NBSIR 75-769

Report on an NBS/AID/OAS Workshop on

Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

Edited by:

H. Steffen Peiser

Robert S. Marvin

Michael McNeil

Joanne Mejeur

Office of International Relations

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

Held November 3- 16, 1974

The Workshop was conducted as part of the program under the

US/NBS/Agency for International Development PASA TAfCE^ 5-71

Prepared for Agency for International Development

Department of State

Washington, D. C. 20523

NBSIR 75-769

REPORT ON AN NBS/AID/OAS WORKSHOP ON

STANDARDIZATION AND MEASUREMENT

SERVICES IN INDUSTRIALIZING ECONOMIES

Edited by:

H. Steffen Reiser

Robert S, Marvin

Michael McNeil

Joanne Mejeur

Office of International Relations

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

Held November 3-16, 1974

The Workshop was conducted as part of the program under the

US/NBS/Agency for International Development PASA TA(CE) 5-71

Prepared for Agency for International Development

Department of State Washington, D. C. 20523

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Rogers C.B. Morton, Secretary

James A. Baker, III, Under Secretary

Dr. Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Acting Director
I

I

i

I
FOREWORD

The Staff of the Office of International Relations of the

National Bureau of Standards desire to thank the Agency for

International Development and the Organization of American States

for making this Workshop possible, and to thank those persons

at NBS and elsewhere who so freely gave of their time and knowledge to make it a success.

iii

PARTICIPANTS

NBS/AID/OAS Workshop on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

November 3 - 16, 1974

Left to Right:

Front row:

Mr. Roy Fung, Dr. Ronald T. Wijewantha, Mrs. Ofelia de Young

Mr. Jose Planas, Miss Zully Perdomo, Mr. K. A. Hussain,

Dr. Edward L. Brady (NBS) , Mr. Vidalito F. Ranoa

Second row:

Mr. 0. Donoso T. , Dr. Zae-Quan Kim, Mr. Sumantri,

Mr. H. Steffen Peiser (NBS), Mr. Raul Estrada A.,

Mr. Romulo Ferreira, Dr. Samuel E. Chappell (NBS).

Rear group:

Mr. Ovan Julal, Mr. John R. Dise (NBS), Mr. Patricio Sierra H.

,

Mr. Rodrigo Lopez A., Dr. Michael B. McNeil (NBS),

Dr. Zawdu Felleke, Mr. J. Mullins (Interpreter), Mr. Felix von Ranke

Mr. J. Frazier (Escort - Chauffeur), Mr. Antonio Rico L.

,

Mr. Rafael Steinberg

V
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 1

"Compatibility in Measurement Systems" - Dr. R. D. Huntoon,

Consultant and Former Deputy Director, National Bureau

of Standards 4

"The Coming Surge in Regional Planning" - Dr. Albert Waters ton.

Professor of Economics, American University, Washington, D.C. . . 48

"The Import Food Strategy of the Food and Drug Administration" - Mr. Benjamin M. Gutterman, Assistant Director for Coordination/

Technology, Bureau of Foods, Food and Drug Administration, U.S.

Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. . 68

"Some Views on Science and Foreign Affairs" - Mr. Herman Pollack,

Consultant, Former Director, Bureau of Scientific and

Technological Affairs, Department of State, Washington, D.C. . . 77

"Metrology at the Argentine Republic's National Institute for

Technology" - Prof. Rafael Steinberg, Chief, Physics Department,

National Institute of Industrial Technology, Buenos Aires,

Argentina 83

"Metrological Services for the Republic of Bolivia" - Ing. Orlando Donoso T., Director General of Standards and

Technology, La Paz, Bolivia 87

"Top Level Standardization Training" - Mr. Felix von Ranke,

Executive Secretary, Brazilian Association for Technical

Standards, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 95

"Standardization in Chile" - Ing. Patricio Sierra, The

National Institute of Standardization, Santiago, Chile 99

"Summary on the Application of the Single Units of Measurement

System in Costa Rica" - Lie. Rodrigo Lopez A., National

Institute of Standards and Uniformity of Measures, San Jose,

Costa Rica 104

"Tne Standardization Activities Provided in Ecuador by INEN" - Ing. Raul Estrada A., Director, The Ecuadorian Institute of

Standards, Quito, Ecuador 109

"Standardization and Metrology Services in Ethiopia: Problems

and Programs" - Dr. Zawdu Felleke, General Manager,

Ethiopian Standards Institution, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 116

vi
"Precision Measurement in Indonesia" - Mr. Sumantri

Deputy Chairman for Technology, Indonesian Institute of

Sciences, Jakarta, Indonesia 126

"Jamaican Bureau of Standards" - Mr. Ovan Julal, Jamaican

Bureau of Standards, Kingston, Jamaica 130

"Economy and Standardization" - Dr. Zae-Quan Kim, Director

General, National Industrial Standards Research Institute,

Seoul, Korea 133

"Notes on the General Directorate of Standards in Mexico" - Mr. Antonio Rico L. , Secretary of Industry and Commerce,

Director General of Standards, Cuauhtemoc, Mexico, D.F.,

Mexico 138

"Problems and Experiences on Measurement and Standardization

Services in Pakistan" - Mr. Khawaja Ammar Hussain, Director,

Centra] Testing Laboratories, Pakistan Standards Institution,

Karachi, Pakistan 140

"Activities of the Panamanian Commission for Industrial and

Technical Standards" - Mrs. Ofelia de Young, Panamanian

Commission for Industrial and Technical Standards,

Panama City, Panama 147

"The Tests and Standards Division and the Small and Medium

Scale Industries" - Mr. Jose Planas, Science Research

Supervisor, National Institute of Science and Technology,

Manila, Philippines 150

"A Decade of Standardization and a Year of Metrication in the

Philippines" - Mr. Vidalito F. Ranoa, Of f icer-in-Charge

,

Fnilippine Bureau of Standards, Manila, Philippines 154

"Standardization and Metrication Activities in Sri Lanka" - Dr. Ronald T. Wijewantha, Director, Bureau of Ceylon

Standards, Sri Lanka 161

"Caribbean Industrial Research Institute and Trinidad and

Tobago Bureau of Standards: An Outline of Their

Functions and Inter- Relations" - Mr. Roy Fung, Electronics

Engineer, Caribbean Industrial Research Institute,

St. Augustine, West Indies 172

"Metrology in Venezuela" - Miss Zully Perdomo, Ministry of

Development, Directory of Commerce, National Service of

Legal Metrology, Caracas, Venezuela 177

vii
181-206

. . 207

. . 211

. . 214

"Summaries of NBS Presentations" .

Appendix I - Draft Working Paper .

Appendix II - List of Participants

Appendix III - Schedule

or r

viii
INTRODUCTION

For several years the U.S. Asency for International Dsvelonment and

the TTational Bureau of Standards have had a cooperative nro^^ram

desif^ned to facilitate the industrialization of various countries by

helping them to develop a measure:r.ent and standards infrastructur-3.

This nrofnraTTi is handled by the Office of Science and Tec]molo<»y of AID

and the Office of International Relations of TTES.

The program contains several elenents, of which the r^ost imnortant are in-country surveys and workshops . Tlie neasurerent surveys are designed to assess the state of standardization anJ neasurenent

services in each country surveyed, and to identify needed additions or changes in such services. They are carried out by teams of 3::perts

both from NBS and from other countries facin<> similar nroblems. The.

workshops are held in the U.S.A., with visits to the J3BS laboratories

in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and Boulder, Colorado, and to other

prominent standards and measurement services institutions both

governmental and private. Tliese visits and the presentations made

during the \7orkshops enable the participants to see how ^TBS meets its

responsibilities and how it interacts with other governmental agencies

and with various elements in the private sector. An additional t^ajor

benefit has proved to be the exchange of experiences and solutions to

various problems between participants from the various industrializing

countries. Such exchanges were particularly productive during this

TJorkshop, since many of the participants were from American nations

v/ith strong economic and cultural ties.

This report covers the fourth of these workshops, held ^lovenber 2 -

15, 1974. It was co-sponsored by the Organization of .\mericsn States,

whose assistance made possible the attendance of a number of the

participants from American nations, the inclusion of several papers by

well-knoxm authorities, and the simultaneous translation of

presentations in English and Snanish. The nar.es, affiliations, and

addresses of the participants are given in Appendix 1.

Four distinct aspects of the national administration of standards xrere stressed during this Workshop:

a. Maintenance of national standards of measurenent compatible

with SI (the international system of units of neasures) and

transference of these standards to local institutions.

b. Field surveillance of x^eights and measures in the marl:et

place.

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c. Procedures for the developTnent of stand-'^.rds , InclixdlnT

standards of safety, consu-^er protection, bnilcJin'^. codes,

etc. , as well as cor\oatlbility stanr'ards for r,:j.ch th1.n<»s as pipe threads.

d. Tnsnection and quality control of productior! (saTTmlin-^,

tolerances, control charts).

The presentations covered activities of of other I'e loral and

local ^overnnental aj^encies, and of universities, rosearc'i instittites,

and private industry and comnerce.

A full schedule of this Workshop is driven in Ap-oendix 3. The first

week was snent principally at the IIBS Gaithersh'irfr laboratories, with

several presentations bv IBS staff nenbers, plenary sessions witli i presentations by the ^Torkshon participants, ant' snecial eveninf^

lectures by Or. R. V), Huntoon, former .Je-outy ')irector o' T'*^,

Professor Albert V'aterston of the ')epartnent of '^xononics of Ajp.erican

University, ;^r. J). M. Gutterman of the Burcati of Foods of the TT.s,

Food and Drug Administration, and Mr, Heman Pollack, former Director

of the Bureati of Scientific and Technolor^ical Affairs, Dc-^artnent of

State. This first week.'s pro":ra-m also included a fine OAS-or'^anizc 1 session on Latin Anerican standardizp tion activities, a visit to t^u-" District of Colunbia Division of Uei<7hts and ''easures, and special

presentations covering tb.e activities of the 'National Technical

Information Service, the U.S. Geoloi^ical Survey, and- the Scientific

Apparatus Makers' Association.

The pro7,raTn for the second week included visits to several non-

"'OvernTnental or^rani^^ations concerned wltli standards and meas'ireT ients

the American Society for Testin^?; and Materials, a calibration

laboratory of the General Electric Connany, Leeds and Morthrup, Inc.,

tlie Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Arthur Little and Co.,

Midwest Universities Gonsortiun in International \ctivitiss,

Undervrriters Laboratories, Illinois Institute of Tecanolo<^y Research

Institute, and the Denver Researcli I-!stitute. It also includa-1 a visit to the Forest Products Laboratory of the '.'.S. Departrent of

Agriculture, and concluded with a visit to the ITRS Moulder

laboratories where it ended v/ith a special plenary session on

Tnetrolo5:y in Latin America, on which occasion a plan for a PanAnerican systera of cooperation in metrolof^y was drafted.

The I'orkshop gave the participants a rather detailed exposure to

standards and neasurenent activities in the United States. It

included considerable treatment of standards and neasurement

infomation as vehicles for international teclmology transfer. "^le plenary sessions, and lively discussions throurrhout, enabled each

participant to discuss his own problems and hear of comm.on problems

2
faced by his colleagues. Much of the discussion centered about the

interplay between voluntary and compulsory standards, as well as between quasi governmental and private sector services, and the

mixtures of these which have been adopted or are he±r\^ considered in

various countries.

This report includes texts of the special lectures, and of the

presentations by the '-Jorkshop participants. It also includes, at the

request of several participants, short summaries of some of the

material presented by the various "TBS representatives. The

translations and editing, by the staff of OIR, have been approved by

the authors.

3
COMPATIBILITY IN MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

R. D. Huntoon

Consultant and Former Deputy Director

National Bureau of Standards

NBS/AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November A, 1974

It is quite natural for those nations which are seeking the advantages

of a broader industrial-technological base to turn to those who

already have established such a base and are seeking improvements in

it, to ask "How did you do it?". This can be expected to elicit a response of the form, "Here is how we did it".

This answer allows the respondent to point, with a glow of pride, to

the historical pattern of the development in his own country, and to

indicate, by implication if not outright assertion, that duplication

of this historical pattern will bring the developing nation to a similar position.

However, such an implication is likely to be both unwarranted and

undesirable. Undesirable on the ground that the process is too slow

and allows no leapfrogging over recognized errors, or past way

stations which later knowledge shows can be readily by-passed.

Unwarranted on the grounds that circumstances upon which a new

development must be based may well be so different that an attempt to

duplicate, say U.S. procedures, would be disastrous.

We hope that, in this NBS/AID/OAS Workshop on Standardization and

Measurement Services in Industrializing Economies, the questions asked

will be of the form "How can you help us to reach our goals of

industrial development based upon your experience, the knowledge of

world social realities, and our own unique social institutions?".

We, for our part, will undertake to avoid explanations of our historical development and try to provide to you information, learned

from experience, in a form that you can intelligently apply to your

own situations. Assuming agreement upon this approach, we can then

turn attention to the subject matter of the Workshop - Standardization

and Measurement Services.

1, Norms and Measurement

We begin with a clarification of terms. The English language uses the

terms standards and standardization in a multiplicity of contexts.

4
Two of these will concern us. They are product standards and

measurement standards.

Product standards, also called engineering standards, standard sizes,

codes, specifications, performance standards, configuration standards,

etc., relate to the measurable characteristics of things or substances. The French call them normes and Spanish speaking nations

call them norroas. I will call them norraas.

Measurement standards are the physical realization of units of measure

(or specified fraction or multiple thereof) in a measurement station,

laboratory, region, state, nation or international laboratory as the case may be. I will refer to them as standards.

Normas represent an agreement by some sub-group of the society

regarding the sizes or other physical characteristics of the product

to which the norma applies. Products which when measured in accord

with the agreement (or specification) yield results v/ithin the limits

set by the norma, are said to "meet the standard", "meet-the-norma" or are "acceptable products".

It is important to note that the agreement is expressed quantitatively

in terms of an accepted measurement language which must have

sufficient sophistication to allow clear quantitative specification of an acceptable product.

Subsequently, the actual products as produced (or during production)

are subjected to the measurement process to determine or verify that

they do, in fact, meet the limits set in the specification. Those

which do are accepted for consumption; and those which do not are rejected as unsuitable and are often called shrinkage.

Ue note and emphasize that measurement is involved both in the

establishment of the norma prior to production and in the verification

of product compliance \rLth the norma. Thus, if advantage is to be

taken of the many advantages of normas in an industrial economy, a national measurement system of adequate scope and sophistication

becomes a prerequisite.

The essential nature of normas in an industrializing economy will be

discussed extensively throughout the Workshop. Ue need not go into it

here except to state the fundamental point that we find it difficult,

if not impossible, to conceive of a satisfactory industrial structure

that does not depend upon a functioning and well-developed set of normas. From this it follovrs that a viable, properly sophisticated

measurement system is necessary but not sufficient for the required

set of normas and thus for a satisfactory industrialization.

VTliile a measurement system confers other benefits in addition, we consider this relationship to normas to be important enough to warrant

5
careful attention to the measurement system in this Workshop, In the

discussion which follows, we will concern ourselves with a measurement

system in broad perspective, usinp normas only as necessary for

illustrative examples. This is not intended in any way to Indicate

any lack of concern for the importance of normas, but rather to leave

the discussion of them to others while we give attention to the

fundamental measurement system upon which the normas must be based.

Any attempt to describe or discuss a system as complex as a measurement system for an industrialized nation must be considered to

be but one picture among many, many possible ones. So it is here.

Just as it happens in taking a photograph of a complex sublect, the

placing of the illumination will highlight certain aspects and leave

other possibly equally important facets in the shadow. By studying

many such photographs one develops an understanding of the subject

based upon an integration of all that he has seen.

All of you here tonight have had various looks at measurement systems,

some more than others. Each of you has his ovm mental picture of one. Perhaps you didn't think of it as a national system, or part of an international system. No matter, just so long as you have been

thinking and observing enough to have a picture of your o\m..

This discussion will present another one, mine, as I saw it last week

in preparation for this discussion, I v/ill use, as my device for

illumination in this discussion, an examination of the role of

compatibility in a measurement system. The tern compatibility may be

a new one to some of you in this context. It is not a generally

accepted term much as I wish it were. Its meaning in this context,

will become clear as the discussion proceeds. It vrill not be

precisely defined, just allowed to develop as needed. It will

illuminate some important aspects of a measurement system in a unique

way and will serve its purpose if it brings to you some aha's as you

think about it in terms of your country's own syster. and needs.

By aha's I mean that, at one or more points during the presentation,

you suddenly perceive some insight which causes you to say, "Aha, now

I understand this aspect which I had not understood before",

2, Function of a National Measurement Systen

Ue will consider every instrumented place in the nation capable of

making a physical'"^ measurement, and actively engaged in doing so, to

* By the term physical measurement vre include mechanical measurements,

chemical measurements, electrical measurements etc. In fact, any kind

of quantitative measurement which can be done by any physical mean as differentiated from emotional, phychological or subjective means.

6
be a (or station, for short). The total structure of all these

stations with their myriad interfaces and with the supporting,

structure of soft-ware (Measurement Infrastructure, MIS) to insure its

functioning, we will call the National Measurement System (I^S),

If two stations, anywhere in the NMS, are given identical measurands*

to measure, and if the results of their measurements consistently

agree within acceptable statistical uncertainties, the two stations

are said to be compatible for that measurement within appropriate

limits of magnitude. If they agree, within statistical uncertainties

on all measurements they undertake to make, they are compatible.

Note—nothing has been said about either station getting the "right

answer", whatever that may mean, nor has anything been said about

their accuracy. Since the stations are assumed to be separated

spatially, we can say that they are compatible across space.

If the stations can also achieve compatible measurements at different

times, we can say they have compatibility across time, i.e., they are

in stable control (or both identically out of control). Without

compatibility across time, the N>1S rapidly approaches chaos, and any

particular station which cannot achieve compatibility over time cannot

be considered a qualified element of the system. It must be

considered an outcast. We lump compatibility across space and across

time into the one term compatibility, remembering that, without

compatibility across space, the station is not even started on a career of usefulness, and without compatibility across time, it is not

headed anywhere and its course cannot be trusted.

We can thus say that the function of the NMS (including its MIS) is to

bring appropriate compatibility to every station in the system at

uncertainty levels adequate for its (the station's) function. For

completeness, the system must then provide acceptable definitions for

the units of measure to be used throughout the system and means for

determining and expressing accuracy in terms of them.

This leads naturally to the plan of examination which follows. We

look first at the achievement of a compatibility-coupled system and

then see how nationally accepted units of measure can be incorporated,

along with statements relating to accuracy of measurement.

* The measurand is the physical entity submitting to the process of

measurement. ^-Then we measure the length of a table the physical quality

being measured is length, the unit of length is the meter (a foot) the

table is the measurand.

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3. Measurement Station

We represent a measurement station In the act of making a measurement

schematically as shown In Figure 1. Three blocks are shown: (a) the

measurand or artifact to be measured, (b) Instrumentation and software

In the form of a comparator, and (c) the station standard or local

realization of the unit of measure. Not shown Is the station operator

who uses the station resources, a, b, and c In a process whose product

Is a measurement. This station process Is Indicated In Table 1.

Table 1

Station Process

Specify Measurand

Declaration

Quantity

Unit

Replications

Act of Measurement

Coupling

Unit realization

Comparison

Recording

Replication

Result (Product)

Measurement

Magnitude

Uncertainty

Referring to the Table we see that the process begins with a specification or identification of the measurand. Failure to specify

the measurand clearly and unambiguously before the measurement is

undertaken can lead to Irrevocable error. This is often overlooked as obvious, yet in some cases the specification of the measurand is more

difficult than making the measurement.* Certainly it must be

unambiguous, at the outset, just what is to be measured.

* Consider the measurement of the time for a falling body to pass two

reference positions in space as done in the determination of "g". The

problem is to define sharply the instant at which the body passes the

reference point. Given this sharp definition of the Interval of measurement of the interval (the measurand in this case) is relatively easy.

Achievement of the sharp boundery of the Interval is the difficult

undertaking.
A Measurement Station

Measurand 1

(Subject of Measurement) 1

Instrumentation & Software

Station Standard

Local Unit Realization

Figure 1

9
Another initial requirement for proper measurenient is a decision and

declaration of: (1) what physical quantity is to be measured, (2) what

unit will be used for expressini? the result and (3) how many

replications of the act of measurement will be made in arriving at it.

Declaring the number of replications beforehand tends to avoid biases

which creep in if the results of the measurement are allowed to

influence the subsequent measurement process.

The next stage of the process, the act of measurement, includes four

steps

.

The first consists of making a proper coupling between the measurand

and the instrumentation (comparator). It is crucial that this

coupling be made in such a manner that the value of the measurand

presented for measurement is not different in the presence of the

equipment than it is in the absence of the equipment. Actually, of

course, there is, and always will be, some difference. It is up to

the station operator to see that this difference is either less than

other uncertainties he is willing to tolerate, or predictable in

magnitude. The integrity, competence and skill of the operator are

crucial. If he arranges to measure something different than intended,

all results become worthless, or even possibly disastrous. I am sure

all of you can adduce experiences of your own where this miscoupling

has caused trouble.

Next comes the realization of the local unit (local standard) or appropriate fraction (or multiple) thereof. For length measurements,

for example, the gage block is the local standard and the feeler gage

is the comparator. In another case, thread turns on a micrometer

realize the unit, a sense of touch serves as a comparator.

By one means or another, the local standard will permit realization of

the local unit for each measurement; and clearly the measurement

result will be determined by the unit as realized for that

measurement .

The function of the comparator is to permit comparison between unit

(or fraction) as realized and the measurand as presented. By

adjustment or by scale reading, it allows the operator to decide that

X of his units, as realized, are equal to the measurand as presented

to the comparator.

Upon completion of this comparison the result can be recorded as "measurand is x units". Replication of the process: (1) coupling, (2)

unit realization, (3) comparison, and (4) recording, as many times as originally indicated completes the specified act of measurement.

10
The product of this process (measurement result) is called a measurement. The individual acts of measurement are never exactly the same when replicated, indicating inherent limitations in the process.

Customarily the individual results are averaged for the replications

to give one number for the measurement, i.e., the Result.

In addition, it is customary for the operator to assign an uncertainty

to his measurement in the form of one or several probability

statements indicating the acknowledged likelihood of differences

between his result, as stated, and some type of real or correct result

that would truly characterize the measure if all aspects of the

measurement process were perfect. This assignment of uncertainty is

based fundamentally upon the skill and integrity of the operator but

also upon a chain of other factors over which he has no immediate

control. The remainder of this discussion will be concerned with this

chain of factors contributing to the station uncertainty. We will not

give much further attention to the definitive part played by the

operator. We will assume mostly that the operator has the necessary

skills, experience, intelligence, and integrity to operate his station

process. If the operator cannot be trusted, the remainder of the

measurement system is of little value and there is no point in

examining it further. We emphasize and pass on: Qualified operators

are essential.

Assuming the existence of a qualified operator for the station, we now

turn our attention to the products (measurements) of its process when

applied over and over again to the same or identical measurands.

Figure 2 displays the results of a sequence of such measurements. The

ordinate represents the results and the abscissa the time sequence in

which they were made. These numbers were actually drawn from a randomized set of numbers in which the probability of occurrence of

any given value follows a normal or Gaussian distribution. Figure 3,

with a mean (m) of 100 and a standard deviation (a) of 1.* We know

that of the total population from which these numbers were drawn 68%

lie between 99 and 101, 95% lie between 98 and 102, and 99.7% between

97 and 103, with 100 as the average of the total population.

Both theory and experience tell us that most properly controlled

physical measurements tend to approach a normal distribution as the

number of replicate measurements is increased. So we can take Figure

2 as a realistic example of the results we might expect from a physical measurement for which we had already established the above

mean and standard deviation by many previous measurements. Of course.

* "Short Table of Random Nonaal Deviates", the Rand Corporation, 1955

11
Figure 2

12
this implies that the measurand was stable and the measurement process

non-varying, i.e., that the process was "in control", about which more

later.

We note that all 48 measurements plotted in Figure 2 fall within +3

of the population mean of 100. The mean of these 48 is 100.142,

differing from 100 by close to one standard deviation of the mean (a/ v-n; which, for 48 measurements, is 0.144. If we divide the total into

three groups of 16 measurements each, we find that the means of these

groups differ from 100 by -0.124, 0.38, and 0.17 respectively. The

standard deviation of a mean of 16 measurements from the population of

Figure 3 is 0.25, so all three of these values are within the range of

100 + 0.50 within which we would expect 95% of such averages to fall.

Suppose we continue the sequence of measurements for which the strip

shown in Figure 2 is a beginning. Suppose the next group of 16

results has a mean displaced 0.95 units from 100. The chance of this

happening with measurements characteristic of the distribution in

Figure 3 is less than one in 5000. We must conclude something has

changed and the distribution of Figure 3 no longer represents the

situation. Similarly, if another group of 16 show a much greater

scatter so that ten percent or more of the points fall outside the 3a

band, or if the points appear to scatter about a line or curve deviating progressively away from the central mean line of 100, we must conclude that something is wrong and the distribution curve of

Figure 3 is no longer representative, i.e., we are dealing with a new

system with different mean and standard deviation. So long as the

successive measurements behave in an orderly manner, staying within

the +3o band, and the deviations of the means stay within the band +3

o/ *4i = +3 /4, we say the measurement process is under control. If the

faults like those we mentioned above are present, we say the station

is out of control.

If the measurement station is to serve a useful purpose, it must

perform meaningful measurements on raeasurands other than the one stable one used to acquire the dispersion curve. Figure 3,

characteristic of the station process. Suppose, first, we are given

another measurand identical to the first, and suppose we make one measurement on it of the kind plotted in Figure 2; what can we say

about this one measurement?

If we turn to Figure 3, we can, with the aid of it, make statements

like 95% of the time the next measurement will fall within the band

100+2 or 99.7% of the time it will fall between the limits 100+3. We,

of course, cannot state exactly where it will be before the

measurement is made. Afterwards we know. Note that we use Figure 3

to make such statements of estimate. If the station is "in control",

we can use Figure 3. If the station is "out of control", we cannot

13

make any very valid statements about the next measurements. Suppose

all previous measurements showed the station to be in control. How do

we know it was in control when this next measurement was made? Of

course, we cannot know for sure. But if we make some additional

measurements of the original measurand and find the station process is

still in control, we feel "safe" about assuming a state of control for

that measurement of the the new measurand. Of course, the operator

might have misread it, or mishandled the equipment or "fudged" the

result. If he did, we can make no valid statements. Thus, we see with abundant clarity why the station must be "in-control" and the

operator both skilled and trustworthy, if we are to be able to make

useful measurements with the station. For the remainder of this

discussion, we will assume the station has its process in control and

is being operated by a qualified operator. These are big assumptions

but the whole argument rests upon the validity of making them.

Now suppose that the next measurand is not known to be identical to

the stations control measurand. Suppose the additional measurement

gives the value 101, I«That can we say about the magnitude of the

vinknoTim measurand?

If we assume control, we then can infer that extensive repetition of

the measurement of the unknown would yield a dispersion curve like

Figure 3 with a mean value we will call T,V, (true value). Our one measurement gives 101. Textbooks on the statistics of measurement

show that T.V. will be within +3a from 101 about 99% of the time and

+2afrora 101 about 95% of the time. The most likely value is 101 but

we don't know the true value. The best we can do is make statements

like "the value of the new measurand is 101+2 with a confidence level

of about 95%, or with an uncertainty of +2 at the 2a level."

Repeating the measurement N times will reduce the uncertainty by 1//N,

but this cannot be used to reduce the uncertainty indefinitely. In our example, values of N of 16, 20, 50, and 100 yield standard

deviations of 0.25, 0.224, 0.141, and 0.1, a relatively small gain for

the increased time and station stability required. It is seldom wise

or efficient to use N greater than 20 in most physical measurements,

and almost never effective to use N as large as 100.

We note for emphasis two things about this measurement of the unknown

measurand. (1) We do give it a number which is likely not the T.V,,

and we know the band of uncertainty but not the exact magnitude. (2)

This measurand, if marked 101+2 although it, in fact, has an unknown

T.V, of 102, will behave like a measurand of value 102 in all

subsequent measurements. Yet we will consistently call its value 101,

If this measurand is subsequently used to maintain control on another

station, we introduce a systematic error of magnitude unknown to us

15
but actually, in this assumed case, of value 102 - 101 = 1.

Obviously, if the measurand were to be so used, we would undertake to

reduce the uncertainty by basing our results on more measurements.

This does reduce the uncertainty but does not alter the principle. An

unknown systematic error follows the tagged measurand to be compounded

into all other errors in any station it controls. This propagation of

bias is an important characteristic of compatibility coupling.

We have observed that our measurement station, when in control, gives

the value 100+ 2a/ /n its mean value for the measurement of its

control measurand. If the measurand is a control standard marked at

100, we can then say that the station is in control and giving

measurements accurate with respect to the control standard with

uncertainties calculable from Figure 3.

If the control measurand has an unknown but stable value, then our station assigns the value 100 to it with uncertainties calculable from

Figure 3 and accurate to such value in terms of the units of measure

as realized by the equipment of our station. If we do not have a control measurand with tagged value, the measurements made by our station may or may not be of value outside our own station. So long

as the measurements are used only in house, stability and control may

be sufficient for our needs. But if our station is to measure parts

and components to be used elsewhere in the society, or if it is to be

used to make parts which must mate with others brought in from other

manufacturers, we require that our measurements be compatible with

measurements made in other stations. We now arrive at the important

term compatibility which is the primary object of our discussion.

4. Compatibility

We define compatibility by the statement:

If two stations get the same result within allowed statistical

uncertainties when they measure the same or identical measurands at

the same or different times, their measurements are compatible, to

within a stated uncertainty.

Within this definition, the stations are compatible only for the

physical quantities and at the magnitudes for which the compatibility

has been verified. Thus, two stations can be compatible for, say,

length measurements from 1 meter to 10 meters but not compatible for

length measurements of a nanometer and not compatible for any range of

time measurements. Statistical texts treat the matter.* Figure A

illustrates the situation.

* cf. for example, An Introduction to Scientific Research, E.B, Wilson

McGraw Hill, 1952, or NBS Special Publication 300 Volume 1, or NBS

Handbook 91.

16
Figure 4

17
Station S, outside the interface which bounds the N:^!S, seeks to become

a qualified station Q of the systein by selecting a convenient

qualified station within the system and establishing compatibility

with it. The new station S draws upon the Measurement Infrastructure

(MIS) for software and possibly hardware to develop methods and

procedures for accomplishing the compatibility coupling to the rest of

the network, thereby changing its label from S to Q , and moving

inside the interface. The complete network of stations within the

nation, linked compatibly, is called a comnatibility coupled system.

Within allowed limits, all stations within the system produce

compatible measurements across the space spanned by the network, and across time also, if the stations remain in a state of measurenent

control.

Up to this point, we have explained what we mean bv compatibility and some of the consequences of having it. But how do we in fact tell if

two stations are compatible? We proceed to indicate one method.

Suppose the two stations are designated as A and B, and suppose both

stations, after demonstrating their state of control, m.easure an identical measurand to produce a sequence chart like the first part of

Figure 2. A set of possible results for both stations are shown in

Figure 5. Based upon a sequence of 16 measurements, A finds an average value of 99.88, Station B, with a similar scatter of

measurements, obtains a mean value of 98.38, a difference of 1.5. By

methods described in statistical textbooks, we assess the significance

of this observed difference to find that there is only about one chance in 50,000 that the two stations are compatible. The two

stations are not compatible, since they do" not give the same results

on the same measurand. Applying correction factors to the data of

station A or B to bring the mean values m into line will make the

results appear to be compatible. However, if the stations were each

to repeat their measurements, each would obtain a new and almost

always different mean. Repeating the adjustment of A or B data to

bring the means into alignment would require a different adjustment.

Figure 6 indicates the nature of the variation of the mean of 16

measurements by showing the running mean for 16 measurements starting

with #16 and progressing to #48, Since the data for all figures were

taken from tables of random normal deviates for m=190, a= 1, we expect

the data to fall within a band +3 o=-f3 and the means of 16 to fall

within a band +3a//i6 = +.75, We see that the running mean stays

within these limits. The vertical bars on each mean in Figure 5 shows

this expected range of variation of the mean.

If the station compatibility check were made many times and the

difference D computed for each comparison, the differences D could be

plotted to give a frequency curve like that in Figure 3, with a standard deviation of ( /2) (a/ ^)= ( v^) (1/4) = . 354, and a 3a band of

18
Measured Value

TI

CD*

C

Q

to

Q

a

D

o

(0

O

19
Measured Value

20
+1.06. From such a distribution curve one could predict the relative

chance of any single comparison being between any stjecified limits.

In general, of course, such extensive measur em.ents upon which to base

a conpatibility statement are not realistic and feasible, so one has

to be content with one or a few comparisons cor.parable with that shown

in Figure 5. Since there is no knowledge which of the possible

differences was actually obtained, the adjustment is made by making

the two means coincide. (There are other more sophisticated means of

processing this amount of data, described in the statistical

textbooks, but this simpler examination will seT/e our Purposes)

,

However, this adjustment of the means to give apparent compatibility

introduces a fixed but unknown error into all subsequent measurements

made by the station which adjusted its data or hardvrare. This fixed

bias (commonly called system.atic error) should be included in all

statements about the compatibility of the two stations. The process

of adjusting the data or hardware of a new station to make it

compatible with an already qualified stations, we X'tLII call

harmonization.

As far as stations A and B in Figure 5 are described, they are equal.

The adjustment can be made by either or part by each. More typically

the scatter sequence from one station, say A, is much narrov7er, i.e.,

smaller than for the other, and the wider one (3) does all the

adjusting. This in effect makes A a m.aster station and 3 a slave to

it. T'i'ithin statistical uncertainties, B's measurem.ents will be

compatible with A's and have incorporated into them, all of the

systematic or random errors inherent in all of A's measurements.*

This scheme of master-slave stations, characteristic of compatibility

coupling, leads naturally to a hierarchical system, structure. If, for

example, A slaves to itself several stations, Bi , B2 , B3 , B^,

and each 3 station slaves to itself several C stations, Ci , C2 ,

Cjj, then all stations, 3, C, v±ll be compatible with each other and

writh A. If B]_ and B2 are not harmonized, either directly or via A,

then the stations C which are slaves to Bi will not be com.patible with

stations C which are slaves to B2. Figure 7 illustrates this.

Tne left sets form compatible subsets and the right group forms a completely compatible set. It is important to note that the stations

B and C are all slaves to A and all their measurem.ents are no better

than the realization of the unit of measure achieved by A. Master A

* We rule out m.istaken readings and the like. They are truly important bu

not subject to prediction and relate to the skill and integrity of the

operator

.

21

is responsible for all the stations slave to it and A's hardware

measurement standards become the standards for the proup. This

arrangement naturally forms a pyramidal structure characteristic of

each physical quantity in our "^MS. Figure 8 illustrates the pyramidal

arrangement.

When the structure is extended to national scope the standards of the

top station of the pyramid, which in fact realize the unit of

measurement for the entire slave structure, become knox^m as national

prototype standards or national primary standards. The unit as realized by such standards in a national laboratory forms the de facto

unit for the entire structure, whether or not it truly represents the

accepted definition for the agreed upon unit of measure. Errors or uncertainties in the prototype become those of the entire structure.

Since all the responsibility ultimately rests upon the top station, it

becomes clear why so much care is given to the proper outfitting and

nurturing of this station. Ue will see later that other asnects of

the system provide checks and balances to prevent the top prototype

from going far astray.

In a compatibility coupled system, the accuracy of measurements comes ultimately to mean accuracy in terms of the units as realized by the

top master station and as represented by its standards. Establishment

of a world structure with an IBPM in Sevres, France, is an obvious

extension.

The formalized picture of the pyramidal structure of a measurement

system shown in Figure 8 should not be allowed to lead the reader

astray. Modem measurement systems need not have so much of a pyramid. As we will see later, different schemes for harmonization

exist, some of which make it possible to collapse nortions of the

pyramid two or three levels. The hierarchical structure of masters

and slaves shown in Figure 8 tends to develop when the compativility

coupling is built upon "passive calibration" as a predominant mode of

harmonization. In earlier times, systems tended to develop this way.

With more sophisticated understanding and wise choice of mode of

harmonization, the pyramid can be greatly simplified and the accuracy

requirements placed upon the top master station can be significantly

eased. To see how this can be, we turn now to a more detailed

examination of harmonization,

5, Harmonization

As we have seen, the essential idea of harmonization is to arrange for

two stations to measure identical measurands, decide who is master and

who is slave, and arrange corrective procedures to bring slave station

measurements into line with master station measurements (with the aid

of control charts). There are, of course, a number of mechanisms for

23

accomplishing this. To see them first in perspective and relation, it

is helpful to classify the different modes of harmonization. Table 2 shows this:

I. Mutual

A. Passive

1. At Master

2, At Slave

B. Active

II. Absolute - Self

1. For Independent Reproductive Definitions

2, Case of Prototype

We note first in Table 2 that, in addition to the mutual coming

together for harmonization, there is one mode which involves only one

station, i.e., the absolute or self mode. In this case the station

turns to the definition of the unit of measure as accepted for the I'l'^IS and realizes it from fundamental laboratory measurements. This is, as you will immediately see, the mcde whereby the top master station

relates the whole compatibility-coupled structure to the defined unit.

But such a mode is not only available to the top master, it is

available to every slave station qualified willing to exploit it

(provided the unit is defined in an independently reproducible way).

The more conventional mutual modes break into two categories, passive

and active. In the passive case, commonly called calibration, the

master station uses A and B instrumentation to arrive at correction

factors or adjustments in B. In the active case, the entire slave

station B, including operators, is involved. We turn now to a brief

examination of each mode, bearing in mind that we make the implicit

assumptions: (1) that every station involved is in a state of control,

and (2) that all statements made carry the qualification within

allowed statistical uncertainties where appropriate, so we need not

belabor the repetition.

Mutual Passive

In this mode, the instrumentation of the two stations A and B are brought together at either station, i.e.. At Master or At Slave, but

Table 2

Modes of Harmonization

1.

2.

3.

Standard Reference Things

Standard Reference Substances

Standard Reference Data

25
under the control of Master station operators. The most common is AtMaster, since the presumably higher quality more stable but less

rugged equipment of A should not be shipped around. It will be

assumed to be safer to ship B's equipment, since damage will affect B

only and not cause problems for A's other B's.

At the comparison, the two sets of instrumentation can measure,

possibly simultaneously or closely in sequence, the same but unknown

measurand which need be stable only long enough to complete the

comparison. This is done with A personnel usually. There results a correction curve or an adjustment of B's instrumentation to yield

compatible measurements, assuming A is already corapatibl?!, B's

equipment is returned to him with a tag or certificate or other means

of indicating that A has calibrated his (B's) equipment with stated

results as of date. This method, if A performs a professional quality

job as expected, yields compatible slave equipment at station A as of

the end of calibration.

When received at B, there is no guarantee, except a backlog of

previous experience, that the returned equipment is in fact still

compatible. Also there has been no demonstration that B operators

know how to utilize the equipment to give compatible measurements like

those obtained when A operators are using B's equipment. The fact

that B is assumed to be in-control gives some important assurance, but

does not remove the ever present threat of some systematic shift due

to B's unique environment or operator bias. Still the method is used

widely and quite successfully, Nuch of our IMS has grown up on this

passive calibration basis of the at-A variety. As we will see, there

is redundancy in the overall system to bring loss of compatibility to

attention so that it does not go long unnoticed in most cases. For

example, in the case of manufactured piece parts, those from a supplier whose stations are not compatible will not mate with other

parts from suppliers whose measurements are compatible, and therefore,

cannot be used and must be junked. This economic loss brings strong

pressure to bear to keep all stations of the system currently

compatible (and leads in the U.S. to military requirements for

traceability)

.

An alternative passive mode arises when A calibrates a "transfer

instrument" at A, carries it to B and calibrates B's equipment, then

returns to A with it and recalibrates to make sure nothing changed

during the trip. This is clearly an improvement as far as checking on equipment is concerned, but does not check out environmental shifts at

B and leaves B operators unchecked.

As a variation, A can calibrate the transfer instrument, ship it to B,

let B calibrate himself and return the instrument to A, A then

recalibrates to check for changes during the trip. Now B operators

26
are actively involved which is an improvenent. However, when E gets

actively involved, we move into the category of Mutual - Active. So we turn to it. Note before we leave, that the work involved at A for

passive calibration limits the number of B stations which can be

maintained effectively in a harmonized condition. This in turn leads

to a multiplicity of levels (A, B, C, D ) in the hierarchical

structure, which can lead to fantastic station dispersion requirements

on the top master station. We, of course, seek other procedures which

do not lead to so many levels in the pyramid.

Mutual - Active

The fundamental principle behind this mode is co transfer measurands,

not instruments. Measurands can come in many forms and can generally

be much more transportation-stable as well as tim.e-stable than

instruments. Moreover, since the objective of a measurement station

is to make compatible measurements, it seems wise to check it out on

that basis. Thus, in principle, A measures some convenient measurand,

tags it with the result, and sends it to B, Assuming the measurement

made by A is valid, B's job is to measure the measurand again and

adjust his procedures and equipment until he gets compatible results,

Note that all of B is now involved in its normal process of

measurement. If proper choices of calibration measurands have been

made, B's actions will be much the same as for his usual measurements.

Ke can measure the calibration measurand from tine to tine to check

his state of control and even return it to A periodically to validate

its stability in time. Note particularly that almost all of B's

normal production operations are involved as they are when B is in

normal productive operation. Thus, the actual compatibility of B for

measurements is more clearly demonstrated. Traceability is

established via the tagged measurands and their history in the system.

Also in typical cases, A can measure many calibration measurands on a production schedule and thereby monitor a much greater number of B

stations than he could hope to do by the passive calibration scheme.

The number of levels in the calibration hierarchy can thereby be

reduced with attendant savings in the overall system and much reduced

requirements on accuracy of the top master station measurements .

By working out mutual agreements on how to make adjustments, all the A

stations, at one level of the hierarchy, can exchange calibration

measurands to arrive at a mutually agreeable degree of compatibility

without the establishment of another higher level master station in

the hierarchy. Tliis also brings in.portant savings into the overall

system and introduces welcome and effective redundancy as a check

against error. Note that a flux of calibration measurands can be

established on a temporary or semi-permanent basis as may be required

to keep a myriad of cross-linked tie lines in operation to link the

27
whole structure together. The power of the active harraonization mode

is clearly impressive and it is not surprising that the measurement

systems of the industrial nations show strong trends to ever increainf»

reliance upon the active harmonization mode. Developing nations

should give careful consideration to the full exploitation of active

harmonization in planning their own measurement systems. The

organizational structure of the system should be made flexible enough

to avoid rigid adherence to a pyramid of many levels and allox^ active

harmonization to provide horizontal coupling wherever it is

beneficial. Designation of laboratories as secondary or tertiary

calibration stations tends to freeze in the pyramid and impede later

moves to incorporate more flexibility.

The calibration measurands needed for the active mode can be classed

into three main kinds; things, materials, and reference data. We

pause for a brief look at each.

SRT - Standard Reference Things or Artifacts

We are all generally acquainted with some of these SRT. For example,

standard masses, gage blocks, standard resistors, to name a few. The

list continues to grow. Of course, gage blocks are long time members

of the family. It has been found possible to make them in very stable

form. They are simple to store and ship. At the master station, it

is a relatively simple procedure to compare gage blocks with an almost

identical master. Once the master has been carefully measured against

the prototype, a large number of slave blocks can be easily monitored.

The story is much the same for other physical quantities, varying in

degree of ease of reproduction of the artifacts and comparison

measurements. At NBS the extension of the active-mutual harmonization

into other portions of the NMS is proceding under the name Measurement

Assurance Program (MAP)

,

What has not yet been so commonly realized is that the artifacts upon

which to base a harmonization can in fact be the very products

themselves that a manufacturing plant is turning out. As a simple

illustrative example, consider the case of a manufacturer which is

making piston rings which are required to meet a certain norma. If

this manufacturer is one of several already making such rings, he can,

in principle, arrange with the other manufacturers to exchange rings

which meet the specified measurements. He can then measure these

exchange rings as a basis for monitoring the compatibility of his own measurement stations. Such a scheduled exchange can keep the whole

group compatible provided:

(1) All the exchange items are clearly marked with their measured

values and not just that they fall within the established normas.

28
(2) One, or preferably several, of the manufacturers maintain mutualactive harmonization with other stations of the WAS so that the whole

group of ring manufacturers does not become a highly compatible subset of stations unharmonized with the rest of the system.

This intercomparison of products, even if not used to harmonize the

stations, happens automatically in the market place to weed out any

non-compatible manufacturers, and thereby introduces corrective

measures to reestablish the harmonization. By this means, the market

place in an industrial society introduces a beneficial redundancy to

keep a running check on compatibility across space and time of its

NMS.

SRM - Standard Reference Materials

Much of the NMS is involved in the measurement of the properties of

materials to monitor their acceptability for manufacturinj> processes.

For, just like things, substances must also meet a set of

specifications or a norma to be acceptable for use. This norma is

often referred to in the case of materials as a "characterization".

Here again it becomes convenient to select samples of an acceptable

substance as artifacts for the harmonization of the measurement

stations involved in the measurement of physical properties. Often one can also take advantage of a characteristic of substances, namely

that subdivision does not alter the properties in question. A large

amount of substance can be assessed for uniformity of relevant

properties, measured carefully with respect to those properties, then

cut up into convenient sample sizes and distributed widely as harmonization artifacts. The individual samples need not be measured.

If the substance can be shown to be stable over time, in the

properties measured, the samples become valuable harmonization

devices. For example, fused quartz becomes a stable harmonization

material for the measurement of dielectric constant, density, index of

refraction, etc. Mixtures of oils have been used as viscosity

standards, but they are not stable over long periods of time so fresh

lots must be prepared and characterized periodically,

SRD - Standard Reference Data

Nature presents us with some universally available measurands,

everywhere the same, and insofar as we can see, constant in time.

These are the fundamental constants of nature such as c, h, k, tt^ , mp

,

Also nuclidic masses, atomic properties, molecular properties and some crystal properties form another class of generally available

measurands which should present invariant* values to every measurement

station. Some materials can be readily obtained from commercial

* but with characteristic uncertainties

29
sources or readily prepared by means of a state recipe so that the

values for certain properties can be known with useful accuracy when

prepared according to the recipe.

In these cases a single measurement station can measure the

appropriate parameter or property and publish the results. Any new

station can also measure these same properties, adjust its equipment

to give results compatible with the published values, and achieve

harmonization. Already qualified stations can mke such Tneasurements

from time to time to check their continuing compatibility or assess

their state of control. Nothing need be- transferred between stations

but published information. Each station acquires its own samples of

physical matter and proceeds to make the necessary measurements.

Examples come immediately to mind. The speed of light in a vacuum, c,

is probably the most measured constant of nature and is now known with

an uncertainty of approximately 1 in 10^ in terras of the basic units

of length and time. The nuclear hyperfine transition frequency in

Cs forms the basis of the definition of the second. The optical

transition frequencies of ^^Kr forms the definition of the length

unit. Melting points of certain pure elements such as Hg, Sn, S,

allow calibration of thermometers and the triple point of pure water

establishes the temperature scale. In principle any station can become compatible by repeating the measurements. More importantly,

repeated measurements in different stations widely scattered in space

and time demonstrate that the whole system remains in a state of

control and is not adrift from nature.

The published values of the best measurements for these classes of

measurands form what is called standard reference data, SRD problems

arise when examination of the literature shows non-compatible values

for measurands which ought to be the same, A new station cannot

harmonize to a multiple value (values outside normal statistical

uncertainties). The existence of non-compatible values in the

literature indicates one of the following:

(1) The stations involved are not compatible.

(2) The matter as prepared did not present the expected measurand,

i.e., was not prepared as directed.

(3) The operators let their stations get out of control.

(4) There were mistakes in the measurement procedures.

The literature on properties of substances contains large numbers of

conflicting results, i.e., non-compatible values. Experience with

attempts to resolve the differences show:

30
(1) All 4 of the above difficulties have occurred,

(2) Two and four are most prevalent.

(3) The description of the measurement or the preparation of the

material are not complete enough to allow the fault to be traced.

The National Standard Reference Data System was established in the

United States in 1963 for the purpose of promoting the critical

evaluation and dissemination of numerical data of the physical

sciences. The program is coordinated by the Office of Standard

Pveference Data of the National Bureau of Standards but involves the

efforts of many groups in universities, government laboratories, and

private industry. This program is generating a growing number of

benchmark data which can be used to provide harmonization within

stated uncertainties if the substances are obtained in a certain way

or characterized in the indicated manner, i.e., if the substance is

properly characterized.

All of these Active->futual approaches to harmonization afford the

possibility, in principle, of leapfrogging most of the hierarchical

structure of the system, to couple a top echelon master station V7ith a lowest echelon slave station. The implications of this for a newly

developing system are important. If the system, development moves

toward extensive mutual-active coupling, the num.ber of middle echelon

stations diminishes accordingly, the overall system coupling has fewer

links in the chain where errors can originate, and traceability is

more direct and verifiable. Cost reductions may be significant in any

particular case and should be studied.

Absolute or Self Harmonization

VThile the unit of measure to be agreed upon by the society using the

measurement system is completely arbitrary for each physical quantity

to be measured, the available arbitrariness is exploited in different

ways in different parts of the system.

One guiding constraint in a modern WiS is that there should be only

one unit for each quantity. This is not completely realized in

practice. The English Customary System shows m^ny lapses (even having

the same name for different units). In length alone there are meter,

feet, yards, miles, nautical miles, to name a few. The SI system does

pretty well in this regard but some practical traditional problems

have prevented complete compliance with the one unit per quantity

constraint. In energy units, for example, the joule is the major unit

but the electron-volt is so widely used in many areas of science that

it is still permitted, as is the kilowatt hour.

31
Returning to the disposition made of the arbitrariness available in

the selection of the unit for each physical quantity, we note that one historic mode has been the selection of an arbitrary sample or artifact as a measurand and declaring the value of it to be unity. / This arbitrary measurand may well be the unit as realized by the top

station in the master-slave hierarchy, i.e., the prototype standard

already mentioned. However, since the stability of the system

(compatibility over time) is so fundamentally important, there has

been, since earliest times, an undertaking to relate the unit in some reproducible way with some characteristic invariant parameter of

nature. Examples, which are well-known of course, were the cubit

(length of Pharaoh's forearm), the inch (4 barley corns in a row), the

rood (10 good men heel to toe), the second (1/86A00 part of the

average rotational period of the earth), the metre (10^ earth

quadrant), the kilogram (mass of a cubic decimeter of water at maximum

density). Centigrade degree (1/100 of the temperature difference

between ice point and steam point), and so on.

The essential point to note here is that we seek to use up the

arbitrariness in the selection of a unit by construction of a recipe

which, when applied to the physical world, will yield a unit of measure. Today we seek recipes which are of fi;eneral validity so that

any laboratory can, in principle at least, duplicate the determination

by following the established recipe, and thus realize the accepted

unit all on its own. Stations which are capable of realizing the unit

directly from the recipe will, if no mistakes are made, find their

measurements to be compatible with the others who have done likewise

(all within statistical uncertainties, of course). The recipe

definition of a unit provides what we call an independently

reproducible unit, for any laboratory can realize its own unit

independently of any other laboratory.

Any station which realizes its unit from the recipe can be considered

to have accomplished absolute (or self) harmonization. However, only

in the case of the independently reproducible unit can selfharmonization be undertaken. Clearly if an arbitrary sample is

declared to be the unit, only mutual harmonization between stations

will provide the compatibility coupling.

Because of the complexity, cost and requirements for special skills,

absolute harmonization usually is done only in the top master stations

of an l^MS, However, there remains always the possibility that other

stations may undertake it.

An interesting situation arises when several stations accomplish

absolute harmonization and then seek to evaluate their compatibility

via the mutual modes. They may learn that compatibility couplinfi; via

the mutual modes will lead to better agreement between stations than

32
absolute harmonization will provide. Suppose the self realization

achieved by one station is declared to be the system unit, and all

other stations harmonize with it by mutual modes. The station-station

uncertainty now will be much less than the station-station uncertainty

when each is self harmonized. In those cases where compatibility

coupling shows much less uncertainty than self harmonization they can

be used to prepare a dispersion curve for the realization of the unit.

This, of course, is the pattern which emerges when the National Master

Stations intercompare their results at Sevres (the International

Bureau of Weights and Measures). The question immediately arises

"VThose unit shall we select?" To avoid all manner of international

political and status crises or international anarchy of measurement, a system has been been worked out for blending the results into one averaged out effective realized value, which all signatory nations

agree to use. Correction factors are assigned to each National

realization to make it compatible with the average-effective one. Each nation usually then proceeds to use its own realization for its

own national unit applying the appropriate international correction

factor, where necessary, for international trade,

T-Jhen mutual harmonization artifacts such as SRT's, SRM's or information such as SRD move around in the worldwide system, apparent

anomalies in compatibility arise unless proper precautions are taken

to correct each nation's realized unit to the agreed upon

international value.

The worldwide system and the national sub-systems emerge as compatibility coupled systems dependent upon mutual modes ^d-th

prototype standards standing at the apex in each nation. The units as realized by the prototype standards are checked from time to time

against the independently reproducible units to insure that the whole

structure stays in control, within the uncertainties inherent in the

"realization-by-recipe". Thus in feeding the compatibility chain

downward into the system, the top master station often is required to

state two kinds of uncertainties. The top station can tag its activemode artifacts, substances or information to be disseminated with a statement of uncertainty with respect to the unit "as realized and

maintained" by the top master station or "\d.th respect to the

independently reproducible unit as defined". The latter uncertainty

is usually but not always larger than the first.

l-Jhenever the compatibility achieved via the absolute mode can be sho\-m

to be less uncertain than the compatibility achieved via the mutual

modes, the mutual comparisons can be dropped between master stations

and used only at lower levels in the hierarchy, where cost becomes

more crucial or more uncertainty can be tolerated.

33
Among the important measurement quantities of the SI system, only one,

mass, does not have an independently reproducible definition for the

unit. All others have it. This is because no recipe has been

invented which will yield a realization of the unit Xi7ith an uncertainty that, as yet, comes close to that for the compatibility

coupling from the prototype standard artifact, the Master Kilogram of^ Sevres. Compatibility of kg measurements approaches 5 parts in 10^,

Until very recently the best recipes for a kg would lead to

uncertainties in realization of about 25 parts in 10^. A recent

breakthrough described in the October, 1974, issue of Dimensions ITBS (Superintendent of Documents, Catalogue //C13 : 13 : 58/10) would reduce

this to 1 in 10^ with hopes of further refinement to 1 in 10^. Thus

the kg may soon cease to be the last hold out.

Interestingly, the realm of mass measurements presents an example of

the advantages to be gained by allowing another unit to be defined and

used. Those who measure atomic masses have found it helpful to define

an Atomic Mass Unit to be 1/12 the mass of the C nuclide. All

other nuclidic masses can be measured in terms of this AMU with

uncertainty of approximately 1 in 10^ in their compatibility. Today

Mutual Harmonization modes provide compatibility with relation to the

kg having an uncertainty of roughly 25 parts in 10^,

In this instance, nature presents to every laboratory identical

measurands of great stability to serve as the top-master standard for

all collaborating laboratories. This, of course, is not the sole

case. Nuclear cross-sections afford another, and there are others.

The case illustrates the point nicely. In this case the

harmonization chain shows weak links in the chain between 10~^^g and

1 kg. Removing them is a challenge for the future.

We have seen that it is essential for a measurement system to have

system-^ide units of measure and that the size of the unit can be

arbitrary so long as there is agreement on one unit for each quantity,

and some allowance for the inclusion of special but related units when

practical considerations of compatibility require ther.. We have seen also that mutual harmonization leads directly to a pyramidal structure

with the unit, as realized from the prototype standards of the topmaster station, in control of the whole sub-structure for that unit.

This leads naturally to the agreed upon unit being the one as realized

by the top master station. How then is the unit selected, by or for

the top master station?

The first consideration is that the unit should have a magnitude,

convenient for everyday measurements, such that the uncertainties

associated with the measurement process will be least. This still

leaves a wide range for selection in most cases. Thus the top station

could pick some convenient, stable, readily measurable measurand and

34
declare it to be the unit. In the abtx^nce of actual faulty

neasurement, the results of the top station are correct by definition

(with due regard for allowed statistical uncertainties). In this case

we pick the standard and define it to be the unit (kc for example).

Yet we have also seen that the desire to relate the neasurement units

to constants of nature, and a fear that the system might other^vdse be

"adrift in time" lead to the definition of the unit first in relation

to natural parameters (geometry of the earth, or solar system periods

of the planets, atomic constants, atomic wave lengths, nuclear

properties and the like) followed by a prescribed set of laboratory

measurements to realize the standard from the defined unit. This is

done despite the additional uncertainties introduced as a consequence

of the conceptual unit- to-standard step.

An additional advantage of the unit-standard approach, not heretofore

mentioned in spite of its great importance, is that it permits the

establishment of what we call coherent units. These coherent units

greatly improve the utility of the whole measuring system in the

development of science and engineering and thus, the advance of

technology. We turn now for a brief look at coherent units.

6. Coherent Units

Suppose, just for the sake of argument, that we have a complete

compatibility coupled system with arbitrary chosen units, one for each

qxiantity, and the requisite prototype standards for the top master

stations. Suppose further, in this hypothetical system, some of the

units are as shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Quantity Unit Definition* Symbol

Time Second Usual T

Length Yard .9144 m L

Mass Pound 453.6 g M

Acceleration Yank 500 cm/s ^ A

Speed ICnot 1.85325 km/kr S

Force Push The force of gravity F

exerted on 10 in.^ of water

where g=9. 8m/s ^

^Definition given in terms of conventional units as a means to

illustrate the point of the table.

If we undertake to investigate nature, with this measurement system as both tool and language, we will find:

35
(1) A relationship between distance, time, and speed which we can write

l>kiST (1)

which expresses the observations that distance (in yards) is

proportionate to speed (in knots) and time (in seconds). More careful

investigation shows that ki has the value ki=xxxx and the equation can

be written ~

L=xxxxST=.563ST

where xxxx is a number to be determined by measurement and can be

considered a physical constant of nature which should remain constant

if our measurement stations are in control. Estimated experimental

value is the number shown.

(2) A relationship between speed, acceleration, and time which we can write

S=k2AT (2)

which expresses the obervations that speed is in proportion to the

acceleration and the time the acceleration continues. Again with more

care we can observe in terms of the units of our measurement system

S=yyyyAT=9.7126AT (3)

where yyyy is another constant of nature similar to xxxxx and a number

to be measured and recorded. The estimated value is also sho\i7n.

(3) A relation between force, mass, and acceleration, i.e., Newton's

law, which in terms of our units we can write

F=k3MA=zzzzMA=1.4123MA (3)

and k3 =zzzz, another physical constant to be measured and recorded.

By now we begin to see that our developing science will have a new

physical constant for every nevr physical quantity included in our structure, and that the magnitude of this constant will depend both

upon nature and upon the unit arbitrarily chosen for the new physical

quantity. Referring to equation (1), we observe that selection of the

unit of speed to be just that speed which traverses unit distance in

unit time Xi/ould change the xxxx to exactly 1, and the new equation (1)

would become

L=ST (la)

with no more constant kj , The number xxxx has, by some magic, become

exact and no longer a natural constant to be measured and remembered.

What has happened? Looking back at what v/e have just said we note

that we have used the arbitrariness available to us in selecting the

unit of speed to make an independently reproducible recipe for a unit

of speed (yards per second). The experimental measurements which were

needed to determine the constant xxxx are now needed to realize the

unit of speed and the physical standard representing it. The equation

L=ST has become exact but the unit of speed now has uncertainties

based upon the uncertainties in doing the realization experiments.

36
The speed unit thus defined in terms of L and T units is called a derived unit derived from L and T units) and a [coherent unit of

speed, coherent with equation (la).]

Similar argixments can be used to derive a coherent unit of

acceleration (yard/s ) and of force (pound yard/s ) which makes

equations (2) and (3) exact, and provide independently reproducible

units for A and F, The principle can be extended to cover additional

units for additional physical quantities as they are added to the

system.

Reexamination of equation (1) shows that we could equally well have

adjusted the unit of length or of time instead of S to make the

equation exact. We could keep the arbitrary units for any t^-^o of the

quantities and use the equation to obtain the definition for the

coherent unit for the third, \Then. we have completed the definitions

possible with equations (1), (2) and (3), we find we have fixed 3

coherent units and have 3 arbitrary ones left. The question naturally

arises "How far can we go this way?" The answer seems to be that we

can define coherent units for all but 4 quantities. At least it has

been possible to do so with the quantities now in our system. Ue can let any 4 of them have arbitrary units and derive coherent units for

all the rest. Historically and for practical reasons the system has

developed around the set of coherent units which follows vrhen ^-iLTQ are left arbitrary. 9 is temperature.

In this scheme, then, we have a set of exact equations, we have

eliminated the constants to remember, and we have arrived at a complete set of independently reproducible recipes for realizins the

set of coherent units required. The price? All the uncertainties of

measurement reside in the realization of the coherent units instead of

in a set of measurement constants. Once understood, there seens to be

general agreement that the convenience of having; coherent units is

worth it.

Figure 9 shows pictorially the utilization of the three equations to

derive coherent units of S, A, F. Extension of the picture to cover more of the quantities in our system leads to a structure which could

be called the genealogy of a measurement system. Figure 10 shows how

it looks.

Our English system of measurement is clearly not a coherent system nor

does it have just one unit for each quantity. Any student of

engineering will attest to the confusing complications which arise.

Even those who deal only in the commercial market place find

difficulties among the mix of units. The new SI system undertakes to

allow but one unit for each quantity and works with decimal multiples

or sub-multiples to give convenient handles for other sizes. The

37

I! 3m

f- 2 > O H C O > X m>>oH<

COooH

O rn 2 r- m CD >mOo 5 mOHO

:xmm-0oX>

33H

CO >2HDC>2 — O

|-m

CO

TO

CD

CO

rn —I c :3 oI>

00

TOC

39
resulting simplicity in conrmuni cation and use is one of the major

reasons for the supremacy of the SI system in today's world.

But now, what about the four remaining quantities which are still

arbitrary. The whole coherent system of units depends upon them. Any

change in one of these "base" units, as they are now called, changes

all the coherent units deriving from it. The responsibility for

having stable, precise, physically invariant units becomes multiply

terrific. The SI units as realized from the early definitions, which

were independently reproducible, were embodied in physical standards.

Subsequently it was learned that these standards were in error. The

definitions were dropped and the standards became the units, i.e., the

system reverted to the standard-unit scheme. Each standard became the

prototype for the top master station for each quantity. The system

grew around the meter (a bar in Sevres), the kilogram (a cylinder in

Sevres), the second (1/64800 part of a mean solar day), and the

centigrade degree (1/100 of the temperature difference betxvreen

freezing and boiling water).

Subsequently it became possible to specify much better recipes to

define the units more precisely, and to relate them to invariant

natural constants, and to realize the unit with much reduced

uncertainty. In each case the new definition was adjusted to make the

new unit fall within the zone of confusion (uncertainty) of the old one so that all previous measurements require no correction. It

follows that new definitions were not made until the new unit could be

realized with less uncertainty than the old one. As you knov7, the

length unit is presently defined in terms of optical wavelengths from

^^Kr radiation, the second in terms of radio frequency transitions in

oS, the kelvin in terms of the triple point of pure water and the Kg

still remains as the cylinder in Sevres. No recipe better than 5 in

10^ (present Kg uncertainty) has been developed. An independently

reproducible recipe for a kg based on a natural Invariant physical

constant remains as a challenge to all metrologists the world over. In this respect the SI system remains incomplete.

As we have seen the values for the 4 base units remain close to the ones defined in 1790, but not exactly the same. When we use them to

measure the fundamental physical constants, we get inconvenient

numbers like 2.998 for c, the velocity of light. None of them come

out in nice even numbers. From this we see that we have not used the

available arbitrariness to best advantage.

Since the value we obtain for any physical constant depends upon the

units in which we express the results, we could have selected our four

units to have such sizes that c, h, n^,k, the velocity of light.

Plank's constant, the mass of the electron and the Boltzmann constant

respectively, would be unity. This would form an independently

40
reproducible definition for each of the 4 base quantities and would

give the added convenience of making the 4 most widely used constants

have the value of 1,

Such definitions have not been adopted because they violate the

requirement that the new unit be more precisely realizable than the

old. At the present state of the art the new definitions would fall

short by several orders of magnitude. Moreover, the resulting; units

would have impossibly impractical sizes for everyday macroscopic

science and engineering, although they would be welcomed by some atomic and nuclear scientists. Table 4 shows the sizes of the units

which would result. We call these "new" units "natural units".

Table 4

Time: 1 second = 1.235 x 10 natural time un^^s

1 natural time unit h/mgC^ = 8.09 x 10" sec.

Length: 1 metre = 4,12 x 10 natural length units

1 natural length unit h/m^c^= 2.426 x 10"^^ metres

Mass: 1 kg = 1.093 x 10^° natural mass units

— 3 1 1 natural mass unit ra^ = 9.109 x 10 ^^cg

Kelvin: 1 Kelvin = 1.69 x 10" natural temperature units

1 natural temperature unit m^c /k = 5.93 x 10 Kelvin

Although these constants are now allowed to have basically the same value they have always had (except for important refinements as the

state of the art advances), they do provide a running check on the

state of control, internal consistency and compatibility of our measurement system. The efforts in many fields to improve our knowledge of these constants shows that the system is not adrift, that

compatibility has in fact reached all the involved measurement

stations, and that different approaches which, according to theory,

should give the same results, do in fact do so.

7, Range Extension

Establishment of the definitions for the units of measure, the

realization of each unit in the form of a physical standard for the

top master station and the dissemination of this unit throughout the

system by way of compatibility coupling represents only the beginning

of a truly useful IMS.

41
At the working level it must be possible to measure, in terms of the

agreed upon unit, magnitudes ranging from tiny fractions of the unit

to vast multiples of it.

In length, for example, at the small end we are concerned with the

sizes of subnuclear particles and at the large end with galactic

distances and beyond. In mass we again go from the nuclear particles

to the galactic masses, all to be expressed in kg. In tine the range

is from nuclear lifetimes to the ages of the galaxies. In the

electrical quantities, the range is equally fantastic, with the added

complication of frequency since each magnitude ohms, amperes, volts,

must also be measured from zero frequency to many gigahertz. It

appears that, for each quantity, there is a range of 30 - 50 orders of

magnitude or more over which there must be a chain of measurement

relating the measurements at any magnitude to the defined or realized

unit. The question immediately arises, "Should the top master station

establish the chain and provide anchor points at every magnitude for a compatibility coupling to reach outx\rard to the operating stations? Or

should the operating stations obtain the unit via compatibility

coupling froift the top master and locally generate their o\m chains

outward from the unit?" The answer to this fundamental question is

crucial in the establishment of a national system and should vitally

concern each of you attending this VJorkshop. Unfortunately, there is no simple answer; trade-offs must be made. Clearly the establishment

of a complete chain across the whole span of magnitudes for all the

quantities is beyond the scope of any national laboratory, and

likewise unnecessary because all portions are not needed at all tines,

Without due regard in this respect, it would be possible to set

policies for a National Laboratory, which if in fact were carried out,

would represent an insupportable budget drain.

As a general rule, the extension of the chain of measurement from

unity outward toward the extremes of the range, for a given quantity,

is accompanied by increasing percentage uncertainty in measurement.

This relationship is displayed conveniently in the form of a useful

device commonly called an accuracy chart. An idealized one is shown

in Figure 11, The orders of magnitude of the measurand in terms of

the unit quantity are displayed along the abscissa. The ordinate is

in terms of decreasing uncertainty (one part in lOY in the station to

station compatibility with y increasing) or increasing, "accuracy".

The solid curve represents in a general way the increasing uncertainty

(decreasing accuracy) as the chain is extended. Another fteneral

tendency is that the loss in accuracy will be less on such a chart

when it represents work at the top master stations than when it

represents the work of less well equipped operating stations (but not

always so).

42

Such an "accuracy" chart can also be used to display the capability

available at any station for compatibility couplin)^ to its slave

stations. Of course, service is not available at all points. A more

realistic curve might look more like the dotted curve in Figure 11.

These charts are also helpful in planning a station or a system and

its program. Points such as P represent services at the state of the

art at the station represented by the chart, P might also represent

an incoming request for service, A point such as Q shows that the

request is well within the state of the art, or it could represent a special service available at reduced delay or less cost, where full

state of the art is not needed. Points such as R represent requests

for service beyond the state of the art at the station represented.

Or it can equally well represent the goal of a new research effort to

extend capability.

Figure 12 shows a real I'TBS chart for temperature prepared about six or seven years ago to help plan a program. The dotted area represents

MBS capability and the shaded area shovjs demands for service beyond

the state of the art. The helpfulness of such displays as an aid to

thinking and planning is evident.

The answer to the basic question of where to locate the capability for

range extension appears to be that some well spaced points should be

provided by the top master station and that working stations should

make their own extensions around these points. The number of points

and their ordinates on the chart will have to develop as the nation's

industry develops and it becomes clear where the main effort will lie.

He can call the points P,Q on the chart tie points, when they

represent the level at which compatibility is available for slave

station use. Mote that any point on or under the real curve says to a slave station "I can provide you compatibility coupling at this

magnitude and this uncertainty", VJhat it does not show is the mode of

harmonization to be used.

We have seen some of the relative advantages of the various modes of

harmonization. Here the merits of SUJI and SIU3 and SRT become much

more evident. If a large number of harmonization devices, stable

measurands, at outlying ranges can be produced, measured and made

available for distribution, extended measurement chains need not be

kept functional all the time. Any station needing capability can seek

out a tie point based upon active harmonization devices, obtain the

proper ones, construct his own equipment, establish com.patibility and

proceed. The magnitude of standby service and equipment in the system

is greatly reduced, but the devices must be stable and available in

adequate supply.

44
— Aovanoov

45
For a properly functioning, efficient I'TMS, there must be close

continuous communication throughout the network so that tie points can

be available to meet needs without excessive idle capacity. The

mutual interaction and efficiency grow as the system components learn

to suit their actions to the needs and availabilities from other

system components.

8. The Measurement Infra-Structure (HIS )

Today no nation should feel alone as it undertakes to develop its IWS,

The systems of other nations and their interaction in the existing

International Measurement System provide a basis for the growth of new

systems in developing nations.

There is a rapidly growing and expanding literature on constants and

properties of matter and materials which can be used for active

harmonization which will tie new measurement stations compatibly into

the world structure. However, this data must be used with knowledge

and discretion to be sure that it meets the requirements for the job

assigned to it.

SRM's are becoming more available both in kind and range and quantity

available. These can and do cross national boundaries to become

international harmonization devices. And, as we have seen, the

technological based devices produced to agreed upon standards for

worldwide sale also afford available harmonization checks for a new

producer.

This whole suffusing atmosphere of information, devices, materials,

backed by the extensive production of measuring instruments in the

highly industrialized nations, brings a sort of nutrient solution to

all new measurement stations wherever they may spring up. This we

call the World Measurement Infra-Structure (MIS).. Any given station

finds numerous alternatives within the MIS open to it, to achieve

compatibility with the world's adopted units and physical standards.

These are not limited just to those provided by the MIS of the home

nation (unless by law) . Some operating stations may find it more

advantageous to make use of the world MIS, which in ray experience is

most surprisingly open and free of international constraints.

A word of caution to those who are active in the development of a new

system. It should be helpful in your thinking and planning to visit

and put yourself mentally into the place of the operator at front line

operating stations. Ask, if you were free to move, where would you

turn and how would you proceed to establish the necessary

compatibility. It might well be that the service is already

available, such as for example the worldwide tine and frequency

broadcasts of all major nations or by the SRD now in the literature or

46
available upon request from National Laboratories or manufacturers, or by calibration devices available from instrument manufacturers, or by

SRM's available on a worldwide basis.

You would then need to ask, "If I undertake to supply him a service,

will it help him., will he use it, will it be competitive or will he

likely use the alternative services already available?" History shows

examples of national laboratories, established in developing nations,

which find their services largely unused because the needs are already

being met through established channels,

A National Laboratory heading up a National Measurement System, will

grow and prosper if it meets those needs felt as deficiencies by the

slave stations or if it supplies in some areas a competing service at

lesser cost. Of course, national stature and prestige play a role too

and the National System may incorporate, because of these social

requirements, some activities which practical economical operations

would otherwise rule out.

In its early phases a new National Laboratory could probably best

begin by serving as a central channel to obtain information for its

constituents on where to turn to find the best tie point in the world

MIS for the services required, and most important , to get for them

information on how to couple to those tie points and how to achieve

the state of control and compatibility needed. Experience over a period of time with the flow of this information, both in kind and

magnitude, will provide a meaningful basis for determining what

services should receive top priority for home development. Coupling

quickly to the existing MIS will allow expeditious industrial

development, will provide an overall perspective to allow leapfrogging

over unnecessary historical stages of past developm.ent , and will

provide time for the National System to evolve to mesh properly with

national needs.

There is plenty of room for advance in measurement science and one interesting facet of the compatibility-coupled system is that any

improvement in unit realization or in determination of constants and

properties of materials propagates throughout the system. Thus any

station x^hen it finds a need exceeding the capability displayed on some overall system "accuracy" chart, can, if it is capable, improve

the world's MIS. This opportunity to help the whole system grow is a challenge which the MIS places before all IMS members. It thus poses

a dynamic challenge to all metrologists wherever th y may be working.

Compatibility-coupling thus opens channels for progress throughout the

entire system.

47
THE COMING SURGE IM REGIONAL PLANNING

Albert Waterston

Professor of Econonlcs

The American University

Washington, D.C.

NBR/AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing; Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

I. THE TREND TOWARD REGIONALIZATION

A, The Regional Awakening

1. ^'Jhen many observers are convinced that the nation-state is

outmoded in a greatly shrunken and inter-dependent x/orld and must give

way to partial or universal integration of nations if trans-national

problems of trade, economic development, overpopulation, defense,

pollution and the quality of life are to be resolved, it may seem anomalous that there should be increasing pressures for regional and

local autonomy within many countries. Yet, there is much evidence

that such sub-national regional pressures have intensified in recent

years and that they will continue to do so.

2. In the extreme form, these pressures manifest themselves as separatist movements the world over which would fractionate rich and

poor countries alike. These manifestations may be seen in Frenchspeaking Canada; Puerto Rico; the Baltic Republics of the U.S.S.R,, as well as the Ukraine; the Flemish north of Belgium; Northern Ireland in

the United Kingdom; Yugoslavia's Croatia and Kosovo-Mitohiyan;

Ethiopian Eritrea; the three southern provinces in the Sudan; Eastern

Nigeria; Indonesia's West Irian; Muslem-populated tovms in Western

Burma, Malaysia's Sarawak; the Indian State of Nagaland; and what was

East Pakistan, where Bangladesh has made separation a reality.

3. Even where separation is not at issue, minority or localized

groups in many countries agitate for greater economic, social,

religious, linguistic, or political self-determination. The Kurds in

Iraq; the aborigines in Australia; the blacks in Ovamboland in

Southwest Africa and Rhodesia; the blacks and Chicanos in the United

States; and the Jura Mountain French-speaking minority in

Switzerland's German-speaking Canton of Beme, all stress a revival of

48
ethnic and cultural identity and a desire for indenendent social

developraent . There are noticeable reversions to older groupinj^s

which, until recently, were thousht to be weakening. Cadres of

patriots who want to preserve or revive their culture, their lan^nia'^e or their autonomy can be found in enclaves within countries everywhere

from Kenya and Nigeria — inhere there is a noticeable drift bach -to tribalism largely centered in specific localities and re'^ions — to

the United States, where American Indians are resistincr absorT^tion or assimilation into the melting pot and insisting on the risht to

determine their o\'m destinies." The Canadian Cities of Jasper and

Banff, formerly resigned to being governed from the distant capital in

Ottawa, now actively seek the right to govern thenselves; and in the

United States, continuing pressures Tid-thin the Capital City of

Washington are bringing about a gradual but steady transfer of

governmental power from the U. S. Congress to city authorities.

4, Fissiparous tendencies, often attended by regional and local

complaints of differential treatment, have led governments in

Colombia, India, Iraq and '^Tigeria to expand the number of their

geographical political units by subdividing the existing ones. Others, including France, Guyana, Senegal, Tanzania, the United

Kingdom and Venezuela have divided their countries into regional and,

sometimes, subregional areas. Still others, amonc them Argentina,

Cameroon, Chile, Colombia, Ethiopia, Ghana, Iran, Italy, Peru and

Tanzania, are talking about doing so,

5, Sometimes these moves are prompted by a desire to facilitate

governance of a country through administrative decentralization, but

* At the Third Annual Indian Ecumenical Council, held at Alberta, Canada

in August 1972, Indians saw themselves as "grasning for some kind of

structure and identity". Said one Indian: "The white ways are crowding in,..". Said another: "^-^e were in a Garden of Eden when the

white man cane in 1492, but now we have been destroyed, !Je must go

back to the way our forefathers worship-ned, \-le must pray to the

Great Spirit the way he wanted us to." And a third Indian, a Roman Catholic priest, used the Cree Indian language when he recited

the Lord's Prayer to his congregation, preferred a tepee to a church

when he said mass and "spoke of Jesus Christ as a 'Holy Man' sent

to put men in contact with the Great Spirit", A fourth Indian summed

up the attitude of the delegates at the Conference as follows: "Our

people are beginning to realize that we have a religious faith that

is as good as any other. After many years of seeing it conderrLned as pagan — and accepting such judgements ourselves — we are ready aeain

to take pride in it." (New York Times, August 23, 1972, p. 35.)

49
more often they are accompanied or followed by statements and measures

which promise greater regional and local autonomy. This is as true

for countries with unitary governments, like France and. Italy, as for

those with federal governments, like India; and it is true for large

countries with great physical and social diversity, like India, as it

is for small ones with little diversity, like Guyana. In the last few

years, there has been a tendency for regions to link their political

and economic aspirations and to advocate planned regional or subregional development. Recognizing the surge in subnational

regional aspirations in the countries of Africa, a recent Conference

on Regional Planning recommended that African countries "(i)... adopt

regional planning as a permanent strategy of development;" and "(ii)

integrate regional planning into national socio-economic development

planning as of equal importance to sectoral planning;"."

6, The increased interest in regional development in recent years

appears not to spring from real or imagined successes of planned

development for specific regions in such countries as Belgium, Brazil,

Canada, Colombia, Greece, Italy, Mali, Mexico, the Philippines, Puerto

Rico, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, Venezuela, the United States and

Zambia. Nor does it seem to arise from regional and subregional

planning covering an entire country which has been a part of national

planning procedures in countries like India, Israel, Malaysia, Norway,

Poland, U.S.S.R. and Yugoslavia,

7, It appears, rather, to be the result of a political evolution

which manifests itself, among other ways, in increasing political

av7areness of formerly docile or quiescent groups long shackled by

self-doubt. With increasing political awareness has come the

realization that governments play important roles in the development

of regions when they allocate public investment funds and adopt

policies and programs which stim.ulate or restrict investment.

Regional leaders, complaining of unfair treatment, are increasingly

seeking to influence investment decisions by national governments and

obtain more favorable resource allocations for their constituents,^*

8, As local economic and social problems remain unresolved or multiply, regional development pressures grow. Although the reduction

of regional economic differences has been an established objective of

* Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Ibaden, (Nigeria),

Report of the International Conference on Regional Planning and National

Development in Tropical Africa , March 20-25, 1972 (mimeo, ) ,p.l6.

** See, for example, Nath, V., "Regional Development Policies,"

Economic and Political Weekly , Vol. VI, Nos. 30-32, July 1972, p. 1603.

50
policy in many countries, disparities have continued and have

sometimes grown greater. Regions within a country which have done

well may be as intent as those which have not fared as i-zell on exerting the f^reatest possible pressure on their national government

to protect their interests. Thus, the Valle del Cauca, one of the

more advanced regions in Colombia, has aggressively souf>ht to add

national and international resources to its oim assets to develop its

power, water and other facilities,

9, Sometimes, the social costs of regional unbalance are so evident

that a national government will not wait for re^rional pressures to

mount before taking steps to prevent the concentration of industry in one or two regions. But, more often, the shoe is on the other foot,

with the regions taking the lead. Even in Tanzania, where the

Government is working hard to develop cooperative (ujamaa) villages in

rural areas. President Nyerere has said that the problem of rural

development in his country is not one of "galvanizing the people but

rather that of galvanizing the Government",*

10, There is no scarcity of examples of countries where lonr^ standing

social and economic grievances, exacerbated by government inaction,

are intensifying regional aspirations. Using unfairness or neglect by

the government as an argument to support demands for increased

resource allocations, regional pressures on national governments are increasing steadily. Argentina is typical of countries where such

argximents are heard to justify regional demands for increased

resources for development. Thus, there has been much agitation among

the people of Patagonia, who feel that their region — which supplies

much of Argentina's oil and natural gas — is being exploited for the

benefit of Buenos Aires, leaving Patagonia with little to show for

its contribution. There are also those in the Mesopotam.ia Region who

contend that their region has been isolated from, surrounding areas by

the absence of a suitable transportation system, and that the national

government has generally neglected the region; while some in Salta and

Tucuman Provinces, where the sugar industry is dying and the attendant

unemployment problem is being worsened by an influx of Bolivians and

Paraguayans seeking work, argue that the Government is not doing all

it might to help locate new industries in their depressed area,

11, Competing regional claims for increased allocations of financial

and other resources, demands for special programs and the location of

projects financed directly or indirectly by national governments in

specific regions, tend to promote a regionalized approach to

*The Tanzania Standard, December 11, 1971,

51
development. The growing interest in rural develonnent

recognition of the symbiotic relationship between rural areas are also intensifying the trend toward a regional,

to a largely national, view v/liich has prevailed in most

until now.

E. Pro's and Con's of the Regional Approach

12. Indeed, the national view is under attack. Thus, the

International Conference on Regional Planning held in Nigeria,

previously referred to, contended that national plans in African

countries, "generally represent no more than the interest and opinions

of small groups of people.... Too often, these plans in their

formulation ignore regional disparities, besides themselves creating

suc]i disparities...." contending that "This has made a spatial

dimension to national planning all the m.ore necessary..." and th.at

"...many African Governments are therefore already adopting regional

planning as a means of reducing the disparities between the richer and

the poorer regions in their countries."

13. The Conference contended that regional planning, besides

promoting national integration, helps:

a. develop natural resources by directing investment, services

and Dopulation to sparsely settled areas, thereby re<hicing

population concentration in other parts of a country;

b. develop depressed regions;

c. establish "grovrth poles" to counterbalance excessive

concentrations in one or a fev; metropolitan centers (e.g., the

construction of ^^alawi's nev/ capital vras m.entioned as an incentive for opening up and settling that country's interior);

d. develop river basins through flood control, liydroelectic

facilities, irrigation and conservation programs, and the

colonization of agricultural areas; and,

e. orderly growth and development o^^ m.etropolitan areas, especially

with regard to their infrastructural equipment and organization.

14. IHiile some of these benefits are obtainable through a national

approach, experience lias shov/n tliat a development plan for a country

as a \v']\ole cannot be realistic unless it takes account of the

requirements of different regions. This is particularly true of

agriculture because production in this sector is closely related to

temperature, rainfall, humidity, soil, water resources, drainage,

topography and altitude. This requires that national plans and sector

programs be regionalized, partially if not entirely, to a greater

and the

and urban

in contrast

countries

52
extent than in the past, 'sphere national development plans and sector

programs have not been subdivided geographically, they have often

failed to achieve their aggregative targets, not only because eac'i

region is unique, but also because of the inherent interdependence of

inputs in determining output. Thus, the yield from irrigated x^ater

supplied in one place, fertilizer in a second and imroved seed in a third will almost certainly be lower than the sam.e quantities of all

three inputs applied to the same acreage. Because of the

complementarity of inputs, it is important that input and performance

targets be set for each region, and within each region, for each of

the smallest feasible geographical units.

15. But the regional approach has its disadvantages. For exam.ple,

the requirements for regional development in poor countries are usually greater than the indigenous resources of the regions. This

often means that the national government must accept prime financial

responsibility for accelerating regional develonm.ent. In these

circumstances, there is no denying that rival re?:ional developr:ent

claims on national resources can lead to prolonr^ed controversies and

delays in locating projects and high costs from, uneconom.ic locational

decisions. The evidence also reveals that attempts to induce grov7th

in a lagging region by locating projects there, when the region laclis

the minimal physical and human infrastructure required to support the

projects, are likely to yield only modest benefits.

16. Yet, because regional developm.ent pressures arise from, the

dynamics of political development, it would be a m.istake to reqard

them merely as disruptive tendencies which threaten economic

efficiency and impose strains on a country's economic resources and

political system. It is essential to the success of planning in any

country that the people of every region believe that resources are allocated fairly and that the national government aim.s to develon the

potential of their region no less than that of others. In setting

regional development policy, therefore, governments must try to

achieve an acceptable compromise bet\\Teen the desire to maximize

national development and the need to satisfy regional aspirations.

17. The two aim.s may conflict, but they need not. The question of

industrial dispersion has positive as v/ell as ne<;ative aspects, and

much depends on the extent to which a lone-term rather than a shortterm viev7 is taken. Again, in situations where there are many

unemployed or underemployed persons, policies oriented to regional

welfare can contribute significantly to both national economic

development and regional welfare by encouraging greater utilization of

idle and ill-used manpower resources for development projects and

programs,

* Nath, V. , op . cit .

53
18. But whether or not the disadvantages of resionalization outweiph

the advantaj^es, there is likely to be little that national governments

can do to stop a trend which arises from a worldwide political and

social awakenin.c^. Given the force of subnational regional

aspirations, it appears prudent for goveirnments to accept the thrust

toward regionalization as a fact, as many are, and formulate policies

and institutional arranf»eraents for dealing constructively with it.

The need for such measures has been underscored in recent years when

unsatisfied ref^ional development aspirations have led to counterproductive activities.*

II. KITTDS OF REGIONAL PLAMING

19. The growing attention which ?;overnments are r!:ivinf» to regional

development in their countries portends an increase in reo;ional

planning. The kind of subnational re^^ional planning, thus far

undertaken varies amon.f» countries. It is possible, however, to '^roup

the different types under four headings:

A. Global Planninp, for all ^ef^ions

20. The first tyne is planning of the economy o^ each rep ion in a country as part of the procedure by which a national plan is

formulated. In the socialized countries, planning at regional and

local levels constitutes an integral part the process by which a national plan is prepared. Thus, under reforms instituted in recent

years, the central planning authority of the TJ,s,S,R, (Gosplan) sets

quotas for products in each sector to be delivered by each region.

Fithin each region, local planning bodies prepare their own plans

which are deposited x^ith their regional organizations. These are then

transmitted to the planning authorities in their respective republics,

from whence they are passed up to the central planning authority.

Generally, similar procedures prevail in other Eastern European

countries.

21. A different system is in force in Yugslavia, where republics,

districts and communes prepare plans which do not necessarily add up

to the total at the next higher hierarchical level. Thus, the total

investment, output and other targets of communes do not necessarily

add up to the targets in their district plan; the targets in the

district plans do not necessarily add up to the targets in their

republic's plan; and the targets in the republic plans do not

necessarily add up to the targets in the national plan. The

discrepancies in the targets arise because each geographical unit has

resources of its own which it is free to use as it wishes within some generally-applied constraints.

* Nath, v., op.cit. , n, 1601

54
22. In the mixed-economy countries, planning for all regions of a country as part of the national planning process is usually less

systematized than in the socialized countries. Thus, in India,

planning in the states is an uneven procedure with mixed results.

This is likely to change for the better as a result of steps the

Government is taking to decentralize the planning process. In

Malaysia, planning at regional levels (Malaya, Sarawak and Sabah) has

been going forward since the establishment of the Federation. France

has established 21 regions but regional plannin^r is still incipient.

By and large, this is also true in other mixed-economy countries where

planning for all regions takes place.

B, Regional Planning for One Sector

23. A second type of regional planning involves the preparation of a national program for a single economic or social sector, composed of

subprograms for all regions in a country, and coordinated in

accordance with national development objectives and strate-^^ies.

Theoretically, this form of regional planning can be carried out

either by aggregating regional programs for a sector into a national

program or by disaggregating national to regional sector targets.

Israel has been more systematic and successful than rnost others in

incorporating regional programs for agriculture for the entire country

into a national agricultural program.

24. Some European countries have begun to set some sector regional

targets within what is still essentially a sector program for the

country as a whole, France is, perhaps, the most prominent example.

Starting with its Fourth Plan, targets for public and private

investment and for levels of employment were set for the agricultural

sector, among others, in each of the country's 21 regions.

C, Regional Planning for Selected Regions

25. A third kind of regional planning covers only selected re^^ions

within a country. The argument usually advanced in favor of this

approach is that the concentration of resources is likely to yield

higher returns than is possible if the same resources are spread more

thinly over an entire country. Thus, in Spain, regional development

policy dating from 1964 calls for the creation of development poles

(polos de desarrollo) decongestion centers (polignos de descongestion) and zones of preferential location with a view toward developing

selected regions of the country.

55
D, Planning for a Specific Re<^ion

26, A fourth kind of ret^ional planning is for a specific region.

This kind of planning is sometimes adopted V7hen an important region of

a country is lagging behind others, as in Brazil's Northeast and in

Southern Italy; xvhen it is considered desirable to develop natural

resources located in a region, e.g., a river basin for Irrigation or other purposes, as in the case of Venezuela's Guayana Region; or when

resources are so limited that it seems best to concentrate Investment

resources where returns are likely to be highest.

III. FUTURE REGIONAL PLANNING

27, VJhether regional development plans have been prepared by

national, as against regional, bodies has generally depended on several factors, of which the most important have been the stage of

economic development of the region(s) concerned, the availability of

regional planners, and the size of the country. As a rule, the

earlier the stage of regional development, the greater the shortage of

planners and the smaller the country, the greater the likelihood that

regional plans were prepared by the central planning agency or by a planning authority established for the purpose by the central

government. Conversely, the more advanced the region, the greater the

availability of regional planners and the larger the country, the more

likely that the plans were prepared by the regions themselves.

28, Since regional planning in most countries has been for

economically backward areas, with special problems and shortages of

financial and human resources, most regional planning has been

conducted by central planning agencies or by special authorities

created by national gpvemments. Frequently, regional plans have been

prepared outside the regions, usually in the national capital, with

little participation by people in the regions. Many plans have

consequently failed to reflect regional conditions and needs. Not

surprisingly, people in the regions have shox«m little Interest in

helping implement these plans.

29, The time is rapidly passing when outsiders will be able to plan

for regions as they have in the past. Indeed, it is becoming apparent

in many countries that people at regional and local levels are increasingly insisting on having a voice in planning for their areas;

that planning must be "from the bottom up", in practice as it is in

theory, as well as "from the top down", to which it is too often

limited in practice, if it is to meet social needs in the regions and

localities; and that accurate definition of what are the social needs

can only be provided by the people at regional and local levels. This

56
means, among other things, that the idea that planners can, or think

they must, plan for people must give way to the idea that they must

plan with people.

30. Regional plans formulated in a national capital on the basis of

the general or average situation in a country's regions, e.g., with

the same projects, work patterns or allocations of funds for each

region or subregion, are therefore bound to prove unsuitable or inapplicable in varying degrees for particular areas. This approach

to regional planning, aside from errors of commission, may also lead

to serious errors of omission. For example, when it was used in

India, no project or other provision for dealing with the 35,000

waterlogged acres in one state was included in the plan for that

state's agriculture.*

31. To be effective, a regional plan must have a hip,h degree of

specificity to take account of the basic variations in conditions

among regions and localities.** This cannot be achieved merely by

disaggregating national output or input targets regionally without

determining for each region and locality the particular conditions

which farmers and businessmen face and their capacities to utilize

inputs (e.g., cultivators' ability to utilize improved seed and

fertilizer) and increase production. VJhere planning for repions and

subregions has been primarily based on the disaggregation of national

targets, great discrepancies between expectations and achievements

have often arisen.

32. Experience shows that the best way of dovetailing national output

and input targets with regional and local capacities is to derive the

national targets mainly by aggregating plans originally framed

regionally and locally rather than disaggregating plans and estimates

framed at the national level. Only when each region and whore

appropriate, each subregion, has a carefully prepared plan which

includes input and output targets designed to take adequate account of

available physical resources (with their limitations), and human

resources (with their dispositions and motivations in each region and

locality) ; and where these plans become the basis for framing the

national plan, can it be said that the national plan has been

formulated realistically. This is especially true for agriculture.***

* Gadgil, D.R. "Planning for Agricultural Developm.ent in India", Readings

in Agricultural Development .A. M. Khusro (Ed.). Allied Publishers, Bombay,

1968, p. 565

** Gadgil, D.R. "Opening Address: Successive Steps in Planned Agricultural

Development," in: Rehovoth Conference on Comprehensive Planning of

Agriculture in Developing Countries . Rehovoth, Israel, August 19-29,

1963, p. 2.

*** Gadgil, D.R. "Planning for Agricultural Development in India,"

op.cit. , pp. 564 & 566.

57
33, Of course, a national plan must be more than a suiranation of local

and re<;ional plans. If a local or ref;ional plan is prepared without

the general framework provided by a national plan, it nay be

inconsistent with national development objectives. Planning must

therefore be seen as a two-way process in which national objectives,

strategies and policies, as well as the coordination of regional and

local plans with national input and output targets, is determined at

the national level; while the extent and manner of the development

effort in each region or locality is determined in the area concerned.

Thus, while estimates of input and output possibilities for the nation

must be a totality of the estimates in each region or locality, the

estimate of what should be attempted in each region or locality should

be made in relation to national objectives and directives. It is only

by such a process of mutual interaction that a national plan can be

formulated vAiich is sufficiently detailed to m.eet the requirements of

each region, subregion, and if need be, each village.*

IV, PROBLEMS POSED BY THE REGIONAL APPROACH

34, But more regional planning vrill raise serious technical,

political, social, administrative and financial problems,

A. Definition of the Region

35, There is, for example, the problem of defining what a region is,

VHiat is called a region tends to vary from country to country and

within a country, VJhere, as in India, state governments are responsible for implementing state plans, a region is often synonymous

with a state or, on occasion, two or more states, Within the states,

plans have been divided into plans for districts, communities and

villages. However, experience in India and elsex/nere has sho\m that

there is a productive limit to the degree of disaggregation. It is a valuable Incentive to localities to have them establis>i and try to

realize their own production targets within a state or national plan.

If however, the local plans are to be phased, coordinated, and

aggregated into state or national plans, the effort involved may be

greater than it is worth.**

* Ibid,, pt), 566,567

** FAO, "Programming for Agricultural Development, "State of Food

and Agriculture , 1960, Rome, 1960, pp, 119-120, In the U,S.S,R,,

attempts used to be made to draw un detailed local production plans

do\"m to the level of state and collective farms which were combined

in plans for districts, renublics and the entire country. But these

plans, formerly made in the center, are now nrepared locally, and are

far less detailed than they used to be, (Ibid,, p, 120)

58
36, For this reason, and also to avoid too circumscribed an approach

to the development process, it is undesirable to set separate targets

below the level of the largest geographic area where conditions are relatively homo?;eneous. This applies especially to agriculture. For

example, where a district includes several villages with essentially

similar supply, sale and other marketinr^ conditions, it is unnecessary

to have targets for each village if targets are set for the district.*

37, In general, the appropriate size of a region is one which is not

so small as to lead to undue fragmentation of the national planning

effort, yet small enough to permit rapid feedback between individual

farms and enterprises, on the one hand, and regional planners, on the

other. In Israel, the appropriate regional size has been determined

to be one which contains a number of villages that can be linked

effectively to an urban community. This connection between villages

and urban area may be direct or it may be indirect through a rural

service center which provides only basic health, educational, social

and economic facilities for the villages. The rural service centers

are in turn linked to the urban community center, which provides

facilities that the rural service centers are not equipped to furnish.

The Lakhish Region is an example.** In contrast, the entire Island of

Mindanao x^as established as a region in the Philippines; in Italy, the

southern part of the country was constitutued as a region; in the

Netherlands, it was an area reclaimed from the sea (polder); in

Colombia, it was the Cauca Valley, the Sabana on which Bogota, the

capital, is located, or a department (i.e., a state); and in the

Sudan, the Gezira Region was set up on the basis of the irrigation

possibilities.

38, It is apparent, therefore, that a region may be defined in

different ways. Its boundaries may be determined (1) geographically,

e,g,, a valley or river basin, (2) demographically , e.g., an area

inhabited by a specific population group, e.g., a tribe, (3)

administratively, i,e,, one or more political subdivisions of a nation, (4) functionally, e,g., an area in which it is considered that

desired goals can best be achieved, and (5) geo-functionally , e.g., an area within the sphere of influence of a particular urban center.***

Since regions defined in any one of these ways may sometimes have

uncertain boundaries, it may not always be clear where a region

* Gadgil, D, R, , "Planning for Agricultural Development in India", op,cit

p, 579

** Weitz, R. and Landau, Y. "Comprehensive Agricultural Planning on the

National, Regional and Individual Farm Levels," Rehovoth Conference

on Comprehensive Planning of Agriculture in Developing Countries , Rehovoth, Israil, August 19-29, 1963, p, 4,

*** Ibid,

59
bepiins or ends, IJhile the limits of a re^^ion are frequently

determined in practice by political boundaries, the ideal re?^ion for

planning purposes is one which is either homogeneous with rep.ard to one or more important features, or one which incorporates areas which

are interdependent in one or more substantial ways.

B. Definition of Needs

39, A second problem which arises in an approach to regional planned

development oriented toward planning with rather than for people,

involves definition of the basic social and economic problems to be

resolved. Everything depends on who does the defining of the problems

and the setting of their priorities. IJliile it is conceivable that

central, regional and local officials will define basic social

problems and priorities in the same way that the people on the spot

will, it is unlikely. The probability of divergence among the

different levels, as well as between them and the population, is

greatest if regional and local problems are identified and the

priorities for them are set by central authorities. But the

probability is also great that regional officials will define the

basic problems and set priorities differently than vrill the local

officials and the local population. And even if local officials

select the problems and determine their priorities, these nay also

turn out to differ from those the people themselves v;ill identify.

40. It is easy to see wliy officials in the national capital may not

be in a good position to define priority social needs for the regions

in a country, especially for those that are remote or inaccessible; it

is less apparent that regional, and especially local authorities, may

also lack sufficient information to define basic problems and their

priorities in the same way as the regional or local population.

Partly, divergence at regional and local levels is explainable because

there is almost always a barrier betv7een officials and the public

which inhibits communication; but mostly, it is because officials and

the people they deal with tend to look at things in different ways.*

* For example, in many countries, licensing and other regulations

connected with the start up of an enterprise require would-be entre - preneurs to deal with several licensing and control agencies before

they can begin to do business. The officials in each agency usually

see only a part of the would-be entrepreneur's problem; only the

v7ould-be entrepreneur can see the vrhole. For this reason, officials

in each agency may not consider their agency's regulations as particularly onerous, although the would-be entrepreneur may see them as part of a disastrously time-consuming and costly process which impedes

the start of his business. Pe may then define as a great need an administrative rearrangement which could permit him to deal with a single agency, a need v;hich might not even occur to the officials in

each agency.

60
41. Many officials do not see the need to consult the population in a region or locality about their basic social and other needs.

Officials at the national level frequently consider it sufficient to

talk to officials at regional or local levels,* But if ref»ional or local officials see the problems differently than the people do,

regional and local plans are likely to be formulated to solve problems

which the officials rather than the people consider important. If

planning is to be directed toward resolving basic social and economic

problems as the people see them, it must involve participation of the

people, not only to ensure that definition of the oroblems and their

priorities conform to those of the people, but also to ensure the

population's active and willing support of the plans prepared to solve

the problems. People's participation should be sought through their own leaders wherever possible, and not through government officials

who visit the area occasionally, or through officials stationed in the

region or locality by remote governments.

£. The Lack of Regional Information

42, Planning at the national level has been seriously hampered in

most developing countries by the scarcity of reliable statistical and

other information. Indeed, the lack of quantitatively and

qualitatively adequate data on such basic series as the size and

* How difficult it is for some officials to engage in direct consultation

Td.th local populations was revealed in a confrontation between the U,S,

Secretary (equivalent to a minister in most other countries) of

Housing and Urban Development and a spokeswoman for the group in the

City of Wilkes Barre, in the State of Pennsylvania, xv^hose members had

had their homes damaged or destroyed by a storm some six months before

the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development visited the City in

August 1972 to find out why little had been done to alleviate the

plight of these who had suffered losses. According to the Washington

Post of August 10, 1972, the following exchange occurred: "Why

don't you talk to the people? The people come first." demanded the

irritated spokeswoman, "These guys, (i.e., the group who accompanied

her) came here to tell you the truth," To which the Secretary of

Housing and Urban Development replied, ",,,It's_not necessary to talk _

to the people, ,, It's necessary to talk to the /_State and local officials/

who are trying to meet the problem," If this exchange could occur in a country where the population is relatively well-educated and articulate

and where people have access to elected officials and government

functionaries at every level, one may imagine how great must be the

communication gap in countries where conditions are less propitious,

** E,g,, In some African tribes, the eldest member of the tribe is

considered its leader.

61
growth of national populations, production, investment, consumption

and employment has frequently cast doubt on supply and demand

projections, as well as parameters included in national planning

models. The fact that regional and local statistics in most poor

countries are generally much worse, where they exist, than national

data, makes it especially difficult to plan effectively at regional

and local levels in these countries. The lack of good land use, water

resources, and manpower data constitute especially great handicaps.

The data gap therefore is a third problem confronting those who would

expand regional and local planning. The magnitude of this problem and

the fact that it will take much time to resolve should make it evident

that regional and local planning may have to proceed at a lower level

of technical sophistication than prevails at national levels and that,

for the time being, advanced mathematical formulations of regional and

local plans are likely to be impractical in most poor countries.

43. However, if regional and local planning is to become an effective

development tool, steps must be taken as quickly as possible to set up

suitable systems for the collection of data (a) on a continuing basis,

(b) for clearly defined regional and local areas, (c) wliich employ

uniform units of measurement to allow intra- and inter-regional

combination and comparison of the data. To set up a suitable datacollection system for regional planning purposes requires considerable

discussion by statisticians and planners of the country, as well as the areas for which data are to be collected about the types of data

required for planning and other purposes and the form in which the

data should be collected.

44. Consideration should be given to the preparation of a multiannual

statistical-collection plan, including a system of financing its

implementation, which sets forth the types of data to be collected and

the priorities to be given to each. Since the task of carrying out

such a plan is likely to be beyond the capacity of existing central

statistical organizations in most poor countries, consideration needs

to be given to their reorganization and expansion, as well as to the

possibility of dividing the task between them and regional statistical

organizations in a manner which would promote the most efficient use

of scarce manpower and statistical equipment. The work of central and

regional data-collecting agencies must be coordinated to avoid

duplication, gaps in data collection, or the use of non-comparable

units of measurement, and in addition, to promote cooperation between

statistical and non-statistical agencies in the public and private

sectors which collect social and economic data.

D. Coordination

45. The need for coordination goes beyond the realm of statistics and

constitutes a fourth problem in countries which seek to expand their

62
ref^ional and local planning effort. Regional planning requires

coordination to ensure encouragement of regional snecialization based

on comparative advantage, as well as regional cooperation in realizing

national objectives, 'Jithout proper coordination, regions tend to

give priority to regional instead of national goals. Coordination is

also required because there is always danger that competing regional

claims may get out of hand and exceed available resources.* There is

need, in addition, to establish communication bridges between national

and regional planning bodies which provide channels required for

information to flow "from below" as well as "from above". These

informational bridges provide the necessary feedback for formulating

plans and, during the implementation stage, for making timely

adjustments in the plan as required,

E, Regional Planning Organization

46. The need to establish suitable information systems for effective

regional planning raises a fifth problem: What kind of institutions

are needed to prepare and implement regional and local plans? There

is in most developing countries a dearth of subnational planning

entities. Tliis means that in most countries, suitable regional and

subregional bodies must be devised and established if effective

subnational planning is to take place. Some countries have planned

for their regions through national planning agencies, but aside from

the fact that this approach has not been very successful in most

countries, it is less likely to be used in an era of increasing

regional political awareness,

47. The institutional problem is a two-fold one of finding the right

structure and the right mix between centralized and decentralized

authority and decision-making. Unless appropriate institutions are

set up with the right mix, there is danger that the most logically

consistent regional plans will not be operationally feasible.**

* Since most regions in a country must look to their national government

to finance at least a part of their plans, national governments can

use finance as a means of coordinating regional and subregional plans.

Properly used, finance provides governments with a pox>;erful device

for bringing regional and subregional plans into line with national

development objectives. But the regional pressure for funds is often

so great that national governments are sometimes unable to maintain the

administrative controls required to achieve the necessary coordination,

** Op,cit,, Report of the International Conference on Regional Planning

and National Development in Tropical Africa , p, 15,

63
48, I-Tille every country will have to establish planning; bodies suited

to its o\-m institutional arrangements and stap.e of development, it may

be said that, in ?;eneral, organizations at the local level should be

simpler in form than those at the intermediate subrec^ional level, and

that intermediate bodies need be less complex than those at the

regional level. For example, at the village level, development

planning committees may suffice, while at the intermediate level

(e.g,, a district), one or two planners in a small planning unit may

be adequate. However, at the regional level, a regional authority,

appropriately staffed vrith planning technicians, is likely to be

essential for effective planned development.

49, IHiile structural problems can be difficult, they are likely to be

easier to resolve than questions relating to the degree of autonomy to

be granted to regional planning units and the extent to which these

units should be advisory or supervisory in carrying out regional

plans. In some countries, these questions have been resolved by the

establishment of a regional authority with considerable power and

independence. These authorities are generally responsible to the

central government, and have authority to act in lieu of regular

central ministries, departments and agencies in the region over x^hich

they have jurisdiction. Tlie Tennessee Valley Authority in the United

States is a frequently-cited example of this type.

50. Another kind of authority is advisory in nature, prepares

regional plans but relies on regular government ministries,

departments and agencies to implement those portions of the plan which

fall within their functional jurisdiction. THicre this type of

authority is established, there is need for the ministries,

departments and agencies to decentralize responsibility for taking

action to their regional representatives, and for the regional

authority to coordinate their activities to ensure well-phased

implementation of regional plans. Otherwise, all questions m.ust be

referred for decision to ministries, departments or agencies in the

capital. Not only is this a time-consuming process, but it may yield

the wrong ansv;ers because civil servants in the capital are not

usually aware of the nature of problems in different regions of the

country. The Settlement Department of the Jewish Agency, which is

responsible for rural development in Israel, is an example of the

second type of authority, although it has some direct responsibility

for rural development, as well as the funds for carrying them out.

51. The extent of a regional authority's effectiveness often depends

on the financial resources put at its disposal. Equally important, is

the way in vrhich funds are allocated to it for implementing plans.

The authority is likely to have the greatest independence in

implementing plans if funds are allocated to it directly by the

64
central government. The authority is likely to have sonewhat less

freedon of action if it has to rely on transfers of funds allocated to

the various ministries, departments and agencies for projects and

programs within its region for whose implementation it is responsible.

The authority is likely to have the least independence if it must

apply to the budget authority for funds every time it needs them for a

proj ect.

52, The location of the headquarters of the refrional authority is

also significant. To carry out its functions effectively, the

authority should be based in the region. Since it is usually more

difficult to staff an authority located in a region than if it is

located in the capital, there is a tendency for regional authorities

to establish themselves in the capital. But this is a mistake, as experience has shown, because the authority's staff loses touch with

regional problems, while the people in the region tend to view the

authority as alien. In contrast, where the authority has been

established in the region at the start, the copulation of the rer:ion

tends to view the authority as its ot-m, and the staff of the authority

is in position to take pror.pter action on problems than if it were in

the capital. Experience also indicates that regional authorities

located in rural areas can be adequately staffed if regional

development is made sufficiently challenging, and higher status, pay,

living arrangements and wider opportunities for professional training

are offered to technicians than are available to those in the

capital.

53, The relationship between the regional authority and the local

population and authorities may assume a variety of forms, Where

regional organizations exist, and especially where these represent the

people rather than the national government, the most suitable

arrangement is to base the regional planning authority on the existing

organizations. If this is done, there is greater likelihood than

othend.se that regional and local plans will com.e close to

representing prevailing views at regional and local levels. France

has followed this approach.

54, In contrast, a central government may create a regional authority

* Ueitz, Raanan and Apnlebaum, Levia, "Administrative and Organizational

Problems of Regional Development Planning in Israel", Annual Meeting

of Directors of Development Training and Research Institutes , Montpellier (France), 7th - 12th September, 1967 (mimeo) , op. 4-5.

** Ibid., pp. 9 & 10

65
as an arm of the government in a region to be developed, With this

approach, there is a greater possibility than in the first that there

will be dif f iciilties in communication between the authority and the

people, SUDENE in northeastern Brazil is an example of an authority

created by a central government as its representative in a region,

55, A third variety of regional authority includes representatives of

both the central government and the regional businessmen's fanners'

and other groups. This pattern has the advantage of utilizing

existing institutional arrangements to establish a communication link

between local and central government representatives. Crete and

Israel have adopted this approach,"

56, Since the first and third approach seek to relate the regional

and local authorities directly, they are preferable to the second.

But regardless of which approach is adopted, the regional authority

must still take measures to ensure adequate participation of the

people in defining the basic economic and social problems to be

resolved by the planning process, VJhile every country will wish to

create regional planning authorities in a form suitable to its needs,

successful regional planning will depend on the degree to Vijhich

regional plans are formulated and implemented with the participation

of the people in the regions or subregions concerned,

F, Training Regional Planners

57, Since regional planning is still in its infancy in most

developing countries, regional skills and expertise are in short

supply. If regional planning is to expand to the extent required, means of training those needed for the purpose will have to be

devised. This is no easy matter and constitutes a sixth problem for

regional planning,

58, Because of the variety of skills demanded, training for regional

development v/ill have to be problem-oriented. This implies a multirather than a uni-disciplinary approach, IJhile much has been written

about the need for a comprehensive approach to development problems,

little as yet has found its way into training materials and courses. The same is true about planning "from the bottom up",

59, Another training constraint has to do with the "labor-intensive"

way in which planning, as a discipline, has been taught. Teachers in

the field are generally highly-trained specialists whose teachings

reach only a fe\j students each year. Moreover, would-be planners are required to undertake a lengthy course of study to provide them with

* Ibid., pp. 10-11

66
the ability to formulate sophisticated plans based on mathematical

models. As a result, the training of planners has proceeded so slowly

in the last two decades that there is still a great shortage at the

national level in developing countries, and even more, at regional and

local levels.

60, If regional planning is to expand at the rate required to meet

urgent demands, a more "capital-intensive" approach to training

regional planners will have to be used than has been used thus far.

If, for example, the information \^ich planning specialists have

accumulated were incorporated in "programmed" form* in teaching

materials, teachers in training centers in the developing countries

could use these materials to train individuals within the subnational

regions to prepare and implement regional plans. Only by some such

method will it be possible to spread available knowledge about

regional planning as broadly and as rapidly as is required to meet the

demand for regional planning.

61, Some work along these lines is already going forward. One

project, involving the preparation of programmed materials for

training regional and national officials in developing countries in

the management and implementation of programs in agriculture and rural

development is being carried out by the Governmental Affairs Institute

in Washington, D,C. under a contract with the U. S. Agency for

International Development (AID) . Governmental Affairs Institute and

AID hope to prepare and test training materials in the field which can

then be widely used by teachers in developing countries in the

training of rural planners in the numbers required.

* By which is meant a detailed exposition of the objectives, approaches

and methods used to transfer substantive knowledge about planning in

the form of individual sessions and groupings of sessions, utilizing

lectures, case studies, workshops, formal work groups, and other

modern techniques which reduce the amount of preparation required for

teachers of the subject, and permit them to transfer planning

techniques by methods worked out by specialists in the "programmed"

materials.

67
THE IMPORT FOOD STRATEGY OF

THE FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION

Benjamin M, Gutterman , Assistant Director for Coordinatlon/Teclinology

Bureau of Foods, Food and Drug Administration

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies , National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

It is a distinct honor to represent my country and particularly the

Food and Drug Administration of the United States Department of

Health, Education, and Welfare before a group such as you from other

lands, I see amongst you some that I have met before and I am happy

to say that although our time together was brief, lasting friendships

have developed. I know a number of you represent countries that

export foods to the U.S.A. The others, I am certain, will consider

doing so in the future. Tonight I shall talk to you about certain

aspects of our food imports - some of our problems - and what we are

prepared to do and are doing about them.

The FDA is, of course, a domestic agency. Our first obligation is to

the United States consumers of food. That obligation is to provide

them with safe, nutritious, and properly labeled foods and our efforts

concerning our own food processors are intended to accomplish it. We

must provide the same degree of protection to our consumers whether

the foods are Imported or domestically produced, and . therefore, in

addition to our domestic program we operate an extensive import

sampling and analytical program on foods offered for entry at our

ports. Imported foods are coming to our ports in increasing voltnne.

They have increased by over 65 percent within the past decade.

Currently our consximers spend over 15 billion dollars for imported

foods.

In recent years significant changes have occurred concerning the

products you export to us. Whereas your exports in the past were, in

large part, raw materials that received further processing at a plant

in the U.S.A. and subsequent Inspection by the FDA, today they consist

more of ready-to-buy consumer products that receive no further

processing in the U.S.A. The volume of ready-to-buy products is ever

increasing.

68
FDA does not Inspect foreign food firms at their manufacturing sites

as It does domestic ones, and therefore, the coverage or Inspection of

food imports is restricted to the product Itself. In view of this

fact, it has become necessary for us to expand our efforts for our Import food inspection program and to seek more effective ways of

assuring that the foods coming to this country comply with our lavs

and regulations. All Imported food products are subject to inspection

by FDA at the time of entry through U.S. Customs. Shipments found not

in compliance with our laws and regulations are subject to re- exportation or destruction or, xinder bond, the importer may

recondition the product and it will then be reconsidered for entry.

Our requirements, that is, the laws and regulations, are available to

every exporter and his government. Eqvially available are a nxmber of our action guidelines. It is expensive and wasteful to your exporter

and your country if a product must be reexported, destroyed, or reconditioned after the expense of shipping. Further, it is a loss to

the U.S.A. if it is the kind of product our consumers desire.

Before I discuss what we may do to promote our mutual interests, I

would like to discuss my agency's increased activity in the area of

imports. Let me assure you that there is no Intent on the part of the

United States Government to place restrictive barriers upon imports

other than to Insure that the Imported foods meet the same

requirements as those placed upon foods produced in this country. As

a result of the Increasing import traffic and changes in foreign

commerce and shipping techniques, the FDA has been exploring new

methods of increasing coverage of imported foods. In the past we

would preselect consignments on file with the U.S. Customs Office.

This sometimes resulted in inspectlonal and analytical manpower being

allocated to non-vlolatlve products while unobserved non-complying

products may be released without examination. A new method is shipto-ship coverage. With the ship-to-ship method, the Inspector at all

times is at the point of discharge - a pier, airport, or container

terminal. He views the cargo as it is being unloaded and can more

readily detect noncomplylng products and thereby be more selective.

We are also using more mobile laboratories at dockside. They are operated by inspectors and Inspector technicians who have been trained

to perform Sanitation and economic examinations of samples. A larger

number of inspections may thus be conducted and more rapid decisions

can be made. In addition to our finding more noncomplylng products,

there is a resultant benefit to the Importer of complying foods.

Foods in compliance are released more quickly and the probability of

needless demurrage costs are reduced.

Further, we are experimenting with another method which is already

showing encouraging results. This is the use of so-called "Import

circuit riders". These men travel through a number of lesser used

import entry points. By means of this intensified activity, we are

69
detecting an Increased number of noncomplying imports. We are also

developing more positive results through saturation sampling of

suspect products, foods coming from problem suppliers, and an Improved

coverage of containerized cargo.

As I previously stated, it is expensive and wasteful for all concerned

when a food is denied entry at our ports. That includes both you as the exporting country and my country as the Importer. X^at can we do

about reducing this expense and waste? It must be a mutual effort.

Also, as I stated previously, my agency's first obligation is to the

consumer in the U.S.A. However, through joint effort and what we

learn from each other, your food Industry as well as ours plus the

consumers from both of our countries will benefit. We are very much

aware that our regulatory actions, programs, and policies have a pronounced effect on the industries of your countries and on International trade. We are also aware of their effects on your food

control programs. Therefore, we have a positive objective of

providing your exporters and particularly your governments with timely

and pertinent information.

We have a number of ways to move toward the accomplishment of the

objective of fostering a mutual understanding concerning our compliance policies, our standards, and our procedures relative to the

foods we regulate. Our State Department advises our embassies abroad

of those policies, standards, and procedures of importance for

transmission to your governments. We maintain contacts with your

commercial and scientific attaches here. We are developing closer

working relationships with your consular officials in our port cities.

We find them eager to assist in ensuring that products offered for

entry are in full compliance with the requirements of our food laws.

For example, at the New World Center in Los Angeles, we are holding

our second briefing session for consular and trade officials. Another

very important way to accomplish the objective of mutual understanding

is our desire to participate in meetings like this. Further, we have

foimd very beneficial our visits to our counterpart officials in your

countries. We are prepared to travel at your invitation on the basis

of the personnel and time that we have available,

A program which I recommend highly is one whereby you may request that

one or more of your technical or administrative officials may come to

this country for work and study in our laboratories and administrative

offices, travel with our inspectors in their visits to our food

processing plants and to our ports of entry, and so forth. They v/ill

learn not only by study but also by actually observing our techniques

and, most importantly, by participating in all aspects of our activity. A very important additional benefit is that these people

will undoubtedly leave the U.S.A. as capable teachers of their own

70
colleagues for those aspects of our activities vnich nay be used - with or without nodification - in their own country'.

In passing I would like to say that for this program we ask that your

requests be sent to us well in advance of the desired visit so that we may tailor specific programs for your representatives comnensurate

with their needs, education, training, experience, and your planned

future assignments for them. Since they will be working along with

many of our own people, we request that they be fluent in the English

language. We make no charge for this program. However, we do expect

you to be responsible for the salary, travel, food, and lodging

expenses of the people you send. For those of you \m.o might find

yourselves unable to support this type of activity, I suggest that a number of international organizations are prepared to consider your

needs. In addition, there are many food science, food technology, and

food engineering schools which offer "short courses" in many fields,

A method of reducing the probability of imported foods being denied

entry through our ports is by the development of cooperative

agreements between my government with your governments and industry

groups. Formal international agreements, which spell out the

responsibilities of each party, wn.ll promote voluntary com.pliance with

our requirements and reduce FDA coverage of the articles under

agreement because we will be better assured of the acceptability of

the foods you ship.

Based upon our personnel availability and appropriate funding, we are

also seeking to encourage consultative type Inspections of your food

manufacturing operations whose products are intended for export to

this country. These inspections are arranged upon your request in

those food areas where specific problems such as multiple detentions

exist. Of course, many details must be resolved in advance. FDA

foreign consultative inspections offer advantages to exporting

nations. Resolution of violations at the source can, through helpful

recommendations, bring about rapid correction. A well-planned

consultative trip can reach a whole industry, country, or area and

thereby broaden coverage. Mutual exchange of information and

cooperation with foreign government counterparts of FDA can be

enhanced.

The objective of the FDA cooperative agreements program is to reduce

the need for our surveillance of products ^onder such cooperative

agreements and to share responsibility with the official control

agency of the exporting country'. All agreements are formal, national

in scope, and set forth the specific responsibilities of each party.

We presently have agreements with a number of countries. A most

significant benefit in addition to reducing economic losses is the

upgrading of the foods in both our countries.

71
Recently, I joined Mr, Peiser and some of his associates, along with

experts from other countries, in a visit to Bolivia and Ecuador. Our

hosts in Bolivia and Ecuador were most interested in how the FDA of

the U.S.A. exercises its mission of protecting the consumer. We

discussed food laws, food standards, adulteration and misbranding

regulations, laboratory methodology - its development and use - and

enforcement practices. We considered these areas from national and

international viewpoints. We also discussed what my agency is

prepared to do, particularly to arrange for on-the-job training for

technical and administrative personnel from other countries.

Negotiations and arrangements are being carried out now. It should be

emphasized that the training mentioned above is beneficial not only to

exporting countries but also to those countries which are desirous of

improving their own food supply by adopting or adapting those portions

of our ways of doing things to their own needs. We want to help if we can and if you ask us.

Further, we have had an excellent rapport with our northern and

southern neighbors - Canada and Mexico. We meet frequently at both

the policy and operational levels. Many problems have been resolved.

For significant problems with particular foods intended for export to

this country, our experts have visited a number of countries at the

request and expense of the host countries or some international group.

For example, a problem arose with aflatoxin contamination of pistachio

nuts from Iran and Turkey. Our expert team visited the harvest and

processing areas of those countries and made a number of suggestions

to reduce mold contamination which results in the development of

aflatoxin, a cancer producing substance. We also trained their

analysts in chemical procedures to detect the aflatoxins. This

activity was most helpful to those countries.

We have to admit that we had problems with pesticide residues found in

products from Mexico. We provided technical training to the Mexican

analysts so that high pesticide residue foods are detected at the

source and not exported. The Mexican Government certifies that the

foods analyzed by their technicians are within this country's

tolerances and, except for an audit program on our part, they are permitted entry without further examination by us. However, I must

emphasize that we do reserve the right - for that matter it is our obligation to our own citizens - to audit the products being imported.

I could continue and relate a number of additional examples of ongoing

working relationships we have with a number of other countries, but we need not go into them at this time. However, I should say that the

number of individuals who have already come here for training is quite

large.

72
I have spoken at sone length of what we are doing to prevent foods not

in compliance with our laws and regulations fron passing through our ports and thereafter being sold to our consumers. I also spoke of

what you can do to see that foods that do not cor.ply with our lav;s and

regulations are not shipped to us in the first place, thereby avoiding

unnecessary expense to all concerned. I also spoke of ^^.'hat we can do

in the way of mutual efforts to promote the shipment of only

acceptable food products.

However, let us note that m-uch of what I have been spea!d.n^ about is

what we may call an after-the-fact activity, Ho^'? much more

advantageous to all - that is, the food processors, the governments,

the exporters and importers, and most importantly the consumers - if

the food has been groxra, prepared, processed, packairred, and shipped in

such a manner that there is no reason to prevent either its

exportation through your shipping points or its Lmportation by us. In our country - and I believe it is so in yours - the ultimate responsibility for the wholesomeness , the integrity, the packaging, the

handling, and the labeling of foods lies with Indus tr\'. As govemnent

people, our responsibility is to assure consumers that no manufacturer, packager, labeler, or shipper of foods has neglected to assume his responsibility and thereby jeopardizes the public health or

is cheating or otherwise damages the cons-omers' welfare. To avoid

unnecessary expenses, vrfiat better way is there than to ?rov7 the food

properly, see to it that no toxic residues are in the food, and that

it is correctly labeled and transported. If this is done, then

neither you nor we are required to destroy it or, if practicable, to

spend extra money - viiich is ultimately passed on to the consumer - to see that it is brought into compliance. There is no question that the

prevention of problems is much less costly than any cure. Further,

who can affortd to destroy foods when there are so many hungry vrith

us?

In this country, ^re are promulgating "Current Good ^lanuf acturing

Practice Regulations" often called CG^^?R's" or (^^P's". I'e have long

had regulations which specify the end product requirements that food

processors must comply ^i-Tith in order to meet their obli^^ations to the

consur.er. However, we are now adding to these the GlP's. Ve are specifying for those in food processing and handling the minimum

requirements that they must comply with as they handle raw materials,

process, and package food so that the finished product is not

prepared, packed, or held imder insanitary conditions whereby it may

have become contaminated ^d.th filth or miay create a public health

problem. Some of the requirements are general and are applicable to

the food processing industry as a whole. Some are specific and apply

to a particular industry, for example, the low-acid canned food

industry, the confectioner^' industry, the baking industry, and so

73
forth. Some of the requirements must be complied with, whereas others are simply suggestions. These regulations may concern:

1. conditions to be maintained for the plants and grounds;

2. requirements for the equipment and utensils;

3. sanitation facilities required for personnel;

I 4. provisions for the cleaning and sanitizing of equipment and

utensils;

5, the necessary processes and controls - these cover not only the

instrumentation with its calibration and the checking of required

accuracy, but also the critical control points and how they

should be regulated;

6, the need for coding of the containers; and

7, record keeping for ingredients, processing used, and distribution.

The last two - coding and record keeping - are not to be minimized.

With the best of intentions sometimes something may go wrong during

food processing. Coding and record keeping are important for locating

any offending food so that it may be readily found and isolated.

Codes are also important for helping to determine what went wrong so that similar incidents may be prevented next time. However, codes

again only help after the fact. Adherence to the earlier parts of my

listing will minimize the need for putting the last two to use.

Our food laws and regulations concern themselves with the provision of

tasty, healthy, nutritious, and properly labeled food to the consumer

whether he be a resident of our country or the food is imported to

your country from the U.S.A. It is our obligation in the FDA to s""

that food processers and suppliers in the U.S.A. deserve the

confidence of the consumer.

The packet of printed material which I distributed to the Workshop

participants contains one or more GMP's. Let us assume you do not

intend to export to my country. I suggest that you look at those

regulations anyway. Examine them. Can you adopt them for your own use as written or, because of different problems, must they first be

modified in order to meet your needs? That is, can you use them

directly, or somewhat modified for the benefit of your consumers? Can

we afford to provide consumers - yours and ours - less than the best

our industries can do? Obviously, I do not believe so. I am certain

that you agree with me.

Let me briefly discuss one problem area which those of you involved in

the canned food control effort in your country should be aware of, if

you are not already. I spoke a moment ago of the GMP's and referred

to low-acid canned foods. In view of the recent detection of

Clostridium Botulinum Toxin in some commercially canned low-acid

foods, the FDA promulgated regulations for the preventive control of

74
this problem. They are identified as 21 CFR 128B. Those may be found

in the distributed packet. We have no reason to believe that the

incidence of "Bot" toxins in canned low-acid foods is any different in

your country than ours. We are confident that should you review your

canning industry status and capabilities you would identify the same deficiencies as we did. The regulations we recently promulgated are now in effect and apply not only to our domestic industry, but also to

those manufacturers in your country who ship to us. All firms in your

country which are affected by these regulations must first register

with us using the appropriate forms. Examples are found in each

packet. All processes which are used for foods exported to this

coxmtry must be demonstrated as producing a safe food, talcing into

consideration such things as its form, for example, solid or creamed;

the ratio of solids to packing medium; the quantity of food in a particular size container; and the kind of heat, chemical, or other

sterilization procedure used. The safety of the process must be

acceptable to those qualified to judge and must be adhered to.

Changes in ingredients, source of supply, formulation, and other

factors may require a change in the process. I cannot overemphasize

that all processors who wish to ship to us must register and file

their processes. This is no more than we require of our o^-m food canners . Any imported foods covered by the registration and process

filing portions of the regulations but not complying with them may be

refused admission.

It shoxald be noted that an important requirement of the regulations is

that supervisors of retort operators and can seam inspectors must have

satisfactorily completed a course of instruction in retort operations,

aseptic processing and packaging system operations or other thermal

processing systems, and container closure inspections at a school

approved by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs. The regulation does

not specifically exempt supervisors of the retort operators and can seam inspectors of foreign firms from this training but we feel that

attempted enforcement would be impractical. Accordingly, in lieu of

such training, my agency will accept a statement from the appropriate

officials of each of your governments whose function would

include quality control of food processing plants that supervisors of

registering firms under their jurisdiction are properly trained.

There is so much more that I would have liked to discuss T-Tith you.

For example, how we develop and adopt analytical methods and use them

to determine whether or not a food is in compliance with all

applicable regulations. How we obtain, train, and utilize our inspectors. How we obtain, train, and utilize our analysists. These

analysts are chemists, microbiologists, toxicologists, pharmacologists, food technologists, engineers, statisticians and so forth.

How we adapt our efforts to meet the needs of the problems we face.

How we develop priorities for our money and time. Rc^^ we actively

75
participate in international regulatory food programs such as the

United Nations WHO/FAO Codex Alimentarius program. By the way, I strongly urge you who are interested not only in the international

food market, but also in obtaining additional benefits in the field of

food technology and regulations, to participate actively in the Codex

Alimentarius effort. By actively participating, your needs x^ill be

more readily considered and probably provided for. Also, you

establish and maintain commercial, technological, legal, and

regulatory contacts with other countries. A better understanding of

the reasons for and benefits from use of the standards is thereby

achieved.

There is much to discuss concerning such things as our food additive

regulations, our labeling regulations, or our nutritional guidelines

to name only a few. In any event, even though I would like to discuss

these things, space does not permit me to do so here. However, I shall make myself available - at all times - to you and Mr. Peiser - in a group or individually - for amplification of what I have

discussed or those things to which I have referred but not discussed.

By hearing from one another, on how we each develop and enforce our o\m food laws, we all can benefit from those features which are useful

to ourselves directly or with some modification.

76
SOME VIEWS ON SCIENCE AND FOREIGN AFFAIRS

Herman Pollack

Consultant, Former Director

Bureau of Scientific and Technological Affairs

Department of State

NBS/AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 7, 1974

Late in the summer of 1974, the author completed ten years of service

as the officer in charge of international scientific and technological

affairs in the United States Department of State. Although he has

retired from that post, he retains a connection as a consultant. In

that capacity, in the fall of 1974, he made a quick visit to

Venezuela, Colombia, Mexico, and Guatemala to discuss Latin American

relationships with the United States in technology transfer. Although

this paper will make a few observations on technology transfer, it is

concerned mainly with reflections on the developments of the past ten

years in governmental relations in international science and technology and a few speculations on the directions of the future.

In reviewing the behavior of governments in dealing with one another

over the past decade in science and technology, there are several

impressions that emerge with some strength.

First, in marked contrast to the situation prevailing in the 50 's and

early 60' s, it has become "fashionable" for governments to enter into

agreements for cooperation in science with each other. Whereas in

1964 the United States Government was a participant in only one such

agreement, today the number approaches 20 and is rising rapidly, A

comparable remark might be made of many other governments. As an aside, it should be mentioned that agency to agency agreements, as distinct from government level agreements, have become very common,

U.S. Government agencies such as the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, the National Bureau of Standards, and the National

Science Foundation are now a party to at least several hundred such

agreements.

The second impression relates to why governments have become "science"

conscious. Governments throughout the world have come to believe that

a sound scientific and technological infrastructure and a strong

capacity to develop, acquire, adapt, and utilize technology is of

77
critical importance to their economic welfare and development. As

this belief evolved, governments devoted increasing time, effort, and

money to the creation of governmental capabilities to control their

destinies in science and technologies. I have in mind the creation of

Science Councils, CONACTT*s, parliamentarian committees and studies of

science and technology, declarations of science policies, 5-year plans

for engineering and scientific manpower, creation of international

bodies and programs such as the Committee on Science and Technology of

the United Nations' Economic and Social Council, Organization for

Economic Cooperation and Development's Science Secretariat, and the

Organization of American States' Regional Scientific and Technological

Development Program. There are literally dozens of other

illustrations to be taken from the preceding very active 10 years.

Since foreign offices deal with intemationsl extensions of domestic

policy, another phenomenon of the past decade is that foreign

ministries developed staffs specializing in science and technology and

sent scientific attaches and counselors abroad in goodly numbers.

Today, there is no question but that relationships in science and

technology have become an Important factor of international diplomacy

and that there is no government in the world that does not today

attach priority Importance to developing strength in science and

technology.

The term "Science and Technology" ranges from the purest and most

basic scientific research to production of hardware and the

development of "know-how" for the industrial implementation of a technical discovery. Government cooperation covers this entire

spectrum, but it is far easier to put together a governmental-level

cooperative program on the mid-Atlantic Ridge than on the mineral

characteristics of the sea bed in a coastal area. International

cooperation in the polar regions, such as the Antarctic, prospers

until the research suggests the possibility of oil in the area. At

that point, eyebrows and questions begin to be raised. That is to say

that the past decade has demonstrated that the more fundamental the

research, the easier it is for governments to cooperate. The closer

the linkage of the research to commercial application, the more

difficult it is to establish the cooperation among governments.

However, the self-interest of industrial enterprises will sometimes

lead them to cooperate in research and development across international lines. Thus, an analysis of the subjects of the many

thousands of International cooperative activities in science and

technology now under way under governmental auspices, would find that

they cluster heavily in the area of basic science and are sprinkled

only lightly in the technological research area and only sparsely in

the technological development area.

78
Another impression of the past decade is that in those countries which

are richer and more advanced in scientific manpower and institutions,

the basic scientists tend to manage their international affairs with

relatively little reliance on their governments. While they may look

to their taxpayers and to their governments for financial support,

they prefer to make their own arrangements for international

cooperation through direct contact or through their specialized

international but non-governmental organizations. On the other hand,

in the lesser scientifically developed countries, the dependence on government participation and sponsorship is much greater and the role

of governments is therefore more visible in international cooperation

in basic science.

Governmental motivation in arranging international cooperation in

science and technology is a mixture of many things, but by far the

most important is the symbolic political value of the agreement of the

ongoing cooperation itself. It signals friendship or a desire to

develop closer relationships. On the whole, scientific relationships

are a non-controversial and proven way of establishing ties between

countries even in the face of strong political differences. Idealism,

appreciation of the international character of science and technology,

and the value of intercultural contacts are certainly present and at

times predominantly so. However, on the whole, governments continue

to identify their interests in political terms and their international

behavior is determined accordingly.

At the same time, the scientific, social, and economic benefits of

international scientific cooperation are insufficiently appreciated by

governments, especially of the technologically advanced countries.

Cooperation does produce tangible benefits - in better health, more

food, better use of scientific resources, and so on. Early this year,

the State Department published a pamphlet on this subject in order to

help convince our own skeptics that international cooperation in

science does indeed pay off in materialistic terms. I am sure that a separate text on this could be written in the standards field alone.

Another impression, which is widely shared, is that just as cooperation becomes more difficult to arrange as the subject moves

from the basic science to the commercial technology, so too, but much

more dramatically, does the difficulty rise as the partners in

cooperation increase in numbers from bilateral to trilateral to

multilateral. This, of course, is a generalization to which there may

be one or possibly several exceptions.

International organizations have played an important role in international scientific relations. Their performance, however, has varied

greatly. It is not entirely clear why this is so. Is it safe to say

that the quality of output is dependent on the caliber of staff, the

79
availability of funds, the interest and support of member governments,

and the nature of the subject matter? Some of these, of course,

interact. It is rare that all of these are maximized in one organization.

International organizations have in common the traits of organizations

elsewhere. They tend to become more rigid with age, vehicles for

retention of the status quo, and much concerned with selfpreservation. Organizations created to solve problems perceived

immediately after World War II may not be totally relevant to the

problems perceived by the international community today. I think this

is suggested by the attitude - indeed resistance ~ of existing

international organizations to the creation of the UN environmental

organization now headquartered in Nairobi. Similarly, their scramble

for a role on energy approaches the undignified.

One development that came forcibly to the fore during the past 10

years was the increasing devotion of the energies of international

organizations concerned with technical matters to the problems of

development. Indeed the objective of economic development and the

provisions of technical assistance to those in need of such, has come

to dominate the agenda of many such organizations and is an increasingly central factor in most of the others. In many of these

organizations political polemics have been more noticeable than sound

technical programs.

A final impression is that during the past 10 years there has

crystallized the desire of most governments to concentrate their

science and technology cooperation in the technological arena. I^Tiile

especially the objective of developing nations in their relations with

the more advanced countries, it is by no means limited to them. In

their relation with each other, the advanced countries also frequently

prefer to deal with technological subjects. In this, it might be

observed, they do not do very well.

Now, what about the future?

First, it is likely that, with one exception, the direction events

have taken in the past decade will continue into the future.

Governments will attach even more importance to science and technology

than they do now. They will increasingly seek ties and support with

each other in science and technology and these linkages will

increasingly be in topics relevant to national problems - i.e., in

applied science and technology.

The exception to past behavior, may be in governmental motivation.

Here there is a good chance that the perceptions of governments will

be different in the future. For example, in another decade the

80
population and related food crisis may be so aggravated, the threat of

nuclear mishaps so great, the possibility of environnental calamity so near, the need to manage and control global technologies such as weather modification and outer space applications so clearly

understood that the concept of interdependence x.d.11 become not a slogan, but a reality of international life. International

cooperation in many fields may become the preferred route, because

there may be no other. These are the fields that pose problems

threatening a nation's true security, but which are not capable of

solution at the national level.

If this is right, another conclusion follows. It will become evident

as the world community begins to grapple with the problems of interdependence that international institutions are ill-suited to deal with

them. The most obvious point is that organizations with sharply

defined responsibilities and programs in meteorology, oceanography,

food, environment, and so on are not well equipped to deal with

problems characterized by their interdependent and inter-disciplinary

nature. So one can envisage a groT^ng dissatisfaction with existing

structures and a great deal of trouble in doing anything about them.

It is not beyond the realm of possibility that the world community

will leave existing structures alone, because it \rLll be too much

trouble to reorganize them. Instead, new organizations or new

mechanisms will be adopted.

If it is correct that the solution of applied, or technological

problems will increasingly be the subject of cooperation, and that

interdependence will become increasingly the order of the day, we will

have to see some imaginative innovations take place. Reliance on traditional mxsdes of international relations and traditional

institutional forms will not be adequate. For example, programs of

international organizations today are determined in a democaratic

manner - by majority rule based on one country - one vote. In the

future this may have to be changed to give more weight to absolute and

proportionate degree of effort made and the benefits received.

Government financed private consortia may have to be used in ways not

now visualized. It may prove necessary to provide international

organizations with income earning capacity, possibly those with

assignments in the management of the oceans, outer space, nuclear

energy, and the polar regions. These may be given functions to

perform unsuited to national governments or beyond their capacity.

The most difficult task governments may have to face in the next ten

years is the necessity to work together in the development of

technology necessary for survival, as may be the case in energy, food,

and possibly the environment. Despite - should one say as demonstrated by the example of the Concorde - governments do not do

well in cooperation on technological ventures. Industry does

considerably better. However, in both cases, the tradition is not yet

81
established and the specter of competitive disadvantage is a major

deterring force.

Definitions of national self-interest continue to be narrowly defined

and to be conceived in short range terms. The latter may be credited

not so much to native stupidity, but to an understandable desire on

the part of political leaders everywhere to be concerned about their

reputation in history, and to their proclivity to keep an eye on the

next election. There may be satisfaction in berating these

circumstances, but it would be better to learn how to be responsive to

this attitude if long-term science and technology are to continue to

receive across the board support.

It is suggested, that as the prospects of threats to the well being of

all governments approach reality, governmental perceptions of selfinterest will change and so will the criteria for and condition of

cooperative undertakings. Relationships now not feasible may become

common.

In all of this the author remains an optimist. There has been a tremendous growth in the past decade in the international level of understanding of science and technology - what it is, how it is fostered,

its potential, and its limits. We are better equipped than ever by

experience as well as with understanding to apply science and

technology capabilities to the solution of the major problems

confronting mankind and our capabilities will continue to grow. The

human ability to respond to challenge and threat - when they are fully

recognized - is impressive. Fortunately, both the recognition and the

response to the threats posed by depleted resources, over-population,

food shortage, and maldistribution of wealth are rapidly maturing.

The hurdles and obstacles should not be belittled for they are very

real - but they are not overwhelming and they should not be treated as

if they were.

82
METROLOGY AT THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC'S

NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR TECHNOLOGY

Rafael Steinberg

Chief, Physics Department

Institute Nacional de Tecnologia Industrial

Buenos Aires, Argentina

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

The Metric System was adopted by Law in the Argentine Republic as early as 1863, and instances of its use date back to still earlier

times. This early adoption, later strengthened by the signing of the

Meter Convention in 1375, brought about the complete elinination of

the use of units of other systems then in force.

Enforcement of the Law has been the responsibility of the Bureau of

Weights and Measurements. For quite some time the services rendered

fully met the needs of Argentine business, especially for the

commercial exchange of goods and the production of raw materials

(cereals, meat, hides).

The advent of manufacturing industries, as well as many types of new

products, modified this situation. Changes became especially

noticeable upon the establishment of the automobile industry after

World War II, The wide diversity of products required by end users caused an unprecedented proliferation of small and medium size

industrial organizations. This process has deeply changed the social

and economic situation in Argentina.

The creation of the National Institute for Technology (INTI) was thus

not a casual incident. Established in 1957, after a prior attempt ten

years earlier, INTI was the Government's answer to the large number of

problems and difficulties caused or aggravated by the lack of

efficient technical support for Argentine industry. INTI's present

range of activities is wide. It may be said that nothing happens in

Industry's scientific and technical activity that is foreign to INTI.

INTI maintains a strong bond with the country's productive system,

which funds it through a .25% tax on credits granted to industry by

the Banco de la Nacion (Nation's Bank) and the Banco Nacional de

Desarrollo (National Bank for Development). In turn, INTI is required

83
to operate so as to support effectively all realistic industrial

projects.

Within this frame of reference, metrology has been considered from the

start as part of the infrastructure required, and thus INTI has since

1960 provided strong support for the implementation of an appropriate

metrological program developed at INTI*s Technological Park located in

Miguelete, near Buenos Aires.

An Agreement for Cooperation in Metrology, operative between 1965 and

1972, helped to link the Physics Department of INTI with the

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTE) of the German Federal

Republic. The Agreement provided for fifteen professionals from INTI

to go to PTE and for six PTE experts to come to INTI. The success of

the metrological operation made a second stage possible. This stage

is at present being approved by both governments.

At present there are forty persons concentrating their attention on metrological subjects in the following six fields in the Physics

Department at INTI:

i. Mechanics (dimensional engineering, mass and energy)

ii. Electricity (A.C. and D.C.)

iii. Electronics

iv. Heat

V. Acoustics

vi. Optics

About one half of the staff members entrusted with responsibility in

these fields of metrology have done research work at large

laboratories, such as those of the National Bureau of Standards, the

National Physical Laboratory, the Physikalisch-Technische

Bundesanstalt, the Laboratoire Central des Industries Electriques, the

Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, etc. Members of INTI*s

metrological team share in the work of the International

Electrotechnical Commission and the International Lighting Commission.

The presence of intensive industrial concentration in Argentina's upcountry has been attended by some development of associated

metrological activities, usually at local university institutes. The

idea of using the available human resources, equipment, and instruments as efficiently as possible has motivated INTI*s project for the

"Sistema Argentino de Mediciones" (Argentinian Measurements System).

INTI's authority to create supplementary calibration centers has its

legal basis in Act 195.1.1./72 and its implementation orders. INTI*s

administrative structure is flexible enough to let it conclude

agreements with other organizations, such as:

84
for metrology of process control vith the Facultad de

Ingenieria de la Universidad Nacional de Tucuman (Tucuman

National University's Faculty of Engineering);

for electrical metrology with the Facultad de Ingenieria

de la Universidad Nacional de San Juan (San Juan National

University's Faculty of Engineering);

for large magnitude mechanical metrology with the Facultad

de Ingenieria de la Universidad Nacional de Cordoba

(Cordoba National University's Faculty of Engineering);

for mechanical metrology with the Facultad de Ingeneria

de la Universidad Nacional de Rosario (Rosario National

University's Faculty of Engineering);

for basic electrical metrology with the Facultad de

Ingeneria de la Universidad de Buenos Aires (Buenos

Aires University's Faculty of Engineering);

for geodesic metrology with the Institute Geografico

Militar (Army Mapping Institute);

for the Center for Ionizing Radiation Dosimetry and

Calibration, operated under the auspices of the World

Health Organization with the Comision Nacional de

Energia Atomica (National Commission on Atomic Energy)

,

All those will be even more effectively used through the coordination

process envisaged under the Argentinian Measurements System project.

Act 195.1.1 was promoted by INTI. Its enactment in 1972 helped to

update legislation on metrology. The Argentinian Metric System

includes the units of the International Metric System (SI).

Responsibility for legal metrology rests with the National Legal

Metrology Biireau, within the framework of the State Secretariat for

Commerce. Industrial and scientific metrology is the concern of INTI,

within the State Secretariat for Industrial Development. There is

also a National Commission for Metrology which forms the Ministry's

technical advisory organization,

I would not like to end this summary without mentioning that

familiarity with measuring methods and instrument calibration promotes

highly creative activities. Only with such familiarity is it safe to

permit departures from established measurement routines. Thus, the

fact that by 1965 INTI possessed a group experienced in temperature

measurement helped with the satisfactory resolution of a problem posed

by the State Secretariat for Housing regarding building materials.

85
1 The work of this original group has led to the Habltability Department

becoming an important INTI section concentrating on research in the use of non-traditional building materials.

86
METROLOGICAL SERVICES FOR THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA

Orlando Donoso T.

General Director of Standards and Technology

Ministry of Industry and Commerce

La Paz, Bolivia

IJBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

Introduction

In every day activities man comes across the necessity to evaluate

quantitatively surrounding objects, phenomena and processes. The only

method to obtain quantitative information about the material world is

by measurement.

During the whole history of mankind, people learned to measure and

passed on the accumulated knowledge and experience from generation to

generation. At the present time of modern society, measuren^ents have

assumed great importance in science, technology, industry, trade,

transport, public health, in planning of the national economy,

estimation of material vrealth, in mutual trade balances, estimation of

quality of products, adjustment and maintenance of technological

processes, in scientific researches, occupational safety, disease

diagnostics, preparation of medicines, and in medical treatments of

patients. Many problems can be successfully solved on the basis of

using information from measurements.

Metrology and the Bolivian Directorate-General

of Standards and Technology (DGNT)

The Bolivian Directorate-General of Standards and Technology (DGMT) is

a State Bureau subordinated to the Ministry of Industry and Trade. It

deals with standardization and technological research at the national

and international level. Although Bolivia has a Law dating from 1893

adopting the decimal metric system, units of the most diverse origin

are still used. They cause difficulties in trade, technology, and

education. Measurement data constitute the basis of all commercial

affairs. Their accuracy promotes expansion of commercial exchange and

prevents misunderstanding and conflicts, which othei-wise may cause mututal distrust. Consequently, it is necessary to ensure the

87
uniformity of national units of measures. This can only be achieved

by mastering the fundamental principles of metrology.

A general definition of standardization is work on establishing and

applying rules aimed at regulation of activities in a given field for

the benefit and with the help of all interested parties in order to

achieve the best general economic benefit. In this particular paper,

standardization is to be considered as the development and application

of rules aimed at regulating activities in the field of m.etrology.

One has to develop standard methods for determining properties, such

as the composition of substances or materials or for defining their

purity, for instance, that of drinking water. In all these cases one must specify acceptable properties in standards.

Any standard that specifies parameters or sets requirements for

dimensional characteristics should be applied with pre-set accuracy,

which may require wide use of measuring techniques. These techniques

may depend on definite measuring operations and be linked to a system

of calibration. This system expressed in a calibration hierarchy

should also be standardized.

DGNT, being aware of the importance of metrological standardization,

decided to set up a Standardization Committee devoted to the study of

units and symbols. The aim is the conversion to a single system, the

metric (decimal) system or, more precisely, to the international

system of units (SI) which was recommended for universal use by the

Xth and XI th General Conferences of Weights and Measures. The

Committee should pay special attention to traditional commercial

relations with countries, where different systems are current.

The experience of many countries has shown that the problems of

economic development can be successfully solved only in a country that

has an effective metrological service. Such a service must assure uniformity of size of units and of measurements throughout the

country. Correct results from measurements carried out in different

parts of the country must be obtained \^^ith various measuring devices.

Traditional national measurin<» systems penetrate deeply into everyday

practice and into the consciousness of people. Specific quantitites,

their perception and comparison with other quantities, fonii habits

which take root in early childhood. Establishing a single system and

its standardization, requires not only technical but also explanatory

and informative work incorporated into teaching programs and primary

education.

The importance of a metrological service in Bolivia, according to

plans of DGNT, justifies the creation of a Department of Metrology

within DGNT and consequently, under the Ministry of Industry and

Trade.

88
Activities of Metrology

The activities of the Department of Metrology should:

Determine the need of the country, In order to establish the

metrologlcal service.

Provide uniformity of measurements throughout the country by the

most effective and economical methods.

Specify In standards the rational nomenclature for the units of

measurements.

Specify In standards of measurements scientifically substantiated

rules and regulations for metrologlcal procedures for making and

presenting the results.

Calibrate measuring Instruments and check measurement practices.

Develop rules for legal metrology Including those for permitted

measures and the methods for transferring the physical quantities

vhlch represent the units from standards to measuring Instruments,

Test new measuring Instruments and methods and certify the

quality of Industrial products.

Train metrologlcal staff to serve the nation.

Guide and control metrologlcal activities in firms and factories.

Cooperate internationally in metrology and the associated technology.

The Department of Metrology must solve a complex of problems to ensure

uniform measurements. The result of its work is of national

importance.

Organization and Structure

The extremely wide scope of the Department of Metrology and its great

impact on the development of the national economy and science, make it

necessary to pay much attention to the special organization and

structure of the Department, By the nature of its task centralization

of the metrologlcal service is needed. The structure should be as shown in the following chart:

89
COUNCIL

OF

MINISTRIES

National Council of

Science and Technology

Regional Policies

National Policy

Ministry of

Industry and Trade

International

Metrology

Directorate General of

Standards and Technology

Standards

Department

Advisory

Committee

Cha'nber of Industry

Universities, Research Labs

,

Private Sector

Metrological

Department

Technological , Department |

Regional

Laboratories

Lab.

Linear & Angular

National

Laboratories

Lab.

j Weijghts i Lab.

Maintenance

Lab.

in Firms

Lab

.

Temperature

Lab.

Electricity

Lab

.

Universities

Lab.

Research

Lab.

State

90

1
The Departraent of Metrology, as the central national institution,

should aim to solve all metrological problems. It must be suitably

equipped with technical instruments and staffed with highly qualified

persons. The Department of Metrology must begin with their

specialized training, otherwise planning of the metrological work for

the country will be poorly founded.

Training of Personnel

In Bolivia training of staff in metrology is impossible. Therefore,

this training should be carried out in countries where well-organized

metrological institutions and faculties of colleges dealing with

metrology exist. Leading workers and specialists in metrology must

have wide physical and mathematical education because metrology is

connected with many branches of science. Metrologists must take part

in planning and designing complex systems, different complex

metrological apparatus, and in solving questions in calibration, its

automation, etc. Specialists in metrology must know the problems of

standardization and primary standards, of metrological elements,

unification, unitizing, and of the main directions of instrument

making. Furthermore, specialists in metrology are supposed to develop

national standards and measuring units, maintain their level of

accuracy and intercompare them with international standards.

The need for specialist staff in metrology depends on the volume of

the planned metrological activity and on the structure and functions

of the Department of Metrology.

For an initial period and later activities, specialists in the

following three categories are required:

1. Specialists of highest qualification (metrological engineers)

capable of leading the work on the national scale. They must

be trained in special metrological-scientific research institutes, faculties, etc., (such as the High School for Metrology

in France) . They must possess long-time experience in industrially developed countries. It is important that these specialists are aware of economic problems. This understanding is

needed for proper evaluation of the economic effects on the country and the industry, and for proper planning of the metrological

work. A future task of these specialists will also be the training of personnel in the country.

2. Specialists of average qualification (metrological technicians)

who can directly participate in metrological x^ork. They can specialize in separate branches of measurements. Their practical and theoretical training must be sufficient for reasonable performance of measurement duties and elementary processing of measurement data.

91
3, Specialists of minor qixalification who can work in factories

and firms. Their task is to perform correctly measurements

and calibrations necessary in production. They can be trained

by the specialists in the Department of Metrology,

Laboratories and Equipment

According to the needs of the country, the following laboratories are

being planned:

Linear and angular measurement laboratory.

Mass measurement laboratory.

Force measurement laboratory.

Laboratory for the measurement of mechanical properties of materials.

Volume measurement laboratory.

Pressure measurement laboratory.

Temperature measurement laboratory.

Electrical measurement laboratory.

Medical Instruments

Special attention should be paid to the calibration and repair of

medical instruments, since all specialties of medicine are closely

connected with measurements with instruments for diagnosis,

prevention, or research.

Maintenance Service of Instruments

A maintenance service for instruments is also subordinated to the Department of Metrology, This service should be provided by a section

for maintenance of metrological instruments. It should be provided

with:

a well-equipped shop for mechanical and electrical repairs (milling and drilling machines, etc.);

with experienced personnel;

with plans for periodical repairs including preventive maintenance to avoid major unexpected repairs;

and with imported or homemade replacement parts,

Metrological Legislation

The introduction of metrological principles as standards in the country requires a legislative act by the Government, which should determinate the juridical basis for regulating the activities of the Department of Metrology,

92
In Bolivia two kinds of standards are used, voluntary and mandatory

ones. The degree of compulsion of the standards ought to be regulated

by a juridical act, which should be observed by all relevant

organizations and persons in the country. It is recommended to make

the following standards mandatory:

standards establishing the national measurement system, including the measuring units, the measurement methods, and the means

of calibration;

technical standards of a general character comprising systems

of perf erred numbers, a system of technical documentation;

standards which provide interchangeability establishing tol- erances affecting the fit of spare parts, etc.;

a standard classification and codification system for goods for

import and national production;

and standards for determining quality-indices, in order to

grant quality marks.

The legislative act should determine the responsibilites of the relevant parties in any violation of mandatory standards and the procedure

for imposing warnings or penalties. In case of any conflict

concerning metrology, the opinion of the Department of Metrology is

decisive. For this reason also, it is necessary to settle the status

of this Department by Law, defining its rights, responsibilities, and

the scope of its power. The main judicial aim of the Department of

Metrology is to support legally the uniformity and authenticity of

measurement in the country.

International Cooperation in Metrology

In countries in which the concepts of standardization have been introduced recently, it is indispensable to request assistance from

developed countries, where standardization is already an expedient

instrument for developing the economy of the country. Various forms

of assistance will be required, such as:

provision of help from experts to set up the Department of

Metrology and to elaborate recommendations for introducing a unified system, of units for equipping the metrological

laboratories for maintaining national standards and for

organizing international comparisons of the national standards;

in training of national specialists in metrology;

93
for technical documentation (standards, books, etc.) dealing

with metrology;

by introduction to the activities of international organizatioi

such as those of the International Committee for Weights and

Measures, the International Organization for Legal Metrology,

the International Organization for Standardization, and the

International Electrotechnical Commission.

94
TOP LEVEL STANDAilDIZATION TRAINING

Felix von Ranke

Executive Secretary

Associacao Brasileira de Normas Tecnicas

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

NBS/AID Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November A, 1974

At the request of Francisco Anusz, Director of the Railroad Department

of the Ministry of Transports of Brazil, we at the Brazilian

Association for Technical Standards tried in 1972 to plan a top level

Standardization Training Program.

We had gained previous experience with information programs open to

all by registration without condition. With technical assistance by

experts from UNIDO, we presented in lectures and seminars the

following list of topics:

Tl - national standardization;

T2 - international standardization (ISO, lEC,

Codex Alimentarius, OH-IL)

;

T3 - Panamerican standardization (COPAJTT)

;

T4 - standardization in the U.S.A., the United

Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, countries

of Latin-America and the U.S.S.R.;

T5 - standardization at the level of companies

or governmental offices.

The treatment of each topic consisted of lectures, discussions, and

practical work.

95
After three training programs we reached a definition of time required

for each phase:

HOURS

TOPIC

INFORMATION DISCUSSION PRACTICAL

WORK

TOTAL

Tl 2x2.5=5 2x1.5=3 2x3=6 14

T2 2x1.5=3 2x1.5=3 2x3=6 12

T3 2x1.5=3 2x1.5-3 2x3=6 12

T4 2x1.5=3 2x1.5=3 3 9

T5 2x1.5-3 2x1.5-3 3 9

TOTAL 17 15 24 56

The training program took one month. Provision was made for an alternate for each lecturer in charge of exposition, for each

coordinator of the discussion, and for each leader of the practical

work. After the 1 1/2 hour lectures, there was a little break

followed by related discussion. The lecturer of each topic was

present in the related discussion, but the discussion was coordinated

by another expert.

The exposition concerned with T2 was divided essentially in two parts:

ISO and lEC, with two different lecturers.

The order of lectures, discussion and practical work was as follows:

T INFORMATION DISCUSSION

PRACTICAL

WORK

Tl 1 1 7

T2 2 2 8

T3 3 3 9

T4 4 4 10

T5 5 5 6

96
The experts invited for lecturing, coordinating and leading of the

practical work were:

Rodolpho Bom Jr., Technical Administrator, at that

time working in standardization at Petrobras, Course in

Standardization (AFl'OR)

Luiz Carlos Martins Pinheiro, Engineer, at that tine

working in Railroad Standardization, Course in Standardization (AFN'OR)

Luiz Alberto Palhano Pedroso, Engineer, Technical

Assistant of ABOT, Course in Standardization (Ar>'OR)

Florentino Cunha Mello, Engineer, working in standardization at Eletrobras, Course in Standardization

(AFNOR)

Paulo Mauricio Guimar'aes Pereira, Engineer, Director

General of the National Institute of Technology and

Director of COPAMT

Franklin Claudio Rache Souto, Engineer, Chief, Comission

of Standardization of Petrobras

Luiz Wilson '-larques de Souza, Engineer, formerly

Director ABNT

Alberto Cotrim Rodrigues Pereira, Engineer, Chief of

Department of Standards and Industries at Eletrobras

and Director ABNT

Felix von Ranke, Engineer, Executive Secretary ABNT

The training program was given in the facility of the "Escola de

Engenharia" of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, under

coordination of Prof. Paulo William Maciel, and a certificate was given by the authority of the University to participants with 75%

attendance in the training program and completion in the assigned

practical work.

The number of participants was restricted to 12 (twelve) for reasons

of availability of working documents and other facilities. Lectures

and discussions (except -for T4) took place in the University. All

practical work and the lectures concerning T4 were given at AB^TT

because of the availability of documentation. We observed that a reduction of the number of participants to eight improved the quality

of the program. Participation in the program was by authorization and

97
restricted to those with a previous university degree in engineering,

chemistry, administration or economics.

Such training programs (three to date) confirm the possibility of top

level training in standardization in Brazil, and this paper was given

with the intention of stimulating similar programs in other countries

or regions.

Participants are able to develop standards or participate in

standardization at all levels* The cost of one training program was evaluated as U.S. $700. 00 for each participant.

98
STANDARDIZATION IN CHILE

Patricio Sierra

Institute Kacional de Normalizacion

Santiago, Chile

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

Historical Review

In 1944 the National Institute of Technical R.esearch and Standards

(IJIDITECNOR) was created in Chile by Decree No. 1937. One of the

objectives of this organization was to draw up technical standards to

regulate commercial transactions. It had produced approximately 900

documents for this purpose by 1973. In 1946 INDITECNOR became a member of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

,

In the meeting held in Petropolis, Brazil, in 1949, the need to create

a Pan-American Committee for Technical Standards (COPANT) was discussed, INDITECNOR had an active part in its eventual. creation and in

establishing the basis for its operation, II©ITECNOR carried out its

work until 1973. Since that year the National Standardization

Institute (INN) has become its legal successor.

Present Situation

INN has the following main objectives:

a) To develop standardization;

b) To promote quality certification; and

c) To organize a central office of metrology.

Standardization is the process through which norms are applied. By a "norm" we mean the standard of reference that unifies and simplifies

procedures or products.

Quality certification gives assurance that a product has the minimal

characteristics of quality consistent with the norm.

99
Metrology is the science associated with the measurement of these

characteristics

.

From the above statements and definitions it follows that an interaction exists between these three functions. If we assume that

our purpose is to improve the product quality and if by this concept

we understand the appropriate balance between product price and users^

satisfaction, it can be seen at once that the following conditions

must be met:

a. Standards must establish appropriate requirements on product

quality.

b. Quality certification must be granted only to products that

meet standard specifications.

c. Quality certification must be based on reliable measurement techniques established on the basis of legal and

applied metrology standards.

Consequently, we see how in applying a standard to the certification

of a product by quality, an interaction is established between the

standard and the quality certification itself. The development of new

measurement techniques may show the need to improve the standard

itself. (See Figure 1.)

Figure 1

100
The joint and harmonious development of these three elements is

necessary. For this reason, they are included in the statutes of the

National Standardization Institute in Chile.

Yet, this does not imply that a single organization like INN must

develop all the details that these functions imply. Tlie mandate of

IN^I calls for the "best exploitation of scarce resources". Therefore,

INN coordinates all the work that these functions imply, obtaining

help from the appropriate sectors.

For the above reasons, the organization of I^TN is based on the

following three divisions: standards, technical services, and

metrology. This is illustrated in Figure 2.

ADMINISTRATION

STANDARDS

DIVISION

BASIC STANDARDS DEPARTMENT

METROLOG'

DIVISION

TECHNICAL S

DIVISION

ERVICES

INDUSTRY

METROLOCy DEPT.

CERTIFICAT ION DEPT.

CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT

MINING & METALLUIIGY DEPARTMENT LEGAL METROLOGY

DEPARTMENT

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

ARCHITECTURE & CONSTRUCTION DEPT.

MECHANICS & TRANSPORTATION DEPT.

DOCUMENTATION CENTER

ELECTRICITY DEPARTMENT

COORDINATION DEPARTMENT

Figure 2

101
Considering that the principal objective of INN is that the Chilean

products are quality products, its policy has been oriented to attain

this objective. Nothing is attained merely by establishing technical

standards if these are not applied. Their application requires a technically qualified national Infrastructure among other factors.

For this reason, since 1969, INDITECNOR and later INN have carried out

an intensive educational program in quality control, standardization,

and - to a lesser degree - in metrology. The information is

summarized in Table 1. INN also has encouraged the creation of a national system of quality certification guided by all the effective

and appropriate laboratories existing in the country. The objective

v/ill be for the products to carry a single stamp of quality.

The above is a brief stimmary to give a superficial look at what has

been an arduous task for 32 years. The establishment of

standardization in underdeveloped or developing countries is not an

easy task. I believe that one of the characteristics that defines

underdevelopment is disorder and inharmonious growth. Technical

standardization does not constitute "the solution", but it is one of

th6 effective tools that lead to the acceleration of the development

of a country. The standardization models of a developed country are hard to apply directly to developing countries since the market

conditions are different. In effect, a substandard product has no chance of competing in the market of a developed country. This is not

true in a developing country. The standardization organizations in

the developing countries should concern themselves mainly "with

application of the standards". This is not true in general in highly

developed countries in which this function is carried out almost

automatically.

102
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103
SUMMARY ON THE APPLICATION OF THE SINGLE UNITS

OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM IN COSTA RICA

Rodrlgo Lopez A.

National Institute of Standards and Uniformity of Measures

San Jose, Costa Rica

NBS/AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

Background

Since September 18, 1884, Costa Rica has had a law, with corresponding

regulations, establishing the compulsory use of the decimal metric system.

This was the first attempt to displace the Spanish and English measurement

units which were deeply entrenched among the people. In practice, the

system established by law did not gain acceptance. From that date on, the

law was complemented by various executive agreements, but it was not

possible to establish the metric system in everyday use. In 1926, there

was a more formal attempt to reject the Spanish and English units of

measurement. However, all these laws, decrees, and regulations, in almost

all cases, fell into disuse, so up to the present, in Costa Rica, we have

had the simultaneous and combined use of four systems of units of

measurement

a) The traditional Spanish (the vara, the square vara, the city block, the

460 g pound, the 28.75 g ounce, the Spanish foot of 1/3 vara, the 25 pound

arroba, the 46 kg quintal, the 920 kg ton and the 87 cl bottle).

b) The English (the inch, the foot, the 2.8317 m^ register ton for air

cargo and sea freight, the 1016.047 kg long ton, the 4.546 liter imperial

gallon, the quart (1/4) and the pint (1/8) of this gallon, and the 36.368

liter bushel)

c) The United States (the 453.6 g pound, the 907.185 kg short ton, the

28.35 g ounce, the 4046.86 square meter acre, the cubic foot, the 3.785

liter gallon, the quart (1/4) and the pint (1/8) of this gallon, and the

35.2391 liter bushel).

d) The decimal metric system.

104
From the various attempts made by the Government, it can be said that only

in three areas was it able to impose metrification totally: in property

surveying and registration (although in commercial activities the square vara and the city block continued to be used); in coffee production, for

which the hectoliter and double decaliter were established as the basic

units, and in Customs Tariffs.

Situation in 1974

Fortunately there are the National Archives which make it possible to

discern the causes of the failures of the various attempts to establish a single system of units of measures. We want to avoid these causes in the

current attempt launched on September 25, 1974.

From the background study made, three basic facts can be seen as the reasons for past failures: a) mprovisation in the attempt to establish

the decimal metric system, b) excessive flexibility and leniency of the

officials, and c) resistance by the public, its lack of cooperation, and

the veiled but effective inclination of commerce to avoid compliance with

the law.

Under the new law, which came into force on September 25, 1974:

1) Appropriate periods of time for the adoption of the International

Measuring System in the various activities are allotted.

2) The importation of measuring equipment which does not EXCLUSIVELY

indicate the units in the metric system is forbidden.

3) Sufficient publicity is organized to persuade industry, commerce and

the general public of the desirability of using the metric system.

Furthermore, equivalency tables are published in order to avoid confusion.

A) A National Standards and Units of Measurement Bureau has been created,

with a body of inspectors having two or more years of professional

experience, to oversee the application of the Law. This Bureau is in the

nature of a Directorate and is under the Ministry of Economy, Industry, and

Cormierce

.

5) A number of basic activities are regulated to establish the use of the

metric system, as follows:

a) For any legal act carried out with reference to measurements of any

type, the use of metric units shall be compulsory and exclusive. Neither

the law courts nor any other Government agency shall accept documents

presented to them if they are not in metric units. Equivalencies are not

permitted.

105
b) Administrative actions by public agencies which are not in accordance

with the provisions of the law shall be annullable. Officials originating

them shall be directly responsible and, of course, suffer the corresponding

penalties. The Official Gazette shall not publish any document that is not

according to law.

c) For any agricultural, commercial, or industrial activity, only

measuring units authorized by law may be used.

d) On packaging, containers, or labels, measuring units shall be marked

exclusively in the metric system.

e) Newspapers, magazines, and any other publicity media may not publish

advertisements with measures other than in the metric system. Advertising

space has to be sold also solely in units as prescribed by the law.

In general, all activities are regulated in accordance with the

International System of Measurements.

Periods for compliance were established in advance in consultation with

each of the branches of activity. These periods, in general, are between 1

month and 3 years. In very difficult cases, and where the law implies

investment in machinery and equipment, such terms may be extended up to 10

years. Of course, before the end of this term, there has to be partial

adoption of the metric system.

The following activities are exempt from the application of the

International System of Units for a period of 10 years, from the time the

law went into force:

1) those concerning official international agreements, when the parties to

such an agreement are sovereign or international organizations, if one of

the parties uses a system different from the metric system;

2) the import of mechanical spare parts and tools, provided they do not

have non-metric scales;

3) import of non-metric machinery when it is in the national interest

provided the importer guarantees to the buyer spare parts service for at

least five years.

We are aware of the general resistance to the adoption of the Metric

System. The chief enemy is the mental laziness of people, who do not take

an interest in a change which apparently offers no incentives.

106
A sustained and systematic effort is necessary. We, who are in charge of

that activity in Costa Rica, are convinced of the multiple benefits of a single system of measurement units and feel very optimistic and pleased

with the preliminary results.

Background of Standardization

On September 21, 1951, the Government of the Republic of Costa Rica stated:

1) In view of the planned industrial development, it becomes necessary,

for the better guidance thereof, the good of industry, and the protection

of the consumer, to issue certain regulations concerning nomenclature,

qualities, and other requirements to which industrial products should

conform, as well as to provide to industry the technical assistance

necessary for sound development.

2) Due to the heterogeneous nature of industrial activity, this task

cannot be carried out without technical assistance from specialists

familiar with various branches of industry.

3) It is advisable, in order to obtain the most effective results, to

have the direct advice and cooperation of industrialists themselves who, by

virtue of their knowledge and connection with industry in general, can offer an effective contribution.

Therefore, a Standards and Industrial Technical Assistance Committee was

created operating under the Ministry of Agriculture and Industries. This

Committee consisted of 7 persons, 3 of whom were representatives of the

Chamber of Industries. They met once a week, and had a Chemical Laboratory

to obtain answers for various problems presented. This Committee

established 30 standards of different kinds. This operation stopped in the

year 1956, when ICAITI, a multinational organization in charge of setting

standards for all of the Central American area, appeared. The Committee's

fvinctions were diluted by other activities and assignments given to it by

the Government under different laws.

With the appearance of ICAITI, the Standards Committee, whenever it felt

that a standard was necessary, requested it from that Institute. Of

course, these requests were not always complied with. We consider this

reasonable, since we understand the complications of establishing such

standards and the economic difficulties which this Institute has to face.

As a reqult of these developments, Costa Rica no longer is engaged in

establishing standards.

107
Present Situation of Standards in Costa Rica

When the National Bureau for Standards and Measurement Units was created,

the Standards Committee disapppeared . This Bureau has an Advisory

Committee, which carries out more or less the same functions as the earlier

Committee. The most important point is that the standardization field

already has its own personnel, in charge of overseeing the application of

the Metric System. Concerning the additional task with which we are only

now beginning, there is little we can say. At present we are mainly

interested in standards for food in general (both for human consumption and

animal feed) and those that concern agriculture. At present we are concentrating our efforts on the labelling of food products and, of course, we have many uncertainties which we would like to discuss with more

experienced people.

We have also once more taken the initiative in establishing standards. At

present we are working on standards for animal feed. We also want to

modify some of the nomenclature for food products, mainly that concerning

labelling. This type of NBS/AID/OAS Workshop is extremely important for

Costa Rica and we are very enthusiastic about the great benefits which we

may derive from this meeting.

108
THE STANDARDIZATION ACTIVITIES PROVIDED IN ECUADOR BY INEN

Raul Estrada A,

Director

Institute Ecuatoriano de Normalizacion

Quito, Ecuador

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

The Institute Ecuatoriano de Normalizacion (INEN) was established by

Decree 357, August 28, 1970, The Organization actually started

functioning in December of the same year and recruited its first

technical personnel in February 1971, According to that Decree, it is

the duty of INEN to establish technical standards of quality for all

products that are traded within Ecuador, that is, raw materials,

intermediate products, and finished goods; to set standards for

methods of testing, inspection, analysis, measurements, classification

and designation of materials and products; and to grant certificates

of marks of quality in accordance with standards.

It is imperative that INEN understand the economic conditions of

industry and of the nation in order to respond effectively in the

general progress of the country and more specifically in its economic

development.

In Ecuador, agriculture provides the largest percentage of the Gross

National Product, This is a typical case of what is called "Exporter

Primary Model" in which the buying capacity (importation) is limited

by the continuous price deterioration of basic products exported into

the international market. This model shows a low elasticity, in terms

of price and income, unfavorable terms of trade, and unstable pricing

which creates a commodity surplus and greater instability of the

prices. Historically, more than 90% of Ecuador's exports are raw

materials, especially tropical ones: cacao, coffee, rice, and bananas.

Each one of these products in its time has occupied first place among

the exports. For a short time Ecuador was one of the major exporters

of bananas, with 18% of the total world market; more recently,

petroleum has become the nation's most important export, which

complicates further the coherent economic development of the country.

109
Diversification of exports is urgently needed, for improvement of the

Ecuadorian economy to increase the elasticity of the economy and to

diminish the negative economic effects caused by excessive

fluctuations in the prices of raw materials. These problems are

accompanied by the great social problems caused by unequal income

distribution, population increase, and slow institutional development.

The condition of the labor market restricts the investment in certain

economic activities. The slow expansion of the domestic market limits

investment in manufacturing, because there are available competitive

forms of investment with less risk, as for example in commerce. This

structure favors increased consumption of the high income groups with

the resulting negative effects on the market. The new phenomenon of

economic integration in the Andean Group offers many possibilities for

improvement of the export position of Ecuador, more specifically for

diversification of sales of manufactured products, and at the same

time for increased exports of traditional products. The gradual

change in export sales composition, that is, the growing importance of

industrial exports, is in itself one of the most beneficial effects

expected from the economic integration process. The allied industrial

programming which is one of the most effective instruments of the

economic integration of the Andean Group is one of the major elements

for the industrial development of Ecuador, even more important than

the general system of preferences.

The possibility of marketing new industrial products of Ecuador, first

in the Andean market and later in the international market, is

however, mainly controlled by the competitive position in quality and

prices. Efficient use of technology, good management, and the

efficient use of resources are important. Technical standardization

is regarded as one of the most useful means to obtain the best results

from available resources by rationalizing industry and diminishing

superfluous varieties of goods; moreover, it is regarded as an efficient instrument of technology transfer. The priorities,

therefore, of the recently established INEN lie in two main fields:

1. To supply the proper instruments to improve exports

2. To improve the domestic market, providing for fair dealing,

especially for the benefit of the consumer.

In order to achieve the first above-mentioned goal, INEN proposes to

raise the level of quality of the national production, and to conform

to the relevant requirements of the corresponding international

tandards (e.g. those of ISO, lEC, FAO, and COPANT)

We know that in many cases the quality of the product should be in

accordance with the standards of the buying country. It seems to be

necessary to reach general uniformity of technical consensus at

110
international levels, so as to promote efficiency in production. In

this respect it is important to consider the strange situation still

prevailing, in vhich countries like Ecuador who are producers of

certain rav materials have not had the opportunity for proper

participation in international standardization, so that the consumer

countries are the ones who impose their views in standardization.

Most of the time this situation works to the disadvantage of the

producing countries. We wish to correct this situation with our active participation in ISO. INEN is already a member of lEC and it

will become a member of ISO this year.

INEN, as an agency of the Ministry of Industry, Commerce and

Integration of Ecuador, is in a favorable position to be an effective

element in a coherent export program and, in fact, is being consulted.

The active intervention of INEN and other organizations in charge of

the country's export policy helps the Government execute a national

policy. INEN has the responsibility to certify quality and to

administer the use of trade marks in conformity with standards. INEN

is enforcing a system of certification based on the best international

experience. For the design of this system, it was necessary to

analyze the actual technological development of the national industry.

In 1971, the first year of activities by INEN, this institution

established a system of lot inspection and certification for export

purposes, and this has been very successful in finding markets for some new products.

These experiences show the benefits which may be realized with a general system of certification which has been be^Tin in Ecuador.

Through its use it is expected that eventually the whole export

production will be certified by INEN. The certification marking

scheme used by INEN is based on the establishm.ent of systems of

statistical quality control at factory level supervised on a regular

basis by the Institute. Standardized control methods, designed by

INEN, inspection methods, statistical techniques and analytical

techniques are used. In this context the testing laboratories of the

universities and technical institutes cooperate as "Official

Laboratories of Analysis" for the conduct of the multiple tests

required. For routine tests or simple analysis of inspection or for

guidance purposes, INEN is developing its own laboratory facilities.

The fact that INEN has the function of quality certification as well

as that of standardization gives it a special capability which is

particularly important in a developing country. The Institute has to see to it that the standards issued by it (or international standards)

are reasonable and strictly adhered to. INEN is trying to resolve the

difficulties encountered in the domestic market, namely sensitivity to

quality, exceeded by greater sensitivity to price.

Ill
By standardization solutions can be found to critical problems of

quality of public health and safety. The food industry, for example,

has serious problems due to the different levels of companies. Some

are almost at artisan level, while others employ considerable

managerial and technological resources. The whole industry is faced

with competition in prices. Rationalization of this industry is one

of the fields of action for standardization that has top priority for

INEN.

Another problem is that of the construction industry, in which

difficulties in national standardization are accompanied by a continual rise in cost, with an adverse influence on the low income

population. INEN has among its priorities the standardization of

materials, design, methods of testing, modular construction, etc.,

through which it expects to improve the situation greatly. This

activity is the first step towards more important actions aimed to

improve construction methods and materials especially with regard to

low income housing.

INEN is making rapid strides in scientific metrology. This Institute,

almost since its inception, has attempted to remedy the chaotic use of

weights and measures that exists in the country through the

implementation of the International System of Units. With this

objective in mind, the Law of Weights and Measures was designed and

issued by the Ecuadorian Government this year. The implementation of

this law is the responsibility of INEN. With this implementation in

mind, the Institute has installed one of the most modem laboratories

of metrology in Latin America; this Laboratory has custody of the

National Prototype of Mass and the standard kilogram for use in

industry.

A service of instrumental calibration for industry has already been

put into operation in order to establish the necessary confidence in

the accuracy of the instruments used in the country; this service will

be connected with the use of standard reference materials. For all

the above actions, the contribution of the U.S. National Bureau of

Standards has been of great importance.

INEN is an important link for the transfer of technology and of

technical information on standardization and quality control,

metrology, and related fields. Microfilm facilities and a mechanical

data retrieval system are in the process of development.

It is useful to make reference to the use of the human resources of

Ecuador. INEN is making a contribution to better utilization of

Ecuadorian scientific and technological talents at all levels; during

the present year the Institute has proposed 40 thesis subjects to

students who have completed engineering courses at the universities

112
and polytechnics of the country. These thesis subjects are fully

sponsored by the Institute by means of:

scientific and technical assistance;

scientific and technical information;

financing of equipment

economic aid.

At this moment, ten theses have already been prepared under this

program and now INEN is expanding the program, INEN*s support of

these thesis subjects is of great significance and is a big incentive

for the execution of scientific and technological investigations

applied to the country's economic development.

INEN*s contributions to the economic development of Ecuador can be

summarized as follows

:

1. formulation of technical standards in accordance with the

National Plan of Economic Development and with priorities for

Industrial development;

2. active participation in the execution of the National Plan of

Development;

3. active participation in the national system of export

promotion through certification by lots, improvement of workmanship

and professional training, and through assistance in the publication

of the Artisan Guide which covers rules and standards for the use of

•materials, tools and machinery;

4. Sponsorship of scientific and technological investigations

through support of engineering thesis studies in the areas related to

the standardization process;

5. training courses in technical standardization, quality

control and industrial safety for workers, as well as advanced courses Including those in management;

6. promotion of basic infra-structure change, through the

implementation of the International System of Units;

7. impetus to change from a price market to a quality market

through the publication of a Consumers' Guide, which gives information

the basic characteristics of quality of products for direct

consumption;

8. improvement of the national production through quality

certification systems;

113
9. active participation, as a member of COPANT, in international

standardization

10. publication of basic and specialized knowledge, in periodical

form, of: technical standardization, quality control, scientific

metrology, industrial safety, and technology transfer;

11. direct assistance to industry with regard to technical standardization;

12. technical information services for industry to promote

efficient technology transfer.

The Ecuadorian Government is conscious of the importance of INEN's

activities, and has approved an increase of its annual budget from 3.5

million sucres to 13.7 million sucres from 1974 to 1975. The

establishment of a complete new complex structure of INEN was possible

this year as shown in Figure 1.

One of the main factors of INEN's success was the useful and important

technical assistance provided by the U.S. National Bureau of

Standards. In effect, in 1972, a complete survey of the

standardization activities in Ecuador was carried out by an international team of experts with the leadership of Mr. Peiser of

NBS. Most of the recommendations of the team were adopted by INEN. A

short review of the survey was carried out in June 1974 and important

new suggestions were made. It is possible to see now that INEN is

capable of contributing in a substantial manner to the economical

growth of the country as a whole and also in the technological

development of industry.

114
Figure 1 INEN ORGANIZATION CHART

MINISTRY OF INDUSTRY, COWMERCE, AND INTEGRATION

r

ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR STANDARD,

ADVISORY COWiMITTEE FOR QUALITY

CERTIFICATION

FINANCIAL DEPARTMENT

ACCOUNTING

PUBLIC RELATIONS DEPARTMENT

PUBLICITY ] [

COORDINATION

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

DIRECTOR GENERAL

PUBLICATIONS

I

I ADVISORY COMMITTEE

FOR CONVERSION

TO ?

ADMINISTRATIVE DEPARTMENT

LIBRARY AND

ARCHIVES

~1

LEGAL

ADVISOR

SECRETARIAT

QUALITY CONTROL

DEPARTMENT

TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE

QUALITY

CERTIFICATION

LABORATORIES

OFFICIAL

j LABORATORIES J

METROLOGY

DEPARTMENT

PRIMARY STANDARDS

AND REFERENCE MATERIALS

SCIENTIFIC METROLOGY

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES DEPARTMENT

SECRETARIAT INSPECTION

115

STANDARDIZATION DEPARTMENT

!—

I

ELECTCICITY

CHEMISTRY AND

FOODS

OIL AND NATURAL GAS -I B

I I
STANDARDIZATION AND METROLOGY SERVICES IN ETHIOPIA:

PROBLEMS AND PROGRAMS

Zawdu Felleke

General Manager

Ethiopian Standards Institution

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

: National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

General Remarks on Standardization

The economy of Ethiopia is based on agriculture, supplemented by

comjuerce and industry. Industrial development is a recent factor in

the country's economy but is rapidly increasing in importance. I-Thile

industrial production represents only a small percentage of the gross

domestic product, it is growing rapidly and is one of the fastest

developing sectors. Moreover, Ethiopia's foreign trade is important

for meeting foreign exchange requirements and, consequently,

influences positively the rate of growth of the Ethiopian economy.

During such a stage of development, there was and is a need to

organize activities aimed at the rationalization of production,

improvement of productivity and quality of products, reduction of

wastage, and achievement of other benefits which may be attained

through the introduction of standardization and quality control in the

national economy.

Within the frame of the provisions of the Third Five Year National

Development Plan, 1968/69-1972/73, the Ethiopian Standards Institution

(ESI) was established, as an autonomous body of the Ethiopian

Government, by Order No. 64 of 1970. Following the establishment of

the ESI, the working period of 1970/71 was mainly devoted to

organizing the activities of the Institution, including activities

such as the establishment of all necessary rules and guidelines to

ensure the proper functioning of the Institution, and the drafting of

the ESI Proclamation. The preparation of certain .standard proposals

was also initiated and relevant Technical Committees (TC's) and SubCommittees (SC's) were set up.

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On April 24, 1972, the ESI Proclamation (Proclamation Mo. 300 of 1972) was enacted, providing the ESI, among other thinp:s, with the power to:

Prepare compulsory as well as voluntary Ethiopian Standards

relating to practices, processes, materials, products and com-modities

in commerce and industry and enforce the same.

Review all standards issued heretofore and bring ther? into

conformity with Ethiopian Standards.

Authorize the use of the Standards >'ark to be affixed to

materials, products and commodities which conform to Ethiopian

Standards

.

Certify import and export materials, products and coTPmodities

which conform to Ethiopian Standards.

Examine and test materials, products and commodities and conduct

any investigation or research that may be necessary for their

conformity to standardization and quality.

Enter, at all reasonable working hours, into factories to

ascertain by inspection and sampling whether materials, products,

commodities, practices and processes conform to Ethiopian Standards.

Require producers and traders to provide information necessary

for carrying out the activities of the Institution.

Collect fees for services rendered by the Institution and administer any funds received by it.

Other enacted regulations concern the following:

Standards Mark and Fees Regulations which provide for the operation

the Standards Mark Certification Scheme,

Ethiopian Standards Regulations which deal with the approval and

^issuance of Ethiopian Standards, and

Revised Weights and Measures Regulations which provide for the

efficient administration of the national weights and measures programin line with the standardization activities of the ESI.

General Remarks on Metrology

The concept of measurement and the application of measuring

instruments in the economic and technical activities of the Ethiopian

people is as old as the country *s history. Originating from the

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environment, culture, economy and technical necessities, there has

developed a myriad of traditional measurement units and sy terns. Besides these traditional measures, during the 17th and 18th

centuries, when foreign missionaries and traders entered Ethiopia,

modem systems of measurement, metric and British, were introduced in

the daily transactions of commodities bought or sold. However, as international ties became closer, bilateral relations in trade and

technology grew stronger, and internal trade required more order and

protection, it became essential to adopt an internationally accepted

system of measurement for equity and uniformity.

Consequently, Ethiopia adopted the "Metric System" as the nation's

legal system of measurement in all commercial and technical activities

by Proclamation No. 208 of 1963. Later on, SI units were adopted

through the approval of relevant Ethiopian Standards. Furthermore, to

provide a more scientific and effective measurement system for the

Country's continued development of commerce, technology and science in

cooperation with other industrialized and developed nations, Ethiopia,

in March of 197A, became officially a full member of the Organisation

Internationale de Metrologie Legale (OIML)

Progress Achieved in Preparation and Implementation of Ethiopian

Standards

Following the establishment of the ESI in September of 1970, the

preparation of standard proposals was immediately initiated and

relevant TC's and SC's were set up. The m.embers of the different TC's

and SC's are drawn from all concerned sectors of the economy, and

included representatives of producers, consumers. Government

departments, research bodies, university faculties, Chamber of

Commerce, consultant groups, technical experts, etc.

The preliminary standard proposals prepared by the ESI Secretariat

adopted the standard specifications, practices and methods of

sampling, and testing provided for in the relevant International

Recommendations and Standards. In cases where such documents were

lacking, national standards of specific countries were employed for

reference purposes, copies being obtained through the ESI Library. In

either case, however, accumulated local data and experiences were used

to analyze, verify, and supplement the inputs to standards making and

to ensure that the standards evolved were applicable to Ethiopian

conditions.

During the preparation of the different standard proposals, study

visits were conducted to different factories, export and import

groups, laboratories, institutes. Government agencies and the like,

concerned with the materials or products regarding which standard

proposals were in preparation. Expert opinion on the proposals was

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also sought from many specialists through personal interviews.

Following the completion of initial reports on these undertakin'5s

,

most of the standard proposals prepared were distributed to concerned

organizations for preliminary review and possible comments in their

specific areas of activity. The visits and the personal interviews

were necessary in order to gain knowledge on the precise contents and

scope required for the standard proposals to m.eet the physical and

economic needs of the country.

The standard proposals thus prepared were first submitted to the

relevant SC for detail review and scrutiny, after which they were

forwarded to the concerned parent TC for -ratification and adoption.

These committee meetings provided the best assurance that the national

standards genuinely represent all viewpoints; that they are adapted to

national economic needs; and that they will be successfully adopted

when published. Furthermore, the meetings afforded the opportunity of

bringing together the best qualified and m.ost experienced people and

were instrumental in encouraging them to work together on concrete

technical and economic problems, thus providing an invaluable

contribution to the technological progress of the country. The

standard proposals were distributed, after adoption by the parent TC,

to a large number of relevant organizations and individuals for

comments. The comments were encouraging and very m.uch in agreement

with the standard proposals.

Each standard proposal was then prepared in a form of Draft Ethiopian

Standard and submitted to the Standards Board for final approval. The

board members, in the light of the recommendations of the concerned TC

and the explanations provided by the ESI Secretariat, reviewed each

Draft Ethiopian Standard for its applicability to local conditions.

As shown below, a total of 653 Ethiopian Standards related to

practices, processes, materials, products and commodities have been so far finalized and approved. Tliese standards specify such elements as terminology, method of production, safety requirements, specifications

and tolerances of characteristics such as quality, dimensions and the

like, sampling, test methods, marking and packing.

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Economic or Industrial Field

Number of

Ethiopian Standards Approved

1971/72 197.2/73 1973/74 Total

Basic Standards 11 19 5 35

Safety Standards 9 2 11

Agriculture & Food Products 71 132 85 288

Medicines & Pharmaceuticals 23 23

Water Supply & Sanitation 32 32

Printing & Office Materials 10 4 6 20

Building & Civil Engineering 11 26 24 61

Mechanical Engineering 6 6 21 39

Chemical Engineering 1 34 46 81

Electrical Engineering 18 23 41

Textiles 12 15 27

Total 110 260 288 658

The implementation of national standards through the application of

the Standards Mark Certification Scheme (involving quality control,

testing and the affixing of a certification mark) is a means of

guaranteeing that the goods bearing the mark have been inspected and

tested, and that they can be purchased with an assurance of quality.

In Ethiopia, this procedure was established by the Standards Mark and

Fees Regulations of 1973, according to which the use of the Standards

Mark shall assume either mandatory or optional status depending on the

requirement of the relevant Ethiopian Standard, The producer or trader, upon entering the Standards Mark contract with the ESI, is

permitted to use the mark.

In order to shorten the time between the implementation of declared

Ethiopian Standards and the signing of the Standards Mark contracts,

extensive preparatory activities were undertaken. These activities

included:

Conducting a survey with a view to gathering necessary

information on individual enterprises, identifying quality control

problems, and preparing preliminary inspection reports.

Distributing Standards Mark facsimiles, application forms, and

copies of the Negarit Gazeta, with an accompanying letter which

invites the relevant producer or trader to submit a completed form.

Surveying facilities of existing testing laboratories, whose

normal activities may be quite different from those undertaken by the

ESI, to determine their capabilities to perform testing of products

according to the relevant Ethiopian Standards,

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Sampling and testing products to prove their conformity with

requirements specified in relevant Ethiopian Standards,

Making arrangements with the relevant National Marketing Boards

so that they take on the responsibility of implementing Ethiopian

Standards issued in their respective fields.

Following the completion of the tasks mentioned above, the first group

of 110 Ethiopian Standards concerning weights and measures,

agricultxjre and food products, paper and stationery, building and

civil engineering, mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and chemical

engineering were put into effect by signing Standards Mark contracts

with the concerned producers and traders. Consequently, the working

period 1973/74 marked the start of the application of national

standards in the Ethiopian economy.

Progress Achieved in Metrology

A program of legal metrology providing for equitable weights and

measures that assure correct and clearly understood quantities of

commodities bought or sold is one of the basic requirements for a healthy development of commerce and industry. Hence, the development

of the legal metrology program has been given early attention. The

basis for any weights and measures program is the enactment of a law.

Such a law does exist in Ethiopia and the ESI has, besides its basic

standardization functions, the mandated responsibility of developing

and implementing the national weights and measures program.

A small number of inspection teams has, with modest equipment, been

verifjdLng annually the accuracy of metric measuring instruments found

in the country. The legal metrology work has benefited from the

technical support and guidance of the Institution; consequently, a large number of newly manufactured and imported measuring instruments was inspected and verified.

Problems in Standardization

Editing, printing and translating the highly technical standards into

Amharic - the official language of Ethiopia - have been very demanding

and time consuming tasks. The publication of standards necessitates

very close and constant checking and authentication in translation.

Certain difficulties were and are still being encountered in the

application of Ethiopian Standards, due to the fact that standards are

for the first time being enforced and implemented in the national

economy. The establishment of internal quality control schemes and

substantial public relations activities, aimed at popularizing

standardization work, are found to be essential for the success of the

standards implementation program.

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The lack of adequate testing laboratories and facilities has been a major handicap to the enforcement and application of Ethiopian

Standards through a national quality control program. The ESI

urgently requires such testing facilities suitable for performance of

relevant tests and for strengthening the national standardization

practice by integrating quality control, and industrial research for

quality control, with the national standardization procedure.

Problems in Metrology

The lack of adequately trained inspectors and other support personnel

needed to conduct systematic and periodic verification and calibration

of measuring instruments, coupled with the existence of a myriad of

traditional measures and hundreds of variations of them, has limited

the success of the national weights and measures program.

The major problem which impeded the proper development of the weights

and measures activity is the lack of a National Metrology Laboratory

where the national primary and secondary standards could be kept and

properly maintained for calibrating and tracing the accuracy of field

and working standards. Similarly, the shortage of reference and

working standards available for verification purposes has slowed down

the progress of the weights and measures program.

Programs in Standardization

The importance of rapidly introducing standardization and quality

control in the national economy as well as strengthening the metrology

services has been constantly emphasized in the Five Year National

Development Plans of Ethiopia, In order to provide for the smooth

production and transmission of goods and services between the various

sectors of national activity, a strong infrastructure of

standardization and metrology needs to be created. Hence, during the

Fourth Five Year Development Plan period starting in 1975, preparation

and issuance of a total of 1,100 Ethiopian Standards is envisaged.

Similarly, over 500 certification marking operations are planned to be

undertaken during the same period.

The principal objective of the ESI is to support the national interest by

the stimulus which standardization and quality control impart to

industrial development. We hope to apply Ethiopian Standards in a number of different industrial fields, and gradually establish a guide

to nationally agreed industrial practice in order to render production

units economic, enhance output of goods of reliable quality, and

foster import substitution. In order to achieve this goal, the ESI is

planning to establish a National Quality Control Testing Center

operating under the Institution. Although the main objective of the

Center will be to undertake laboratory tests required for the

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« implementation of Ethiopian Standards, it will also be the place where

research and developmental testing can be undertaken for projects

directed towards continuous improvement, adoption and development of

indigenous and imported technology. Hence, the Center would provide a capability . for improving the quality of export oriented production as well as for helping a possible shift from the export of raw materials

to that of semi-finished or finished products. It is envisaged that

the Center will also undertake testing and research activities

necessary to provide basic data and information to be used in the

preparation of standard proposals. Thus, it will help functionally to

integrate quality control and industrial research for quality control

with the national standardization practice. Such an integrated approach

will effectively correlate manufacturing capability of industries with

national standards and with the implementation of standards after they

are issued. Consequently, the involvement of industries in the

national standardization process will increase substantially. This

will enable the industries to respond meaningfully to standardization

at all levels of operation. Hence, the national standardization

practice will grow roots in the indigenous "soil".

Programs in Metrology

An essential ingredient of the national legal metrology program are

the physical standards of weights and measures. National reference

standards and working or secondary standards are necessary for

enforcement of legal requirements. It is necessary, initially, to

provide primary standards of mass, length, and volume. These would

serve as the national standards. Commercial measurements and legal

determinations should be traceable to the national standards. Primary

reference standards are 'essential to provide the basis for an equitable level of accuracy in commerce. To provide traceability and

the link between commercial m.easurenents and the national standards,

adequate field standards of weights and measures are employed; these

include standard weights, capacity measures, and linear standards.

The standards program will be broadened in the future to include

electrical standards, temperature standards, gage blocks, and other

measuring instruments. However, the initial requirements usually

relate to the measurement of mass, length, and volume. Calibration of

field standards against national standards does not necessarily ensure

that measurements are accurate since other aspects of measurement

process may not be under adequate control. As the measurement

practices in Ethiopia become more sophisticated, attention will have

to be given to the entire measurement procedure in order to be sure

that systematic errors are minimized.

The establishment of an environmentally controlled National Metrology

Laboratory to house the national standards and laboratory instruments

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is planned. The Laboratory will have the following main

responsibilities

To provide and maintain the national physical standards which, to

assure accuracy, will be compared at regular intervals with national

physical standards of major industrial nations or international

primary standards.

To develop and provide calibrated verification equipment for the

Office of Weights and Measures, for use in legal enforcement

activities.

To plan, institute and operate a nation-wide educational program

for the consumer and farmer so that the public can know and identify

the correct type of measurement and also exercise self-protection when

selling or buying agricultural or industrial products.

In cooperation with other organizations, to do research and find

solutions, if possible, to problems involved in developing accurate

and standardized measuring devices for replacement of traditional

ones,

• To develop standards of performance, accuracy limits, and other

requirements for testing commercial devices for an orderly commercial

weights and measures program.

To provide annual calibration services for verification of

instruments used by the Office of Weights and Measures,

To develop test procedures for weights and measures inspectors to

apply to commercial as well as scientific measuring devices.

To assist in developing laws and regulations concerning weights

and measures.

To provide calibration services to industries, universities and

other research institutions.

To train scientists, inspectors, and technicians of different

laboratories as necessary for metrology,

Tlie national weights and measures program will therefore concern

itself with metrication activities as well as conducting systematic

periodic calibration and verification of measures and measuring

instruments used in commerce and industry. The program will involve

establishment and operation of District Control Laboratories for

Metrology and Inspectorates,

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Conclusion

An increasing rate of economic growth is the major national goal of

any developing country. Achieving more rapid growth requires, among

other things, investment, influx of technology, and creation of

the infrastructure and other support facilities essential for the

proper performance of the various sectors of the economy. The

national aspirations of a country like Ethiopia are, however, hindered

by economic problems which inhibit progress.

Standardization makes an important contribution to the solution of

several economic problems which affect all countries, but which are particularly pressing and crucial for developing economies. Among the

various factors affecting productivity, standardization ranks high.

Standardization permeates the entire economic structure because it

profoundly influences the productivity and efficiency of each and

every enterprise. Uithout the foundation of standards, metrology, and

quality control programs, mass production and the development of a mature Industry and export capability are all virtually impossible.

It is to achieve these objectives chat the ESI is vigorously expanding

its efforts to introduce standardization, metrology and quality

control programs in the Ethiopian economy. Since developing countries

like Ethiopia are faced with limited resources and technical

personnel, developed countries will have to provide technical

assistance to strengthen and accelerate the standardization and

metrology programs of developing economies.

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PRECISION MEASUREMENT IN INDONESIA

Mr. Sumantri

Deputy Chairman for Technology

Indonesian Institute of Sciences

Jakarta, Indonesia

NBS/AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

Accurate and uniform measurements are essential for the scientific

community, and for industry and commerce. Examples of areas of

national life where measurements are of vital importance include:

- accurate assessment of natural resources

- regulation of trade;

- regulatory and service functions of Government

(e.g., health, electricity);

- scientific research;

- medicine;

- chemical analysis and the characterizing of the

properties of materials

- testing of industrial and agricultural products

- ensuring the correct performance of equipment

(e.g., aircraft maintenance); and

- ensuring interchangeability of mass produced parts

The provision of adequate measurements and analytical and testing

services, is therefore an important link in the infrastructure

required for national development.

Indonesia has not as yet a body, or organization, which is responsible

(accountable) for the custody of national physical standards in a way

which ensures that they are consistent with the physical measurements

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of other countries, and for ensuring that measurement services are adequate to meet the needs of science, medicine, and industry, as the

nation develops (except in the limited field of "weights and measures"

to be used in trade - and such standards should in any case be

calibrated in terms of the physical standards referred to above) . In

other words, there is no "national standards laboratory".

There are laboratories with capability in various classes of

measurement; but the level of skill in measurement, and the accuracy

of the equipment, across the entire spectrxim of precision measurement,

is very uneven; and in some classes of measurement there are no precision measurement facilities at all.

Although reasonable equipment does exist for some classes of

measurement, the laboratories which have these facilities do not have

any statutory responsibility to provide nation-wide calibration

services so as to maintain their facilities at the level required to

service the needs of the country (except for the Directorate of

Metrology of the Department of Trade, which has responsibility in the

limited field of weights and measures used in trade) . Each

organization therefore provides what it requires for its own purposes,

without regard for the needs of other groups who might also have a need for precision measurement in that field,- There is no co- ordination on the basis of national needs at all.

One important deficiency caused by this lack of a body responsible for

national physical standards is that Indonesian measuring equipment is

not calibrated in a way which ensures that its calibration is

traceable to international standards.

It is true that when measuring equipment is purchased it will have

been calibrated by the maker in terms of international standards, and

at that time its calibration can be said to be "traceable" to

international standards. But measuring equipment does not retain its

calibration indefinitely. Even if it is well used, its calibration

will drift with time; and if it is misused, its calibration will

change rapidly - or it may lose its calibration altogether. In any

event, when it is repaired it must be recalibrated.

Instruments must, therefore, be recalibrated at regular intervals - particularly in the Indonesian climate, \^ich is very unfavorable for

the retention of calibration for precision measurements. But up until

now, there has been no one responsible for ensuring that the

calibration is done. Furthermore, the very low allocation by

Government for instrximent maintenance means that laboratories cannot

afford to send instruments overseas for recalibration even if they

recognize the need for it.

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From the facts described above, one may conclude that Indonesia's

services In the field of precision measurement are Inadequate to meet

the future needs of an expanding economy, particularly an economy In

which Industrialization will play an Increasingly Important part.

Services must be provided to rectify this situation. Such services

must lead to:

- a complete and consistent system of measurement;

- coordination with the measurement systems of other

countries; and - measurement services which are adequate to meet the

needs of science, medicine, Industry, commerce, and

education, as the nation develops.

A program has recently been Initiated by the Minister of State for

Research to develop a national system for calibration.

Instrumentation, and metrology. Besides the achievement of goals as stipulated above, the program also attempts to bring about

Improvements In the state of serviceability of scientific and

Industrial Instruments In Indonesia. The Indonesian Institute of

Sciences has been entrusted by the Minister of State for Research wltu

the task of serving as the center of system management of the program.

No measurement Is ever absolutely accurate and some degree of

experimental error Is always present. Obviously, measurements should

be made as accurately as possible, but as the accuracy of the

measurement Is pushed higher, so too Is the difficulty and the cost of

making the measurement. In developing countries like Indonesia, there

Is a limit to the resources which can be allocated to this, or. Indeed, to any other field of science. In such circumstances,

therefore, no matter how laudable It may be to strive for perfection.

It Is necessary to stop short of what can conceivably be attained In

the Interests of common sense and best utilization of resources.

In Indonesia It Is not considered likely to be necessary, at least

during the next decade, to set up an organization which attempts to

realize primary standards Independently. This would be a very

expensive, complex, and difficult task, which we cannot afford to

undertake. We consider It more appropriate to obtain, as a first

step, high quality Instruments which have been calibrated In another

National Laboratory, or at the International Bureau of Weights and

Measures.

It Is considered sufficient to provide facilities which are matched to

the country's needs, and to assure that the standards facilities are

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kept constantly under review and strengthened as and when necessary,

so that the real needs of the country can be met as the industrial

development of the country places greater and greater demands on accuracy of measurements. In this way, the resources which are allocated will be utilized to the full and employed so as to give the

maximum benefit to the country's science and technology.

In Indonesia, responsibility for precision measurement will, at least

for the next decade, be shared by a number of complementary

laboratories with specific fields of measurement. In so doing

duplication of expensive facilities which already exist could be

avoided. It is very important, however, that such facilities as there

are be kept in a "current" state of calibration (which they are not at

the moment), that there be a clear responsibility for certain fields

of measurement, and that funds be allocated for the discharge of that

responsibility.

Multilateral and bilateral aid is being sought for building up our national system for calibration, instrumentation and metrology. As a first step, external assessors may be requested to visit the

laboratories responsible for the different fields of measurement, to assess the situation in each field and recommend ways and means (such

as recalibration of standards, staff training, and laboratory

procedures) of strengthening those laboratories so that they may

dispatch their duties properly in meeting the needs of the country for

precision measurement.

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JAMAICAN BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Ovan Julal

Jamaican Bureau of Standards

Kingston, Jamalcd

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

Introduction

The Jamaican Bureau of Standards was established six years ago but

laboratories were set up only three years ago. The Bureau offers to

Jamaica calibration and testing services in the fields of:

1. Mechanical Engineering

2. Electrical Engineering and Electronics

3. Metallurgy

4. Legal and Engineering Metrology

5. Building and Associated Materials

6. Non-Metallic Materials

7. Chemistry and Microbiology

8. Food Inspection and Testing

Work

One of our main tasks is to make Jamaican industry aware of the

Importance of producing goods of a desired quality using accepted

methods and tools properly calibrated and maintained.

The Bureau's technical staff makes visits to manufacturing

establishments to assess their quality control facilities, advise on improvements needed and take samples of manufactured products for

testing in the laboratories. It is not uncommon on such visits to

discover pressure gages, thermometers, micrometers, balances, ammeters

and the like in actual need of servicing and calibration, while still

being taken to be in proper working order. Personnel at such plants

are sometimes aware of the need for servicing and calibration but do

not have other equipment to substitute while the faulty ones are being

serviced. The opinion sometimes is that with the existing equipment

production is kept at the desired level of quantity, while the quality

aspect is being overlooked.

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In our efforts at the Jamaican Bureau of Standards to protect

consumers, we have established a consumer relations section which

receives complaints and channels them to the appropriate sections.

Besides each staff member Is urged to be on the lookout for shoddy

goods on the market, or those not conforming to our compulsory

labelling requirements. The consumer relations section also

undertakes to give lectures, demonstrations and tours to Interested

groups.

There Is the problem of many small manufacturers yaho do not have the

resources necessary to establish proper quality control facilities.

We assist by making our services available, sometimes at a token

charge. A system Is now being worked out whereby manufacturers - large and small - may send their quality control personnel to be

trained In our laboratories at no cost to the manufacturer.

Specifications

Sixty-two specifications have been developed. Nine of these, of which

three are compulsory, have already been declared as standards. Our

Standards Mark, as a part of our certification mark scheme. Is not now

being used on any product but an early appearance Is foreseen.

Equipment

The equipment of the laboratories was donated largely under United

IClngdom Technical Assistance. The U.K. also provided four experts to

assist In setting up the laboratories and to train Bureau staff.

Additional equipment Is required In order that we may expand our services to the country.

Staff

There Is a total staff of 112, of whom approximately two-thirds are

directly Involved In laboratory work. The majority of the technical

staff are university or technical college graduates. Only a few of

the present staff benefitted from the training offered under the U.K.

Technical Assistance mentioned before. A few have received training

by way of short courses In the relevant fields.

The Participant's Experience In Standards and Metrology

The participant was recently appointed to head the Engineering

Metrology Laboratory which he joined six months ago when that

Laboratory was linked with the Weights and Measures Laboratory and

Inspectorate to form the Department of Metrology. He reports to the

head of the Department. He had no previous experience In Engineering

Metrology.

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He spent the prevloas three and one-half years working in the

Electrical and Electronics Laboratory of the same institution where

experience was gained in the calibration of current, voltage, and

power meters in the maintenance of standard cells, standard

resistances, precision potentiometers, etc, and in the safety and

performance testing of electrical products such as batteries,

switchgear, air conditioners, refrigerators, electric irons, plugs and

sockets.

In the Engineering Metrology Laboratory, the work undertaken includes

a; the calibration of slip gages, micrometers, height and depth gages,

dial indicators, straight edges, length bars, steel balls and surface

plates. Among the products entering the laboratory for dimensional

checks are electrical conduit wires, thread forms, pipes, nails, wire

staples and dies.

The equipment of the laboratory includes dimensional standards,

millionth comparator, a toolmaker's microscope, a pitch-measuring

machine, an optical rotary table, surface tables and hand tools.

An expansion of our services into the field of machine tool metrology

y<a-ui is now being studied as a result of requests made by factory and

workshop personnel. We are also investigating the need for a manual

of simple measuring devices for use in technical schools.

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ECONOMY AND STANDARDIZATION

Kim, Zae-Qxian

Director General

National Industrial Standards

Research Institute

Seoul, Korea

NBS/AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services In Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

Economic Development

A system of standardization and measurement cannot exist and develop

separate from the state of Industry, especially from the degree of

Industrialization of our society.

Therefore, I shall begin with a brief discussion of the state of

Korean Industry today and Its projected development.

Within a relatively short span of a decade, Korea has made major

progress towards becoming a modern Industrial nation. With a population of approximately 33,000,000, the country's total production

Increased from US $2.6 billion In 1963 to US $12.4 billion in 1973 and

per-caplta Income rose from $98 to $376 in the same period. The

economic planning during the two already completed 5-year economic

development plans stressed industrialization and export as the twin

national goals. The first (1962-1966) showed an annual average growth

rate of 8.3% and the second plan (1967-1971) achieved an average

growth rate of 11. 4Z per annum.

During the current third economic development plan (1972-1976) the

main emphasis has been placed on a more balanced growth of agriculture

and Industry, with economic growth slowed to 8.7%, and on building the

structural. foundation for the heavy and chemical Industries. In the

fourth plan period of 1977-81, the economy is targeted to an average

of 9.0%.

In this manner we hope to increase the per-caplta Income to

approximately $1,000 and to attain $10 billion of export by 1981.

*

Such far-reaching goals would be impossible to achieve without a significant change-over of the nation's production apparatus to

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turning out export products, and an industrial restructuring that

increases the ratio of heavy and chemical industry from 33% in 1971,

to 40% in 1976 and 46% in 1981.

Need for standardization and quality control

Much of the industrial advances of the sixties in Korea was based on

the labor factor. In the manufacturing sector it has led largely to

the formation of labor-intensive operations, such as the assembly of

cars and industrial equipment. The effort of the seventies is

directed towards attaining a greater sophistication in industrial

technology and capability, in parallel with an accelerated development

of the machinery industry.

However, it might be noted that the building of a modern machinery

industry is probably the single most difficult industrial undertaking

in a developing economy. The industry serves a rather exacting market

(the industrial market), and its development requires the simultaneous

build-up of an extensive and economically-viable parts and components

supply network. Yet this must be accomplished if the country is to

participate successfully in the world market.

The development course that Korea has set for herself is as an exporting nation of manufactured goods. Realistically speaking, there

is no other option for Korea since the land is not abundantly endowed

with natural resources. In recent years, the array of export items

has been shifting and will continue to shift from the simpler labor

intensive manufactures to goods demanding greater technical know-how

and skills, as well as modem manufacturing facilities. As many of

you are aware, Korea launched her first 253,000 DWT supertanker

earlier this year. Going back to the nation's development goals, the

key to the whole proposition is and will be technology, from the

building of R & D capabilities to the establishment of codes and

specifications in manufacturing. In fact, it is the technological

potential of the country, and not low labor rates, that provides the

best rationale for the various industrial undertakings now being

implemented or envisioned in the field of metals, shipbuilding, auto

manufacture, petrochemicals and electronics. Citing at random some urgent tasks ahead are standardization of select auto components

inlet and exhaust valve, cylinder liner, piston and piston ring etc.

Relevant planning and studies are currently underway. However, their

implementation will require organization and programs on a national

scale that will effectively involve the government and the industry.

The organization must above all be competent and objective in the

endeavor to establish national standards, the system of quality

control, and testing procedures in manufacturing. The programs must

be compatible with the needs and the realities of the nation's

industrial circumstances. The major responsibilities for these

134
organizations and programs are to be assumed by the Institute that I

represent. In the following, I shall briefly Introduce the Institute

and describe its history as well as additional major tasks that the

institute must perform.

National Industrial Standards Research Institute

a. Brief history

Korea first established regulations governing modern weights

and measures In 1902, although the national standards of the meter and

the kilogram had been obtained In 1894, But It was In 1959 that Korea

ratified the convention of the meter, and the metric system was put

Into force In 1961 to modernize weights and measures. The National

Industrial Standards Research Institute, an organization similar to

the U.S. National Bureau of Standards, was originally established as the Bureau of Mint in July 1883, In April, 1912, the body was renamed

as the Central Testing Institute (CTI) responsible for industrial

education, as well as testing and analysis of industrial products.

The educational department of CTI was detached to become what is today

the engineering college of the Seoul National University, and another

department gave birth to the National Geological and Mining Research

Institute. In September, 1945, the institute was reorganized as the

Central Industrial Research Institute and in October, 1961, it was renamed the National Industrial Research Institute, In January, 1973,

It became the National Industrial Standards Research Institute

(NISRI).

b. Present functions

1) Modernization of the National Standards System

1) The custody, maintenance and development of

the national standards of measurements,

11) Testing and inspection of legal weighing and

measuring devices,

111) Calibration of measuring and weighing equipment

for Industrial purposes.

Iv) International verification of national standards.

2) Quality control

1) Testing and analysis of industrial products.

135
11) Testing and analysis of export goods.

Ill) Production and distribution of standard reference

materials (SRH).

3) Research on standardization technology*

4) Technical services.

1) Technical extension service.

11) Consulting service*

111) Distribution of technical Information.

Iv) Seminars and symposia.

5) Training.

6) Energy economy and R&D.

1) Improvement of the Korean traditional heating system

"on-dol".

11) Improvement of efficiency of 19-hole briquet burners.

Ill) Development of Insulation materials.

Iv) Improvement of efficiency of boilers.

c. Development plan

Standardization Is of fundamental Importance In International

trade. It provides a reference In clear language for the negotiations

between buyer and seller, especially If there Is a scheme for

Inspection which guarantees conformity with standards.

Interchangeablllty of component parts, achieved by standardization, Is

Important for servicing and maintenance, particularly of exported

equipment. The Implications for Korea are clear. Exports which

amounted to US $40 million In 1961 reached over US $4.5 billion In 1974

There was not only an Increase In the quantity of exports but also a major change In the type of exports. In the early sixties, primary

products constituted over 50% of total exports, v^lle by 1974 these

had been reduced to less than 20% with a corresponding increase in export

of industrial goods. This trend is expected to continue. In this

connection, I should like to Introduce our two major projects in

NISRI.

136
1) National Standards Institution

Since the duties of Industrial standardization and quality control

are scattered over several agencies, the work of Industrial

standardization has been performed Inefficiently, Moreover the need

has not been widely recognized. Realizing the Importance of these

problems, our government Invited surveys by United States NBS/AID

teams In 1967 and 1972, Based upon their recommendations and our present situation, we are proposing to establish a Standards Research

Institute whose main function will be the development of a modem

national standards system, research in metrology, standardization of

products, and the dissemination of relevant technological information.

We hope to secure the requisite funds from the USAID,

In September 1974, we contracted with General Electric Tempo for a feasibility study of national standards programs, covering the

organization, the equipment needs, the staffing needs, and the

technical information system plan. Also the Korean government will

allocate around 6.5 million dollars for land, buildings, and other

basic facilities,

2) Testing and Inspection Centers

At present, there are not enough adequate facilities in Korea for

the testing and inspection of industrial products. A proposal for the

establishment of a metals testing & inspection center. in Chang-Won

was made in October 1973 at the German-Korea Economic Working Level

Conference. In October this year an agreement was reached for a German

feasibility-study team to come to Korea next year. This center is

expected to undertake the following tasks

:

(a) Qtiality Improvement of metal products to the level of

international standards. (b) Technical improvement of the

metalurgical Industry (c) Training of metalurglcal engineers and

technicians,

^ In addition to these we are also planning the establishment of

Electronic and petro-chemical products testing and inspection centers

which will be located in the various industrial centers.

It is hoped that the maturation of these plans will accelerate Korea's

progress to an advanced state of industrialization and a better

standard etf living.

137
NOTES ON THE GENERAL DIRECTORATE

OF STANDARDS OF MEXICO

Antonio Rico L.

Secretary of Industry and Coiranerce

Direccion General de Normas

Cuauhtemoc

Mexico, D.F,, Mexico

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November A, 1974

Objectives of the DGN (General Directorate of Standards)

DGN's responsibilities are to coordinate and develop standards for

industrial products through standardization committees; to enforce

mandatory standards (mainly those concerned with public safety,

consumer and other than buyer-seller interests) through the Department

of Industrial Inspection; and to verify weights and measures used in

commerce and industry through the Department of Metrology, DGN is

operated under the Assistant Secretary for Industry in the Ministry of

Industry, Commerce and Fisheries. DGN has a Director General and two

Deputies respectively for Metrology and Standardization.

The Basic Problem Faced by the Standardization Institutions in Mexico

There exists a lack of understanding and, as a direct consequence,

lack of interest in standardization, in the affected sectors of

society.

This problem is basically caused by the following factors:

a) The government has not adequately promoted the interests of both

the industrial and consumer sectors.

b) Industry has not shown sufficient understanding necessary for

carrying out standardization.

c) Lack of communication and coordination among the groups that should

carry out standardization.

138
I

Solutions to these Problems

Presently, the root causes mentioned above are generally eliminated

one by one. The actions are carried out in accordance with the

characteristics of Mexican traditions and existing institutions.

Actions in Metrology

First it is necessary to analyze the concepts and contributions made

by metrology from a wide view point. Basically it means answering

these questions: What is metrology? What is its usefulness? \Jhat

problems can be solved by metrology? Work is being done to answer

these questions.

The present lack of coordination between the relevant institutions and

organizations in Mexico, that is Governmental organizations,

universities, research centers, etc. is a common condition found in

most under-developed countries. It is imperative to eliminate this

situation in Mexico. Mexico is therefore promoting the creation of

organizations whose functions are to organize and coordinate the

existing scattered elements.

The market and the available resources for the establishment of a metrology laboratory are being surveyed.

Staff training will be provided to obtain utmost efficiency. This

aspect of DGN*s work is receiving attention simultaneously with the

other three points.

139
PROBLEMS AND EXPERIENCES ON MEASUREMENT AND

STANDARDIZATION SERVICES IN PAKISTAN

K. Ammar Hussaln

Director

Central Testing Laboratories

Pakistan Standards Institution

Karachi, Pakistan

NBS/AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

Pakistan emerged as an independent country in 1947 as a result of the

partition of the Indian sub-continent into two sovereign states. The

area comprising Pakistan inherited a purely agricultural economy with

little or no industrial activity. It lacked the institutional

facilities considered a necessary prerequisite for healthy

industrialization and progress. The Government of Pakistan, realizing

the importance and urgency of industrial development alongside

agricultural growth, established the Central Testing and Standards

Laboratories and the Pakistan Standards Institution in 1951.

Establishment of the Measurement Services

Initially the Central Testing Laboratories was chartered to assist the

Government purchasing agencies in the determination of quality, grade

and standard of stores procured, and in rendering technical assistance

in a host of executive functions. However, with the passage of time

and the industrialization of the country, the Central Testing

Laboratories gradually came to shoulder the responsibilities of the

premier national agency responsible for quality control, with regional

centers throughout the country.

By now the Central Testing Laboratories has the following Divisions in

operation, manned by adequately qualified, trained and experienced

personnel:

Chemical Division ~ Organic and Inorganic

Physical & Engineering Divisions, including Electrical/

Electronic/Manufacturing Engineering

Cement & Building Materials Division

Textile Division

140
Bacteriological Division

Planning Division

The problems and experiences of our Laboratories in the area of

measurement, analysis and testing are briefly discussed below:

(1) Paucity of Funds

Paucity of funds, in foreign exchange as well as in local currency,

has been the most serious impediment to satisfactory progress and

development of the measurement and standardization services. Unlike

the situation in Europe, America, and even Japan, the private sector

of industry, trade and commerce in Pakistan extends no financial

assistance in the setting up, modernization, or expansion of

scientific institutions. Therefore, the entire expenditure has to be

funded through the Government Exchequer which is already overburdened

by the endeavor to provide the barest minimum of social facilities to

the masses and the need to provide for industrial and agricultural

development, etc.

It will be appreciated that scientific and technological development

is so rapid these days that testing equipment becomes obsolete very

fast, requiring replacement from time to time. We cannot afford the

associated expenditures. Similarly, new techniques, raw materials and

products are brought to market almost continually; these innovations

require specialized equipment, machinery, and apparatus, as well as arrangements for analyses and tests. To keep pace with the times it

is essential to ensure the availability of the latest methods of

measurement and analysis, which require adequate funding.

(2) Planning of Laboratories

National development plans as they are drawn up from time to time,

emphasize adequately with huge capital layout, the development in

different areas of economic activities which aim to achieve balanced

growth. Yet no importance is attached to expanding and upgrading

measurement, analytical, and testing institutions. While therefore

very significant and praiseworthy progress is visible in various

economic spheres, proportionate institutional improvement in ability

to determine the quality and grade of products for purposes of quality

control and standardization is seriously lacking.

(3) Wages

The wage structure and other service conditions in our Laboratories

are far from satisfactory and do not hold enough attraction for the

workers to encourage prolonged emplojnnent. As a matter of fact,

chemical analysts stay only until a better opportunity is found; this

141
situation has virtually converted measurement institutions to training

institutions.

(4) Lack of Calibration Services

Tremendous difficulty is experienced due to the absence of

institutionalized facilities for the calibration of industrial and

precision measuring instruments. The Central Testing Laboratories

provide calibration facilities for industrial instruments on a limited

scale. Some calibration facilities for precision instruments are also

available. All these facilities are inadequate to match the

sophisticated demands of science and technology. The present

Government has already realized the acuteness of the problem and has

established a weights and measures organization to implement legal

metrology and approved in principal establishment of a National

Physical Laboratory for Scientific metrology and a National

Calibration Service for industrial metrology.

(5) Planning and Training Facilities

No scientific institution worth the name can think of continued

progress and betterment without continual planning and development

directed towards new fields and areas to match the demands of the

times. The greatest impediment to development of new areas is the

lack of training facilities for the workers and a proper program for

development with expert advice and guidance. Unfortunately, there is

neither a national nor an international agency to help in planning,

development and execution in new areas of measurement and analysis by

offering advice on machinery, equipment, and man-power required and by

recommending facilities to train the available human resources. In

this context it may be worthwhile to mention that the publications

issued by the National Bureau of Standards have been found to be

extremely useful as references for the development of new fields of

measurement, but they do not serve the need mentioned above. Neither

do the books written on laboratory planning and design offer solutions

to the problems encountered in setting up new fields of measurement

and analysis.

(6) Repair and Maintenance of Equipment

Repair and proper maintenance of sophisticated instruments and

equipment has so far presented serious challenges in the absence of

needed physical facilities, and with the uncooperative attitude of the

suppliers of machines. Very frequently, a particular piece of

equipment remains out of commission just for lack of one small

component which the suppliers of the machine fail to send despite

repeated requests. Similarly, replacement, due to breakdowns, of

small spares, especially in older equipment, has proved to be a severe

142
problem, as the suppliers of the equipment typically do not find the

request for dispatch of one particular component (which is generally

of slight value) attractive enough to arrange for prompt shipment.

(7) Lack of Final Authority in Measurement

There is no legal protection of the results furnished by the national

measurement institute. This encourages representatives of vested

interests to challenge results and even drag the officials involved

with the subject into a court of law where attorneys, by gruelling

Questions, impute a different meaning to the report than that actually

intended. Not being contented with this practice, the attorneys even

try to, by mere jugglery of words, to snatch from the mouth of the

official appearing in support of a given Test Report, a completely

different interpretation of scientific work from that intended.

Declaration of the Industrial Metrology Service as the final authority

on technical measurements will create confidence among local and

foreign contacts, besides boosting the morale of the officials

employed in the organization by providing them with protection from

unnecessary harassment.

(8) Classification for Purposes of Taxation

Requests are received by the Laboratories from customs authorities for

classification, for assessment of State Duty according to customs and

tariff regulations, of goods (whether products or matreials) imported

from abroad. Very frequently, this presents a delicate problem as the

analytical results obtained from any given sample place it on the

borderline of two different types of goods, making exact

classification very difficult. No doubt Brussels Handbooks, Lloyds

Handbook, and some other guides are available on methods of accurate

analysis in such cases, yet there are occasions when the scatter of

results makes it almost impossible exactly to categorize the goods.

According to prevailing taxation rules, a wide difference in the rates

of duty may be applicable for a product if it is classified on one side or other of a borderline. As is usual, the importers are keen

that the classification and grading is made to minimize duties, while

the customs authorities are anxious for the opposite ruling,

(9) Counterfeit or Adulterated Chemicals, Reagents, Etc.

Substantial quantities of chemicals reagents, etc. are procured by the

Laboratories from the local market for use in analysis. Experience

has shown that very frequently, the chemicals, reagents, etc. are adulterated and occasionally counterfeited. This is one of the causes

of inaccurate analytical results requiring rechecks and providing

unnecessary opportunities for vested interests to challenge the

results, to the embarrassment of the institution.

143
(10) Duplication of Facilities

While it is admitted that shortage of funds is responsible for the

improper and inadequate layout of the existing measurement services,

it has been observed that every governmental organization sets up its

own testing facilities with utter disregard of existing arrangements.

On the one hand, this duplication creates idle capacity, and, on the

other, it leads to wastage of scarce foreign exchange for creating

facilities already available in the country. By coordinating or pooling the resources of the agencies concerned, large sums can be

saved and measurement services can be considerably strengthened,

(11) Standardization Services

The Pakistan Standards Institution was established in 1951 under the same institutional framework as the Central Testing Laboratories,

However for administrative reasons, the Institution was made an autonomous organization in 1959. The Institution is primarily

responsible for establishing national standards for various items of

trade and Industry, The affairs of the Institution are managed by a General Council which consists of members of various fields of

industry, trade, science and technology, from both the private and

public sectors. The General Council appoints an Executive Committee

and a Finanace Committee to look after the day to day work of the

Institution, The standardization work is carried out by six

Divisional Councils and 105 Sectional Committees. The Institution is

also responsible, under a law known as P.S.I. Certification Marks

Ordinance 1961, for exercising quality control in Indigenous

industries in general and in export oriented industries in particular.

The Pakistan Standards Institution has been a member of the I,S,0,

since 1951, and of I,E.C, and A.S.T,M. since 1959. Pakistan being a member of the Regional Cooperation for Development scheme (with Iran

and Turkey) , the Pakistan Standards Institution is represented on its

"Committee of Industry and Standardization" for establishment of

Common R.C.D. Standards.

Our problems and experience m the field of Standardization are briefly discussed under the following seven headings:

(1) Neglect of Standardization in Planning

Standardization does not find its proper place in national and

international development policies.

In the national theater, this factor is manifest in the unabated

process of diversification and in the increasing complexity of plants

and machinery obtained from different sources abroad. Planners and

designers pay little heed to the requirements of standardization.

144
Usually, economy is sought in the latest and largest plants without

much regard for the infrastructure and resources available in the

country. This continually creates problems for national

standardization.

The international bodies giving economic and technical assistance and

loan-giving agencies, such as the World Bank and the International

Monetary Fund, do not seem to attach much importance to the

requirements of standardization when examining requests for assistance

or loans. In view of the economic benefits of standardization, it is

highly desirable that a specific portion of the assistance and loans

should be reserved for standardization and quality control, and that

this portion should be endowed with special concessions applicable if

the loan is used to promote standardization.

(2) Development Loans

Invariably, loans offered by advanced countries for industrial

development are tied to the procurement of the plant, machinery,

equipment, etc., from predetermined sources. Even if no such

condition is specifically imposed, feasibility reports, design,

manufacture, erection and studies of operation and maintenance

details, which are normally carried out by the aid-giving countries or foreign experts, tend to restrict the selection of plant and raw

materials. As a result of the tied loan process, during the past

several years, many types and makes of plants, machinery and equipment

have been placed in operation. Due to these tied loans even in the

same sector of industry, diverse types of plants are in operation.

This presents a major problem for standardization. It is therefore

imperative that for the sake of standardization no conditions as to

the source of procurement of plants and raw materials should be

attached to development loans.

(3) Lack of Testing Facilities

The Pakistan Standards Institution does not have its own testing

facilities; this results in the work of standardization and

certification marking remaining incomplete. However, this handicap

has already been appreciated by the Government and the Institution is

being reorganized with adequate testing facilities,

(4) Dissemination of Standardization

For promoting an understanding of standardization and its benefits,

intense publicity is needed. Documentary films should be used to

appeal directly to the masses. The Institution does not have the

funds necessary to prepare such documentary films. Standardization

conciousness has not grown to the desired extent; the activities of

145
standardization and certification marking are viewed either with no

Interest or as an encroachment on free enterprise.

(5) Raw Materials

Manufacturers usually are reluctant to adopt national standards on the

ground that they do not have an opportunity to Import raw materials of

proper specifications due to restricted licensing. For the same

reason, they are not prepared to gtiarantee uniformity In the quality

of their products.

(6) Absence of Technical Data

The entire standardization activity is based on the experience of

others. National and local conditions relate little to the standards.

This is due to lack of reliable technical data and lack of co- ordination between the research and standardization agencies.

(7) Lack of Interest and Talent Development

The entire work of standardization has to be done by the staff of the

standards body. Very little assistance is available through the

meetings of the Divisional Councils and Sectional Committees. The

members attending these meetings have no particular aptitude for or experience in standardization. They show either no interest or too

much vested interest.

In Pakistan no proper institutional facility is available in either

the public or the private sector of Industry, trade or commerce to

develop potential talents for standardization work. Manufacturing

units do not have any standardization activity, since they adopt the

company standards of their principals located abroad. Furthermore, no adequate emphasis is laid on standardization and quality control in

education at college and university levels.

146
ACTIVITIES OF THE PANAMANIAN COMMISSION FOR

INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL STANDARDS

Ofelia de Young

Panamanian Commission for Industrial and Technical Standards

Panama City, Panama

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

In 1970, the Government of the Republic of Panama issued a decree-law

(No. 282 of December) creating the Panamanian Commission of Industrial

and Technical Standards (COPANIT) , an organization under the Ministry

of Industry and Commerce, in which representatives of sectors, such as industry, Government institutions, and the laboratories of the University of Panama, participate in the development of national

standards. At present COPANIT employs 20 persons.

It was only in 1973 that the work of the Commission received support

from an executive body, which was established in the Department of

Standardization and Quality Control of the Ministry of Commerce and

Industry. The task of this body was to develop plans and to carry out

the programs of the Commission,

In the period between 1970 and 1973, COPANIT started its

standardization work by setting up the basic committees for technical

work in priority areas, which in accordance with Panama's needs were

related to the fields of construction materials and construction

codes. The first experience with standardization work was gained by

subcommittees for cement, additives including dry materials, and

concrete. From direct relations with the U,S.A., the relevant ASTM

standards became the basis for the corresponding standards of Panama.

In other areas of industry, the same pattern was followed. Taking

into account the limited available Panamanian capabilities, we set up

a five-year standardization program starting in 1973. This program

cover was extended to about 80% of the products manufactured in the

country, and it is now directed to the areas of construction

materials, food products, and chemicals, for local consumption. Up to

now, the program has covered about 10% of the total work proposed. We

have approximately 60 official standards, and a similar number of

additional standards are being discussed in subcommittees; approximately 100 further standards are being prepared for adoption as

147
provisional standards. The working procedure we are trying out at

present has the following aspects;

1. Utilization of resources available at the Government and

private level for standardization plans, although coor- dination of activities between ministries is difficult,

in view of each institution's priorities. For example,

the Ministry for Agricultural Development is at present

responsible, under our guidance and as a member of COPANIT,

for preparing and discussing outlines for produce and standards and, more important, for promoting awareness of the

importance of standardization by agricultural producers

and consumers.

2. Utilization of the resources available at the University

of Panama for testing and analysis for compliance with

standards, as well as for research concerning standards

for test methods.

3. Coordination at the regional level of standardization

activities, including their enforcement.

For our task, which is just beginning, the receptivity of private

industry has been so great that, much sooner than expected, we have

had to carry out quality control work while at the same time

programming for metrification and metrology. In quality control we

are at present directing our activities to advisory services to those

industries which request the Government to grant them tariff protection or import quotas.

In the field of metrification and metrology, a working committee has

been set up with five technical subcommittees, responsible for

structuring a metrification program. This program includes a basic

plan for introduction of the basic tools of metrology. There is thus

a need for some investment of funds to implement this plan. So far,

it is fund limitations which restrict the purchase of equipment

required to carry out the assigned tasks.

At the same time, there are matters of a more subjective nature, such

as the lack of full understanding of what standardization means for

countries such as ours. Companies working under international

standards, due to their links with multinational corporations coexist

with companies which are unaware of what is a specification, much less

of what is a standard. Imported materials and consumer products from

developed countries may have a level of quality which our industry,

being in its infancy, and our Commission itself, are unable to

realize.

148
The need for netrif ication arises in our country, fror. the confusing

use of a dual systen of measurenents . Each organization uses units

according to its technological level and its links vith the

international market. Greater problens are caused hv the ir.port of

obsolete equipment and tools, which are sent to us fror. the developed

countries. Lack, in Panama, of a unified metric system and l:novledge on world progress makes such equipment locally saleable.

In Panama, it is important to introduce, at this tire, a level of

technology which will make our products more competitive. For this

purpose, it is necessary to prom.ote technological interchange by means

of regional or international standardization, which m.ay help us to

attain a balance between the speed of growth of the industry and the

speed of adoption and adjustment to standards. Kence, our initiatives

are directed towards:

1. Adoption of provisional standards with the intent of introducing the basic concepts of specifications and testing.

These standards are to be revised after clearly defined

periods of tim.e.

2. Upgrading of existing laboratories by periodic small investments.

3. Installation of a basic metrological laboratory to start

our activities in the field of mass, length, and volume

measurement and associated regulation of trade.

A. Continuous training programs in qualitv control at an internal level within the Government and directed also towards

all levels of industry.

In these ways we need cooperation from the Latin American region, as well as from. OAS and developed countries, Vith that cooperation, we will be able to go forward.

149
THE TESTS AND STANDARDS DIVISION

AND THE SMALL AND MEDIUM SCALE INDUSTRIES

Jose Planas

Science Research Supervisor

National Institute of Science and Technology

Manila, Philippines

NBS/AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

J i V?! Services In Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

After the liberation period of the last Pacific War, the Philippines

saw the beginning of a rapid expansion and proliferation of

Industries. For example, we Increased our production of sugar and

copra which are still among our primary export products.

According to an official report of the Department of Economic Research

of the Philippine Central Bank, dated December 4, 1973, the ten

principal exports of the Philippines, logs and lumber, sugar, copper

concentrates, copra, coconut oil, plywood, gold (non-monetary),

desiccated coconut, bananas, and canned pineapples, alone created an

aggregate Income for our Government of U.S. $1 326.3 M. In 1973.

During the same period the total earnings from cottage Industry

exports totalled U.S. $508 M. or an Increase of 95.5% over the

previous year. It can also be said In passing that, aside from the

export of agricultural and Industrial products, our tourist Industry

Is fast becoming an Important source of revenue.

We find today several large pharmaceutical establishments operating

with foreign assistance, producing drugs and pharmaceutical products

which we used to Import ready packed In small containers for direct

sale to the consumers. We find today many partly foreign financed

Industrial manufacturing subsidiaries. In the steel Industry, we

witnessed the growth of the Marcelo Iron and Steel Corporations and

the Philippine Blooming Mills, not to mention the Illgan Integrated

Steel Mills on the Island of Mindanao. Iron and steel foundries also

Increased In number, casting and producing metal products and parts to

exacting requirements.

Our leather and shoe manufacturers are putting out much better leather

goods now than before. As a proof of this, there was a news Item that

circulated about two years ago In Manila to the effect that the

150
leather shoes we were importing from Hong-Kong at that time were made

out of Philippine materials and by Filipino labor. The cement

industry has increased its number of mills in order to cope with the

increasing demand for this commodity from our infrastructure and

housing programs as well as for export to neighboring countries. The

food industry is not to be outdone in the expansion process. We find

today various food processing plants manufacturing such items as mayonnaise and salad preparations, fruit juices, milk and other dairy

products like canned cheese, food seasonings, candies and other

confectionary products, etc. We have also witnessed the development

and expansion in other areas like textiles, paper products,

construction materials, rubber and plastic products, cigarettes,

industrial chemicals and fertilizers. By reason of local and foreign

demand they enjoy a favorable economic atmosphere.

As science and technology advance as a result of new discoveries of

knowledge, advances in the development of more sophisticated and

precise devices or instruments used in the field of measurement follow

closely. It is for this reason that instruments operating under the

principles and techniques newly acquired are introduced as fast as they are developed, and as a result, we have at our disposal new

methods of solving our technical problems.

As we have observed, the progress and development in instrisnentation

moves rapidly. Today, for example, one develops newer and more

precise measurement equipment which can turn out to be outmoded after

only a few years by a more versatile and improved instrument. The

latter is no doubt much better in performance and more accurate. To an enterprise which is science oriented and which possesses sufficient

financial resources or the backing of its mother company, this

situation would not be a problem at all; but small and medixjm scale

industries which lack the resources necessary to procure the newly

introduced equipment on the market do have a problem. As a matter of

fact, a majority of the small scale industries and many of the so- called medium scale enterprises are not even fully equipped for their

quality control work. They rely mostly on the integrity of their

suppliers of raw materials and on whatever tests they themselves are capable of doing.

There are hundreds of these manufacturing enterprises that need this

type of technical assistance and support. At this time where there is

resort to compartmentalization in production, different parts of a product being manufactured in several places and afterwards assembled,

the problems in measurement are very real and obvious. It is in this

area where the Government can give a helping hand.

I am pretty sure that in almost all countries Government testing and

standards laboratories of some sort have been established to help

151
industry. In the Philippines, for example, there is the Tests and

Standards Division of the National Institute of Science and Technology

(NIST) v/hich conducts testing of products and materials and performs

calibrations of weights and measures. The responsibility of drafting

and implementing product standards, however, belongs to the Bureau of

Standards of the Department of Trade, whose present Director, Nr.

Vidalito Ranoa, is present with us today. With your indulgence, I would like to discuss with you something about the Testing and

Standards Division (TSD) in particular.

It can be stated without fear of contradiction, that the NIST has

served the Filipino people and its industries for many years. It was

established by Act, No, 156 of the Philippine Commission on July 1,

1901, at an early stage of the American occupation, as the Bureau of

Government Laboratories. The prevalence of diseases like cholera,

yaws, typhoid fever and dysentery at the time led to the creation of

these laboratories and those of the Bureau of Health. The Bureau*

first Superintendent was Dr. Gasper Freer, whose appointment on

June 20, 1901, had even antedated the approval of this Act.

The first work initiated by the Bureau was in the field of chemistry

and in the investigation of tropical diseases. Other activities were

undertaken later on as conditions changed; studies in biology, plant

breeding, manufacture of vaccines and sera, fish conservation, mining

methods, food processing, ceramics, leather, coconut and its byproducts were done, as well as calibration of weights and measures and

provision of technical services to industries, the general public and

the different agencies of the Government through the analysis and

testing of products and materials.

A few years ago, NIST signed a letter of agreement with the Bureau of

Standards, whereby, among other things, NIST agreed to provide testing

services in connection with the Bureau of Standards' activity in

standardization. The staff of the NIST also participates in and

contributes to the drafting of standard specifications being

formulated by the Bureau of Standards and other standardizing

agencies. Its services are also available to consumers' associations,

like for example, the KILUSAN NG MGA MAMIMILI NG FILIPINAS and the

Consumers Union of the Philippines. Since about two years ago, its

senior staff have been rendering their services to the Metric System

Board, whose Executive Secretary is our friend, Mr. Vidalito Ranoa,

who has filled this role in addition to his duties as Director of the

Bureau of Standards without additional compensation.

In accordance with the decision of the Metric System Board, created by

Presidential Decree No. 187, dated May 20, 1973, NIST was designated

as the official custodian of 5 base physical standards, i.e., those

for length, mass, electricity, temperature, and luminous intensity.

152
The rapid Industrial growth of the Philippine economy that we are

ejcperiencing today as a result of the stimulation being provided the

New Society xinder the leadership of President Ferdinand E. Marcos has

rendered the present testing facilities and the calibration capability

of NIST totally insufficient to meet the demands of the industries and

trade.

As far back as 1962, the need for an assistant to advise the

Philippine Government in the modernization and expansion of the

capabilities of the TSD was presented to the United Nations Technical

Assistance Board. One expert, Mr. Alwyn P. Cox, then Principal

Scientific Officer in the Defense Standards Laboratories of the

Department of Supply, Comrnonwealth of Australia, was assigned to the

Job, A little later, Mr. Arnold Wexler of the U. S. National Bureau

of Standards was contracted by UNESCO to prepare a project proposal

for assistance to UNDP, which was entitled "Request for Assistance

from the U.N. Special Fund for the Establishment of a Testing and

Standards Center".

As proposed, the Center will function as a non-profit organizational

unit within the framework of NIST, serving both industry and Govemaent. It will have the responsibility for maintaining the national

standards of physical measurements, calibrating and certifying

secondary standards, providing independent authoritative testing and

analytical services, and offering advice and consultation. The

original proposal was submitted in 1965 with an estimated total cost

of U.S. $2,732,000. Some time in the middle of 1968, a survey team

composed of Dr. Ernest W. Nagelstein, Senior Consultant, UNDP, and Dr.

James F. McDivitt, Director of UNESCO Regional Center for Science and

Technology for South East Asia, made an on-site inspection of the

conditions existing in the country. As a result, we submitted a revised version of our proposal in 1969 reducing the estimated costs

to U.S. $2,092,356.

Should the UNDP fund this request, the TSL will then become a more

potent factor, no doubt, in accelerating our economic development.

153
A DECADE OF STANDARDIZATION AND A

YEAR OF METRICATION IK THE PHILIPPINES

Vidalito F. Ranoa

Director

Philippine Bureau of Standards

Manila, Philippines

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurenent

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

First of all, I would like to congratulate the NBS for conducting this

Special Ivorkshop on Standardization and Measurement. I also vjant to

take this opportunity to express my profound thanks to Dr. Richard W,

Roberts for his kindness in inviting me to this special occasion.

You may be interested to learn of our experience on standardization in

the Philippines. Since we are so new in this field, you will

certainly not so much profit by our experience as you can help solve

standardization problems encountered in our country.

1. Introduction

Despite a decade of efforts directed along this line, standardization

and metrication, strictly speaking, have not yet made their full

impact in the Philippines today. Neither their advantages nor the

benefits derived from their adoption have been realized. To hasten

the achievement of our goals, we are at present in the process of

reorganizing the governmental machinery to make it more effective and

responsive under the demands of the New Society in my country.

2. Standardization

The Philippines Bureau of Standards was created in 1964 by Republic

Act No. 4109 with the main objective of promoting and protecting the

quality of commodities for both local and international consumption.

Responsibilities and powers are defined and entrusted by that

legislative measure.

Essentially, Republic Act 4109 enjoins compulsory standardization and

inspection of commodities so as to ensure quality acceptability for

all goods offered for sale, particularly those for export. For all

154
standardized products, it Is mandatory for the Bureau "to inspect in

order to sample and determine the standards of said product, and to

certify on the inspection and standard thereof".

This law, together with its iinpleinenting rules and regulations,

requires that the Bureau shall:

1. Establish standards for all

a) agricultural,

b) forest,

c) mineral,

d) fish,

e) industrial, and,

f) other products of the Philippines for which

no standard has as yet been fixed by lavx,

executive order, rules and regulations.

2, sample, inspect and certify the quality of;

a) all standardized commodities and prevent the

sale of all commodities which do not comply

with the requirements of the Philippines

Standards Law.

b) all products, standardized and not standardized,

offered to Government or Government-owned or -controlled corporations which affect life,

health or property of the people.

c) all shipments for export prior to release by

the Collector of Custom.s.

d) all commodities being imported prior to release

by the Bureau of Customs. (The Bureau until a few years ago had confiscated all articles

originating in countries with which the Philippines has no trade agreements.)

3. Fix and collect fees for:

a) inspection.

155
b) certification,

c) testing or analysis,

d) other services rendered.

4. Make rules and regulations to enable these duties to be

performed efficiently.

5. Grant licenses to manufacturers to operate under the

Philippine Trade Standard (PTS) Mark Scheme when the

Bureau is satisfied that the manufacturer:

a) can consistently produce goods of the required

quality.

b) has adequate testing facilities to measure the

quality produced.

c) maintains records of the routine quality tests

performed,

d) permits a Bureau inspector to visit the plant

at any time to verify that the above-stated

conditions are satisfied.

e) provides the Bureau inspector with any sample

product he requires which can be tested by an independent authority in order to verify that

the routine records truly represent the quality

sold in the market.

6. Grant commodity clearances to exporters registered with

the Board of Investments (BOX),

The present organizational set-up of the Bureau of Standards consists

of four (4) main divisions, namely: Technical, Standards Control,

Field Services, and Administrative. The Technical Division is manned

by technical personnel who are charged with the preparation of

standards, while the Standards Control Division, together with seven

(7) Field Service Units distributed in various parts of the country,

is concerned with the control of quality of export and local products

covered by the standards promulgated by the Bureau or the buyer-seller

standard ±n the absence of Philippine Standards, The present size of

the staff is hardly adequate to cope with the extensive and complex

nature of the work involved. For a span of ten years the Bureau

has promulgated 186 national standards covering agricultural and

industrial products. The Bureau also operates a certification mark

156
scheme known as the PTS Mark and has since 1958 issued 143 licenses to

manufacturers to use the mark as a guarantee that their uroducts

comply with relevant national standards.

At the time when the Bureau came into existence, there existed and

there now still continues to exist a number of other government

agencies and organizations vrtiich were and are still concerned with

standardization matters within specified fields. These are:

1, The Bureau of Fiber Inspection Service, v.^hich deals with

the grading and inspection of Philippine commercial fibers

for export, especially abaca, coir, ram.ie and maguey.

2, The Bureau of Forestry, now reorganized as Bureau of Forestry

Development, which deals with grading rules for timber logs.

3, The Bureau of Public Kighvxays , ^•;hich is concerned T^xith standard specifications for highways and bridges.

A. The Bureau of Public Works, now the Department of Public

Ivorks , which is the authority on materials and products for

building and construction.

5. The Bureau of Supply Coordination, which is concerned with

specifications for and inspection of goods processed for

Government use.

6. The Food and Drug Administration, which is responsible for

the standards on food products and drugs.

7. The Philippine Coconut Administration, which is concerned

with the grading and inspection of copra and coconut

by-products

.

8. The Philippine Tobacco Administration, which is concerned

with classification and grading of native leaf tobacco.

9. The Sugar Quota Administration, which is responsible for

the grading of sugar and for packing of sugar,

10, The Bureau of Labor Standards, which is concerned ^d-th

codes of practice for wiring and electrical safety.

11, The Bureau of Internal Revenue, which is the Philippine

authority on control of weights and measures.

12, The National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST)

,

which is equipped with testing and standards laboratories,

157
and charged with the task of maintaining national standards and conducting on a high scientific level specific

tasks intended to serve the needs of a nximber of entities

and private enterprises in matters of testing of goods

and making chemical analyses of products.

13, The National Cottage Industry Development Authority, which

deals with the standardization of cottage industry, products.

14, The Bureau of Soils, which deals with the standards

and testing of fertilizers.

15, The Bureau of Plant Industry, which is the agency for

classifying plants in the Philippines,

16, The Bureau of Fisheries, which deals with the classification of fish and marine products.

17, The Bureau of Animal Industry, which deals with the grading of poultry feeds and animal products,

18, The Philippines Standards Association, which is a private

agency composed of and managed by manufacturers and producers.

With such many and varied agencies in mind, it x<rould not be difficult

to imagine the considerable problem of coordinating, unifying and

rationalizing their different standardization operations and responsibilities,

3. Metrication

Historically, the metric system was introduced in the Philippines in

the year 1906 and the then Bureau of Science (now National Institute

of Science and Technology) was authorized to maintain the "meter" and

"gram" as standard ttnits of measurement, A meter bar certified by

the International Bureau of Weights and Measures with Serial No, 71

and calibrated at 999.9862 mm had been procured. The meter bar has

not been calibrated since then.

In actual practice, the use of the English system and other local

measures is still prevalent in the country. VJith the emergence of the

New Society, Presidential Decree No, 187 was issued on May 10, 1973,

recognizing only the metric system of weights and measures and

enjoining complete adoption of the system in the Philippines effective

January 1, 1975,

158
To realize this objective,- the decree created the Metric System Board

under the chairmanship of the Secretary of Trade, with the following

duties:

1. Cause conversion of existing measures,

2. Draw up a program for nationwide use of the metric

system,

3. Promulgate rules and regulations,

4. Acquire new devices conforming to standard weights

and measures in the metric system,

5. Disseminate information on the new system, and

6. Provide official equivalents for the old measures.

The Metric System Board has already agreed on the terms relating to

fundamental units, conversion factors (including those for old

measures), specifications on commercial length, weight, and capacity

measures. With respect to the definitions of fundamental units, the

Board has decided that national prototypes be maintained by the

National Institute of Science and Technology, but the maintenance of

National Time remains the responsibility of the Philippine

Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration

(PAGASA) , formerly called the Weather Bureau.

Physical standards at various levels (prototype, reference, secondary

and working) have to be procured and maintained in the country and

these have to be traced back to the International Standards. The Work

involves metrology of many types. The maintenance of physical

standards at various accuracies and the related metrology is very

important in view of the expanding industrialization of the

Philippines, not to mention its remarkable economic growth and social

stability. At the request of the Metric System Board, a UNIDO

Metrication Expert on loan to our Bureau with the assistance of

officers of the Tests and Standards laboratories, NIST, the Philippine

Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration

(PAGASA) , the Precision Measurement Association of the Philippines and

representatives of trade activities, prepared an estimate of the cost

involved in the procurement of various devices and the associated

metrology. The estimated cost of various units and measuring

instruments was about U.S. $1.5 million but, considering the global

inflationary trends, the amount may actually exceed U.S. $2 million.

The Philippines Bureau of Standards has no laboratory of its own, a handicap since its inception. It avails itself of the testing

159
facilities of the National Institute of Science and Technology and

other Government agencies, Including private laboratories, but these

facilities have been found to be Inadequate to serve for all products

subject to standardization. The Bureau has now taken definite steps

to set up Its own laboratory.

As the science of measurement has become sophisticated, advanced and

Intricate, It Is felt extremely Important that we In the Philippines

undertake studies In such highly developed countries as the United

Kingdom, U.S.A., SvrLtzerland, France, West Germany and Japan. The

studies would effectively help us In the maintenance of highest

accuracies and In the work with commercial weights and measures, as well as In bringing about complete metrication.

4. Conclusion

That, In brief. Is a modest presentation of the condition of

standardization In the Philippines, together with Its attendant

problems. It Is hoped that all the participating countries in this

Workshop can assist each other in improving their standardization

activities, particularly in solving our common problems, under the

enlightened leadership and guidance of the host country, the United . States of America.

160
STANDARDIZATION AND METRICATION ACTIVITIES

IN SRI LANKA

Ronald T. Wijewantha

Director

Bureau of Ceylon Standards

Sri Lanka

NBS/ AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

Preamble

It is a privilege and a pleasure for me to participate in this

management level Workshop and I wish to convey my sincere thanks to

the National Bureau of Standards and the Agency for International

Development for inviting me.

Introduction

In this introductory talk, I propose to discuss briefly our experiences in Sri Lanka. In doing so, I shall be leaving many

questions unanswered with the hope that such questions will be raised

at subsequent sessions and bring about useful and profitable

discussions at that time,

Sri Lanka has intrinsically an agricultural economy. Its major

exports include tea, rubber, coconut, and to a lesser extent, other

agricultural products. The problems which confront us, like most

other developing countries, are many and result from severe competition in export trade, eagerness to earn foreign exchange with a view to reducing the balance of payments deficit, and a lack of

technical know-how of basic industrial raw materials and of the

foreign exchange required to buy even minimal industrial machinery.

We now have, added to these problems, the numerous direct and indirect

effects of the current energy crisis. In this situation, we have

assigned high priority to the rapid expansion of our export

capabilities and (where possible) of import substitution, so as to

improve our foreign trade balance.

It may not be inappropriate here to mention briefly our industrialization efforts. Industrial ventures can be broadly

161
separated into two categories: the public industrial sector and the

private sector. The public industrial sector mainly comprises

industrial production of basic items such as steel, cenent, plywood,

paper, etc., required as inputs for secondary industries and

industries geared to the production of other commodities such as leather, tires, graphite, ceramics, textiles, hardware, salt,

chemicals, oils and fats. The importance of these public sector

industries can be gauged not only by the fact that it supports large

infrastructural investments which the private sector finds it

difficult to make, but also by the fact that it helps to regulate the

development of the economy on sound lines of growth as envisaged in

the declared policies of the present Government, The private sector

industries embrace production in all other areas such as those of

machinery for the tea, rubber and coconut industries, paper, rubber

and plastic products, and consumer items such as food, beverages and

tobacco.

The value of total industrial production in Sri Lanka in 1972 was U.S.

$361.4 million, and in 1973 the value of industrial production at

current prices was U.S. $392.4 million.

Standardization Activities

The Bureau of Ceylon Standards was established by Act of Parliament in

1964, and was set up in 1965. The principal objective of the Bureau,

as set down in the Act, are to promote standards in industry and

commerce, to prepare National Standard Specifications and Codes of

Practice, to operate a Standardization Marking Scheme, and, as the

need arises, to provide test facilities. The organizational structure

of the Bureau of Ceylon Standards consists of a Council of 11 members,

one of whom is elected as Chairman. The Director of the Bureau by

virtue of office is the permanent Vice-Chairman of the Council. The

Council is responsible for laying down policy. The functions of the

Director are to organize, direct, and carry out the work of the Bureau

in accordance with the policy adopted by the Council. Since the

Director is a member of the Council, there is the necessary link

between policy making and execution.

The Bureau of Ceylon Standards is by and large an autonomous

institution. It is funded by an annual grant from the Goverment's

yearly budget. This mode of financing helps the Institution to

operate confidently on a set program of work. Sri Lanka has now

produced 300 of its own standards and, because of the agricultural

bias of the country, a majority of these standards are related to

agricultural and consumer items. We have, however, now moved into

more sophisticated areas, and at present we are writing standards on about 300 subjects.

162
As Implied earlier. In Sri Lanka Industrialization Is still In Its

Infancy. The prevalent conditions are different from those In

developed nations. Hence, we are faced with chronic teething problems

In our efforts to adopt and adapt practices and guidelines used by

developed nations. The above Is applicable In particular to the

principles, the concepts and the methodology of standardization. The

method we follow Is the same as that which Is adopted by detreloped

nations, but It Is Important to remember that standardization and Its

methodology In the present form have been evolved in an environment of

sophisticated technologies. Shortcomings in Implementing standards

produced in a similar fashion in an underdeveloped country are,

therefore, inevitable. The root cause for the shortcomings and the

problems arising is the fact that these practices or concepts are incompatible with our practice and alien to us, yet have been adopted

in toto. Although we are aware of the undesirable aspect of this

situation, Sri Lanka still follows the accepted conventional methods

of standardization. This, 1 am sure, is because there is presently no other suitable and acceptable alternative method of control and

evaluation of industry and commerce. The numerous problems which are emerging are of great concern to us and I think that the time is

opportune for re-examination of the underlying methodology.

In Sri Lanka, technical committees \^ich formulate standards are designated as Drafting Committees. The members appointed to these

committees are persons whom we regard as competent in their respective

fields. Drafting Committees are also balanced as far as possible by

ensuring that different groups, such as the scientific community, the

industrial community, and the consumer community, are represented on

•hem. In developed countries to secure such representation is not

difficult because of the many available competent persons employed in

each diverse sector. On the other hand, in my country it is difficult

to constitute Drafting Committees which are well-balanced and

competent in all respects, especially for industrial standards

writing.

I would now like to draw your attention to one aspect of standards

formulation. In standards preparation we consult national, regional

and international standards, which serve as a useful guide in the

preparation of our standards. However, these standards come to have a profound and not always desirable influence on our national standards,

especially in cases where our Technical Committees lack competency.

Consequently, standards are evolved which, more often than not, ignore

the process capability of local Industry and may be difficult or impossible to Implement locally.

We have recently streamlined the methodology for standards writing,

taking into consideration the Australian experience. This

streamlining is Intended to expedite committee work as well as to

163
utilize better the specialist personnel who serve on Bureau Technical

Coimnittees. The new methodology, which has to a great extent eased

the undue burdens imposed on members of the Technical Committees,

makes it obligatory for the members to study their respective briefs

thoroughly prior to attending meetings. It has discouraged

unnecessarily prolonged activities of Drafting Committees. It has

also made it clear to Drafting Committees that details of drafting and

editing work should be left to the Secretariat. A notable feature is

the requirement imposed on members to convey suggestions and

amendments by letter to the Secretary of the Drafting Committee prior

to discussion, rather than making them at the meeting itself. This

seems a reasonable approach since standards are open to prompt

amendment. It is scarcely necessary to strive for the completion of a standard in every detail before publication, I am sure you would

agree that it is more desirable to proceed to publication with a standard rather than hold it up indefinitely until some difficult or abstruse detail is resolved.

I'Jhile we have so far referred to standards writing, it is equally

important to discuss standards implementation. Here, we must confess,

we have run into very severe problems. The present problems of lack

of technical know-how and the unavailability of foreign exchange to

import appropriate machinery and raw materials have contributed to the

difficulties with which we are faced. Consequently, except in the case of mandatory standards, the implementation of standards has

suffered serious delays. We feel that a vital requirement for the

implementation of standards in a developing country is the close

cooperation of all interested organizations, whether they be

governmental, semi-governmental, or oriented towards consumers,

industry, commerce, testing, research, or education. We hope that

through multilateral cooperation and a coordinated or integrated

approach, effective implementation will become possible. To achieve

this end, we have now effected dialogue with the organizations

mentioned above.

Since voluntary implementation of standards has not been effective in

Sri Lanka, we have been compelled, in areas where we cannot wait any

longer, to adopt the less dignified process of compulsory

implementation. The areas in question relate to consumer items and

export items. The implementation of compulsory standards is possible

in two ways. The first way is for the National Standards Institution

to make use of provisions in its own legislation to declare a standard

compulsory. In such circumstances, the National Standards Body

becomes intimately involved with the production process and in

enforcing the standard. We have adopted this procedure for two items

of consumer interest. The second way is to make a standard mandatory

through regulations provided for under other Government Acts or

Statutes. In such cases, the enforcing authority is an institution

164
other than the standards body. We have adopted this second approach,

to start with, for selected export items. In these cases, the

Controller of Exports and Inports has framed regulations stipulating

that no export will be permitted unless all consignments of these

commodities have been tested and found to conform to the relevant

national standard. This method of mandatory imposition of pre-export

inspection has satisfactorily been implemented in the case of minor

agricultural products such as nutmeg, mace, pepper, cardamoms,

cinnamon, cloves, and cocoa-beans. Work is in progress to extend

tne scheme to include marine products like frozen lobster tails and

frozen shrimp. I would like to spend a little more time to describe

this scheme, since i;-7hat we are in fact attempting to do is not only to

take policing action, but also to make a deliberate and calculated

attempt to effect quality control throughout the different stages in

the production lines. It is intended that pre-export inspection will

finally be a quality assurance scheme as far as the buyer is

concerned.

Once an exporter of minor agricultural products has graded his produce

and prepared it for packing, he is initially required to have his

consignment assessed and certified by a surveying organization

recognized by the Bureau for this purpose. Simultaneously, the

exporter notifies the Bureau that the services of the surveyor have

been sought for the initial survey of the consignment and that the

consignment will in its turn be ready for inspection by the Bureau

officers. ^-Tnen the consignment has been assessed, the surveyor is

required to send a copy of his report to the Bureau. On receipt of

this survey report, Bureau inspection personnel will visit the stores

of the exporter and draw a representative sample of the commodity of

the consignment. The drawn sample will then be divided into two

parts, one for examination and the other for referee purposes. After

the requisite sample has been drawn by the Bureau personnel, all

components of the sampled consignment will be sealed. At the Bureau,

the part of the sample set aside for examination will be evaluated for

compliance with the relevant requirements. If the sample is found to

be in compliance, a certificate of quality will then be issued to the

exporter who will have to attach it to his application for an export

license. "i-Then the export license is granted by the Controller of

Imports and Exports, shipment can be effected. At the Customs, a check will be made to be sure that the seals which were placed on the

consignment are intact. If the consignment does not conform to the

Ceylon/Sri Lanka Standard, the exporter ^rill be notified by the

Bureau. The exporter can then either appeal to the Director of the

Bureau within 24 hours of receipt of notice of non-conformity of his

consignment or agree to regrade his consignment and start all over

again. In case of an appeal, further investigations will be carried

out by the Bureau but the verdict that is then given will be final.

Up to the present we are pleased to record that we have not had any

165
Instances of appeal against our first verdict. I believe this is due

to the fact that in the initial stages of implementation of this

scheme we educated our exporters and taught them grading and packing,

following this up by gaining their confidence through numerous

discussions and conferences.

The second major class of export commodity items coming under preexport inspection and certification is frozen shrimp and lobster

products. In the execution of a scheme for standardization of a consumable food item which deteriorates rapidly except under rigidly

controlled conditions, safeguards against spoilage and decomposition

are absolutely essential. Therefore, the first step in the scheme of

pre-export inspection has been to register establishments processing

lobster products and frozen shrimp. Such processing establishments

are inspected, by a team of personnel draxm from the Department of

Commerce, the Department of Fisheries and the Bureau of Ceylon

Standards, for their ability to conform to the Sri Lanka Standard Code

of Hygienic Practice for the processing of frozen shrimp and lobster

products. This Standard Code of Hygienic Practice (SLS 208) lays down

conditions in regard to hygienic standards that should be operative in

the processing plant and for processing methodology, raw material

requirements, freezing conditions, storage and transport.

The next step in the methodology of this scheme is to maintain a continuous check on processing in each of these registered

organizations. This is taken care of by Inspecting Officers paying

random routine visits to each processing unit, at approximately

monthly intervals. Samples from the production line are drawn and

examined for conformity to standard and a check is also made on the

adherence to the relevant national standard.

The third and final requirement would be to check every processed

consignment, and in certain cases, smaller processed batches

(depending on the requirements of individual exporters), for

conformity to the standards laid down by the Bureau (CS 10 and CS

188) . The Bureau has recognized the laboratories of the Department of

Fisheries as its approved testing laboratories for marine products.

The Department of Fisheries will issue a test report to the Bureau on

the basis of which a certificate of quality will be issued to the

exporter who will then have to obtain clearance for shipment from the

Controller of Imports and Exports. After the required clearance haa

been obtained, shipment of the consignment could be effected. Here,

too, there is provision for appeal in case an exporter disagrees with

the assessment relating to a particular batch or consignment.

A discussion of standardization activities in a country is not

complete unless mention is made of the educational program. The

Bureau presently conducts two sets of courses, one at the middle

166
management level and the other at the technician level. These

programs cover important areas such as sampling, control charts,

correlation and regression, analysis of variance, design of

experiments, and, of course, the principles and philosophy of

standardization and quality control. Lectures are interspersed with

factory visits to enable participants to obtain first hand information

on local industry. The lecturers for these courses are drawn from the

universities, other Government departments, the Ceylon Association for

Quality Control, and the Productivity Association of Ceylon, as well

as from the Bureau, We have also arranged to hold lecture classes in

factories for workers in industry.

Measurement Systems

According to the Bureau of Ceylon Standards Act, Section 14 (a), a function of the Bureau is "to house the primary standards for Weights

and Measures and to calibrate secondary standards for use by the

Weights and Measures Division of the Department of Commerce". This

function has in actual practice been in disuse, for two reasons. First, there is a lack of necessary facilities in the Bureau and

second, a similar function is prescribed for another organization in

the "Weights and Measures Ordinance of 1956 and its Amendment of

1971", Further, the actual field implementation of the measurement

services is not a function of the Bureau of Ceylon Standards but a function of the Weights and Measures Division of the Department of

Commerce.

In the circumstances, I wish to confine myself to only briefly

enumerating my Organization's activities in the field. of the proposed

conversion of Sri Lanka to the metric (SI) system of units for weights

and measures.

In 1966 two associations, the Ceylon Association for the Advancement

of Science and the Ceylon Institute of Engineering, jointly made

representations urging the Government to consider a change to the

metric system. A study group was set up under the aegis of the Bureau

of Ceylon Standards to prepare a report on the feasibility of such a change. This report, which recommended that Sri Lanka make the

change, was placed before Government in 1969. The metric system \-;hich was recommended for adoption was the International System of Units

(SI). In 1970, the Government made a decision accepting this

recommendation that Sri Lanka should change progressively to the use

of SI in all its measurement activities. Further it set up a National

Metrication Board to carry out two specific tasks. The first was the

preparation of an implementation program phased over a certain period,

and the second was the preparation of an estimate of the probable

costs. The National Metrication Board was headed by me as Chairman

and used the facilities of my Organization, whose technical and

167
supporting staff structure was temporarily strengthened for this

purpose

The National Metrication Board submitted its report to Government in a surprisingly short time. The main part of the report of the National

Metrication Board consists of an Iiiq)lementation Plan for converting

Sri Lanka into a metric country. However, there is one point which

should be borne in mind, and that is, it is not envisaged tliat at the

end of implementation of the Plan, the country will use the metric

system exclusively in all its activities. What is envisaged is that

at the end of the implementation program, the main commercial and

scientific work in the country will be wholly metric; while certain

residu&l measurements may be in non-metric units provided no actual

measurements are carried out at the time of any transaction which will

be covered by the Weights and Measures Laws, e.g., in a land

transaction. In general what this primarily means is that the country

at large would think and act in metric terms In transacting the bulk

of its business.

The plan envisages in the first instance a mandatory change. The

Board unanimously accepted as the only reasonable and effective way to

carry out the change with a minimum of discomfort and cost was to make

the change mandatory. Voluntary change will not work because each

particular interest would wait for a move from others. It was also

felt that a voluntary change of this nature would certainly run into

considerable difficulties because it is not possible to effect a change in a particular area without there being a coordinated change

In those fields which affect it or are affected by it.

Based on these two premises, the plan provided a period of 10 years

for the change. The actual planned for time, however, is seven to

eight years, a two year margin being allowed for any adjustment that

may have to be made. The plan is not programmed in detail because of

the very nature of the change and the considerable number of

parameters \^ich are still unkown but which are very significant in a change of this nature. It should be recognized that the change is not

purely one of usage in commercial, industrial and scientific

activities of the country. It affects the social and cultural life as well, directly and indirectly, in many ways. One example which will

affect the rural population will be the eventual removal of milestones and their replacement with kilometer-stones. This will change

the usual manner in which directions are often given in the country,

e.g., "meet me at the 6th mile post".

The commencement of the implementation of the plan is dependent on the

amendment of the Weights and Measures Laws to recognize the Metric

System of measurement for all measurement activities on the Island.

The necessary physical standards, both national and derived, must then

168
be obtained. At first, the standards procured will be mainly

standards of length and mass and their derivatives.

In planning the change, high priority has been given to the export

sector. The country depends on Its export earnings, and these In turn

are dependent entirely on the demands of the purchasing countries.

There Is a considerable movement, both In the tea and rubber trades,

for buyers to ask for quantities they purchase to be stated In metric

terms, even vhen they are packed In British units, and this has caused

considerable Inconvenience to these trades. Hence, change In this

sector will take place almost simultaneously with the legal

recognition of the metric system and the establishment of metric units

of measurements.

The Report of the National Metrication Board has been accepted by the

Government and certain steps have already been taken to prepare the

way for Implementation of the porposals In this Report, for the

Introduction of the metric system. The first Is the amendment of the

Weights and Measures Ordinance. It has been decided to save time by

amending the Ordinance rather than prepare new weights and measures

laws. The following rules have been adopted for amending the Weights

and Measures Ordinance:

(1) that the primary system of measurement for Sri Lanka

will be the International System of Units;

(11) that the use of the present system of units with

equivalent legal status will be permissible for

the time being;

(ill) that In the schedule of units, which gives those

units valid for all measurements, certain non-SI

metric units will be Included;

(Iv) that the denominations of weights and measures which

will be legal for trade use will be restricted. For

metric units, as far as possible, a 5:2:1 ratio will

be used with an exception In the case of the measurement of volume, where 250ml and 750ml measures will

be permitted. The existing range of sizes for weights

and measures In the British System will also be permitted.

The next step that has been taken Is that of the preparation of fresh

regulations for the Weights and Measures Ordinance. At present, since

the metric system Is not legal, no specifications have been made under

the regulations for metric weights and measures or weighing and

measuring Instruments. The opportunity Is being taken to revise the

169
regulations completely to bring them, as far as possible, in line with

the International Recommendations issued by the International

Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) . This is particularly so in

relation to the classification of weighing instruments. However, it

was felt that a complete adoption of this particular recommendation

was not suitable, since the lowest category in the OIML Recommendation

is much lower in the specification for sensitivity and allows larger

error than in the lowest category permitted at present in Sri Lanka,

Furthermore, in order to match the manner in which metric weighing

instruments are classified in the OIML Recommendation, a similar table

has been worked out for one classification of weighing instrximents

which are marked only in British units. This will mean that there

will be a uniform method of classification irrespective of whether

instruments are graduated in metric or British units.

Steps have also been taken to obtain physical standards of

measurement, both national and derivative. At present there is a national standard meter on loan from the French Measurement Service,

and a kilogram weight calibrated at the National Physical Laboratory

at Teddington in the U.K. The other national standards (including a standard kilogram calibrated at the BIPM) are on order. It will

probably be 6-7 months before they arrive. Nevertheless, the fact is

that there are two standards available, those of length and m^ss,

which are of the quality of national reference standards, and they

could serve as national standards at first. This has enabled the

Amending Law to be proclaimed, as soon as it was passed by the

National State Assembly as Law No, 24 of 1974, Finally, the

Government has approved the setting up of a National Metrication

Authority to implement the change.

Concluding Remarks

In conclusion, I would like to draw your attention to a few points

arising from my discussion so far,

We are agreed that the cardinal principle in standards writing is the

principle of consensus of opinion, and arising therefrom, the

production of a standard which is practical, and acceptable to all

sectors. But it seems to me that this concept holds true only when

all interests represented on a Drafting Committee are competent. If

not, we could very well end up with a standard which is deficient in

strength and character. It would be interesting to find an answer to

this.

The next point is that relating to standards writing itself. As I pointed out previously, certain practical problems arise from the

adoption of the methodology of developed countries. I would reiterate

that we in developing countries should review the methodology of

170
standards writing and evolve a scheme which is practicable and

acceptable. In this context, I would like to draw your attention to

the suggestions of Shri S. K. Sen of the Indian Standards Institution.

He has urged developing countries not to overlook realities. He

postulates that standardization should begin with the setting up of

quality control systems for selected industrial units relating to the

subject under standardization. Analysis of quality control data from

these units over a period of time will lead to a tentative national

standard from which will evolve a suitable final standard. Shri Sen

speaks of a spiral operation with progressive advancement of better

and better tentative standards until a national standard comparable to

International standards but suiting local conditions is produced. I would commend his suggestions for further thought.

At the same time, in the formulation of a national standard for export

products, I V70uld suggest that the following parameters be kept in

mind, if such a standard is to be actively implemented:

(a) the quality of raw materials;

(b) the actual stage of industrial development with regard

to such factors as manufacturing methods, equipment, and

available raw materials;

(c) the expected quality of the final product;

(d) the quality demanded by the international market.

I must emphasize that national standards connected with exports could

act as barriers to trade if they do not take cognizance particularly

of point (d) above. Developing countries must realize the danger of

different national standards diverging considerably from each other.

Harmonization of standards at the regional and finally at the

international level will serve not only the development of local

industry and the home market but could also be instrumental in the

expansion of intra-regional and international trade.

Finally, I would wish to draw your attention to certification marking

and its efficacy for developing countries. Has certification marking

been a practical success, or are the advantages of certification only

marginal? Our own experience is that certification marking will not

be effective unless producers of marked goods are given considerable

incentives in one form or another.

My friends, I am thankful to you for your patient listening and hope

that by sharing our experience we would, during the course of this

Workshop, be able to find solutions at least to some of the problems

facing us all. Thank you.

171
CARIBBEAN INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE AND

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO BUREAU OF STANDARDS:

AN OUTLINE OF THEIR FUNCTIONS AND INTER-RELATIONS

R. A. Fung

Electronics Engineer

Caribbean Industrial Research Institute

St. Augustine, Trinidad, West Indies

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

The Caribbean Industrial Research Institute

The Caribbean Industrial Research Institute (CARIRI) was established

in 1970 by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago, For the first five

years CARIRI is being assisted by the UNDP with UNIDO as the executive

agency. CARIRI is an autonomous institution, the Board of Management

being comprised of members from the Government, the Industrial

Development Corporation, the private sector, the University of the

West Indies (UWI), and LTTOP. UN assistance is being requested for a further three years.

CARIRI has been established as an industrial laboratory and a consulting institution to serve the industrial community and

Government of Trinidad and Tobago. Its staff and equipment are available to all who want to hire its services. It is a non-profit

organization but a fee towards meeting expenses is charged. All

information about a client and his project is kept strictly

confidential and the client may have exclusive ownership of the

results of his project. Sophisticated scientific research for its own

sake is not CARIRI *s objective; rather, its purpose is to serve industry in a quick, practical and business-like manner without too

much red tape and with few formalities. Under the Board of

. Management, there is a Director who is responsible for running the

Institute. Assisting him in various aspects are the Chief Technical

Adviser, who is on the UN staff of the Institute; the Business

Manager, who looks after financial matters; and the Assistant to the

Director, who handles some of the administrative duties of the

Director. The main divisions of the Institute are outlined below:

The Engineering and Economics Division

This division handles projects in the following areas:

172
1. Feasibility studies,

2. Design and engineering - equipment specification and plant

layout,

3. Process development - pilot plant scale,

4. Trouble shooting, and

5. Quality assurance.

Food and Chemistry Division

This division handles projects in food and chemical areas. Examples

are the following:

1. Design of equipment (bottle cooler) for food processors,

2. Feasibility for locally manufacturing pyrogen-free water,

3. Selection of equipment for manufacture of jam, jellies,

marmalades, cordials and pepper sauces,

4. Quality assessment of citrus products (limes),

5. Maximizing use of local ingredients in the manufacture of

chocolates, and

6. Food product development.

Chemical analyses have been carried out on bagasse board, poultry

feeds, floor polish, concrete, steel, boiler scale, solder, caustic

soda, detergents, rtjm, brewery products, dairy products, shortening,

and bay oil.

Work is also done in conjunction with the Ministry of Agriculture, the

University, the Agricultural Development Bank, the Ministry of

Planning and Development, the Industrial Development Corporation and

the Development Finance Company.

Physics and Materials Technology

The Materials Section carries out mechanical and environmental tests on items such as fabrics, plastics, coatings, metals, ceramic

products, construction materials, and synthetic and natural fibers.

Some projects of a long-term nature are:

1. Testing and control of the production of particle board, and

2, Planning of activities related to Standards Organizations in

the Caribbean Region. In this context visits were made

to the Standards Institutes in Barbados and Jamaica.

Facilities for construction materials will be expanded and there will

be concentration on environmental testing.

The Physics Section is involved mainly in three areas:

1. Instrument service and calibration.

173
2, Assistance to the Trinidad and Tobago Bureau of Standards (TBS),

and

3. Feasibility studies on production of electrical and electronic

products

Other areas in which the Physics Section is active are:

1. Acoustic measurements,

2. Advice to clients on equipment selection, and

3. Product development.

Technical Information Service

The Technical Information Service offers the following services:

1, A Question and Answer Service for providing specific items

of scientific or technical information,

2, An Information Retrieval Service,

3, A Seek and Provide Service for obtaining information of the

kind that is not well documented and usually has to be

sought from individuals and institutions rather than

from literature,

4, A Documentation Service, which supplies photocopies either

in printed form or in micro-film, subject to copyright

law, and

5, An Extension Service to ensure the proper evaluation and use of the information supplied.

This concludes a short description of CARIRI, I shall now tell a little about the Trinidad Bureau of Standards. CARIRI and the TBS are

two separate autonomous bodies and I am here as a representative of

CARIRI. The relation between CARIRI and the TBS is that the

facilities at CARIRI will be used to carry out tests and measurements,

as required by the TBS for the purposes of drafting standards and

checking compliance with standards.

The Trinidad and Tobago Bureau of Standards (TBS )

The Act providing for the Trinidad and Tobago Bureau of Standards was agreed to in January 1973. This Act gives the Bureau general power

to make standards for goods, services, processes, and practices,

except for food, drugs, and cosmetics, standards for which would fall

under the Food and Drugs Ordinance. The purpose of the Bureau is to

promote and encourage the maintenance of standards for the improvement

of goods produced or used in Trinidad and Tobago, for ensuring

industrial efficiency, and for development and promotion of public and

industrial welfare, health, and safety. The Bureau may also provide

advisory services for manufacturers as to the type and methods of

174
quality control applicable to their products and may undertake the

training of nanuf acturing staff in quality control.

After the Act providing for the establishment of TBS was approved, a governing body for the Bureau, the Standards Council, was appointed in

March 1973. A Director was appointed in July 1973. In the first

half of 1974, the Council has been dealing with applications for posts

in the Bureau. Now most of the staff have been hired and work has

started. The services of a UN Consultant to advise the Bureau on standardization have been obtained through UMIDO.

Though neither have actual standards been formulated nor has any practical work on calibration in relation to standards been carried out, some limited investigations have been carried out on a few goods. As

resources are limited, these investigations were restricted to

articles of general use or importance. For example:

1, Household articles such as bleaches, toilet soaps, and

household cleaners,

2, Car tires,

3, Building materials such as galvanized sheets, and steel

reinforcing rods, and

4, Air pressure gauges for service stations.

Suggestions for priority itans for standardization were made at a seminar on standards held a year ago (October 19, 1973). These were:

1. Labelling, in particular, of garments and fabrics,

2. Buildings - design, materials, and safety,

3. Furniture - design, dimensions, and materials,

4. Garments - sizing and craftsmanship,

5. Servicing of appliances and vehicles, and

6. Quality control in local firms.

The measurements required for some of the above investigations were

carried out using the facilities at CARIRI. Personnel at CARIRI and

TBS will be working closely with consumer groups and industry

personnel in the establishment of standards.

Regional Cooperation

Two of my colleagues visited the Jamaica P.ureau of Standards and the

Barbados National Standards Institution and put forward the following

suggestions in a report on their trip.

Implementation of:

1. Unified standards and test methods for the region.

2, Offering of a regional service in fields where one of the

175
laboratories is equipped with highly specialized and /or

sophisticated equipment. Exainples in this context are:

a. Metrology and calibration of secondary standards,

Jamaica Bureau of Standards,

b. Petroleum products testing at CARIRI,

c. Accelerated durability testing of materials in

environmental simulation equipment at CARIRI,

d. Textile testing at Barbados National Standards Institution (when the laboratory is equipped as planned),

and,

e. Ceramic raw materials testing and evaluation at Jamaica.

Thus it is hoped that in metrology and calibration, CARIRI will be

equipped with secondary standards and use the primary standards in

Jamaica for cross checking. There may be some inconvenience in this,

since Jamaica is over 1,000 miles away from Trinidad,

SOURCES OF REFERENCE

1. CARIRI, 1971 (Published by CARIRI)

2. CARIRI, 1973 (Published by CARIRI)

3. Trinidad & Tobago Act No. 38 of 1972

4. Trinidad & Tobago Bureau of Standards Newsletter No. 2

5. "The Present State of Standards in Trinidad & Tobago" by

Michael Lines (TBS Report)

6. Trinidad & Tobago Bureau of Standards Newsletter No. 1

7. Trinidad & Tobago Bureau of Standards Newsletter No. 3

8. Visit to Material Testing and Standards Institutions in

Barbados and Jamaica, by R. McDavid and U.S. Halvorsen

176
METROLOGY IN VENEZUELA

Zully Perdomo

Minis terio de Fomento

Direccion de Comercio

Servicio Nacional de Metrologia Legal

Caracas, Venezuela

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop

on Standardization and Measurement

Services in Industrializing Economies

National Bureau of Standards

November 4, 1974

Introduction of Metrology in Venezuela

In 1952 a strong movement toward industrialization and economic

development occurred in Venezuela. At that time it was decided to

introduce the concept of metrology into the Venezuelan economy. As a first step, a study was made of the adequacy of municipal weights and

measures services, the availability of equipment and technical

personnel, and the requirements of the industrial and commercial

sectors. Possible modifications of existing legislation were

considered, and a plan for metrological services was proposed.

While the study was being carried out, the very eminent metrologist,

Mr. Maurice Jacob, Chief of the Belgian Metrology Service and

President of the Provisional Committee of Legal Metrology, visited

Venezuela. He provided us with advice and recommendations for the

creation of a modern National Metrology Service, capable of serving

the varied demands of industrialization suited to a dynamic country in

the process of development.

By 1955 a plan for the creation of a National Metrology Service in

Venezuela had been prepared. Due to political, social, and economic

circumstances, implementation of this plan had to be postponed, but

three years later the plan was approved and the Department of

Aetrology was created.

The programmed activities were initiated with the creation of a special commission for the development of a new law on weights and

measures, which would take into consideration recent trends on the

subject, and for the creation of a legal instrument of wide and easy

applicability.

Such a new law should make mandatory the units of measurement approved

by the relevant international organizations, and it should introduce

177
definitively and exclusively the decimal metric system and involve the

concepts of metrology.

In July 1959 this Department of Metrology, having been found

inadequate, was transformed into a Metrology Division, which set up

the first metrology laboratories in Venezuela, This Division, since

its beginnings, has trained personnel, evaluated requirements, and

taken up the difficult task of selecting measuring equipment,

apparatus, and instruments for its laboratories. Also it prepared

regulations for various levels, worked to create a national metrology

consciousness, and engaged in other activities.

Given the importance of establishing close contacts with international

organizations operating in the appropriate technical fields in order

to establish positive and efficient collaboration, the Division of

Metrology made an effort to convince the Venezuelan Government to

become a member of the International Organization of Legal Metrology

(OIML) and to adhere to the Metre Convention, Those objectives were

attained during 1960 with the issuance of Decree 301 (OIML) and Decree

382 (Metre Convention), These governmental decisions were of great

importance and facilitated the implementation of the plan to organize

a nationwide metrology service. This paved the way for a new law

entitled "Law of Measurements and Their Application" which comprises:

1. adoption of SI units of measurement and their com- pulsory usage and teaching,

2. calibration of apparatus and measuring instruments

for commercial and industrial uses,

3. creation of a National Service of Legal Metrology (SNML)

to serve the needs of science and industry in Venezula,

4. establishment of penalties for non-compliance to be imposed by the SNML and by courts according to the seriousness of the offense.

The SNML contained, in addition to a Central Office and a facility for

the provision of technical advice. Laboratories for Physical Research,

Electrical Research, and Industrial Metrology and Quality Control;

Divisions of Legal Metrology, and of Scientific and Industrial

Metrology; and a Department for Technical Control for mobile

measurement units. The SNML has metrological equipment (not all of it

has so far been installed) with a book value of approximately 3

million bolivars. Nevertheless, it is far from being properly

equipped,

SNML has advanced capabilities for the measurement of length, mass,

electric current and current density, frequency, electrical potential,

electromotive force, electrical resistance and conductance, SNML has

an average capability for the measurement of time, area, volume,

specific gravity, angular frequency, and pressure. It also has

178
weaknesses. Below average capabilities exist for the measurement of

many quantities such as plane and solid angles, thermodynamic

temperature, chemical concentrations, force, power, viscosity,

electrical charge, electric field strength, and capacitance. There

are many quantities such as speed, acceleration, energy density, molar

energies, magnetic and luminous flux, acoustic energy flux and

intensity, etc. , for which there is at present no measurement

capability.

These deficiencies should be remedied after careful study of the needs

of the SNllL. We know that it is not enough to acquire equipment. It

must be installed and operated effectively by trained personnel.

International Assistance

For the SNML international assistance constitutes the basis on which

operations are performed. Continuous development of new measurement

material and methods produced at large raetrological laboratories can neither be known nor studied at SNML without international assistance.

The sources for these advisory services can be classified according to

the field.

In scientific metrology, advice can be obtained from the Bureau International de Poids et Mesures (BIPM) , Sevres, France, or from such

large national laboratories like the Physikalisch-Technische

Bundesanstalt (PTB) of Germany, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL)

of England, the Institut de Metrologie (DI) at Mandalau (near

Caracas), and the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) of the U.S.A.

This assistance should be expanded and better programmed in the

future. The National Bureau of Standards must play a fundamental role

in our future technical assistance programs.

In industrial metrology, advisory services should be provided not only

by the large national laboratories already mentioned, but also by the

Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers of Paris, the

Electrotechnical Laboratory of Tokyo, and the Istituto Elettrotecnico

Nazionale-Galileo Ferraris of Italy.

A goup of engineers with broad knowledge of metrology will be in

charge of the coordination of these assistance services so as to

orient and program the requirements of the Service and to link them

with those of our national industry.

In legal metrology, there already exists an international organization

created for providing adivsory services as well as for worldwide

coordination and for promotion of uniform legislation based on international recommendations. This institution is the International

Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) , whose office is located in

Paris, Basic work needs to be oriented towards the approval of

179
recommendations studied by the International Committee of Legal

Metrology and discussed with the metrology institutes in the member

countries.

Interdependence of Metrology, Standardization, and Quality Control

It is difficult to implement standardization in any country if there are no appropriate means for industrial standards to be maintained.

In general, many clauses in standards are expressed in numbers which

rely, directly or indirectly, on the result of measurements; thus

standardization requires metrology. In writing a standard, it is easy

to require a fixed value if the manufacturer uses adequate measurement

instruments in complying with this requirement.

Three basic engineering techniques are applied in industrial standardization: quality control, process control, and instrumentation for

quality quantization.

For the first approach, standardization is a very important ingredient

for the optimization of quality at minimum cost. In order to carry

out a project, it is necessary to have access to measurement

equipment. So metrology plays a role here.

In process control, the second approach, metrology has a much more

direct part since during the process, good measurements constitute the

basis of the control itself.

In the third approach by instrumentation, metrology is involved in the

inspection and testing that determines the final quality of the

product.

In Venezuela, metrology should be substantially improved to promote

the advancement of industrial techniques, standardization, and quality

control.

180
SUMMARIES OF NBS PRESENTATIONS

At the request of several participants, we Include here abstracts or brief summaries of some of the NBS presentations. Unfortunately,

these were not requested In advance, and in many cases the

presentations were Informal with no prepared text. All those who made

presentations to the Workshop are listed in the Schedule, Appendix

III.

181
NBS-AID Workshop

Tuesday, November 5, 1974

Weights and Measures Enforcement in the United States

R, N, Smith, Technical Coordinator

Office of Weights and Measures

The United States is unique among the nations of the world in the fact

that weights and measures enforcement is primarily a state and local

function. The Federal Government has enacted legislation adopting

uniform national standards and has provided the mechanism for

equipping each state with complete sets of primary weights and

measures standards whose values are traceable to the national

standards. A high degree of uniformity exists with respect to state

laws and regulations due largely to the efforts of the National

Conference on Weights and Measures. The National Bureau of Standards,

through its Office of Weights and Measures, provides the necessary

technical resources to bring about complete uniformity of enforcement

and to cope with rapidly changing technology in the marketplace.

182
SUMMARY OF ELECTRICITY DIVISION'S PRESENTATION

at the NBS/AID/OAS Workshop In

November 197A

General Overview of the Division - Mr, Norman Belecki

The Electricity Division of the National Bureau of Standards is a part

of the Institute for Basic Standards. The primary concern of that

Institute is the support of the National Measurement System, By

National Measurement System, we mean that system of people,

instrximentation, standards, procedures, and apparatus by which all

measurements are made in the United States,

In keeping with that concern, the mission of the Electricity Division

is to support within the United States a complete and consistant

system of electrical measurement by providing those electrical

measurements, standards and related data required by industry,

commerce, government, and the scientific community for the pursuit of

their various goals. TThen viewed in the content of electrical

metrology, this translates into the following six goals:

1. The improvement of the technology by which the electrical units

are realized, maintained, and disseminated (requiring a research

and development effort)

,

2. The maintenance of electrical units and operation of dissemination

services.

3. The development of instruments and measurement methods for the

solution of special measurement problems requiring the extension

of the state-of-the-art,

4. The continuing evaluation of the needs of the National Electrical

Measurement System and involvement in experimental and other

activities to insure international compatibility in electrical

measurements.

5. The attainment and publication of essential data and physical

constants in those cases for which the experimental mechanism

for the determination of such data is closely related to basic

electrical metrology.

183
6* The dissemination of metrology information through a continuing

high level of participation in the operations of standards

organizations and various consulting activities.

Electrical Reference Standards Section

The Electrical Reference Standards Section is responsible for the

dissemination of the basic electrical units of capacitance,

inductance, resistance, and voltage. This is accomplished in two

ways; by the calibration of electrical standards and related

instruments belonging to industrial corporations, other government

organizations, universities, and other groups, and through our Measurement Transfer Services in which highly developed transportable

standards and instruments are used to investigate experimentally

measurement capability as it exists in various parts of the system.

These services are supported by a modest but continuing research and

development activity with the general goal of improving operations,

increasing accuracies, and expanding the scope of such services, where

necessary.

It must be stressed that expansions of service and other improvements,

such as those of accuracy, are in response to demonstrated needs of

the measurement community. This must be so, since limited resources

are available to us in the division. Recently, due to a leveling off

of accuracy requirements, more emphasis has been placed on practical

measurements such as those encountered in an industrial environment.

An example of this is an experiment recently undertaken to investigate

the capability of measuring certain "odd" valued resistors existant in

the resistive ladder production line of a west coast electronics firm.

A special resistor, whose value was close to those normally produced

there, was measured here, by the corporate standards laboratory, and on the production line. This experiment serves as a prototype

demonstrative of improved quality control methodology and the

principles behind it are applicable to a wide variety of cases. It

is expected that further efforts in the same view will be forthcoming.

The largest single effort in the development area in this section is

aimed at automating the apparatus used for calibrations of standards.

The major motiviation for this effort is not cost-effectiveness in the

calibrations themselves, but rather a response to the increasing use

of and hence, problems with automatic test equipment in the industry

we service. By becoming intimately involved in computer-controlled

184
measurement and testing, the personnel of the section can bring their

peculiar expertise to bear upon metrology problems, while gaining

experience In the control and communication technologies and the

effects of their application In measurement situations. It has been

seen, moreover, that certain types of measurements are only feasible

under computer control because of their complexity or the time

required for their completion. At the end of the project, methodology

for the use of automation to Improve measurements will be documented

and distributed.

Finally, the section is Involved in the production of a series of

technical notes in response to Industrial demands for information on basic metrology. The first in the series will be on voltage metrology

and will use a description of practices in our standard cell

laboratory as Illustrative of a viable methodology for the maintenance

and surveillance of a local unit of voltage in an Industrial

environment.

Electrical Instruments Section - Mrs. Bernadlne L. Dunfee

The section's areas of responsibility were described by means of a flow chart. It was emphasized that the section is responsible for the

measurement of ac voltage, current, power and energy and for the ac/dc

transfer process that relates these quantities to their dc counterparts and hence to the legal dc standards. Also, the section extends

the dc voltage scale up to 2000 volts by means of resistive ratio

networks, the dc current scale to 1000 amperes through current shunts

and the ac current scale up to 12000 amperes through magnetically

coupled ratio networks such as current transformer and current

comparators. A reprogrammlng effort is in progress on the high-speed

measurement of these electrical quantities, utilizing electronics and

computer techniques. It was emphasized that essentially all research

and development are directed toward the design of physical standards

and methods which are used to provide a calibration and measurement

service to the scientific and technical communities. Some examples

were cited which Included:

(1) Calibration of transfer instruments for voltage and current to

100 kHz at a maximum accuracy of 20 and 30 ppm.

(2) Calibration of voltage divider networks to a maximum accuracy of

20 ppm and current shunts to 50 ppm. Services offered by the

Measurement Assurance Program were also described.

185
(3) Calibration of current transformers at 60 Hz up to 12000 amperes

with a capability of 50 ppm, and the on-going development of a method for measurements up to 50000 amperes which would be carried

out on the premises of the customer - identified as In-sltu

measurements.

(4) Calibration of transport watthour meter standards for the power

Industry. This was discussed In somewhat more detail by making

use of a slide which showed how these calibrations result In a measurement chain within the meter laboratory that ultimately

leads to the calibration of house-type watthour meters located

on the premises of energy consumers.

High Voltage Measurements Section - Dr. Oskars Petersons

With the help of slides, an overview of the sectlon^s activities

presented. Examples of measurements and equipment were selected from

all three of our research areas — high voltage ac, dc and Impulse

measurements. I explained our approach to high voltage calibrations

whereby some of them have to be performed In situ on our clients'

premises because we do not have a full scale laboratory, and some of

the clients' equipment is too large to be transported or cannot be

taken out of service. During the laboratory tours I showed them our high voltage ac facility. Judging from questions, there were at least

two persons in the group who are or have been associated \d.th high

voltage research. "Are you performing partial discharge

measurements?" "Is any of your research related to high voltage

underground transmission?" I had one request (Miss Perdomo from

Venezuela) for technical papers describing our Instruments and

measurement methods.

186
MEASUREMENT ASSURANCE

by

J. M. Cameron

Office of Measurement Services

The totality of measurements made In agriculture, commerce. Industry,

transportation, medicine, science, etc., constitutes the National

Measurement System of a country. In deciding on what measurement

services to provide the economy, one should know the health of the

system—are the measurements accurate enough for their Intended use?

Is the quality of Industrial production, correctness of medical

diagnosis, adequacy of safety and environmental control, etc., reduced

by measurement error? The answer to these questions Involves the

properties of measurements which Include the operator, environment.

Instrument, type of Item being measured, etc. By the study of the

Interacting elements one could decide whether operator training,

improved conditions, Instrument repair, or other changes would Improve

the measurements.

By viewing measurement as a production process one can apply the usual

quality control techniques to monitor the process. If performance

checks (e.g. part A fits part B) do not exist, some form of redundancy

has to be Introduced Into the system to sample the output. In this

effort, one should use the Demlng concept of quality control in that one Is Interested In not just conformity to specifications, but

effectiveness qiiallty, foreign sales, etc.

By emphasis on the quality of practical measurement one can measure

the success of programs developed to Improve areas where deficiencies

exist. Improved measurement has great promise for improving quality

and reducing scrap and as such constitutes a national resource.

187
STANDARD REFERENCE MATERIALS AND

MEANINGFUL MEASUREMENT

by

H. Thomas Yolken

U. S. National Bureau of Standards

The development and success of any Industrialized society depends

largely upon mass producing goods and services. Mass production,

however, requires strict quality control to prevent wasting both

material and labor and ultimately to produce an efficient economic

system In that society. In turn, quality control Implies ever- Increasing accuracy In the measurement process, Interchangablllty of

parts and stringent performance criteria and control of composition

and physical properties for a wide variety of materials — from raw

materials to finished product.

The key to efficient and useful quality control Is meaningful

measurement. For measurements to be meaningful, they must be accurate

and precise.

To clarify these two terms, I would like to use the example of a marksman firing a rifle at a target.

Imagine a marksman, first untrained, firing six shots at a target.

His shots scatter badly — we say he Is not In quality control. Then

he learns to hold the gun against a support and now he Is able to

produce the middle result. He Is now precise. When he learns to

adjust the sights properly he hits the bull's eye (or the true value)

and now he Is both precise and accurate. When a measurement system

can do the same, we say that meaningful measurements are being made

and the system Is In quality control.

One of the principal ways In x^lch the NBS assists in the achievement

of meaningful measurement — and thereby quality control — is through

the production, certification, and Issuance of standard reference

materials. NBS defines a Standard Reference Material or SRM as a well-characterized material, produced in quantity, that calibrates a measurement system. SRM's are easily transported to the site of the

user, where the user may perform on-site calibration of his instrument

or measuring process. This eliminates the need for the user to ship

his Instrument to a central standardizing laboratory for calibration.

Thus, time and money are saved and the possibility of damage to the

Instrument or having it become uncalibrated in transit is eliminated.

That the values obtained by on-site calibration in widely separated

points may be referred to a common, widely accepted value is one of

188
the major advantages of SRM's. Furthermore, because of the Bureau's

reputation for high technical competence and impartiality, these SRM's are videly accepted, both within the United States and

internationally, as primary standards for the intercalibration of

measuring processes.

SRM's fulfill four primary uses. They provide:

1. better quality control of industrial and

technological production processes by

on-site calibration .

^

2. STQOother, controversy-free exchange of materials

and goods, both nationally and internationally.

3, a. clear definition and basis of performance

characteristics tied to national and international

systems of measurement .

4, permit evaluation of measurement techniques and instruments .

Historically, the first NBS-SRM's were issued in 1905, shortly after

the U. S. Congress established NBS. These were four cast irons used

to control the quality of cast iron production in the United States.

The need and use of one of these original cast iron SRM's has

continued to this day, and has required twelve renewals for new

batches produced in the intervening 68 years. From that modest

beginning, the program has expanded to include more than 800 different

SRM's. Of the 30,000 units (valued at 1.4 million dollars) sold last

year, 25 percent were exported outside the U. S. In the U. S. several

major industries depend extensively on NBS-SRM's for the quality

control of their production and processes valued in the many tens of

billions of dollars. These industries include for example, metals,

ores, rubbers, glass, ceramics and nuclear power.

I would like to describe how NBS produces and certifies SR>l's by

starting with how accuracy is determined. One of the most important

facts built into most NBS-SRM's is known accuracy. The accuracy of an NBS-SRM is generally established by one or more of the following three

ways

:

1. Reference Method

2. Two independent methods

3. Round Robin or Interlaboratory Testing

189
The three routes to certification of an NBS-SRM are arranged In order

of preference.

In the first case, a reference method Is a method of known or proven

accuracy, and its use assures the accuracy of the determination if

personal bias is eliminated. This is why the measurements must be

made, if possible, by two or more analysts.

The second route to certification, used when a reference method is not

available, consists of using two or more independent methods. Each of

these independent methods must have estimated systematic biases that are small relative to the accuracy goal set for certification.

The first two routes are subject to critical scientific review through

statistical analysis of the data obtained. This, however, is not the case for the third route which is subject to a somewhat less rigorous

analysis of the data through statistical analysis. The only valid

proof of this route to certification is that in a system under good

quality control, it works.

I have selected some examples that illustrate these routes of

certification.

In the first case lead was determined in a series of glasses

containing trace elements at levels from 0.02 ppm to 500 ppm by

isotope dilution mass spectrometry, a recognized reference method of

known and proven accuracy. Similar standard deviations were obtained

by the two analysts working 2,000 miles apart. This is an important

sign that the system is under control. The certified value is 426 ppm

lead, with a conservative uncertainty of +1 ppm that also allows for

unknown sources of systematic error.

In the second example, the use of route two, or in this case, three

Independent methods of analysis, are used to determine Cd, a toxic

metal, in our beef liver SRM,

The third route to certification, a round robin or Interlaboratory

test is used by NBS for various reasons. An example is a round robin

that involved 6 different, highly competent laboratories in the

determination of the carbon content of a steel SRM. Although 4

different methods on 6 different sample weights were used, the results

were highly satisfactory. It should be noted, however, that a previously Issued NBS-SRM similar to the SRM under study was required

for Internal quality control in each of the labs. As discussed

earlier, the round robin approach should be used only for measurement

systems or fields of science and technology that have obtained good

quality control. The danger in using the round robin approach is

either that a field is not ready for it, or that the proper

190
constraints may not be applied. This danger is illustrated by the

wide range of values reported by different labs for various elements

in an orchard leaves SRM.

I would now like to describe, by presenting an example, the process at

NBS where the properties of the SRM's are measured for certification.

Several years ago, NBS produced four trace elements in glass SR>l's for

trace element analysis in inorganic matrices. Since then, NBS has

continued to provide additional certified data for these SRM's. The

rods of glass were produced for NBS by the Coming Glass Works in New

York State in continuous lengths over 200 meters long from a molten

bath of glass to which 61 elements in 4 different concentrations (500,

50, 1, and 0,1 ppm) had been added. These rods were then cut into

thin slices at NBS and the concentrations of these elements were

measured very carefully by NBS scientists using over 15 different

instrumental techniques.

Well over 11,000 man-hours of scientific effort has gone into the

certification of these glasses and yet we still have additional work

to do.

Although the process of producing and certifying SPM's at NBS makes a fascinating story, I am sure your primary interest lies in knovrlng

what SRM's are available for various industries. For example,

essentially all the synthetic rubber produced in the U.S. and Western

Europe is quality controlled through the use of the NBS rubber SRJi's.

In the area of raw materials over 30 SRM's are available to help

control the measurement processes by which these important materials

are assayed.

For basic industries such as ferrous and non-ferrous metals, glass,

rubber, transportation, and chemicals, over 400 SRM's are available

from NBS.

SRM's are used to calibrate instruments needed to assure the quality

of iron and steel, copper, aluminum, and a wide variety of metal

products — solder, high-temperature alloys, etc. They are used to

insure the uniformity of products such as rubber tires and even hot

water bottles. Another important use is to make sure that the

customer of these products is getting what he has contracted for in

the way of specifications.

Beyond SR}-l's for industry are those needed for basic metrology, in areas of health, for air and water pollution, and in agriculture.

In the U. S. most color specifications are based on this system of

color coding. NBS issues color charts whereby people can communicate

191
in a scientific way their ideas or requirements for various colors.

Turning to another field, in the U. S, alone last year, 1,000,000,000

analyses were performed in over 12,000 clinical laboratories. Simply

to handle this flood of work has necessitated the development and use

of automated analyzers. But , the production of such a large number of

analyses is made meaningful, and by that we mean accurate values

useful to the physician, only if these complicated measurement systems can be calibrated in a meaningful way. NBS now has 18 SKM*s with many

more now in production for this purpose.

Air pollution is now a grave and fortunately well recognized problem

for any industrialized economy. Before control can be effectively

established it is necessary to install within a nation a system

capable of determining the degree of pollution with some accuracy.

NBS has issued SRM's for SO2 in the air and for automobile exhaust.

SRM*s for additional auto pollutants and particulates are now in

progress.

Great strides throughout the entire world are now being made to make

agriculture more and more productive. Scientific crop fertilization,

the development of disease resistant plants and fruits all depend upon

meaningful measurement. NBS has prepared agricultural SRM's for both

chemical analysis of fertilizers and crops. These allow the

agricultural scientist to calibrate his analytical instruments and

methods more accurately so that he can determine the contents of

fertilizers. In addition, they allow him to predict how much and what

type fertilizer should be used in a specific area.

I hope I have been able to show you in this short time some of the

possibilities inherent in NBS-SRM*s. Certainly one of the keys to

expanded trade between nations is the improvement of the quality of

goods produced, the rational and scientifically-based settling of

differences concerning the quality and compositon of materials and

goods exchanged and similar matters. Many of these problems and

questions are either averted or answered through the use of Standard

Reference Materials during the quality control or measurement process.

192
AN OVERVIEW OF THE INSTITUTE FOR COMPUTER SCIENCES

AND TECHNOLOGY

by

M, Zane Thornton

The Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology provides standards

guidelines and procedures for improving computer utilization by

federal agencies. It further provides the technical foundation for

federsil computer policies including export controls in international

computer trade. Automation and information technology are also

promoted Where increased productivity or imporved service quality can be anticipated. Since the Program is otherwise problem-oriented,

other current objectives include improving computer security in

federal agencies, improving the quality of computer software,

promoting performance measurement techniques for improved computer

selection, and to improving user access to computer networks.

The ICST program contains the following elements:

1) Computer Security, 2) Standards Management, 3) Performance

Measurement and Software, 4) Computer Networking, 5) Computer

Services, 6) Cooperative Technology Innovation and Diffusion, 7)

Automation Technology, 8) Scientific and Technical Advisory

Services, and 9) Mathematical Services.

193
ADP STANDARDS MANAGEMENT

by

Harry S. White, Jr.

The principal objective of the ADP standards program is to improve

computer utilization within the Federal Government by providing

effective standards for agencies to use in the procurement of their

ADP equipment and services and for installation managers to use in

their day-to-day development and operation of computer systems and

facilities. The standards program under the leadership of NBS is a mandatory program and has a major impact on the computer industry,

state and local governments, and federal users of ADP. This requires

that NBS MAINTAIN CLOSE COOPERATION WITH INDUSTRY THROUGH THE

VOLUNTARY standards activities of the American National Standards

Institute and the Electronic Industries Association, and with state

and local governments and other federal Agencies through interagency

and public advisory committees. Currently, there are 13 active

Federal Information Processing Standards Task Groups involving some

227 participants from government and industry.

In that the computer industry is a relative young industry, there are

as yet very few standards. Subjects for standardization are selected

based upon proven technologies, economic benefits to users, and

marketplace practices of the industry. Through our active

participation with ANSI some 40 voluntary industry standards have

been developed and approved. Of these, 20 have been adopted as mandatory federal standards. NBS has separately developed 7 standards

for federal use.

In addition to these efforts, NBS, through a joint agreement with the

National Communications System, is undertaking the development of

telecommunications standards for the interfacing of ADP with federal

and common carrier provided communications networks.

The current standards efforts address four major areas: (1) standards

that provide for the effective interchange and sharing of data,

programs, and equipment, (2) standards to increase the performance

and assure quality control of ADP products and services, (3)

standards that facilitate the transfer and use of computer technology

through effective man-machine interfaces, and (4) standards to provide

for the safety and security of personnel, equipment, and data.

Measuring compliance with approved standards is a major concern of the

Institute. The success of the standards program cannot be determined

solely by the number of standards that are approved and published, but

is dependent on the extent to which the standards satisfy the needs

194
and are adopted for use by responsible officials in federal

departments and agencies. We are attempting to identify and implement

feedback mechanisms that allow us to assess the economic and

technological impact of standards. This requires the support of both

government agencies and industry. Our intent in such assessments is

for NBS to become partners with industry and other government agencies

in the development and use of standards, not to federally assume the

role of standards enforcers . Our study on the impact of ACCII as a federal standard which has been completed, is a first attempt to make

such an assessment. We are investigating other means such as sampling

techniques and selected economic studies for obtaining information on

the implementation of standards. We are also developing and

initiating testing techniques and services for determining the extent

that marketplace products meet approved standards. In the software

area, COBOL compiler testing is now operational and FORTRAN compiler

testing is under development. In this regard, COBOL validations have

been completed. As yet, only one compiler tested has been determined

to be in full compliance with the standard. FORTRAN compiler test

programs have been developed by NBS and are currently being tested by

industry prior to the establishment of a formalized FORTRAN testing

service.

Proposed federal standards are coordinated with some 67 federal

departments and agencies before they are forwarded to the Secretary of

Commerce for approval on behalf of the President. After approval,

they are published by NBS as Federal Information Processing Standards

Publications known as FIPS PUBS. There are now 33 publications in the

series consisting of 25 standards, 5 guidelines, and 3 information

documents. The more significant standards development efforts to be

undertaken within the next two years are standards for:

o OCR fonts

o Magnetic tape labels

o FORTRAN programming language

o A revised COBOL standard

o Standards for high speed signalling rates

o Extended character sets and codes

o Tape cassettes

o User terminals

o BASIC programming language

o APT programming language

o Code independent communications control procedures

o FORTRAN compiler test service

o Guidelines for benchmarking

o Guidelines for Hardware Performance Measurement

o Guidelines for ADP physical security

195
o Graphic displays

o Guidelines for data Inventories

o Guidelines for computer program documentation

o Computer output on microfilm

o Data definition languages

o Operating system control language

In May 1973, by Executive Order, the President transferred to the

Department of Commerce those standards functions performed by the

Office of Management and Budget. Specifically, this transfer

authorized the Secretary of Commerce to approve standards on behalf of

the President, and transferred to NBS program responsibilities for

data standards. In November of 1973, NBS prepared and obtained

Secretary of Commerce approval of a new federal regulation for a program for standardizing data elements and representations. Some of

the standards that have been approved or are under development

Include

o A Standard Representation of Calendar Date

o Codes for Country Names

o Codes for States of the United States

o Codes for Counties of the States

o Codes for Congressional Districts

o Representation of Time

o Guidelines for Data Standardization

o Point Representations

and

o SI and Customary Units Representations

Of particular Importance to the effective implementation of standards

is the essential aspect of providing basic references and calibration

for ADP products designed in accordance with standards. These

standard reference materials and calibration services are needed by

the computer industry for quality control during the production phase

and by government users during the procurement or acquisition phase.

We are now providing these services for magnetic tapes, cassettes, and

magnetic disks. Examples of these are shown on the display on the

wall of this conference room.

This has been a brief overview of our ADP standards program. Ue still

have a long way to go in order to provide the complete set of

standards that are needed.

If you have specific questions, I will be most happy to address these.

Thank you,

196
COMPUTER INFORMATION SERVICES

by

Margaret R, Fox

Computer Informaton services are provided from a specialized

Information center which was established formally with the

organization in 1966 of what is now the Institute for Computer

Sciences and Technology, The plan was to centralize and extend both

the corpus of and the services based on the scientific, technical and

management information that had been developed over the previous 20

years of NBS involvement with the research and application of

computers. During the early years, information which was obtained

from other individuals and organizations working in the field either

through voluntary exchange or at the request of the staff was reviewed

in the Division Office and routed selectively to the technical staff.

This collection, plus a complementary one developed by the jointly

sponsored National Science Foundation - NBS Research Information

Center and Advisory Service on Information Processing, became the

nucleus of what is currently the most comprehensive repository of

computer information resources generally available.

The objective was to provide a central point of contact, primarily for our own staff and the staffs of agencies of the federal, state and

local governments, and secondarily for the remainder of the computer

community including industry, academia and other nongovernmental

activities, for services ranging from document referral and reference

assistance to advisory and consulting services.

Basically, its mission was to serve as technical support to ICST's

Offices and Divisions in carrying out the three-fold mission as outlined in Public Law 89-306, passed by the U, S. Congress in October

1965, of providing assistance to other agencies, (2) conducting

necessary research and development, and (3) undertaking such

activities as are required for making appropriate recommendations for

the establishment of federal ADP standards, in order "to provide for

the economic and efficient purchase, lease, maintenance, operation,

and utilization of automatic data processing equipment by federal

departments and agencies,"

Actually, with the passage of time, the requirement for support

services has expanded to include legal, social-economic and other

policy considerations, e.g., individual privacy, computer security,

revisions in copyright protection and data base management. In

addition, since we developed a computer-based system to assist in

managing the Information we collect and analyze, currently through

197
periodic production of sets of indexes to the acquisitions that are added daily to the repository, including KI-JIC (KeyWord In Context),

and KWOT (KeyWord Out of Title) indexes, personal and corporate author

indexes, and a bibliographic citation listing, we provide both the

package of programs of the information management system and

assistance in implementing them for data bases of other organizations

with similar problems but different subject areas.

Last but not least, we work collaboratively with professional staff

who are- engaged in studies and laboratory efforts on specific

scientific areas, such as networking, performance measurements and

automation technology, in developing specialized data bases that are effectively subsets of the total collection. Thus we attempt to

provide scientific and technical support through information that will

permit optimum progress to be made in finding solutions to problems

confronting both the producers and users of computer hardware,

software, systems and services.

198
THE MATERIALS REFERENCE LABORATORIES

by

J. R. Dise

There are two materials reference laboratories at the National Bureau

of Standards, namely (1) The Cenent and Concrete Reference Laboratory

sponsored by the American Society for Testing and >laterials, and (2)

The Materials Reference Laboratory sponsored by the American

Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

The need for these organizations was brought to lisht r^ny years ago

by the inability of investigators to get satisfactory concordance of

test results in cooperative investigations concerning standard methods

of test for construction materials.

The first stimulus for action occurred in the cement field when in

•1926, following an extensive series of tests, it was reported to AST^I

Conmittee C-1 on Cement that the variations among the results of the

participating laboratories were so great that any definite

recoTumendations as to the relative merits of test specimens or methods

appeared unlikely until some means of training would secure ereater

uniformity in the operator's work." IThen later cooperative tests only

served to emphasize the problem, Committee C-1 appointed a Special

Conmittee on Reference Laboratory to bring about the establishment of

a group devoted to the promotion of uniformity in the testing of

cement.

As a result of that Committee's efforts, a Research Associate Program

known as the Cement Reference Laboratory was established at the

National Bureau of Standards in April 1929, with Committee C-1 as its

sponsor. That organization was the forerunner of the Cem.ent and

Concrete Reference Laboratory as jointly sponsored by Committees C-1

and C-9.

As time went by, highway ensineers who were either watching or participating in the development of the CCRL programs concluded that

similar activities in other materials fields would be of great

assistance to them. As a result of this interest, after several years

of planning by the Committee on >Laterials of the American Association

of State Highway Officials (now AASHTO) , and representatives of the

Bureau of Public Roads (now YW-JA.) , the second reference laboratory,

now known as the AASHTO M_aterials Reference Laboratory, was established at NBS on October 1, 1965. The principal assignment of

this new organization was to prom.ote uniformity in the testing of

materials other than cement and concrete in the central testing

199
laboratories operated by our various state highway departments and the

Federal Highway Administration.

Reference Laboratory Functions

All four of the activities that were to become the major . functions of

the CCRL, and subsequently of the AMRL, were enumerated by the

creators of the CRL. Briefly, they are as follows:

1. Inspection of selected materials testing laboratories

2. Distribution of comparative test samples

3. Study of testing problems

4. Participation in the work of technical committees

Inspections

Inspection of laboratories is customarily regarded as the most

Important activity.

The general policies under which the work is performed are readily

summarized. Inspections are limited to laboratories employing

standard methods of test. Utilization of the CCRL's service is

voluntary, and inspections are made only as requested by Interested

laboratories. Inspection itineraries are arranged so that regular

participants may be visited at Intervals of from two to three years.

The work is advisory in nature and no efforts are made to certify,

rate, or evaluate laboratories in any manner or to serve as a referee

in disputes concerning the quality of materials or test equipment.

The current scope of the coverage afforded participating laboratories

is as follows:

Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratory

Portland and Masonry Cement

Portland Cement Concrete

Concrete Aggregates (ASTM)

Reinforcing Steel

AASHTO Materials Reference Laboratory

Bituminous Materials and Mixtures

Concrete Aggregates (AASHTO)

Soils

Metals: Hardness Tests

An inspection of a laboratory consists of an examination of the

apparatus used in testing a material for conformance to specification

200
requirements, and observation of the related methods of test. The

Investigations are quite detailed, and as a consequence each Inspector

In the field carries a large collection of verification apparatus,

hand tools, and reference literature. It Is of Interest to note that some of the services provided with this equipment would be difficult.

If not Impossible, for laboratories to obtain In another way.

While an Inspection Is In progress, the Inspector brings each

departure from specification requirements that Is noted to the

attention of laboratory personnel so that on-the-spot corrections may

be made wherever possible. Pertinent observations about the physical

condition of apparatus and other matters of probable Interest to the

laboratory are also made. At the completion of the work, a comprehensive oral report Is presented to the laboratory supervisor or

his representative, and all questions that arise are thoroughly

discussed.

Within a short time after the Inspection, a written confirmatory

report Is sent to the official who requested the visit and to such

other persons as the laboratory may designate. The report Is treated

In a confidential manner, but this does not preclude subsequent

distribution of copies to all Interested parties If the inspected

laboratory Is agreeable to such action. This provision for the

dissemination of inspection information is valued because it makes it

possible for an Interested third party to assess the capability of a given laboratory to do testing work in a satisfactory manner.

The Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratory has completed eighteen

inspection tours (circuits) of the United States since it came into

being in 1929, The Eighteenth Tour, which was concluded on August 15,

1972, is of particular Interest because with a total of 454 separate

laboratories being inspected it is the largest of all the CCRL

programs from the standpoint of participation. A comparison of this

tour with three other tours, the First when the cement work got

underway, the Tenth when the concrete work got underway, and the

Fifteenth which was the largest previous undertaking is shox^ in Table

I. Continuing growth in participation and interest is reflected in the

data here presented.

As of October 19, 1973, the AASHTO Materials Reference Laboratory had

completed six inspection tours since its establishment in October

1965. The number of laboratories participating in each round was as shown in Table II,

The totals for the AMRL tours are modest because attention has thus

far been focused on central state and federal materials testing

facilities. The increase in service rendered in the Sixth Tour reflects

an extension of the bituminous inspection program in January 1972 to

201
include some branch highway laboratories and a few commercial

laboratories wishinj* to avail themselves of the consulting services of

the AMRL, Additional growth is expected in future tours.

It is always of interest to knox^ if the desired results are being

obtained. Evidence of good progress along these lines is found in the

tabulation of percentage of conformance data for cement and concrete

testing apparatus shown in Table III. Similar information is

available with respect to the A?IRL's work in soils and bituminous

laboratories.

Comparative Testing

Distribution of comparative test samples is a second important

function of the Materials Reference Laboratories. The present scope

of that work is shown in Table IV.

All five of these programs are carried forv/ard in a similar manner.

At six-month intervals, quantities of two slightly different lots of a given material are procured and divided into individual test samples.

Each participating laboratory receives a pair of the individual

samples. Specified tests are performed and the results reported to

the AMRL or the CCRL for review and summation.

Approximately six weeks after the samples are distributed, a preliminary report showing tentative average values and standard

deviations for each determination, based on a few early returns, is

sent to all participants. This quick response makes it possible for

the technicians who did the work to know at an early date—very often

within a few days of the time results were mailed—if acceptable test

values were obtained.

Within two months a detailed final report is provided. This report

contains average values and standard deviations based on all available

data, plus scatter diagrams, repeatability and reproducibility values,

and other statistical information.

The scatter diagrams, are obtained by plotting one of the two values

each reports for any one property on the horizontal (x) axis and the

other on the vertical (y) axis. An oval scatter of the resulting

points with the long axis of the oval at 45 degrees, is evidence of a strong correlation of the test results obtained in any one laboratory,

and also of laboratory bias. In the absence of bias there is a nearly

equal number of points in each of the four quadrants around the

center of the oval.

202
Laboratories finding themselves at some point significantly renoved

from the center of the oval are usiially stimulated to look for the

reason and to take action which will move their points closer to the

center on the next round of tests.

Additional incentive for corrective action is provided by givin» each

laboratory a performance rating on each determination on the basis of

the averages and the standard deviations obtained.

The Study of Testing Problems

The third major responsibility to which attention was invited was the

study of problems evolving from, or related to, the inspection and

comparative testing work. It se ems sufficient for the purposes of

this discussion to report that this part of the program is usually

carried out as a coordinated laboratory-field operation with, the

principal aims being the development of information, upon which

revisions in methods of test or changes in I-IRL programs might be.

based*

One important responsibility in this area is the annual preparation of

a listing of recently identified testing problems for consideration by

the AASHTO Sub-Committee on Materials. Numerous needed changes in

standards have been made as a result of this activity.

Participation in the Work of Technical Committees

Participation in the work of technical committees was listed as a fourth significant activity. At present, staff personnel are strongly

participating in the work of Committees C-1, C-9, C-12, D-4, D-18, E1, E-28, and E-36 of the American Society for Testing and Materials,

the standing ASTM Committee on Technical Committee Operations,

Committee 116 on Nomenclature of the American Concrete Institute, and

the Sub-Committee on Materials of the American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials.

For more than 40 years, the CCRL has performed a major portion of the

secretarial work of ASTM Committee C-1 on Cement, and has served as Its liaison representative to numerous other AST>I Committees.

Relationships such as these make it possible for the Reference

Laboratories to provide direct liaison between the authors and the users of over 200 methods of test for construction materials.

203
Laboratory Accreditation

The Tcrk of the Reference Laboratories is frequently mentioned in

connection with the accreditation of materials testing laboratories.

The concept of how this might be done is simple.

The AMRL and the CCRL are now engaged in the assessment of a large

number of testing organizations through the inspection and reference

sample programs. Accreditation of selected groups, for example

commercial concrete testing laboratories, could be achieved by turning

pertinent portions of the accumulated assessment information over to an accreditation authority for review and action. In all other

repects, the two activities would continue to provide advisory

services for the participating laboratories as previously described.

The feasibility of the idea has been explored in numerous ways. Many

individual companies in the cement industry and a substantial number

of state or federal agencies have developed methods for evaluating the

capability of laboratories of interest to them to do satisfactory work

based either in whole or in part on a review of inspection reports.

The most notable of these is a procedure the Federal Highway

Administration has devised for monitoring laboratories that test

materials used in the construction of highways. Numerous engineers

and architects, both public and private, who have observed the

benefits of review procedures to the cement and highway industries now

advocate review of reports in their own areas of interest, and there

is one instance where a small accreditation program" is being carried

out on this basis.

Closure

The benefits derived from the work of the Materials Reference

Laboratories might be described as:

1. Improving the reliability of test measurements.

2. Providing data to qualify standard measurement techniques.

3. Promoting greater reliability in the quality of materials

reaching the public.

4. Providing a basis for national laboratory accreditation

systems as needed.

5. Providing a direct line of communication between the

authors and users of methods of test.

20A
CLASSIFICATION AND NUMBER

OF INSPECTED LABORATORIES (CCRL)

rr ASSTFI CATION TOUR-1 TOUR- 10 TOUR-15 TOUR- 18

PpTnpnf P7"odur.&r 99 140 . 195 186

Commercial 45 39 120 161

Highway 25 48 61 61

University 21 9

Municipal 11 4 4 7 Federal 3 13 13 12

Concrete Products 27 24

Miscellaneous A

" 8 6 3

TOTAL LABORATORIES 208 261 426 454

Cement Labs 208 261 307 273

Concrete Labs 131 251 293

TABLE I

CLASSIFICATION AND NUMBER

OF INSPECTED LABORATORIES (AMRL)

CLASSIFICATION TOUR NUMBER

1 2 3 4 5 6

State 52 52 52 52 53 57

Federal 3 4 6 6 8 6

Miscellaneous 8

TOTAL LABS 55 56 58 58 61 71

TABLE II

205
CONFORMANCE OF APPARATUS

WITH SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

Cement Concrete

No. of Avg. No, of Avg.

Tour Pieces Conf. Pieces Conf.

No. Checked % Checked %

1 1416A 63

15 2A320 85 8951 81

16 22831 87 9880 86

17 19620 91 9967 86

18 20325 94 11596 88

TABLE III

REFERENCE SAMPLE PROGRAMS

Approx. Last 1973

Materials No. Labs. Sample Number

CCRL: Portland Cement 195 30

Concrete 70 10

AMRL: Bituminous 115 34

Aggregates 75 22

Soils 75 32

TABLE IV

206
APPENDIX I

At a Seminar in La Paz, Bolivia, Jxone 24 - 25, 1974, on Standardization and Metrology in Latin America, it was the virtually

unanimous feeling of the participants that in Latin America regional

cooperation in standardization was or could be effectively implemented

by the Comision Panamericana de Normas Tecnicas (COPANT) . At the same

time, similar cooperation was needed in metrology and for that purpose

a new mechanism was needed.

In the intervening time, the Organization of American States has taken an active interest in this theme. In order to explore further the

possibility of establishing a Latin American System of Metrology, OAS

generously supported half the participants to the Workshop here

described. At the end of the Workshop period, the OAS representative,

Mr. Ferreira, convened a Latin American caucus which, with some reservations (arising from some doubts whether the meeting was representative and competent to discuss so important a question in

which most nations had a vital interest), distributed the following

draft Working Paper which has since been modified without in any way

departing from the basic aim of regional cooperation in metrology. At

the time of publication of these proceedings, the ideas are again

moving towards an early anticipated implementation.

The Draft Working Paper follows.

207
DRAFT WORKING PAPER

In consideration, that a recommendation was formulated In the

Resolution of Mar del Plata (CIECC 137/22A6/113/73, December 1972)

related to the Implementation of a special project on an Interamerlcan

System of Metrology and Calibration, the Latin American participants

of the NBS/AID/OAS Workshop, 12 - 16 November, 1974, propose to the

OAS the following tentative scheme.

1. Definition of Objectives

The Interamerlcan System for Metrology and Calibration (SIMYC) has the

following objectives;

(1) Contribution to the effective execution of industrialization programs of the Region by assuming the provision of

adequate metrological services in education, research, industry, commerce and other areas including those related to

international certification of quality.

(11) Optimization in the use of the available metrological resources of the member countries by coordination resulting

from a uniform set of principles and rules of operation.

2. Principles

(1) Voluntary participation.

(11) Compromise for the acceptance of actions, which will be

recommended for SIMYC, recognizing limitations applicable

to realistic possibilities for execution.

Note: Establishment of new laboratories will not be part

of this project.

3. Governing Council

SIMYC will be governed by a Council which will consist of one

participant of each member country.

The Council will meet once a year in each member country in rotation.

The Council will establish by-laws in accord with which Working

Committeees from its members will be established. These may meet

additionally once a year.

208
The Council will study the Initiatives, which will be presented for

each member country, approve the annual working plan, and evaluate Its

progress

.

The General Secretariat of the Office of Scientific Affairs of the OAS

will establish follow-up actions for the execution of the plans

assigned to each member country.

The Council will formulate concrete recommendations for activities.

4. Financing

Special contributions (see Resolution of Mar del Plata).

5. Recommended Activities

The NBS/AID/OAS Workshop makes the following non-exclusive

recommendations for field of activities:

(1) Up-to-date and systematic information on metrological capabilities of the existing laboratories in the member countries.

(11) Up-to-date and systematic information on relevant ongoing projects and plans for the future.

(ill) Promotion of the use of SI and also of uniform metrological

terminology.

(iv) Establishment of a system of laboratory auditing for all

metrology laboratories of the member countries.

(v) Diffusion of technical publications relating to the methods

of measurements of the base and derived units, the calibration of instruments, and the use of SRM*s.

(vi) Development of the laboratories, in order to give the best

metrological services in SIMYC, featuring complementation

of equipment and expertise.

(vii) Organization of training courses at different levels for

personnel in accordance with the requirements of member

countries featuring interchanges of experts.

Note: The recommended actions are aimed at:

(1)—acceleration of the tranfer of metrological technology

adequate for each phase of development.

209
(ii) —reduction in duplication of effort,

(iii) —reduction of idle time for facilities,

(iv)—improvement of the training of technical personnel.

6. Role of NBS in SIMYC

There are two alternatives:

(i) The U.S.A., represented by NBS, to be a member of SIMYC

with equal status to other member countries.

(ii) The U.S.A., through NBS, to act as a technical adviser

of SIMYC without intervention in the administrative process.

7. The Role of SIMYC in International Cooperation in Metrology

SIMYC should participate in the consolidation of international

cooperation in metrology by liaison with CIPM, OILM, and other

international or national organizations.

210
APPENDIX II

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop on Standardization and

Measureioent Services In Industrializing Econosiea

November 3 - 16, 1974

Mrs. Ofella de Young

Comislon Panamena de Normas Industrlales y Tecnlcas

Apartado 7639

Panama 3, Panama

Ing. Orlando Donoso T. General Director of Standards and Technology

Dlrecclon General de Normas y Tecnologla

Mlnlsterlo de Industrla y CooiEierclo

P.O. Box 4A30

La Paz, Bolivia

Ing. Raul Estrada A.

Director

Institute Ecuatorlano de Normallzaclon

Casllla 3999

Quito, Ecuador

Dr. Zavdu Felleke

General Manager

Ethiopian Standards Institution

P.O. Box 2310

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Mr. Romulo Ferrelra

Head, Standardization Program

Organization of American States

1735 I Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20006

Mr. Roy Fung

Electronics Engineer

Caribbean Industrial Research Institute

University Post Office

St. Augustine, Trinidad

West Indies

Mr. Khavaja Ammar Hussaln

Director

Central Testing Laboratories

Pakistan Standards Institution

Government of Pakistan

Block 77

Karachi, Pakistan 2ii
Mr. Ovan Julal

Jamaican Bureau of Standards

P. 0. Box 113

Kingston 10, Jamaica

Dr. Zae-Quan Kim

Director General

National Industrial Standards Research Institute

199, DongSung-Dong,

ChongRo-Ku

Seoul, Korea

Lie. Rodrlgo Lopez A.

Calle 28

Entre Paseo

Colon y Prlraera Av.

San Jose, Costa Rica

Miss Zully Perdomo

Mlnlsterlo de Fomenta

Direcclon de Comerclo

Servlclo Naclonal de Metrologla Legal

Caracas, Venezuela

Mr. Jose Planas

Science Research Supervisor

National Institute of Science and Technology

Pedro Gil

Manila, Philippines

Mr. Vldallto F. Ranoa

Director

Philippine Bureau of Standards

P. 0. Box 3719

Manila, Philippines

Mr. Antonio Rico L.

Secretaria de Industrla y Comerclo

Direcclon General de Normas

Cuauhtemoc 80 1®^ plso

Mexico 7, D.F., Mexico

Ing. Patricio Sierra

Instltuto Naclonal de Normallzaclon

Casilla 995

Santiago, Chile

212
Prof. Rafael Stelaberg

Instituto Naclonal de Tecnologla Industrial

Libertad 1235

Bueaos Aires, Argentina

Mr. Sumantrl

Deputy Chairman for Technology

Indonesian Institute of Sciences

Jl. Teuku Chlk Dltiro 43

Jakarta, Indonesia

Mr. Felix Von Ranke

Executive Secretary

Assoclacao Brasllelra de Normas Tecnlcas

Av. Alte Barroso, 54 - 15°

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Dr. Ronald T. Wljewantha

Director

Bureau of Ceylon Standards

53, Dharmapala Kavatha

Colombo 3

Sri Lanka

213
APPENDIX III

SCHEDULE

NBS /AID/OAS Workshop on Standardization and

Measurement Services In Industrializing Economies

November 2 - 15, 1974

Saturday

Nov. 2 12:30 Reception and Lunch, Cosmos Club

Dr. E. L. Brady and Mr. H. S. Peiser, Hosts

P.M. Tour of Museum of History and Technology

Smithsonian Institute

Sunday

Nov. 3 All day Tour of Washington

5:00 PM Working Dinner

Presentation on AID/GST Activities

by Mr. John Fry

Monday

Novi 4 9:00 - 10:00 AM Greeting by Dr. R. W. Roberts, Director,

NBS Overview by Dr. E. L. Brady,

Associate Director for Information

Programs

10:00 - 10:30 AM Workshop Introduction by Mr. H. S. Peiser,

Chief, Office of International Relations

10:30 - 12:00 M Plenary Session: Speeches by Participants

12:00 - 1:30 PM Lunch, "The NBS/AID Survey Program on Standards

and Measurement Services In Support of

Development Goals" by Mr. H. S. Peiser, Chief

Office of International Relations

1:30 - 5:00 PM "International Aspects of Standardization"

by Mr. W. E. Andrus, Chief, Engineering and

Product Standards Division

214
6:30 PM

Tuesday

Nov. 5 9:00 - 12:00 M

12:30 - 1:30 PM

1:30 - 3:00 PM

3:15 - 5:00 PM

6:30 PM

Wednesday

Nov. 6 9:00 - 10:00 m

10:00 AM

11:00 - 12:00 M

Working Dinner, Speech: "Compatibility in

Measurement Systems" by Dr. R. D. Huntoon,

Consultant, Former Deputy Director, National

Bureau of Standards

"Metrology Programs in Latin America" by

Mr. A. Pontes and Mr. R. Ferreira,

Organization of American States

Lunch, "The Optical Physics Research at NBS

by Dr. Karl Kessler, Chief, Optical Physics

Division

"Weights and Measures Activities at NBS " by Mr. R. N. Smith, NBS Office of Weights

and Measures

"Electricity Division Activities" by

Mr. Norman Belecki, Mrs. Bemadine Dunfee,

and Dr. Oskar Petersons, NBS Electricity

Division

Working Dinner, Special Invited Speech:

"Regional Planning" by Dr. Albert Waterston,

Professor of Economics, American University

Plenary Session (Continued)

"Product Evaluation Technology" by

Dr. M. R. Meyerson, Chief, Product Evaluation

Technology Division

"Measurement Assurance" by Mr. J. M. Cameron,

Chief, Office of Measurement Services

215
12:00 - 1:00 PM Lxjnch, "Promotion of Invention and Innovation"

by Mr. J. Rabinow, Chief, Office of Invention

and Innovation

1:00 - 2:00 PM "Standard Reference Materials" by

Dr. H. T. Yolken, Deputy Chief, Office of

Standard Reference Materials

2:00 - 3:15 PM "Activities of the Institute for Computer

Sciences and Technology" by Mr. E. J. Istvan,

Associate Director for Teleprocessing,

Mr. Zane Thornton, Mr. Harry S. White, and

Miss Margaret R. Fox

3:30 - 5:00 PM "NBS Fire Programs" by Mr. I. A. Benjamin

Chief, Fire Technology Division

6:30 PM Working Dinner, Speech: "The FDA Import Food

Strategy" by Mr. B. M. Gutterman, Assistant

Director, Office of Technology, Bureau of

Foods, U.S. Food and Drug Administration

Thursday

Nov. 7 9:00 - 10:00 AM Plenary Session (Continued)

10:15 - 12:00 M "Activities of the Center for Building

Technology" by Mr. C. Raley, Coordinator

of International Affairs, Center for Building

Technology , (CBT)

12:00 - 1:00 PM Lunch, "National Technical Information Service"

by Ms. Vietta Dowd, Special Assistant to the

Promotion Division Director, National Technical

Information Service (NTIS)

2:00 - 4:00 PM Visit Division of Weights and Measures, Bureau

of Building, Housing and Zoning, District of

Coluunbia Department of Economic Development,

1110 U St., S.E., Washington, D.C.

(Host: Mr. Ken Hayden. Chief)

216
6:30 PM Working Dinner, Speech: "Science and

Foreign Affairs" by Mr. Herman Pollack,

Consiiltant, Former Director, Bureau of

Scientific and Technological Affairs,

Department of State

Friday

Nov. 8 9:00 - 10:00 Plenary Session (continued)

10:00 - 12:00 "Activities of the U. S. Geological Survey"

by Dr. Ralph Miller and Mr. Alvin Holzle,

U. S. Geological Survey

12:00 - 1:00 PM Lunch

Group Photograph

1:00 - 2:30 PM "Information Programs at NBS" by

Dr. E. L. Brady, Associate Director

for Information programs

2:30 - 3:00 PM "Materials Reference Laboratories" by

Mr. J. R. Dise, Head, Materials Reference

Laboratories Section

3:15 - 5:00 PM Concluding Executive Session

5:30 PM Director's Sherry Party, Host: Dr. R. W. Roberts,

Director, NBS

6:15 PM NBS Dinner

Saturday

Nov. 9 Tour of Washington

Sunday

Nov. 10 AM Itee

PM Travel to Philadelphia, Pa.

217
Monday

Nov. 11 8:30 - 10:00 A.M. Visit American Society for Testing and

Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.

Hosts: Mr. Frank E. Clarke, President,

ASTM, Mr. William P. Cavanaugh, Managing

Director, ASTM, and Mr. Al Sadler,

Assistant to Deputy Managing Director,

National and International Standards Coordination

10:30 - 11:30 A.M. Visit to General Electric Laboratory

3198 Chestnut Street

Philadelphia, Pa.

Host: Mr. Jack Welsh

1:30 - 4:00 P.M.

Evening

Tuesday

Nov. 12 9:00 - 12:00 M

Visit Leeds and Northrup,

North Wales, Pa.

Host: Mr. Robert Verity

Travel to Boston, Mass.

Visit to Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, Cambridge, Mass.

Host: Dr. J. P. Ruina

2:00 - 5:00 P.M. Visit to Arthur D. Little, Inc.,

Cambridge, Mass.

Hosts: Mr. Derek Till, Vice President

Production Development

John Magee, President

Louis Ashley, Product Development

Vincent Glullano, Organization Communications

Technology

John Stevenson, Vice President, International

Development and Marketing Group

Joseph Voci, President, ADL Management

Education Institute

Wednesday

Nov. 13

Evening

9:00 - 3:00 P.M,

Travel to Madison, Wisconsin

Visit Midwest Universities Consortium for

International Activities (MUCIA) and Forest

Products Laboratory, University of Wisconsin,

Madison, Wise.

Host: Dr. William Hunter

218
3:30 - 5:30 PM

Evening

Thursday

Nov. 14 9:00 - 11:30 AM

2:00 - 5:00 PM

4:30 - 8:00 PM

Evening

Friday

Nov. 15 9:00 - 11:30 AM

1:15

Saturday

Nov. 16 8:00 - 11:30 AM

Tour of University of Wisconsin campus

Travel to Chicago, Illinois

Visit Underwriters' Laboratories

Northbrook, 111.

Arranged by: Mr. Robert van Brunt

Visit Illinois Institute of Technology

and IIT Research Institute

Host: Dr. S. Uccetta

Tour of Chicago, Dinner

Travel to Denver , Colorado

Visit Denver Research Institute,

Denver, Colorado

Host: Dr. Donald Evans

NBS Boulder, Colorado

Welcoming Remarks, Mr. B. W. Birmingham, Deputy Director

Oveirview - Mr. Kent T. Higgins

Announcements - Dr. Yardley Beers

Electromagnetics Division Overview - Mr. David H. Russell

Automated Network Analyzer - Mr, Alvln C. Wilson

Near Field Antenna Scanner - Mr. Allen C. Newell

Cryogenics Overview - Mr. Alan F. Schmidt

Cryoelectronics - Dr. Donald G. McDonald

Cryogenic Flow Metrology - Mr. James A. Brennan

Atomic Time and Frequency Standards - Dr. J. A. Barnes

Laser Frequency Synthesis - Dr. Kenneth M. Evenson

Workshop, Latin American Caucus

(See Appendix I)

USCOMM-NBS-DC 219
NBS-n4A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO.

NBSIR 75-769

2. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

REPORT ON AN NBS/AID/OAS WORKSHOP ON STANDARDIZATION

AND MEASUREMENT SERVICES IN INDUSTRIALIZING ECONOMIES

5. Publication Date September, 1975

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S) Editors: H. Steffen Peiser, Robert Marvin,

Michael McNeil, Joanne Mejeur

8. Performing Organ. Report No. PASA TA (CE) 5-71

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Agency for International Development

Department of State

Washington, D. C. 20523

13. Type of Report & Period

Covered

Final Report

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less (actual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)

On November 3-16, 1974, a Workshop was held at the National Bureau of

Standards, Gaithersburg, under the sponsorship of AID and the Organization

of American States, the object of which was to give standards officials of

industrializing nations insight into the standards and measurement systems

in the United States and the role of the National Bureau of Standards, so

that these officials might consider what parts of the U.S. system might

usefully be adapted to conditions in their home countries. The report

contains copies of speeches and presentations by the U.S. hosts and the

participants from the other nations. In addition, information is given on

the general agenda of discussions, presentations, and tours of laboratories

at NBS and other U.S. organizations.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons

)

AID; OAS; Assistance; Economics; Foreign Relations; Industrializing Nations;

LDC's; Measurement Services; Standardization

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(THIS REPORT)

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