitators are important to successful distance learning.

Here teachers are trained as site facilitators for staff

development courses sent via satellite.

the inservice training programs they offer nationwide. Additionally, inservice teacher training is a

component of all Star Schools projects. While the

number of teachers participating is unknown, the

value of access to national experts is clear. As one

superintendent said: "To get a Rita Dunn or a Harry

Wong [both well-known inservice trainers] here in

person, we can spend between $3,000 and $5,000 on

a one-day presentation. . . . For $5,000 via TI-IN, we

get a whole year of top quality in-service training.”59

As States and districts build their own distance

learning networks, or link up with others, applications for teacher inservice and professional development are likely to expand (see appendix A).

Electronic Networks for Linking Teachers

Teacher support of a less formal sort is available

through electronic networks for teachers. Several

States and districts have developed these systems.

One interesting example is Montana’s Big Sky

Telegraph Network, a grassroots telecommunications system supporting rural educators with electronic mail, computer conferencing, a lesson plan

database, and a software loan library.

The Big Sky Telegraph Network links teachers in

114 one-room schools across the State of Montana.

This bootstrap effort encourages participation by all

persons interested in improving rural education

through the computer-assisted sharing of creative

ideas and available resources.60 A one-semester

credit course for teachers, “Microcomputer Telecommunications for Educators,” is also available on

the system. The course objectives are to demystify

the telecommunications uses of computers as they

relate to K-12 education and to provide needed rural

community services through better communications

with resource persons, Western Montana College,

various service agencies, and other on-line services.

The course also aims to develop confidence in

computer telecommunications and to encourage

continued professional uses for peer networking,

resource sharing, and K-1 2 student/classroom use.

The course meets on-line at the learner’s convenience for a minimum of 2 hours per week for roughly

20 minutes per call. The location of the course is the

".. . nearest microcomputer to the student’s location. "

6 1

New York State also has an extensive support

system for teachers through their Teacher Centers

electronic bulletin board, TECHNET, at New York

Institute of Technology. This, like other teacher

networks, can provide a number of professional

benefits by:

●

●

●

increasing the availability of preservice and

inservice teacher training, while realizing often

substantial decreases in mileage payments to

participants;

providing the capacity for teleconferencing

among the boards of education and staffs of the

school districts, thus eliminating or reducing

some transportation costs;

increasing the possibility of interdistrict subject-area departmental meetings that allow for

continuous improvement of instruction through

the sharing of successful techniques and strategies; and

S9~o~ ~in~~i, ~itlcn~n s~~th Supmiwv school District, q~ted in National school BoWd5 Association, Institute for Transfer Of lkdmolo~

in Education, The Electronic School, September 1988, p. A19.

~rank Odasz, Big Sky l+gaph, personal communication, Mar. 7, 1988.

61B1g Sky ~]egWh is f~ded by ~~ts from the M,J. M~dock Charitable Trust of Vancouver, Washin@on and the US West Foundation of Montana.

Based at Western Montana College, Big Sky Telegraph customized conferencing software to create a powerful, easily teachable, on-line environment.

Over the initial 10-month period, the system logged more than 10,000 catls resulting in 7,0CM) messages from some 450ca11ers, of whom approximately

150 are consistent users of the systcm. Frank Odasz, personal communication, December 1988.
104 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education
Chapter 4--The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession . 105

. overcoming the feeling of isolation experienced by many teachers at various stages of

their career.

Teachers often express the belief that they are alone

and out of touch with their peers. With distance

learning systems, communication among teachers

on a consistent and structured basis can lead to

solutions to common problems and concerns. 62

Courses for Credit for Professional

Development

Teachers, like other professionals, often have a

desire to upgrade their skills in their field, either in

pedagogy or in subject matter. But for many there is

no university program nearby, limiting their options.

Distance learning technologies can bring courses

from universities or community colleges to them at

home63 or at nearby sites, perhaps in the local school.

Even when universities are near, there can be

advantages in providing professional development

courses via distance learning technologies. For

example, George Washington University in Washington, DC, has established, in cooperation with the

District of Columbia schools and several school

districts in nearby Maryland and Virginia, a master’s

degree in education and human development broadcast over their instructional television fixed service

(ITFS) system. The districts negotiated a reduced

tuition rate for their teachers, and provide space at

local schools where teachers gather after school in

small groups to take the courses. w

The phrase “televersity "65 has been applied to

programs like the National Technological University, one of the oldest and most successful nontraditional university programs, which serves the advanced educational needs of engineers, scientists,

and technical managers. (See box 4-D. )

Could such a comprehensive system of advanced

professional education be developed and offered

nationwide for teachers? Momentum toward this end

is growing. In 1989, the Carnegie Foundation

awarded a grant to New York University, on behalf

of a group of institutions of higher learning, to study

Box 4-D-National Technological University

The National Technological University (NTU) is

a private, nonprofit institution founded to serve the

advanced educational needs of today’s busy, highly

mobile engineers, scientists, and technical managers. NTU, which is governed by a Board of Trustees

predominantly made up of industrial executives,

began regular satellite delivery of advanced technical education in August 1985. Today NTU offers a

wide range of instructional television courses

taught by the top faculty of 28 of the Nation’s

leading engineering universities. Over 7,000 hours

of academic credit instruction were provided to

scientists and engineers choosing from the 455

courses offered by the participating universities in

curriculums leading to Master’s of Science in

computer engineering, computer science, electrical

engineering, engineering management, and manufacturing systems engineering. Two additional

programs in materials science and management of

technology were added in 1989. In addition, over

40,000 technical professionals participated in over

1,000 hours of noncredit state-of-the-art advanced

technology and management programs.

Receiving sites are generally the laboratories and

offices of the 60 some participating corporations

and government agencies. Direct telephone lines

from the receiving sites to the campus classroom

provide for faculty-student interaction. The live

classroom activity is supplemented by electronic

mail, computer teleconferencing, and telephone

office hours.1

Employee participation in courses is usually on

work time and paid for by the subscribing corporation. Along with the quality of the educational

courses, these factors are credited with much of

NTU’s success. Student motivation is high because

of the support of their employers. The employer, in

turn, benefits by being able to keep key staff

up-to-date with technical information without losing them for long periods of study.

IN@iOnal ~~o]ogica] University, IVTL’ Executive fhmrrwy (Fort Collins, CO: 1989).

6~New york state ~glslat, vc ~ommlsslon on Sclcncc and Technology , Op. cit., f~olnolc 23, PP. ‘ 9-22

63FOr ~xmp]e, Mind Extcnsl~n ~nlycr~l[t u[l]l~ct ~ ~ab]c ~hannc] to bring sa[c)lIIc ~Ouryc\ jrom ~ollegcs ~d unlvcrsl(]cs ]n(o [hc home Both credit

and noncrcdl[ courses are avadable. The 1989 summer schedule offered SIX cducawm courses for credll from Colorado State Uruverslty, one from the

Unlvcrslty of Minnesota and one from dIc Uni\cr\}[} of Wlwonsln at Stevens Point Several other courwi of lnlcrc~[ to cducator~ arc offered from among

the mnc unlverslues affiliated with the program.

~J~ellc ~~n~d, tlstrl~t of Columb]a Public Schools. persona] conmlunlcal]on, ,~ugu~l 1~~~

6~Thomas L M~n, Jr , ~~e Tele}er$in ~he (lmkcr$[~ ~f [he Fu(ure (Surrey, ~ngl~d ]ndus~ ~d Hlgh~r Educa[]on, Scptcrllbcr 1‘)87).
106 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

the prospect of a national distance learning consortium for teacher training.66 One such effort is under

way. Starting in the fall of 1989, the Joint Center for

telecommunications Studies, a collaboration between Howard University in Washington, DC, and

the New York Institute of Technology, with support

from Northern Telecom, will offer courses leading to

master’s and doctoral programs in education to

teachers nationwide via telecommunications.67

The distance learning technology infrastructure in

schools around the country may make it possible for

teachers to participate in workplace professional

development, but there are still a number of obstacles that must be surmounted. The success of these

efforts will require cooperation between providers

and the schools to guarantee that courses are relevant

to the classroom needs. Universities and other

program providers will have to collaborate with one

another in involving the best teacher educators and

subject area specialists. Administrative and fiscal

support for teachers will also be required. Will

schools follow industry’s model and pay for tuition,

provide release time, and cover transportation costs

to a nearby site, or offer courses at school?

POLICY ISSUES

Technologies for learning at a distance, while

reaching a small but growing number of teachers

today, will clearly affect the teaching force of

tomorrow. Some will teach through these systems, others will use them to add resources to

their classrooms, and many will receive professional education and training over them. Few will

be unaffected. These possibilities offer exciting

opportunities for the profession. In the past, student

enrollment changes meant that teachers were shifted

to other schools, had to teach out-of-field, or left

their home district altogether. Today teachers can

continue teaching the subjects they love by combining students in electronic classrooms. As efforts

expand, outstanding teachers can reach larger numbers of students than just those lucky few who

happen to be in their home classrooms. They can

become electronic mentors to other teachers in

distant locations. Role models—superstar teachers,

women in politics, minority scientists, poets, artists,

business innovators, and creative individuals anywhere in the world-can join communities of

learners and directly contribute to the instructional

process.

But far more troubling visions could also occur.

Will schools districts facing reduced funding use

distance learning technologies as an excuse to cut

back on needed staff? Limited resources might also

place severe constraints on the flexibility and

expandability of systems. Schools may find increasing competition for time on networks they helped

create. Even more troubling would be investments in

hardware and startup operations without adequate

investment in the training and resources for teachers

who will use the systems.

As policymakers invest in distance learning, they

must consider systems to meet immediate needs, but

also ensure long-term viability. Policy options

serving immediate needs as well as long-term goals

could include:

●

●

●

●

●

support to schools and colleges of education

enabling them to utilize distance learning

technologies as tools to improve the preparation of new teachers;

support for the development of local, State,

regional, and national networks for teachers,

for their ongoing professional development and

informal communication;

research on alternative teaching styles facilitated by distance learning technologies, with

demonstration models and evaluation of ongoing efforts and long-term impacts;

support for involvement with the private sector,

through tax benefits, employee educational

credits, or other means, encouraging their

sharing in the provision of educational resources via distance learning technologies; and

expansion of the infrastructure for distance

learning technologies, so that more, and eventually all students, teachers, and districts can

access the resources they need.

Setting long-term goals requires expanded vision.

Restructuring education to meet the needs of the 21st

century will involve today’s technologies and tomorrows. These technologies will not be ends in

themselves, but means to an end—levers for change.

fiwW Melm~, New York University, Center for Educational ‘Ikdmology and Economic Productivity, personal communication, JUIY 1989

67Sta Silvemm, NCW York Institute of ‘Ikchnology, personal communication, August 1989.
Chapter &The Teacher Link: New Opportunities for the Profession ● 107

Distance learning has already been used to overcome

problems that conventional instruction cannot address: problems of scale (not enough students in a

single location) and scarcity (an instructional specialty not available locally). Distance learning also

offers opportunities for the new kinds of learning

that will be needed in a global information society.

Restructuring efforts could include different arrangements of classrooms and schools. By overcoming pupils’ segregation into isolated enclaves, distance learning makes possible different combinations of learner communities and teaching arrangements. Each school can be an “electronic magnet

school,” drawing in resources from the wider

community. Students’ learning environments will

expand from the isolation of the classroom to the

world; from individual insight to collaborative

experience. 68 Similarly, doors will open for teachers.

For those of us who have worked in schools that

keep teachers distant from one another and condemn

us to the chill of isolation, the idea that a teacher in

Arizona can seek the counsel of a teacher in Florida

is nothing short of exhilarating.69

bs~de, op. cit, footnote 40, p. 19.

69M~ Fu~e]l, “The Lmt Frontier,” NEA Tixfuy, &cember 1988? P. 2.

CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

EDUCATIONAL REFORM: SETTING THE SCENE FOR DISTANCE

LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

STATE PLANNING FOR EDUCATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS

NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

THE STATE EDUCATION AGENCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Organization and Management of Distance Learning in State

Education Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115

STATE EDUCATION POLICIES AND DISTANCE LEARNING ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . 120

General Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Certification of Teleteachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Requirements for Classroom Facilitators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Training and Staff Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Course and Teacher Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Classroom and Instructional Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Credit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127

State Approval for Courses, Content, and Instructional Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

ENCOURAGING INNOVATION AND BROADER APPLICATIONS OF

DISTANCE LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Interagency Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

TELECOMMUNICATIONS REGULATION AT THE STATE LEVEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Boxes

Box Page

5-A. Maine’s Telecommunications Network: A Community College

for the State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5-B. Piecing Together Educational Telecommunications: The Connecticut

Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117

5-C. Benefits of Preserving Small Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

5-D. North Carolina’s Distance Learning by Satellite Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Figure

Figure Page

5-1. Iowa Educational Telecommunications Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Table

Table Page

5-1. Missouri Evaluation Criteria for Electronic Media Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
.

Chapter 5

States: Catalysts for Change

INTRODUCTION

States have become major players in planning,

supporting, and organizing distance learning activities. This reflects the general increase in State

activity in education as well as other public services,

such as health, transportation, social welfare, and

telecommunications. Expanded State authority over

the last decade reflects both the reduced Federal role

in these areas and the growing sophistication of State

governments.

There are three underlying reasons why States are

increasingly shaping and regulating distance learning. First, since responsibility for public education

rests principally at the State level, it is only natural

for States to shape distance learning policies.

Second, as deregulation of telecommunications has

occurred at the Federal level, many policy and

regulatory issues in telecommunications have

shifted to the States.1 Finally. as critical decisions

made at the local level affect future telecommunications services and facilities, some States have

recognized that a statewide focus could improve the

coordination and efficiency with which resources

meet educational needs.

FINDINGS

●

●

State-mandated curriculum changes and increased requirements for graduation are driving distance learning developments. A similar

push has come from new course and distribution

requirements for admission to State university

systems. Increased standards have forced schools

to find ways to offer a more extensive and

intensive curriculum.

Small and rural districts unable to meet the

standards fixed by States have traditionally been

forced to consolidate. Today technology provides

an alternative. The future of small and rural

school districts may therefore be intimately

tied to the availability of appropriate and

affordable distance learning technologies.

●

●

●

●

●

Telecommunications systems initially targeted at

isolated rural schools are now bringing needed

resources into urban and suburban schools as

well. Traditional classroom courses are being

enhanced through the infusion of resources and

new curriculum modules. Students at all learning

levels and of varying skills can profit from the

varied opportunities. States expect the systems to

upgrade the teacher work force through inservice,

professional development and networking. As

these new opportunities appear, competition

for services will force States to carefully consider the equitable deployment of telecommunications resources.

State educational policies and telecommunications regulations are shaping the development of

distance learning. Yet present State policies may

be outmoded and block the opportunities that

advancing technologies offer for creating new

classroom boundaries and new telecommunications services.

Educational policy conflicts center on traditional

approaches to teacher certification, course credit,

curriculum materials, and instructional logistics.

Little attention has been paid to how distance

learningcan meet broader school reform goals,

such as restructuring education and using

technologies as tools for change.

Many States look to telecommunications as a way

to stimulate economic growth. Where the education community has taken the lead in these

planning efforts, it has had the unusual opportunity to be in the forefront of technological

innovation and, through early involvement, to

ensure that its needs are recognized and

included in statewide telecommunications

plans.

Although States have rarely worked together to

solve common educational problems in the past,

distance learning provides economies of scale

that encourage multistate use. When new

boundaries are created, educational and telecommunications issues will need to be resolved

between the States.

I see Lyme G~]agher ~d D~e Ha[field, D1~tOn~e ~arnlng ~pportu~”ties in Tele’-#~unications Policy and Technology (Washin@on, DC: The

Amenberg Washington Program of Northwestern University, May 1989).

-111-
112 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

●

Photo credit: OTA staff

Many States have increased course requirements for high

school graduation.

Most State plans involve creative partnerships

with the private sector that offer opportunities to

provide resources for education. As school districts band together as consumers for distance

learning services, they become an attractive

market for telecommunications providers.

This is a unique opportunity for schools, and one

that should be pursued actively.

EDUCATIONAL REFORM:

SETTING THE SCENE FOR

DISTANCE LEARNING

The growing State interest in and support for

distance learning parallels increased State involvement in educational reform. States have been driven

by issues of equity, by economics, and by the

pullback of Federal responsibility. States are taking

many steps to meet school improvement goals. As

noted by the National Governors’ Association

(NGA):

States increased their financial support for public

elementary and secondary education by $27 billion

or 56 percent between 1980 and 1986. They set

graduation standards for students and created major

aid programs to help students meet those standards.

They recruited more qualified teachers through

higher salaries, better training, and demanding entry

standards. They monitor the performance of school

districts, and require corrective action when it is

needed. 2

Concern for the quality of public education

follows the growing competition among States to

maintain their existing industrial base as well as

attract new development and industry. School quality is a key factor in attracting business. Companies

require an educated work force as well as good

schools for the children of their employees. Recognizing that good schools are essential to their State’s

economic vitality, legislators have focused on how

students statewide measure against students nationwide, and how student achievement varies across

districts. One response has been to set higher goals

for all students, by raising requirements for high

school graduation and for entry into State university

systems. As a result, foreign language and higher

level mathematics and science courses, once optional, now must be offered if schools are to provide

equal educational opportunities for all students.

Schools have to find ways to teach these courses or

be shut down.

Many States are turning to distance learning as a

resource for improvement. In their annual report on

education reform, NGA notes: “By far the most

prominent area of State involvement in 1987-88 was

distance learning or telecommunications.”4 Fewer

than 10 States reported any involvement in telecommunications in the NGA 1987 survey. In the 1989

2Nati~~ @vemors’ A_iati~n, NatW~l Govermrs’ Association policy posit~~ 1988-89 (Washington, DC: 1989), p. 51.

3~ 1983, ~ N~On~ Cmi=lon on ficel]ence in ~ucation r~ommen~ hat high sch~] stu~nts t~e more COUrSCS in the “New Basics”A

years of English, 3 years of mathematics, 3 years of science, 3 years of social studies, and 1/2 year of computer science. In addition, 2 years of a foreign

language was strongly recommended for college-bound students. Forty-two States responded by raising coursework standards for high school graduation.

Margaret E. Goertz, State Educti”onal Standurds in the 50 States: An Update (Princeton, NJ: Educational l’ksting Service, March 1988), p. 5.

dNati~~ Governors’ Association, Restdts in Education: ]988 (Washington DC: 1988), p. 29.
Chapter 5--States: Catalysts for Change ● 113

survey, 37 States reported distance learning initiatives and expansions of efforts already begun.s See

appendix A for examples of State planning.

STATE PLANNING FOR

EDUCATIONAL

TELECOMMUNICATIONS

NETWORKS

Education and telecommunications have both

been the focus of State policymaking in the past;

what is new is the convergence of these two State

issues. This convergence has important implications

for both fields separately and for the emerging

hybrid of educational telecommunications policy.

Traditionally, there has been no one administrative or planning body looking at State educational

telecommunications as a whole. State Education

Agencies (SEAS) assumed responsibility for planning and financing the educational infrastructure, for

conducting needs assessments, and for setting statewide educational standards that affect local school

districts. State telecommunications policy most

commonly is derived from input from a combination

of authorities. In this broader arena, distance learning planning may come under the auspices of other

State agencies, not just the SEAS. Educational

telecommunications policy may emanate from the

State telecommunications agency, the public television organization, the university system, the State

Department of Education, or a special task force set

up by the Governor or legislature. Texas, Hawaii,

and Oregon present a range of examples of State

planning for distance learning. Each planning process was unique, yet the overall goals and recommendations are quite similar.

In Texas, the impetus for change came from a

legislative mandate to the State Board of Education

to meet the requirements of the 1987 Long-Range

Plan of the State Board of Education for Public

School Education. One of the reports presented to

the legislature, with recommendations for funding,

was the Long-Range Plan for Technology, 1988-

2000. Distance learning is one of four priority areas,

along with classroom instruction, instructional management, and communications, outlined for meeting

the goals for educational reform. In this context,

distance learning is viewed as a vehicle for improving education. The plan focuses on today’s classrooms and the changes needed to prepare an

educated work force for the 21st century. State

action is called for in meeting K-12 goals related to

curriculum, attracting and retaining qualified and

effective teachers, and improving instruction

through innovation. The plan recommends that the

State:

●

●

. . . investigate, provide assistance for, and

encourage implementation of distance learning

technologies in order to provide a well-balanced

curriculum to all students;

. . . investigate, provide assistance for, and encourage implementation of distance learning technologies to overcome the absence of qualified teachers

in sparsely populated areas;

. . . coordinate public and private telecommunications systems for delivery of distance instruction

and administrative services.6

In Hawaii, the State legislature appropriated

$590,104 over 2 years (fiscal years 1987-88 and

1988-89) for the development of a Distance Learning Technology Plan.7 The plan was prepared

through a unique cooperative endeavor involving

the Department of Labor and Industrial Relations,

the Department of Education, and the University of

Hawaii. These agencies worked together because of

their common concerns for education in serving

statewide employment priorities that “ . . . will

move Hawaii into a preferred future of the 21st

century.”8

Successful education and training programs are

not single-agency endeavors—they necessarily involve educational institutions with community partners, including business and government sectors.

Cooperative problem identification, planning and

implementation have produced training programs

which optimize the use of limited resources, offer

both short- and long-term solutions, and promote

continued sharing of resources.9

In 1987, the Oregon legislature established an

Ed-Net Committee, with nine members appointed

sIbid., p, 31; and National Governors’ Association, Results in Education: 1989 (Washin~on, DC: 1989), p. 31.

~xas State Board of Education, 1988-2000 Long-Range Planfor Technology (Austin, TX: December 1988), p. 17.

THaw~l State ~pmnt of Labor and 1ndu~[rial Relations, Distance ~arnin~Tech~/ogy /-’kn (Honolulu, ~: Au@St 1988).

gIbid., p. i.

gIbid.
114 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

by the Governor, to examine the prospect of a

statewide telecommunications system. The ED-Net

concept was initiated in 1985 when the American

Electronics Association created a planning committee involving representatives from education,

business, and Oregon Public Broadcasting. Ed-Net

was originally envisioned as a television system that

would make college and university courses available

in all parts of the State, but the concept created under

the plan10 has a much broader focus, scope, and

range of technologies:

Ed-Net can be a powerful tool for economic

development, and simultaneously it will be a costeffective way to broaden access to higher education,

improve the delivery of instructional materials to

schools, strengthen library services, and make governmental agencies and social service organizations

better able to conduct their important training,

education and information functions.11

Whatever the motivating force, the resulting State

agency or newly formed organization is empowered

to assemble and coordinate the various telecommunications users within a State to plan for ways to

meet common goals and needs.12 This coordination

can be “horizontal,” when accommodating a range

of State agencies that share telecommunications

needs despite varying responsibilities and audiences

(e.g., Departments of Corrections, Health and

Human Services, Public Works and Transportation,

Labor, and Education). Coordination can also be

“vertical” between levels of a particular agency. Of

special interest in the education sector are linkages among the providers of educational services

across the elementary, secondary, university, and

continuing education spectrum. A common sense

of purpose fostered by planning for shared

telecommunications needs can lead to new constructive dialogs and relationships among agencies responsible for education, creating a bond

that unifies these typically independent communities.

In several States, the educational institutions have

been in the forefront in statewide telecommunications planning. Iowa and Maine provide two examples. Both States were looking for ways to provide

educational services equitably to their constituents

dispersed across great distances. Iowa had a system

of community colleges and some experience in

reaching out to learners via telecommunications.

Planning centered on meeting educational needs,

coordinating resources, and avoiding costly duplication of services. The Iowa network will assure that

all parts of the State receive equal attention. (See

figure 5-1 and chapter 1, box 1 -D.) Maine was in a

different position, using distance learning technologies to provide a community college system for the

State. (See box 5-A.) Connecticut provides a third

example. (See box 5-B.)

THE STATE EDUCATION

AGENCY

State Education Agencies can play a major role in

distance learning because of their responsibility to

assure that all school age children in the State are

provided equal educational opportunities, regardless

of school size or location. An SEA typically

determines State funding distribution, sets statewide

curriculum standards and graduation requirements,

regulates teacher certification and recertification

policies, and provides technical assistance to local

districts. State leadership can be a strong force in

articulating educational goals and illustrating how

solutions like the use of distance learning technologies can help address them.

There are, however, likely to be circumstances

where the State view and the local view will diverge,

especially in the area of providing service to small

rural schools. 13 Since State education authorities are

generally charged by law with oversight of the

educational enterprise, they must consider basic

questions of adequacy, efficiency, and equity of the

entire State system. The local community may have

a strong bias toward preserving the small, often

isolated rural school at all costs, as a key to the

continuing life of the community. When local

lt)~gon E&Net comit~, Oregon Ed-Net: A Report on the Feasibili~ of a Statewide Teleco~nications Network (Salem, OR: July 1988).

tlIbid., p. 1-1.

121n wm~ngon s~tc, pl~ng effo~s by the office of public Jns~ction, tie Higher ~~ation Coordinating Bored, and the Department of

Community Development came together when the three groups fourtd areas of common ground. llte resulting proposal outlined a system where

telecommunications resources and services could be shared at considerable savings to taxpayers. See Washington Stale Office of the Superintendent of

Public Instruction et al., Proposalfor Sharing Video Telecommunications Resources (Olympia, WA: January 1989).

lgKenne~ H. H~sen,Di~t~ce Educ~ion and the SmU// School” Policy /ssues (Portland, OR: Northwest Center for State Educational pOhCy StUdeS,

Northwest Regionat Educational Laboratory, August 1987), p. 3.
Chapter 5--States: Catalysts for Change ● 115

Figure 5-1-lowa Educational Telecommunications Network

— Existing duplex/interactive links

● Network switching locations

● “”””” Duplex/interactive links

Multichannel backbone links

Communities all across Iowa will be connected to the network through numerous Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS) links.

SOURCE” lowa Pubhc Television.

interests and State interests conflict, new solutions

such as distance learning technologies may provide

a partial solution. (See box 5-C.)

Organization and Management of Distance

Learning in State Education Agencies

Management of distance learning within SEAS

varies.14 Distance education, in contrast to computer

education, has yet to find its niche in SEAS, Over the

last few years almost all the States have created an

educational technology division or director within

their SEA.15 In most cases, these technology directors or offices have been responsible for developing

policies and support for procedures for computer

hardware and software purchases, software evaluation, technical assistance, curriculum development,

and teacher training in computer use. They are not

necessarily charged with planning or administering

distance learning efforts in their States.

IdMuch of~is di~ussion comes from Donald C. Holznage] and Thomas Olson, Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, “A W.@ of Dktmce

Education Policies in State Education Agencies,” OTA contractor report, February 1989.

151n tie ]988 OTA sWey of the State5, 41 State5 had a t~hno]ogy division or staff position for educational technology, 24 had a long-range plilll

for educational technology, and 13 others had plans under development. U.S. Congress, Office of Rxhnology Assessment, Power On! New Tools for

Teaching and burning, OTA-SET-379 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1988).
116 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Box S-A—Maine’s Telecommunications Network: A Community College for the Statei

Planning for a statewide telecommunications system in Maine was driven by a clear need to improve overall

educational opportunities in the State. The statistics are stark: approximately one-quarter of Maine adults are

fictionally illiterate, 37.5 percent have not earned a G.E.D. or high school diploma, and real earned income of

workers places them 49th in the Nation. The State ranks last in adults participating in higher education and 48th

in high school students seeking postsecondary education.

These statistics reflect a collection of problems that currently serve as barriers to education. Perhaps the greatest

barrier is Maine’s size (the State is as large as the other five New England States combined) and dispersed

population, a combination that has made access to educational services difficult. Today two-thirds of the population

live beyond a reasonable commuting distance of one of the State’s seven university campuses or one of the six

postsecondary vocational-technical institutes. Severe weather, predominantly secondary roads, and limited public

transportation systems compound the problems of geographic isolation. In addition to these geographic obstacles,

a shortage of faculty at both the high school and postsecondary level, combined with increasing costs of instruction,

create additional educational problems, especially in the State’s rural areas. At the same time, the State found itself

facing demands to increase the breadth and depth of curriculum available to all students at the high school and

postsecondary level.

The University of Maine system has been a key player in seeking solutions to these statewide educational

challenges. Recognizing the declining number of students who typically make up the pool from which university

students are drawn-the 18 to 22 year-old just leaving high school—the university looked for a way to reach a

broader spectrum of learners. University leaders were convinced that the State had to find a way for older, part-time,

and commuter students to access educational programs. Nationally, approximately 40 percent of all students

enrolled in higher education are served in community colleges, but Maine had no community college system,

As a result of a 2-year planning process, involving the faculty and staff of each of the seven campuses in the

university system, the six vocational-technical institutes, and the public schools, a Plan for a Community College

of Maine/Telecommunications System was adopted. This plan calls for the development of a telecommunications

delivery system allowing the transmission of “live” classes by linking existing campuses of the university, the

vocational-technical institutes, the Maine Maritime Academy, numerous off-campus centers, and all the public high

schools in the State. The plan also calls for 50 locations to be on-line by September 1989, the first year of operation

of the statewide system. In effect, telecommunications will create the community college system for the State.

The technical specifications call for a fiberoptic spine (a high-speed electronic highway) linking the campuses,

each of which will be transmission sites. Several of the off-campus centers will also have transmission capability

when the system is complete. The fiber optic spine will carry three channels of full duplex (two-way) video, audio,

and data, while an Instructional Television Fixed Service microwave system will extend beyond the spine and carry

two channels of video, audio, and data, with audio return. The University of Maine at Augusta (UMA) will serve

as both the hub of the terrestrial system and the site for satellite linkages. Dishes on all high schools, State and local

government buildings, hospitals, and businesses, and cable television systems will make live programming

available to users across the State. Course materials, examinations, syllabi, and data can be distributed electronically y

(using facsimile machines and computers) or by mail between sites. Funding for the system has come from Federal

Higher Education Act Title 111 grants and from a $2.2 million appropriation from the State legislature.

In the first year of operation, programming will include a statewide offering of UMA’s Associate Degree in

General Studies. Twenty-six courses will be broadcast each semester of the 1989-90 school year. Five additional

graduate-level courses will be broadcast by the university. Nine courses and workshops will be offered over the

instructional television system by the vocational-technical institutes, and high schools and the Department of

Educational and Cultural Services have been allocated 5 hours per day on the system. Inservice training for teachers

is expected to be a major use for the system. In all, the system will broadcast live courses over two channels from

7 a.m. to 10 p.m. Monday through Friday, and from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. on Saturday.

Maine illustrates how a State can, with coordinated planning, use a telecommunications system as a means to

address a range of problems.

IM~h of ~~ ~~wion ~csfrom ~or~ P. c~jck ~d Pmela M~&a~e, unjvc~jty of Mtine-Au~[a, “Educational ACCeSS

and %1ecoinmunications in Maine,’” unpublished manuscript, April 1988.
Chapter .5-States: Catalysts for Change ● 117

Box 5-B-Piecing Together Educational Teleconamunications: The Connecticut Approachl

Although Connecticut has not adopted a formal State plan for educational telecommunications, it has

developed a multifaceted approach to providing education over a distance. The components of the system are

designed to operate independently, but, since they serve convergent needs, they may interconnect when completed.

The backbone of the system is StateNet, a fiber optic and copper cable network. This system will serve all State

government agencies, predominantly for data and voice transmission. Immediate plans do not call for educational

use; however, once the telecommunications needs of government and education are more clearly defined, StateNet

may carry education traffic,

The second facet is an Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS) network that will allow schools and

businesses all over the State to access courses and enrichment materials from many providers, including the State’s

community colleges, which already have their own small ITFS network. The State Department of Education is

charged with building and operating the K-12 ITFS system. The system will provide instructional television,

distance delivery of courses, professional development, teleconferences, and materials distribution among schools.

The first phase of this system, serving 25 school districts, became operational September 1989. The complete system

serving all school districts is projected for 1991.

A Telecommunications Incentive Grant Program, authorized by the Connecticut General Assembly in 1986,

provides funding to local districts and regional education agencies for planning, operating, and expanding the use

of telecommunications in education. Most of these grants are small (none has exceeded $23,000), in keeping with

State goals to promote a variety of approaches and to encourage the commitment of local districts. Grants awarded

so far total $252,000, approximately $85,000 per year. As a result of interest generated by the Telecommunications

Incentive Grant Program, the State Department of Education is also cooperating with Southern New England

Telephone (SNET) to explore how schools could better apply telecommunications services to education. SNET

funded the pilot program, at a cost of approximately $1.5 million. Three types of “links” operate at different sites

throughout the State. The “voice link” uses a voice message system to promote links between parents and teachers.

The “data link” gives students and teachers access to remote databases through personal computers in the school

library. The “video link” connects sites with an interactive two-way video system. One of these video links connects

an Advanced Placement Spanish language high school class in suburban West Hartford with an advanced class of

native Spanish speakers in Hartford’s inner city. A future video link will provide engineering classes, taught by

professors from the University of Connecticut to high schools via the system. The College of Education at the

University of Hartford also has indicated interest in joining the project to expand classroom observation and student

teaching experiences. SNET plans to continue funding for an additional year in order to evaluate how the technology

is being used in the pilot projects, and the State will fund 10 additional data link sites,

@’A Sjk visit+ February 1989.

Even in those States where the State education nate information and technical assistance, while

department has developed a plan for distance others are more assertive in the setting of standards

learning, there may be the mistaken assumption that

distance education technologies can be treated in the

same manner as computer technology in the planning process, ignoring the unique impacts of distance education on areas such as teacher certification, curriculum approval, and funding formulas,

And, while most States involved in planning are

taking an active role, the tone, format, and level of

involvement varies. Some States see their role as a

“bully pulpit” to encourage local activity, while

others provide direct support for local demonstration

projects. Some States only go so far as to dissemiand development of materials.

In the OTA analysis of State policies,l6 21 States

were studied for their policies regarding distance

learning. Legislative mandates, policy documents,

technology plans, distance education plans, and

telecommunications plans were reviewed as possible sources for State policies on distance education.

Only 7 of the 21 States sampled have policy

documents specific to distance learning. Another

survey, taken by the Council of Chief State School

Officers in February 1989,]7 had similar findings.

Judging from the sample of States surveyed, most

16Holznagcl and 01.son, op. cit., footnote 14

17Co~ci] of Chief Smte School Officers, “State Survey on Distance Education Networks.” unpublished document, February 1989
118 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Box 5-C--Benefis of Preserving Small Schools

Education is an intimate process.l

One benefit of distance learning technology is its potential for allowing small, undeserved schools and school

districts to remain active despite waning student populations and a shortage of critical resources. According to the

U.S. Department of Education, approximately 75 percent of the 15,579 school districts in the United States can be

classified as small (less than 2,500 students). 2 These districts enroll slightly over 20 percent of the Nation’s student

population, Additionally, over one-half of the school districts in the United States can be classified as both small

and rural.3 These districts are often geographically isolated, and suffer from a lack of funds, a shortage of qualified

teachers, a minimum of resources, and limited course offerings-especially advanced courses. In Texas, for

example, small school districts offer, in general, only about one-third the number of courses offered by larger

districts, while rural districts offer only about one-quarter as many courses as do their major urban counterparts.4

Through distance learning, however, small and rural districts can provide some of these previously unavailable

courses, giving their students educational opportunities similar to those offered students in larger urban and

suburban disitricts.

For many years, the most viable option available to school administrators faced with the limited curricular

offerings in small schools was to consolidate schools and school districts. Some education experts, however, have

begun to challenge the belief that “bigger is better.” For example, recent studies have demonstrated that small

schools and school districts often promote high levels of student achievement. A study of New Jersey school

districts concluded that in”. . . all cases, larger district enrollments are associated with lower test scores.”5 Even

when the socioeconomic status and expenditure levels of each district were taken into account, the conclusion was

the same: the larger districts in the study were generally less efficient in attaining achievement. Other studies of

individual schools have resulted in similar conclusions. A 1975 survey of Colorado schools determined that

". . . large school size lowered achievement levels.’%

Research also shows that smaller school districts are generally as cost efficient as their larger counterparts. The

New Jersey study found that although very small districts (those with fewer than 300 students) spend more per

student than larger districts, the ”.. . per student costs of districts with 500 to 5,000 students and over . . . differ

IJ~e RUW, “college Comes m North Haven,” Cornwturu”ry Colfege of Maine Newsletter, prepared by the University Of Maine. Ausust.a,

OtYkc of Distance IMueation, vol. 1, No. 3, August 1989, p. 1.

2u.s. ~pment of Mucation, National Center for Education Statistics, “Public Elementary/Secondary Education Agency UniVerse

Survey, 1987 -88,” unpublished document, 1989.

s~b Cole, ‘t~~g ~ a Time M~hine: The ‘M&c.~’ ~tiity in Smatl-’Rnvn Schds,” Phi Delta KtWXZtI, October 1988, pp.

139-144.

4~ Wxm ~~] diticts wi~ 50,000” or more students, the average number of courses offered in 1985-86 and 1986-87 was 209; in

districts with 1,000 to 1$99 students, the average number of courses offered was 76. For those school districts with fewer than 500 students,

this figure was 54 courses. When analyzing district type, major urban districts in ‘lbxas offered on average 200 courses, while ntrat district

offerings averaged 56. ‘lbxas Education Ageney, 1988-2000 Long-Range Plan for Technohgy (Austin, TX: December 1988), p. 26

5Her& J. w~~rg and willi~ J. FoWler, Jr., Expenditure and Size Eficiencfes of Public School Districts (Chicago, IL: Hearttand

Instime, September 1988), p. 17.

6K~~ F. p-, “srnal] IS Beatjtiftd: SehoOIS AS If Kids Mattered,” The Clearing House, vol. 51, No. 9, Nlay 1978, p. 437.

States have yet to spell out specific policies that

guide distance learning. In most cases existing State

policies become, de facto, the basis for distance

learning policy in the State. This is particularly true

in States where distance learning projects are locally

based and do not involve importing courses from

out-of-State. Where multistate courses are brought

in by satellite, however, some States have felt more

pressure to develop policies addressing issues such

as what is required of teachers and what curriculum

and texts can be used,

In both the telecommunications and the educational arenas there is a tension between the

State’s role as regulator and as empowerer. In the

education policy arena, States have traditionally

served as regulators to assure that quality standards

are met in all schools across the State and that all

children are equally well served by the public

education system. Consequently, educational policies tend to be restrictive, focusing on minimum

standards of traditional instruction. While important, these policies tend to maintain the status quo.
Chapter S---States: Catalysts for Change . 119

very little.”7 Additionally, since the New Jersey study had previously determined that smaller districts generaIly

produce higher standardized test results, it has been suggested that smaller districts actually attain “ . . . more

achievement value per dollar. . . “ than do larger districts.8

Student participation—both in the classroom and in extracurricular activities-was also found to be higher in

smaller schools. Small class size, close teacher-pupil relationships, and more personal attention all result in higher

levels of student participation in the classroom. Students at smaller schools typically participate in more

extracurricular activities as well. Although larger schools are able to provide a greater number of activities, research

has shown that”. . . students from small schools participated in a wider variety of extracurricular activities than did

students from large schools, and a much larger portion of students from small schools held important and

responsible positions . . . than did students from large schools."9

Clearly, the challenges faced by teachers in small, rural schools are substantial, Often, they must contend with

a lack of resources, little technical assistance, geographic isolation, and low pay. Nonetheless, small schools can

offer numerous advantages to their staff that large schools cannot. For instance, teachers clearly prefer smaller

classes and increased personal contact with students that small schools offer. Less tangible advantages, such as a

heightened sense of efficacy, existence of a functional support system, and a stronger identification with the school,

are more prevalent in smaller schools as well.10 These factors all contribute positively to the way in which teachers

identify with their school. Finally, smaller schools have generally demonstrated a more desirable social climate than

larger ones. Due to their isolation, as well as the small population served, many smaller schools create a heightened

sense of community as well as” . . . the special feeling that each student matters.”11 As a result, smaller schools do

not experience as many behavior problems. Studies have shown that the” . . . relative incidence of student truancies,

teacher assaults, vandalism, intra-student fighting, school expulsions and dropouts . . . increase as student

population density increases.”12 Additionally, attendance and student satisfaction levels are generally higher at

smaller schools.13 It appears, then, that the “community” environment of small schools creates a nurturing

atmosphere for both teachers and students.

Small, rural schools face special problems that affect their ability to remain competitive in the educational

marketplace. However, the numerous positive attributes of smallness argue for their preservation. In order to

compete effectively, small schools must be provided with the same resources and advantages as their larger

counterparts. Distance learning can provide at least a partial solution to this dilemma, by helping to keep small

schools and school districts open in the face of consolidation.

7w~&rg and Fowler, op. cit., foornote 5, P. 6.

81bid., p. 17.

9Roger G, Barker and paul V, Gump, Big &-Jwol, s~ll Sc/100/: High sc~ol Size ah Student Behavior (Palo Aho, CA: Stanford

University Press, 1964), cited in Gary Green and Wanda Stevens, “What Research Says About Small Schools,” Rural Educator, vol. 10, fall

1988, p. 10.

l(&O\e, op. cit., fOOmOte 3, P. 1ti.

1 l~id,

l~ward J. Kel]y, “~ @e~ro~d~ Scbls: Cment problems ~d Fut~ pr~~ts,” Co/&ge St@eWJourna/ Monograph, VO]. 10,

No. 2, Part 2, spring 1976, p. 3.

t3paul L~d~ay, **w Eff=t of High school Size On student Pmiciptic.m, Satisfaction and Attendance,” Educarionul Evaf@ion and

Poficy Anaty.sis 1, spring 1982, p. 60.

Far less common are empowering policies, which more innovative service in the future. This philoencourage experimentation to try to meet needs in

new and innovative ways, even if it means relaxing,

bending, or eliminating previous restrictions.

A comparable tension is seen in telecommunications policy. State public utility commissions are

charged with protecting consumers today and keeping rates as low and as fair as possible. However, the

regulations that respond to this goal may make it

difficult for telephone companies under their jurisdiction to modernize in order to provide broader or

sophical battle has broad consequences for the future

economic development in a State. Do policies

mortgage today’s consumer to pay for better services

in the future? Another issue is equity v. public

service: is it appropriate for one class of user to

subsidize service to others if a public interest will be

served by this subsidy?

The tension between empowerment and regulation also is evident in the marriage of education

policy and telecommunications policy. Should tele-
120 . Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

communications policy support innovation for the

educational needs of a State as a way of ultimately

best serving the interest of the citizens and businesses of that State? Should educational needs drive

the telecommunications policy? How can States

balance the need for innovation with the need to

contain rising costs for services?

OTA finds that States are today in a position to

rewrite or develop new educational policies in

light of the special opportunities and challenges

posed by distance learning options. The broad

question for educational telecommunications policymakers is how to enable practitioners to take

advantage of the opportunities presented, yet meet

standards for educational quality. Binding districts

with restrictive regulations shaped by an older

model of education is inappropriate for the new

educational models distance learning can make

possible. By superimposing yesterday’s rules on

tomorrow’s opportunities, States may be cutting

off options before they can be fully developed and

tried. A regulatory moratorium may be needed to

allow for experimentation and evaluation of distance

learning’s role in meeting critical educational needs.

STATE EDUCATION POLICIES

AND DISTANCE LEARNING

ISSUES

The sections below present illustrative policies

addressing distance learning issues from State documents sampled in the OTA survey mentioned earlier.

General Philosophy

Most State distance learning policies are motivated by the mandate to provide all students equal

access to education. Technology is often cited as a

means to attain this goal. North Carolina, for

example, has taken a comprehensive approach,

using satellite downlinks as the vehicle for equalizing educational opportunities across the State. (See

box 5-D.)

This directive from the North Carolina General

Assembly is clear:

(a) It is the continuing intent of the General

Assembly that every child in the State’s public

school system shall have equal access to educational

opportunities, no matter where the child lives or how

small the school which the child attends. It is the

further intent of the Assembly to encourage and

subsidize state-of-the-art technology as an efficient

and cost-effective means of making equal access to

opportunity available to all children.

(b) The State Board of Education shall establish

one satellite earth station at the 54 smallest and most

rural schools in the State, to insure that students in

these schools have full access to all courses required

in the Basic Education Program that small enrollment or lack of qualified teachers would otherwise

make unavailable.18

Despite the general goal of providing educational

equity, States are concerned that distance learning

projects meet established standards for curriculum

and instruction. This concern is reflected in a variety

of policy statements regulating how and when

distance learning technologies can and should be

used. A central issue is that of certification and

training requirements for the teacher delivering a

course from the originating site (teleteacher), and for

the teacher or classroom aide (facilitator) at the

receiving site. Other issues are course credit, State

approval for courses, and classroom and instructional logistics.

Certification of Teleteachers

The certification of the teleteacher is the most

prominent issue that SEAS are grappling with

regarding distance learning. This is particularly

true when a complete course of instruction

originates in one State and is received in another

State. Most States require that any course offered for

credit must be taught by a teacher who possesses a

valid teaching certificate in that State. Because few

States grant automatic reciprocity to teaching credentials from another State, teleteachers in multistate projects must apply for certification in each

State where courses are received. In some cases, the

teleteacher must not only meet individual course

requirements in State history, counseling, and guidance, but also pass several competency examinations, in subject areas as well as State and national

teacher examinations. Fingerprint checks and physical examinations may be required, despite the fact

that the teleteacher may never physically step into

the State. Finally, after meeting coursework, health,

and competency requirements, teachers in multistate

distance learning projects may also need to meet

individual State and local requirements relative to

student teaching experience, time spent in classroom

l~emr~ AsSmbly of N~ (Jmo]ina, S. 298, “1-mrning by Satellite,” WSS. 1987, Apr. 6.1987.
Chapter 5--States: Catalysts for Change ● 121

Box 5-D—North Carolina’s Distance Learning by Satellite Program1

In January 1988, the North Carolina State Department of Public Instruction (SDPI) and the TI-IN Network of

San Antonio, Texas, entered a contractual agreement to form a statewide satellite network to provide high school

instruction and staff development throughout the State. This statewide investment and partnership with a private

corporation was motivated by the realization that: “North Carolina has many small, rural high schools which,

because of low enrollment and remote locations, cannot offer all the courses mandated by our state’s Basic

Education Plan. North Carolina has desperately needed an alternative method to bring students the kind of education

envisioned by developers of the (basic education) plan.”2 Interest in making quality staff development and training

more accessible to all educational employees around the State was another factor spurring the Department interest.

As a first step, SDPI staff investigated several distance learning programs across the country, and surveyed

principals of the State’s smallest rural high schools to determine the areas of greatest Curricular need. During the

1985-86 school year, the State piloted distance learning by satellite at four sites with Federal Title II grant monies.

The pilot used TI-IN Network programming and hardware to provide staff development training on the use of

computers in the classroom. Participating teachers were very positive. Information on the pilot, the survey data, and

examples of services that could be offered to North Carolina were provided to legislators, and the 1987 General

Assembly passed the Learning by Satellite bill.

The bill appropriated just under $2 million for fiscal year 1987-88 to purchase satellite receiver equipment and

hardware for 153 sites. The sites were SPDI, each of the 52 smallest high schools in the State, and 100 additional

sites chosen by district superintendents for staff development programming. The legislature allocated $1.04 million

for fiscal year 1988-89 for satellite programming ($944,850) and staff support for the project ($95,150).

Under the North Carolina plan, a district coordinator oversees satellite programming for all receive sites within

each participating district; at each site, one person serves as manager (usually the principal or assistant principal).

Each school site also has a classroom facilitator and an equipment manager. For the 52 small, rural high schoo.ls,

State funds cover the annual subscription fee ($4,750 per school in North Carolina, a rate lower than TI-IN’s normal

subscription fee), staff development programming fees (determined by the district’s average daily attendance), and

course fees for a maximum of 20 students at each school ($240 per student per course per semester, plus $50 extra

for foreign language and science laboratory classes). If the number of enrolled students exceeds 20, the local school

must pay tuition fees. In the first year, over 1,100 high school students enrolled in the satellite classes.

OTA visited with administrators, teachers, and students participating in the first-year effort in North Carolina’s

Region 8. The project got high grades for expanding curriculum offerings and for the quality of teleteachers, but

there were concerns regarding student/teacher interaction. As one principal stated: “In a small school like ours,

students are used to a great deal of individual attention. We had to adjust our attitude on this for satellite classes.”3

And, as in many distance learning projects, coordinating bell schedules, school calendars, and grading periods

presented problems. Although each of the principals was pleased to have TI-IN classes in their schools, six of the

seven indicated that, without State funding, the program would not continue. As another principal said: “This is

something which the State has provided and I’ll use it. But, this is not something that I would go out and purchase

for our own school from local monies."4

North Carolina is a member of the TI-IN United Star Schools Network and has added 17 new sites to the

statewide network as a result of Star Schools funding. Under special arrangements with TI-IN, North Carolina uses

the network for staff development 1 hour per week. SDPI also developed their own 18-hour methods course for

teaching foreign languages in the elementary grades, which is available on the network.

North Carolina’s distance learning efforts are expected to expand to more schools and to offer a wider array

of programming in the future. This support is grounded in the bill that authorized the program: “It is the intent of

the General Assembly that the Distance Learning by Satellite program shall be an ongoing component of the public

school system and that operational funds for the program shall be included in future continuation budgets.”5

IMWh of MS di~u~i~ come ~m Bruce Barker, %xas Tkeh University, “Distance iarning - Studies,” OTA contractor report,

June 1989.

%ie Brumback, assistant superintendent, North Carolina State Department of Public Instruction, in T1-lNNerwork News, 1988, p. 1.

3Bticr, op. cit., footnote 1, P. 20.

‘hbid,, P. 21,

s~na~ A~mb]Y of North Carolina, “Learning by Satellite,” Senate Bill 298, SeSS. 198’7.
122 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

instruction, and possibly additional requirements of

individual school districts.19 When a distance learning course is taught by others, whether they be

university professors, scientists, artists, poets, government officials, or any other subject matter experts, these restrictive requirements may make it

impossible for the course to be accepted in a

particular State.

At present, there are no generally applied standards for teleteachers. Some States (e.g., Utah,

Nevada, and Alaska)20 do not require certification

for the teleteacher in either the State where the

course originates or in the receiving State. Others

(e.g., Idaho and Washington)21 require certification

in both the sending and the receiving State. These

statements from Idaho, Minnesota, and Montana

illustrate three different approaches:

A teacher must hold a teaching certificate valid in

the State where the program originates and must

meet the minimum academic requirements of the

Northwest Accrediting Association.22

The satellite course teacher must have a Minnesota teaching license.23

To use distance learning programs, local school

districts shall apply for art alternative by validating

that the teachers of distance learning courses are

certified and appropriately endorsed in Montana or

in their resident State and have experience in

delivering instruction via distance learning.24

Many States have not yet established a policy

regarding certification of teleteachers and the teleteachers are approved on a case-by-case basis.

Several of the producers of satellite courses for

high school credit have worked out separate arrangements for certification of their teachers across State

lines. In the Satellite Telecommunications Educational Programming (STEP) network, which originates in Washington State, all high school teachers

hold current Washington State teaching certificates.25 Reciprocity agreements for teacher certification have been arranged in the seven other States

receiving STEP high school courses. However, this

reciprocity varies among the receiving States.26

Teachers in the TI-IN Network, a private corporation

supplying a range of courses nationwide, must hold

teaching certificates for each of the States in which

their courses are received. In Oklahoma State

University’s Arts and Sciences Telecommunications System (ASTS), all teleteachers are university

professors and generally do not hold K-12 teaching

certification. However, ASTS requires that facilitators in the receiving classrooms must be certified

teachers, although not necessarily endorsed in the

distance learning course subject. ASTS staff work

with SEAS and, to reassure reluctant State education

personnel about the quality of the teaching over the

system, send them tapes of their teleteachers teaching lessons. With their courses now being used in

classrooms in 35 States, ASTS has been turned down

by only 1 State.27

One lever for dealing with the issue of cross-state

certification of teachers may be the professional

standards being developed by the National Board for

Professional Teaching Standards, formed in 1987 as

a result of recommendations in A Nation Prepared:

Teachers for the 21st Century .28 The Board’s goal is

to improve education by raising the standards of the

teaching profession by recognizing first-rate teachers, providing them with better compensation, and

19Lloyd ~emm md p~e]a pe~e, “The Role of Private Business in Distance Gaming: The Educational Partnership,” OTA contractor report. June

1989, pp. 17-18.

zONofiwe~ Association of Schools and Colleges, “Survey of Distance Learning,” unpublished document, December 1988.

zl~id. Bo~ ~ew States indica~ ~ey ~ Studying the issue. In w~ington, tie ~~d~d k Consided most import~t if the course is USd to meet

graduation requirements.

zzId~o ~p~ent of ~~ation, “Idaho Guidelines Regarding Distance Learning,” unpublished document, 1987.

23Gil~~ M. ~dez, mmager, ln~mt]on~ ~Sign section ~d J~es E. Sauter, assistant commissioner, Division of EdUCatiOll Effectiveness,

Minnesota Department of Education, “Satellite Course Requirements,” memo outlining areas in State Board of Education rules pertinent to satellite

COU*S, Mar. 31, 1988.

zdMont~a Bowd of ~ucation, Rule 10.55.907, Distance Learning (d), effective July 1.1989.

25sW Bmce Barker, Te~~ ~h university, ‘*Dist~ce ~fing c~e studies,” OTA Confiactor repofl, June 1989.

~For Cxmp]e, me STEP hi@ ~hm] t~cher, ce~ifi~ to teach precalculus/calculus, was required to tke a fust aid course in order to teach in ~cgon!

even though the course is broadcast from Washington State and she may never enter the Oregon classrooms receiving her course. Debra Willson, STEP

teacher, Spokane, WA, personal communication, June 16, 1989.

zTSmi~ Holt, Oklhoma State University, personal communication, August 1989.

zgcme~e Fo- on ~ucation ~d the &momy, A fVatWn Prepared: Teacher,sfor the 21st Century, The Report of the T* Force on ~aching

as a Profession (Washington DC: May 1986).
Chapter S--States: Catalysts for Change ● 123

placing important decisions about teaching policy

and practice in their hands. The certification process

is one key step toward these goals.

At present, teachers are subject to State licensing

systems that set minimum entry-level standards and

vary considerably from State to State. The national

certification, which would be voluntary, goes beyond this minimum proficiency level. Board certified teachers will have to meet high and rigorous

standards of experience, creativity, professional

judgment, and teaching skill, as determined by a

range of assessment procedures including such

techniques as simulations of classroom situations,

observations of teachers in a school setting, interviews, essays, oral defenses of teaching portfolios,

and written examinations. The concept of national

certification will, in many respects, correspond to

the standards applied in the certification systems

used by other professionals in such fields as

medicine, architecture, and accounting.

Because the Board expects to adopt a single set of

standards and assessment practices to be applied

uniformly across the country, it is anticipated that

State reciprocity agreements will be facilitated,

making it easier for teachers to teach in States other

than those in which they were originally licensed.

This is important in light of today’s variable demand

for teachers from State to State. It also has implications for the question of cross-state acceptance of

teachers on distance learning systems. Since the

national certification process goes above and beyond what would normally be required to teach in

any one State, it would appear that a Board certified

teleteacher would be acceptable to any State. There

has as yet been no discussion of creating a separate

certification around a subspecialty of distance learning or teleteachers, but the concept could evolve,

especially if distance learning projects continue to

blossom across the country. Finally, distance learning technologies themselves may be used as apart of

the assessment procedure. Teachers could be observed in their everyday teaching activities and

evaluated based on a set of these observations.

Requirements for Classroom Facilitators

There is great variation in State policies regarding

the facilitator or monitor, the person responsible for

the students at a receiving site. Policies range from

the most open29 to the most restrictive. In States like

Washington, the on-site monitor must be certified in

the subject being delivered if the course is used to

fulfill graduation requirements.30 It may be in cases

such as this that the teacher has general certification,

for example, high school mathematics, but is not

trained to teach a higher level course such as

calculus or an Advanced Placement course. In such

instances, the classroom monitor can be learning

how to teach the course and may indeed take over

teaching that subject in subsequent years. Several

States (e.g., Alaska and Oregon) require a teacher as

a monitor, but do not require that they be certified in

the subject. Most common is the model in which

noncertified personnel (aides) serve as monitors,

usually after special training. In some cases, these

aides must be supervised by certified staff.

Training and Staff Development

Several States have established policies that

mandate inservice or preservice instruction for any

aides or teachers involved in distance learning

activities. For example:

The satellite classroom instructor shall receive

inservice training pertaining to the course organization, classroom management, and technical aspect....3l

The teacher will participate in instructional and

technical inservice education developed and made

available by the developer or sponsor of the approved course.32

These States recognize that successful implementation of distance learning activities require that the

teleteacher be trained in the most effective use of the

medium, and that the on-site monitor be trained in

classroom management. One State with considerable experience in distance learning produced a guide

29FOr ~xmple, in mmy of Minnesota’s district-run projects using two-way video interactivity there may k nO ~Uh a ~1 in tie rWeiVing CltLSSrOOm.

See Minnesota Department of Education, Instructional Design Section, /nterucfive Television Teaching, Integrating Ti%Itnology Series (St. Paul, MN:

1988).

sONorthweSt Association of Schools and colleges, Op. Cit., fOOtnOte 20.

slok]~oma Dep~en[ of Education, “Accreditation of Learning by Satellite Courses,” unpublished document, 1988.

32 Mont~a Board of Education, op. cit., footnote 24.
124 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Photo credit: Swenon Photo-Braharr

In some projects using two-way video, no teacher or facilitator is required in the distant classroom.

for teleteachers suggesting techniques for delivering Course and Teacher Evaluation

effective personalized instruction via distance learning. 33 Most SEAS have a responsibility for the quality of

instruction or instructional materials used in the

Each of the major organizations now delivering schools in their States. Two types of rules have been

proposed: either that districts show evidence of

coursework by satellite specifies the skills and course effectiveness before adopting distance learntraining necessary for the site monitors in their ing courses, or that districts establish a system to

systems. Some States have also required facilitator assess the effectiveness of a distance education

training. course during its use.

.

To use distance learning . . . a school shall verify The Texas Education Agency refers to the responthat local facilitators (not necessarily certified) who sibilities of districts with the following statement:

assist students in receiving the instruction on-site Schools that use alternative delivery procehave adequate preservice training and local supervi- dures. . . should have written policies governing

sion. 34 those options. Distance learning . . . should at least

33MimeW~ Dep~ent of Education, op. cit., footnote 29.

3AMontana r30md Of E@ation, op. cit., footnote 24.
Chapter 5-States: Catalysts for Change ● 125

Photo credit: STEP Network

Each of the multistate course providers specify skills and training necessary for site monitors in their systems. Here Kathy Hansen

monitors a STEP Advanced English class at Riverside High School.

have written policies for its governance. Each normally be applied to any course, whether tradidistrict’s policies shall include responsibility for tional or delivered by technology. While holding

evaluating the instructional effectiveness of the distance education to the same standard as any other

delivery procedure as reflected by student mastery of type of education is important if it is to be accepted intended skills and essential elements. By granting as legitimate, the unique characteristics of distance credit, the school district accepts responsibility for

the level of student achievement attained in distance education courses warrant additional criteria. These

. . . . .

learning courses ., . the contracting district, by vir- might include topics such as:

tue of granting student credit, can be held responsible

for the quality of instruction by distance learning.35 ●

Although some States require evaluation of distance education courses, whether this evaluation is

the responsibility of the local school district or of

SEA, little guidance is given specifying the instnt-

●

ments, criteria, or processes to be used. Missouri

provides an exception. (See table 5-1.)

What is noteworthy is the fact that these criteria ●

are generally no more than the standards that would

degree of interactivity in the logistical and

instructional design of courses and supplementary resources;

guidelines to help State and local educators in

the process of deciding between courses using

different delivery systems; and

criteria for assessing the relative value of live

versus delayed interaction.

35EX% Education Agency, Gw’de to Distance Learm”ng as an Alternative Delivery Procedure, GE 7301 W (Aust@ TX: Mwch 1987)
126 l Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Table 5-1-Missouri Evaluation Criteria for Electronic Media Comes

The course has been developed on the basis of clearly stated assess student Performance on a defined set of learner

learner outcomes or objectives:

.

. The course has been developed based on a set of learner

outcomes or objectives that are stated sufficiently clearly to

communicate to school district staff and students.

. The learner outcomes or objectives are stated in a manner that

implies measurement through testing, observation or evaluation of student performance or products (themes, essays,

projects).

. The learner outcomes or objectives encompass content comparable to that which would be included in a traditionally

delivered course in the same subject and at the same ievel.

The course is logically organized and developmentally

suitable for the grade level(s) at which it Is intended to be

used:

l The course content appears to be organized in a logical

sequence appropriate to the subject and recommended grade

levels.

. The course content is developmentally appropriate for age

groups or grade levels for which it is intended to be used.

The course includes teaching stratagies and resource meterials which l m educationally sound, address a variety of

learning modalities, and are consistent with the learning

styles of the age groups for which intended:

l

l

l

l

l

l

l

Teaching strategies are varied and intentionally address al

three major learning modalities-visuai, auditory, tactile/

kinesthetic.

Teaching strategies emphasize those most appropriate to the

subject and for the age group for which the course is primarily

intended to be used.

Teaching strategies are consistent with research on effective

teaching-i.e., they incude frequent review, guided practice,

extensions (enrichment), and correctives (reteaching).

Textual materials support the stated learner outcomes or

objectives, both in terms of content and organization.

Textual materials are appropriate in focus, vocabulary, and

reading level for the subject and grade levels for which

intended.

Supplementary resource materials (either provided or recommended) support a variety of learning modalities.

Supplementary resource materials (either provided or recommended) support extension (enrichment) and correctives (reteaching) activities.

outcomes or objectives.

l Summative tests are scored and the results returned to

students quickly together with comments and opportunities to

discuss individual results.

The course has bean reviewed by subject matter experts for

content validity l nd objectiveness of presentation:

. The course has been reviewed and found to be valid in terms

of content and objective in terms of presentation or reviewers

believe the content to be valid and the presentation objective

based on their review.

The coures has been demonstrated to be effective in achieving stated learner outcomes:

. The course has been used by school districts and found to be

comparable to traditional courses in terms of student outcomes.

. The course has been field tested, and results of the fieid test

indicate that it achieves stated student outcomes.

. The course has neither been field tested nor used by school

districts, but it is so well developed it should be approved for use

in Missouri on a trial basis.

The course includes instructional and technical inservice

education for the local classroom teacher:

. The course developers provide comprehensive inservice education on the instructional role of the local classroom teacher in

delivering the course.

. The course developers provide comprehensive inservice education in utilizing the textual and nontextual instructional

materials provided or recommended for use in the course.

. The course developers provide inservice education in the

technical aspects of operating and utilizing all equipment

necessary in delivering the course.

The course meats high standards of quality in production and

presentation:

. Appropriate production techniques are used to focus on the

l

l

l

critical components of the instructional setting.

Oral communication is clear and understandable; the language

is appropriate for the subject and the age or grade Ievels for

which the course is intended.

The use of music, special effects, graphics, and set design

contribute to the overall effectiveness of the instructional

presentation.

Lighting and sound are consistent in level and intensity from

scene to scene and contribute to the effectiveness of the

presentations.

The instructor’s style, appearance, voice, and movements are

natural, pleasing, and contribute to the effectiveness of the

presentations.

The director successfully manages the integration of all

production elements to achieve an effective instructional

presentation.

The course includes both formative and summative tests that

are closely aligned with stated learner outcomes or objectives and provides for frequent feedback to students: l

. There is a series of formative tests intended to be administered

frequently and relating to instruction provided in the immediate

past. l

l Formative tests are clearly related to and appear to validly

assess student performance on a limited number of stated

learner outcomes or objectives. Local classroom taecher/monitor qualifications:

l Formative tests are scored and the results returned to students . List below the major instructional and noninstructional activities

quickly together with comments and opportunities to discuss required by the course to be conducted by the local classroom

individual results. teacher/monitor; the knowledge, skills, or competencies rea-

. There is a series of summative tests intended to be admini- sonably required to perform each activity at a desirable level;

stered periodically which relate to instruction on a defined set and the qualifications most likely to ensure that a classroom

of objectives or learner outcomes. teacher/monitor would possess the knowledge, skills, or com-

. Summative tests are dearly related to and appear to validily petencies.

SOURCE: Missouri Department of Education, “Recommended Evaluation Instrument for Accredited Instructional Programming ViaSatellite,” unpublished

document, February 1989.
Chapter S--States: Catalysts for Change ● 127

Photo credit: Bill Davie, Trinity Productions

Small classes can be combined to use teachers more efficiently. Some States restrict the total number of students

enrolled in

Finally, if distance learning technologies are to

move beyond the experimental stage and become

options available on a regular basis, States will need

to support evaluation efforts. Educators considering

the role of distance delivery of instruction need data

telling them what needs distance learning can meet,

under what circumstances, and at what cost.

Classroom and Instructional Logistics

Although it would seem that classroom logistics

are the responsibility of a school district, some

States place restrictions on their districts. One major

issue in this category is class size. For example:

Since the teacher at the sending site interacts with,

evaluates, and remediates students, the maximum

class size shall not exceed 32 pupils per teacher. This

may limit enrollment at a given receiving site and it

may also limit the number of receiving sites based on

the total number of students that are enrolled per

hour, per teacher.36

In this case, not only is the standing rule on class

size in traditional classes extended to distance

learning classes at a receiving site, it is further

extended to the total number of students enrolled at

all sites during that time period. This policy

indicates the strong belief in the instructional value

of small classes and the need to guarantee opportunities for traditional modes of student/teacher interaction. It does not, however, consider alternative ways

to provide interaction in distant classes.

all sites.

Another logistical issue is the use of live versus

taped broadcast course sessions. In both Oklahoma

and Montana, districts are directed to use live

sessions even if it means altering the class schedule.

Scheduling is exacerbated when transmissions cross

time zones, since a class broadcast from Texas at 9

a.m., for example, would be received in California at

7 a.m., before the school day normally begins.

Furthermore, students may lose flexibility in scheduling their other classes at the school in order to

accommodate the fixed schedule of a satellite class.

Difficulties in coordinating school holidays, vacations, and daily bell schedules have been a barrier to

broader acceptance of distance learning classes, and

the situation is made even more difficult if live

broadcasts must be adhered to at all times.

Credit

State policies regarding student credit may encourage the use of distance delivery of courses, as in

this example from Missouri:

Courses delivered primarily through electronic

media may be offered by school districts and counted

toward meeting the curriculum standards and State

minimum graduation requirements if approved and

implemented in accordance with this rule.37

Other policies limit the number of courses that

may be offered via distance delivery by placing

restrictions on allowable credits or in the way that

credits are calculated:

JbId~o ~p~ment of Education, op. cit., footnote 22.

sTState of ~~W~, 5 CSR 50.340.100, “mpartment of Elementary and SecondarY Mucation,” 1987.
128 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Credit earned via distance learning is to be limited

to 3 units or 6 semester credits for graduation

purposes.

38

Three units of satellite course credits may be

applied toward graduation requirements. Districts

designated as isolated may request permission from

the Department of Education to offer a fourth unit of

credit. 39

Superintendents in Minnesota schools considering offering courses to their students via national

satellite networks are reminded that these courses are

still subject to the State Board of Education Rules,

and that these rules require that one credit/hour is

equal to 120-clock hours, while the number of hours

in a satellite course vary with the different course

Providers. 40

State Approval for Courses, Content, and

Instructional Materials

Many States require that school districts apply to

SEAS for permission to use distance learning programs. In some cases there is a review of courses

independent of any district usage, analogous to

textbook approvals, resulting in a statewide approved purchase or usage list for curriculum programs. This can be a major hurdle for multistate

distance learning projects, with each State having

different requirements related to subject matter

taught, the scope and sequence of that subject

matter, the amount of time devoted to each topic, and

what type of credit may be granted for successful

completion of the courses. Idaho, Oklahoma, Missouri, and Montana are examples of States that have

a formal application process specific to distance

learning, especially geared for courses delivered via

satellite.

Concern for the content of courses delivered via

technology seems to parallel that for standard

courses. Content review is part of the approval

process. In some cases, this approval requires the use

of texts also approved by the State. For example,

Oklahoma regulations specify:

Satellite courses offered for high school credit

shall utilize textbooks selected from the Oklahoma

approved list of textbooks. Exceptions will be made

for advanced placement courses by the Accreditation

Section. 41

These requirements can create barriers to multistate course offerings. As one supplier of multistate

courses suggested:

It is literally impossible to offer a course in which

there is a standard text that is used nationwide. Many

States pay only for State adopted textbooks so, to the

extent an alternative book is used then the local

school district has the burden of paying for a new

one. This poses a hardship on many school districts

and negatively impacts the use of distance learning.42

ENCOURAGING INNOVATION

AND BROADER APPLICATIONS

OF DISTANCE LEARNING

TECHNOLOGIES

The policies discussed above tend to be restrictive-protective of State insistence that courses

meet minimum standards based on models of

traditional instruction. Few States have adopted

empowering policies to encourage experimentation

based on a new vision for education. If distance

learning is viewed in the context of a restructured

education system, new recipes for educational

organization are suggested. These issues include

alternative funding models, new concepts

surrounding curricula and instructional design,

and opening doors to new institutional relationships and interstate cooperation.

Policies could support demonstrations of innovative alternatives to the status quo. For example, most

distance learning projects are now funded in the

same fashion as other education activities. But

creative models have begun to appear. Missouri

enacted a tax on the rental of video cassettes to

support distance learning activities. The State estimates that approximately $5 million will be raised in

the first year.43 In other States, special bonds have

been issued. In still other States, cooperative arqaId~o ~p~ent of Education, op. cit., footnote 22.

39M~MS ~pon~ to the Council of Chief State School Officers Survey, op. cit., footnote 17.

40W~Z and Sauter, op. cit., footnote 23.

Alo~~oma ~-ent of Education, op. cit., footnote 31.

Az~emm ~d pew, op. cit., fOOtnOte 19) P. 14.

43s. 7@ ~upulate~ that “id~ rent~ ~esshall ~ co]l~t~ for 5 yeas. ~gisl~ion prOVi&S for grmts to educational institutions to fund the f)UChSC

of technology and instructional programming for both students (courses) and for teachers (inservice training). Betty McCarthey, Missouri Education

Satellite Network, personal communication, April 1989.
Chapter S-States: Catalysts for Change . 129

Photo credit: Bill Ollikkala for Talcott Mountain Science Center

Telecommunications make it possible to offer innovative

courses using teachers who come from a variety of

backgrounds. Here Dr. Eugenie Clark discusses “Life in an

Undersea Desert” on a Talcott Mountain Science Center

Interactive Teleconference.

rangements with the private sector have supported

the development of the technology base, with users

paying for their participation on a subscriber basis.44

In Oklahoma, the State has provided “small school

cooperative grants” totaling $3 million, with approximately $1 million for distance’ learning), to encourage activity benefiting these schools. In response to

this policy, some rural electric cooperatives have

contributed satellite dishes to schools in their service

areas .45

Should funding formulas designed for traditional

classroom settings be revised to accommodate the

new circumstances of distance learning? What new

funding formulas could be devised to provide

incentives for cost-sharing across districts or across

educational levels? When only contact hours are

counted, or bodies in the building, or course units

offered over a semester, then technology enhancements that require different instructional time allotments may be impossible. And what of cost-sharing

among States?

Similarly, existing State curriculum policies discourage development of new curricula that cross

traditional disciplines or grade level boundaries.

However, cross-curricular design can be enhanced

by distance learning systems that combine the best

of many teaching resources beyond what any one

classroom teacher could previously offer. How will

interdisciplinary or other open-design courses be

counted toward State graduation requirements?

Instructional design issues are also neglected.

Distance learning technologies, especially when

used in combination with computers and other

interactive technologies, can offer new instructional

possibilities that can and should be reflected in the

design of distance learning courses. The expanded

use of distance learning technology could contribute

to a reawakened concern that questions the qualitative standards of good instructional design. State

policy rarely provides incentives to try new instructional approaches, and thus new efforts may never

get off the ground despite their potential to improve

curriculum.

Interagency Coordination

As discussed above, State legislative planning

documents are calling for broad planning and

coordination among the various State agencies,

communication authorities, and public and private

utilities involved in each State’s telecommunications systems. Each level of education providers in

a State (K-12, community colleges, vocational/

technical schools, and universities) also has a stake

in these outcomes. SEA’s role in planning for future

telecommunications services should be clearly articulated. In the case of ever-expanding communications networks, the issue for educational institutions

will be: “who controls the highways.” 46 With early

and aggressive involvement in the planning process, educational institutions can shape the systems to assure that the specialized needs of

education are articulated and receive equal, if not

preferred, service.

There is another motive for increased coordination. The ability to negotiate favorable terms and

conditions with competing telecommunications suppliers is enhanced because the education community

within a State is likely to be a major user. Together

with other cooperating State and local agencies,

educational institutions represent a substantial

44For ~xmp]c, ~der ~ ~mgcmcnt between New York Telephone and New York State’s Board of boperalive ~UCatiOn se~ices~ the telephone

company will develop the infrastructure to link five districts in Imng Island, and guarantee a fixed 10-year service and subscription fee. Kevin Femel,

New York Telephone, personal communication, May 31, 1989.

45 Ho]I, op. C1l., fOOUIOle 27.

46R1ch Gross, firkw~ Comrnuni[y College, “The Impact of Educational Tel~omunications, “ unpublished manuscript, May 1989,
130 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

amount of buying power that can be leveraged in

a competitive market to ensure the availability of

flexible, cost-effective systems that meet the

particular needs of the distance learning community. 47

TELECOMMUNICATIONS

REGULATION AT THE

STATE LEVEL

Although the Federal Government has responsibility for setting national telecommunications policy

(see chapter 6), States have a large role in developing

regulations for provision of telecommunications

services within their borders. These in-state telecommunications policies have a large impact on the

provision of distance education services.

The State Public Utility Commissions (PUCs) or

Public Service Commissions, through their regulation of telephone service and rates within a State,

play a growing role in the State distribution of

distance learning services that use the telephone

lines to transmit voice, video, and data between

sites. The rates and policies vary broadly from State

to State. As noted in a paper on distance learning:

At the State level of government, most State PUCs

and, in some cases, State legislatures are now

grappling with many of the same types of issues

regarding the role of competition and regulation that

the federal government has grappled with for more

than two decades. Some of the issues represent

fundamental philosophical concerns, such as

whether the concept of “universal service” should be

expanded to include access via telecommunications

to basic information resources. Other issues center

around the introduction of competition. For example, while all states now allow some form of long

haul competition, many are struggling with the issue

of how much competition, if any, should be allowed

for traditional local telephone services. They are also

trying to deal with how to fairly allocate costs among

competitive and monopoly services, and many states

are in the process of deregulating competitive

services or relaxing the regulation of services that are

at least subject to some competition.48

If the rates set by the State PUCs are based on

commercial payment expectations, schools may be

priced out of the market and find themselves unable

to pay for the telecommunications that run their

distance learning systems. Basic telephone service is

a not insubstantial piece of the yearly budget of

schools. When telecommunications needs expand,

budgets will be forced to rise. Some have argued that

schools should have a special education rate to make

it easier for them to take advantage of the advances

telecommunications can make to improving education. The marriage of State concern for education

and State telecommunications policy could provide a forum in which schools’ distance learning

needs and requirements could be given special

attention.

Furthermore, with each State having one or more

commissions that regulate telecommunications, it

becomes difficult for multistate programming providers and telecommunications companies to coordinate and provide services. What is allowed and

available in one State may be available under

different conditions in another State, or not available

at all. The rapid changes taking place in State

telecommunications policies are often difficult to

follow, putting a burden on potential service providers to locate and understand the regulations stemming from a myriad of commissions and boards that

set the terms under which providers must operate.

The problem is compounded when regional networks are established, linking services across State

lines. The regional Bell Operating Companies each

serve several States; some are actively supporting

cooperative educational networks serving some or

all the States in their regions. For example, New

England Telephone, part of the NYNEX Corp., is

working with Maine, Vermont, and New Hampshire

in considering the creation of a Northern States Long

Distance Learning Cooperative in which the interactive projects within each State could be linked to

provide broader economies of scale. Organizational

issues and concerns for “turf” must first be overcome, as well as technical barriers (the three States

have each taken different technological approaches

to their in-state networks). A third issue is regulatory. Recently the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) changed the criteria for “contamination” of an intrastate circuit, allowing up to 10

percent of an intrastate network’s traffic to be

interstate without reverting to FCC tariffs. The

A7G~la@er ad Hatfield, op. cit., footl’lote 1. p. 5.

‘Ibid., p. 8,
Chapter 5--States: Catalysts for Change ● 131

crossover between State and Federal regulatory

telecommunications policy is exemplified in this

compromise.

Several States have or are in the process of

undertaking major studies of their future telecommunications requirements and infrastructure as a

means to ensure the competitiveness of industry

within the State and to serve social needs across the

State.

These State proceedings and studies are especially

important to educators and groups interested in

distance learning because their telecommunications

requirements are often at the State and local level

rather than at the national level. The proceedings are

especially important because they will impact on the

choices of technology and the prices and terms and

conditions under which distance learning delivery

systems are available to the education community. It

is at the State level where educators can take hold of

key policy levers; since education is largely State

and local government-controlled, State telecommunications policy should be particularly sensitive to

its needs.49

SUMMARY

Policymaking in the distance education area is not

just education policy, and not just telecommunications policy, it is both. Hence, it is important for

individuals from both fields to be involved in the

policy process: educators who know what they want

and what they need, and technology and telecommunications people who know what is possible and

what may be available in the future. It is from the

convergence of these two interests that the most

successful policies are likely to emerge.

The policies require new perspectives and coordination among all players. As one educator noted:

Since most of the learning technologies and

telecommunications capacities were not invented

when many of the policies and regulations were

drawn, a particular sensitivity must be placed on the

review of laws, policies, and regulations from the

transcendent perspective those technologies now

afford. For instance, policies, programs and funding

sources that support distinct telecommunications

systems for home delivery of TV, public library

database access and inter-library resource sharing,

elementary and secondary instruction and management and postsecondary instruction and management—all in the same community—would be

. . . extremely redundant, costly and probably reflect

less capacity in all independent cases than might be

true if developed as a comprehensive system.50

Most distance education policies will be initiated

at the State level, since States have primary responsi -

bility for education. Furthermore, many of the

telecommunications decisions made by State PUCs

will surely shape what educational services can be

provided via telecommunications and whether the

K-12 education community can afford them.

Nevertheless, national telecommunications

policies will also determine much of what telecommunications services States are able to

choose from.51 And, because of the borderless

implications of distance learning, there is clearly

a role for the Federal Government. The Nation’s

educational interests would be served if the

Federal Government provided assistance to

States that need help, enabling them to undertake

comprehensive educational telecommunications

planning before charging ahead. One form of

assistance could be technical assistance, making it

possible for States that are further along to share

information and technical resources with those

States or regions lacking in expertise or experience.

The Federal Government could also provide financial assistance to States in the form of planning

grants.

Finally, a warning. Unless the education community at all levels makes its requirements and needs

known to the suppliers and to the telecommunications policy makers, the schools may not be fully

served, students could miss out on the enormous

benefits available, and the promise of distance

learning may not be realized.

491bid.

s~regov M. Benson, Jr., “Technology Enhanced Distance Education: The Promise of New Opportunities for Lifelong Learning in New York State,”

paper presented to the International Conference on Distance Education, Oslo, Norway, July 1988.

S] For ~ extensive dlscu~slon of these issues, see U,S Congess, office of ~hno]qy Assessment, CrifiCa/ Conrlecfion.$” Cot?V7U4W”CfZt1011 for the

Furure, OTA-CIT4.07 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, in press).
Chapter 6

Federal Activities in

Distance Education
CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 135

FEDERAL ACTIVITIES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION: CURRENT STATUS . . . . . . 135

Direct Federal Support for Comprehensive Distance Learning Services:

The Star Schools Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Federal Support for the Distance Delivery Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Mission-Related Federal Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Federally Funded Curriculum Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Federally Run or Managed Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Federal Training Efforts and Their Relevance to Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

GOVERNMENT REGULATION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

The Regulatory Environment for Telecommunications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Telecommunications Issues for Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Table

Table Page

6-1. Basic Facts and Figures for the Star Schools Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
.

Chapter 6

Federal Activities in Distance Education

INTRODUCTION

Distance education presents a new set of concerns, challenges, and opportunities to Federal

policymakers. These new issues join continuing

concerns about equity, access, and quality of education. Distance education places educators in a new

marketplace: the volatile and rapidly changing arena

of telecommunications. Thus, the Federal Government’s relationship to the public education community is expanding. In the past seen primarily as

funder, infrastructure builder, guarantor of equality,

and priority-setter, the Federal Government’s role in

K-12 education has evolved to include regulation of

marketplace conditions.

This new situation brings new concerns as well as

new opportunities. On the one hand, distance

learning requires significant front-end expenditures,

as well as large investments of time and continued

support to integrate these efforts into the school.

Such efforts are complicated by the need to purchase

hardware and services in a marketplace in which the

rules and capacities are changing rapidly. ’ On the

other hand, this state of rapid change is favorable

toward distance learning. An open, competitive

market of suppliers gives groups involved in distance learning an increased opportunity to negotiate

favorable terms and conditions for the facilities and

services they require.

Growing concerns about work force quality,

international competitiveness, and economic development have brought education to the attention of

segments of the marketplace never before involved

in education. Business and industry are showing an

increasing interest in the welfare of our public

school system. The Federal Government’s interest in

education reflect this broadening of concerns.

FINDINGS

Federal Government funds have accelerated

the growth of distance education in this country, through direct purchasing power as well as

the leveraging power of the Federal dollar. The

Star Schools Program (Department of Education)

and the Public Telecommunications Facilities

Program (Department of Commerce) are the

●

●

●

primary Federal programs directly affecting distance education in elementary and secondary

schools.

Other Federal agencies have interests in distance

learning through their responsibilities for technology development, training, and education. Yet, no

agency-wide strategy or interagency coordination

is now in place.

Federal agencies will have increased opportunities to accomplish agency missions via distance

delivery in the near future. The largest providers

together can reach a great number of American

schools and communities today, and that number

will increase in the next few years. Agencies may

find distance delivery an attractive way to reach

national audiences for a variety of missions

including education.

Federal telecommunications regulations are

central to distance education, because they

affect costs, availability, and types of services.

In light of the rapid growth of distance learning,

it is time to review and shape Federal telecommunications policies to ensure a more effective and

flexible use of technology for education.

FEDERAL ACTIVITIES IN

DISTANCE EDUCATION:

CURRENT STATUS

The Federal Government is not the basic provider

of K-12 education in this country; this role is

traditionally exercised by the States and localities.

The Federal role in education has been to address

particular issues, most prominently equity, access,

and national priorities, through targeted funding and

research, In 1988, Congress created the Star Schools

Program, a comprehensive Federal effort to develop

multistate, multi-institutional K-12 distance education. The other impacts of the Federal Government .

in the K-12 distance learning field are on components such as curriculum, hardware, regulation,

research, and infrastructure, or on particular segments of the learner population. These efforts are

relatively modest although Federal monies have

contributed to many valuable projects. .

IThe~e ~ha]]enge~ UC p~lculw]y Cntlca] for school dls~ic~ that would ]ike to use the public telephone network for transmitting video. This mOSt

ubiquitous telecommunications infrastructure is still adjusting to the changes brought about by the Modification of Final Judgment. Many of the

Judgments are being challenged and rethought by the industry, the Federal Communications Commission, and Congress.

-135-
136 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Interactive distance learning as described in this

report has become a viable resource for American

public education only within the last 5 years.2 It is

not surprising, then, that the Federal Government

has not articulated any kind of comprehensive

distance learning policy. Many Department of Education programs, such as Chapter 1 and Chapter 2

funds, allow use of these funds to support distance

learning. However, because of the many pressing

needs in the Nation’s schools today, and the

resistance to or ignorance of this technology on the

part of some of the State and local officials, very

little of these dollars have been used. Other Federal

programs, such as the Rural Electrification Administration’s telephone loan program, have funding missions that indirectly support interactive distance

learning.

Direct Federal Support for Comprehensive

Distance Learning Services: The

Star Schools Program

The Omnibus Trade Bill and Competitiveness

Act, passed by the 100th” Congress in 1988, created

the Star Schools Program. It is intended to “. . .

address(es) two critical needs in the rebuilding of our

educational system to meet domestic and international challenges. The Nation’s students must

have access to basic and advanced courses in

mathematics, science, and foreign languages, and

these courses must be of the highest quality. ’ The

amount of $33.5 million was appropriated over a

2-year period.

The Star Schools Act has two major emphases: to

create multistate, organizationally diverse partnerships to write and deliver both core and enrichment

curriculum; and to create opportunities for disadvantaged students to receive remote instruction.

The Star Schools legislation specifies two formats

for the composition of eligible partnerships. In one,

membership must include at least one State education agency (SEA), State higher education agency,

or local education authority responsible for a significant number of poor or underserved students.

Furthermore, this type of partnership is required to

have at least two other institutions from a host of

types, including the three types listed above, universities, teacher training institutions, public broadcasting entities, and others. The other type of

partnership must include a public agency or corporation already formed to operate or develop telecommunications networks to serve schools, teacher training

centers, or other education providers. All partnerships must be statewide or multistate. These requirements were meant to create new paths to improving

the education system by fostering cooperation between institutions.4

The legislation directs at least 50 percent of its

funds to school districts eligible for Chapter 1

monies, and, within those districts, to serve poorer

schools and other underserved populations.5 The

legislation also requires at least 25 percent of the

granted funds be applied to instructional programming, and requires the grantees to generate at least

25 percent of the total budget from non-Federal

sources.

The enabling legislation authorized the program

for 5 years, setting an overall funding limit of $100

million. For the first round of 2-year grants, 4

proposals were selected from more than 70 applications: Satellite Educational Resources Consortium

(SERC), TI-IN United Star Network (TI-IN USN),

the Midlands Consortium, and Technical Education

Research Centers (TERC). Three of the four projects

are satellite-based delivery systems: TI-IN USN,

SERC, and Midlands. TERC supplies science and

mathematics units using computers and a telecommunications network. TI-IN USN and Midlands

are building on already-established networks and/or

curriculum; TERC is an existing organization whose

Star Schools effort is modeled on a prior project;

ZExP~ent~ in ~teracuve distance Iewning in American public schools dates back to 1971, when the National ~ronautics and SPace

Administration offered the Office of Education within the old Department of Health, Education, and Welftwe free time on its satellites. Th.Rx

demonstration projects were funded in Appalachia, the Rocky Mountain region, and Alaska; transmission began in 1974. The Appalachian Regionat

Commission (ARC) project evolved into The Learning Channel, a cable television educational provider. The Rocky Mountain project formed the basis

of the Public Setwice Satellite Consortium. The format for class instruction used by many of today’s providers was developed during the ARC project.

Kevin Arundel, U.S. Department of Education, personal communication, September 1989. See also Lavmence P. GraysOn, ‘Educational Satellites: The

ATS-6 Experiments,” Journal of Educational Technology Systems, vol. 3, No, 2, fall 1974, pp. 89-124.

3u.s. cm~ew, Senate c~mlttw on Lab and I-lumm Resources, Star Schools Ro~~ Assistance *t, Repofi 1OO-44, Apr. 21* 1987, P. 1.

qElcmen~y and sec~d~ School Improvement Amendments of 1988, Public Law 1OO-297, SW. 904, AIX. 28, 1988.

Schapter t.ellgible dis~cts ~e the= dis~cts that are tijudg~ to have at least 10 students living below the Poveny level (m determined b the census

Bureau). These school districts are thereby eligible, under a complicated formula, for grants from the U.S. Department of Education. About 80 percent

of the school districts in the country are eligible for Chapter 1 funds.
Chapter 6-Federal Activities in Distance Education . 137

Photo credit: South Carolina Educational Television

Few students had the chance to learn Russian until the SERC Star Schools project brought teachers like

Michael Primak and Sherry Beasley to their schools via satellite.

SERC is a new venture. TERC offers curriculum

modules for science classes; the three satellite

projects offer whole courses in science, mathematics, and foreign languages. All four projects offer

teacher training and staff development activities. All

will be doing evaluations of educational effectiveness, teacher training techniques, and other aspects

of their respective efforts. Table 6-1 gives a broad

outline of the four Star Schools projects.

The SERC Board of Directors is composed

primarily of two representatives from each of the

member States: the chief State school officer and the

chief executive officer of the educational television

network (public broadcasting) in the State. The

consortium currently has 19 State members and 4

associate members (Cleveland, Detroit. Kansas City,

and New York City). The member States and

schools make a significant contribution to the

project: State fees are $20,000 for the pilot year

1988-89, increasing to $50,000 for 1991-92. Schools

contribute $150 per student per semester course; fees

are also charged for teacher inservice courses and

events. Schools are required to match 25 percent of

the grants for equipment, and must purchase a

keypad response system if participating in mathematics classes. Enrollment for the pilot year 1988-

896 was intenmtionally limited; SERC had enrolled

4,000 students for courses in 1989-90 as of May

1989. Such demand creates confidence in the SERC

management that, even in the face of equipment

costs and the inevitable start-up disruptions, schools

have a great need for these courses.7

6The pi]o( yew was ]argely funded by a grant from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting; like the other Star Schools gram=, SERC’S firsl full

year of operation under Star Schools will be 1989-90,

TGai] ~n~], SERC project director, personal communication, May 1989.
Table 6-l-Basic Facts and Figures for the Star Schools Projects

Grant amounts Number of

FY 1989/ States Number of Number of

Name Organizational partners Primary technology used FY 1990 involved schools students

satellite

Educational

Resources

Consortium

TI-IN United Star

Network

(TI-IN USN)

The Midlands

Consortium

Technical

Education

Research

Centers

19 States, each represented by the State

education agency and the State educational television authority: AL, AR, FL, GA,

1A, KY, LA, MS, NE, NJ, NC, ND, OH, PA,

SC, TX, VA, WV, and Wl; and 4 cities (associate members): Cleveland, Detroit,

Kansas City, and New York

3 State education agencies: NC, TX, and IL;

4 universities: Western Illinois, AlabamaTuscaloosa, Mississippi State, California

State-Chico; the Region 20 Educational

Service Center (Texas); and TI-IN, Inc.

5 universities: Alabama-Birmingham, Kansas, Kansas State, Oklahoma, Mississippi; and the Missouri School Boards Association

Boston Museum of Science; the Northwest

Regional Lab; Minnesota Educational;

Computing Consortium; City College of

New York; Biological Sciences Curriculum

Study; and 5 universities: Tufts, Virginia,

Satellite-based transmission;

one-way video, two-way audio;

C/Ku-band satellite dishes,

steerable; unscrambled signal

Satellite-based transmission;

one-way video, two-way audio;

Ku-band satellite dishes,

mostly fixed, some steerable;

scrambled signal

Satellite-based transmission;

one-way video, two-way audio;

C/Ku-band satellite dishes,

steerable; unscrambled signal

Computers connected viacommercial computer network

$5.6 million/ 23’ 312D

3,300 (est.)

$4.10 million

$5.6 million/ 1O C

$4.13 million

$5.5 million/ 5

$4.14 million

$2.4 million/ 18f

$2.04 million

328d

278d

4479

3,200e

2,500e

18,000

Michigan, Pepperdine, and Arizona State

a19 States, PIU5 ~ool distficts ~om the 4 ci~ tivoIv~ as associate members.

%ctmols participating through fiscal year 1989 funds only. An additional 121 schools are receiving teacher inservice and student seminars only.

Ww number of States with 4 or more sites. Thera are 12 other States where TI-IN USN has 1-3 schools. Most of these schmis are Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools whose TI-IN USN activitws

are being coordinated through BIA.

d%hoots that are or wilt be participating through fiscal year 19S9 and fisd year IWO funds.

ejn addition t. t~= st~ents, other st~nts at non-s~ ~hoojs sites will t~e CIHS developed with Star &hools nlOtWy.

hie number of States with 4 or more sites.

g~hools pa~~ipating in school year 1989-90 onlY.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S9, based on information provided by the Star Schools projects and the U.S. Department of Education.
Chapter 6--Federal Activities in Distance Education ● 139

TI-IN USN is a consortium that includes three

SEAS, four universities, a regional State education

service agency, and a private for-profit company

already providing satellite-delivered curriculum,

TI-IN Network, Inc. (TI-IN). TI-IN has been providing whole course curriculum and staff development

programming since August 1985; six of the other

partners will also develop programming during the

2-year period of the grant. Participating schools will

be required to pay a subscription fee of $3,650 for

1989-90, as well as a per student fee of about $240

per semester course. TI-IN sends a scrambled

satellite signal to participating schools, and, for the

244 schools receiving equipment in the first year of

the grant, provides a fixed-placement satellite dish.

The schools receiving equipment from the secondyear funding under the Star Schools Program will

have steerable dishes. Although these dishes are

more expensive to purchase and maintain and more

troublesome in signal quality, TI-IN believes that

these schools would benefit from the added programming available, both interactive and broadcast.*

The Midlands Consortium, composed of universities in four States plus the Missouri School Boards

Association, is a five-State effort to deliver satellitetransmitted secondary curriculum, inservice programming, and staff development programs. Like

TI-IN, Midlands will build on an already existing

core of schools, curriculum, and hardware, primarily

from Oklahoma State University’s Arts and Sciences Telecommunications Service (ASTS). Unlike

TI-IN, Midlands is managed more like four independent networks than like one coordinated network. For

example, Star Schools money will go, in full or in

part, to install downlinks at 164 schools in the 5

States. The schools are required to keep a log of the

use of the dish, and required to offer one high school

course or 50 hours of other programming; this

requirement, however, does not need to be met with

Midlands-produced programming. A number of the

Midlands schools have planned to use the dishes to

pull in C-SPAN, The Learning Channel, and other

cable programming not otherwise available to them.

The consortium partners who will be producing

programming— Kansas, Kansas State, and Oklahoma State Universities, and the Missouri School

Boards Association-will independently produce,

price, and market their programming. Any school in

the country can tune their satellite dish to this

unscrambled programming; however, if students or

teachers are to receive credit toward degrees or

certification, they must register with the consortium.

The consortium provides assistance to its members

in technical areas as well as instructional design,

particularly from ASTS to the other partners.9

The TERC Star Schools Project uses a computer

and a commercial teleconferencing network to

connect students studying science or mathematics.

The curriculum approach is to engage students in

data collection and problem solving, exchanging

observations and data with other classrooms around

the country. The telecommunications network, basically an electronic mail network, allows students to

share results, write reports, and ask questions of

leading scientists who are serving on the project as

models and collaborators. For example, one of the

units will be on weather. Core activities will include

the gathering of weather data at sites around the

community, sharing this data with schools around

the country, and analyzing fluctuations and unexpected differences. This data collection may be of

utility to weather researchers and meteorologists,

such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration. The schools are responsible for

providing the computer, modem, and telephone line

for the project, although some subsidies are available. Teacher preparation, software, scientific experiment supplies, and telecommunications are paid for

by TERC and the teacher training center partners.

The overall hardware costs (one computer per two

classes) and telecommunications costs (computer

network hookup at off-peak hours) are very low

relative to any video-based distance education

efforts. TERC estimates that 18,000 students will

participate in the project in 1989-90.

In the TERC program, the classroom teacher

remains the subject expert; in the other three projects

the teleteacher provides most of the instruction,

supplemented by the attendant classroom teacher.

Therefore, inservice teacher training is considered

an especially critical component to the TERC model,

and is being carefully designed and evaluated. The

8Lloyd mterman, chief executive officer, TI-IN Network, Inc., personal communication, May 1989.

9Con~wce LaWry, ~sociate d~tor, MS & sciences Extension, Oklahoma State University, personat communication, May 1989; and Jew H~+

associate dean, College of Education, Kansas State University, personal communication, May 1989.

20-955 0 - 89 - 4
TERC partners are acting as resource

teacher training and support is the primary

of these centers.10

centers; that impact will not be known for a number of years.

function Still, some impacts can be seen:

● Approximately 30 percent of rural and isolated

high schools will have a satellite dish by the end

With the exception of two pilot projects, the Star of 1990;11 of that number, approximately oneSchools networks did not commence their full-scale third will have been purchased and installed

efforts until September 1989. Thus, although the using Star Schools money. While different

first round of Star Schools grants is expected to have dishes will have differing capacities, it is safe

a significant impact on distance education, much of to assume that these dishes will have the ability

l~ccilla urtk, proj~t director, TERC Star Schools, personal communication, September 1989.

1 I Lloyd ~eman, TI. IN Network, ~c., m~es ~e~ estimates based on the following figures (all i3pprOXhtMtC): LhX we 5,930 mral school districts

(based on Department of Education figures), and another 4,810 that are isolated (as defined by census tracking), for a total of 10,740 districts. By 1990,

Otterrnan projects that TI-IN will have at least 900 schools with satellite receive dishes, SERC will have about 600, Midlands/ASTS will have 400,

Kentucky will have close to 1,000, and STEP will have 150 for an estimated total of better than 3,000 schools. (These numbers do not include the

possibility that whittle Communications’ Charnel One program may install up to 8,000 high schools with satellite dishes in the next 1 to 2 years. Some

of these schools will likely be rural or isolated. ) Because a great majority of rurat and isolated school districts have only one high school, it is Ot[erman’s

estimate that at least 30 percent of rural high schools will have dishes.
Chapter 6-Federal Activities in Distance Education . 141

●

●

●

●

to provide these schools with course enrichment segments and some whole courses for the

foreseeable future. Even if one or two of the

Star Schools satellite networks were to disband

in the future, the large installed base of satellite

dishes creates a market that will not be ignored.

One of the primary goals of the Star Schools

legislation—to create multistate, multiorganizational partnerships in education—

has been realized. These relationships between universities and local schools, SEAS and

public broadcasting entities, and others, across

and within States and regions, have the potential to provide each participant with a rich

network of expertise and ideas.

The first round of Star Schools funding has

gone predominantly to support satellite-based

delivery systems. None of the Star Schools

projects uses fiber optic cable, digital (Tl)

cable, microwave, or Instructional Television

Fixed Service (ITFS) technologies as the transmitter of the video component of the programming. This narrow focus missed an opportunity

to spur the development of systems and markets.

Star Schools money stimulated a majority of

States and/or districts in States to consider

distance delivered instruction. Some States

have moved forward to implement or explore

such instruction, seeking funds from sources

other than the first round of the Star Schools

Program.

12 T his groundswell of interest, enhanced by 2 subsequent years of planning and

problem solving, should manifest itself in an

even greater interest in the second round of Star

Schools funding.

Because of the 25 percent matching requirement built into each Star Schools grant, and the

amount over and above contributed by States

and others, it is estimated that Star Schools has

resulted in a total capital investment in education of about $42 to $47 million. 13

Federal Support for the Distance Delivery

Infrastructure

Federal Agency Grant Programs

Some Federal funds support the distance delivery

infrastructure through programs targeted for telecommunications technologies. In the following two

examples, from the National Telecommunications

and Information Administration (NTIA) and the

Rural Electrification Administration (REA), the

monies are primarily directed to support public

broadcasting facilities and rural telephone facilities,

respectively. Because distance education can be

delivered through a variety of technologies, NTIA

and REA funds are an important element in the

support of the infrastructure.

The Public Telecommunications Facilities Program (PTFP) at NTIA (U.S. Department of Commerce) funds equipment purchases and some planning grants for broadcast (public television and

public radio) as well as nonbroadcast (noncommercial providers using ITFS and cable, for example)

telecommunications facilities. *4 The annual appropriation was $18 million in fiscal year 1988. Priority

is given to applications that equip new public

television and radio facilities, both broadcast and

nonbroadcast, or to extend service to new areas. The

next priority is given for replacement of outdated

and outmoded equipment. While no rules are set on

the amount to be spent in each area, these priority

applications tend to account for about three-quarters

of the ITFP granting budget. The remaining funds

are used to support innovative projects and minority

access. It is from this part of the pool that NTIA has

provided funding for equipment used in interactive

distance learning efforts. In 1988, this program

funded nine special nonbroadcast projects at a level

12sCC, for ~xmPIc, The Iowa EducationalRleCOrnmuniCa~iOnS Plan. The Iowa Iegisiaturc appropriated $50 miliion Over the next 5 )’CMS tO lnSt~!

a statewldc fiber backbone that links the State universities, community colleges. and public schools. Linda Schatz, Iowa Public Television, personal

comtnunication, May 1989. Other efforts include the Vermont/New Wunpshi@Maine Northern ‘her Network. which came out of Star Schools proposal

planning.

Ilfic 2 yews of Sta Schmls funding totals a~ul $33.5 mllllon in F~eral f~ds. The matching requirements leveraged more than 25 pcrccnl from

some of the projects. Cheryl Garnette, Star Schools Program, Educational Networks Division, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S.

Department of FAucation, personal communication, September 1989.

~qThe predecessor of ~ls progr~, called the Educational Broadcast Facilities Program, was originated in 1962 and was admumtcrcd by the Offlcc

of Education, at the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. [n 1978 the program was expanded to include nonbroadcast components and to fund

planning effons; in 1979 the program was moved to the Dcpanment of Commcrcc. CMgmidly the program allowed some funding for programming,

although now the funds are reserved for equipment and planning. Frank Withrow, Star Schools Program, Educational Networks Division, Office of

Educational Research and [mprovcmcnt, U.S. Department of Education, personal communication, July 1989.
142 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

of $2.25 million (12.5 percent of the PTFP budget).

These grants include funding for the purchase of

equipment for two satellite uplinks, three new ITFS

systems, expanding service for two established ITFS

systems, a microwave system, and captioning systems to increase access to telecommunications

programming for the hearing-impaired. The grantees

include community colleges, universities, a county

office of education, and community telecommunications networks (i.e., organizations formed specifically to provide these services) .15

The Rural Electrification Administration (REA)

(U.S. Department of Agriculture) offers direct loans,

federally established bank loans, and guaranteed

loans to both rural electric and rural telephone

companies. In fiscal year 1988, the REA telephone

division made loans or loan guarantees of $273

million, of which $193 million were in the form of

5-percent interest direct loans. The direct loan fund

and the Rural Telephone Bank loans are both

revolving funds; i.e., all payments received by the

fund are available to be reloaned. The REA loans to

rural telephone companies are authorized to finance

telecommunications equipment that extend telephone services. This mandate does not exclude

educational television applications, but the limitation of traditional copper cable (i.e., not enough

bandwidth to transmit video) has greatly limited the

number of loan applications REA received in the

past with educational components. However, with

the advent of fiber optic cable and its significant

capacity for video, voice, and data, REA has seen an

increase in applications for such loans. When a

telephone company is laying fiber cable, dedicating

lines for the school system and connecting from the

trunk to the school itself is relatively inexpensive.

One REA official estimates that the cost of laying

the additional cable to the school is $1,500 per mile

during initial trunk line installation, but $10,000 if

such cable is laid at some future date.16

There are no separate funds for educational efforts

per se, but projects in rural Minnesota, the Oklahoma

Panhandle, and the Papagos Indian reservation,

among others, have been supported by loans to the

rural telephone companies in these areas. REA

encourages telephone companies to work with

school districts as away of cost sharing, but does not

solicit specific projects for education.

Through NTIA and REA, significant government resources are being invested in the national

telecommunications infrastructure; in some projects, this investment serves the educational needs

of the community. These funds represent a significant resource for the education community. These

resources offer the interactive distance learning

community limited (NTIA) or indirect (REA) support. Changes in the scope or direction of these

programs could expand the resources available,

Department of Education Programs

There are other examples of Federal monies that

support the distance education infrastructure. The

Department of Education has many programs that

address concerns of equity, access, advancement,

and special populations. Many of these programs

allow use of funds for distance delivered education efforts, although to date few of these funds

have been tapped for this purpose.

Chapter 1 funds, $4.5 billion in fiscal year 1989,

are provided to assist “educationally deprived

children "17 in elementary and secondary schools.

The eligibility and allocation formulas essentially

limit Chapter 1 funds to only this population—poor

and disadvantaged children. Ninety-nine percent of

these funds go to local education agencies for the

targeted population. A high percentage of Chapter 1

funds go to elementary schools.

Because most distance delivered whole courses

are targeted to higher-level classes in high schools,

and because many disadvantaged children are not

high academic achievers, Chapter 1 funds have not

played a significant role in distance learning in this

country to date. However, the mandate in the Star

Schools legislation that at least 50 percent of its

funds benefit Chapter l-eligible schools may serve

to leverage more Chapter 1 funds for distance

education. Ongoing costs such as per-student fees

and supplies will be increasingly paid for out of

Chapter 1 funds. Enrichment classes, course modIsDennis Connors, Nation~ Telecommunications and Information Administration, personal communication, Apr. 3, r989.

16Ro~~ peters, RW~E]~~ification Adrninis~ation, ~rsonal communication, March 1989. An industry expwt believes the= estimates maY ~ closer

to $2,500 per mile now versus $8,000 later, although such numbers contain considerable variables. Joe Arri, Bellcore, personal communication, August

1989.

ITElcmentW ~ds=mdq Schoo] Improvement Amendmen~ of 1988, public Law IW-2~, Sa,Iwl, p~agraphs(a)(2)(A) (Declaration of pohcy)

and (b) (Statement of Purpose), Apr. 28, 1988.
Chapter 6--Federal Activities in Distance Education ● 143

ules, teacher training activities, and staff development activities may become accessible and relatively inexpensive in light of a school’s existing

system capacity.

Certain Department of Education programs have

limited activities in support of distance education.

The Federal, State, and Local Partnership for Educational Improvement, commonly known as Chapter 2,

is the consolidated funding mechanism for dozens of

previously separate directed pools of money. Chapter 2 funds are rarely used for any telecommunications technology or training. Eighty percent of these

funds, $463 million in fiscal year 1989, are distributed to the local education agencies through the

States. States and local education agencies are

allowed to spend the funds in any of six broadly

sketched areas, which gives the agencies a great deal

of flexibility. The Department of Education and the

State education authorities are prohibited by statute

from influencing the decisionmaking of the local

education agencies on how to spend the money; this

provision protects the local autonomy of the program.

18

Money distributed under Title III of the Higher

Education Act, dedicated to maintain the selfsufficiency of higher education institutions, funds

universities and colleges in many areas, including

facilities and technology. In fiscal year 1989, the

Title 111 program budget was $140 million, which

included $23 million in new starts. 19 These funds

affect the K-12 education community through the

connection between institutional outreach and advanced high school coursework, one of the primary

uses of distance education. For example, the University of Maine system received a 5-year, $4.4

million grant under Title III to fund the statewide

Community College of Maine/Telecommunications

System. Central to expanding access to advanced

educational programming in the State is connecting

every high school to the system.20

The Secretary’s Fund for Innovation in Education

($14.7 million in fiscal year 1989) is a new fund

offering grants in four areas-innovation in education, technology, health education, and computerbased instruction. The technology funds, limited in

1989 to $1 million in continuing projects, are

currently being used to support television and radio

broadcasting efforts. The computer-based instruction category awarded between $3 to $4 million in

fiscal year 1989.21

Department of Education Technical Assistance:

The Regional Education Laboratories

The Department of Education charters and supports nine regional educational laboratories. Each

laboratory is governed by representatives of SEA

and local education agencies, business, school board

members, and other affected parties. These laboratories attempt to bridge between research and

practice, bringing into the field important findings,

techniques, evaluations, software, and other services

to support the practitioners in their region. The

Department of Education provided $17.2 million for

the laboratories in 1989, plus an additional $5.2

million for an initiative on rural small schools. The

laboratories draw additional funds from the States,

foundations, and contracts and grants, including

other Department of Education funds. The laboratories can be an important resource for distance

learning projects. In North Dakota, State planning

activities and technical assistance for three model

projects have been supported by the Mid-Continent

Regional Educational Laboratory (MCREL). In fall

1990, MCREL will launch a model “magnet school

without walls” for advanced mathematics and

science high school students in South Dakota.

Videotapes produced by the Annenberg/Corporation

for Public Broadcasting project and audiographics

instruction provided by the University of South

Dakota make up the school’s curriculum. 22

Mission-Related Federal Activities

Many Federal agencies have educational components in their missions. These efforts allow agencies

to raise awareness among the Nation’s schoolchildren about aeronautics and space (National Aero18Ro~R K~ner, Division of Formula Grants, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, U.S. ~p~ment of Education, personal

communicadon, July 1989.

]gstw]ey ~~ews, Divisj~n of ~nstltutlon~ ~ve]opment, Office Of p~~ond~ ~UCat]On, U.S. Depmnlent Of Education, personal

communication, June 1989.

Z(?pwela MacBraWe, ex=utive dir~tor of distuce education, University of Maine at Augusta, personal corrunuficalion~ May 1989.

zlsh~]ey St=le, FMd for lhe Improvement and Refo~ of Schoo]s and Tr~ning, Office of ~ucation~ Re~~ch and Improvement, U.S. Deptiment

of Education, personat communication, June 1989.

Zzpau] Nachtig~, Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory, personal communication, September 1989.
144 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

nautics and Space Administration-NASA), agriculture and agribusiness (U.S. Department of Agriculture--USDA), and law and the police (the

Department of Justice), to name just a few. For these

agencies, the very missions they pursue are the

curriculum they propagate. Most often, these programs are developed to be modules or units within

traditional K-12 curriculum. Some of these agencies

use distance delivery of their materials; others, such

as the Department of Justice, have not, or have

deemed it inappropriate to their mission.

Distance education can bean effective system for

accomplishing a mission. For NASA, the technology inherent in distance education, primarily satellites, has been part of its research and development

effort for more than 30 years. For NASA, both the

medium and its mission are the message. NASA

launched the first communications satellites used for

education in 1974; the first satellite-delivered NASA

educational effort was images from the Voyager

mission to Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1981.

Universities, science centers, and planetaria received these images as they were returned from the

spacecraft, accompanied by presentations from NASA

scientists. In April 1985, NASA ran a pilot project

entitled “Mission Watch,” in which scientists

aboard the Space Shuttle discussed their experiments and answered questions from students and

teachers. This highly successful pilot was to be the

model for daily classes from the Teacher-in-Space

Program during the Challenger flight that ended in

a tragic explosion. The two overview videoconferences that were held one day prior to the accident had

an estimated viewing audience of 2 million students

and teachers.

For the last 2 years, NASA has produced an

educational videoconference series, “Update for

Teachers,” in conjunction with Oklahoma State

University. These four, l-hour programs provide

elementary and secondary teachers with space science activities, experiments, and strategies for the

classroom. An extensive question-and-answer period is part of each videoconference. Prior to each

broadcast, NASA distributes written material to

participating teachers describing classroom activities, related publications, and broadcast information.

In addition, videotape segments have been uplinked

to schools for taping immediately after the videoconference. NASA estimates that 20,000 teachers

from all 50 States viewed the November 1988

conference on “Living In Space. ” NASA’s future

plans include conducting a live lesson from space

sometime in the next 1 to 2 years, and at some point

reviving the “Mission Watch” concept for the

Teacher-in-Space program. In the more distant

future, NASA sees the space station as the base for

a variety of exciting educational opportunities.23

Distance delivery methods are being used or

contemplated for special projects in USDA. The

National Agriscience Ambassador, funded through

the Special programs Office of the Cooperative State

Research Service, organized a February 1989 teleconference on careers in agriscience which was

viewed by an estimated 2 million students.24 The

Extension Service is using interactive video to

convey information about land issues and the

Department’s services.25

USDA has a mature administrative audio- and

videoconferencing system, used to connect headquarters with the vast network of regional administrators and Extension Service agents. USDA uses

distance delivery methods for their elementary and

secondary educational efforts only in isolated cases,

as described above. USDA, primarily through the

Extension Service, has developed a highly decentralized, inexpensive partnership with States, counties, and local organizations that is reaching millions

of students very effectively, without technology.

Federally Funded Curriculum Development

The Department of Education and the National

Science Foundation (NSF) have missions targeted to

improving quality and access of education for K-12

students. NSF has the lead role in the Federal

Government’s efforts in science and mathematics

education, while the Department of Education’s

mandate is based on providing access to educational

opportunities for the entire spectrum of students, a..

well as curriculum improvement efforts across all

subject areas. Both agencies have funded curriculum

development projects for distance education.

23WjIIjm D, NjxOn, N~On~ Aeronautics and Space Administration, Educational Affairs Division, “NASA Distance Learning-Saiellite

Videmconferencing for Education,” unpublished document, May 17, 1989.

2ADebor~ H~s, ~uisima Educallona] Sale]]ite Network, Soutiern unjversj[y-s~eveport, personal communication, February 1989.

zs~m Tate, Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, personal communication, February 1989.
Chapter 4--Federal Activities in Distance Education ● 145

The Star Schools Program, described previously

in this chapter, gave grants totaling $33.5 million, of

which at least 25 percent is to be applied to

instructional programming, as required by the enabling legislation. The legislation specifies instruction in mathematics, science, and foreign languages;

whole courses, modules, inservice training workshops, and staff development seminars are being

developed by the Star Schools grantees.

NSF’s efforts in distance education have so far

been the funding of a limited number of projects that

extend the technology in unique ways. NSF, through

its Materials Development, Research, and Informal

Science Education Division, Directorate of Science

and Engineering Education, has funded applications

using telecommunications to deliver instruction.

Grants are available for curriculum development,

hardware purchases, and development of advanced

technologies. Examples of recent projects include

the Jason Project, a seafloor exploration project

headed by Titanic discoverer Robert Ballard (see

chapter 1, box 1-E). NSF spent a total of about $1

million on the Jason Project, both for hardware

purchases for the 12 science centers and museums

that served as downlink sites, and for the science

curriculum developed by the National Science

Teachers Association. NSF also provided funding to

TERC for the Kids Network project, science enrichment curricula using computer networks that is the

precursor to the TERC Star Schools project. Currently, NSF is funding curriculum development for

an Advanced Placement chemistry class being

developed by Oklahoma State University.26

Federally Run or Managed Schools

In a few circumstances, the Federal Government

is responsible for actually running K-12 schools.

The Department of Defense Dependent Schools

(DoDDS), for example, has the responsibility for

basic education for 155,000 schoolchildren living in

military installations in 32 countries. At that size,

DoDDS ranks as the ninth largest school district in

the country. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)

directly operates 182 schools in 27 States; tribes and

tribal organizations operate 71 of the schools

through a contract with BIA.

Photo credit: Craig D. Lewis

The Eastern Navajo Agency Network links students from

Native American schools around the country.

Both of these government-run school systems are

beginning to use electronic networks for education;

use of video-based distance delivery systems is rare

at the present time. DoDDS is installing a management information system in its schools and

administrative offices around the world. Until that

fiber-based system is in place, no comprehensive

efforts using the telecommunications infrastructure

for education will likely occur. 27 However, grassroots initiatives have already emerged in the DoDDS

system. DoDDS students in West Germany have

participated in Interactive Communications Simulations developed by the University of Michigan.28

The Pascal computer language is taught to DoDDS

students in Germany, Okinawa, Korea, and Italy via

computer network. The teachers communicate with

zbMichae] Temp]eton, Andrew Mo]nar, and Mary Kohlcrrnan, Materials Development, Research and Informat Science Education Division, Science

and Engineering Education Directorate, National Science Foundation, personal cornmunica[ions, March-May, 1989.

27 Dennis By&, ~partrncnt of Defense Dependent Schools, personal communication, December 1988.

Zgsee ch. 2, footnote 26.
146 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

students solely through the network, feeding messages, homework and tests through a University of

Michigan computer. DoDDS schools in England,

Japan, and Bermuda have expressed interest in

participating in the future.29

Currently, 19 BIA schools are part of the TI-IN

Star Schools effort.30 In this project, the schools will

be outfitted with a satellite dish and connections for

$75, and will then pay TI-IN $240 per student per

course that they purchase from the TI-IN menu of

courses. BIA is committed to funding these schools’

continued access to distance learning courses.

The other key BIA effort is the Eastern Navajo

Agency Network (ENAN), a computer network that

will be hooked into most of BIA’s 182 schools by

October 1989.31 This network includes a student

“pen pals” section, an administrators network, an

effort to share culturally relevant teaching strategies

(developed at Northern Arizona University), a beginning teachers network (starting in fall 1989), and

a mathematics/science master teachers network

(involving 70 teachers and professors from the

University of Kansas and the University of New

Mexico). Teachers in these isolated settings are able

to share instructional strategies, particularly in

mathematics, science, language arts, and foreign

languages. Also, teachers who participate in BIA’s

summer inservice institutes are encouraged to keep

in touch via the network. BIA is particularly

concerned about the isolation of teachers in Native

American schools. The summer institutes and ENAN

are considered critical elements to improving the

quality of teaching. Also, some BIA schools recently

began experimenting with the Pennsylvania Teleteaching Network, an audiographics teaching system headquartered at Mansfield University .32

The Bureau is encouraging tribes and tribal

organizations to more directly control the education

of Native American children; the management of 39

percent of the BIA schools has already been

contracted out.33 Distance education delivery systems can be key resources for retaining and reinforcing the cultural context of Native American schools.

Distance education can overcome cultural as well as

geographic barriers, by grouping students with

cultural peers around the country. This expansion of

the base of students offers the advantages discussed

previously in relation to geographic isolation: a

broader array of information, Curricular, and human

resources necessary to improve educational quality. 34

Federal Training Efforts and Their Relevance

to Distance Learning

The Federal Government is one of the largest

trainers in the world, spending an estimated $18 to

$20 billion a year to train both its civilian and

military personnel,35 and distance delivery for training has been used extensively for a number of years.

Such efforts, both in the Federal Government and

private industry, shed light on technical and classroom management models that could be effective in

the K-12 classroom, and in the professional development and training of educators.

Federal networks for training and management

communications are important because they are

national or regional. As such they have the potential

to serve secondary users, such as the elementary and

secondary education communities, with facilities

and expertise that are already in the public domain.

Also, Federal and State policymakers participate in

many audio and video teleconferences; this involve29[t is ~~timated th~ one.~rd of tie 270 Dep~ment of ~fense ~~ndent Schoo]s have SMIIti some tel~ommunkations activity for lflStrUCtiOn.

Sam Calvin, Department of Defense Dependent Schools, personal communication, August 1989. See also Kem Appelgate et al., “Pascal Via

Telecornrn unications: Using Low Tech for High Tech Results, ’ presented at the International Symposium on Telecommunications in Education, August

21-24, 1989, Jerusalem, Israel.

30S1xtwn of &w sch~ls Me ~~k~g &mt]y through the B~eau of [ndi~ Aff~rs; the o~r thr~ we conuac[~ through the other TI-IN partners,

or were identified and included through involvement with the State education agency.

Jlpaul Resta, center for Technology and Education, University of New Mexico, personal communication, Aug. 31.1989.

32For a f~l description of tie Pennsylvania Teleteaching Network, see B~ce B~ker, Tex~ Tmh University, ‘ ‘Dstince h?arning C~ Studies, ’ OTA

contractor report, April 1989.

JqBi]] MehOj~, chef, Element~ and s~ond~ Education Br~ch, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior, ~rSOnd

cornmuncation, July 1989.

3qJ~n Ohler, University of Alaska Southeast, ‘‘Distance Education and the Transformation of Schooling: Living and Learning in the Information

Age, ” OTA contractor report, May 1989.

JsTony Caevde, Vice Resident of National Affairs, American Society for Training and Ikvelopment, FsOnd comrnmication, J~Y 1989.
Chapter 6-Federal Activities in Distance Education ● 147

ment tends to demystify such technologies for the

very officials whose attitudes can have significant

influence on distance learning efforts.

In addition to training and telecommunications

networks, interactive curricular materials and research relevant to distance-mediated instructional

design are produced extensively for and by the

Federal Government, and thus are public property.

These materials are primarily for training, although

some of it is relevant to education, as are many

authoring systems for curriculum development. For

the educational community to make use of these

materials, however, evaluation, modification, and

distribution of materials needs to be performed.

Federal Training Networks: Models of Distance

Learning Technologies

Existing Federal training networks using distance

delivery of course materials can serve the K-12

education community in two ways. One, they can

serve as a model of distance delivery used in the

public sector. Secondly, Federal networks provide

an existing hardware base that could be used by the

education community to extend their service to more

learners.

The Department of Defense (DoD) has a vast and

diverse learning audience, and thus employs numerous distance learning networks. One example is the

Army Logistics Management College (ALMC),

which has been offering one-way video, two-way

audio courses over its Satellite Education Network

for over 4 years. The college offers nonclassified,

American Council on Education-accredited courses

to both civilian and military defense personnel;

courses are offered for other branches and subdivisions of DoD. Of the 57,000 students who have taken

courses from ALMC in this 4-year period, 13,000

have been remote learners. Evaluation data show no

Photo credit: U.S. Army, Ft. Lee, VA

The military has used distance learning to train personnel for many years. Transferring this experience and investment in

technologies to the Nation’s classrooms could be a tremendous boon to schools.
148 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

significant difference between remote and on-site

instruction. 36 The college estimates that it saves

$1,500 per remote student versus an on-site student;

most of the savings comes in the form of travel costs.

These findings are similar to findings in private

sector training applications of distance learning

systems. In spite of severe budget cuts at ALMC in

the last year, the college hopes to expand its efforts

to include more uplink and downlink sites.

ALMC provides a useful example of the opportunities and barriers to distance learning efforts in the

Federal Government and in the public school

system. The college is able to share its expertise and

facilities with others in DoD, and is exploring the

possibility of providing at-cost services to local

education users as well. Such interconnections

provide for cost-efficient use of hardware and

facilities, and may provide an increased basis for

justification of budgets.

Because of the present budget climate, Federal

program managers report that it is difficult to

convince superiors and Congress that avoiding

program budget increases is as valuable as reducing

program budgets. Many distance delivery systems,

such as the ALMC Satellite Education Network, can

increase range and quality of programs for little or no

extra money. However, many budget-setters are

concerned about cutting costs, not improving or

increasing services for the same dollars, and this is

hampering the ability of successful systems to

increase savings from economies of scale and

efficiency of management.

Also of note within DoD is an effort in the

Department of the Army to plan a comprehensive

training strategy. The Army has a massive training

mission, a mission that has become even more acute

in the past decade as more and more responsibilities

have been transferred from the active Army to the

Army Reserves. Reserve forces are difficult to

adequately train because they are dispersed throughout the country (4,600 reserve unit sites) and are

available for only 39 days per year.37 Added to this

is the training of the National Guard, another large

force dispersed in location and short on time.

The Army has embarked on the development of a

comprehensive training strategy to serve these and

other missions; the stated goal is to reduce the

amount of local training by 50 percent by the year

2020. The Army is focusing on models that allow for

a selection of media, depending on the particular

course or material that needs to be conveyed.38 One

of these models is the TRAINS system (the Training

Reserves Active component Integrated Network

System), which uses off-the-shelf technology to

provide the capability for video, audio, and computer teleconferencing, and allows the instruction to

reach into private homes as well as remote instruction sites. This system will be pilot-tested in the

coming year.39

The Army Reserves and National Guard represent

a large, dispersed and varied segment of the population. The geographic spread of the reserve component of the Army mimics the spread of schools and

communities throughout the country. Resource- and

facility-sharing could occur between schools and the

Armed Forces Reserves, especially because reserves

would tend to use such services during nonschool

hours. In fact, the Army Reserve training managers

have discussed the feasibility of putting a TRAINS

system in every high school in the country. The high

schools could use these systems to receive satellitetransmitted courses and services from national or

local providers. The Army and National Guard could

use the school facilities and TRAINS system on

evenings and weekends.40

This kind of resource sharing is suggested by the

cost of the equipment, as well as the cost of facilities

to serve as downlink sites. Potential benefits to the

schools include cost savings and increased community involvement in and commitment to the schools;

potential risks include the inevitable conflicts between organizations that share resources.

Federal Teleconferencing Networks:

Policy makers Learning via Technologies

Many Federal agencies, like their private-sector

counterparts, use teleconferencing to improve communications between multiple regional offices and

headquarters, and realize significant savings on

3bJohn Brockwell, Army ~gistics Management College, personal communication, September 1989.

sTJaInes S. c~, U.S. lwmy Training Support Center, ‘‘RIMS System Description,’ unpublished report, January 1989.

s8Millie Abell, U.S. hny Training and Doctrine Command, personal communication, August 1989.

sgJames S. CW, U.S. -y Training Support Center, personal communication, January 1989.

@Ibid.
Chapter 6---Federal Activities in Distance Education ● 149

travel. For example, USDA has an audio and video

teleconferencing network in place which produces

approximately 1,500 audio conferences and 12

video conferences a year, all from one studio at

USDA headquarters in Washington.41 The USDA

system is exemplary for its growth pattern (gradual,

user-driven) and its service characteristics (highquality service, allowing technology to become

transparent to the users).

In another example, the Nuclear Regulatory

Commission (NRC) has recently established a

teleconferencing network between its Washington

headquarters and its seven regional offices around

the country. It took only 8 months to implement the

system from the first demonstration of the possibilities to an NRC senior administrator,42

As teleconferencing becomes a more ubiquitous

communications tool, Federal managers may be

affected by and thus affect the distance learning

environment in this country. Particularly, the installed base of satellite dishes may provide both the

government and education communities with sharable resources and expertise.

Technology Transfer: Dissemination of Distance

Learning Technologies and Curriculum

The Federal Government is one of the largest

creators and users of training materials in the world.

Much of this material is software used in training

and basic skills education, often deployed in interactive settings. There is also a large body of research

on learning and teaching effectiveness sponsored by

the Federal Government, largely funded by DoD.43

These resources-computer-based instruction, cognitive retention research, authoring systems for

instruction, and many others-are a potential resource for K-1 2 education.

Technology transfer for training in the Federal

Government received a boost with the signing of the

Omnibus Trade Act of 1988, a section of which

mandated the Department of Education to establish

a Training Technology Transfer Office, and to

contract with the National Technical Information

Service (NTIS) to collect and disseminate such

information. NTIS, part of the Department of

Commerce, is the agency charged with making

available at cost any technical material a Federal

agency deems valuable to the public. NTIS works on

an entirely cost-reimbursable basis; thus, no Federal

funds are appropriated to support this effort. The

Training Technology Transfer Act requires each

agency to designate an officer of the agency to act as

liaison and disseminator to the public of that

agency’s education and training software. Funds

were authorized for development and conversion of

exemplary software to the public sector, but no funds

have yet been appropriated for this effort.44

There are numerous barriers to overcome if the

Federal Government is to be an effective technology

transfer agent for training. One is creating agency

incentives to participate in such activities. The

agencies missions do not include seeking out

secondary users for agency products. The Trade Bill

legislation, requiring cooperation on this effort from

the agencies, may help to create a tradition of

transfer, although ‘forced transfer’ has been unsuc -

cessful in the past. Another barrier is the cost of

disseminating information on such materials. Writing software descriptions, assembling demonstration discs, and coordinating extensive efforts by

agency instructional experts all represent significant

time and money commitments, and are not likely to

be within the capabilities of an agency public

information office. A third barrier is the cost of

actually converting training texts and software for

another use; such costs are significant, although

much less than creating such materials from scratch.

There are potentially significant educational resources produced by the Federal Government that

might apply to distance learning curricula and

instructional effectiveness. It is difficult to gauge

how much of this material would be applicable to

K-12 education because so little evaluation or

transfer is being done.

GOVERNMENT REGULATION OF

TELECOMMUNICATIONS

The regulations guiding telecommunications infrastructure and services have a significant impact

on the ways and means by which distance education

41LW Quim, Vidm and Te]~onfemncing ~vision, U.S. Department of Agriculture, personal comm~icalion. Mar. 1 ! 1989.

421~aac Kirk, office of Information ResO~ces ManagCmcnt, Nuclc~ Rc@atO~ commission, ~rsonal umrmnkiuh, February 1989.

43UGSC con~=~, Office of T~~olo~ Assessment, Power On! NW Too/s for Teuching ad f,earning, OTA-SET-379 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, September 1988), ch. 7.

44Dar~ia Bracken, Nation~ T~hnic~ [nforrnation Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, pWSOnd commmication, Mar. 13 1989.
150 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

is made available to the Nation’s schools. Many of

these policies and regulations are currently being

reexamined. The education community will compete with many other stakeholders for influence. The

overlapping regulatory authorities and competing

interests of well organized groups threaten to

submerge the interests of the education community

in this debate. At the same time, the opportunity

exists for education to influence important policy

decisions in telecommunications.

The Regulatory Environment for

Telecommunications

Telecommunications regulatory authority and policymaking is shared by many in the public sector,

including an independent Federal agency, an executive branch agency, Congress, the Federal courts,

and State and local authorities. Federal regulation of

telecommunications is administered primarily by

the Federal Communications Commission (FCC),

which coordinates use of the airwaves and provides

general oversight of the broadcasting, cable, and

telephone industries. In the Department of Commerce, NTIA coordinates executive branch telecommunications policy. The telephone industry is

influenced by the decisions of U.S. District Court

Judge Harold Greene, who is administering the

agreement-the Modification of Final Judgment

(MFJ)-that resulted in the breakup of the Bell

System. State public utility commissions regulate

intrastate and local telephone service, and State and

municipal governments oversee local cable franchises.

The fragmentation of telecommunications regulation and policymaking may inhibit development of

a coherent plan for educational telecommunications.

Furthermore, since the education community is

diverse and speaks with many voices, it may be

difficult to have its concerns articulated over the din

of other stakeholders more fluent in these issues. On

the other hand, the volatility of the telecommunications policymaking environment may work to the

advantage of education interests. Because the Nation’s schools represent a major market for new

technology applications, the education community

could create a powerful position from which to

influence telecommunications policy.

Telecommunications Issues for Education45

Government regulation of telecommunications

infrastructure and services affects the availability, cost, and types of services schools can use.

Availability of telecommunications services to education is controlled in a number of instances by the

Federal Government. FCC determines the allocation

of the public spectrum, including the number of

ITFS channels. In 1983, the FCC removed underused spectrum from ITFS and also allowed

licensees to lease ITFS channels to other users,

resulting in fewer channels being available for

education. FCC also controls the licensing of

satellites.

Another critical issue affecting the availability of

telecommunications services is the restrictions

placed on the Bell Operating Companies (BOCs) as

a result of the MFJ. BOCs are currently prohibited

from providing inter-exchange (long distance) services, and are greatly restricted in the information

services they can provide.% Currently, these policies

are being revisited by telecommunications policymakers. BOCs claim that these restrictions slow

the development of advanced telecommunications

services and that educational customers are not able

to get the full service applications they want, such as

videoconferencing. 47 Opponents argue that there is

no guarantee BOCs will provide this service any less

expensively or with higher quality than other providers. Opponents also fear the telephone companies

may monopolize the content provision market.

Educators and State and local education policymakers are divided on these issues, which are

currently under review by FCC and Congress.

Federal and State regulations that govern the

public telephone network affect distance education

costs. State regulators control local telephone rates

and telephone company construction; FCC controls

dsThis ~tlon of tie rew~ ~aws heavily on a workshop and subsequent paper produced on behalf of this study. The colloquium, ‘‘Changing

Telecommunications Tedutology and Policy Implications for Distance Learning,” was held on Feb. 16, 1989, under the auspices of The Annenberg

Washington Program of Northwestern University. The resultant paper explores the range of tel~omrnunications policy issues that may affect the

provision of successful distance learning. Lynne Gallagher and Dale Hatfield, Distance Uarning: Opportunities in Tefecomrnunications Policy and

Technology (Washington, DC: The Annenberg Washington Program of Northwestern University, May 1989).

~The Modification of Find Jud~ent restrictions on information services, along with the Cable Communictiions Act of 1984 (concerning vid~

programming), essentially limits the BOCS to providing the pipeline to carry content created by others. The content restrictions were implemented to

ensure that the owner of the public information highway, the BOCS, would not also control what content was carried over that highway.

QTCa~y Sleslnger, NYNEX Government Affairs, personal communication, July 24, 1989.
Chapter 6--Federal Activities in Distance Education ● 151

long distance rates for dominant carriers (i.e.,

AT&T) and interstate access charges to local telephone companies. New forms of rate regulation,

based on a set price for services rather than a

guaranteed rate of return to providers, are being

implemented in many jurisdictions. Some expect

these changes to lead to lower costs for users, while

others worry that locking in prices as technology

gets cheaper will actually disadvantage users.

The types of services that could become available

to serve education are critical to the future development of distance learning, and will be strongly

influenced by Federal telecommunications policies

being set today. Narrowband Integrated Services

Digital Networks (ISDN) and advanced switching

technologies, for example, give users greater capabilities for exchanging voice, data, and some video

services. An alternative technology on the horizon is

integrated broadband networks, whether telephone

or cable. Broadband networks would be capable of

carrying full-motion video and would go a significant step beyond narrowband ISDN.

The pace and location of ISDN or broadband

deployment will depend on many factors, including

pricing and depreciation rates. Faster depreciation

could encourage the deployment of new networks at

the expense of higher prices for existing services .48

Some States have allowed local telephone companies to charge slightly higher rates to generate funds

to upgrade rural service. Some BOCs have promised

to upgrade their systems in rural areas to accommodate the eventual deployment of ISDN in exchange for regulatory flexibilities. Opponents argue

that, even in the short term, ordinary ratepayers

should not disproportionally bear the costs for

upgrading the network. Rural customers, especially,

are vulnerable to bearing development costs for

services that would not benefit them immediately.

It has been argued that modifying the current

restrictions on telephone company provision of

video and information services would also speed

development of a broadband network. Proponents of

the regulations now in place argue that the threat of

monopoly posed by the telephone companies controlling content and delivery of video services are

great, In the long run, they argue, this may drive

cable television companies and other providers out

of business, and reduce the choice and diversity

available to local communities.49

Universal access to information services, perhaps

defined as narrowband ISDN capacity, may be an

important objective for the distance education community. On the other hand, the education interests

may want to advocate jumping directly to a broadband network, capable of carrying full-motion

high-quality video in conjunction with other services. Such choices are tied to the broad range of

regulatory issues, including the content restrictions

on BOCs and what sectors will pay for such a

massive infrastructure investment.

Besides determining the conditions under which

communications services can be offered and what

these services may cost, regulatory agencies are also

active in setting standards and protocols that ensure

the interoperability necessary for successful communications systems. To date, interoperability has

been accomplished with the various transmission

technologies used in distance learning systems,

Government action can range from ratifying industrydetermined or de facto standards to involvement in

standards research and decisionmaking.

The philosophies underlying the role of communications in a democratic society inform telecommunications policy debates. If communication is defined as a market commodity, education has enormous

economic clout because of the size of the education

endeavor. If communication is seen as a springboard

for economic growth, education is increasingly

perceived as the critical ingredient needed in a

global economy. If communication is seen as a basic

component of the social infrastructure, education

may flourish in its traditional role as the primary tool

for creating social and economic equality.50

All three of these philosophies, and the subsequent view of Federal involvement in telecommunications policy implied, require thoughtful explication in the education community. The experiences

accumulated from the recent surge of distance

education efforts can inform this critical discussion.

q~~]a@er and Hatfield, op. cit., footnote 45, p. 15.

4glbid., pp. 14-17.

5fJu.s. Conwew, ~fice d Technology Assessment, Criticaf Connectwns Conununicarwn for the Furure (Washington, DC: U.S. Govmment

Printing Office, in press),
Appendixes
Appendix A

Distance Education Activities Across the Nation:

A State-by-State Profile

The number of distance learning projects operating or

being planned in the United States has grown from only

a handful to many. Today, virtually every State is

interested in using telecommunications to serve education, actively planning for distance education, already

administering a statewide plan or system, or has local

distance learning projects in place. Activity in distance

education varies. A few States have coordinated plans,

while others are just beginning. Some efforts involve only

local schools and districts, others also involve various

postsecondary institutions such as the State’s community

colleges and universities, while still others bring in

various agencies of the State government such as the

Department of Education or the State telecommunications

agency. States are also beginning to look beyond their

borders to share resources and respond to national

programs.

The following State profiles are based on information

from surveys conducted by the Council of Chief State

School Officersl and the California Postsecondary Education Commission.* Additional information was provided

by the U.S. Department of Education, representatives

from various State agencies, local educators and administrators, and private business. Supporting material was also

gathered from OTA contractor reports,3 OTA site visits,

and participation in various distance education conferences and workshops around the country.

Because efforts in K-12 distance education are so

recent and so varied, the information in this appendix is

neither final nor complete. Rather, the following profiles

represent a first attempt to outline the range of distance

learning projects and plans unfolding across the Nation,

Many efforts that now serve only higher education or

State government, but could be expanded to include the

K-12 community as well. Some local projects could also

be expanded to include more sites or to connect clusters

of sites. Many States have begun to plan for the future, and

this information is included as well.

Alabama

State planning 4—The Alabama Commission on Higher

Education (ACHE), with Alabama Educational Television (AETV), completed a study on State educational

telecommunications systems.

Description of State/local efforts5:

. AETV distributes K-12 supplementary programming over the State’s public television stations.

. Alabama is a member of the Satellite Educational

Resources Consortium (SERC) Star Schools project;

the University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa produces

programming for the Texas Interactive Instructional

Network (TI-IN) Star Schools project; and the

University of Alabama at Birmingham is a member

of the Midlands Star Schools Consortium.

Future/planned activities---ACHE is studying activities

in other States to guide Alabama distance education

policymaking.

Alaska

State institutions involved in planning6--Govemor’s

Telecommunications Council, University of Alaska,

Alaska Public Broadcasting Commission (APBC),

State agencies, courts.

State/local efforts:

The University of Alaska operates the Alaskan

Teleconferencing Network and the University of

Alaska Computer Network (UACN). Local school

districts use these systems for electronic mail and

audioconferencing; some instructional resources are

delivered over the networks.

The State Department of Administration operates the

Rural Alaska Television Network (RATNET), a

satellite service that delivers some educational

programming (both instructional television—ITV—

series and live interactive), but is primarily devoted

to news and entertainment programming.

lcouncl] of Chief Slate School Officers, ‘State Survey on Distance Education Networks,” unpublished document, February 1989.

Walifomia Post-Secondary Education Commission, “Statewide Projects and Planning Efforts in Educational ‘JMecomrnunications,” unpublished

document. Jan. 17, 1989.

3See eWci~iy B~ce Barker, Wxas Tech University, “Distance I.mrning Case Studies>” OTA contractor report, June 1989; and Richard Hczcl,

“Matrix of State Planning, Coordination, and Operations of Distance I.zaming Technologies,” OTA contractor report, June 1989.

4State ~lmning refers ~ state~de Pianning efforts in ~st~ce education, educa[iona] ~elecommunications, and/or otier telecommunwations systcms

that may serve education.

5Except where otheW1w noted, de.~riptlons of S[a[c and Ioca] projects inc]ude the transmission of cour~s for students and/or tcachcr training and

staff development programs.

6pl~ng hat is ~glona] or ]W., not s[atewlde. plmlng ~a~ is info~~; no Slate mandate or documcn[ exists tha[ cstab]ishes central statewide

planning authority.

7SEA is a generic tem ~t. refer t. the State Cduca[ion agency, such as a Department of Education or the Office of Public Instruction.

-155-
156 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

● The Office of Instructional Services of SEA7 uses

RATNET and UACN to provide K-12 resources and

staff development on a limited basis.

. The University of Alaska operates an audiographics

project that serves 10 villages. Courses are taught

from the hub in Kotzebue, or from campuses at

Fairbanks, Anchorage, or Juneau.

Future/planned activities-No new projects are currently planned, although RATNET may be reorganized

to provide more education services. APBC hopes to

form a consortium with the University of Alaska and

SEA to provide instructional radio services to schools.

Arizona

State planning—The Arizona Educational Telecommunications Cooperative (AETC), composed of the three

State universities, the community colleges, SEA, and

the State Department of Administration (SDA), is

conducting an assessment of educational telecommunications needs and available technology resources to be

completed in December 1989. SEA completed the

“Arizona Telecommunications Survey Report” in

1988; the survey included recommendations for distance education.

Other institutions involved in planning—Board of

Regents, public television stations, community colleges, Arizona School Services through Educational

Technology (ASSET).

Legislation-The State legislature added $80,000 to the

current needs assessment under way.

Current State/local efforts:

In September 1989, AETC held its first statewide

satellite teleconference that reached an estimated 22

sites.

The University of Arizona has recently been granted

19 Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS)

licenses.

Arizona State University uses ITFS and compressed

video to reach 17 sites. The University is also one of

the partners in the Technical Education Research

Centers (TERC) Star Schools project, and serves as

1 of TERC’s 10 teacher training centers.

Some Arizona schools receive programming from

TI-IN, while others get programming from Oklahoma State University’s Arts and Sciences Teleconferencing Service (ASTS).

The Peach Springs project involves a K-8 school on

the Haualapai Reservation. Each classroom has

computers, TV monitors, and telephones, and is

connected to a closed circuit cable network with

access to satellite programming. Students run the

system.

. Maricopa County Community Colleges have a

10-site digital microwave network that links all

campuses for audio and data applications; videoconferencing has been tested on the system. A separate

audioconferencing system, SunDial at Rio Salado

Community College, provides audioconferencing

services for the county, reaching remote class sites as

well as homebound students.

Future/planned activities:

SDA is planning the Educational Telecommunications Network, a statewide microwave network

that will serve higher education and State agencies.

The plan includes local ITFS systems to extend the

microwave backbone to deliver K-12 and college

credit classes to each community along the microwave route.

A fiber optic system linking seven community

centers (including elementary and secondary

schools) and one high school is being built on the

Gila River Indian Reservation. The system may also

link four high schools outside the reservation and

Arizona State University.

The community of Spriggerville is developing a

technology-based learning center linked with the

local community college for course sharing, training,

and videoconferencing.

Arkansas

State planning—A State plan developed by the Governor’s Task Force on Telecommunications in 1985.

Instructional Microcomputer Project for Arkansas

Classrooms (IMPAC), a nonprofit corporation, is

responsible for technology dissemination in K-12

classrooms, including distance education technologies.

Arkansas Educational Television Network (AETN)

Commission oversees educational/public television

programming.

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, State

universities.

Legislation— Established guidelines for satellitedelivered distance education and use of educational

technology.

Current State/local efforts:

. Twenty-seven schools have received satellite programming and K-12 courses from Oklahoma State

University’s ASTS, Utah Office of Education, and

TI-IN. Schools pay all costs except for maintenance

of equipment, which is provided by IMPAC.

. The Malvern High School Communications Link

connects two local high schools and Henderson State

University via computer, two-way television, and

radio.

7s~ is ~ ~efl~c tem ~ t. ~efer t. the State ~Wation agency, such ~ a ~p~ent of ~ucation Or tie office of Public Instruction.
Appendix A--Distance Education Activities Across the Nation: A State-by-State Profile ● 157

. The State is a participant in the SERC Star Schools

project.

Future/planned activities:

. IMPAC has purchased an uplink, and plans to

provide staff development programs.

California

State pIanning—Educational Technology Committee,

California Postsecondary Education Commission

(CPEC).

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, Governor’s Office, legislature, University of California

system, the California State University (CSU) system.

Legislation--Legislation to establish funding for distance education has been introduced. In September

1989, legislation created a Commission for Educational Technology and charged the Commission with

developing a statewide plan for educational technology, including telecommunications.

Description of State/local efforts:

●

●

●

✘

●

●

●

●

CSU-Chico transmits staff development courses to

16 sites via an ITFS/microwave network, and has a

satellite uplink to deliver programming to these and

other California sites, Chico also produces programming for the TI-IN Star Schools project.

CSU-Stanislaus uses ITFS to transmit courses from

three originating sites to eight sites in five central

California counties. A courier system is used to

transport course materials.

Fifteen of nineteen CSU campuses operate or have

access to ITFS systems, and many provide inservice

staff development. All CSU campuses are connected

via CSUNET, a computer telecommunications network.

The Los Angeles County Office of Education

operates the Educational Telecommunications Network (ETN). ETN transmits staff development

courses to 55 sites in California via satellite.

The Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD)

operates a “homework hotline” in conjunction with

live broadcasts from KLCS Channel 58, a PBS

station owned and operated by LAUSD. Students

phone in questions in a variety of subject areas, and

the questions are answered either by telephone tutors

or by a teacher on television.

California Polytechnic State University in Pomona

uses satellite and ITFS to deliver college credit

courses to 18 high schools in 3 counties. Students

attend the live classes before school, and use WATS

lines to call in questions during the class. Materials

are delivered by courier,

Pepperdine University is 1 of 10 teacher training

centers for the TERC Star Schools project.

Fifteen schools receive programming from the TI-IN

Star Schools project.

. Some schools in the State also receive programming

from Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

Future/planned activities:

● Current planning efforts may lead to the development of a statewide telecommunications network.

Education agencies and institutions may participate

in such a network or may develop their own

dedicated network.

. The San Francisco School District has joined a

consortium with the Chicago, Dallas, New York

City, and Philadelphia school districts to develop a

satellite network for urban schools.

Colorado

State planning—The Colorado State Telecommunications Advisory Commission, made up of representatives from K-12, higher education, industry, and public

television, is conducting an assessment of educational

telecommunications resources and needs. Survey results and recommendations will be presented in December 1989. The University of Northern Colorado

Educational Technology Steering Committee has prepared a report, the “University of Northern Colorado

Statewide Telecommunications System.”

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, Department of Administration, local Boards of Cooperative

Services (BOCS), universities, community colleges,

public television stations, State legislature, US West.

Current State/local efforts:

Boulder Valley Distance Learning Project uses

audiographics to offer Advanced Placement courses

taught atone urban high school to seniors in a remote

mountain high school.

Intermountain Community Learning and Instructional Services, based at Utah State University,

uses audiographics to deliver instruction to high

school students and teachers in four schools in each

of Montana, Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado.

Morgan Community College uses audiographics to

teach astronomy to high school students.

An interactive television network using local cable

television facilities connects Poudre, Fort Collins,

and Rocky Mountain high schools with their District

Media Center.

Four campuses of the Colorado University System

are connected via fiber optics for telephone and data

communications.

Biological Science Curriculum Study in Denver is

1 of 10 TERC Star Schools teacher training centers.

Some schools in the State also receive programming

from TI-IN and Oklahoma State University’s ASTS,

and some participate in the TERC Star Schools

project.
158 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Future/planned activities:

●

●

●

●

Jefferson County plans to link three high schools to

share courses, deliver inservice training to teachers,

and hold teleconferences.

Several local BOCS are involved in planning: the

South West BOCS is conducting a needs assessment,

and plans to link seven districts and local institutions

of higher education in an interactive audio/video

network that will provide high school courses and

staff development programming. San Luis BOCS

plans a digital microwave system that will link local

schools for course sharing and may also reach out to

local businesses and social service agencies.

The Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications, based in Colorado, with institutional members in 15 States, will help plan K-12

and higher education distance learning activities.

The cooperative will provide information on available resources, aid in developing staff training and

inservice programming, help identify funding

sources, and facilitate cooperation among schools

and States.

The University of Northern Colorado plans a statewide telecommunications system that- will link 13

sites in the State with compressed video for college

and K-12 teacher courses and teleconferences. Three

sites will be completed by the end of 1989, with all

sites connected by 1991,

Connecticut

State planning—The Joint Committee on Educational

Technology, a standing committee of the Board of

Education and the Board of Governors for Higher

Education, coordinates educational telecommunications and is responsible for long-range planning and

development of educational technologies for all levels

of education. In 1989, the Board of Education released

a report prepared by SEA, “A Guide to Learning

Resources and Technology,” that included a section on

distance learning.

Other institutions involved in planning—Southern

New England Telephone (SNET), Department of

Community Colleges, universities.

Legislation-Legislation established the Joint Committee on Educational Technology in 1982. Subsequent

legislation created the Telecommunications Incentive

Grant Program in 1986. Legislation requires cable

companies to provide an educational access channel.

Current State/local efforts:

● SEA administers the Telecommunications Incentive

Grant Program to seed local distance learning

projects for up to 3 years. Grants total $85,000 per

year, shared among eight or nine applicants.

. Links to Learning is a joint project between SEA and

SNET. Approximately 30 schools use voice messaging, computer database access, or compressed video

in a variety of applications. Ten additional schools

are expected to join the project next year.

Area Cooperative Educational Services in Hamden

coordinates a fully interactive fiber optic system

linking five schools. Fourteen courses will be offered

during 1989-90.

Talcott Mountain Science Center transmits science

enrichment programming via satellite to over 300

schools in 35 States. Audio interaction is possible.

Future/planned activities:

. SEA is building a two-channel ITFS system that will

reach most schools and colleges in the State by 1992.

. StateNet is being built for the Office of Planning and

Management, and will serve all State agencies,

including education, with voice and data services,

Delaware

State planning—SEA, Office of Information Systems.

No State plan or documents.

Other institutions involved in planning—State agencies, colleges.

Current State/local efforts:

. Project Direct is a statewide K-12 electronic network

that is used primarily for administration.

. Ten high schools have satellite dishes.

Florida

State planning—SEA.

Other institutions involved in planning—Universities,

community colleges.

Legislation-Legislation endorses the use of computers,

educational television, and radio for the improvement

of education in the State.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

●

SEA runs Florida Information Resources Network,

a data communications network used for computer

conferencing, database access, and support of computer-based courses in K-12 and higher education.

The system connects all of the State’s K-12 districts,

25 of 28 community colleges, and all public universities.

The State Satellite Network, operated by SEA in

conjunction with the Department of General Services, links 28 sites. While education is given priority,

the system can be used by anyone in the State.

Florida has extensive ITFS facilities. The Marion

County Instructional Television Program, for example, uses ITFS to link 5 high schools, 1 community

college, and 29 elementary and middle schools.

The State is a member of the SERC Star Schools

project; 12 schools in the State receive SERC

programming.
Appendix A---Distance Education Activities Across the Nation: A State-by-State Profile ● 159

Georgia

State institutions involved in planning—SEA, Georgia

Public Telecommunications Commission, colleges and

universities.

Current State/local efforts:

. The Georgia Public Telecommunications Commission in cooperation with SEA, operates an educational television network that supplies instructional

video materials to K-12 and higher education. The

commission may extend the reach of programming

via microwave.

. The State is a member of the SERC Star Schools

project.

Hawaii

State planning—”The Distance Learning-Technology

Plan” was prepared in August 1988 by SEA, the

Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, and the

University of Hawaii. It details a framework for using

all types of telecommunications for education. The plan

also established an Educational Technology branch

within SEA. The Superintendent’s Office is working to

obtain a cable access channel dedicated to education.

Other institutions involved in planning—Universities

and community colleges.

Legislation-Preparation of a plan for distance learning

was authorized by the legislature in 1987; subsequent

legislatures have authorized $590,000 through 1989 for

implementation.

Current State/local efforts:

. TELEclass Project links students in Hawaii and

those in Japan and Australia with voice and video

exchanges.

Future/planned activities:

. Interactive statewide networks will use a combination of ITFS, cable television access, fiber

optics, and microwave for video distribution and

voice/computer links for audio and computer conferencing.

Idaho

State planning—SEA; the Telecommunications Council, comprised of SEA, the Board of Regents, and the

Idaho Educational Public Broadcasting System

(IEPBS), coordinates telecommunications delivery of

education services.

Other institutions involved in planning—Board of

Higher Education,

Current State/local efforts:

. The Idaho Rural Education Delivery System, operated by SEA in cooperation with Boise State

University’s Simplot/Micron Center, Boise School

District, and IEPBS, involves five rural high schools

and consists of live video broadcast by IEPBS with

two-way audio interaction.

Both Boise State and the College of Southern Idaho

operate ITFS systems.

Illinois

State planning—The Governor’s Task Force; the “Strategic Communications Network Plan” outlines options

for a statewide telecommunication system to serve

State agencies; some capacity allocated to higher

education.

Other institutions involved in planning—Northern

Illinois Learning Resources Cooperative, universities

and colleges, implementation task forces for State plan.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

●

●

K-12 electronic network links SEA with 18 regional

education centers.

The North Central Regional Educational Laboratory

produces staff development telecourses distributed

via satellite by PBS.

Several institutions of higher education, including

Triton College and Waubonsee Community College,

have ITFS systems. Waubonsee also operates an

interactive microwave system that links the community college to a downtown college and four local

high schools.

SEA is a partner in the TI-IN Star Schools project.

Western Illinois University provides mathematics

and science programming for T1-IN, and 52 schools

in the State have received equipment and courses

under the TI-IN Star Schools project.

Some schools in the State also receive programming

from Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

Future/planned activities:

●

●

●

The Strategic Communications Network Plan calls

for a fiberoptic backbone system to carry voice, data,

and eventually video traffic for various applications

including distance learning.

Illinois Central College is planning a system that

would link the college to eight local high school

districts.

The Chicago School District has joined with the

Dallas, New York City, Philadelphia, and San

Francisco school districts to develop a satellite

network for linking urban schools.

Indiana

State planning—Indiana Higher Education Telecommunications Services (IHETS), Intellenet is a statewide

fiber optic/microwave network that provides telecommunications services to State agencies as well as

education.

Other institutions involved in planning—State agencies (Intellenet), SEA.
160 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Legislation-IHETS created in 1967.

Current State/local efforts:

● IHETS statewide fiber optic backbone (leased from

Intellenet) delivers three channels of one-way video,

two-way audio interactive university courses to both

secondary and postsecondary students in 14 sites

served directly by fiber, Twenty-five local ITFS

systems (four channels) extend the programming on

the fiber system to over 200 additional sites.

. Some schools in the State receive programming from

Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

Future/planned activities:

. IHETS is considering expanding K-12 programming.

Iowa

State planning—Iowa Public Television; the Narrowcast

Advisory Committee acts as a statewide educational

telecommunications coordinating body with representation from Iowa community colleges, SEA, and the

Board of Regents.

Other institutions involved in planning—Department

of Economic Development, legislature, higher education.

Legislation--Legislation in 1986 authorized development of a statewide educational telecommunications

plan that was completed in 1987. The legislature voted

$50 million to fund the plan.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

The Fiber Optic Communication Instruction System

is an interactive television network connecting five

local high schools to a magnet school campus in Des

Moines.

The Kirkwood Community College Telecommunications System uses a combination of satellite, ITFS,

microwave, and cable to serve 14 high schools in 7

districts.

Iowa is a member of SERC, but did not participate

in the Star Schools grant awarded to SERC. -

Future/planned activities:

. The State is planning to build a statewide telecommunications network to serve all levels of education.

The system will use a combination of fiber optics,

microwave, and ITFS to deliver educational programming and voice, data, and video services.

Kansas

State institutions involved in planning—Board of

Regents, Division of Information Systems, colleges

and universities.

Current State/local efforts:

. University of Kansas and Kansas State University

produce programming for the Midlands Consortium

Star Schools Project, and several sites in the State

will receive programming.

Some schools in the State also receive programming

from Oklahoma State University’s ASTS._ -

Kentucky

State planning—Kentucky Educational Television

(KET).

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, Council

on Higher Education.

Legislation-In 1987, the Kentucky General Assembly

voted $11.4 million to construct the Star Channels

system, A proposal has been written to create the

Kentucky Educational Networking System to link all

school districts, schools, and SEA for administrative

and instructional support purposes.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

The KET Star Channels system, a statewide educational satellite network is being constructed, and will

include a central transmitting site serving downlinks

at each of the State 1,300 elementary and secondary schools. The system will carry live interactive

(audio and data) student courses, enrichment, and

staff development programming.

The Tennessee Valley Authority supports a distance

learning project that connects three local districts in

Hickman and Fulton counties with fiber. Paducah

Community College and Murray State University

are linked by microwave, and are trying to link to

local districts.

Kentucky is a member and a course producer in the

SERC Star Schools project. Twenty-four schools

across the State receive SERC programming.

Louisiana

State planning—Office of Telecommunications Management.

Other institutions involved in planning—Louisiana

Educational Television Authority, Louisiana State

University.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

The Louisiana Educational Satellite Network

(LESN) broadcasts interactive video programming

to 16 pilot sites in the State. LESN operates out of

Southern University, Shreveport, and offers many

programs in collaboration with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Regional Teacher

Resource Center.

Two parochial schools, Breaux Bridge and St.

Martinville, are connected to a local public school

via fiber optics, allowing the parochial school

students access to the public school’s Integrated

Learning System.

Louisiana is a member of SERC and a Star Schools

participant.
Appendix A-Distance Education Activities Across the Nation: A State-by-State Profile . 161

Maine

The State planning—The University of Maine at Augusta prepared the Plan for a Community College of

Maine/Telecommunications System, and coordinates

operation of the system.

Other institutions involved in planning—University of

Maine System, SEA, Maine Public Broadcasting Network, Maine Technical College System.

Legislation-The legislature appropriated $2.2 million

for the Community College of Maine/Telecommunications System.

Current State/local efforts:

● The Community College of Maine/Telecommunications System uses a combination of fiber optics,

ITFS, and satellite to deliver courses and programming. The seven campuses of the University of

Maine System are connected by fiber optics, while

the Technical Colleges, the Maine Maritime Academy, and 12 off-campus university centers receive

programming via ITFS, Eventually, these sites will

be connected to the fiber optic backbone. Twenty

high schools also receive programming via ITFS,

and eventually all high schools will be connected

when the system is completed in 1993.

● Some schools in the State also receive programming

from Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

Future/planned activities:

. Universities in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont are working with New England Telephone to

create a Northern Tier Network that would use fiber

optics and satellite capabilities to allow the States to

share programming.

Maryland

State planning-SEA/Division of instructional Technology has a “Strategic Plan for Educational Technology”

that includes goals for distance education. A 2-year

“Action Plan” guides the design and development of

interactive television networks around the State; SEA

is developing a new 5-year strategic plan that will

extend present planning.

Other institutions involved in planning—Maryland

Public Television.

Current State/local efforts:

. In addition to the State plan, some counties and

districts have begun their own systems:

— Anne Arundel County links 12 high schools using

local cable television facilities, The fully interactive system allows two-way audio and video

communication.

— The Prince George’s County Interactive Television

Network uses interactive cable television facilities

to connect six high schools, a community college,

—

—

and the district’s media center. The two-way

system delivers instruction during school hours,

after school, and on the weekends.

Carroll, Washington, and Montgomery Counties

use cable systems to connect some of their high

schools for course sharing.

Baltimore County has linked two schools with

cable and plans to connect four more in 1990.

SEA offers K-12 instructional television and staff

development programming over public television,

and Maryland Public Television in conjunction with

the College of the Air offers college-level courses.

The University of Maryland offers advanced graduate courses (leading to a Master’s Degree) and some

undergraduate courses to business and industry over

its ITFS system. The University also produces

satellite-delivered courses for the National Technological University.

Future/planned activities:

●

●

●

SEA plans to create and ultimately connect local

two-way interactive television networks. School

clusters will also be able to receive satellite programming.

Seventeen community and junior colleges are planning a compressed video network that will allow

them to share courses and coordinate administrative

activities.

The Maryland Higher Education Commission has

proposed a satellite system that would deliver

programming to higher education institutions all

over the State.

Massachusetts

State planning—Massachusetts Corporation for Educational Telecommunications (MCET).

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, colleges and universities.

Legislation-MCET was formed by legislation in 1982.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

The Cambridge Teleteaching Group uses audiographics to deliver courses to local high schools. The

project was funded by Annenberg/Corporation for

Public Broadcasting, AT&T, and MCET.

Kids Interactive Telecommunications Project by

Satellite is a satellite-based system operated by the

University of Lowell, which allows two-way video

and computer conferencing between three schools in

the State and a school in West Germany. The

University also serves as the coordinator of a

network that uses interactive cable television and

microwave to link eight local districts.

South Berkshire Educational Collaborative uses a

two-way interactive cable television system to link

four schools.
162 . Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

● TERC, a federally funded Star Schools project, is

based in Cambridge, and many schools in the State

participate in the TERC project. The Boston Museum of Science and Tufts University are 2 of

TERC’s 10 teacher training centers.

Michigan

State planning-Department of Education, Governor’s

Telecommunication Task Force. The State Board of

Education prepared an “Inventory of Instructional

Telecommunications Systems in Michigan” in March

1989.

Other institutions involved in planning—Michigan

Community College Association, Public Service Commission.

Current State/local efforts:

. Michigan Statewide Telecommunications Access to

Resources (M* STAR) provides instructional television programming to all K-12 schools, intermediate

school districts, and regional educational media

centers.

. The Merit Computer Network links Michigan’s

universities in a statewide network. The University

of Michigan manages the system.

. Providing Academics Cost Effectively (PACE) is an

interactive television project linking 4 intermediate

school districts, 39 local districts, 2 community

colleges, and 1 university, The system uses a

combination of cable television and microwave

facilities to provide courses to participating schools.

. Many projects use cable television and microwave

facilities to deliver interactive television courses to

local districts:

— Dearborn Public Schools Cable Utilization Project

links six schools;

— in the Oakland Intermediate School District Telecommunications Project, 75 schools use the system

to transmit data, and plans call for a 14-channel

audio, video, and data system linking 28 districts;

— eight high schools are linked to Kirtland Community College;

— the Saginaw County Interactive Television for

Schools system links 13 school districts with 2

institutions of higher education;

— the Shores Interactive Video Project links three

high schools and the local public library;

— two high schools are connected in the Walled Lake

Schools Telecommunications System; and

— the Two-way Interactive Delivery System for

Schools uses two-way cable, microwave, and fiber

optics to link 12 school districts and the local

community college. Plans call for linking additional schools and Michigan State University.

. The Archdiocese of Detroit operates a four-channel

ITFS network. reaching over 300 Catholic parishes.

The system also connects with local cable companies

to provide instructional programming to K-12 students in southeastern Michigan.

Eight Detroit high schools use ITFS for local

programming and to bring in M*STAR programming.

The University of Michigan is 1 of TERC’s Star

Schools partners and serves as 1 of the 10 regional

teacher training centers.

Detroit is one of the four associate members of

SERC.

Future/planned activities:

The Michigan Community College Telecommunications Network, under construction, will place satellite dishes at each of the State’s 29 community

colleges, allowing the colleges to deliver interactive

educational services to students, local businesses,

and community groups.

The Upper Peninsula-Wide Telecommunications

Network will use microwave to reach 33 schools and

4 postsecondary institutions in the remote upper

peninsula of the State.

The Michigan Information Technology Network is a

satellite delivery system being developed to provide

advanced engineering courses to business and industry in the State, The system will involve four

universities, all community colleges, and local

businesses.

Minnesota

State planning—State Planning Agency, State Telecommunications Access and Routing System (STARS)

Advisory Council, SEA, Department of Administration

Information Policy Office.

Other institutions involved in planning—Minnesota

State University System, State Board of Vocational and

Technical Education, Minnesota Coordinating Board

for Higher Education.

Legislation-In January 1988, a Task Force on Instructional Technology was created to study instructional

uses of telecommunications. The Task Force’s “Report

to the Minnesota Legislature” (December 1988), included recommendations for funding educational telecommunications systems. The legislature has authorized STARS, a statewide telecommunications system.

The State Senate has placed a moratorium until 1990 on

spending for new higher education distance learning

projects in the State.

Current State/local efforts: One-third of the State’s

school districts have some form of interactive distance

learning capabilities. Some of these include:

— the Des Moines River Tele-Media project linking

12 school districts with fiber optics;

— the East Central Minnesota Educational Cable

Cooperative (ECMECC) using two-way cable tele-
Appendix A-Distance Education Activities Across the Nation: A State-by-State Profile . 163

vision and microwave to link seven districts;

— five local school districts, Mankato State University and Technical Institute, South Central

Education Service Center, Region 5 Computer

Service Unit, and Regional Interlibrary Exchange

are linked in the Knowledge Interactive Distribution System (KIDS). KIDS uses microwave, computers, teleconferencing, and ITFS to bring courses

to the schools;

— the Mid-State Educational Telecommunications

Cooperative links seven districts in a fully interactive fiber optic system;

— the Minnesota Valley Tele-Network uses microwave and local public television stations to link

nine districts;

— the Northwestern Minnesota Fiber Optics Project

links the University of Minnesota at Crookston,

two technical institutes, and nine local school

systems;

— eight districts in the Sherburne-Wright Educational

Technology Cooperative are linked via cable and

microwave. The cooperative also uses satellitedelivered material and is a member of Classroom

Earth, a national educational satellite users

organization;

— in the Sibley County Cooperative Interactive

Television project, four districts are connected by

two-way cable, computers, and facsimile;

— 10 school districts in the Southwest Minnesota

Telecommunications project are linked by microwave; and

— the Wasioja Education Technology Cooperative

uses fiber optics to link five schools, their central

district offices, and between the central offices.

. Schools in the State participate in TERC and some

schools receive programming from TI-IN; and

. Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium is 1

of 10 TERC Star Schools teacher training centers.

Future/planned activities:

. STARS is a statewide broadband information network that will serve primarily higher education and

business. K-12 schools will gain access through

local higher education institutions.

Mississippi

State planning—The Central Data Processing Authority

coordinates all telecommunications resources in the

State, and is planning a statewide telecommunications

network to serve government agencies, especially

education. SEA is doing educational planning.

Other institutions involved in planning—Mississippi

Authority for Educational Television.

Current State/local efforts:

. The Mississippi Authority for Educational Television operates a statewide network that delivers

instructional video materials.

Some schools in the State receive programming from

Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

As a member of the SERC Star Schools project, 11

schools have downlinks and receive programming.

The University of Mississippi is a member of the

Midlands Consortium. Sixty-five schools will receive satellite downlinks from Midlands.

Mississippi State University at Starksville produced

inservice training programs in mathematics and

science for the TI-IN Star Schools Network. Thirtyone schools have received downlinks from TI-IN.

Future/planned activities:

. Fifty-six school districts, SEA, and Apple Computer

are cooperating in a pilot project using electronic

mail.

Missouri

State planning—Missouri Education Satellite Network

(MESN), an organization of the Missouri School

Boards Association (MSBA), coordinates educational

telecommunications in the State.

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, Coordinating Board for Higher Education, Chamber of

Commerce, State agencies.

Legislation-A tax on videotape rentals for 5 years.

Revenue will fund distance learning projects in the

state.

Current State/local efforts:

MESN is a satellite delivery network; 70 sites now

participate. MESN produces staff development programming for the Midlands Consortium Star

Schools Project, and also brokers K-12 courses and

staff development programming from Oklahoma

State University, Kansas State University, and STEP

(see Washington),

Kansas City is one of the four associate members of

SERC.

MSBA is a member of the Midlands Consortium Star

Schools project.

Montana

State planning—Montana Telecommunications Cooperative.

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, Commissioner of Higher Education; Department of Administration; State Board of Education.

Legislation-In 1987, a Task Force, comprised of K-12,

higher education, and business representives, was

created to consider development of a statewide telecommunications network. After an assessment of

educational needs and available resources, the legislature appropriated $200,000 in 1989 for a technical plan,
164 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

An additional $300,000 was appropriated for expansion of existing educational telecommunications facilities.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

●

●

●

The Big Sky Telegraph network serves 114 schools

in Montana with a computer network providing both

K-12 courses and teacher training. The West Educational Support Team (National Diffusion Network

State facilitators) uses Big Sky to link education

leaders in the 15 Western States (and soon the Trust

Territories of the Pacific). The group has received a

grant to add 5 rural districts in each of the 15 States

to the network.

Edunet is a private nonprofit company that produces

courses and provides computer networking services

such as electronic mail to schools in Montana, Idaho,

Oregon, and Wyoming.

Some 75 school districts, 2 community colleges, a

tribal school, Montana State University, the University of Montana, and Western Montana University

use satellite dishes to receive programming from

around the country.

Approximately 300 sites receive computer-based

instructional materials through Big Sky, Edunet, and

Goliath, the State network for science and mathematics teachers.

The Intermountain Community Learning and Instructional Services project, operating out of Utah

State University, uses audiographics to deliver

instruction to high school students and teachers in

four schools in each of Montana, Wyoming, Utah,

and Colorado.

Some schools in the State receive programming from

TI-IN.

Future/planned activities:

. A satellite uplink is being built at the University of

Montana at Missoula for distribution of high school

courses and industry training.

Nebraska

State planning—Nebraska Educational Telecommunications Commission.

Other institutions involved in planning—University of

Nebraska, SEA, Governor’s Office.

Legislation-Legislation authorized funds for the Nebraska Educational Telecommunications Commission

and development of a statewide telecommunications

network.

Current State/local efforts:

. Nebraska is a member of the SERC Star Schools

project, and Nebraska Educational Television produces programming for SERC.

. The University of Nebraska has an ITFS system,

which that will be expanded to include secondary

and postsecondary courses.

Nevada

State planning-Office for Telecommunications.

Other institutions involved in planning—University of

Nevada, SEA.

Current State/local efforts:

. Some schools in the State receive programming from

TI-IN.

New Hampshire

State planning—No formal statewide planning.

Other institutions involved in planning—University

System of New Hampshire.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

Keene Junior High School Project uses microwave to

link with five local high schools and a vocational

center.

Manchester School District Instructional Television

Network links three schools with fiber optics,

allowing the schools to share two-way interactive

video/audio courses.

Future/planned activities:

. Universities in New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont, are working with New England Telephone to

create a Nothern Tier Network that would use fiber

optics and satellite capabilities to allow the States to

share programming.

New Jersey

State planning—The Office of Telecommunications and

Information Systems (OTIS) coordinates statewide

telecommunications resources. SEA’s “Educational

Technology in New Jersey: A Plan for Action” (May

1986) does not specifically address distance learning,

but guides educational technology applications.

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, Department of Higher Education, State agencies, Office of

Management and Budget.

Current State/local efforts:

. The Educational Technology Network is a computer

network serving more than 350 districts in the State.

It is used for administrative and some instructional

purposes,

. The Millford and North Valley school districts are

operating a pilot project that links the two districts

via cable television.

. St. Peters College provides staff development programming to 10 school districts via satellite.

. The Union Township district has a downlink and an

ITFS system to deliver teacher training produced by

the New Jersey Institute of Technology and to offer
Appendix A----Distance Education Activities Across the Nation: A State-by-State Profile ● 165

educational programming such as the Discovery

Channel to an estimated 15 districts in the New York

City metropolitan area.

. The State is a member of SERC and a participant in

the Star Schools project. In the State, 25 districts

receive SERC programming, and the State plans to

install 15 to 20 additional downlinks by 1990.

. Some schools in the State also receive programming

from Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

Future/planned activities:

. Bergen County is planning a county-wide fiber optic

system that will connect 46 high schools and 2

community colleges. Sixteen schools are expected to

be connected by September 1990, with the remaining schools connected within 5 years. Teacher

inservice programming, adult education, and college

courses will eventually be offered over the system.

New Mexico

State planning—In 1986, the instructional Television

(ITV) Group, consisting of representatives from education, business, and the military, began a needs assessment for instructional television throughout the State.

The group’s report, “An Instructional Television Network for New Mexico,” released in November 1988,

outlines plans for a statewide ITV network.

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, Higher

Education Commission, University of New Mexico,

universities and colleges, US West.

Legislation--Legislation in 1987 requested the ITV

Group to conduct an assessment of educational telecommunications needs and produce a plan for instructional television. Subsequent legislation that created

the State’s ITV network also authorized and appropriated $100,000 in annual funding for K-12 distance

education to be distributed through SEA.

Current State/local efforts:

A statewide data communications network connects

15 school districts and several institutions of higher

education. The system will eventually serve all

public education institutions in the State.

A fiber optic network connects the Los Alamos

National Laboratory, the State Capitol Building, the

University of New Mexico, Sandia National Laboratory, the New Mexico Institute of Mining and

Technology, and New Mexico State University at

Las Cruces for voice, data, and video transfer.

College courses are being shared; K-12 courses will

begin in January 1990.

The State’s three public television stations maintain

a microwave network.

Three of the University of New Mexico’s campuses

have ITFS systems. Eastern New Mexico University,

for example, has an 8-channel system that is used to

●

broadcast 50 to 60 college credit courses per year.

The university also does K-12 programming reaching 35 school districts.

Schools in the State receive programming from

TI-IN.

Future/planned activities:

A statewide instructional television (one-way video,

two-way audio) network is being constructed to

serve business and education. The network will

incorporate the fiber optic network linking the State

universities, the Capitol, and the two national

laboratories, and will reach at least 40 sites when it

is completed in 1991. The system is expected to

cover 85 percent of the State.

Luna Vocational Technical Institute will offer

courses to five local school districts via ITFS

beginning in January 1990.

New York

State planning—in 1988, SEA completed a “Profile of

Operating Distance Learning Projects in New York

State.” The New York State Legislative Commission

on Science and Technology completed a report, “Distance Learning: The Sky’s the Limit,” in September

1988. A Board of Regents Task Force is studying

educational technology applications including distance

learning. The Governor’s Task Force on Telecommunications is considering a statewide data network that

could be used by education.

Other institutions involved in planning—State University System, Bureau of Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES).

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

—

—

The State University of New York (SUNY) Satellite

System (SUNYSAT) is piloting adult and continuing education programming to the 64 SUNY campuses. The system also serves as the hub for public

television delivery of instructional programming.

Technology Network Ties is a statewide K-12

computing network that connects local districts,

regional computing centers, libraries, and SEA. The

network serves administrators, but also has electronic mail and some instructional applications.

There are more than 100 local distance learning

projects operating in New York, primarily in K-12

and rural settings. Some projects include:

Delaware-Chenango BOCES uses audiographics to

link 10 schools;

Erie 1 BOCES operates an audiographics system

that links six districts, Houghton College, and the

Cattaraugus-Allegany BOCES;

in the School/College Key Program, Rochester

Institute of Technology, the Livingston-SteubenWyoming BOCES, and three districts are linked via

audiographics;
166 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

the Interactive Television Cable Project uses twoway cable to link eight schools in two districts in

Pleasantville;

the Islip Union Free School District 2 Computer

Conferencing project links students from the district through a host computer operated by New

York Institute of Technology;

the Rensselaer-Columbia-Greene BOCES uses microwave and computer conferencing to link five

districts and two community colleges with voice

and computer conferencing for foreign language

instruction. Private industry is also involved;

the St. Lawrence-Lewis BOCES Interactive Telecommunications Network links 19 schools in 3

districts via ITFS and microwave;

the Steuben-Allegany BOCES Long Distance

Teaching project links nine school districts with

ITFS and computers for course sharing. UHF radio

connects schools to a central teaching studio;

Teaching Via Television links Brocton Central

High School via cable to SUNY-Fredonia for live

interactive audio/video high school courses;

Community School District #24 in Queens uses

audiographics to teach homebound students;

five districts and the Rensselaer-Columbia-Greene

BOCES are linked by microwave and computers in

the Telecommunications Network for Instructional

programs and Administrative Data Processing;

the Video Interactive Teaching and Learning project connects six school districts and Fulton

Montgomery Community College. The one-way

video, two-way audio cable/microwave system is

used to bring K-6 health education to the local

districts; and

four schools on Long Island are connected by fiber

optics, allowing them to share interactive audio/

video classes and data communication. Plans include adding seven new sites.

Some schools in the State receive programming from

Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

City College of New York is 1 of the 10 TERC Star

Schools teacher training centers.

New York City is an associate member of SERC.

Some schools receive programming from TI-IN.

Future/planned activities:

● New York City Public Schools have joined with the

Dallas, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Chicago

school districts to develop a satellite network for

linking urban schools.

North Carolina

State planning-SEA.

Legislation-The Agency for Public Telecommunications was created to serve the video and distance

learning needs of State agencies.

Current State/local efforts:

The Distance Learning by Satellite system delivers

instruction and inservice training to 146 sites in each

of the State’s 100 counties.

In the Downeast Instructional Telecommunications

Network, East Carolina University uses audiographics to teach students in six rural schools.

All 58 of the State’s community colleges are linked

in a microwave network.

Five of the State’s 16 public universities provide

courses over a microwave network. Some institutions, including the North Carolina Microelectronics

Center and North Carolina State University, operate

ITFS systems.

The State is a member of the TI-IN and SERC Star

Schools projects. The State produces programming

for TI-IN, and most of the 146 receive sites in the

State receive TI-IN programming.

Future/planned activities:

● SEA is implementing a statewide electronic network

that eventually will link all the State’s schools.

North Dakota

State planning—An Educational Telecommunications

Council (ETC), including representatives from higher

education, K-12, public television, and business, has

been established to coordinate broadcast, voice, and

data services.

Other institutions involved in planning—Prairie Public

Television, SEA, Higher Education Telecommunications Advisory Committee, Board of Higher Education.

Legislation-Established the Educational Telecommunications Council.

Current State/local efforts:

As part of a U.S. Department of Agriculture grant to

provide rural health courses to remote hospitals and

university campuses, a pilot project has been initiated that connects the University of North Dakota

(UND), North Dakota State University (NDSU),

Jamestown State Hospital, and the Barrington Extension Research Center of NDSU via fiber optics.

The communities of Hazen, Beulah, Stanton, and

Center are linked via fiber optics. Eventually, the

schools would like to bring in inservice and staff

development courses over a proposed State backbone network.

The Decisions About Technology system uses audiographics to link seven districts. Courses originating

in Bismarck go to the six rural districts.

The Red River Valley Telecommunications Consortium consists of 10 school districts and Mayville

State University. Sites receive satellite programming

from national instructional providers such as Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.
Appendix A-Distance Education Activities Across the Nation: A State-by-State Profile ● 167

●

●

●

The Riverdale school district is connected by audiographics to Mansfield University in Pennsylvania.

North Dakota is a member of SERC Star Schools

project.

Some schools in the State receive programming from

TI-IN.

Future/planned activities:

. ETC, the Higher Education Telecommunications

Advisory Committee, and the participants in the

UND pilot project have begun planning a statewide

telecommunications backbone. The goal is to connect 10 sites (mostly higher education institutions)

by 1990. Eventually all higher education institutions

and local districts will be connected.

. The Souris River Project will link schools in Sawyer,

Velva, Karlsrueh, and Towner with fiber optics,

Ohio

State planning—SEA. A Task Force on the Classroom

of the Future has established an Educational Technology Advisory Commission to study delivery systems

for educational telecommunications.

Other institutions involved in planning-Ohio Educational Broadcasting Network; Board of Regents.

Current State/local efforts:

. The Ohio Education Computer Network is being

implemented to link K-12 school districts for

administrative purposes.

. The State is a member of SERC.

. Some schools in the State also receive programming

from Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

Oklahoma

State planning—The State Regents for Higher Education

completed a “Report on Development of an Educational Telecommunications Network,” which recommended expanding existing higher education telecommunications facilities,

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, Oklahoma State University (OSU).

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

Oklahoma State University’s ASTS delivers high

school and staff development courses to 250 schools

in 20 States. At least 200 Oklahoma schools receive

these interactive courses. OSU is also the home of

the Midlands Consortium Star Schools project, and

the Oklahoma SEA serves on the Midlands Board of

Directors.

The Panhandle Shar-Ed Video Network is a digital

fiber optic system, built in cooperation with the local

telephone cooperative, that links four schools.

The Regents Network delivers programming

throughout the State via microwave and cable.

Oregon

State planning—A statewide telecommunications network was outlined in “Oregon Ed-Net: A Report on the

Feasibility of a Statewide Telecommunications Network” (July 1988). The Ed-Net Planning Committee

represents K-12, community colleges and higher education, various State agencies, public television, and

the private sector, The State Board of Education sets

State policy for distance education.

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, K-12

Educational Technology Advisory Committee, universities, Oregon Public Broadcasting, libraries, the legislature, the Governor’s Office.

Legislation-The Ed-Net Planning Committee was created in 1987; in 1988, the legislature approved $8

million to begin Ed-Net.

Current State/local efforts:

The Northwest Regional Education Laboratory is 1

of 10 teacher training centers for the TERC Star

Schools project.

Portland Community College and Chemekita Community College operate ITFS systems.

Some schools in the State receive programming from

TI-IN.

Future/planned activities:

. Ed-Net is a statewide telecommunications network

(emphasis on satellite delivery) under development

for all sectors of education as well as business and

industry, State agencies, and community organizations.

Pennsylvania

State planning—SEA, Pennsylvania

Network.

Public Television

Other institutions involved in planning—Pennsylvania

State University (PSU).

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

●

●

The Pennsylvania Teleteaching Network, operated

by Mansfield University, is an audiographics network that links 48 sites in Pennsylvania, Utah, South

Dakota, North Dakota, and Mexico.

Penn-Link is a statewide K-12 computer network

offering data exchange, bulletin board services, and

electronic mail.

PSU and Mind Extension University are cooperating

to offer professional development programming to

educators via cable television. PSU also uses public

television, cable television, microwave, and satellites to deliver programming statewide.

The Philadelphia School District is wiring 16

schools for complete cable television access.

Some schools in the State receive programming from

Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.
168 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

. The State is a member of SERC.

Future/planned activities:

. The Philadelphia School District has joined with

Dallas, San Francisco, Chicago, and New York City

school districts to develop a satellite network for

linking urban schools.

Rhode Island

State planning—None at the K-12 level.

Other institutions involved in planning-office of

Higher Education, public television, SEA.

South Carolina

State planning—South Carolina Educational Television

(SCETV) coordinates educational telecommunications

for the Department of Education.

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, University of South Carolina, State agencies.

Current State/local efforts:

. SCETV uses broadcast television and an extensive

ITFS network to transmit programming (primarily

instructional television series and staff development)

to public schools. SCETV also conducts teleconferencing via satellite and microwave with audio

bridges. SCETV is a major producer of programming for SERC.

. The eight campuses of the University of South

Carolina and South Carolina State College collectively offer more than 90 college credit classes over

broadcast television.

. The SERC Star Schools project is based in South

Carolina. This project delivers live interactive instruction via satellite to students and teachers in 19

States and 4 associate cities.

Future/planned activities:

. University of South Carolina and Mind Extension

University are planning a professional development

program for library media specialists.

South Dakota

State planning—The Interactive Telecommunications

Committee was formed in January 1989 with representatives from K-12, higher education, State government,

and US West. The committee completed a needs

assessment for telecommunications and is preparing a

feasibility study for the State. The Board of Directors

for Educational Television, an agency of SEA and

Department of Cultural Affairs, is also involved in

planning.

Current State/local efforts:

. The Technology in Education project is a statewide

telecommunications consortium of school adminis-

●

●

trators exploring the uses of telecommunications for

delivering foreign language and other instruction.

Five sites are operating.

Several schools in the State have participated in the

Pennsylvania Teleteaching Project, which connects

schools via audiographics.

Some schools in the State receive TI-IN programming.

Future/planned activities:

. The Interactive Telecommunications Network being

developed will provide compressed video, audio,

and data services to K-12, higher education, and

State government agencies. Eventually, services will

be extended to business and industry.

Tennessee

State planning—SEA.

Other institutions involved in planning—Board of

Regents, Public Utilities Commission.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

Sixteen districts in six northeastern counties have

formed the Upper East Tennessee Educational Cooperative. The system will use microwave, cable

television, and satellite to link schools and offcampus centers in the counties with East Tennessee

State University. Future plans are to serve local

business, the Department of Corrections, and the

University’s Medical School. Funds for the system

have been provided by the State, the U.S. Department of Commerce Public Telecommunications

Facilities Program, and the Tennessee Valley Authority.

Some schools in the State receive programming from

Oklahoma State University’s ASTS. - -

Future/planned activities:

SEA is planning a statewide needs assessment and

inventory of educational telecommunications resources.

State funding will be used to install satellite receiving equipment at 14 sites. These sites and others will

receive programming from TI-IN. SEA plans to have

a satellite dish in every school system to deliver

courses and staff development.

Texas

State planning—SEA, State Board of Education, Coordinating Board for Higher Education. The 1988-2000

Long-Range Plan for Technology, completed in 1988,

includes a needs assessment and recommendations for
Appendix A--Distance Education Activities Across the Nation: A State-by-State Profile 169

distance education.8 The Automated Information and

Telecommunications Council oversees the development and operation of the State’s telecommunications

facilities.

Other institutions involved in planning—Education

Service Centers (ESC), TI-IN, universities.

Legislation-Required and funded the development of

the 1988-2000 Long-Range Plan for Technology. The

Public Education Technology Act of 1989 (proposed)

requests $16.65 million to implement the plan.

Current State/local efforts:

The InterAct Instructional Television Network, operated by the Region IV Education Service Center in

Houston, uses ITFS/microwave and telephone to

deliver courses and programming to students and

teachers in 38 districts.

The South Oak Cliff Project uses audiographics to

deliver courses to students in the Dallas Independent

School District.

The Region 9 ESC in Wichita Falls uses prerecorded

videotapes supplemented by audio exchange to

deliver instruction.

The Dallas Independent School District (DISD) is

wiring all classrooms for cable television, computer,

and phone access.

TI-IN, in collaboration with ESC Region 20. (San

Antonio), provides live satellite-delivered courses to

students and teachers at over 700 sites in 32 States.

TI-IN also operates the TI-IN United Star Network,

one of the four federally funded Star Schools

projects.

Texas is a member of SERC.

Some schools in the State receive programming from

Oklahoma State Unversity’s ASTS. -

Future/planned activities:

The State’s plan for educational technology recommends increased funding for modems, computers,

and connect time to put all districts on an electronic

network. The plan also requests 200 new satellite

downlinks and funding for educational program

development.

DISD has joined with the school districts in New

York City, Chicago, Philadelphia, and San Francisco

to develop a satellite network to serve urban schools.

Utah

State planning—SEA; the Utah Telecommunications

Cooperative includes representatives from the major

universities, SEA, the State Board of Regents, and

several State agencies. The cooperative coordinates

telecommunications planning for the State. Educational programming delivered via telecommunications

is coordinated by the State Educational Telecommunications Organizing Center (SETOC).

Other institutions involved in planning-Utah Higher

Education, Regional Educational Service Centers,

Board of Regents, colleges and universities.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

EDNET, the State’s microwave system, provides

two-way audio/video instruction to high school and

college students and teachers around the State. The

system is also used for teleconferencing and data

communication.

The Intermountain Community Learning and Instructional Services project, operating out of Utah

State University, uses audiographics to deliver

instruction to high school students and teachers in

four schools in each of Montana, Wyoming, Utah,

and Colorado.

The Carbon County School District Distance Learning Project links one elementary school, one junior

high school, two high schools, and the College of

Eastern Utah in a fully interactive two-way cable/

microwave system with data transmission capabilities.

The Central Utah Educational Services project

transmits an Advanced Placement (AP) English

class from Richfield High School via microwave to

KUED-TV, where it is broadcast live to five high

schools.

Davis County uses audiographics to deliver an AP

physics class to three high schools.

The Mansfield-Utah Tele-teaching Project links the

Garfield County School District with Mansfield

University and the Southern Tioga School District in

Pennsylvania via audiographics.

The Northeastern Utah Educational Service Teleleaming Project connects five high schools and a

vocational center with audiographics delivered via

the State’s microwave backbone (when possible)

and the phone system.

In the San Juan School District Techno-teaching

Project, four high schools serving Native American

students are linked together by two-way microwave.

The Tele-teaching in the Great Basin project links

eight high schools in four districts using audiographics,

Vermont

Mate planning--Governor’s Educational Technology

Committee, Vermont Technical College.

Other institutions involved in planning—University of

Vermont, SEA, New England Telephone.

Sk 1987, ~nm t. tie ~omp]ction of WC ]Ong-rage pl~, tie ~xas ~ucation Agency prepared a Guide tO Dista~e 10 Disrance Learning as an

Alternative Procedure (Austin, TX: 1987) and a companion document, the DMance Learning Proposal (Austin, TX: 1987).
170 . Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

The Northeast Kingdom Rural Telecommunications

Cooperative brings together eight elementary and

three high schools with cooperation from the two

local electric cooperatives. Live interactive audio/

video instruction can originate from any site and is

transmitted via satellite to other schools.

Vermont Interactive Television is a joint venture

involving Vermont Technical College, the Vermont

State Colleges, SEA, the North County Area Vocational Center, New England Telephone, and various

State agencies. The system uses fiber optics to

connect 6 sites around the State; 16 more sites are

planned for next year. The system offers interactive

audio/video services to education and business.

Some schools in the State also receive programming

from Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

Future/planned activities:

. Universities in Vermont, Maine, and New Hampshire are working with New England Telephone to

create a Northern Tier Network that would use fiber

optics and satellite capabilities to allow the States to

share programming.

Virginia

State planning—The Division of Educational Technology in the Department of Information Technology

coordinates all educational telecommunications. SEA

is developing a 5-year plan for educational technology;

a needs assessment is being conducted. The Council of

Higher Education’s Task Force on Telecommunications issued a “Report on Telecommunications” in

September 1987.

Other institutions involved in planning—Public television stations, Public Telecommunications Council.

Current State/local efforts:

Fairfax County is involved in several projects. Local

students participated in a teleconference with students in China. The county produces over 100 hours

of live interactive broadcast instructional series, and

produces science seminars for the SERC Star

Schools project.

The University of Virginia (UVA) operates Teacher

Link, a local computer bulletin board service that

links student teachers with their professors and

peers. The system serves 80 teachers and 40 student

teachers in two districts, and by 1990 will serve all

student teachers in 7 districts. UVA is also a partner

in the TERC Star Schools project, serving as 1 of 10

regional teacher training centers.

The Varina High School Electronic Classroom is a

cooperative project between SEA and the Henrico

County School System. Live courses are transmitted

●

●

through a combination of cable, microwave, and

ITFS from the classroom at Varina to 30 school

districts.

WHRO-TV (public television) in Norfolk is constructing a regional ITFS network that will serve

education and business, and is connected to Old

Dominion University by fiber optics. The station

also has satellite transmitters and receivers and

microwave facilities that are used for education.

Virginia is a member of SERC Star Schools project.

Future/planned activities:

● SEA Plans to have a satellite downlink at every

secondary school by September 1989, and plans to

build another electronic classroom.

Washington

State planning—SEA and the Higher Education Coordinating Board (HECB). A joint “Educational Telecommunications Plan for K-12/Higher Education” was

completed in October 1988, and a “Report to the

Legislature on Linking for Learning: K-12 Educational

Telecommunications Plan” was presented to the legislature in January 1989. The Department of Community

Development (DCD)/Department of Information Services (DIS) has produced a report on statewide video

telecommunications needs and resources, and SEA,

HECB, and DCD/DIS are cooperating on a Statewide

Telecommunications Network Plan.

Other institutions involved in planning—DIS coordinates statewide planning for telecommunications.

Legislation--Legislation in 1987 required SEA and

HECB to develop a joint plan for a statewide educational telecommunications network by June 1989.

Separate legislation enacted the Washington State

Video Telecommunications Project requiring DCD to

conduct a needs and resource assessment for a statewide video telecommunications system by January

1989.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

The Satellite Telecommunications Educational Programming (STEP) project is operated by Education

Service District 101 in Spokane. STEP delivers live

instruction via satellite (one-way video, two-way

audio) to high school students and teachers in more

than 100 districts in 8 States.

Some schools in the State receive TI-IN programming.

Some schools in the State also receive programming

from Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

Future/planned activities:

. The proposed K-12 telecommunications system will

provide every district, the nine educational service
Appendix A-Distance Education Activities Across the Nation: A State-by-State Profile ● 171

districts, and SEA with satellite receiving equipment, and will provide funds for student and teacher

programming.

West Virginia

State planning—SEA is conducting a telecommunications needs assessment and is preparing a technology

survey of teachers and administrators.

Other institutions involved in planning—Superintendent’s Technology Study Group, West Virginia Distance Learning Users’ Group, West Virginia Public

Broadcasting Authority, Board of Regents, West Virginia University.

Current State/local efforts:

. In the State, 79 schools receive programming via

satellite from a variety of sources including TI-IN,

SERC, and Oklahoma State University.

. Two computer networks, WVMEN and WVNET,

serve K-12 schools and higher education.

. The State is a member of SERC.

Wisconsin

State planning—The Wisconsin Educational Communications Board (WECB) coordinates telecommunications planning. The Council on Instructional Telecommunications, appointed by SEA, has developed policy

recommendations for the State.

Other institutions involved in planning—SEA, University of Wisconsin has completed a review of educational telecommunications needs for the 26 campus

system, vocational-technical institutes.

Current State/local efforts:

. The Wisconsin Rural Reading Improvement Project

is a collaborative effort between SEA, Wisconsin

Public Radio and Television Networks, three Cooperative Educational Services Units, Viterbo College,

and 18 local districts. Programming and services

(including inservice and computer networking) are

delivered via television, radio, ITFS, and the telephone system.

. WECB operates a statewide educational television

broadcast network and is constructing ITFS systems

for program delivery to campuses of the University

of Wisconsin system, elementary and secondary

schools, and vocational-technical schools.

The University of Wisconsin operates the Educational Teleconferencing Network.

The State vocational-technical institutions have an

ITFS network.

The State is a member of SERC.

Some schools in the State receive programming from

TI-IN.

Some schools in the State also receive programming

from Oklahoma State University’s ASTS.

Future/planned activities:

. WECB is planning to develop a satellite delivery

service for statewide educational programming that

may also reach other States.

Wyoming

State planning--Governor’s Telecommunication Division. State policy permitting distance learning took

effect last year, and a report to the legislature by the

Education Policy Implementation Committee is due in

December 1989.

Other institutions involved in planning—University of

Wyoming, State agencies, colleges and universities.

Current State/local efforts:

●

●

●

The Governor’s Telecommunication Division operates a statewide computer conferencing network that

uses audiographics to reach eight sites. Plans call for

the system to be extended to all 23 counties in the

State. The University of Wyoming may use the

system to teach college courses, while various State

agencies may do employee training.

The Intermountain Community Learning and Instructional Services, operating out of Utah State

University, uses audiographics to deliver instruction

to high school students and teachers in four schools

in each of Montana, Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado.

Six districts receive programming from TI-IN.
Appendix B

Sample Costs of Transmission Systems

Costs for distance learning transmission systems vary

widely depending on system design and complexity,

range and scope, capacity, large volume purchase agreements, and lease v. buy options. In general, the declining

costs of electronic components have made telecommunications equipment more affordable. Continued declines in

prices are expected.

Costs can be divided into two basic categories, initial

costs including transmitting and receiving equipment, and

continuing costs such as programming and operation. Not

all schools will face all these costs. Some schools cart take

advantage of existing telecommunications resources to

cut costs, while other schools may have to build a

completely new transmission system. Schools sharing

existing teaching resources and using local facilities may

have low programming costs, while schools receiving

programming from outside providers will face higher

expenditures. Finally, costs can differ greatly between

those who only receive programming and those who

originate and transmit it. In a satellite system, for

example, production and transmission facilities can cost

millions of dollars. Costs to the local schools, however,

are much lower, several thousand dollars for hardware,

$5,000 to 10,000 for subscription and tuition fees, and any

local personnel costs.

The costs described below are only sample costs for

basic systems. These costs, therefore, should serve as only

a rough guide to distance education transmission costs.

Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS)

ITFS is a relatively low-cost way of delivering one-way

video to multiple remote sites.

Transmit Sites

200 ft. transmitting tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$50,000

transmitter (one for each channel) ... . .$15,000-20,000

transmitting antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $10,000-15,000

miscellaneous electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $10,000

(A rough figure for a transmit site is $60,000, not

including the tower)

Receive Sites

receive antenna and tower . . . . . . . . . . . . $3,000-$50,000

(costs are based on the height of

tower needed for reception; higher

towers cost more)

downconverters and electronics ... ... ... .$350-$3,000

ITFS voice response system . . . . . . . . . . . . $2,500-5,000

Operating costs for ITFS are minimal compared to

other broadcast technologies. For example, the system run

by WHRO in Norfolk, Virginia, consists of one hub

location and seven repeater stations broadcasting four

channels of ITFS. The annual operating cost, including

salaries for personnel and technical support, is $213,000.

The average cost per hour of transmission is $45.1

Satellite

Transmission Costs

A complete uplink facility, including studio and all

electronics, can cost between $500,000 and $1 million.

Some providers have their own facilities, while others

lease. Added costs associated with uplink facilities

include operating and personnel costs, and the cost of

getting the signal from the originating site to the uplink.

Transmission time for satellite delivery is based on the

time and capacity desired. The cost of satellite transmission is distance insensitive. Unlike the telephone system,

which charges by the mile, satellites reach anywhere in

their footprint with no higher cost to transmit 2,000 miles

than for 200. Type of satellite (C- or Ku-band) and time

of day (prime or nonprime time) also affect the cost of

transponder time. Lower rates are frequently available for

those users willing to commit to long-term contracts or

minimum numbers of hours per year. C-band time ranges

from under $200 per hour up to almost $500. Ku-band

prices also start under $200 and range up to $600 per hour.

Pricing can be flexible, allowing users to lease only the

capacity or amount of time they need. A full transponder

leased 24 hours per day can cost $170,000 per month,

while leasing only a portion of the transponder can cost as

little as $5,200 per month. Most educational users buy

time on an “occasional use” basis, meaning that they buy

a full transponder, but for only a certain number of hours

per day.

Receive Site Costs

Satellite downlinks cost from $800to$18,000 depending on the type (C or Ku) and features required. Some

factors affecting cost include: voice, data, and video

capabilities; receive only or send/receive; and local site

requirements including fencing around the dish and

cabling to connect the dish to the user premises. Steerable

dishes, which allow users to aim at many satellites, cost

three or four times as much as fixed dishes, which remain

aimed at a particular satellite.

C-band receive-only downlinks , . . . . . . $5,000-$10,000

Ku-band receive-only downlinks . . . . . . .. .$800-$5,000

C/Ku-band receive-only downlinks ... ... ... .. .$8,000

IR1chwd D~Y, N~Owcast Sewices Manager, WHRO Norfolk, VA, pcrsonat Commmlcation, .@. ’25+ 1989.

–172-
Appendix B-Sample Costs of Transmission Systems ● 173

In some cases, schools can obtain volume discounts

through a State-arranged contract or through arrangements made by programming providers.2

Programming Costs

Subscription rates are another (ongoing) cost associated with satellite delivery of educational services from

multistate providers. For example, an annual subscription

to TI-IN is $5,050, courses cost $240 per student per

semester (with $50 for additional students over a set

limit), and staff development costs between $2,200 to

$8,000 per year depending on district size.

Cable

Basic cable television connections for schools are often

provided free to schools as part of the local cable franchise

agreement. A single cable drop, however, often reaches

only one location in a school. Complete internal wiring

for cable reception can be very expensive. The Dallas

Independent School District is in the process of wiring all

classrooms in 235 schools with both cable and telephone

(data communication) lines at a cost of $3.8 million.

When completed, the system will deliver 30 cable

television channels to each classroom. The system will

also make four video return channels available, and allow

two-way data transmission for administration and computer networking.3

The initial cost for an interactive cable system depends

on how much work is required to add two-way capability

to the system. Additional equipment needed to bring the

signal back upstream will increase costs.

Initial Costs

coaxial cable installation . . . $18,000-$25,000 per mile4

modulators , ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ... , , , , . $500-$2,000

demodulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $2,000-$4,000

reverse flow amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $3,5005

(for two-way capability)

Ongoing or operational costs also vary, There are no

transmission costs in systems that use the public or an

institutional cable system. Maintenance budgets average

between 2 and 5 percent of system cost, but will likely

increase as the system ages.

Microwave

Since each site in a point-to-point microwave system is

both a transmit and a receive site, the cost of installing and

operating a microwave system can be relatively high.

Duplex microwave systems cost between $40,000 and

$65,000 per channel, including transmitters, receivers,

and all electronics. Adding additional channels can cost

almost as much.6

Microwave towers vary widely in cost. One New York

State study identifies costs ranging between $100,000 and

$150,000 each.7 Others report costs for short-haul towers

at $5,000 to $50,000, and longer spans requiring bigger

towers range from $25,000 to $75,000 each.8 However,

tower costs could be reduced or eliminated by using

existing towers or placing multiple antennas on a single

tower. Insurance, maintenance, and repairs can average

between 3 and 5 percent of system cost per year.9

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)

Start-up costs for using PSTN to deliver distance

education cart be very low. All that most users will have

to pay are usage, access charges, and installation.

However, line termination charges for each site can run

into thousands of dollars, and installation charges can be

very high if many of the school’s classrooms have to be

wired. 10 (See the example of the Dallas Independent

School District in the Cable Cost Section.) The telephone

company bears the cost for all equipment outside the

school, including most upgrades, maintenance, and repair, as well as the transmission hardware.

Transmission costs on PSTN depend on the length and

duration of the call and the type of line used. Local

telephone transmission costs also vary from State to State,

and can add a significant amount to ongoing system

costs, 11 In Texas, for example, terrestrial voice/data (56

kbps) costs public institutions 52 cents per mile per

month. For the higher capacity T1 lines (1.544 Mbps),

ZFOr exmple, a complete r~eive site for the Missouri Educational Satellite Network costs $8,000 which includes: dual frequency antenna, receiver,

data controller, VCR, color monitor, printer, equipment rack, and speaker phone. Maintenance is offered for $300 per year.

sDi~a Radspinner, Cwrdina[or of cable communications, Dallas Independent School District, personal communication, Aug. 16, 1989.

4Ro~~Luff, Vice president for l~hno]ogy, Jones Intercable, personal Communication, Augu~ 1989.

sRiCh~d Labrie, ex~utive dirwtor, South Berkshire Education Collaborative, personal communication, May 5, 1989.

6Jxk Bak, WHRO, Norfolk, VA, perWn~ comrn~ication, Apr. 10, 1989; K~en Kitchen and will Kitchen, Two-w@’ Interactive Te/evLsion for

Distance Learning- A Primer (Alexandria, VA: Nationat School Boards Association, May 1988). p. 19; Linda Lloyd, “Telecommunications and

Distance Im.rning: Trends in the U.S.,” paper presented to the American Educational Research Association 1988 Annual Meeting, Apr. 5-9, 1988, New

Orleans, LA.

TNew York State ~~s~ative Commission on science and lkchnology, Distance Lzarning.’ The S@”S th Limit (Alb~y NY: August 1988). P. 11.

8Ki~hen and Kitchen, op. cit., footnote 6, p. 19.

gIbid.; New York State Legislative Commission on Science and ‘lkehnology, Op. cit., fOOtrtOte 7, P. 11.

l~e Tk]econununication ‘lkchnicd Advisory Committee, “A Report to the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board,” unpublished document,

November 1988, p. 5.

1 !E. Kent El]erston, “ReWfion Dlst~ce ~~ing: A Nation~ Eff~tiveness Swey,” prepmed for the pennsylv~ia Telete~hing Projmt, ~cm~r

1987, p. 9.
174 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

which can carry limited (compressed) motion video, the

cost is $12.49 per mile per month. Long distance charges

will increase costs significantly.

Distance learning systems requiring simultaneous

communication among multiple sites may need an audio

or data bridge. These bridges can either be purchased

($1,000 to $2,000 per port--each port represents one line

per user that can access the bridge), or rented through

services such as AT&T’s Alliance Teleconferencing

Service, which charges 25 cents per port per minute. On

this system, for example, a three-way l-hour call would

cost $45.

Fiber Optics

The cost of constructing a fiber optic system is

relatively high, but is expected to decrease rapidly as

electronics and cable costs decline. The cost of fiber

cabling is widely expected to fall below that of coaxial or

copper cabling by the early 1990s.12 The cost to connect

an individual household or school to the public network

is approximately $1,200 for copper and $1,500 for fiber

for new construction. 13 In general, the price of electronics

is steadily declining, 14 and the cost of fiber optic

technology should continue to drop as economies of scale

are realized.ls

analog transmitters and receivers . . . . . . . . $12,000

repeaters (spacing varies) ... ... ... ... .. .$24,000

laser modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $2,000-3000

coders/decoders (codecs) ... ... ... .$8,000-60,000

(depending on capability)

Additional termination equipment at each site can cost up

to $45,000.16

Sample Fiber Optic Contract Agreements17

Northwest Education Technology Cooperative

lo-year lease with a national telephone company

lo-year renewal period option

70-mile network

$28/mile/month lease rate includes al1 maintenance

2 dark (unused) fibers

Schools own terminal equipment

Prohibited from T-1 and bypass use

Pottowattomie County, Oklahoma

5-year lease with the local telephone company and

renewal periods of 5 years thereafter based on

maintenance expense and rate of return regulation

18-mile network

$70/mile/month including most maintenance

2 dark fibers

Schools own terminal equipment

Prohibited from T-1 and bypass use

Girard, Kansas

15-year lease with local telephone company with

15-year renewal

60-mile network

$38/mile/month includes maintenance

2 dark fibers

Schools own terminal equipment

Prohibited from T-1 and bypass use

Dodge Center, Minnesota

7-year lease with a national telephone company and

annual renewal period

60+ mile network (not complete)

$53/mile/month including all maintenance

2 dark fibers

Schools own terminal equipment

Prohibited from T-1 and bypass use

Big Fork, Minnesota

Direct ownership with four local telephone companies and one long distance carrier

134-mile network

$8,955 per mile including some maintenance

2 dark fibers

Schools own terminal equipment

Prohibited from bypass use

Computer-Based Applications

Compared to other technologies used for distance

learning, computer-based systems can have relatively low

start-up costs.

personal computers ... ... ... ... .. .$1,200-$5,000

modems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $300

graphics tablets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. $400

scanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1,500

printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ... .$300-2000

software for communication/

audiographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $0-3,500

Total costs per site are under $10,000.

12u.s- ~ment of Cmmem,N~on~ ~lwomm~lcations and ~fomatim Administration, NT/A Tefecom 2(XM (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, (ktober 1988). p. 76.

13Ro~n M. PWP1, Throu8h the ~~’ng G~s. /ntegr~ed Bro&~ Neworh, Regulatory Policy and Institutional Change (waShiItgtOn DC:

Federal Communications Commission, November 1988). p. 8.

14NationaJ ~l~omm~ic~ons and ~fo~ation Adminis&ation, op. cit., fOOUtOtC 12, j). 220.

IS*~ a ~~on fib&plowent ~le@in Jan- of ]988, me F~erdCommmications Commission noted that a 50 percent decrease in the cost

of electronics is typical, and that fiber itself has declined in price by approximately 50 percent over the past six or seven years.” Andrew C. Bmett, “The

Potential of Fiber Optics to the Home: A Regulator’s Perspective. ’’Public Utilities Forfnightly, Jan. 19, 1989, p. 15.

lbKitchen and Kitchen, op. cit., footnote 6. PP. 20-21.

ITThe follow~g exmpl= weK pmvl~ by ~nfis pellmt, ex~utive vice pisident, Rle-Systems Associates, Inc., Bloomington, MN.
Appendix B--Sample Costs of Transmission Systems ● 175

Transmission costs associated with computer confer- may help schools avoid some of this cost.18 Wiring done

encing and audiographic systems are the costs of using the at the time the building is constructed is less expensive.

public telephone system. (See the cost section on PSTN). Installation charges will depend on the arrangements

The costs of wiring all classrooms with data connections

(telephone jacks) can be high, especially for schools

made with the service provider (the telephone company,

having to wire existing classrooms. Packet radio modems

cable, or other independent contractor).

18A &vlc-~~n~evel~~S1ng p~ke[ ~adlo [~hno]oa, which essen[iatly functions as a wi~]es~radio modern allowiIIg Compulers in aIly pafI

of the school building to access outside phone lines with out being physically connected to them. The modem at each computer wirelesdy communicates

with another radio modem that is connected physically to one of the school’s telephone jacks, thus allowing communication anywhere in the school

building without the necessity of expensive wiring. Each unit (two are required, just as with traditional modems) may cost $600.
Appendix C

Glossary

ACTS (Advanced Communications Technology Satellite): A National Aeronautics and Space Administration Ka-band satellite that is scheduled for deployment in the early 1990s.

Addressable converter: A device connected to a television set that allows cable television operators to turn on

or block individual subscriber access to pay-per-view

services.

Amplifiers: Electronic devices, spaced at intervals (cascaded) throughout a cable television system, used to

boost the strength of the cable signal as it passes from

the headend to the subscriber. In coaxial cable systems,

amplifiers are needed approximately every 1,500 feet.

Analog communication: A communication format in

which information is transmitted by modulating a

continuous signal, such as a radio wave. See also

Digital communication.

Asynchronous communication: Two-way communication in which there is a time delay between when

a message is sent and when it is received. Examples

include electronic mail and voice mail systems.

Audio bridges: Electronic devices that connect and

control multiple telephone lines for audio and data

applications, allowing many callers to be connected as

a group simultaneously. Used for audioconferencing.

Audioconferencing: An electronic meeting in which

participants in different locations use telephones to

communicate simultaneously with each other.

Audiographics: An advanced computer application in

which computer interaction is augmented by two-way,

real-time audio communication. Audio, data, and

graphics are shared over regular telephone lines,

allowing users in different locations to work on the

same application simultaneously.

Bandwidth: The width of frequencies required to transmit a communications signal without undue distortion.

The more information a signal contains, the more

bandwidth it will need to be transmitted. Television

signals, for example, require a bandwidth of 3 million

hertz (cycles per second), while telephone conversation

needs only 3,000 hertz.

Bit (Binary digiT): the smallest unit of information a

computer can use. A bit is represented as a “O” or a”1”

(also “on” or “off’). A group of 8 bits is called a byte.

Bits are often used to measure the speed of digital

transmission systems.

Bell Operating Companies (BOCs): As a result of the

divestiture of AT&T in 1984, the original Bell telephone system was divided into 22 local Bell Operating

Companies that now provide local telephone service

across most of the country. These companies are

controlled by the seven “Baby Bells,” the Regional Bell

Operating Companies (RBOCs).

Bulletin board service (BBS): A computer service that

allows remote users to access a central “host” computer

to read and post electronic messages. Communication

is usually asynchronous.

C-band: The designation for satellite communications

operating at 6 GHz (billion cycles per second) uplink

and 4 GHz downlink. These frequencies are also used

for terrestrial microwave transmission.

Coaxial cable: Shielded wire cable that connects communications components together. It is commonly used in

cable television systems because of its ability to carry

multiple video (or other broadband) signals.

Codecs: The abbreviated form of “coder-decoder.” Electronic devices that convert and compress analog video

signals into digital form for transmission, and convert

them back again on reaching their destination,

Compact disc-read only memory (CD-ROM): An

optical storage system for computers that only allows

data to be read off the disc. New data cannot be stored

and the disc cannot be erased for reuse.

Compressed video: A video signal requiring less information to transmit than broadcast quality or fullmotion video. Digital technology is used to encode and

compress the signal. Picture quality is generally not as

good as full-motion; quick movements often appear

blurred. Compressed video requires transmission

speeds between 56 kbps and 2.0 Mbps.

Computer conferencing: Allows individuals at different

locations to communicate directly with each other

through computers. Communication may be in real

time or delayed.

Digital communications: A communications format

used with both electronic and light-based systems that

transmits audio, video, and data as bits (“1 s“ and “0s”)

of information (see Bit). Codecs are used to convert

traditional analog signals to digital format and back

again. Digital technology also allows communications

signals to be compressed for more efficient transmission.

Digital video interactive (DV-I): A system that combines audio, data, and limited-motion video on an

optical disc. DV-I will run on a personal computer,

allowing the user to control interactive programs.

Direct broadcast satellites (DBS): Satellites that operate

in the 12.2 to 12.7 GHz frequency band. These satellites

–176 -
Appendix C---Glossary ● 177

*

are designed to broadcast programming directly to

small ( 1 meter) home receiving dishes. No such

services are currently operating in the United States.

Downlink: An antenna shaped like a dish that receives

signals from a satellite. Often referred to as a dish,

terminal, Earth station, TVRO (television receive

only).

Downstream: The direction a signal travels as it moves

from the transmitting (origination) site to the receiving

sites.

Electronic blackboard: A computer application that

allows graphics to be shared among many computers

simultaneously. Each user can see and annotate the

graphics as needed. The results will be visible to all

users.

Facsimile machine (fax): A telecopying device that

electronically transmits written or graphic material

over telephone lines to produce a “hard copy” at a

remote location.

FCC: Federal Communications Commission.

Fiber optics: Hair thin, flexible glass rods that use light

signals to transmit audio, video, and data signals.

Signals can be sent in either analog or digital format.

Fiber optic cable has much higher capacity than

traditional copper or coaxial cable, and is not as subject

to interference and noise.

Footprint: The area on the Earth’s surface to which a

satellite can transmit. Different satellites cover different areas and have different footprints. Satellite footprints generally cover all the continental United States

(full conus) or only half of it (half conus coverage).

Freeze frame: One method of transmitting still images

over standard telephone lines. A single image is

transmitted every 8 to 30 seconds. Also referred to as

slow scan.

Frequency: The number of times per second an electromagnetic wave completes a complete cycle. A single

hertz (Hz) is equivalent to one cycle per second,

Full-motion video: A standard video signal that can be

transmitted by a variety of means including television

broadcast, microwave, fiber optics, and satellite. Fullmotion video traditionally requires 6 MHz in analog

format and 45 Mbps when encoded digitally.

Gbps: Giga (billion) bits per second. See Bit.

GHz: One billion hertz (cycles per second). See Frequency.

Graphics tablet: A computer device resembling a normal

pad of paper that users draw or write on, The graphics

tablet converts hand-drawn images into digital information that can be used and displayed by a computer.

Headend: In a cable television system, the headend is the

central transmission office from which programming is

distributed to subscribers.

High definition television (HDTV): An advanced television system that produces video images as clear as

high-quality photography. HDTV is still experimental

in the United States.

Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS): A band

of microwave frequencies set aside by FCC exclusive y

for the transmission of educational programming.

Allows broadcast of audio, video, and data to receive

sites located within 20 miles. Receive sites require a

converter that changes signals to those used by a

standard television set.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): An endto-end digital network that will allow users to send

voice, data, and video signals over the same line

simultaneously. Narrowband services now in operation

give users up to 24 channels to send voice and data

information, with a combined capacity of up to 1.544

Mbps. In the future, broadband services available over

a public ISDN are expected to offer full-motion video

services as well.

Ka-band: Satellite communications frequencies operating at 30 GHz uplink and 20 GHz downlink.

Kbps: Kilo (thousand) bits per second. See Bit.

KHz: Kilohertz; thousand cycles per second. See Frequency.

Ku-band: Satellite communications frequencies operating at 14 GHz uplink and 12 GHz downiink.

Light emitting diodes (LEDs): Used as transmitters in

some fiber optic systems. They transmit digital bits as

pulses of light along a fiber optic strand.

Limited-motion video: See Compressed video.

Mbps: Mega (million) bits per second. See Bit.

MHz: Megahertz; million cycles per second. See Frequency.

Microwave: High-frequency radio waves used for pointto-point and omnidirectional communication of audio,

data, and video signals. Microwave frequencies require

direct line-of-sight to operate; obstructions such as

trees or buildings distort the signal.

Modem (modulator/demodulator): A device that converts digital computer signals into analog format for

transmission.

Modification of Final Judgment (MFJ): The 1%4

agreement that brought about the divestiture of AT&T,

and limited the Bell Operating Companies’ involvement in manufacturing and designing equipment, as

well as their ability to provide long distance and

information services.

Modulation: The process of encoding audio or video

signals onto a radio wave (carrier frequency) for

transmission.
178 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Multiplexer: A device that combines multiple signals for

simultaneous transmission over a single channel.

Multipoint distribution services (MDS): Also MMDS;

Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service. Also

known as “wireless” cable. A telecommunications

service that uses microwave signals to transmit video

entertainment and data.

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): The

public telephone network.

Real-time communication: Two-way simultaneous

communication, as opposed to asynchronous.

Repeater: A device used to extend the range of a

communication signal.

Reverse flow amplifier: In two-way cable television

systems, these devices move video and audio signals

from the receive sites back to the cable headend.

Signaling System 7 (SS7): A recent development in

control systems for the public telephone network. It

allows telephone company computers to communicate

with each other, making telephone call processing

faster and more efficient and enabling more services to

be made available to consumers.

Slow scan: See freeze flame.

Steerable dish: A satellite receive dish that uses motors

to rotate the dish to receive signals from many

satellites. “Fixed” dishes are stationary, always pointed

at the same satellite, unless retimed by hand.

Switched network: A type of system where each user has

a unique address (such as a phone number), which

allows the network to connect any two points directly.

T1 rate: A digital transmission speed of 1.544 Mbps.

Teleconferencing: A general term for any conferencing

system using telecommunications links to connect

remote sites. There are many types of teleconferencing

including: videoconferencing, computer conferencing,

and audioconferencing.

Television receive only (TVRO): Satellite dishes only

capable of reception.

Touch screen: A computer screen that allows data to be

entered by using a specialized pen to write on the

screen, or by making direct physical contact with the

computer screen.

Transponder: The electronic equipment on a satellite

that receives signals from an uplink, converts the

signals to a new frequency, amplifies the signal, and

sends it back to Earth. Satellites are usually equipped

with 12 to 24 transponders.

Uplink: A satellite dish that transmits signals up to a

satellite.

Upstream: The direction a signal travels as it moves from

a receive site back to the site of original transmission.

Used especially in two-way cable television systems.

Vertical blanking interval (VBI): The unused lines in a

standard television signal. The VBI appears as a black

band at the top or bottom of a television picture. Often

used for closed captioning.

Very small aperture terminals (VSATs): Satellite

receive dishes, approximately 1.8 to 2.4 meters in

diameter, that are capable of sending and receiving

voice, data, and/or video signals.

Videophone: A telephone combined with a video screen,

allowing callers to see each other as they speak.
Appendix D

Contractor Reports

Copies of contractor reports done for this project are available through the U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA 22161, (703) 487-4650.

1. Bruce O. Barker, Texas Tech University, “Distance Learning Case Studies.”

2. Richard E. Clark, University of Southern California, “Evaluating Distance Learning Technology.”

3. Christopher Dede, University of Houston-Clear Lake, “The Evolution of Distance Learning: TechnologyMediated Interactive Learning.”

4. Donald C. Holznagel and Thomas Olson, The Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, “A Study of Distance

Education Policies in State Education Agencies.”

5. Michael G. Moore, Pennsylvania State University, “Effects of Distance Learning: A Summary of the Literature. ”

6. Jason Ohler, University of Alaska Southeast, Educational Technology Program, “Distance Education and the

Transformation of Schooling: Living and Learning in the Information Age.”

7. Lloyd O. Otterman and Pamela S. Pease, TI-IN Network, “The Role of Private Business in Distance Learning: The

Educational Partnership.”

8. Larry G. Patten, St. Louis Community College, “Technologies for Learning at a Distance: Looking to the Future

Changing Educational Relationships.”

–179–
Appendix E

Workshop Participants and Other Reviewers and Contributors

Changing Telecommunications Technology and

Policy

Gregory Benson

New York State Department of Education

Albany, NY

Walter G. Bolter

Bethesda Research Institute

Bethesda, MD

George Connick

University of Maine at Augusta

Robert Keely

Bellcore Technical Education Center

Lisle, IL

Mara Mayor

Corporation for Public Broadcasting

Washington, DC

Maurice Mitchell

The Annenberg School of Communications

University of Southern California

Los Angeles, CA

Workshop,* Feb. 16,1989

Dale Hatfield, Workshop Chair

Hatfield Associates

Boulder, CO

Jason Ohler

University of Alaska Southeast

Juneau, AK

Lloyd Otterman

TI-IN Network

San Antonio, TX

Joseph N. Pelton

IntelSat

Washington, DC

Robert Pepper

Federal Communications Commission

Washington, DC

Phillip Rubin

Rubin, Benarek & Associates

Washington, DC

Linda Schatz

Iowa Public Television

Johnston, IA

*workshop swnsored by the Annenberg Washington ~ogrtim of Northwestern UniVerSiV

Federal Workshop, March 1, 1989

Nancy Carson, Workshop Chair

Office of Technology Assessment

Clifford Block

Bureau of Science and Technology

Agency for International Development

Darcia Bracken

National Technical Information Service

U.S. Department of Commerce

John E. Brockwell

Satellite Education Program

U.S. Army Logistics Management College

Dennis By bee

Management Information Systems Division

Department of Defense Dependent Schools

James S. Cary

Decision Systems Management Agency

Department of the Army

Dennis Connors

National Telecommunications and Information

Administration

U.S. Department of Commerce

Kerry Joels

Department of Health and Human Services

Don McCabe

Bureau of Indian Affairs

U.S. Department of the Interior

Andrew Molnar

Materials Development, Research and Informal

Science Education Division

National Science Foundation

J. William Nelson

Office of Productivity, Technology, and Innovation

U.S. Department of Commerce

-180-
Appendix E—Workshop Participants and Other Reviewers and Contributors ● 181

William Nixon Frank Withrow

Educational Technology Branch Star Schools Program

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Educational Networks Division

Robert Peters U.S. Department of Education

Rural Electrification Administration George Ziener

U.S. Department of Agriculture Center for Advanced Learning Systems

Larry Quinn U.S. Department of Labor

Office of Governmental and Public Affairs

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Arthur Sheekey

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

U.S. Department of Education

Other Reviewers and Contributors

Gail Arnall James M. Cooper

Satellite Educational Resources Consortium University of Virginia, Charlottesville

Kevin Arundel Clay Curtis

U.S. Department of Education Associated Communications and Research Services, Inc.

Jo Babic Richard Daly

TI-IN Network WHRO Television

David Barbee Norfolk, Virginia

Center for Advanced Learning Systems Edward Dooley

U.S. Department of Labor The Learning Channel

Bartus Batson

Communications and Data Systems Associates

Alex Bellows

Arizona State Department of Education

Thomas Beaudoin

New York State United Teachers

Richard Boyd

Mississippi State Department of Education

Elsie Brumback

North Carolina State Department of Education

Kathleen Buccy

Southern New England Telephone

David Bunting

Kirkwood Community College, Iowa

Patricia Cabrera

Los Angeles County Office of Education

Bruce Chaloux

Virginia Polytechnic Institute

Daryl Chubin

Office of Technology Assessment

Alan Chute

AT&T National Teletraining Center

William A. Clauss

Western Carolina University

Randolph Dove

Electronic Data Systems

Kelli Durham

Region IV Education Service Center, Houston

Teresa Elder

US West

C. Emily Feistritzer

National Center for

Education Information

Kevin Fennell

NYNEX

Michael Feuer

Office of Technology Assessment

Geoffrey Fletcher

Texas State Department of Education

John Fowler

The Triangle Coalition

Marilyn Fox

AT&T

Susan Fratkin

National Association of State Universities and

Land Grant Colleges

August Frattali

Spring Hill Elementary School

Fairfax County, Virginia
182 ● Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education

Linda Garcia

Office of Technology Assessment

Sandy Garrett

Oklahoma State Department of Education

Linda R. Gorton

Delaware-Chenango Board of Cooperative

Educational Servcies, New York

Richard Grefe

National Association of Public Television Stations

Robert Gunther

Maryland State Department of Education

Toni Haas

Mid-Continent Regional Educational Laboratory

Dorothy Hajdu

Riverview Intermediate Unit, Pennsylvania

Robert Hale

Connecticut State Department of Education

Leslie Hanks

Washington County Board of Education, Maryland

Deborah Harris

Louisiana Educational Resource Network

Smith Holt

Oklahoma State University

Dean Honetschlager

National Governors’ Association

Mary Hoy

Iowa State University at Ames

David Hughes

Colorado Springs, Colorado

John Hurlimann

Riverdale Public Schools, North Dakota

Jerome Johnston

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Sally Johnstone

Western Cooperative for Educational

Telecommunications

Brian Kahin

Cambridge, Massachusetts

Jack Keck

PACE, Indian River, Michigan

Susan Koch

Washington, DC

Richard La Rochelle

Rural Electric Cooperative Association

Donald La Salle

Talcott Mountain Science Center

Gordon Law

Office of Technology Assessment

John LeBaron

University of Lowell, Massachusetts

Cecilia Lenk

Technical Education Research Centers

Eileen Lewis

AT&T

Robert Luff

Jones Intercable

Ron Lukenbill

Montana State Office of Public Instruction

Jack Luskin

University of Lowell, Massachusetts

David Mandel

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards

R. Bruce Martin

University of Virginia, Charlottesville

Terry May

Region IV Education Service Center, Houston

Steven Mazzola

University of Lowell, Massachusetts

Bill Mehojah

Bureau of Indian Affairs

U.S. Department of the Interior

Arthur Melmed

New York University

George T.M. Miller, Jr.

Uintah Basin Area Vocational Center

Jeanne Moellendick

West Virginia State Department of Education

Frank Odasz

Western Montana College

Joao Oliveira

World Bank

Dennis Pellant

Tele-Systems Associates, Inc.

Margaret Petronchak

The Communications Center

John Poggio

University of Kansas, Lawrence

Diana Radspinner

Dallas Independent School District

Lewis Rhodes

American Association of School Administrators

Ted Roscher

Educational Service District #101, Spokane

Doug Rundle

Forgan Public Schools, Oklahoma
Appendix E--Workshop Participants and Other Reviewers and Contributors ● 183

George Rush

Council of Chief State School Officers

Jim St. Lawrence

SL Productions

Steve Sherman

Public Broadcasting Service

Ron Shipe

Tennessee Valley Authority

Stanley Silverman

New York Institute of Technology

Steve Skiles

Defense Training and Performance Data Center

U.S. Department of Defense

Cathy Slesinger

NYNEX

Jean Smith

Office of Technology Assessment

Patricia Snowden

National Geographic Society

Bernard Solomon

The School District of Philadelphia

James Stedman

Congressional Research Service

Nancy Stover

The Discovery Channel

Ron Strecker

Panhandle Telephone Cooperative, Inc.

Donald Sutton

Mind Extension University

Jones Intercable

Tom Tate

Extension Service

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Patsy Tinsley

Webster, Texas

Chet Tomczyk

Public Broadcasting Service

Ginny Tresvant

Washington State Office of Public Instruction

Gary Tydings

University of New Mexico

Freeman Van Wickler

Delaware-Chenango Board of Cooperative Educational

Services, New York

Frank Wallace

California State Department of Education

Gary Watts

National Education Association

Karen Willetts

Center for Applied Linguistics

Frank Windsor

Maryland State Department of Education

Tom Wing

George Washington University Television

Edward Winter

Whittle Communications

Dennis J. Wydra

Mansfield University, Pennsylvania