Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the efforts of Danielle Arigoni, Amber Levofsky, LynnRichards, Eric Sprague, and Brett VanAkkeren of the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA). Without their efforts and teamwork, this primer wouldnot exist. Assistance was also provided by John Bailey, Charlie Bartsch, ConstanceBeaumont, Scott Bernstein, Kathy Blaha, Don Chen, Jessica Cogan, Peter Dreier,Will Fleissig, Martin Harris, Don Holligan, ICMA’s Smart Growth Advisory Group,John Kostyack, Scott Lazenby, Meg Maguire, Harrison Marshall, Richard Massie, EdMcMahon, Joe Molinaro, Dominic Mouldoun, Shelly Poticha, Ilana Preuss, HarrisonBright Rue, David Scheuer, Gene Schiller, John Shirey, Paul Souza, Jeff Speck, PaulSpoelhof, Ed Thompson, Betty Weiss, Paul Zykofsky—all of whom provided excellent insight and review of the document as it was being developed. Laura Otis, aswell as the many photographers cited throughout the primer, provided valuableassistance in collecting images for use in this document. Special thanks to GeoffAnderson and other staff members of EPA’s Development, Community, andEnvironment Division for their role in providing comments and materials. Finally,Joe Schilling and Nadejda Mishkovsky played a critical role in reviewing and drafting text, coordinating the process, and bringing the document to publication. Finally,Dharma Pachner provided valuable layout and design assistance.

Cover CreditPeter Calthorpe Associates. Watercolor image of The Crossings development in Mt.View, California.About the Smart Growth NetworkThe Smart Growth Network is a network of private sector, public sector, and nongovernmental partner organizations seeking to create smart growth in neighborhoods, communities, and regions across the United States. Partners in the networkinclude the American Farmland Trust, American Planning Association, Association ofMetropolitan Planning Organizations, Center for Neighborhood Technology, Congressfor the New Urbanism, Conservation Fund, Environmental Law Institute, GeorgeWashington University Law School’s Center for Sustainability and Regional Growth,Institute of Transportation Engineers, International City/County ManagementAssociation, Local Government Commission, Local Initiatives Support Coalition,National Association of Counties/United States Conference of Mayors Joint Centerfor Sustainable Communities, State of Maryland, Multi-Family Housing Association,National Association of Counties, National Association of Local GovernmentEnvironmental Professionals, National Association of Realtors, National GrowthManagement Leadership Project, National Neighborhood Coalition, NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Trust for Historic Preservation,National Wildlife Federation, Natural Resources Defense Council, NortheastMidwest Institute, Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, Scenic America, SurfaceTransportation Policy Project, Sustainable Communities Network, Trust for PublicLand, Urban Land Institute, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.Individual membership information, publications and information about smartgrowth are available online at www.smartgrowth.org.
INTRODUCTION i

They are not alone. In the early 1990s, numerous national organizations similarly recognized the problems facing communities. In1996, they came together to form the Smart Growth Network,which is now a broad coalition of 32 organizations that supportsmart growth (see Acknowlegements). As a first step, the networkexamined the breadth of characteristics of successful communitiesand from that process, developed the ten principles for smartgrowth (see box). These principles illustrate the characteristicsassociated with healthy, vibrant, and diverse communities thatoffer their residents choices of how and where to live. They alsosuggest options for forming policy direction at local levels toimplement smart growth.The ten principles were a first step in articulating the goals ofsmart growth. To introduce communities to the benefits andtechniques associated with these goals, the InternationalCity/County Management Association (ICMA), the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Network wroteand distributed three primers: Why Smart Growth, BestDevelopment Practices, and Pedestrian- and Transit-Friendly Design.

The fourth primer in the series is Getting to Smart Growth: 100Policies for Implementation. While many state and local governments have been able to successfully implement policies that have

t that serves the economy, commu- 

 It provides a framework for com

cisions about how and where they

ossible for communities to grow in

evelopment and jobs; create strong

of housing, commercial, and trans

 healthy communities that provide

ent.

vides a solution to the concerns fac

the impacts of the highly dispersed

ristic of the past 50 years. Though

nities are questioning the economic

ure in the city and rebuilding it far

g the necessity of spending increas

c and traveling miles to the nearest

ng the practice of abandoning

ities while developing open space

nd thereby damaging our environ

s these quality-of-life issues become

erican communities, local and state

lopers, and others are turning to

o these challenges.

g to Smart Growth:

100 POLICIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
created healthy, livable communities, more work is needed. Formany other communities, there is a wide gap between recognizing the benefits of smart growth and developing and implementing policies to achieve it. The primary purpose of this fourthprimer is to address this gap.Getting to Smart Growth: 100 Policies for Implementation aims tosupport communities that have recognized the value and importance of smart growth, and now seek to implement it. It does soby highlighting and describing techniques to help policymakersput the ten smart growth principles into practice. The policiesand guidelines presented in this primer have proven successful incommunities across the U.S., and range from formal legislative orregulatory efforts to informal approaches, plans, and programs.They do not represent the only means to achieve the principleidentified, but they do represent real and innovative ways forcommunities to realize smart growth.Perhaps most critical to successfully achieving smart growth isrealizing that no one policy or approach will transform a community. The policies described here should be used in combinationwith each other to better achieve healthy, vibrant communities. Afirst step in the process of evaluating and determining how communities want to grow, is for communities to recognize theimportance and value of modifying the way they grow. This canbe achieved through a community- or region-wide discussion thathonestly examines the development challenges facing the community and evaluates the benefits and downsides of both currentand alternative growth strategies. In most cases, this collaborativeprocess will result in some measure of popular and political support for a community’s vision on how and where to grow. Once

this foundation is in place, a course for implementing this visioncan be determined. It is in this context, then, that the following100 policies can be considered as parts of a comprehensive andmulti-pronged approach to achieving healthy, vibrant, and diversecommunities that offer bona fide choices of how and where tolive.Admittedly, putting the smart growth principles into actionrequires changes to the way communities function. It requiresthat local governments, lenders, community groups, zoningofficials, developers, transit agencies, state governments, and others agree to a new way of doing business. This shift, however, willbe eased by a process, such as the one described above, whichclearly illustrates the myriad economic, community, and environmental benefits that are gained from a smart growth approach.After all, regardless of his or her role in the development process,each of the individuals involved in shaping how and where a community grows stand to benefit from the improved quality of lifethat smart growth can provide.This primer includes ten sections corresponding to each of theten smart growth principles, plus an appendix. Each “principle”section discusses the role of the principle in a holistic smartgrowth approach. Ten specific policies are then highlighted foreach principle, supplemented by a series of “practice tips” thateither illustrate their application in a community, or identify additional resources to aid communities in implementation. Finally, anappendix describes the most likely level of government for implementation of each policy, and the other principles that each willhelp achieve.
 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

F COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

 HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

COMMUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

E, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

ACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS . . . . . . . . . . 43

IRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

 OF TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

T DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR, AND COST EFFECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

NITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

X—100 POLICIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

GRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

iii

of Contents

Chapter One

Mix Land Uses

Mixing land uses—commercial, residen- tial, recreational, educational, and others—in neighborhoods or places that are accessible by bike and foot can create vibrant and

diverse communities. In large part, a mix ofuses attracts people to shop, meet friends, andlive in urban neighborhoods like Georgetownin Washington, D.C., or small towns likeWiscasset, Maine. Mixed land uses are criticalto achieving the great places to live, work, andplay that smart growth encourages.However, in many communities, current development patterns mandate a separation of landuses. Conventional suburban development—which is primarily low-density, single-usedevelopment—is a significant departure fromthe way towns were built in the early 20th century. During that time, land uses were moreintegrated, enabling many people to walk to a

Photo: Joe Schilling
transportation options (see Principle 8). Where once locating usesnear each other posed an environmental risk, a new environmentalchallenge has emerged instead from such separation of uses. Airpollutants from cars—now the primary means of access andmobility in this auto-oriented land-use pattern—are responsiblefor 20,000 to 40,000 cases annually of chronic respiratory illness.3In addition, auto dependency requires more roads and more parking, thus increasing the total amount of impervious surface incommunities and causing more polluted stormwater runoff toenter our rivers, streams, and lakes.Smart growth supports the integration of mixed land uses intocommunities as a critical component of achieving better places tolive. When homes are located within walking distance to grocerystores or quality employment centers, alternatives to driving—such as walking or biking—once again become viable, therebyenabling more Americans to take advantage of this convenientlifestyle. A mix of land uses also provides a more diverse and sizable population and a wider commercial base to support publictransit. Mixed land use can enhance the vitality and perceivedsecurity of an area by increasing the number of people on thestreet. Furthermore, a mix of land uses helps streets, public spacesand retail stores again become places where people meet, thushelping to revitalize community life.Mixed land uses also convey substantial fiscal and economicbenefits. Commercial uses in close proximity to residential areasoften have higher property values and therefore help raise local taxreceipts. Businesses recognize the benefits associated with areasable to attract people because of different uses. More economicactivity exists when there are more people in an area to shop. LendLease Real Estate—a leading resource for real estate investors,financiers, and builders—has reported for the past five years thatthe nation’s best commercial real estate markets are cities with

corner store, school, or work. Where once walking to school as achild was the standard practice, today land uses and other changesin development patterns combine to make walking or bicycling themode of transportation for only 13 percent of all trips made toschool.1 While the separation of land uses was originally intended

to protect communities from polluting industries and businesses,it has led to a pattern of land development in which stores, housing, and schools are often placed so far apart that they can bereached only by car. Improved environmental regulation and private sector innovation mean that many businesses are now cleanerthan they were eighty years ago when zoning was first introducedto separate land uses, thereby eliminating much of the need fortheir strict separation from homes and schools.Though the need to separate uses has diminished, it remains acommon practice that creates inconvenience for American households who spend a growing share of their day traveling betweenhome, work, shopping, and school. Separate uses levy larger socialcosts, as well, by fundamentally changing the character of communities and undermining the

viability of opportunitiesfor people to walk to shopsor work, and to meet andchat with their neighborson the way. In fact, onefourth of all trips that people make are one mile orless, but three-fourths ofthese trips are made bycar, 2 in part a result of

inhospitable pedestrianstreetscapes (see Principle4) and of a lack of other

Photo: Smart Growth Network
MIX LAND USES 3

take advantage of these incentives, their commuting patternschange radically, and walking and biking become more viabletransportation alternatives, thus providing additional support forthe mix of retail and civic uses located between home and work.

2.

Adopt smart growth codes to parallel existing conventionaldevelopment codes.Changing existing conventional development codes that prohibitmixed-use development so that they facilitate smart growth developments can be a time-consuming and politically difficult process.State enabling legislation that enables local zoning, for example,may not permit the wholesale change to the underlying frameworkthat drives and directs development. Nevertheless, by providing apolicy framework that permits and encourages smart growthdevelopment, local governments enable developers to constructmixed-use properties without having to endure a long approvalprocess.Creating a smart growth code that can serve on a parallel basiswith existing codes can, in fact, help remedy this challenge.Parallel codes make it legal to develop innovative projects by right,such as those that include a mix of uses or that employ differentapproaches to parking, while still allowing developers to use conventional codes if they so choose. In addition, to communities thatare considering full-scale modification of their zoning and planning practices to support smart growth, parallel codes provide ameans of testing the benefits of those modifications on a smallscale. For example, Lee County, Florida has used the parallelcodes approach in several areas slated for redevelopment.5States can have a tremendous impact on the viability of mixed-useconstruction by creating model smart growth codes that munici

 or with twenty-four-hour suburbs. 

or businesses, which locate in these 

better able to attract skilled work- 

 Real Estate repeatedly cites the 

nities in areas that offer a multidi- 

nient to work, shopping and recre- 

nomic benefits to investing in areas 

1. 

ate funds to encourage residents 

re officials, plus many other profes- 

afford living near their places of 

forced to endure longer and longer 

ss the country are experiencing 

a result. Localities can address this 

t distribution of housing and jobs, 

lances. Areas in need of additional 

xample, the use of density bonuses, 

joint development around transit, 

its, to encourage housing construc- 

rincipally residential can encourage 

creating tax increment finance dis- 

elopment incentives, and improving 

astructure needed to support busi- 

d be given to matching the skills of 

irements of incoming jobs. 

ositive jobs–housing balance is for 

o work together to provide incen- 

eir employment. When employees PRACTICE TIP: The Maryland Department of Housing and Community Development is implementing a pilot “Live Near Your Work” Program to encourage employees of Maryland businesses and insti- tutions to buy homes near their workplace. This initiative will sta- bilize the neighborhoods sur- rounding the state’s major employers by stimulating home ownership in targeted communi- ties. The state contributes $1,000, the employer contributes $1,000, and the local government contributes $1,000. Together, these funds can be used for a down payment or toward closing costs associated with a purchase. For more information, refer to www.op.state.md.us/smart- growth/lnyw.htm.
palities can adopt in parallel to their conventional codes. The stateof Wisconsin, for example, developed a model traditional neighborhood design code and required that localities with populationsgreater than 12,500 adopt the code or one similar to it. Wisconsinpermits these codes either to be used as the sole regulatory framework for the community or to

exist in parallel with the conventional code, thus giving developers a choice of what kind of project they want to develop.

3.

Use innovative zoning tools toencourage mixed-use communities and buildings.Despite the obstacles that conventional approaches to planningand zoning represent—such asmaster plans that continue torequire uses to be separated—anumber of zoning tools andincentives can be used to

encourage the type of mixed-use developments that support smartgrowth. Overlay zones—which permit a special application of landuse and building design standards in a targeted area—and plannedunit developments (PUDs) are two examples of tools that can beused to create smart communities when they are implementedalong with complimentary design guidelines. Planned unit developments, which allow planners to evaluate the nature and locationof uses and buildings on an entire site, provide for flexibility inzoning requirements. While these tools may require a lengthierapproval process than more traditional tools, they nevertheless can

be used to encourage smart growth in the short run while the master plan and zoning codes are being revised. Political support formixed-use smart growth developments can help overcome some ofthe project-approval burdens associated with these tools.Many of the most well-known, first generation, mixed-use traditional neighborhood developments, such as Kentlands inGaithersburg, Maryland, were built using PUD ordinances. Theirsuccess has made it easier over time for their communities toadopt more far-reaching policies to support smart growth. Othercities use overlay zoning to encourage mixed-use infill. For example, San Diego has established an “urban village overlay zone” thatencourages mixed-use development. This overlay zone is responsible in part for creating a pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use development in the Hillcrest neighborhood which combines shopping,offices, restaurants, and homes.7

4.

Facilitate financing of mixed-use properties.Financiers view mixed-use development as complex and difficult.8They are concerned that most developers do not have the knowledge base to be able to manage mixed-use development properly,so they often fund only projects that are suggested by large sophisticated developers, and even then they may support only a smallportion of the entire project. For example, Denver Dry Goods—aredevelopment of an old Denver department store into marketrate and affordable housing, office space, and retail—requiredtwenty-three different sources of financing.9 When lenders do

support these projects, they may require higher rates of return andquicker payback periods.Surprisingly, mixed-use infill projects have an advantage overmixed-use greenfield projects, as they are often easier to finance

tional smart growth code in parallel

parallel smart growth code allows

tbacks and with canopies to shade

e open space requirements, to per

arallel code approach was written

d” and “optional” codes, and has

ed this format as cumbersome and

cing landowners that the optional

erests.6 This optional code can be

nances/96-20.htm. The American

smart growth codes that encourage

Growing Smart effort. For more

info/GROWSMAR/gsindex.html.
5

5.

Zone areas by building type, not by use.Traditional zoning relies on the separation of uses as a means ofmanaging development. In combination with complimentarybuilding codes, this approach carefully dictates both the look anduse of all buildings in a community. An alternative approach thatencourages a better mix of uses is one that limits regulation tobuilding type and that allows building owners to determine theuses. As such, the look and layout of a street is carefully controlledto reflect neighborhood scale, parking standards, and pedestrianaccessibility, but building owners and occupants are allowed maximum flexibility to determine how the buildings will be used.This approach allows for a dynamic change in uses over time asthe needs of the community and of the building owner evolve.With regulations in place to monitor the impacts (such as parking,noise levels, and hours of business) of different building uses, for

ets and competition make it easier 

In addition, infill areas often have 

at the new project can be compared 

jects, on the other hand, usually 

icated phasing and large corporate 

eir loans. In areas where single-use 

mixed-use buildings may not have 

hat can help in determining their 

oject may be undervalued, which in 

provide more equity or to pay pro- 

that financing is a barrier to devel- 

gs in its community, it can provide 

surance, equity investment in the 

 the developers who are pioneering 

calities can also work with private 

ension funds to identify new sources

development projects. The city of

or example, became an investment

s in a mixed-use entertainment area

ity-owned land in a targeted area

owing the city to become an equity

nvestments in the project were fur

anches to accommodate the financ

the city holds a long-term position,

m return on its investment, and con

lopers receive the project’s short

MIX LAND USES 5

PRACTICE TIP:In Port Wentworth, Georgia, interstate truck traffic has turned the old main street into a major transportation corridor. The impacts of this, combined with expected pressures for growth, have led the city to seek to redevelop its towncenter on 2,100 acres of adjacent, largely vacant, privately owned land. The master plan for the new center uses abuilding-type zoning code. Port Wentworth designated ten different street classifications—ranging from lane to boulevard to a frontage street—and determined the most appropriate structures to line the streets. The city has paid attention to the scale of the street, by accommodating taller and denser buildings along wider, more commercially orientedstreets, and smaller detached homes along lesser-traveled neighborhood streets. Once the buildings are constructed, itis largely up to the building owner to determine what is an appropriate use. As a result of this plan, the large estatetype homes slated for a frontage along neighborhood boulevards may accommodate single-family residences, multifamily residences, or limited commercial uses as long as parking and other requirements, which are applied to all suchstructures, are met. Other street types will feature near-lot-line attached structures, which may serve as row houses,live-work units, and other commercial mixed-use units.
1are better able to capitalize on fluctuating market demands and

can accommodate retail, office, or residential space as needed. Inconjunction with zoning by building type and mass, zoning forflexible uses creates a neighborhood feel by managing the look ofthe building, while also providing opportunities for dynamic retailchange and small business development within. Flex zoning alsoallows developers or building owners to adapt to market changesand thus make their units more profitable.

7.

Convert declining shopping malls and strip commercial streetsinto mixed-use developments.As shopping malls and strip retail centers become obsolete, communities can explore ways to reuse the space—which often arevery large tracts of land—as mixed-use developments.Underperforming regional shopping malls average fifteen acresand are one of the largest sources of land holdings in existing communities.11 These “greyfields” constitute prime opportunities for

infill development. Left untouched, these areas not only representan enormous loss of potential tax revenue, but they may also signalthe disinvestment and decline of the surrounding community.Recycling these valuable sites helps a community maximize thevalue of its resources and capitalize on their advantages: access to aready market; working water, sewer, and road infrastructure; andproximity to transit and existing transportation networks.Cities like Boca Raton, Florida, have successfully renovated abandoned retail areas into vibrant mixed-use developments. BocaRaton’s Mizner Park was a large-scale retail space that wasredesigned to conform to a traditional main street configuration.12

Its success lies in its mixed-use character: shops are located atstreet level, with apartments and offices above. Many more suchopportunities exist. Price Waterhouse Coopers estimates that

mer residential areas may, for example, accommodate office spacefor doctors, day care centers, or small convenience stores.Residential areas would not, however, be suitable for a big boxretailer because of the building and parking standards in place. Asa result, a neighborhood preserves its residential feel while providing more needed services within walking or biking distance.

6.

Use flex zoning to allow developers to easily supply space inresponse to market demands.Communities are fluid places, often changing character over time.The most vibrant areas across the country, like Newbury Street inBoston, demonstrate this natural evolution, as former homes areconverted to shops and restaurants thus accommodating the service needs of residents that flock to distinctive, vital, pedestrianfriendly areas. While commercial space is located on groundfloors, buildings often still retain a residential component on sidestreets and in upper-floor apartments that create a natural mixeduse, walkable area.

Flex zoning in areas of transitionbetween commercial and residentialstreets can help communities accommodate this natural expansion and contraction of different uses as market needschange. Flex zoning permits the developer or building owner to change theuse of the building (assuming that building codes are met for the new use) without undergoing a lengthy variance orapproval process. As a result, buildings

The Mizner Park shopping complex in BocaRaton, Florida, converted to a mixed-use,Main Street design.
MIX LAND USES 7

The award-winning Eighth & Pearldevelopment in Boulder, Colorado,puts homes in close proximity toshops.

n the United States that are aban

ther 200 to 250 malls are expected

8.

e development at scales that are

ty.

ks different in various settings.

c model that communities can draw

mixed-use development would work

at cannot easily envision it may be

and may initially oppose it, thereby

s for developers. By creating clear

signs, and by providing clear exam

ropriate or desirable mixed-use for

 or a community group can shape

opose.

oulder, Colorado, for example, pro

ype designs of the type of projects

built. The clear information and

y wanted communities that would

at were provided, and the increased

 be aesthetically pleasing.14 The

. The mixed-use development at

successfully integrated residential

ofessional offices that it received a

Congress for the New Urbanism.

PRACTICE TIP:The Legacy Office Park in Plano,Texas, is typical of conventionaloffice parks because it has largesingle-use buildings surrounded byparking on large campuses.However, the office park is beingretrofitted into a mixed-use, walkable town center community byadding retail and apartments tomake it more attractive and convenient to its tenants. The TownCenter plan will introduce apartments, shops, and restaurants andparks into a pedestrian-friendlystreet plan that will integrate theexisting office space into a complete community. For more information on Legacy Town Center,refer to www.postproperties.comor www.shopsatlegacy.com.

9.

Create opportunities to retrofit single-use commercial andretail developments into walkable, mixed-use communities.Declining retail malls are not the only opportunity to createmixed-use communities. Fully occupied, desirable office and retailstructures can be made more so by integrating complimentaryuses into the site. The addition of residential, civic, retail, office,education, or hotel uses into single-use facilities is needed to buildeffective mixed-use developments. A number of developmentsthat are called mixed use may, however, offer only one or twotypes of uses. This type of development is especially true for commercial projects that include offices and hotels and that do little tofacilitate the interaction between the two. Such developments maybe equally guilty of integrating vital uses and failing to provideeasy access between them. This practice not only fails to capitalizeon the vitality that a creative mix of uses can generate, but it alsoaffects the transportation options that site users have available tothem. Research has shown, for example, that people who work inwalkable mixed-use developments are more likely to take transitor to carpool to work because they can walk to lunch and to thestores and services they need everyday.15 Using overlay zones, civic

building location policies, and tax and other incentives, communities can encourage developers to retrofit retail and office centersinto true mixed-use communities. The vitality and sense of community that accompanies the “twenty-four-hour” centers thatleaders in real estate investment seek can only come from a balanced mix of office space, housing, and retail that are accessible toeach other.
10.

Reward communities that create a balance between jobs andhousing.Parts of a region that are home to an overwhelming number ofjobs, but which suffer from a shortage of housing units, are idealopportunities to create mixed-use development projects. In addition to creating more vital, active communities, this approach canhelp to mitigate the growth in traffic congestion from long commutes by workers who do not live near their jobs. The effects ofadapting communities to mixed-use development will be most evident in areas that are currently dominated by office, retail or lightindustrial properties.States can encourage communities to create more mixed-usestructures by rewarding those that have balanced community joblocations and housing needs. States can give smart growth grantsto communities as a reward for increasing the amount of housingpermitted in job-rich locations or for expanding employmentopportunities through new retail, office, or light industrial structures within or in close proximity to residential areas.Communities may use these funds to support infrastructure needsor the development of public amenities in these new areas.1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of

Health and Human Services (CDC), Kids Walk-to-School: A Guide toPromote Walking to School (Atlanta: CDC). This document is available onlineat www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/kidswalk/kidswalk_guide.htm. 

2 U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,

Research and Technical Support Center, Nationwide Personal TransportationSurvey (Lanham, M.D.: FHWA, 1997).

3 Institute of Transportation Standards, University of California at Davis,

Health Effects of Motor Vehicle Air Pollution (Davis: University ofCalifornia Press, 1995).

4 Lend Lease Real Estate Investments, Inc. Emerging Trends in Real Estate

2002 (New York: PricewaterhouseCoopers and Lend Lease Real EstateInvestments, Inc., 2001).

5 Bill Spikowski, e-mail, 5 December 2001.6 Keith Covington, e-mail, 7 December 2001.7 International City/County Management Association, The Practice of Local

Government Planning, 3rd ed. (Washington, D.C.: ICMA, 2000).

8 For a complete analysis of financiers’ perceptions of mixed-use development,

see Joseph Gyourko and Witold Rybczynski, “Financing New UrbanismProjects: Obstacles and Solutions,” in Housing Policy Debate 11, no. 3, (2000).

9 For details, see www.rose-network.com/projects/denver.html. 10 For more information on time-tranche investment and the Albuquerque

redevelopment project see Chris Leinberger, “Financing ProgressiveDevelopment,” The Capital Xchange Journal, (May 2001),www.brookings.edu/es/urban/capitalxchange/article3.htm.

11 Shelly Poticha, Congress for the New Urbanism, notes, 14 November 2001.12 Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation.

(New York: North Point Press, 2000).

13 Congress for the New Urbanism and PricewaterhouseCoopers, Greyfields

into Goldfields: From Failing Shopping Centers to Great Neighborhoods (SanFrancisco: Congress for the New Urbanism, 2001).

14 Northeast-Midwest Institute and Congress for the New Urbanism,

Strategies for Successful Infill Development (Washington, D.C.: NortheastMidwest Institute, 2001).

15 Cambridge Systematics, The Effects of Land Use and Travel Demand

Strategies on Commuting Behavior (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department ofTransportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1994).
Chapter Two

Take Advantage of Compact

Building Design

Americans are consuming more land than ever before. During the last two decades of

the 20th century, Americans developed landthree times faster then we grew as a nation.Between 1982 and 1997, the amount of urbanized land used for development increased by 45percent, from approximately 51 million acres in1982 to 76 million acres in 1997. During thissame period, however, population grew by only17 percent.1 This rapid land consumption is

due in large part to the growing size of homesand retail space on a per capita basis. Accordingto the American Housing Survey, the mediannew house size grew from 1,725 square feet in1993 to 1,928 square feet in 1999—a 12 percent increase in size in just six years2—despite a

shrinking average household size of just 2.613

persons. Some of this growth is the result of
consumer demand, but some of it is also due to nonmarket incentives, such as zoning and tax breaks, that encourage larger homes.Similarly, in the last 30 years, the amount of retail space hasgrown four-fold from five square feet per person to 20 square feet.4As more land is used for construction of homes and retail, less isavailable on a regional basis for preservation as recreational areasor for agricultural uses.Smart growth encourages communities to determine how andwhere they want to grow. An important part of achieving smartgrowth, compact building helps create the convenient neighborhood centers that people want. Compact building design alsopresents opportunities to absorb growth and development in away that uses land more efficiently. By using smaller buildingfootprints for new construction, compact design leaves undeveloped land open to absorb and filter rainwater, which in turnreduces flooding and stormwater drainage needs and lowers theamount of runoff pollution. Other benefits accrue as well.Compact communities help achieve the density of populationneeded to support viable transportation alternatives. It is estimated that people will willingly walk to destinations—services as wellas transit stops—located within a quarter to one-half of a mileradius. Thus, a minimum density of six to eight households peracre around bus stops would support bus service, and fifteen totwenty households per acre would support rail transit. The experience in California demonstrates that creating more compactcommunities, which doubled household density, had the effect ofreducing vehicle travel by 20 to 30 percent, as people are able touse convenient and cheaper alternatives to the car.5 Furthermore,

compact neighborhoods require fewer linear feet of utility lines—like water, sewer, electricity, phone service, and others—than dispersed communities do. As a result, local governments find that it

is cheaper to provide and maintain many services to compactcommunities.Communities may accomplish more compact design by incorporating structured rather than surface parking or by encouragingbuildings to grow up rather than out, for example. The obstaclesto compact design in a conventional zoning context are formidable. Minimum lot size requirements and prohibitions against multifamily or attached housing are just two common practices thatmake it difficult to achieve more compact communities. Theseregulations may reflect a community’s desire to attract largerhigh-cost homes and the increased tax revenue they represent, orthe negative associations many people instinctively have to development that is labeled “higher density.” Regulations may alsoreflect, however, a lack of familiarity among community memberswith examples of high-quality, high-value compact buildingdesign and the benefits associated with them. As a result, many ofAmerica’s favorite town centers and neighborhood meetingplaces—such as downtown Annapolis, Maryland, or the townplaza in Napa, California—would be illegal to build today. As thepublic becomes more informed about density and the benefits itcan convey, the following policies may be of use in incorporatingcompact building design into the American streetscape.

1.

Use public meetings about development options to educatecommunity members on density and compact building options.Local government officials and developers who propose compactdevelopment face opposition from a public that is unfamiliar withhigh-quality compact development. To make smart growth work,the public will need to see how good design and compact buildingwill create communities with convenience, privacy, recreation,
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN 11

PRACTICE TIP:Envision Utah, a public-privateplanning organization in the SaltLake City area, conducted aseries of meetings to address thefuture growth of the region. Theattendees, given maps of the SaltLake City area and counters thatreflected future population, wereasked to place the populationcounters where they thoughtgrowth should occur. Aside fromthe team that located the newpopulation on platforms over theGreat Salt Lake, most groupsrealized that they needed to placefuture population growth in compact development if they wantedto preserve farmland or naturalareas in the region. Surveys conducted after the workshopshowed overwhelming support fora compact growth scenario in theregion.

PRACTICE TIP:For more information on how todesign good public parks, see theProject for Public Spaces’ Website at www.pps.org.

 involvement and education at the

 key to reducing citizens’ resistance

que to help educate residents and

and benefits of compact communi

 builders and developers, for exam

ensity developments. However, a

of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

ual surveys rather than convention

prefers development that would be

sualization technology can be used

izens’ interest in a variety of devel

mmunity members envision changes

fying a scanned photograph. Such

ortant learning tool in which com

ze that the determinant of whether

elopment is often not how dense it

gned. The Local Government

helps communities create these

” to educate their citizens about

issues related to planning and design. Private planning consultantsoffer similar types of visual preference tools. By using tools thatfocus on the impacts and benefits of this alternative developmentapproach, local communities can overcome much of the uncertainty and lack of familiarity among citizens regarding compactcommunities.

2.

Ensure ready access to open space in compactly developedplaces.Useful urban green spaces are characterized both by parks usedfor recreation and by preservation areas used for habitat and environmental protection (with the uses combined, when possible).Well-planned and well-maintained parkland is essential in smartgrowth communities where compact building design may reducethe size of private yards. Parks should be designed for a variety ofpeople and purposes—such as civic plazas, formal gardens, childrens’ playgrounds, ballfields, and regional parks. Open space insmart growth communities should also accommodate the ecological functions of undeveloped land, mature trees, and naturalmigratory corridors. Urban green space can provide habitat protection for birds or small animal species, can host trees that provide shade and filter the air, and can help recharge drinking wateraquifers. These open spaces are less formal, and their design willbe dictated in large measure by their natural features.The need for open space, sunlight, and nature persists in all partsof a smart growth community. In Boston, for example, officialsreplaced a parking garage with underground parking and a parkon top; the new Park at Post Office Square now provides a recreational opportunity in the crowded financial district. By clarifyingthe function and value of the open space created in compact areas,

a, features ready access to parks and

act, transit-accessible community.
communities can meet the environmental and recreation needs ofthose who live, work, and play there.

3.

Encourage developers to reduce off-street surface parking.While compact building design can increase the viability of othermodes of transportation, most communities are still highlydependent on the automobile and should therefore plan toaccommodate parking. Conventional approaches to parking—particularly large surface spaces between the street and the front doorof the home or business—not only represent inefficient uses ofvaluable urban land but also undermine the walkability that compact communities would otherwise support. Additionally, theselarge paved surfaces increase the amount of stormwater thatquickly runs off into storm sewers and surface water, thus increasing the risk of flooding and washing pollutants into our streams,rivers, and lakes.

It is estimated that for each caron American roadways today,eight parking spots exist—manyof them on surface parking lots.7

Communities can better plan forparking and reduce the need forsurface lots by using severaltools. They can allow on-streetparking to qualify towards the

amount of parking a building owner needs or encourage buildingsthat need parking at different times of the day to share parkingspaces. Communities can work with employers to offer the optionof financially compensating employees who do not use the company parking lot. They can also reduce many of the negativeimpacts of parking by building parking structures. As structuredparking is more expensive than surface parking ($10,000 per spaceto build and maintain structured parking versus $1,400 per spacefor surface),8 localities may need to encourage its construction

with financing incentives such as city funds, the use of special taxdistricts, or tax increment financing. In so doing, jurisdictions canfree up valuable land in compact urban centers for property development that will generate tax proceeds, thereby offsetting theadditional costs. Montgomery County, Maryland, for example,charges a special parking assessment on new development nearthe Bethesda Metro station. Developers who opt not to complywith requirements for structured parking must pay a fee that isused by the county to build and maintain its own multi-storyparking lots in the area.9

4.

Match building scale to street type in zoning and permitapproval processes.Communities can highlight more opportunities for compactbuilding design by creating stronger links between street widthand building scale. People feel more comfortable in neighborhoods in which buildings and landscape properly frame the streetarea. Buildings that are closer to the lot line, for example, frame astreet and calm its traffic, which makes walking more pleasant. Asimilar relationship exists for buildings lining large arterial roads.For example, a wide boulevard that currently accommodates onestory buildings along each side may become more visually pleasMaterials and creative treatment of facades allow high-density buildings to be integrated into the revitalized Lower Downtown (LODO) district of Denver, Colorado.
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN 13

PRACTICE TIP:Building height to street widthratios can be found in a variety ofnew urbanist or traditional neighborhood design guidebooksincluding, Andres Duany andElizabeth Plater-Zyberk’s 1991book entitled, Towns and Town

Making Principals. For more

information on redeveloping commercial strip centers read theUrban Land Institute’s 2001publication entitled, Ten

Principles for Reinventing

America’s Suburban Strips, written by Michael D. Beyard and

Michael Pawlukiewicz.

four-story buildings line it instead.

e between street type and building

urage more compact communities

orb new growth and development.

 strips to require taller buildings on

arge parking lots is a good start for

cial strips into vital town centers.

transform inhospitable pedestrian

es more space for office, residential,

ople and uses are drawn to an area,

e environment that offers a sense of

or more stores, restaurants, offices,

5.

esign standards and codes to

design that can be adopted by

ds face enormous challenges when

pact development. More often than

ning requirements set minimum lot

equirements in a way that makes it

uildings. Additionally, zoning stan

ny conventional neighborhoods and

 precludes development that would

r than being encouraged, developers

art growth communities are instead

nsuming and expensive process of

iling code.

naware of the extent to which their

revent compact communities. They

may also lack the resources necessary to modify their zoning andbuilding codes once they have recognized the need to do so. Stategovernments can help by creating model codes that specify thedesign standards, zoning requirements, and codes necessary tocreate smart growth communities. This practice of state-generated model codes is not uncommon; many states have developedcodes (which generally reflect conventional suburban development standards) that can be directly adopted by small communities. States that want to encourage smart growth may offer smartgrowth model codes that localities can adopt as easily as they canadopt conventional development codes. The state of Oregon provides a useful example with its publication Model Development Codeand Users Guide for Small Cities,10 and with its dedicated state staff

to help educate and assist local governments that want to developcodes to promote compact communities.

6.

Use density bonuses to encourage developers to increasefloor-to-area ratio (FAR).Density bonuses can promote many smart growth features incommunities while also creating the land-use intensity that moreefficiently supports public services. Density bonuses have beenused to provide a variety of amenities including parks and plazasand structured parking. The basic premise is that a developer isgranted the opportunity to increase the size of a building beyondthat which is allowed by zoning, in exchange for providing a public amenity from which the community can benefit. The level ofthe bonus is designed to cover the cost of providing the amenity.In order for the community to get what it wants, however, thistool needs to be designed carefully, as there have been many casesin which open spaces provided through density bonus programshave been ill conceived and underutilized. Explicit design stanPRACTICE TIP For more information on density bonuses see Marya Morris’ Incentive Zoning: Meeting Urban Design and Affordable Housing Objectives, an American Planning Association’s Planning Advisory Service Report (no. 494) in 2000.
dards, clear building criteria, and an engaged review board canensure that the amenities are provided at the highest quality level.As a result of the use of density bonuses, not only do residentsbenefit from higher density development in targeted areas, butthey also benefit from complimentary amenities that support amore compact community.The use of density bonuses around the country illustrates thewide range of amenities that can be secured. The city of Bellevue,Washington, used density bonuses to secure public plazas andground floor retail space in its downtown redevelopment project.Near the Ballston Metro station in Arlington, Virginia, bonuseswere used to create housing and retail space in buildings thatwould have otherwise been exclusively office space, thus creating alively twenty-four-hour neighborhood. Density bonuses inMontgomery County, Maryland have relieved the added cost ofan inclusionary housing ordinance (see Principle 3, Policy 1 formore information).

7.

Ensure a sense of privacy through the design of homes andyards.Opposition to compact communities is sometimes based on theperception that buildings within these communities will be uglyand poorly designed and will offer little or no privacy to residents.Certainly, the threat of poor design is not limited to compactbuildings, but careful design can improve the relationship of thecompact building to the community around it and serve theunique needs of those that reside or work within the community.When buildings are designed appropriately, residents and building users can benefit from the amenities that accompany attractive, compact communities, without sacrificing personal privacy.

Well-designed projects balance both the need to engage thestreet, by having the primary facade “open” to the street, and theneed to ensure a level of privacy for building occupants.Apartments can be designed to provide center courtyards for residents to enjoy a sanctuary from the public. Narrow lot housingprovides private spaces in side or back yards that offer a privaterefuge. Additional consideration in building construction canensure that neighboring houses that overlook these private areashave windows mounted higher in the wall to allow light in whilelimiting views of neighbors’ yards.

8.

Employ a design review board to ensure that compact buildings reflect desirable design standards.Attractive design is critical to balance the many competingdemands placed on compact building design for efficiency, privacy, and accessibility. A design review function can be a means notonly to preserve the community character that exists, but also toensure that new development reflects an appropriate and complimentary style. Use of a design review board can help alleviatefears of compact building design and help interpret a community’spreference for new development. As a result, review boards canhelp ensure that any amenities received from developers inexchange for incentives are well-designed assets to the community. Design review is found in most historic districts, but a community need not have a historic designation to benefit from thisprocess. Developers can also benefit from a well-executed designreview process because it can reduce time and uncertainty of theproject approval process.While design review can help ensure that the proposed projectsmeet the community’s vision for how it wants to grow, it cannot
PRACTICE TIP:

For more information on designreview see Rachel Cox’s Design

Review in Historic Districts, a 1997

publication of the National Trust forHistoric Preservation, Gary Hack’s“Ten Commandments of DesignReview” (available at www.citycomforts.com/hack.html), or Mark

Hinshaw’s Design Review, published

by the American PlanningAssociation’s Planning AdvisoryService (no. 454) in 1995.

TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN 15

or poor planning and zoning. It is

between the planning and zoning

th reflect the community’s wishes.

erent in the design review process,

stakeholders are represented in the

uidelines developed by the review

ed members of the community.

9.

ge local communities to increase

d higher density development for

and regional governments can pro

encourage local governments to

oposals with higher local densities.

to pass on to compact communities

mmunities generate for higher levels

mpact local design, the state and fed

per unit basis for education, school

water and sewer services than they

elopment patterns.

g flowing from state and regional

ansportation funds, urban develop

ncome tax revenues, to name a few.

allocated on a priority basis to com

ncouraging others to follow this

sco Bay Area, for example, the

Commission awards bonus regional

mmunities that build high-density

lities (See Principle 8, Policy 1 for

10.

Support regional planning efforts to encourage compact communities.Residents are the best able to determine how and where theirneighborhood or jurisdiction grows. The impacts of these development decisions, however, have a dramatic effect on regionalgrowth, traffic congestion, environmental quality, and quality oflife. Plans for incorporating higher densities into communitiesmust be coordinated with transportation investments, parks andopen space, and school planning, among other things. As such,

Detached single family homes in Northwest Landing in Dupont,Washington, share an adjacent park and are built on lots of only 2500square feet – roughly 1/2 the size of a typical housing subdivision parcel.

Photo: Smart Growth Network
communities can benefit from coordinating efforts at the regionallevel to identify areas targeted for more compact development. Byencouraging each locality to recognize both the local benefits andthe regional implications of this development approach, moresupport can be built across the region as a whole for compactcommunities.Regional coordination can also help communities alleviate theconcerns some residents may have about absorbing more thantheir “fair share” of the growth in the form of higher-densitydevelopments. The distribution of these clusters of developmentaround the region, particularly when coordinated with regionaltransportation planning and transit nodes, can have a significantpositive impact on open space preservation and air quality whilealso reducing traffic congestion. Regional coordination can alsohelp tie the compact building decisions of localities to thebenefits, in the form of land preserved on the urban fringe, thatthese decisions help achieve. These lands—whether they are usedfor agricultural or recreational purposes—provide economic andquality of life benefits to all members of the region. Making thislink clear to area residents will help generate stronger support forcreating more compact, vibrant communities.

1 William Fulton, et al., “Who Sprawls Most? How Growth Patterns Differ

across the U.S.,” Brookings Institution Survey Series (July 2001).

2 U.S. Census Bureau, American Housing Survey for the United States: 1999

(Washington, D.C., 1999) detailed tables from the 1993 AHS-N DataChart.

3 The 1990 census estimated 2.63 people per household; eight years later,

the 1998 census estimate calculated only 2.61 persons per household.

4 Kathy Schalch, “Target Versus K-Mart,” National Public Radio’s Morning

Edition 29 August 2001, story on discount retail competition.

5 John Holtzclaw, Using Residential Patterns and Transit to Decrease Auto

Dependence and Costs (San Francisco: Natural Resources Defense Council,1994).

6 Emil Malizia, “Consumer Preferences for Residential Development

Alternatives,” Working paper 2000.02, (Chapel Hill: University of NorthCarolina, Center for Urban and Regional Studies, 2000).

7 Tri-State Transportation Campaign, Parking Management Brochure,

2001. Available online at www.tstc.org/pricing/parkman/parking.pdf.

8 Ibid.

9 Information on these and other parking tools can be found in the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency online document, Parking Alternatives:Making Way for Urban Infill and Brownfields Redevelopment 1999, located atwww.epa.gov/smartgrowth/publications.htm.

10 Oregon Department of Transportation and Department of Land and

Community Development, Oregon Transportation and Growth ManagementProgram, Model Development Code and Users Guide for Small Cities (Salem,Oreg.: State of Oregon, 1999).
Chapter Three

Create a Range of Housing

Opportunities and Choices

By using smart growth approaches to create a wider range of housing choices, communities can begin to use their infrastructure

resources more efficiently, better accommodatethe housing needs of all residents, and helpaging citizens remain in their homes. Housingis a critical part of the way communities grow,as it constitutes a significant share of new construction and development. More importantly,however, housing provides people with shelterand is a key factor in determining a household’saccess to transportation, commuting patterns,access to services and education, and consumption of energy and other natural resources.Providing quality housing for people of allincome levels is an integral component in anysmart growth strategy. In addition to improvinga household’s quality of life, housing can ensure

Photo: Joe Schilling
a better jobs-housing balance and generate a strong foundation ofsupport for neighborhood transit stops, commercial centers, andother services, thereby mitigating the environmental costs ofauto-dependent development.Changing demographics mean that the standard post–World WarII approach—one that emphasized the construction of singlefamily detached homes—may no longer adequately meetAmerica’s changing housing needs. The share of households comprised of two parents and their children is diminishing, while thenumber of single adult households and households without children is growing. Furthermore by 2030—for the first time in theUnited States—one in five Americans will be elderly. Many oldercitizens will be unable or unwilling to drive or care for expansiveback yards. While the single-family detached home will remainthe housing product of choice for many, demand is growing forgreater alternatives in housing. Housing that is constructed toaccommodate the needs of some for better walkability, access totransit, proximity to publicly maintained parks and civic spaces, or

smaller housing units in familiar neighborhoods, for example,helps communities achieve smart growth and creates moreoptions from which households can choose.The opportunities to expand the range of housing choices aremyriad. Housing choices in new developments can be diversifiedby modifying land-use patterns for greenfield sites. Existingneighborhoods, too, can benefit from a wider range of choices bychanging zoning and building codes to increase the type andquantity of units provided. This can also lead to other benefits.Integrating single- and multifamily structures in new housingdevelopments and existing neighborhoods can help reduce theconcentration of poverty. The addition of units—throughattached housing, accessory units, or conversion to multi-familydwellings—to existing neighborhoods creates opportunities forcommunities to slowly increase density without radically changing the landscape. New housing construction can be an economicstimulus for existing commercial centers that are currentlyvibrant during the workday but suffer from a lack of foot trafficand consumers in evenings or weekends. Most importantly, arange of housing choices allows all households to find their nichein a smart growth community—whether it is a garden apartment,a row house, or a traditional suburban home—and accommodatesgrowth at the same time.

1.

Enact an inclusionary zoning ordinance for new housing developments.Inclusionary zoning represents a critical means to both createaffordable housing units and achieve a greater range of choice inhousing location for below-median-income households. The distribution of housing that inclusionary zoning can help achieve

MPDU) program of Montgomery County, Maryland, is perhaps the most well

 program, which has created more than 10,000 affordable housing units since

o 15 percent of all units in developments of 50 units or above be set aside for

oughly 60 percent of the area’s median.These units are then reserved for pur

nprofit groups who in turn rent the house to low-income tenants.The units that

affordable for a period of ten years. In exchange for the set-aside, developers

density bonuses that allow more units—22 percent in the MPDU program—to

and.The program has been credited with increasing economic and racial diver

velopments, as well as vastly expanding the number of affordable units avail

for the county.
CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES 19

that more opportunities exist for

 services, and other resources. By

of every new housing development

(e.g. fifty units) is offered at a price

ncome residents, inclusionary zon

number of affordable units and cre

s.

m (see practice tip), other programs

ida, and Oregon offer variations on

ms offer developers the opportuni

nt if a contribution is made to a

ust fund; the risk inherent in this

able housing will be constructed in

nities. Other programs waive regu

arking spaces, or reimburse impact

ude affordable housing.1

2.

ce through support to community

 constitute a long-term, permanent

n housing and to provide an oppor

f housing choices in smart growth

e with traditional home buyers to

a home by retaining ownership of

sits and making it available to resi

ase. By doing this, CLTs make it

seholds to buy a home. Since CLTs

d hold the land for a long period of

se will remain affordable for many

When traditional subsidies for home ownership, such as downpayment assistance or first-time home buyer subsidies, are administered through CLTs rather than given to purchasers directly, thebenefits can be shared with future low-income purchasers.Subsidies become, in essence, permanently tied to the propertyrather than to the recipient household. For example, down payment assistance in the amount of a grant of $5,000 can be used toassist the CLT in purchasing the land portion of a targeted property. Whereas the grant would provide a one-time benefit to thetargeted home buyer (thereby requiring additional, larger grantsin the future to convey the same benefit to future buyers), thesame grant will remain available to future residents (in the formof a lower acquisition cost) when directed through a CLT.Communities should work to educate lenders about the conceptof CLTs to ensure that future CLT home buyers will be able toaccess conventional sources of financing. Approaches such as thisare critical to ensuring that a sufficient range of housing at varying levels of income exists to allow for all types of households tofind their place in a smart growth community.

3.

Revise zoning and building codes to permit a wider variety ofhousing types.In many areas, communities are hampered by regulations in creating the types of developments that advance smart growth.Setback requirements, regulations restricting the number of unitswithin a building, and lot-size standards advance the concept oftraditional suburban growth but are not well suited to helpingcommunities reap the benefits that smart growth can yield, whichinclude better walkability and a greater range of housing andtransportation choices. Reduced or flexible parking requirementswould allow developers to construct more units and therefore put

PRACTICE TIP:The Institute for CommunityEconomics in Cambridge,Massachusetts, is a technicalresource and provider of a loanfund to support community landtrusts. Learn more atwww.iceclt.org.
more households in closer proximity to bus and rail, making transit-oriented development more viable. Additionally, regulationsthat prohibit the construction of multifamily housing impose formidable obstacles to building duplexes, row houses, and gardenapartments.Construction of entire new neighborhoods is not the only way tocreate new housing supply. Opportunities to expand the range ofhousing choices also present themselves in existing single-familyneighborhoods. Spaces above garages, finished basements, andattics with separate entrances all represent potential homes forelderly people, adult singles, or small families. These “grannyflats”, “mother-in-law” apartments, or elder cottages—generallytermed accessory dwelling units (ADUs)—provide a way for children who have grown up in a neighborhood, or seniors who haveoutgrown their large family homes, to remain in the area nearfamily and friends. As rentals, these units can provide an important source of income to help households afford the purchase oftheir home. When combined with a reverse mortgage, ADUspermit seniors to age in place while receiving a steady stream ofincome. They also serve to gently increase the density of neighborhoods without new parcel development, which can in turn provide better support for expanded transit and commercial activ- ity. To gain the benefits of ADUs, communities must address the zoning and building codes that currently prevent them and active- ly consider the concern of neighbors who fear that ADUs will dramatically change the look and feel of their neighborhood. If these issues are addressed adequately, housing can more easily meet the needs of a diverse and changing population, and home owners gain more choice in how they use their homes. 4. Plan and zone for affordable and manufactured housing devel- opment in rural areas. Housing needs remain pressing problems in many rural commu- nities today. Finding adequate solutions to address them presents an opportunity not only to better house many residents but also to facilitate housing development in a way that encourages smart growth. When these needs are not considered, the result has been poor quality housing on unserviced land scattered throughout rural farmlands or on the outskirts of towns. Improved solutions,

with better access for residents to services and infrastructure, canbe achieved by planning and zoning for a broad range of housingtypes in rural areas.Improved design, materials, and construction technology havehelped to make mobile and modular homes a very viable approachto affordable housing in many rural—and urban—contexts. Localgovernments would be well served to explore these opportunities,as well as opportunities for traditional “stick-built” housing, andto plan and zone for them accordingly. By accommodating thisgrowth, communities will be better able to respond in a coordinated way to demands for low-cost housing and to ensure that it is

Photo: Smart Growth Network
Benedict Commons provides

affordable housing opportunitiesfor Aspen, Colorado, employees.

CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES 21

nd service standards. Communities

cussing service provision and infra

ers prior to development, and by

tenance, upkeep, and title transfer

5.

amily housing units and

ed-equity (or equity-restriction)

ing choices present themselves not

new housing types, but also in an

hip structures as well. Beyond the

roach to ownership in multifamily

ents, co-operatives (in which mem

 ownership structure and the right

munity land trusts (in which a non

 the resident owner retains title to

nal, and at times more affordable,

.

uctures lend themselves to further

ability through inclusion of limited

ulations place limits on the amount

e earned by a single home owner

es where housing prices are rising

o keep the housing affordable for

on the structure, these equity limi

 on investment (for example, two

percent appreciation per year of ownership) or limit the salesprice based on average below-median income levels for households. In either case, the ability to limit the amount of profit thathome owners can earn from the sale of their units means that theunit can be purchased by an approved household (often one thatmust meet income criteria) for a lower cost than would normallybe the case. Despite a concern that some participants may find itdifficult to build enough equity to later afford a non-subsidizedhome, limited equity ownership still remains a viable means tobuild modest amounts of wealth and expand access to home ownership for many.

6.

Educate realtors, lenders, and home buyers on the use ofresource-efficient mortgages.Resource-efficient mortgages allow home buyers to factor thecost savings associated with homes that are near transit or that areenergy-efficient into their mortgage calculation, and can help puta wider range of housing options within reach for people. Initialpilots of the Location-Efficient MortgageSM (LEM) by Fannie

Mae and the Center for Neighborhood Technology have helpedto expand the range of housing that is affordable near transit,where the total household savings accrued by lower transportation costs are factored into the mortgage-qualifying calculations.A similar product is in development to capture household utilitysavings that are associated with energy-efficient housing, and tofactor those savings into qualifying calculations.These tools will not only make transit-accessible and energyefficient housing more accessible for current home buyers. Inaddition, over time, the availability of these specialized financingresources—and the resultant market demand—will stimulate

PRACTICE TIP:In the ski resort town of Aspen,Colorado, where the average costof homes is more than $2.2 million, local officials worked with adeveloper to create affordablehome ownership opportunities.Benedict Commons is a downtownhousing development that serveslocal employees earning between$17,000 and $38,000 per year.The deed restrictions on the unitsrequire that the resale price ofunits does not rise faster than therate of inflation. In this way, thecommunity guarantees a permanent supply of affordable housingto local low-wage employeesand provides home owners anopportunity to earn a profit—albeit a limited one—ontheir housing investment. Moreinformation is available atwww.rose-network.com/projects/benedict.html.

Photo: Timothy Hursley, Jim Curtis and Affordable Housing Development Corporation
greater construction of housing that fit these criteria. By facilitating the construction of these types of housing, these financingtools will provide greater choice for households that choose tolocate near transit or in energy-efficient homes.

7.

Implement a program to identify and dispose of vacant andabandoned buildings.Vacant buildings can act as physical indicators of neighborhoodblight and disinvestment in existing neighborhoods, and as theysuch represent barriers to reinvestment and revitalization. Whilevacant buildings may present very real physical obstacles in theform of fire and safety threats to adjacent structures, they alsopose a significant psychological barrier to the community’sresources. Nevertheless, vacant properties represent potentiallyvaluable untapped resources for revitalization and redevelopmentas well as prime opportunities to expand the housing stock inexisting neighborhoods.Local governments or nonprofit organizations can facilitate resaleand reuse of these buildings. Properties that remain vacant anddeteriorating often are a result of tax arrears, liens, or other unresolved financial obligations or legal issues that present obstaclesto transfers of ownership. Local governments can help addressthose issues by stepping up enforcement actions against ownerswhere building code violations exist. In addition, local governments can make public information about vacant buildings moreaccessible to potential purchasers and redevelopers of the properties. In cases where the owner cannot be readily located, or wherearrears are of a significant magnitude, public seizure and auctioncan be used to recoup unpaid taxes or liens, while at the sametime creating investment opportunities for developers or home

owners. Local governments and nonprofit organizations can helpstimulate interest in opportunities to purchase these units by targeting investment and infrastructure resources in the surroundingareas and by marketing the assets of underutilized neighborhoodsto prospective residents and investors. The result is one in whichthe buildings will no longer serve as examples of disinvestmentbut will act as symbols and opportunities for economic growththrough their return to use as functional housing units.

8.

Adopt special rehabilitation building codes to regulate the renovation of existing structures.A sizable share of older, pre–World War II buildings characterizesmany urban and inner-suburban communities. When they arewell maintained, these buildings can represent a desirable housingstock because of their architectural uniqueness. When they arenot, however, these buildings can quickly disintegrate into blighted or vacant structures, posing risk of fire, economic disinvestment, and increased crime for the neighborhoods surroundingthem.The same features that make the buildings unique can also makethe prospect of their conversion into modern housing units costprohibitive for potential redevelopers. Building codes most commonly used to monitor structures are, for the most part, suited toregulate new construction in houses that conform to modernstandards of hallway width, window and door dimensions, and thelike. Retrofitting older homes—which may contain more narrowhallways, for example—to these standards represents a costly andtime-consuming challenge for many prospective investors.Parallel codes to regulate renovation of existing structures canstimulate the upgrading of homes, expand housing opportunities,
CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES 23

n existing neighborhoods. These

minant building codes nor do they

orm to pre–World War II building

, which were adopted in consulta

ials, ensure that the full range of

safe and secure use by prospective

9.

Enlist local jurisdictions in implementing a regional fair-sharehousing allocation plan across metropolitan areas.The effects of individual housing needs are manifested at aregional level. It is not uncommon to find, for example, enclavesof middle- and upper-income housing supported by retail shopsand services in which the employees are unable to afford housinganywhere near their typically low-wage jobs. Often thoseemployed in the service economy, the public sector (includingteachers, police officials, and firefighters), and increasingly inwhite-collar professional jobs are forced to seek affordable housing in distant parts of the metropolitan region. The result hasbeen longer commutes, more congested roadways, and a growingdisparity between high-cost and low-cost housing areas. Localgovernments often view the need to supply more affordable housing as a fiscal burden. They perceive risk in exchanging thepotential high tax revenue earned from expensive housing for thepotential net cost associated with low-cost housing, where serviceneeds exceed generated tax revenue. This perspective fails to recognize the interrelatedness of the locality’s housing needs and theeconomic growth it desires. This view also fails to recognize theregional impacts that will result for all community membersshould this jobs-housing imbalance persist (see Principle 1, Policy1 for more information).Fair-share housing-allocation plans can ensure that adequatehousing opportunities exist regionwide. When all local governments within a region comply with their “fair share” of affordablehousing (as determined by population, projected job growth, or

existing jobs-housingimbalance, for example),the risk of clustering lowPRACTICE TIP: In Richmond, Virginia, a commu- nity-based process was used to determine its six priority neigh- borhoods for revitalization, of which the disposal of vacant prop- erties was seen as a critical piece. The “Neighborhoods in Bloom” program focused on enforcement actions against building code vio- lations, streamlined assistance for the rehabilitation of units, and targeted use of federal block grant money for infrastructure upgrades in the priority neighbor- hoods. As a result, during the first two years of the program, violent crime rates dropped by nearly 40 percent, and property values increased at a rate that exceeded rates in the city as a whole. Previously vacant and abandoned build- ings are converted to high-quality, affordable housing in the East Russel

neighborhood of Louisville, Kentucky.

Photo: Dr. John Guilderbloom
income households in only a few areas drops. It also ensures thatthe potential costs to localities of providing low-cost housing areequally distributed among the region. Furthermore, the geographic distribution of affordable housing units creates moreopportunity for households to locate near jobs and services,thereby mitigating the need for long commutes and congestion.Guaranteeing compliance can be difficult from a regulatory orlegislative standpoint, as few regional bodies exist that wouldtrump local government authority. Incentives may be created,however, to reward communities that do comply.

10.

Give priority to smart growth projects and programs that foster smart growth in the allocation of federal housing and community development block grant (and other) funds.Block grants such as HOME and Community DevelopmentBlock Grants (CDBG), as well as the Low-Income Housing TaxCredit, represent significant sources of funds for housing andcommunity development. While the federal government providesthese resources, state and local governments have a great deal ofdiscretion in allocating them. By modifying the standards that areused to distribute these funds, communities can encourage projects to incorporate desired smart growth aspects. Rather thanreplacing good current housing and community developmentprojects, local government can encourage these projects to bebetter by incorporating smart growth characteristics. These projects might include transit accessibility, a mix of uses, new housingconstruction in existing neighborhoods, or the rehabilitation ofexisting buildings to include accessory dwelling units or multifamily housing.

These priorities for funding allocation must be set at the local orstate level and should reflect both the federal standards for theiruse as well as the community’s own vision of how and where itwants to grow. Local decision making allows communities to support their priorities, such as the revitalization of existing neighborhoods, the preservation of open space, or development to support expanded transit, pedestrian, or bicycle uses. As a result, notonly will federal funds be used to expand access to housing andcommunity services, but these funds will be used in a way thatconsiders a wider range of long-term needs of the community.1 See Marya Morris, Incentive Zoning: Meeting Urban Design and Affordable

Housing Objectives, Planning Advisory Service Report No. 494, published in2000 by the American Planning Association, for a more complete description of this approach.

Other Resources:• Smart Growth Network and National Neighborhood Coalition’s Affordable

Housing and Smart Growth: Making the Connection (Washington, D.C.:Smart Growth Network, 2001).
Chapter Four

Create Walkable Communities

Before the mid-1900s, urban communities and neighborhoods focused on the pedestrian. They were designed to move people to

their destinations. However, in the past fiftyyears, dispersed development patterns and theseparation of uses have led to an increasedreliance on personal automobiles and to anelimination of many characteristics that supportwalkable communities. Today, traffic engineers’and developers’ arguments that sidewalks willnot be used leave many new streets withoutsidewalks or with sidewalks on only one side.The engineers and developers are right in onesense: sidewalks by themselves will not inducewalking. Other pedestrian-friendly featuresmust be present, such as an appropriate mix ofdensities and uses, compact street intersections,and neighborhoods that are scaled to people.
Walkable communities are integral to achieving the goals of smartgrowth because they enhance mobility, reduce negative environmental consequences, strengthen economies, and supportstronger communities through improved social interaction.Communities can be built so that walking to destinations is aviable alternative, thereby improving access to services for theone-third of the population that is too old, too young, or too poorto drive. Communities that enhance pedestrian access providemany benefits for the environment. For example, by reducing theneed for people to drive cars to every destination, pedestriandesign can improve air quality. In addition, many of the suggestedpedestrian-friendly improvements—such as narrower streets, onstreet parking instead of off-street parking, or pathways throughparking lots—reduce or break up large swaths of imperviouscover, thereby decreasing stormwater runoff. These strategiesyield economic benefits, as communities with better air and waterquality are less burdened with the costs of treating air and water.Other economic and social benefits associated with walkable communities include lower transportation costs, improved personal

health and fitness, andexpanded consumer choice.As these many benefits ofpedestrian-friendly communities are realized,more communities areengaging the public andprivate sectors in developing walkable neighborhoods.

Unfortunately, a multitude of public and private practices hinderthe creation of walkable communities. Conventional land-use regulation often prohibits the mixing of land uses, thus lengtheningtrips and making walking a less viable alternative to driving. Thisregulatory bias against mixed-use development is reinforced byprivate financing policies that view mixed-use development asriskier than single-use development. Many communities—particularly those that are dispersed and largely auto-dependent—employ design practices that further reduce pedestrian activity.Conventional street design suggests wide streets with few crosswalks, long blocks, and limited pedestrian infrastructure—such assidewalks, median strips, or traffic-calming features. The conventional design of residential developments also acts as a disincentive to pedestrian activity. Setback requirements, large minimumlot requirements, and indirect street routes, including cul-de-sacs,increase the distance between pedestrians and destinations.Similar pedestrian disincentives exist within conventional commercial designs. Many office buildings, retail establishments,hotels, and other commercial uses are surrounded by large parking lots, which force pedestrians to navigate through a sea ofparked and moving cars.These barriers demonstrate that land use and community designplay a pivotal role in encouraging pedestrian environments.Communities can increase the number and quality of walkablecommunities by building multiple destinations and uses withinclose proximity. This type of development ensures that streets andsidewalks balance all forms of transportation and that the buildings and corridors are the proper size and scale. Below is a rangeof policy options to help communities achieve this critical goal.
CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES

1.

cial assistance to local communi

s and sidewalks to promote more

ty, retrofitting streets and sidewalks

ly amenities to existing develop

 fiscal climate, where communities

dscaping, crosswalks, and other fea

ty, the importance of additional

hanges cannot be understated. State

werful role by directing financial

rt to aid local efforts. Targeted use

ion funds can assist communities in

retrofitting projects, thus demon

ved walkability and generating fur

al financing of pedestrian-friendly

, for example, under the “Illinois

for a Better Quality of Life” initia

llion in grants to assist localities in

use, transportation, and infrastruc

of the awarded grantees (Berkeley,

Springs) are using state funds to

al streets and streetscapes through

n-friendly retrofits, and transit-ori

 are also available, such as the

the 21st Century (TEA-21), which

cycling and walking into the trans

mportantly, it enhances the ability

rojects that improve the safety and

walking for everyday travel. Bicycle

and pedestrian projects are broadly eligible for funding fromalmost all the major federal transportation programs, includinghighway, transit, and safety. In the years before passage of theIntermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (TEA21’s predecessor), federal spending on bicycling and walking facilities was approximately $4 to 6 million per year. Since then,spending of federal funds by states has grown to more than $296million in fiscal year 2000.

2.

Concentrate critical services near homes, jobs, and transit.Developments or communities that have medium to high densities and mixed land uses bring destinations and origins closertogether and provide more incentives for people to walk.Research has demonstrated the importance of densities in promoting walking and transit use. Higher densities and a mix ofuses mean more residents or employees are within walking distance of transit stops and stations. It also means that streets havemore activity, interest and security with having more peoplearound. Finally, mixed-use development and higher densities leadto a greater propensity to walk or use transit and to lower autoownership rates. However, in most communities, local zoningordinances for new or infill development prohibit the mixing ofland uses, which limit the location of public and private serviceswithin walking distance of home, work, and transit. Furthermore,many communities lack or have inadequate street standards thatprovide the needed connectivity between mixed-use neighborhoods, the street network, and existing transit routes.There are several mechanisms for addressing these barriers. First,local governments can identify and develop mixed-use overlayzones to enhance the mixed-use and compact nature of new and

PRACTICE TIP:Hillsborough County, Florida,received $2.6 million from TEA21 to develop Riverwalk—a new1.25-mile, vibrant, linear, pedestrian-oriented linkage alongTampa’s waterfront that providesthe public with the opportunity touse and enjoy the special character of the HillsboroughRiverfront. For more informationon using TEA-21 funds for pedestrian activities, see:www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/bp-broch.htm.

27
infill developments. In addition, community groups and localgovernments can ensure that streets and walkways are better connected to each other so that pedestrian activities are increased.Ensuring that street construction standards are pedestrian-friendly also enhances the walkability of any community.Transportation authorities can reroute bus routes and adjust busschedules to maximize ridership, and they can link buses withheavy rail transit stops, thereby attracting more pedestrian activity between transit stops and destinations. Finally, transit-orienteddevelopment (TOD) represents a key opportunity to accommodate new growth that is centered around transit and to retrofitparts of existing neighborhoods to better focus pedestrian optionsand destinations (see Principle 9, Policy 9 for more information).

3.

Require building design that makes commercial areas morewalkable.Shops, offices, public facilities, and other nonresidential uses aredestinations as well as community assets. Diverse streetscapeswith retail shops, restaurants, public art and other amenitiesencourage people to linger. A lively and inviting street is viewedas safe and attractive, whereas an empty street, void of pedestrianactivity, can convey abandonment or danger. Building aspects thatisolate people and discourage pedestrian activity include “faceless” buildings without windows or doors at eye level, buildingswith no first-floor retail, or buildings that are set back a great distance from the street. Increasing pedestrian traffic in these areasrequires that buildings incorporate designs that create a sense ofplace and security.There are several tools that local governments can use to makecommercial areas more walkable, including design guidelines and

zoning. Zoning for new construction can ensure that ground floorspace faces the street, street-level retail is included in appropriateareas, structures are built to lot lines, and building fronts are madepermeable by the placement of doors and windows. In addition,zoning and street standards can be used to ensure that blocks arekept short (see Principle 8, Policy 3), sidewalk commerce isencouraged (see Principle 5, Policy 5), and parking betweenbuildings and sidewalks is eliminated (see Principle 9, Policy 6).Finally, the Specific Area Plan can be an important tool because itallows communities to modify specific building designs and commercial areas in targeted communities.

4.

Adopt design standards for streets that ensure safety andmobility for pedestrian and nonmotorized modes of transport.Making communities walkable requires that pedestrians and bicyclists feel comfortable and secure enough to share the street with

PRACTICE TIP:Responding to public concerns that existing street design standards werelimiting the livability and walkability of their community, the public worksdepartment in Sacramento, California, recently underwent an aggressive citizen-based approach to revising and adopting new street standards. Thedepartment brought an advisory team of developers, residents, bicycle advocates, transportation and urban planners, regional transit officials, landscape architects, and policemen and firemen to the table to think “outsideof the box” about street standards applicable to the unique needs ofSacramento residents and business.The results of this process were a seriesof street standards that provide flexibility in street design (rather than aone-size-fits-all solution) and that balance livability demands and the needto maintain street function.
CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES

xample, conventional street design

p of the hierarchy of transportation

o automobile access and efficiency

raditional street design offers con

entional street design for providing

ience. Short blocks, narrow widths,

ng, through streets and walkways

and lead to streets that balance the

odes (see also Principle 8, Policy 3).

cs keep urban traffic dispersed and

t considerations for ensuring the

 streets must be designed to facili

eneral, pedestrians will cross streets

t requires going no more than 150

reason, well-designed towns ensure

h 300 feet. This spacing is especial

. When fewer organized crossing

c or spontaneous street crossings by

nsafe, unpredictable movements.1

design features that support pedes

ging, expensive, and frustrating.

tructural changes to the street net

Communities can be proactive and

developing a toolbox of approved

t meet these criteria. The develop

ntives that encourage traditional

tion can contribute to a street net

pedestrian and other nonmotorized

use of subdivision regulations, com

w developments contain on-street

parking, landscaping, sidewalks, narrow roadways, short blocks,grid-patterned streets, and well-marked bicycle lanes. Zoning canbe used to reduce setback requirements or require consistent,human-scale design of storefronts.

5.

Adopt design standards for sidewalks.Better sidewalks require better design. Sidewalks need adequatewidths, buffers, continuity, connectivity, and edges to ensure thatthey meet the needs of pedestrians. However, too few localofficials understand these needs and fail to provide direction orfunding for constructing or retrofitting sidewalks. Many newdevelopments lack sidewalks, because often no local requirementto build them exists. Through the use of design standards, regularpublic investment, periodic evaluation of sidewalk performance,and subdivision design, communities can provide citizens withsecure, convenient, and lasting sidewalks.Specific design standards might include requiring a minimumwidth for sidewalks, buffers to shield users from traffic, or edgesto clearly mark pedestrian zones. For example, a general designstandard for sidewalk width might set a minimum requirement ofat least five feet. To encourage more comfortable walking and

PRACTICE TIP:While Martin Luther King Boulevard in Portland, Oregon, in the late 1980s was not much of a credit to its namesake,a decade later the situation had reversed. By that time, the boulevard that most community residents had previouslyregarded as a thoroughfare to shuttle commuters was transformed into a main street and neighborhood center.Because of the state Department of Transportation’s flexibility in administering design standards, an intergovernmentalteam of officials was able to create a pedestrian- and transit-friendly streetscape and sidewalk. Widened sidewalks,curb extensions to shorten street crossings, curbside bus stops, and crosswalks were some of the infrastructure changesthat supported increased pedestrian activity. In addition, the visual character of the sidewalk and boulevard wasenhanced by the addition of ornamental lighting, decorative paving, and frequent street trees.

29

Narrow streets, sidewalks, and frontporches all contribute to make theI’On community in Mount Pleasant,South Carolina,walkable for residents andvisitors.

Photo: Wilson Baker
higher volumes of pedestrians in commercial and school districts,however, sidewalk widths should be increased to eight to twelvefeet. Large successful downtowns have widths of 20 to 30 feet oreven a fifty-fifty ratio of street to sidewalk width. Sidewalk designstandards might also specify buffers and edges. For example,design standards might require planter strips of four to six feet insuburban areas or recommend that fencing, shrubs, and other features form edges to parking lots, open lots, or other areas thatmust be traversed. Other design standards that can improve thepedestrian experience include instituting traffic-calming measuresand providing landscaping and street trees to buffer pedestriansfrom traffic, locating sidewalks close to building fronts, discouraging off-street parking, encouraging on-street parallel parking,and providing adequate lighting and ample street crossings.

6.

Require traffic-calming techniques where traffic speedthrough residential and urban neighborhoods is excessive.Many new or updated residential streets today are designed tomaximize vehicular flow. Long blocks, wide turning radii, andbroad streets create a comfort zone for drivers, which encouragesspeeding and discourages pedestrians. Car volume and speedsoften increase because of the lack of pedestrians, which increasesperceptions of unsafe walking conditions and leads to furtherdeclines in pedestrian use. Traffic-calming techniques can helpbalance pedestrian and vehicular use by slowing neighborhoodand main street speeds, thereby encouraging walking. Trafficcalming techniques can be used both to retrofit existing streetsand to design new streets.Traffic-calming measures generally include changes in streetdesign, such as incorporating traffic circles to replace traffic lights

or stop signs, shorter turning radii, speed humps, narrowerstreets, or curves in roadways to create shorter visual horizons.Other measures directly address the pedestrian, such as raisedcrosswalks, landscaped islands between opposing lanes of traffic,and fewer road lanes (or the conversion of some lanes to otheruses, such as bike lanes). These structural changes are oftenregarded as more effective at reducing speeds on streets than ticketing and enforcement and help return the street to all users—bikers, walkers, drivers, and buses.

7.

Beautify and maintain existing and future walkways.Making communities walkable not only means providing residentswith pedestrian and pedestrian-friendly infrastructure—such ascrosswalks, bike lanes, sidewalks—but also maintaining that infrastructure. Sidewalks, streets, and street drains that are not maintained act as a disincentive for potential pedestrians and may posea threat to safety for bicyclists and people who use other nonmotorized means of transport.

PRACTICE TIP:In a partnership between the city transportation department, the LosAngeles Transportation Authority, the California Department ofTransportation, and the U.S. Economic Development Administration, thecity of Calabasas, California, was able to mitigate the effect of trafficspillover from nearby Ventura Freeway and enhance the walkability of thedowntown. Through the use of extensive tree planting and preservation ofexisting trees; the incorporation of boardwalks, bollards, and lighting intoroadway design; and the additions of bicycle lanes and bus turnout bays, thecity has created a pedestrian-friendly destination. The design improvementsand beautification of downtown have increased tourism and economic activity.
CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES

d walkways encourage more people

Communities that incorporate or

ees or shrubs) along right-of-ways,

paces, and around other focus areas

ing a more enticing environment.

Michigan, witnessed a 10-15 mph

ere street trees are present. Public

intained trash receptacles in heavi

 centers, civic plazas and parks, and

rs, also contribute to the overall

e to ensure that they provide a hos

nt and to extend their useful life.

wept, patched, reconditioned, and

e neighborhoods are often ignored.

w removal and occasional resetting

airs and maintenance are necessary.

adequate measures to identify and

s. Bushes, trees, and other vegeta

med. By developing and enforcing

and building codes to set standards

clearance, and bush and tree trim

 ensure that property owners are

the public investment in safe and

8.

ilities easy access to sidewalks,

c and private services.2

s with Disabilities Act (ADA) is not

 best way to meet the needs of all

people. However, engineers are often stymied by the numerouschallenges posed by retrofitting current streets to meet the needsof people with disabilities, and unfortunately, there are no easytechnological fixes. Because of the difficulties and cost associatedwith retrofits, pedestrian access and ADA requirements ideallyshould be addressed in all new developments, infill projects, andstreet and sidewalk construction. Street crossings, for example,should be developed to help people navigate to a crossing point,easily identify the entry and exit of the crossing, and avoid barriers along the way. Implementing many of the policies discussedthroughout this section will dramatically increase access, for people with and without disabilities, and increase the pedestrianfriendly nature of new and existing communities. By improvingaccess, communities can often better meet the requirements ofthe ADA—often without incurring any additional expense.

9.

Connect walkways, parking lots, greenways, and developments.Communities need many links to facilitate pedestrian travel. Evenwhen residential and commercial areas are in close proximity toone another, without adequate connections, community residentsare discouraged from substituting short vehicle trips with walking. Unfortunately, conventional land use and design has oftenresulted in a street network with minimal or no through streetsand walkways. In contrast, traditional street networks typicallyhave shorter blocks and numerous through streets, providingpedestrians with multiple routes by which to reach their destination. Retrofitting conventional street networks so that they havethe connectivity exhibited by traditional street networks is challenging but possible by using natural features—such as utility corridors, waterways and other open spaces—to link existing walkways and destinations.

31

PRACTICE TIP:The city of Richmond, Virginia,was awarded $80,000 in federaltransportation funds to cover 80percent of the costs of constructing an accessible sidewalk forwheelchair users. The sidewalklinked a home for adults withsevere physical disabilities toMaymont Park in Richmond.
10.

Identify economic opportunities that stimulate pedestrianactivity.Design standards, traffic-calming measures, and the other policiesdiscussed all work to create an environment that is pedestrianfriendly. In addition to these direct mechanisms of creating walkable communities, local governments can also identify economicor retail opportunities that stimulate and attract pedestrian activity. Main Street redevelopment programs, first floor retail, sidewalk service (see Principle 5, Policy 5), and pedestrian malls allcapitalize on pedestrian activity for economic development purposes. Communities can enhance walkability by identifyingimportant local assets—for example, natural features, historic districts, or unique architectural design—and by developing economic development strategies that use those assets to attractpedestrians to retail and restaurant venues. For example, manycommunities have Main Street programs that are designed torevitalize urban cores or downtown corridors. Some small townsin upstate New York, however, are revitalizing their historic MainStreets with the specific goal of attracting tourists from largerdownstate cities, by getting them out of their cars and onto thesidewalks where they can browse the antique, craft, and othershops native to these small towns.Other communities—including Boulder, Colorado, Burlington,Vermont, and Charlottesville, Virginia—have capitalized on theirappeal to tourists by creating shopping districts catered to pedestrians. These districts—sometimes identified as pedestrian mallsor commons—create a relationship between the pedestrian shopper and the storekeeper that is mutually reinforcing. With thegrowth in customers who are able to gain access to shops on foot,the stores flourish and are in turn able to attract more pedestrians

as the retail district grows stronger. Communities can use economic revitalization as a magnet for pedestrian activity in anynumber of ways. The city of Ann Arbor, Michigan, for example,created a retail pedestrian atmosphere by permitting two-waytraffic on its downtown Main Street. Parking is limited, however,and sidewalks are extra wide for outdoor cafes. Furthermore, thecity closes the street several days each summer for art fairs andother special events. The result is a bustling atmosphere all dayand evening, which demonstrates that increasing pedestrian accesscan do more than provide a transportation option or improve thequality of a neighborhood—it can also generate an economicboon.1 Dan Burden, “Building Communities with Transportation,” (paper presented at the Transportation Research Board Conference, Washington,

D.C., 10 January 2001).

2 Summarized from Burden.Other Resources• Walkable Communities, a national nonprofit organization dedicated to

helping communities become more pedestrian friendly—www.walkable.org.

• America Walks—a national nonprofit coalition of local advocacy groups

dedicated to promoting walkable communities—http://americawalks.org/.

• Reid Ewing, Pedestrian- and Transit-Friendly Design: A Primer for Smart

Growth (Washington, D.C.: Smart Growth Network, 1999).
Chapter Five

Foster Distinctive,Attractive

Communities with a Strong

Sense of Place

Conventional development patterns have helped to create a predominance of strip

shopping centers and large suburban tracthome developments that are, with the exception of small cosmetic variations, largely indistinguishable from one another. While such anapproach may conserve costs initially and makedevelopment more profitable for some, it doeslittle to stimulate civic pride or contribute to astrong sense of place with which communityresidents can identify.Smart growth supports the idea that development should not only respond to basic commercial or housing needs, for example, butshould also help create communities that aredistinctive and unique. Smart growth seeks to

Photo: Joe Schilling
foster the types of physical environments that create a sense ofcivic pride, and therefore support a more cohesive communityfabric. As a result, economic benefits accrue as well; high-qualitycommunities with architectural and natural elements that reflectthe interests of all residents are more likely to retain their economic vitality and value over time.A great deal can be learned from some of America’s most distinctive and interesting neighborhoods, such as San Francisco’sJapantown, the French Quarter in New Orleans, or NewEngland’s small towns. Communities that have a strong sense ofplace represent the values of their residents and reflect the uniquehistorical, cultural, economic, and geographical context of thearea. They use natural and man-made boundaries and landmarksto create a sense of defined neighborhoods, urban communities,and regions. These communities encourage the construction andpreservation of buildings, which prove to be assets over time, notonly because of the services provided, but also because of theunique contribution they make to the look and feel of a community. Beyond the construction of buildings, these communitiesreflect their unique characteristics in myriad details—such aslandscaping, signs, and awnings—that help to further distinguishthe area for passers-by and visitors. Guided by their own vision ofhow and where to grow, communities that have adopted smartgrowth principles can direct investment and development intoareas that already reflect a strong sense of place. Moreover, thesecommunities can encourage new fringe development to make abetter effort to create distinctive, unique civic assets.

1.

Modify state funding processes and school siting standards topreserve neighborhood schools and build new schools to a“community level.”Neighborhood schools are those that serve the educational needsof nearby residents and that contribute to the social and physicalenvironment of the community. Moreover, they function as community gathering places for adult education programs, eveningcivic events, or weekend sports competitions. They may serve aslandmarks in a community or as examples of monumental architecture or historical significance within a region. Schools built at acommunity level are constructed to complement existing neighborhoods and provide improved walking or bicycle access to theschool by students and community members. Most importantly,these schools serve as critical civic anchors in a community, oftenacting as the center of districts or neighborhoods with which residents can identify.However, siting standards and funding criteria common in manystates present significant obstacles to communities wishing to support neighborhood schools. Current standards typical in moststates require vast tracts of land for new construction—equivalentto 14 acres for an elementary school with 400 students, or 50acres for a high school with 2,000 students. Because of these standards, communities are often left with little choice but to buildthese large schools on available land on the urban fringe. Theseschools are then forced to accommodate the great number ofvehicles which students require to get there. State standards mayalso require new construction if renovation costs to existingschools exceed a threshold amount (e.g., two-thirds of the cost ofnew construction).
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE

ner that fosters their incorporation

orhood is an important aspect of

dified siting and funding criteria,

ities that want to maintain existing

nsible placement of new schools.

use of shared-risk insurance plans,

lity obstacles that often prevent

ng as community gathering points

fter hours.

2.

ncourage adaptive reuse of his

cant buildings.

urally, or architecturally significant

as some of the most valued civic

ese buildings remind residents and

tory and provide a visible link to it.

n do not retain their original use,

euse can create unique, interesting,

 services. When clustered in close

uildings can create the basis for a

strict that may attract tourism and

development activities. Finally, the

rchitecturally significant buildings

 blocks for recreating the pedestri

al of the pre–World War II era.

ed with historic properties, howev

nted in the building’s market value.

 may not find it cost-effective to

ldings in a way that preserves their

g for modern uses. State tax credits,

modeled after the federal program (see practice tip) constituteone possible action for states to support historic preservation.2Through state tax credits, incentives can be created for localitiesand developers to engage in public-private partnerships, whenappropriate, to convert these buildings to new uses. Tax creditswould allow owners, for example, to claim up to 20 percent of thecost of renovation on state income taxes, thereby effectivelyreducing the cost of renovation. With creative thinking, effectivepartnerships can turn historic theaters into arts centers or retailspaces, and can renovate small factories as loft apartments orbusiness incubators. In so doing, not only are valuable and distinctive community treasures preserved, but new opportunitiesfor development in neighborhoods already served by infrastructure are also created.

3.

Plant trees throughout communities and preserve existingtrees during new construction.Trees play important environmental, aesthetic, and economicroles in creating distinctive and healthy places to live. Trees along

PRACTICE TIP:A 2001 report released by theNational Park Service cited a 25-year old federal programdesigned to preserve historicproperties as “one of the mostsuccessful revitalization programs ever created.” The TaxReform Act of 1976 created thefirst federal tax incentives for thepreservation of historic buildings,renovating 3,000 historic buildings that represented more than$4.5 billion worth of investmentsin the last five years alone. TheFederal Historic RehabilitationTax Credit is a dollar for dollarreduction of federal income taxliability, which permits anyonewho rehabilitates a historic building to claim a tax credit of 20percent of the cost of the renovation. For more information see thepress release on www.nthp.org.

35

New and mature trees combine togive this new development inHuntersville, North Carolina,a distinct character, and preserveopportunities for recreation and

Photo: Bowman Development Group natural habitat.
medians, sidewalks, and embankments serve to filter noise andpollution from nearby vehicular traffic, as well as mitigate erosionthat causes damage to and raises maintenance costs of adjacentroadways. Along commercial and residential zones, trees providea canopy of shade and shelter from the elements, and soften andframe the streetscape for the passerby. Large trees along a retailstrip make the strip more inviting, which generates more business, thereby serving as an economic stimulus for the community.By cooling homes and communities, trees reduce energy costsand create a more comfortable climate for outdoor activities. Byslowing stormwater runoff and helping to protect wetlands, treescan reduce the costs associated with water treatment for localjurisdictions. They help the environment by cooling temperaturesand by consuming excess carbon dioxide (primarily the result ofpollution), thus reducing the amount of carbon dioxide that contributes to global warming. In short, trees add to the beauty, distinctiveness, and material value of neighborhoods by incorporating the natural environment into the built environment.Through collaborative efforts, neighborhoods and the public andprivate sectors can be engaged to preserve and add to the treestock in a community. In existing communities, tree planting programs undertaken by schools and civic associations can increasethe presence of trees on residential streets and commercial thoroughfares. Other incentives, such as a community grant fund fortree planting or reduced zoning requirements, can encourageproperty owners to preserve existing trees or plant new ones.Localities can put into place ordinances or incentives that encourage landowners to preserve a portion of in-situ trees or replacetrees that could not be preserved. When enacted in concert with acommunity’s own plan for increasing the supply of trees and treecanopy cover, these actions can provide an additional way to create distinctive, healthy communities.

4.

Create active and secure open spaces.Open spaces, whether built or natural, active or passive, help create distinctive communities. Pocket parks, playgrounds, plazas,squares, social gathering places, and other publicly accessibleopen spaces contribute to the aesthetic quality of the surroundingarea and to the feeling of “community” that fosters a strong senseof place. Open spaces may also provide environmental benefits ashosts to trees and penetrable ground surfaces that filter air andwater, respectively, and mitigate stormwater runoff. These spacesmust be managed and designed in a way that ensures the safety oftheir users so that the public spaces remain viable and desirableover time.Many opportunities exist to foster open space in a community (seePrinciple 6 for a full discussion of these issues). For example, openspaces can be created through incentives to developers, throughdirect construction by local governments, or through other public-private partnerships. In new developments, open spaces shouldbe incorporated into the design process and placed in a mannerthat ensures maximum access and use by area residents. In existingneighborhoods, street ends, abandoned lots, brownfields, or deteriorated houses may provide opportunities for small, scatteredparks or community gardens. In bustling commercial centers,plazas, parks, and public squares can serve as prominent visualcues for business districts, provide amenities for employees andshoppers, and add value to nearby buildings. Finally, each of thesesettings can serve as a venue for engaging the public in festivals,community gardening activities, sports events, or other civicactivities that help to galvanize the sense of community amongmembers, and that create places in which people have a vestedinterest to preserve and protect.
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE

5.

ting regulations to allow vendors

(e.g., walk-up window purchases,

osks) is perhaps the easiest way to

business along pedestrian-oriented

By allowing vendors to sell their

ndows or at kiosks placed along the

make it easier for entrepreneurs to

and sidewalk service creates a mag

o seek an alternative to the local

 foot traffic that results will spur

 create a vital neighborhood shop

e community can benefit.

ewalk service are either difficult to

s, or the permits require a compli

governments, in cooperation with

et neighborhood shopping districts,

ity that would complement existing

nd expedite the permitting process

accordingly. Communities thatare seeking to expand sidewalkservice should also ensure that

the designated sidewalks are wide enough to accommodate ahigher level of activity.By coordinating efforts among zoning, licensing, and publicworks officials, potential vendors benefit from an expeditedapproval process, and the jurisdiction benefits from growth insales tax receipts and permitting fees associated with new businessstart-ups. Most importantly, communities benefit from a vibrant,strong, pedestrian-oriented shopping district that can provide afocal point for activity and neighborhood identity.

6.

Create special improvement districts for focused investment.The designation of special districts is a convenient means toorganize and focus investment in a particular area to achieve arange of outcomes, such as historicpreservation, business improvement, or economic revitalization. Itprovides an opportunity for local orother special purpose governmentsto establish clear boundaries andnames for geographic areas withwhich residents and businesses canbetter identify. By strengtheningthe sense of community in theseareas, citizens can become moreinvolved in development decisionsabout their own district and theregion of which it is a part.Creating fixed boundaries aroundneighborhoods in which tax incentives, regulatory flexibility, or other

PRACTICE TIP:Main Streets are found in nearly every American community and represent one of the most common approaches to the use of specialimprovement districts. With an emphasis on historic preservation andeconomic development, the Main Street program supports commercialdistrict revitalization as a means to benefit all members of the surrounding community. Nationally, Main Street communities have hadmore than $12.8 billion of new public and private investment in theirdowntowns. In North Carolina alone, the state Main Street programhas seen more than $540 million of new investment and has experienced a net gain of 8,400 jobs in downtown areas since the programbegan in 1980. The Main Street Center at the National Trust forHistoric Preservation provides tools and technical assistance to communities to establish and revitalize these vital commercial district centers. Learn more at www.mainstreet.org.

37

Photo: Federal Realty Investment Trust
financial benefits are made available can help channel targetedinvestment to support strong, vibrant communities. In centralbusiness districts, for example, business improvement districtscoordinate shared responsibility among businesses and buildingowners to support entertainment, services, or other amenities thatcan attract customers and improve the business climate. Historicdistricts are used to help protect tracts of historic buildingsthrough the provision of tax incentives or grants for restorationand preservation. Support to designated art corridors may helpattract a critical mass of artists, art suppliers, and vendors, whichwould constitute a destination in itself for art lovers.Neighborhood centers often benefit from a clear determinationof the service area around the center in order to better identifypotential customers and recruit businesses and service providersaccordingly. In these and other cases, creating smaller-scale zoneswithin a larger urban or suburban context can help residents, visitors, and businesses better identify communities by their strongersense of place.

7.

Define communities and neighborhoods with visual cues.Just as the ancient city wall once indicated to people the beginning of a town, visual cues are an important means to help visitorsand residents distinguish areas from one another. Often subtle,sometimes blatant, these cues act as either focal points or wayfinding aids to attract and direct pedestrian and automobile flowto commercial or entertainment activities. In so doing, cues createvirtual borders around districts for special uses, give shape anddefinition to neighborhoods, and contribute to the unique lookand feel of a given community. Communities that are well definedand easy to navigate not only attract new activity and investment,but they help create neighborhoods and amenities that are worthpreserving.Cues can be explicit, such as signs directing visitors to importantlocations or monumental-type architecture, which contributes tothe vista at street ends or along blocks. The decorative gate inChinatown, San Francisco, is a clear example of this sort of physical introduction to a unique and distinct community. Visual cuescan be more subtle, as well, and include elements such as uniquelightposts, novel street signs, variegated materials for streets orsidewalks, distinct landscaping styles, or complimentary awningsor overhangs above businesses. Open space and natural features,such as greenbelts, creeks, or other prominent natural features,can also be used to introduce or signal the transition from onezone to another.As with other policies to achieve distinctive communities, visualcues can be incorporated into new and existing communitiesthrough the combined efforts of the public and private sectors.The preferences articulated by communities for aesthetic detailsare codified and enforced in building codes and design standards,

Photo: Local Government Commission
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE

ment and orientation of open space

are represented in master plans.

partnerships, which call on the

hance the physical environment for

munity preferences.

8.

h the appropriate location of

nd through improved control of

ps and trees, telecommunication

amatically affect the appearance of

er the view of an otherwise scenic

ure the natural or physical features

Many creative alternatives exist for

ers, for example, such placing them

 concealed by high-reaching build

nities that are pressured into creat

communications infrastructure may

ns. Communities can regulate the

y working with private industry to

te towers and monopoles unobtru

rts may include agreements to keep

by tree canopy, to locate towers on

its to reduce visual impact, to limit

incorporate them into existing fea

tric-transmission towers, or church

idelines in ordinances that clearly

equirements for tower location,

mprove the process of expanding

or all involved.

Billboards, too, present an opportunity for improved management. Communities seeking to preserve their scenic vistas canbegin by instituting a moratorium on all new billboards and thenencouraging the gradual phase-out of existing billboards uponexpiration of leases. Incentives may be created in the form of taxabatements or scenic easements to reward landowners whorequire removal of billboards from their property upon lease expiration, and who keep their property free of billboards.Communities that have been successful in limiting or eradicatingbillboards in favor of logo signs and tourist-oriented directionalsigns have created a higher quality of life for their residents andhave continued to grow their economies based on their enhancedvisual appeal to visitors.

9.

Create opportunities for community interaction.Communities are defined by more than the physical and naturalelements that comprise them. The most well-designed street inthe world will fail to evoke a sense of community if there are noopportunities for interaction or vibrant exchange among neighbors. Public places of all sorts can provide the venue for thesesorts of interactions: sidewalks become hosts to outside shoppingor art displays, closed-off streets become havens for block partiesor markets, and parks and plazas become open-air theaters formusic or performances. Offered on a regular basis, festivals thatcelebrate local produce, historical events, or cultural traditionscan become a vibrant and ongoing reminder of the unique natureof a given community, and can create opportunities for distinctivetraditions from which all residents and visitors can derive enjoyment.

PRACTICE TIP:The organization Scenic Americahas created a range of tools thatcommunities can use to protectscenic vistas, including modelordinances that have been promoted by states and are currentlybeing used successfully to addressunsightly placement of towersand billboards. These and otherresources are available throughthe organization’s Web site,www.scenic.org.

39
Broad constituencies benefit from such events and can be tappedto support farmers’ markets, art and music festivals, or even blockparties. Business owners benefit from the increased flow of peopleattracted by these events. Schools may support such activitiesbecause of the learning opportunities they present to students andas a means to share with the broader community the skills and talents of their children. Local farmers, artisans, and musicians arelikely to play a critical role in supporting such events, becausethese events provide outlets for performances and sales thatwould otherwise be unavailable to them. In many communities,nonprofit organizations are formed with the support of local government and civic leaders to manage and promote these events.Chambers of commerce, economic development agencies, civicassociations, and other local organizations can play an importantrole in bringing together the diverse parties that are necessary tomake these events vital parts of the community landscape.

10.

Enact clear design guidelines so that streets, buildings, andpublic spaces work together to create a sense of place.Beyond basic requirements for safety and accessibility, buildingsare often subject to little regulation of how they look, how theyare constructed, or how they relate to the street. In the absence ofsuch requirements, few developers find it in their financial bestinterest to invest in architectural detail or decorative features,which would enhance the look of buildings and would contributeto a more distinctive and appealing community. The same couldbe said of public officials who, in the construction of civic buildings, sidewalks, streets, and public parks, are motivated primarilyby the desire to deliver thenecessary product at the lowest possible cost and in the

shortest possible time. Yet, it is precisely the cumulative effect ofthese numerous individual development and design decisions thatcreate the look and feel of our built environments.Communities that include well-designed buildings, attractive signage, well-maintained facades, and a positive orientation of buildings to the street are often the most distinctive. Other opportunities for improved design guidelines pertain to the placement ofbus shelters and benches, the design of sidewalks and bike paths,the introduction of landscaping and street trees, and the incorporation of community parks and public gathering spaces. Withimproved attentiveness to these aspects, communities are morevalued for their uniqueness, better able to attract new businessesand residents, and therefore less likely to suffer disinvestment andneglect. This ongoing vitality of neighborhoods is both an outgrowth of and a contributor to smart growth.As the community establishes its own definition of a desirablelook, an opportunity arises to create a unique, memorablestreetscape to attract future development. These preferences can

Strict design criteria help createCivano’s unique look in Phoenix,Arizona – one that evokes traditionalSouthwest architecture.

Photo: Local Government Commission
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE

 of clear design guidelines that reg

and sidewalk design, architectural

building materials. The guidelines

ed, regulating everything down to

 they can set broad parameters for

m diversity among users. In either

a clear and consistent fashion, these

ue to the community and provide

 in turn, can create higher quality

o their end design from the early

rt Growth.

enovation include: (1) the establishment

ce to support local affiliates, (2) priority

frastructure funding for communities

 structures, (3) grants to local nonprofit

itation and restoration activities, and (4)

nt officials on the economic and cultural

tures.

41

Chapter Six

Preserve Open Space,

Farmland, Natural Beauty and

Critical Environmental Areas

Communities across the United States are realizing that open space preservation is

an important component to achieving betterplaces to live. Open space supports smartgrowth goals by bolstering local economies,preserving critical environmental areas, providing recreational opportunities, and guiding newgrowth into existing communities. Preservationof open space can have a profound impact on acommunity’s quality of life, and therefore aregion’s economic prosperity. An economicanalysis performed for the East Bay RegionalPark District in California concluded that “theprovision of open space and associated recreational and educational opportunities, environmental and cultural preservation, alternativetransit modes, and sprawl-limiting characteris-
tics, all contribute positively to the quality of life in the East Bayregion.”1 A 1997 study reported that owners of small companies

ranked recreation, parks, and open space as the highest prioritiesin choosing a new location for their business.2

Networks of preserved open space and waterways can shape anddirect urban form and at the same time prevent haphazard conservation (conservation that is reactive and small scale). These networks, known as “green infrastructure,” help frame new growthby locating new development in the most cost-efficient places.The most cost-efficient locations for new development are where

roads, sewers, water lines, and other utilities currently exist. Green infrastructure also ensuresthat the preserved areas are connected so as tocreate wildlife corridors, preserve water quality,and maintain economically viable working lands.There are significant fiscal, environmental quality, and health benefits associated with the protection of open space. Open space can increase localproperty values (thereby increasing property taxbases),3 provide tourism dollars, and reduce the

need for local tax increases by reducing the needfor construction of new infrastructure.4 In addition, management of the quality and supply of

open space ensures that prime farm and ranchlands are available, prevents flood damage, andprovides a natural and less expensive alternativefor providing clean drinking water.5 Preservation

of open spaces helps to protect animal and planthabitats, places of natural beauty, and workinglands by removing the development pressure andredirecting new growth to existing communities.

Preservation benefits the environment by combating air pollution,attenuating noise, controlling wind, providing erosion control,and moderating temperatures. Finally, open space also protectssurface and ground water resources by filtering trash, debris, andchemical pollutants before they enter the community’s water system.Political will is increasing to save the places that Americans treasure. Voters in 2000 continued the trend over the past five years byoverwhelmingly approving ballot measures to fund open spaceprotection—passing 201 of 257 open space measures on the ballot,an approval rate of nearly 80 percent. In most of these referenda,voters approved tax increases, which provided more than $7.4 billion for land conservation.6There is a sense of urgency to saving critical environmental areas.Once a greenfield has been developed it is hard, if not impossible,to return the land to its original state. Land preservation is alsobecoming more expensive as growth pressures become stronger.Therefore, communities must work with other communities intheir region and political leaders to expend the resources anddevelop the innovative techniques to make open space preservation a reality. A range of policies and approaches that can helpcommunities in their efforts are presented in this chapter.

1.

Use transfer of development rights purchase of developmentrights, and other market mechanisms to conserve privatelands.It may not be realistic or desirable for the public sector to buyoutright all of the open space they wish to protect, so innovativeways to protect targeted areas must be considered. An increasinglypopular tool for land preservation has been the use of marketPRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS

ated conservation easements, trans

DRs), and purchase of development

can permanently protect land from

nneling financial incentives to the

ed conservation easement—offers a

munities looking to preserve open

rchase the land outright. Under a

hts to develop their land to a land

hile retaining the title to the prop

ndle of rights. As a result, a legal

 for the property that prevents all

geted land. Landowners benefit by

r the PDR, but they are often also

on of property tax, estate tax, or

e been especially successful in pro

xample, PDRs have been used to

farm and ranch land nationwide in

nity identifies areas for protection

 Landowners who own property in

ion are given development credits

 can be purchased by developers to

 increased density. TDRs are an

een successful in a handful of loca

000-acre agricultural reserve in

d, is protected through the use of a

ly 13,000 acres of the New Jersey

d since the Pinelands Commission

 1980.9

The use of these innovative tools remains illegal, however, inmany localities in the United States. Therefore, if these tools areto be effective, it is imperative that states provide the enablinglegislation that is necessary to allow communities to preservevaluable open space.

2.

Coordinate and link local, state, and federal planning on landconservation and development.Many resources exist at the local, state, and federal levels to preserve and protect open space. Often the linkages between the various programs that would allow them to have a more significantimpact are absent. States can play an active role in buildingstronger support for open-space conservation by collaboratingwith relevant partners to protect open spaces.The state of Utah’s Critical Land Conservation Committee wasestablished as a catalyst for locally initiated conservation efforts.The committee plans to assist localities and organizations by providing technical expertise, conducting a statewide open-spaceinventory, developing a land-use and conservation clearinghouse,and facilitating the multi-agency and cross-jurisdictional partnerships that many open-space conservation efforts require. Thiseffort included and educated all stakeholders: government, privateindustry and organizations, academia, and individuals.10

3.

Expand use of innovative financing tools to facilitate openspace acquisition and preservation.The challenge of paying for a resource that is unlikely to generateimmediate fiscal benefits, yet necessitates expensive outlays ofcapital to secure, requires innovative approaches to financing.

45

Creating opportunities for open spacesin high-density downtown contexts --like this one in Newark, New Jersey --are critical.

Photo: New Jersey Department of Community Affairs

PRACTICE TIP:For an example of enabling legislation for the New York StateTDR program visit http://assembly.state.ny.us/leg/?cl=118&a=33.
There are many such tools that can be used to finance open-spaceacquisition and preservation. These tools include levying a portion of the local sales tax or real estate transfer tax, institutingimpact fees, using borrowing power (e.g., bonds), providingincome tax credits, charging user fees, and collecting fees fromspecial motor vehicle taxes or license plates.

Maryland’s “Program OpenSpace”, for example, provides100 percent funding for acquisition of parkland, greenways,and places of special culturalvalue and 75 percent of development costs for local and

state parks and recreation areas funded through the state realestate transfer tax. More than 2,800 local projects have been funded so far by the program, which places one-half percent of thepurchase price of a home or land into a special fund. Once theprogram purchases a land, the land’s use cannot be altered unlessa suitable alternative is provided.11 In 1967, Boulder, Colorado,

became the first city in the United States to pass a sales tax (0.4percent) to buy, preserve, and maintain greenbelt land. In 1989,an additional 0.33 percent was added. Using this and other funding, more than $100 million has been spent on the city’s OpenSpace Program.12

4.

Employ regional development strategies that better protectand preserve open space in edge areas.One of the most fundamental approaches to preserving openspace is to reduce the regional development pressures on existingopen areas at the fringe of communities. By providing financial or

regulatory incentives to focus development in areas where adequate infrastructure for growth (water, sewer, roads, and the like)already exists, land at the urban fringe will be under less pressurefor development. Regional development strategies can help coordinate the efforts of localities and identify opportunities for infillor brownfields development, thereby protecting land at the urbanfringe to benefit all.The state of Wisconsin supports regional planning to ease development pressures on fringe areas by providing state funding priority to local governments that address the needs of adjacent communities in their development plans, instead of just pursuingparochial interests.13 In 1998, the state of Maryland issued legislation for priority funding areas that directs state funds to municipalities and other existing communities, industrial areas, and

planned growth areas.14 This legislation allows the state and local

governments to target where economic development and newgrowth will occur.

5.

Adopt a green infrastructure plan.A formal green infrastructure plan provides a framework forfuture growth by prioritizing what open space should be protected and what open space should be available to development.Conventional practice now largely designates whatever openspaces are remaining for preservation after buildings and roads aredeveloped. Conversely, a green infrastructure plan would identifyand protect critical ecological sites and linkages in advance ofplanning and construction of infrastructure and development ofland. In so doing, not only are valuable natural resources preserved, but recurring project-level decisions about conservationcan be avoided by identifying targeted sites comprehensively and

approaches to financing open space

Land at www.tpl.org/tier3_cdl.cfm?

8.
PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS

ure plan. According to the Green

, a coalition of nonprofit organiza

ral governments, green infrastruc

fe support system—a strategically

k of wilderness, parks, greenways,

working lands with conservation

 native species, maintains natural

air and water resources, and con

lity of life for America’s communi

priority conservation areas prior to

 of the high cost of restoration and

n-made systems to mimic natural

n). When development is already

 plan can help communities to set

 and linking them to other open

6.

d greenways.

n spaces, communities must ensure

 a continuous network of pathways

-country skiing through a region.

ected corridors of open space that

ach to land conservation and park

ational and conservation functions.

etwork of trails and greenways not

rs for animal migration, but it can

rces more accessible to the region’s

In Dane County, Wisconsin, for example, the open-space planstrives to facilitate the linking of public lands and trails of variouspolitical jurisdictions among communities and population centersto amplify the availability and recreational use of these lands. 16Other communities have chosen to take action at the state level.In 1990, a Maryland executive order created a statewide naturalinfrastructure by protecting and connecting important naturalcorridors throughout the state. Since then, Maryland has protected over 900 miles of greenway corridors, with 200 more milescurrently being built, and has identified 1,000 miles as potentialgreenways, many of which can be used for recreation. Most of thecurrent land is publicly owned, but numerous easements arebeing placed on private properties to enhance the growing network of corridors.

7.

Design and implement an information-gathering and education program.Gathering information on the status of land use and environmental characteristics throughout a region is a critical component fordetermining which lands are more important to preserve andwhich lands can be developed with minimal impacts to the environment. Information collected should include data on issuessuch as land ownership, protected areas, biodiversity needs, existing infrastructure, floodplains, shorelands, wetlands, groundwater recharge areas, and prime agricultural areas.An inventory of a region’s environmental characteristics and landuses can help identify critical areas for open-space preservation.For example, a comprehensive mapping project in Austin, Texas,showed that proposed housing would negatively affect the city’s

PRACTICE TIP:Former railroad corridors providean ideal opportunity for manycommunities to build a series oftrials and greenways. Since 1960,it is estimated that 11,000miles of rail lines have beenused to create trails and recreational networks. The Rails toTrails Conservancy providestechnical assistance to communities interested in using their railroad networks for recreation.For more information, go towww.railstrails.org.

47

PRACTICE TIP:For more information on greeninfrastructure planning, seewww.greeninfrastructure.net.
drinking water aquifer. The city then decided to direct its publictransportation and park investments in a less environmentallysensitive area in East Austin.17Chicago Wilderness, an organization that is dedicated to protecting and managing the natural communities in the Chicago region,developed an atlas of important natural resources and features inthe metropolitan Chicago area.18 This atlas was instrumental in

the development of its Biodiversity Recovery Plan, which provided a long-term vision for the preservation of the area’s biologicalresources.

8.

Design and implement zoning tools that preserve open space.Communities across the United States have successfully used zoning to preserve natural resources throughout a region. One common technique is cluster development zoning. This techniqueallows the same overall amount of development that is alreadypermitted but requires that the development be placed on only aportion of the parcel, thereby retaining the balance as open space.19Clustering can protect resources such as environmentally sensitive areas, forests, and historic sites, by allowing higher concentrations of development on a smaller portion of land, which leaveslarge plots of land as permanent open space.Another technique is the use of incentive zoning. The town ofCedarburg, Wisconsin, has added language to its zoning codesthat allows builders to create a greater number of lots than normally allowed in a development in exchange for dedicating additional open space. Under the ordinance, developers are permittedto increase the number of lots by up to 20 percent in exchange forclustering the development and preserving the balance as undeveloped open space.20

9.

Provide mechanisms for preserving working lands.The preservation of prime farm and ranch land deserves specialattention for a variety of reasons. Most of the land that is underthe greatest development pressure is prime farmland that surrounds metropolitan areas—termed “prime” because this farmland consists of the finest soils, requires the least amount of chemical or irrigation inputs, or is in greatest proximity to markets ortransportation networks. Farmland also warrants special efforts toprotect it because it demands less in public services than development, thereby serving as a net local tax contributor.Agricultural districts can be used to support and protect the localagricultural economy from the pressure of urbanization and second-home development.21 They do this by primarily excluding

inhospitable land uses, such as suburban development, and ensuring a critical mass of farmland to support needed agriculturalinfrastructure (e.g., distribution channels, equipment supplies,etc.). Agricultural districts can be made more effective by adopting a hybrid approach to farmland protection that includes marketmechanisms to preserve farmland.22 Places such as Lancaster

County, Pennsylvania, and Marin County, California, have combined agricultural districts and the purchase of agricultural conservation easement programs (PACEs) to great success. Theseapproaches work by using agricultural districts to protect farmland in the near term, while funding is raised through a PACEprogram to purchase the land easements over time.
PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS

10.

al organizations to acquire and

other public and nonprofit entities

rest in preserving space of natural,

ch entities can be particularly help

sisting on land-use legislation, and

ns to communities. Local govern

rganizations through funding and

ess about their mission.

ns can help with the acquisition of

te at the local and regional level to

ignificant ecological, open space,

lue. According to the Land Trust

trusts at work in the United States.

e in ways, and at speeds, not always

example, organizations such as the

nd the Nature Conservancy can act

nd acquisition, by purchasing prop

 jurisdiction, and then waiting for

.24 For example, the city of Tucson,

Arizona, asked TPL to buy a scenic mountain tract overlookingdowntown, which was being offered for sale by a savings and loan.City officials intended to include the costs of the property in thenext budget, but legally they could not commit the funds. Thetrust purchased the property for the city and was reimbursed during the next budget cycle.The nonprofit status of land trusts and some other nongovernmental organizations also allows landowners to receive tax breakswhen they sell their property below market value.1 Economic & Planning Systems, Regional Economic Analysis, Trends, Year

2000 & Beyond, (Berkeley, Calif.: Economic & Planning Systems, 2000).

2 John L. Crompton, Lisa L. Love, and Thomas A. More, “An Empirical

Study of the Role of Recreation, Parks, and Open Space in Companies’(Re)Location Decisions,” Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 15,

no. 1 (1997): 37-58. 

3 In Salem, Oregon, land adjacent to a greenbelt was found to be worth

about $1,200 per acre more than land only 1,000 feet away. ElizabethBrabec, On the Value of Open Spaces, Technical Information Series, vol. 1,

no. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Scenic America, 1992), 5.

4 For example, one study found that New Jersey communities would save

$1.3 billion in infrastructure costs over 20 years by avoiding unplannedsprawl development. For details, see Center for Urban Policy Research atthe Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey, The Costs and Benefits of AlternativeGrowth Patterns: The Impact Assessment of the New Jersey State Plan(Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers, 2000).

5 For example, the cost to New York City of building a filtration plant, if

49

a, uses a network of recreation trails to

Photo: Otay Ranch Company
upstate watershed lands were developed and their associated waste treatment ecosystem service was lost, was estimated at $6 to $8 billion. This issignificantly higher than the cost of buying and preserving the watershedlands, estimated at $1.5 billion. Steve Lerner and William Poole, TheEconomic Benefits of Parks and Open Space: How Land Conservation HelpsCommunities Grow Smart and Protect the Bottom Line (Washington, D.C.:Trust for Public Land, 1999).

6 Phyllis Myers and Robert Puentes, Growth at the Ballot Box: Electing the

Shape of Communities in November 2000 (Washington, D.C.: BrookingsInstitution, Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, 2001).

7 Edward Thompson, telephone conversation with author, 4 December

2001.

8 Robert Marriott, Charles Loehr, and Karl Moritz, Managing Growth with

Performance Standards in Montgomery County, Maryland, Planners AdvisoryService, no. 461 (Chicago, Ill.: American Planning Association, 1996), 19-21.

9 www.state.nj.us/pinelands/density.htm.

10 www.governor.state.ut.us/planning/CriticalLands/white.htm#Introduction.11 www.dnr.state.md.us/pos.html.12 www.ci.boulder.co.us/openspace/.13 Cynthia Nickerson, “Smart Growth: Implications for Agriculture in

Urban Fringe Areas,” Agricultural Outlook, April 2001 (Washington, D.C.:U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 2001), 27.Available online atwww.ers.usda.gov/publications/agoutlook/april2001/AO280g.pdf.

14 www.op.state.md.us/smartgrowth/smartpfa.htm.15 www.greeninfrastructure.net/Intro/Mission-WorkingGroup.htm.

16 www.co.dane.wi.us/parks/open%20space/body.htm#past_plans.17 Kathy Blaha and Peter Harnik, Opportunities for Smarter Growth: Parks,

Greenspace and Land Conservation, Translation Paper no. 3 (Miami: FundersNetwork for Smart Growth and Livable Communities, 2000), 6.

18 www.co.dane.wi.us/parks/parkhome.htm.19 Randall Arendt, “‘Open Space Zoning’: What It Is and Why It Works,”

Planning Commissioners Journal, no. 5 (1992): 4. Available at www.plannersweb.com/articles/are015.html.

20 Dan Benson, “Motivating Developers to Maintain Countryside,”

Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 10 March 2001.

21 Tom Daniels and Deborah Bowers, Holding our Ground Protecting America’s

Farms and Farmland (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1997).

22 Edward Thompson, Agricultural Sustainability and Smart Growth: Saving

Urban Influenced Farmland, Translation Paper no. 5 (Miami: FundersNetwork for Smart Growth and Livable Communities, 2001). Availableonline at www.fundersnetwork.org/usr_doc/agriculture%20paper%2.pdf.

23 John B. Wright, “Land Trusts in the USA,” Land Use Policy, vol. 9, (April

1992): 83

24 Harold Henderson, “Open Space: How to Get It and Keep It.” Planning,

vol. 4, no. 9 (November 1990): 5-6.
Chapter Seven

Strengthen and Direct

Development Towards Existing

Communities

During the post–War World II era, urban communities that experienced rapid

expansion at their edges often witnessed disinvestment in the urban core and first-ring suburbs as they were abandoned for newer, lowdensity, dispersed developments on the urbanfringe. This pattern of development had dramatic effects on the social and economic viability of many core jurisdictions. It also led tosignificant impacts on the natural environmentby developing on formerly open lands, whichreduced animal habitats, degraded waterresources and water quality, and influencedtransportation choices that over time degradedair quality and increased the threat of globalclimate change.1 Communities are now questioning the economic and environmental

rationale of abandoning neighborhoods, sidePhoto: Joe Schilling
walks, and water and sewer services in the urban center and oldersuburbs, only to rebuild them further out.Smart growth directs development towards communities alreadyserved by infrastructure, seeking to utilize the resources thatexisting neighborhoods offer and to maintain the value of publicand private investment. By encouraging development in existingareas, communities benefit from a stronger tax base, closer proximity of jobs and services, increased efficiency of already developed land and infrastructure, reduced development pressure infringe areas, and preservation of farmland and open space. Inaddition, the process of increasing development in existing communities can maximize the use of existing impervious surfaces,thereby improving local and regional water quality, and can createopportunities for more transportation options, which lower vehicle miles traveled and ultimately improve regional air quality.Often existing neighborhoods can accommodate much of thegrowth that communities require through infill development,brownfields redevelopment, and the rehabilitation of existingbuildings. For example, a 1996 study found that brownfields inDetroit, Chicago, Milwaukee, and Cleveland could absorb one tofive years of residential development, 10 to 20 years of industrialdevelopment, or 200 to 400 years of office space.2However, there are a number of barriers that discourage development in existing communities, some of which include detailedzoning plans, government policies and regulations, and taxpayersubsidies that encourage development in edge and greenfieldareas. In addition, greenfield development remains attractive todevelopers for its ease of access and construction, lower landcosts, and potential for larger parcel assembly. Typical zoningrequirements in edge areas are often easier to comply with,because these areas often have few existing building types that

new construction must complement and a relative absence of residents who may object to the inconvenience or disruption causedby new construction. Finally, the cost of greenfield development isoften subsidized by the public sector through the provision ofroad, sewer, and water networks and through the use of averagecost pricing, which can underestimate the true per-unit cost ofexpansion.A range of options exists to begin to “level the playing field”between greenfield and infill development and to help direct newinvestment dollars to strengthen existing neighborhoods. Effortsto increase development in existing communities must be implemented with an eye to creating growth that improves the qualityof life for existing residents as well as creates benefits for newinvestors. As more developers learn of the profitable experiencesthat their counterparts have had through infill development, theprivate market will increasingly identify ways to redirect resourcesto existing neighborhoods. The following policies are designed toaddress some of these issues and to provide state and local government officials with ideas and tools to strengthen and direct development toward existing communities.

1.

Strengthen state or local brownfields programs.It is estimated that as many as 500,000 brownfields exist nationwide.3 Brownfields are those sites with real or perceived environmental contamination. In existing communities, brownfields represent untapped development opportunities and often act as

impediments to community revitalization. Uncertainty about theextent of environmental damage, the cost of remediation, and therisk of liability for future owners often serve as obstacles to newinvestment for site owners, developers, and lenders and can fur-
STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES 53

pment to less problematic sites on

p make these parcels available for

encourage brownfields redevelop

eveloped legislation that limits and

ctive purchasers, lenders, property

their association with activities at a

 many communities have created

dinator positions whose function is

ut sites, facilitate site assessments,

evelopers, and coordinate remedia

vironmental protection agency. In

have established a brownfields pro

ngthened to increase the effective

rove coordination with other play

improve remediation efforts, and

better leverage support from high-level officials and executives tospur successful brownfields redevelopment.

2.

Adopt a “fix-it-first” policy that sets priorities for upgradingexisting facilities.Public expenditures on infrastructure, such as streets, highways,water and sewer systems, lighting, and schools and other civicbuildings, constitute a significant share of public expenditureseach year. Local and state governments suggest locational priorities for new development when governments allow infrastructurein existing neighborhoods to decay while investing in new infrastructure in edge communities. By not fixing this infrastructure,the local government creates for itself a larger fiscal problem foreach year that the maintenance issues are not addressed. Forexample, a home owner spends time and money performing routine maintenance on a house in order to save money on costlyrepairs later and may expand or alter the house to better meetchanging family needs. The maintenance and the expansion thehome owner performs over time maximizes the value of the initialinvestment (i.e., the home) and is often less expensive than buyinga new home. “Fix-it-first” policies apply the same rationale topublic investments. They direct resources to support the maintenance and upgrading of existing structures and facilities. Thishelps to maintain the value ofinvestments made by the privatesector and to better positioncommunities to attract privateinvestment in new constructionand rehabilitation.

ownfields redevelopment program in

ding redevelopment. Because of scarce

mines which sites to remediate based on

the site configuration, and a variety of

of unemployment, housing vacancies, and

redeveloped land is given to businesses,

h the Port Authority to retain businesses

Agreements also include design criteria

hiring guarantees for St. Paul residents,

gram is a success: the Port Authority has

for each available opening.This program

ar in property taxes, created over 1,500

 created 900,000 square feet of building

New infill townhomes on the siteof a former hospital complementbuilding styles in the surroundingU Street area of Washington, DC.

Photos: Smart Growth Network
Current state or federal funding formulas may make this difficultto implement, however. As with school construction, projects torepair existing assets that exceed a target level (some percentageof the cost of new construction) may be rejected in favor of newconstruction. States have, however, found the political will toovercome these barriers. New Jersey, for example, acted on thefix-it-first principle by requiring that maintenance needs on existing roads be addressed before new roads are constructed. ThenGovernor Christine Todd Whitman committed $30 billion over12 years for extensive repairs to the state’s highways and transitinfrastructure, improvements in highway and pedestrian safety,and new rail initiatives to spur regional mobility. The rationalebehind this initiative was the economic, social, and environmentalcosts of allowing current infrastructure to further degrade. As

Governor Whitman said,“We’ve delayed fixing or replacing [our transportation infrastructure] for too long. We’refast approaching the dangerpoint.”

3.

Institute regional tax-basesharing to limit regional competition and to support schoolsand infrastructure throughoutthe region.The fiscal concerns of individualjurisdictions can create anintense local competition acrossregions to attract more retail,entertainment, and hotel development, and less housing development. The revenues generated by the property tax on housing usually fail to cover the full costs of providing public services at all but the highest income levels. Conversely, retail and service development generates sales tax rev- enue that lands directly in local coffers because most state laws redirect tax proceeds to the jurisdiction where the sale takes place. The bidding wars that often ensue between jurisdictions lead them to offer a wide array of tax breaks and incentives for incom- ing businesses.4 When one community underwrites a new mall with costly incentives like undeveloped land, tax discounts, or road projects, other communities in the same region are forced to offer incentives of an equal scale to their malls in order to remain competitive. This type of regional competition can spur develop- ment at the edge, because in most cases, the new mall or retail outlet will use undeveloped lands, thus requiring new roads, infra- structure, and larger parcels for construction. In addition, this competition creates fiscal inequities between the communities that succeed in attracting businesses and those that do not or can- not. Regional tax-base sharing allows the revenues collected (most often property tax assessments or sales tax revenues) to be distrib- uted both to the locality where they were generated and to other localities in the region based on their size, population, or other measures of disparity. Tax-base sharing recognizes that interjuris- dictional competition for economic activity is, over time, a losing proposition for all the governments involved. Tax-base sharing recognizes that both the causes and the benefits of growth tend be regional. The use of this tool can, for example, ensure that all area schools are working together to provide a well-trained workforce for the next wave of economic expansion. It also distributes the benefits of regional retail, for example, among the many localities that provide customers, thereby helping to generate tax revenues.

ation of a regional tax-base shar

 Minnesota Twin Cities region.The

 percent of the growth in its com

 since 1971 into a single pool. It

ach community in the region that

cial and industrial tax base.

es have less incentive to compete

pment opportunities. Wisconsin

e Twin Cities approach is that it

e 1971, rather than on the total

it fails to include residential

rtionate benefits for high-value

or industrial activities. For more

se see the following website:

-Base_Sharing_Model.htm.
STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES

r resources across the entire region

engthen existing communities that

t or stagnant economic growth. By

ion for large commercial projects

d corporate headquarters, tax-base

evelopment occurs where it makes

e purpose of raising the tax base of

t approaches to this basic concept.

usiness property taxes are shared

area governments, easing the fiscal

ommunities. Tax-base sharing also

owing communities feel to spread

wth, and it erodes fiscal incentives

velopment.5 Texas also offers a vari

 districts with high-value business

s to share resources. These include

y tax revenues with other districts,

venues to the state for distribution

olorado, the neighboring towns of

greed to share revenues from com

hared Highway 392 corridor, thus

ost and effort of attempts to draw

at the expense of its neighbor.7

4.

x to encourage development on

and in existing communities.

sess land and improvements in the

iment to upgrading existing struc

o currently vacant infill parcels.

Owners may perceive the increased taxable basis on their property—and the tax liability that results—to exceed the economicvalue that could be derived from improving the property. As aresult, vacant or underutilized land remains that way until theeconomics of potential improvements change, which encouragesspeculation. This is particularly problematic in areas sufferingfrom disinvestment where the prospects for profitable investmentby businesses are lower and where concentrations of underutilized property can exacerbate deterioration and neglect.The split-rate property tax shifts the balance of the tax burdenonto land and away from improvements, which diminishes the taxconsequences associated with making improvements on the land.It also raises the tax consequences associated with leaving vacantland dormant. Under a split-rate tax, there is more incentive forbuilding owners to put their land to maximum productive use(within the constructs of building and zoning requirements). Thesplit-rate tax thus stimulates development on lots that had previously acted as obstacles to redevelopment in existing neighborhoods.

5.

Locate civic buildings in existing communities rather than ingreenfield areas.Public investment in civic buildings, including historic structures,can be a critical factor in the development of a community. Theplacement of public and civic buildings indicates the locality’sdevelopment priorities, and placement determines the residents’accessibility to the government services that these buildingshouse. Furthermore, a range of private services, such as legal and

PRACTICE TIP:A number of localities inPennsylvania use the split-rateproperty tax. In the case ofPittsburgh where improvementswere once taxed at one-half therate of land, this ratio shifted toonly one-sixth the rate of taxassessed on land under the splitrate tax reform. The results havebeen significant. An analysis published in the National Tax Journalin March 1997 revealed that, inspite of the dramatic economiceffects associated with the downturn in the steel industry, the rateof development within Pittsburghwas substantially greater compared to other rust-belt cities thatused a traditional property tax.

55
advocacy services, benefit from close proximity to public buildings, such as courthouses and legislative chambers.By locating public buildings (e.g., libraries, government buildings,and schools) in areas with existing infrastructure, state and localgovernments send a message to the rest of the community thatthese areas are worthwhile investment opportunities. Publicbuildings act as harbingers of revitalization in distressed communities where few employment opportunities exist or where a lackof services persists. Finally, they represent opportunities to gobeyond merely maintaining the quality of public services in acommunity by adding services that were previously unavailable orinaccessible to local residents. The federal government recognizesthe importance of the location of public-service buildings. Ingrowing recognition of the important role that civic buildingsplay in the development of communities, federal legislation wasintroduced in the 107th Congress that placed a greater emphasison the location of post office buildings in core downtown business districts.

6.

Conduct an “infill checkup” to evaluate and prioritize infill andbrownfields sites for redevelopment.Infill locations pose a number of challenges to prospective developers that greenfield locations do not. Perceptions and realities

about community opposition, environmental contamination, the difficulty ofland assembly, access to the site,requirements for design conformity, andinfrastructure service standards may discourage development that is needed tostrengthen existing communities.Communities can attract infill investment by identifying priority sites for redevelopment—those that are likely to convey the greatest economic, environmental, or fiscal benefits—and then removing the obstacles that are prevent- ing investment from taking place there. Communities can be proactive in addressing these concerns by doing an “infill checkup” in which answers to the following criti- cal questions are identified:8 Is the community ready to accept infill, and what are likely to be residents’ greatest concerns? Does the comprehensive plan (and applicable zoning code) include infill in its long-term vision, and do corollary public investments in infrastructure support it? Are efforts made to ensure that infill is constructed within the community’s character? Does the commu- nity have a transit system or are plans in place, and what are the implications for parking needs associated with new development? Is the community prepared to invest financially in infill where pri- vate investment alone is not enough to cover the costs of develop- ment? Does the zoning support, encourage, allow, or prohibit mixed-use, and what is needed for it to better support current needs? Finally, are design guidelines or project prototypes in place that clarify the community’s priorities for what development should look like? Answering these questions and implementing the needed changes to overcome any obstacles that appear as a result can ease the way for the redevelopment of critical infill and brownfields sites. 7. Facilitate programs to encourage home renovation and reha- bilitation in existing neighborhoods. Rehabilitation of existing homes represents a fundamental approach to strengthening existing neighborhoods. Communities, by creating tools and incentives for home owners to upgrade their own homes, can bring about visible new improvements in their

Photo: Calthorpe Associates
8.

Support community-based organizations involved in revitalizing neighborhoods.The cost of redeveloping land and buildings is not only driven bythe cost of materials and labor—it is also influenced by the developer’s profit motive. In communities around the country, thousands of local community development corporations (CDCs) orother community-based organizations (CBOs) function as developers of residential and commercial property with no profitmotive. As a result, these organizations are able to create viable,affordable projects, by using public, private, and in-kind contributions, that would otherwise remain absent from the community’sbuilding stock. These nonprofits have vast expertise in development at the neighborhood or block level. They are often capable

of putting together complexfinancial development deals—involving as many as a dozen ormore financial sources—that fewprofit-minded developers arewilling to undertake.Support for these communityorganizations in the form offinancial resources, technicalassistance, or time on the civicagenda of decision makersensures that public resources areused for cost-efficient and civicminded projects. This supportimproves the chances that publicresources are used in projectsthat demonstrate a community’s

STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES

lso allow residents to adapt their

 to remain in place as a long-term

unity. Furthermore, rehabilitation

e and generally stable parts of the

ing slower economic periods.

urage home renovation and upgrad

ost loans, tax abatements, or other

or rehabilitating their properties.

er evaluating current building codes

a reasonable approach to ensuring

ew Jersey found, for example, that

ovation of older properties often

ng subcode that applies specifically

3, Policy 8 for more information).

PRACTICE TIP:National Neighborhood Coalition,a membership organization ofCDCs and CBOs working on arange of issues, has developed tenNeighborhood Principles forSmart Growth. These principlescomplement those of the SmartGrowth Network and are tailoredto speak to the needs andresources of community-basedorganizations. To learn more, visitwww.neighborhoodcoalition.org.

57

yed a widely available yet underused strategy for investing county tax proceeds to

the central city (Cleveland) to rehabilitate their homes—linked deposits. As author

nvests up to 10 percent of total property tax intake in participating banks at below

ercent differential). In exchange, the banks must commit to pass on the savings to

st loans for rehabilitation and renovation. It is estimated that county treasurers in as

ve this authority, making it a potentially enormous untapped resource for revitalizing

ng quality.

ancement Loan Program” is available to any home owner—regardless of income—

and in which housing values have appreciated at less than two percent annually over

ween $1.2 and $2 million in interest, it is estimated that the county will make avail

de 4,000 homes over two years. As a result, residents of existing neighborhoods are

mes for changing needs.This program thus creates less demand for new housing con

capital is flowing into existing neighborhoods that would otherwise appreciate slowly

Property tax assessments are expected to increase by $400,000 per year as a result
own development priorities. CDCs and other CBOs are oftenresponsive and accountable to community members in a way thatfew other entities are. Board members and staff of thesenonprofits often live in the neighborhoods themselves, therebyensuring that the activities that the organization seeks to complete help to achieve an improved quality of life for all residentsof the neighborhood.

9.

Create economic incentives for businesses and home ownersto locate in areas with existing infrastructure.Public investment is often able to leverage private investment. Insome cases, public investment may provide the necessary infrastructure to attract desired development. Additional economicincentives may be necessary, however, to help the business anddevelopment community focus its attention on a given, targetedneighborhood. This has been the experience with the successfulmodels for zone and district development, such as businessimprovement districts, historic districts, Main Street programs,and the federal government’s Empowerment Zone/Enterprise

Community programs.There are a wide range of economic incentives that can be madeavailable to developers and property owners. For example, communities can offer favorable lending terms through dedicatedbond issues; direct grants or loans through tax-increment financing or from special assessments; tax abatements, credits, orwaivers; density bonuses or other zoning waivers; expedited permitting treatment; or outright grants of publicly-owned land orproperty. Often these economic incentives can be the missingsource of gap or bridge financing that makes investment opportunities in existing neighborhoods viable. Finally, local employeescan be enticed to live in existing communities near their place ofwork through “live near your work” initiatives (see Principle 1,Policy 1, for more information).

10.

Modify average cost-pricing practices in utilities to betteraccount for costs of expanding infrastructure in greenfieldareas.Low-density, dispersed developments generally enjoy subsidizedutility costs because utility pricing is based on average—ratherthan actual—costs of providing services. Average cost pricing wasestablished as a way to place rural residents on a level playing fieldwith urban residents, but that policy is now contributing to rapidland consumption rates because the true costs of providing infrastructure to edge areas are often not passed on to either the developer or the final consumer. Cable television, electric, phone,water, gas, and wastewater services all charge for new hookups onan average-cost basis. A regional Bell telephone company, forexample, estimated that, compared to the cost of serving customers in the central business district, it costs twice as much to

Photo: Smart Growth Network
STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES 59

f the central city and ten times as

the urban fringe.9 Because all cus

ents in more urban, higher density

in edge areas. Linear utilities such

ewer, phone service, and even mail

ficiencies associated with clustered

ognized this problem have had

tion that is efficient and equitable.

cost of infrastructure expansion is

nvestments (such as schools, treat

stations) cannot be expanded on a

ther, they require one-time large

the capacity for both current and

 Diego, however, uses a different

ice areas designed for impact-fee

 are lower for areas served by exist

r for those without. This “step”

ct fees encourages development to

by offering lower impact fees to the

sely, higher fees (that more closely

courage development in unserviced

Agency, Our Built and Natural

Environments: A Technical Review of the Interactions between Land Use,Transportation, and Environmental Quality, EPA 231-R-01-002(Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 2001).

2 Robert A. Simons, Brownfields Supply and Demand Analysis for Selected Great

Lakes Cities (Cleveland, Ohio: Department of Planning and Development,Cleveland State University, 1996), prepared for U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. 

3 Robert A. Simons, Turning Brownfields into Greenbacks (Washington, D.C.:

Urban Land Institute, 1998).

4 Geoffrey Anderson, “Local Governments on Safari for Big Game,” On

The Ground: the Multimedia Journal on Community, Design, andEnvironment, vol. 2, no. 2, (1996).

5 Myron Orfield, Metropolitics: A Regional Agenda for Community and Stability

(Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997).

6 Hal Hovey, “The Property Tax in the 21st Century,” prepared for

The Finance Project, May 1996. Available atwww.financeproject.org/property.html.

7 Michelle Kramer, Smart Growth Hall of Fame 2001, (Colorado Sprawl

Action Center, December 2001).

8 Summarized from Northeast-Midwest Institute and Congress for the New

Urbanism, Strategies for Successful Infill Development (Washington, D.C.:

Northeast-Midwest Institute, 2001).

9 U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, The Technological

Reshaping of Metropolitan America, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, OTA-ETI643, 1995).

PRACTICE TIP:The city of Sacramento has developed a policy to promote infilldevelopment by providing creditsfor sewer hookups so that housingthat is built in the downtown ormidtown area will be assessedonly $900 for a sewer hookup fee(per unit) versus $3,000 in outlying areas.
Other Resources• Robert A. Simons, Turning Brownfields into Greenbacks (Washington, D.C.:

Urban Land Institute, 1998).

• Diane R. Suchman, Developing Infill Housing in Inner-City Neighborhoods:

Opportunities and Strategies (Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute,1997).

• Center for Livable Communities, Building Livable Communities: A Policy

Maker’s Guide to Infill Development (Sacramento, Calif.: Local GovernmentCommission, 1995, 2001).

• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Association of Metropolitan

Planning Organizations (AMPO), Redeveloping Brownfields with FederalTransportation Funds (Washington, D.C.: AMPO, 2001). Also availableonline at http://smartgrowth.org/pdf/brownfields_tea21.pdf.
Chapter Eight

Provide a Variety of

Transportation Options

Providing people with more choices in hous- ing, shopping, communities, and transportation is a key aim of smart growth.

Communities are increasingly seeking thesechoices—particularly a wider range of transportation options—in an effort to improveoverwhelmed transportation systems. Trafficcongestion is worsening across the country.Whereas 65 percent of travel in 1982 occurredin uncongested conditions, only 36 percent ofpeak travel did so by 1997. In fact, according tothe Texas Transportation Institute, congestionover the last several years has worsened in nearly every major metropolitan area in the UnitedStates.The science of traffic management and prediction has begun to catch up with what citizens
have observed for years: new road capacity fills up almost as fastas it is constructed. Known in transportation circles as “induceddemand,” studies now show that as large new roads are built people increase their driving to take advantage of the new infrastructure. Some studies suggest that between 60 and 90 percent of newroad capacity is consumed by new driving within five years of theopening of a major road.1 In the short term, people may switch

from using transit and carpools to traveling on the new road, andin the long term, with the increased accessibility of the surrounding land, development patterns shift to create more growth andnew traffic in the area. In regions around the country, travel forecasters show that the continuation of current policies and practices is unlikely to alleviate congestion.

In response, communities arebeginning to implement newapproaches to transportationplanning, such as better coordinating land use and transportation; increasing the availabilityof high quality transit service;creating redundancy, resiliencyand connectivity within theirtransportation networks; andensuring connectivity between

pedestrian, bike, transit, and road facilities. In short, they are coupling a multimodal approach to transportation with supportiveland-use patterns that create a wider range of transportationoptions.Numerous policies are available to expand transportation choices,and a number of them are featured in this section as a means tohelp communities identify opportunities to enhance their transportation network. Like the others presented in this document, these policies are best used in combination with parallel policy efforts to support other aspects of smart growth. 1. Finance and provide incentives for multimodal transportation systems that include supportive land use and development. States are responsible for much of the nation’s transportation planning and investment. As a result, states can directly affect the mix of transportation modes available by planning and funding a balanced portfolio of pedestrian, auto, transit, and bike trans- portation facilities. The effectiveness of these investments howev- er, is greatly dependent upon the existence of supportive land uses. For instance, sidewalks without nearby destinations render walking an unrealistic option; transit servicing of low-density areas is expensive, and land uses that separate residential develop- ment from jobs and shopping increase congestion. States can improve the cost-effectiveness of their transportation investments by ensuring that transportation and development are coordinated. Project selection criteria should give priority to those projects that demonstrate supportive land uses (e.g., transit service for areas with transit-oriented development or bikeways connecting residential areas with shopping and amenities). By including a commitment for follow-up implementation funds for the transportation portions of the plan, states can use special grant programs as catalysts for integrated land-use transportation plan- ning by local governments. Requirements or incentives for land planning can be implemented in areas where major expansions or new facilities are contemplated. States can also offer incentives and rewards to communities that ensure safe-routes to school and to communities that locate schools in walkable locations. 
PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS

ge of the flexibility in federal trans

-private partnerships around trans

nvestments. For example, they can

brownfields redevelopment or take

nt policies to encourage transit-ori

ate transportation departments can

d local governments to adopt poli

oad, pedestrian, bike, and transit

that upgrades and new facilities fit

unities.

2.

ce standards in areas served by

set the level of acceptable conges

segment of road. Once this level of

congestion has been reached, it is common to require that development in the surrounding area halt or that the road or intersection be upgraded. This one-size-fits-all prescription may not fitall situations. Some of the most lively, economically vital districtsin the country are congested. In many cases, it is a sign of theirvitality, particularly in city and town centers. Similarly, uncongested, fast-moving traffic can be a signal of a downtown orneighborhood business district in decline. In addition, stringentadherence to a statewide level-of-service standard may not beappropriate in areas served by high-quality transit. In these areas,reliance upon a roadway level-of-service standard fails to reflectthe accessibility offered by the transit service.For these areas served by transit, some combined measure ofservice and accessibility, which includes roadway, transit, andpedestrian activity, may be needed to properly manage transportation in these areas. Likewise, where transportation improvements are deemed necessary, policies can then evaluate the impactof upgrades to road, transit, pedestrian facilities, or some combination thereof.

3.

Plan and permit road networks of neighborhood-scaled streets(generally two or four lanes) with high levels of connectivityand short blocks.Overreliance on hierarchical street networks composed of neighborhood, collector, arterial, and freeway roads tends to forcetraffic onto a small number of major roads, which provide driverswith few alternate routes in the event of congestion or accidents.Also, because major roads concentrate traffic, they generally donot provide a good environment for pedestrians or residential

PRACTICE TIP:The North Carolina Departmentof Transportation (NCDOT) hasmade it easier for local governments to implement traditionalneighborhood street networks innew developments. In August2000, NCDOT approved streetdesign guidelines to support community interest in streets thatslow and disperse vehiculartraffic and provide a pedestrianfriendly environment. The guidelines specify widths, street geometry, utility placement, and provision of bicycle and pedestrianfacilities that promote walkable,human-scaled communities.For more information seewww.doh.dot.state.nc.us/operations/tnd.pdf. See also Instituteof Transportation Engineers’Traditional Neighborhood

Development Street Design

Guidelines, A Recommended

Practice of the Institute

of Transportation Engineers

(Washington, D.C.: ITE, 1999).

63

Commission, the metropolitan planning

co Bay Area, encourages local govern

and-use decisions through the “Housing

 a grant program designed to maximize

structure and to encourage transit use

housing shortage. For localities that are

hin a one-third mile walk of transit, the

or transportation-related improvements

ages, bicycle facilities, and pedestrian

 provides more funding to the locality:

that contain twenty-five units per acre,

s per acre, and $2,000 per bedroom at

able units, an additional $500 per bed

ation, visit www.mtc.ca.gov/projects/livdevelopment. The result is that these corridors are generallyaccessible only by car.A finely woven network of smaller streets can move large volumesof traffic, provide routing redundancy, and help drivers avoid longdelays associated with the left turns at large, multilane intersections. These streets also are scaled to the neighborhood level.Narrower than major roads, such streets generally have slowerspeeds that are compatible with a mix of residential, commercial,and retail uses. This mix of uses and improved connectivity makeswalking a realistic transportation option because destinations canbe placed at closer distances, and more direct routes exist forpedestrians to reach a given destination. In addition, unlike majorthoroughfares, large setbacks are not necessary to shield buildingoccupants from the noise associated with large volumes of fastmoving traffic.

4.

Connect transportation modes to one another.Too often, transportation systems and networks are planned andoperated in an uncoordinated manner—both within and between

jurisdictions. Providingefficient connectionsbetween different modes iskey to achieving a functioning multimodal system. For instance, nearlyevery transit trip starts orends with a pedestrian trip.

If the pedestrian fails to connect well with the point of transitpickup (no sidewalks leading to the stop, long walks, or wide roadsto be crossed), transit is much less convenient, accessible, andcompetitive. All transportation options become more viable whenthey are connected to other modes. For example, bike racks attransit stations create a wider ridership for transit by effectivelyextending the range passengers will travel. However, better stillare transit systems that allow bikes on board because they extendthe area of origin and destination. Similarly, auto trips can bemore effectively linked with pedestrian transportation when destinations are close to one another and walkways are providedbetween locations.

5.

Zone for concentrated activity centers around transit service.To be most effective, transit service requires supportive land use.Local governments can help to ensure good accessibility to transitby clustering higher-density residential development around transit stops. Some researchers estimate that a minimum of six toeight residential units per acre are needed to support basic transitservice provision. In addition, transit becomes still more effectiveif other services and amenities are also co-located with transit.Such services and amenities include community services such aschildcare, as well as facilities for daily trips such as dry cleaning,parcel pickup and drop off, and convenience store shopping.Enabling transit riders to accomplish multiple errands as part oftheir commute is essential if public transit is to become a viable,convenient transportation option.

Homes near transit systemsare a critical part of minimizing congestion and preservingopen space in Gresham,Oregon.
PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS

6.

developments.

ce of the automobile, many new

alks. It is true that the existence of

ers. Other elements (many already

es, short blocks and nearby destina

walking anything but recreational.

ensable to this mix. They are essen

cure pedestrian environment, and

nsportation options. Local govern

evelopments provide sidewalks so

se developments can walk or bike if

for more information on walkable

7.

pportunities.

, and distribution—plays an impor

d transportation system. The avail

tinations influences an individual’s

 take transit. Parking requirements

d form of specific development pro

e ability of those developments to

timodal transportation system. For

nts of parking for a transit-oriented

e cost of the development and may

velopment to support transit.

Communities can affect change in the way parking influencestransportation choices through a range of potential efforts (seePrinciple 9, Policy 6 for more information). They may choose toallow on-street parking to meet parking requirements, or theymay reduce the amount of parking required for infill sites inmixed-use or transit-oriented areas. They may work with employers to create priority parking areas and to reduce parking fees forcarpools, allow employees to “cash out” their parking benefits, ortax as income parking benefits that workers receive. Communitiesmay encourage developers either to locate parking behind buildings (in garages, especially) or in courtyards rather than in surfaceparking lots in front of buildings, or to design surface parkingmore like a park, courtyard, or plaza that doubles as public spacein off-peak hours. Jurisdictions may design public parking garagesas mixed-use buildings with storefronts that match neighborhoodcommercial buildings. They may allow local businesses to fulfilltheir parking requirements by purchasing credits for garagespaces or by sharing parking if peak hours are different (e.g.,office buildings and entertainment venues have peak parkingneeds at different times). Communities can work to ensure thatparking is located in areas that serve residents and businessesthroughout a district. Finally, parking can be located to allowdrivers to access pedestrian networks once they have parked, sothat they can access a day’s worth of activities on foot. Theseoptions are just a few of the many ways that communities canimprove their treatment of parking.

65 Parking lots (this one concealed by a

wall and pedestrian pergola) can betreated with design and landscaping tocreate a safer, more interesting,pedestrian environment.
8.

Collaborate with employers and provide information andincentives for programs to minimize or decrease rush-hourcongestion impacts.Daily travel patterns are the result of thousands of individual travel decisions on the part of community residents. Employers areone way to reach those individuals and influence these decisions.Regardless of local and state government efforts to manage trafficmore effectively, employers are increasingly finding strong business reasons to work with their employees on transportationissues. Employee retention and lost productivity are just two ofthe reasons for employers’ interest. In Atlanta, Bell South’s concern over its employees’ rising commuting difficulties led them toconsolidate more than seventy offices into three locations—eachimmediately adjacent to a subway stop.Local government can play an important role in increasingemployer efforts by providing information and incentives foremployer-sponsored commute options. Subsidies for use of publictransit and employer-assisted housing programs for employeeswho live near their jobs can help minimize rush hour congestionby vehicles. Additionally, included in the range of transportationchoices is the option to remain in place. Private employers whoprovide opportunities for employees to work at home throughtelecommuting, or condense work hours via flex time can facilitate this choice.

9.

Adjust existing transit services to take full advantage of transit-supportive neighborhoods and developments.Coordinating land use with transit is often considered in the context of future developments and new transit service. However,powerful opportunities may exist within the context of the currenttransit system. Local governments can evaluate existing systemsand relocate routes or stops to ensure that areas with high densities, good mixes of use, and high-quality pedestrian access are wellserved by transit. In addition to locating transit in areas with supportive land uses, local governments can also target transit basedon economic and demographic factors. For instance, neighborhoods with higher percentages of young people, students, andelderly citizens may yield higher riderships, and strategic routingdecisions can help to ameliorate the effects of regional and subregional jobs-housing imbalances. To be most successful, the natureof commutes and other trips—reverse commutes, weekend serviceemployee job travel, and entertainment trips—should be considered to determine timing and fare schedules.
PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS

10.

 ports, airports, and rail terminals.

ds movement within a region can

ate healthier, more livable commu

ilities are dispersed throughout a

tions between rail, port, and truck

urage clustering and connectivity

ting areas for freight facility devel

frastructure investments to support

ved facility accessibility, and (3) tak

ly located facilities and their opera

 broader community function and

short-haul truck trips and improve

 the economic competitiveness of

enhance community quality of life

grade crossings and the number of

ndant noise and pollution.

n vehicle miles traveled (VMT) as a

city on the California state highway sys

Huang, “Road Supply and Traffic in

rtation Research, 31, no. 3 (1997),

PRACTICE TIP:The North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority, Inc. (NJTPA) andthe New Jersey Institute of Technology are crafting policy that encouragesthe reclamation of brownfields by freight businesses. The goal of the project is to make efficient use of northern New Jersey’s land and transportation resources and to help reverse the loss of jobs and economic activity inblighted urban areas. In the region, freight-related businesses are a good fitfor brownfields redevelopment because these businesses require goodtransportation access. A large number of brownfields lie within severalmiles of the Newark/Elizabeth transportation hub that includes the marineport, airport, and major rail terminals. According to NJTPA,“[a]ttracting freight businesses to brownfields sites would help reduce theneed for long distance trucking of goods, increase rail usage and createnew unskilled and semiskilled jobs in proximity to urban populations withsignificant unemployment.” For more information see www.njtpa.org/planning/brownfields/index.htm. See also The Foundation for IntermodalResearch and Education’s products about the metropolitan implications of“e-freight” at http://intermodal.org/FIRE/e-freight.html.

67

Chapter Nine

Make Development Decisions

Predictable, Fair and Cost

Effective

For a community to be successful in imple- menting smart growth, its vision, objectives, and actions must be embraced by the private sector. The private sector is crucial to supplying the large amounts of money and construction expertise needed to meet the growing

demand for smart growth developments. Ifinvestors, bankers, developers, builders, andothers do not earn a profit, few smart growthprojects will be built. Fortunately, governmentcan help reduce barriers to profitable smartgrowth development practices. Since the development industry is highly regulated, the valueof property and the desirability of a place aredetermined in large part by government investment in infrastructure and by government regulation.
Government investment and regulation shape the types of development that are being created today. For example conventionalzoning originally used by cities to separate homes from noxiousfactories has also served to separate homes, stores, schools, andoffices from one another. As a result, many households aredependent on automobiles to conduct day-to-day activities. Thispattern of separate uses is mirrored in the private sector, wheredevelopers, investors and bankers are specialized in—and increasingly compartmentalized into—a given type of conventionaldevelopment (e.g., retail or residential) and develop or financeonly projects of that one type.1 Even building codes that mandate

setbacks, parking requirements, and height or density restrictionsoften make illegal the very type of development that wouldachieve smart growth.Despite the many barriers, developers have been successful in creating places that exemplify the principles of smart growth. Theprocess of creating such places, however, frequently requires themto get variances to zoning codes—a process that is often uncertain, time-consuming, and therefore costly. Creating more certainty and expediting the approval process for smart growth projects is of particular importance for developers, for whom thecommon mantra “time is money” very aptly applies. The longer ittakes to get approval for building, the longer the developer’s capital remains tied up in the land and not earning income. In addition, developers pay high interest rates on construction loans, further increasing development costs if construction approval isdelayed. The additional effort required to create smart growth inmany areas helps to explain why developers continue to buildconventional suburban developments, even though studies showthat neighborhoods that reflect smart growth principles sell for apremium price.2 Improved public-private cooperation to support

smart growth projects can help level the playing field with conventional suburban projects.For smart growth to flourish, state and local governments mustmake an effort to make development decisions that support innovation in a more timely, cost-effective, and predictable way fordevelopers. By creating a supportive regulatory environment forcompact, pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use projects, governmentcan create a more attractive investment climate for smart growthin which the private sector is more likely to participate.

1.

Provide financial incentives to aid the development of smartgrowth projects.While many aspects of smart growth offer the opportunity toconserve resources and land costs, some development projects dorequire additional investment on the part of developers in siteinfrastructure. Alleys to allow parking in the rear, structured orunderground parking lots, sidewalks and bicycle lanes, and parksand other useful open space often add to the cost of a smartgrowth projects. While these costs are often reflected in the finalprice of the projects or may be offset by the lower land costs dueto more compact sites, in some cases these additional costs deterdevelopers from initiating smart growth.Communities and states can use a variety of tools to help developers reduce the cost of smart growth developments. Local governments can use business improvement districts or tax incrementfinancing, for example, to provide funds for smart growth infrastructure such as parking, sidewalks, and plazas for commercialareas. Federal transportation dollars can be directed by states orMPOs to make these types of community improvements, to offermore transportation choices near projects, or to clean up
MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR AND COST EFFECTIVE

l sites “shovel-ready.” The cost to

sheds and wetlands associated with

educed, for example, by purchasing

water and drinking water revolving

so be used in brownfields cleanup.3

 governments’ investments in proj

hould be considered investments in

y of their communities.

2.

.

commitment to smart growth, one

achieve smart growth implementa

at is permissible in a given commu

t growth audits can help point out

ed in a jurisdiction’s current opera

mart growth projects from being

hese regulations or practices, local

hose that need to be modified, and

med of the obstacles they are likely

mpt to create a smart growth proj

inois, for example, funded by the

l Resources, found that the median

jurisdictions’ zoning laws were

umptive” than standards set by the

n. Pavement widths for local resi

le what smart growth policy would

ze requirements are three to four

mercial setbacks are well above the

e a few findings. The study was set

gulatory audit that could be copied

t.4

3.

Implement a process to expedite plan and permit approval forsmart growth projects.Prompt, thorough review of proposed smart growth projects andthe timely issuance of permits can reduce the holding cost of landfor developers and make smart growth developments more attractive. One-stop shops, developer liaisons, priority review, andreview deadlines are just a few ways communities can focus theirreview resources on projects they want to encourage. For example, Montgomery County, Maryland, created a “Green Tape”review team that helps builders and developers obtain necessarypermits more quickly, and that acts as an ombudsman for developers seeking project approvals.Care must be taken to ensure that there is no real or perceivedfavoritism when conducting these reviews. These resources canbe allocated many ways, including limiting them to specific geographic areas (such as special development zones) or by creating asimple version of a self-scored checklist to quickly rank reviewpriority. By meeting their goals for expedited plan and review andimproving cooperation with builders and developers in theprocess, communities can send the message to the private sectorthat they are open for smart growth business.

4.

Engage political support for improved coordination onapproval of smart growth projects.Large mixed-use, infill projects are very complex and usuallyrequire numerous approvals from a variety of regulatory agencies.These projects are often the “showcase” smart growth projects inany area, and they may be seen as the test model for smart growthin the region. If a major project succeeds, it can accelerate smart

PRACTICE TIP:The city of Charlotte andMecklenburg County in NorthCarolina used outside consultantsto review their planning, zoning,infrastructure, and developmentprograms against fourteen smartgrowth principles. The resultsidentified policy and programmatic changes that could improvethe region’s ability to promotesmart growth. The results of thisstudy are available online atwww.charmeck.nc.us/ciplanning/complan/smartgrowth/SmartGrowthAudit.pdf.

PRACTICE TIP:New Castle County, Delaware,posts an annual timetable forzoning and rezoning applications.Developers know by what datethey need to submit their preliminary plans in order for the plansto be reviewed by the next councilmeeting. The schedule clearlyoutlines the process and stepsthat need to be taken and thetimeline for the review. For moreinformation, see www.co.newcastle.de.us/LandUse/rezdates.htm

71
growth in the entire region. The success of these projects mayhinge on the speed of the review process. Political leaders can usetheir official position to encourage regulatory agencies to workmore closely together and to make such projects a high priority.This coordination can identify and resolve problems quickly andkeep a project moving forward. In addition, smaller projects thatfollow the larger ones often benefit from the relationships thatwere created between regulators during this process.This political support can be done through behind-the-scenesnetworking or through a visible, institutionalized action. Thestate of Maryland, for example, became the first state to create acabinet-level position for a smart growth coordinator. The officeunder the secretary for smart growth coordinates the activities ofother agencies, provides education and information on smartgrowth to the public, and facilitates the development of bothredevelopment projects in existing communities and smart neighborhoods in growing communities.

5.

Use a point-based evaluation system to encourage smartgrowth projects.Most conventional zoning codes offer relatively broad guidelinesthat define the size and use of buildings. A point-based performance evaluation system for development projects provides a wayfor communities to evaluate projects in terms of the smart growthbenefits they provide, as well. Since they are clear and open to thepublic, the point systems give developers flexibility to determinehow they will meet the community’s smart growth goals ratherthan mandating exactly what amenities are expected.

Communities can develop a point system by first identifying aseries of design or service criteria that they want new developments to meet. The next step is to assign points to each criterionto measure how well the proposed project meets communitygoals. Proposed projects are reviewed against the criteria, andincentives are offered for projects that achieve a predeterminedscore. Austin (see Practice Tip under Principle 9, Policy 1), forexample, relies on very specific criteria concerning design andperformance as measured by its Smart Growth Matrix. Projectsthat fail to meet the desired level can be redesigned during negotiation with planning staff so they can achieve a higher score.Communities can offer a wide range of incentives, such as reduction of development fees, support for infrastructure financing, ordensity bonuses to encourage the features they desire. The valueof the incentives may increase as the project scores increase, witha low level of concessions being given for minimally acceptablescores and more valuable incentives given to higher-scoring projects.

6.

Remove parking from the development equation through public-private partnerships to build community parking facilities.Parking has a significant impact on the type of development thattakes place and the look and feel of a community that results.Prominent voices in development adhere to the belief that parking drives development, as more space is often needed to park carsthan to house people.5 This is particularly true for retail development. The city of Olympia, Washington, estimates that parking

accounts for 54 percent of the site coverage for conventional retaildevelopment—more than double the footprint of the buildingthat itself accounts for only 26 percent.6 The prospects for creatMAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR AND COST EFFECTIVE

 are often diminished by the requi

pecified in local codes.

ease the parking burden for devel

uirements, governments can also

 of parking into a community by

and developers to finance and build

ilities that serve all the surrounding

government removes a sizable por

velopment from the development

roject easier to implement. Using

 and fees collected from nearby

the parking service, the community

structured parking facilities and

nts for parking in the surrounding

rking structures can be particularly

evelop high-density infill and tran

cts. In creating these lots, however,

very careful about the amount of

 parking will reduce transit use in

g can make the area undesirable to

me, potential lenders for new devel

educated on the use of community

ir own lending requirements may

e provided.

7.

rowth though consumer incentives.

perhaps the most direct means to

development of smart growth proj

and auto ownership, supported by

policies that favor buying houses on

the edge of urban areas, still persist, despite a growing demandfor smart growth. Local and state governments can offer incentives to prospective home buyers that would help offset the myriad existing tax, infrastructure, and utility subsidies that currentlyfavor conventional suburban development.7 New incentiveswould help level the playingfield between conventional andsmart growth developments,which would give consumers awider range of choice in the typeof communities they live in, andwhich would create moredemand for development projects that exemplify smart growthprinciples.Helping people to live close towork is one such opportunity.

PRACTICE TIP:In the late 1970s, the city of Fort Collins, Colorado, adopted its Land Development Guidance System(LDGS)—a point-based program to replace its conventional planned unit development ordinance. The systemgave developers density bonuses for projects that received high scores.The program was controversial and wasrefined over time to ensure that the right types of projects received assistance. It helped to create a veryvibrant smart growth community, despite the burden of outdated underlying zoning codes. In 1997, the community revised its comprehensive plan and zoning codes to better promote smart growth design and amenities.

As a result, it was determined that the LDGS was no longer needed, and it was eventually dropped. Somedevelopers resist the mandates of the new system and want the option to retain the LDGS because it allowsthem the flexibility to achieve results using a variety of designs rather than having requirements mandated. Oneproblem cited with the LDGS was that the criteria were so broad that the system would still award high scoresto projects that did not achieve quality smart growth.

73

Structured parking –owned and operated byMontgomery County,Maryland – helps relieveparking pressure on thestreets surroundingBethesda’s retail areas.

Photo: Federal Realty Investment Trust
Living in proximity to workplaces providesresidents with opportunities for improvedhousehold choice in transportation andreduced time spent commuting (and the airpollution associated with it). Localities canencourage employers to provide employeeswith direct financial support, such as low-interest loans or downpayment assistance, to purchase a house near work throughemployer-assisted housing programs. Maryland’s “Live Near YourWork” program goes one step further by providing direct financial assistance for employees to buy a home near their work (seePrinciple 1, Policy 1 for more information). The LocationEfficient MortgageSM is another useful tool to increase demand

for transit-oriented development by making it easier to qualify forhome purchases near transit (see Principle 3, Policy 6 for moreinformation).

8.

Display zoning regulations and design goals in pictorial fashion to better illustrate development goals.Depicting outcomes that are visual in nature through the writtenword can be a challenge. Conventional zoning regulations areoften dense statistical documents, difficult to understand, andsometimes vague. This can lead to confusion and misunderstanding during the permit process, the need for multiple public hearings to resolve disputes, and finally the resubmission of plans andproposals—all of which constitute significant delays and additional costs for developers. Faced with this uncertainty, many developers will simply resort to building what they know they canbuild right away. The result is often more development that isfamiliar and conventional and less likely innovative projects thathelp create smart growth.

The concept that a picture is worth a thousand words has helpedto inform some communities’ approaches to regulation. They arefinding that pictures can help convey to developers, architects,and builders the precise types of developments that the community wants. The city of Providence, Rhode Island, for example,found that changing from “zoning by statistics” to “zoning byshowing” (what is desired) has created a simple, flexible processfor their Downcity redevelopment program (see Practice Tipunder Principle 10 for more information). The city of Boulder,Colorado, has encouraged new mixed-use and infill developmentby designing prototype projects to educate local developers aboutthe preferences that the community had expressed. The planningoffice had architects create project prototype designs so developers could see exactly what the community was looking to havebuilt. Local developers used these designs as guidelines to buildmany early mixed-use projects.

PRACTICE TIP:Many new urbanist and traditional neighborhood developments, such asHarbor Town in Memphis, Tennessee, use posters to define what design criteria apply to new homes in the community. These criteria clearly depictwhat will and will not be accepted by design review boards and thus help topreserve community character and create a sense of place.

A mix of buildings and a public square developed byprivate developers on transit agency propertyenhances the vitality of downtown Bethesda,Maryland.

Photo: Smart Growth Network
MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR AND COST EFFECTIVE

9.

 agency property through joint

ed development.

nderutilized property or air space

ns or bus routes. These resources

 opportunities for the private sec

ough the joint development process

best use. Recent changes in federal

come obstacles that previously lim

e properties and have simplified the

modify the criteria that they use to

ls—which currently focus on eco

voring high-value, single-use build

with the private sector to develop

can ensure that space is used to cre

n-friendly development that the

 growth benefits, the joint develop

fits for both developers, who get

access to valuable property that is near transit and in desirableareas, and transit agencies, who are able to make more profitableuse of their real estate assets. Sale or lease of the property generates revenues for the transit system. Increased development neartransit centers enables more people to use transit for travelbetween jobs, shops, and home. Finally, the public-private partnership that creates these transit-oriented development opportunities can serve to demonstrate the viability and potentialprofitability of smart growth projects for developers.

75

Public investment and planning and zoning changesattracted private developersback to "Downcity"Providence, Rhode Island.

Photos: Sam Shamoon Providence City Planning Office

PRACTICE TIP:The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) has one of the nation’s most aggressive jointdevelopment programs. Over thirty projects have been developed or planned in the last few years. WMATA hasprojected an income of $15 million dollars by 2003 from joint development projects alone—a figure that isimpressive, although it could still be improved. The Chesapeake Bay Foundation has issued a report on howWMATA could enhance its joint development program entitled, “Building Healthier Neighborhoods withMetrorail: Improving Joint Development Opportunities.” The report identifies barriers that WMATA faces—and which other transit agencies may face as well—and how better partnerships with local government andnew policies could improve opportunities for joint development.

Photos: Sam Shamoon Providence City Planning Office
10.

Incorporate by-right smart growth redevelopment into existing communities’ masterplans.Infill redevelopment projects usually face greater regulatory barriers than do greenfield sites. This tendency is often a result ofmore detailed regulatory systems put in place to protect existingresidents against any potential adverse effects of redevelopment.While the underlying motives are good, these regulatory frameworks often have the undesirable effect of preventing—or makingit difficult to build—smart growth. In many communities, forexample, the zoning code has evolved to a level that, if the currentbuildings on a wonderful old commercial street were to burndown, it would be illegal to rebuild them. These regulatory barriers often make it nearly impossible to recreate the walkable,mixed-use environments that once existed in many communitiesacross the country.Local government can promote the revitalization of importantneighborhoods into smart growth communities by changing theplanning and zoning regulations in these areas so that compact,walkable, mixed-use, transit-oriented projects can be built byright. Such changes allow a developer to purchase the land knowing that zoning variances will not be required to build a smartgrowth project because the community has approved this type of

development in advance. A number of tools, including area plansand overlay zones, can be used to achieve this goal. By eliminatinguncertainty from the development equation and permitting thisdevelopment by right, the community is making a clear statementthat developers are welcome to help create smart growth.1 See Chris Leinberger, Financing Progressive Development (Washington,

D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2001) for a thorough discussion on the eighteen types of development that can be financed in today’s system and theobstacles for smart growth.

2 Mark Eppli and Charles Tu, Valuing the New Urbanism (Washington, DC.:

Urban Land Institute, 1999).

3 For more information on federal funding for smart growth see EPA’s smart

growth Web page funding sources guide atwww.epa.gov/smartgrowth/funding.htm, as well as the Association ofMetropolitan Planning Organization’s Redeveloping Brownfields with FederalTransportation Funds at http://smartgrowth.org/pdf/brownfields_tea21.pdf.

4 “Local Codes an Obstacle to Smart Growth,” New Urban News,

January–February 2001, 1. 

5 Robert Dunphy, “Parking Strategies,” Urban Land, 59, no. 10 (October

2000):78.

6 Ibid.

7 Michael Lewyn, “Why Sprawl is a Conservative Issue,” Bulletin of Science,

Technology, and Society, 20, no. 4 (August 2000): 295–315.

8 The Chesapeake Bay Foundation’s full report is available at www.savethebay.cbf.org/resources/pubs/metrorail.pdf.

9 For more information on Downcity planning and Implementations see city

of Providence Department of Planning and Development, DowncityProvidence: Master Plan and Implementation Plan (Providence: 1994).

s used a master planning process to revitalize its old downtown retail district

s emphasized the educational and arts assets that exist in the area by creating

included housing and workspace for artists, students and retirees. An overlay

s as either “A” or “B” streets. On A streets regulations exist to preserve their

ualities. The rules for B streets are more flexible, but require developers to get

tion of the building on the lot. These regulations, along with complementary

sidewalks and streets, have resulted in a development renaissance downtown.9
Chapter Ten

Encourage Community and

Stake Holder Collaboration in

Development Decisions

Growth can create great places to live, work, and play—if it responds to a community’s own sense of how and where the community wants to grow. Articulating this vision,

however, can be a challenge because the visionmust reflect the needs of a wide range of stakeholders and community members. The development process allows for some of this input,through periodic public hearings on planningor zoning decisions, for example. While useful,these opportunities are only a few of the manyways in which the values and concerns of allstakeholders in development can help shape acommunity’s plan for growth.A key component of smart growth is to ensureearly and frequent involvement of all stakePhoto: Joe Schilling
holders to identify and addressspecific needs and concerns. Therange of these stakeholders isbroad and includes developers,urban planners, transportationengineers, conservation andenvironmental groups, community development advocates, historic preservationists, commuters, students, environmentaljustice advocates, senior citizenorganizations, children’s advocacy groups, churches, parentteacher associations, civic associations, and many others. Each iscapable of contributing a uniqueand valuable perspective to bothbroad community plans and

specific project designs. These perspectives are particularly critical for the construction of the mixed-use, compact, walkable, andtransit-rich communities that smart growth supports becausethese varied perspectives may represent a departure from what isconventional and familiar. The means of engaging the communityand stakeholders are myriad and range from early stakeholderinput in community plans to ongoing feedback and evaluation ofthe plan’s implementation as projects are constructed. Ensuring ahigh level of public awareness is one of the most fundamentalstrategies to guarantee that community needs and possible solutions are fully considered. This strategy can help local leadersbetter identify and support development that meets those needs.This process can be time-consuming, frustrating, and expensive.In many cases, involving the public is a contentious and even

messy process because of the diverse ideas and priorities amongstakeholders. However, it can also be a rewarding one as creativesolutions are found in the most troublesome problems. Moreover,in the long run, community and stakeholder collaboration createsa sound basis for creative, speedy resolution of development conflicts, which can help make development decisions more timely,cost-effective, and predictable. Engaging stakeholders early andoften and sharing with them vital information about developmentoptions will give them a greater understanding of the importanceof and challenges associated with good planning and investment.Projects and plans developed without strong citizen involvementwill lack the community buy-in necessary for success and make itmore difficult to build support when tough decisions need to bemade. The following policies are designed to address some of thebarriers and constraints of community involvement.

1.

Seek technical assistance to develop a public participationprocess.Good information is critical to the smooth functioning of localgovernment, especially the planning process. While many localgovernments may recognize the need for and value of engagingthe public in the decision-making process, governments may lackthe tools, information, or financial resources that will allow themto do so. Numerous tools and information sources exist, however—often based on the experience of other communities and public participation specialists—that can be used to help local governments develop the capacity and confidence to undertake an effective citizen participation process. Technical assistance may beavailable from states, interest groups, nonprofit organizations, andprivate sector consultants to help counties, cities, and towns crafta strategy for stakeholder involvement. Local governments that

innesota’s framework for smart

a.” In response, Minnesota’s state

, which together form the basis of

izing the important role the state

nts carry out these initiatives,

d its local and state partners cre

he guide incorporates the state’s

th. In addition, the Minnesota

overnment Assistance Center with

 advice to local governments

ow to fully engage the public

 a copy of the planning guide

the Assistance Center see

ex.html.
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOMENT DECISIONS

sources may take advantage of the

groups or universities by engaging

ing and implementing a public

ecific project. For example, the city

aculty and students from the nearby

ng department to help them carry

Eugene Decisions” process. As a

of local government staff improved,

ders have been actively involved in

ecisions about their community’s

2.

and forums to educate nontradi

takeholders about the develop

ocesses.

lly support a new initiative, all seg

to be informed and educated on its

s need information about possible

 their choices or concerns. Often,

of the community is engaged in the

use of socioeconomic, language, or

 wide range of public voices at each

ls actively solicit and recruit diverse

Doing so means identifying and

ic participation.

 creative in identifying and using

ormation. Common methods for

ght include placing meeting notices

il to individuals and groups who

ct, leaving copies of documents in

public offices and libraries, handing out leaflets, or insertinginformation into other community forums. To reach other audiences, a local government might hold evening or weekend meetings on specific issues, present updates at neighborhood meetings,host design charrettes, distribute radio public service announcements, or work with local clergy and community-assistancegroups. Often, lower-income communities feel less politicallyempowered to participate. To reach these audiences, localities canissue neighborhood notices or post notices in local newslettersand local gathering spots such as post offices, popular shops, orlocal farmers markets. Finally, to ensure full access, key information on proposed development decisions should be translated intothe languages of area residents. Every community should developits own range of methods to reach as many individuals and segments of the community as possible. The community must reflectits unique demographic makeup in the values it uses to frame theplanning process, and this can only be ensured if the cross sectionof residents and their development priorities are well known.

3.

Conduct community visioning exercises to determine how andwhere the neighborhood will grow.Effective decision making about how regions will grow requiresconsiderable information gathering on the part of both professionals and citizen-stakeholders. For this reason, it is important touse a number of visualization tools that allow for a greater understanding of the way planning decisions affect citizens. For example, a computer simulation can depict radical changes in astreetscape—such as the construction of new buildings or theincorporation of transit infrastructure into existing roadways—injust seconds. It can help create an image of what a proposed multifamily development would look like, thus enabling community

PRACTICE TIP:In 1989, the city of Portland,Oregon, began the work that ledto the adoption in December1994 of a regional growth plan—the Region 2040 GrowthConcept. Metro developed baseconditions and community valuesthat were then used to propose 3potential alternative urban formstrategies for the region, fromwhich a preferred alternativecould be constructed. To engagecitizens in developing this alternative, a video outlining theoptions and their impacts on theregion was developed and available to the public for no chargethrough Blockbuster Video outlets, a chain of video rentalstores. As a result, the processsolicited more than 17,000 citizen comments and suggestions,which eventually led to the selection of an alternative that reflected public comment as well asaspects of each of the alternativescenarios provided.

79
members to determine its appropriateness based on specificsrather than broad planning concepts such as “higher-density construction.” Alternative future scenarios can be used to model thegrowth of a region over a specified time frame and can be generated in real time to respond to different variables suggested by alive audience. This rapid response to concerns and ideas providesfacilitators with the tools to more quickly and efficiently reachconsensus for innovative plans. Other exercises might includeproviding local residents an opportunity to vote, to comment on

several designs of a proposedproject, or to speak directly withdesigners and architectsIncreasingly, planning officesand development consultingfirms use computer imaging toengage citizens in planningworkshops. In Chattanooga,Tennessee, after the East GateMall failed, the community came

together with strong ideas about future uses of the old shoppingcenter. Members of the community were tired of large, single-usedevelopments and wanted to see a village center that was consistent with the scale of surrounding neighborhoods. Since it wasnot feasible to redevelop the entire site at once, they were showna computer simulation of several distinct phases that would beimplemented over a span of years, according to market conditions. This simulation enabled citizens to visualize how newbuildings would initially be sited in outlying parking areas, eventually replacing the mall itself. The community’s vision formedthe basis for a plan that will guide development and that will radically change the look and feel of that community over the years tocome.

4.

Require communities to create public access to tax and lieninformation on all properties to facilitate the rehabilitation ofdistressed properties.Community groups are better able to offer innovative solutionsabout difficult development challenges when they have access toinformation. However, neighborhood groups often have difficulties obtaining the information they need to fight deterioration intheir own area. Efforts to find information about tax arrears andoutstanding liens on properties in disrepair or blight, or aboutowners of abandoned or vacant properties, can be time-consuming and difficult. Residents may be frustrated by efforts to accessthis information that is kept in various computer banks or scattered among different government agencies.State and local governments can support the public informationprocess by providing better access to tax and lien arrears. Citizenscan then use this information to encourage owners to make need

Photos: Pyatok Associates
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOMENT DECISIONS

ies or to engage local authorities to

r revitalization. Local governments

ve participant in strengthening its

g easy access to data by collecting

data that would otherwise be scat

ng data available on computer sys

line or through a computer located

uch as city hall. Governments can

ups on how to access and use the

 being more informed about the

munities and government face, this

 to more effectively act to prevent

andonment and decline, which can

sinvestment. In this way, residents

work with their governments to create more livable, vibrant communities.

5.

Incorporate opinions and interests often and routinely intothe planning process.There are numerous phases within the development process thatrequire public involvement, including the process of decidingwhat to build, where to build, how to build, the constantly changing site plans, and the multiple phases of implementation. Manyof the policies in this section discuss mechanisms of publicinvolvement in the initial phases of development. However, theinvolvement of the public after the decision has been made ofwhat to build is equally important to ensure that the project conforms to the original decision and design parameters during itsimplementation. This citizen involvement is most effectivelydone when there is a clear and consistent means of incorporatingpublic opinion on an ongoing basis into the development process.The process may include an easy and convenient mechanism toreach public decision makers or regularly scheduled (weekly ormonthly) public meetings with the developer. A number of othercommunities use Web sites to increase the availability of information about changes to a specific site design, for example. In thisway, the public can remain informed and engaged as the development moves from design to construction and use.Local jurisdictions can also formalize citizen input by institutionalizing a citizen role in the process of reviewing developmentdecisions. Citizen involvement can be achieved through citizenadvisory and neighborhood councils. In general, advisory committees tend to attract individuals who are knowledgeable arounda specific type of project and who, over the course of that project,

borhood Technology has developed the

m (NEWS) that makes it easy to obtain

ritical to the success of any sustainable

EWS is an online inventory of property

tion that can help community groups and

tes of potential disinvestment and aban

ent buildings, NEWS makes data avail

and the County Treasurer’s Annual Sale.

d proactively to troubled buildings and

eb-based system, NEWS can be easily

allows localities to increase community

ormation, see www.newschicago.org.

PRACTICE TIP:The Community DevelopmentDepartment in the city ofSpokane, Washington recognizesthirteen neighborhood groups inareas primarily composed of lowand moderate-income residents.These neighborhoods receive aportion of the city’s CommunityDevelopment Block Grants tomake recommendations on projects to be funded in their respective neighborhoods. The neighborhood groups support existingprojects, research and proposenew ones, and present their recommendations for approval.Because they have been involvedin the decision-making processand are familiar with their ownneeds, the neighborhoods groupsare better prepared to participateduring the implementation stageas well. They meet with the divisions of city government that areimplementing projects, monitorprogress and timelines, and makesuggestions when new issuesarise.

81
provide a neighborhood perspective and experience in their recommendations. Conversely, neighborhood councils are usuallyinstitutionalized mechanisms for direct public involvement incomprehensive planning and civic issues. Neighborhood councilcan make recommendations on proposed development activitiesand serve as the vehicle for citizen input for changes to the landuse plan, park plan, or other planning activities. Whether formalized or not, providing a means for ongoing citizen participation indecision making and project implementation creates a feeling ofownership among community members and ensures higher-quality outputs as a result.

6.

Work with the media to disseminate planning and development information on a consistent basis.

Traffic congestion, loss of openspace, and economic growth andjobs are concerns that consistently rank at the top of the listof citizen concerns for theircommunities. Although planning, smart growth, and growthmanagement issues are complexand multifaceted issues that aresometimes difficult to comprehend,they have a profound effect onthese common problems. Often,the public does not understandhow its everyday activities influence these conditions or how

planning or smart growth could relieve some of the problems andimprove quality of life.All media outlets regularly feature stories on pertinent local andregional topics. Localities can encourage newspapers, radio, orlocal television to cover development and planning issues. Thegreatest impact will be made when these issues are covered as aregular column or through a series of recurring feature storiesthat take the time to unravel the complex web of individual publicand private decisions and the cumulative changes in quality-of-lifethat result. Not only do these information venues provide a meansfor news outlets to cover issues that resonate with their audiences,such venues also provide a means for local leaders to betterinform citizens on the impacts of pending development and infrastructure decisions.

7.

Engage children through education and outreach.As it is often said, today’s children are tomorrow’s leaders.Engaging children often and early is critical for them to develop acomprehensive understanding on how the built environmentimpacts the natural one, and moreover, their quality of life. Inaddition, many children “teach” their parents about new issuesand innovative solutions. To some degree, the success of recyclingcan be attributed to children who learned about it in school,brought it home, and created a demand by parents for curbsiderecycling. Many schools now have some type of environmentaleducation program in their curriculum. Local governments andschool boards can work with teachers to expand these programs toprovide children the vocabulary and tools to understand howdevelopment impacts the natural world and what they can do toinfluence the development process. Once a better understanding

Constitution identified the interest

 and quality of life, but he noted a

nnect these impacts to local plan

uring the commitment of editorial

regular weekly section on these

n how these effects were linked to

 them. This coverage provided an

 to consider critical decisions on

n, and a proposed outer beltway,

. Tips on how to portray issues in

rowth are available in Goldberg’s

Rethinking the American Dream,

es/sprawl/sprawl.html.
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOMENT DECISIONS

ks between development decisions

will have a better sense of how to

 the needs of its residents and will

he process to implement that vision.

rograms that teach children about

planning is known as “Box City.”1

s-on approach to community plan

use milk cartons to make their own

wn communities. Program compo

munities get built, through a mix of

d entre

unity is

ompare

with the

ve. The

er com

, why it

ow they

8.

Cultivate relationships with schools,universities, and colleges.Universities and colleges can be a great resource for localities forintellectual capital and research assistance. At the same time, thereal-world process of local government decision making aboutdevelopment provides an excellent opportunity for applied student learning. Recognizing these shared benefits, many universities are able to assist local governments to address growth issues

through research and community-basedprojects. Such opportunities provide planning and real estate students the chance toassist on projects as interns, and providelocal government a way to expand its temporary work force to complete short-termprojects. Furthermore, the insight that professors and instructors can provide as academic experts can enrich many local government planning processes with original ideasand perspectives.

For example, the University of Notre Dame School ofArchitecture in South Bend, Indiana, has established a centerthat employs the expertise of faculty and students to assistdevelopers and public officials on projects in that city.2 Another

such center, the National Center for Smart Growth Researchand Education at the University of Maryland in College Park,3

analyzes the impacts of alternative development patterns andmonitors and evaluates specific smart growth alternatives incommunities across Maryland and elsewhere. In addition, the

center conducts outreachsessions with developers,

PRACTICE TIP:In Liberty, Missouri, a KansasCity suburb, a program demonstrated how youth can contributeto problem solving for communitytransportation issues. Students inthe seventh grade surveyed sixthgrade students to determine current modes and preferences forgetting to school. The resultsshowed that 77 percent of thestudents would like to bike toschool, yet only 10 percent did so.The students shared the resultswith the local planning commission and pointed out that a lackof sidewalks was one of the mainreasons that students were notable to safely bike or walk toschool. They provided input onhow to improve city trails andwalkways. The planning commission was so impressed with theinformation provided by the students that a student is now amember of the long-range planning committee.

Children in Kansas City envisionchanges to their community usingBox City.

83
local government officials, lenders, public health experts, and citizen leaders to identify barriers to smart growth and solutions toovercome them.

9.

Bring developers and the development community into thevisioning process.The vision of how and where a community wants to grow shouldhelp resolve a number of key social, economic, transportation,and growth considerations. The vision should represent the values of its residents of what the community should look like in thefuture. In order to be successful, the vision should also representthe input of an important stakeholder group: developers. As oneof the most critical groups for implementation, developers shouldbe engaged in the visioning process, not only in the plans to carryout a specific project. Early engagement by developers can helpensure that community plans are economically feasible and attractive enough to ensure active private-sector participation.

Engaging members of the development community who haveskills in conceptualizing, financing, and constructing projects canensure that community-based plans are feasible and cost-effective. In addition, experience has shown that developers who haveintimate knowledge of local conditions and community values areable to create better communities than those developers who donot. Blending the expertise of the development community withthe visioning process carried out by community members createsa better end product for all.

10.

Hold a design charrette to resolve problematic developmentdecisions.Engaging the community to envision its growth priorities can bea time-consuming process that may take months or years.Charrettes, on the other hand, are brief, intense four- to sevenday design sessions that address specific urban problems orbroader community visions. All citizens who are interested in theissues or projects to be considered are invited to participate andare placed in a room with maps of the study area. Over the courseof a few days, with the help of a team of professionals (facilitators, engineers, planners, designers, and architects), these citizensare able to draw a clear picture of the future of their community.This shared achievement gives a project a better chance of successfully navigating the numerous political, economic, and envi

hington, D.C., has an advisory service that offers expert advice to help commu- 

 for the full range of land-use and development issues. Washington, D.C.’s 

to help redevelop Waterside Mall, an underutilized two-block stretch in the 

perts spent several days on site touring the study area, meeting and interview- 

nd preparing findings and recommendations. This process, which incorporated 

consensus for the recommendations that served as a blueprint for the plan 

veloped into a town center with new restaurants, cafés and services that serve 

ct will reconnect downtown with the waterfront and will provide additional 

ment or recreation. For more information on ULI’s Advisory Services see 

About_fst.html.

Community members wereengaged to help create a plan forthe reuse of a historic train stationin Evanston,Wyoming, as a community center.

Photo: Evanston Urban Renewal Agency
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOMENT DECISIONS

roject may face because true buy-in

ress a variety of needs, from reach

visions for town development to

n single projects. They can identify

blems and issues that are important

rs, as well as identify opportunities

oth immediate and long-term solu

 steps as part of the work product.

on strategies and offer policies and

n making and town development.

on during a charrette can change

ed concepts or solutions to prob

 and variety of solutions and ideas

far greater than those under con

which would normally take months

ty, see www.cubekc.org/.

d.edu/~arch/.

lleges/ARCH/URSP/Research/CSG/.

PRACTICE TIP:Jackson Hole, Wyoming, struggles with an affordable housing problem. Toaddress the area’s need for more housing, Teton County (in which JacksonHole is situated) acquired a 329-acre parcel of land on which it plans tobuild a new neighborhood that will include affordable housing. To ensurethat this new development meets the needs of the Jackson Hole community,the design process is being guided by public input. In November 2001, adesign charrette was held to solicit public input that the county would useto create specific ideas about the development for the public’s approval.Thepublic was able to return to the charrette time and again during the courseof a week to see the project transformed and to see how its new ideas weretranslated into the specific plans for development.

85

CONCLUSION 87

As with all efforts, implementation of a broad smart growth strategy as well as detailed policy changes should be evaluated periodically for effectiveness. Creating benchmarks for improved fiscalefficiency in infrastructure and school spending, for example, canbe valuable management tools for local officials seeking to ensurethat smart growth efforts result in an improved bottom line.Partnerships and diverse coalitions—such as that represented bythe Smart Growth Network itself—can also be effective tools foridentifying priorities and reaching consensus among members ofa community.The route to achieving smart growth will be different in everycommunity, as will the outcomes. In every case, however, it is thedemand for the the economic, environmental and communitybenefits that smart growth can provide, paired with a clear andcomprehensive approach towards achieving them, that will resultin successful smart growth implementation.

policies that communities can use to 

and diverse living environments go

 here. Nevertheless, the framework

 the ten smart growth principles as

nd specifying detailed programs and

provide a first step for communities

tion. It is not uncommon for the

on of even a single policy—to be

It is incumbent upon communities,

ew approach to development is one

nsiders the needs of all those who

opment. The rationale for this new

e well articulated and supported by

ommunity goals that measurably

ty of life.

usion
100 Policies for Implementation

State Local Mix land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage

uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development community and

of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholderbuilding and choices a strong sense and critical towards existing choices predictable, collaborationdesign of place environmental communities and cost in development

areas effective decisions

✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓

our

g con

ed-use

supply

m

at

y.

mmer

ixed

ng design

ns to

com

ctly

rface

and

hat

 to

of
State Local Mix Land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage

uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development community and

of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholderbuilding and choices a strong sense and critical towards existing choices predictable, collaborationdesign of place environmental communities and cost in development

areas effective decisions

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

 com

rds.

nities

ge

ortunities and choices

ew

rt to

 wider

red

units

r

n the

 of

o reg

egion

metro

ocation 

nt 

o

and

nities.

s, and

ial

re

otorState Local Mix Land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage

uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development community and

of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholderbuilding and choices a strong sense and critical towards existing choices predictable, collaborationdesign of place environmental communities and cost in development

areas effective decisions

✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓

✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓

ffic

r

alk

ess to

d pri

and

te 

ommunities with a strong sense of place

ting

and

ve

t

serve

to

sed

visual

te

on.

buildings,

sense of place.

, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas

ms to

plan

acili

 bet

areas.
ing

erve

ands.

 to 

ment towards existing communities

gram.

es

devel

n

s

priori

ent.

vation

olved

d

infra

ties to 

ructure

ation choices

al

ve

ood

with

State Local Mix Land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage

uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development community and

of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholderbuilding and choices a strong sense and critical towards existing choices predictable, collaborationdesign of place environmental communities and cost in development

areas effective decisions

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓
State Local Mix Land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage

uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development community and

of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholderbuilding and choices a strong sense and critical towards existing choices predictable, collaborationdesign of place environmental communities and cost in development

areas effective decisions

✓✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓

✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

r.

d

ma

 or

dvan

predictable, fair, and cost effective

pment

rmit

na

urage

ion

com

 con

n pic

goals.

y

ment

akeholder collaboration in development decisions

 par

du

ake

makter

row.

 to

facili

s.

roun

 and

is.

each.

ies,

unity

ic

State Local Mix Land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage

uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development community and

of compact opportunities neighborhoods communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholderbuilding and choices a strong sense and critical towards existing choices predictable, collaborationdesign of place environmental communities and cost in development

areas effective decisions

✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓✓ ✓
BibliographyAmerica Walks. http://americawalks.org/.American Farmland Trust. www.farmland.org.American Forests. www.americanforests.org.Anderson, Geoffrey. “Local Governments on Safari for Big Game.” On TheGround: the Multimedia Journal on Community, Design, and Environment 2 (1996): 2.Arendt, Randall. “Open Space Zoning: What It Is and Why It Works.” PlanningCommissioners Journal 5 (July/August 1992): 4.www.plannersweb.com/articles/are015.html.Benson, Dan. “Motivating Developers to Maintain Countryside.” Milwaukee

Journal Sentinel. 2001.Beyard, Michael D., and Michael Pawlukiewicz. Ten Principles for ReinventingAmerica’s Suburban Strips. Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 2001.Blaha, Kathy, and Peter Harnik. Opportunities for Smarter Growth: Parks, Greenspaceand Land Conservation. Translation Paper, no. 3. Miami, Fla.: Funders Network forSmart Growth and Livable Communities, 2000.Boulder, Colorado. www.ci.boulder.co.us/openspace/.Brabec, Elizabeth. On the Value of Open Spaces. Technical Information Series, vol. 1,no. 2. Washington, D.C.: Scenic America, 1992.Breen, Bill. “Where are You on the Talent Map.” Fast Company 42 (January 2001):

102. www.fastcompany.com/online/42/pp_florida.html.Burchell, Robert W. et al. Impact Assessment of the Interim State Development andRedevelopment Plan. Report Prepared for the New Jersey Office of State Planning.Trenton, N.J.: Rutgers University, 1992. www.state.nj.us/osp/ospimpac.htm.Burden, Dan. “Building Communities with Transportation.” Paper presented at theTransportation Research Board Conference, Washington, D.C., National Academyof Sciences, January 10, 2001.Cambridge Systematics. The Effects of Land Use and Travel Demand Strategies onCommuting Behavior. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Transportation,Federal Highway Administration, 1994.Center for Livable Communities. Building Livable Communities: A Policy Maker’sGuide to Infill Development. Sacramento, Calif.: Local Government Commission,1995, 2001.Center for Understanding the Built Environment. www.cubekc.org/.Chesapeake Bay Foundation. www.savethebay.cbf.org/.City of Providence Department of Planning and Development. Downcity Providence,Master Plan and Implementation Plan. January 1, 1994.

Congress for the New Urbanism and PricewaterhouseCoopers. Greyfields intoGoldfields: From Failing Shopping Centers to Great Neighborhoods. San Francisco:Congress for the New Urbanism, 2001.Covington, Keith. “Smart Growth Primer.” Email to the author. December 7,2001.Cox, Rachel. Design Review in Historic Districts. Washington, D.C.: National Trustfor Historic Preservation, 1997.Crompton, John L., Lisa L. Love, and Thomas A. More. “An Empirical Study ofthe Role of Recreation, Parks, and Open Space in Companies’ (Re) LocationDecisions.” Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, vol. 15, no. 1. Champaign,Ill.: Sagamore Publishing, 1997: 37-58. Dane County. www.co.dane.wi.us/parks/open%20space/body.htm#past_plans.Daniels, Tom and Deborah Bowers. Holding our Ground: Protecting America’s Farmsand Farmland. Washington D.C.: Island Press, 1997.Duany, Andres and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk. Towns and Town Making Principals.

Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, 1991.Duany, Andres, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck. Suburban Nation. NewYork: North Point Press, 2000.Dunphy, Robert. “Parking Strategies.” Urban Land, vol. 59, no. 10 (October 2000):78-79.Economic & Planning Systems. Regional Economic Analysis, Trends, Year 2000 &Beyond. Berkeley, Calif.: Economic & Planning Systems, 2000. Eppli, Mark and Charles Tu. Valuing the New Urbanism. Washington, D.C.: UrbanLand Institute, 1999.Ewing, Reid. Pedestrian- and Transit-Friendly Design: A Primer for Smart Growth.

Washington, D.C.: Smart Growth Network, 1999. Fader, Steven. Density by Design. Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 2000.Federal Highway Administration TEA-21.www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/bp-broch.htm.Foundation for Intermodal Research and Education E-freight.http://intermodal.org/FIRE/e-freight.html.Fulton, William, Rolf Pendall, Mai Nguyen, and Alicia Harrison. “Who SprawlsMost? How Growth Patterns Differ Across the U.S.” Brookings Institution SurveySeries (July 2001).Goldberg, David. Covering Urban Sprawl: Rethinking the American Dream.Washington, D.C.: Environmental Journalism Center, 1999.Green Infrastructure. www.greeninfrastructure.net/Intro/MissionWorkingGroup.htm.Growing Smart, American Planning Association. www.planning.org/growingsmart/index.html.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 95

ki. “Financing New Urbanism Projects:

y Debate 11, no. 3 (2000): 733-749.

gn Review. www.citycomforts.com/hack.html.

oad Supply and Traffic in California Urban

 (1997): 205-218.

w to Get It and Keep It.” Planning 4, no. 9

g Advisory Service No. 454). Chicago, Ill.:

rns and Transit to Decrease Auto Dependence

urces Defense Council, 1994.

 Century. Prepared for The Finance Project,

perty.html.

ww.iceclt.org.

Traditional Neighborhood Development Street

ce of the Institute of Transportation Engineers

r 1999.

University of California at Davis. Health

5.

nt Association. The Practice of Local

on, D.C.: ICMA, 2000. 

f Fame 2001. Colorado: Colorado Sprawl

th Audit for Charlotte-Mecklenburg County.

cklenburg Planning Commission. Charlotte

an/smartgrowth/SmartGrowthAudit.PDF. 

ive Development.” The Capital Xchange

ings Institution, May 2001. www.brook

e3.htm.

nservative Issue.” Bulletin of Science,

2000): 295-315.

org.

for Residential Development Alternatives,”

N.C.: University of North Carolina, Center

Karl Moritz. Managing Growth with

ounty, Maryland (Planning Advisory Service

ning Association, 1996.

Metropolitan Planning Commission Livable Communities. www.mtc.ca.gov/projects/livable_communities/lcindex.htm.Morris, Marya. Incentive Zoning: Meeting Urban Design and Affordable HousingObjectives (Planning Advisory Service No. 494). Chicago, Ill.: American PlanningAssociation, 2000.Myers, Phyllis and Robert Puentes. Growth at the Ballot Box: Electing the Shape ofCommunities in November 2000. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Center onUrban and Metropolitan Policy, 2001.National Neighborhood Coalition. www.neighborhoodcoalition.org.National Trust for Historic Preservation. “Tax Credit called Most Effective inHistory.” Press release, June 27, 2001. www.nthp.org.Neighborhood Early Warning System, Center for Neighborhood Technology.www.newschicago.org.New Castle County Council. www.co.new-castle.de.us/LndUse/Rezdates.htm.Nickerson, Cynthia. “Smart Growth: Implications for Agriculture in Urban FringeAreas.” Agricultural Outlook (April 2001). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of

Agriculture Economic Research Service. www.ers.usda.gov/publications/agoutlook/april2001/AO280g.pdf.North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority. www.njtpa.org/planning/brownfields/index.htm.Northeast-Midwest Institute and Congress for the New Urbanism. Strategies forSuccessful Infill Development. Washington, D.C.: Northeast-Midwest Institute, 2001.Notre Dame University School of Architecture. www.nd.edu/~arch/.Oregon Department of Transportation and Department of Land and CommunityDevelopment. Model Development Code and Users Guide for Small Cities. Salem, Ore.:State of Oregon, 1999.Orfield, Myron. Metropolitics: A Regional Agenda for Community and Stability.

Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997.Post Properties. www.postproperties.com.Poticha, Shelly. “Comments on draft primer.” Note written to author. November11, 2001.Lend Lease Real Estate Investments, Inc. Emerging Trends in Real Estate 2002. NewYork.: PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2001.

Project for Public Spaces. www.pps.org.Rails to Trails Conservancy. www.railstrails.org.Redeveloping Brownfields with Federal Transportation Funds. Washington, D.C.:

Association of Metropolitan Planning Organization, 2001.http://smartgrowth.org/pdf/brownfields_tea21.pdf.Rose-Network.com. www.rose-network.com/projects/denver.html.
Scenic America. www.scenic.org.Schalch, Kathy. “Target Versus K-Mart.” Broadcast radio story on National PublicRadio’s Morning Edition. August 29, 2001Simons, Robert A. Brownfields Supply and Demand Analysis for Selected Great LakesCities. Cleveland, Ohio: Cleveland State University Planning and DevelopmentDepartment (prepared for U.S. EPA), 1996Simons, Robert A. Turning Brownfields into Greenbacks. Washington, D.C.: Urban

Land Institute, 1998.Smart Growth Incentives, Austin, Tex. www.ci.austin.tx.us/smartgrowth/incentives.htm.Smart Growth Network. Affordable Housing and Smart Growth: Making theConnection. Washington, D.C.: National Neighborhood Coalition, 2001.Spikowski, Bill. “Smart Growth Primer.” Email to the author. December 5, 2001.State of California Housing and Community Development Department.www.hcd.ca.gov/ca/jhbig.State of Maryland Smart Growth. www.op.state.md.us/smartgrowth/smartpfa.htm.State of Maryland. www.dnr.state.md.us/pos.html.State of Maryland’s Live Near Your Work.www.op.state.md.us/smartgrowth/lnyw.htm.State of New Jersey. www.state.nj.us/pinelands/density.htm.State of New York TDR Program. http://assembly.state.ny.us/leg/?cl=118&a=33.State of North Carolina Department of Transportation.www.doh.dot.state.nc.us/operations/tnd.pdf.State of Utah.www.governor.state.ut.us/planning/CriticalLands/white.htm#Introduction.Steuteville, Rob. “Local Codes an Obstacle to Smart Growth.” New Urban News(January-February 2001): 6-7.Suchman, Diane R. Developing Infill Housing in Inner-City Neighborhoods:Opportunities and Strategies. Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 1997.Thompson, Edward. Agricultural Sustainability and Smart Growth: Saving UrbanInfluenced Farmland (Funders Network for Smart Growth and Livable CommunitiesTranslation Paper No. 5). Miami: Funders Network for Smart Growth and LivableCommunities, 2001.www.fundersnetwork.org/usr_doc/agriculture%20paper%2.pdf.Thompson, Edward. Telephone conversation with author. December 4, 2001Town of Cary. www.townofcary.org/depts/dshome.htm.Tri -State Transportation Campaign. 2001 Parking Management Brochure.

www.tstc.org/pricing/parkman/parking.pdf.

Trust for Public Land. www.tpl.org.U.S. Census Bureau. American Housing Survey, 1993 AHS-N Data Chart Table 2-3.

www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/ahs/93dtchart/tab2-3.html. U.S. Census Bureau. American Housing Survey, 1999 AHS-N Data Chart. www.census.gov/pub/hhes/www/housing/ahs/ahs99/tab1a3.html.

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. The Technological Reshaping ofMetropolitan America, OTA-ETI-643. Washington, D.C.: Government PrintingOffice, 1995. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control andPrevention. Kids Walk-to-School: A Guide to Promote Walking to School. Atlanta,Georgia. www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/kidswalk/kidswalk_guide.htm.U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Researchand Technical Support Center. Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey.Washington, D.C.: Department of Transportation, 1997.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Our Built and Natural Environments: ATechnical Review of the Interactions between Land Use, Transportation, andEnvironmental Quality. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Protection Agency, 2001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Parking Alternatives: Making Way for UrbanInfill and Brownfields Redevelopment. Washington, D.C.: Environmental ProtectionAgency, 1999. www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/publications.htm.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Commuter Choice.www.epa.gov/otaq/transp/comchoic/ccweb.htm.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Smart Growth Funding.www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/funding.htm.University of Maryland School of Architecture.www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Colleges/ARCH/URSP/Research/CSG/Urban Land Institute. Urban Infill Housing: Myth and Fact. Washington, D.C.:Urban Land Institute, 2001.Urban Land Institute’s Advisory Services.http://experts.uli.org/DK/AdServ/ex_AdServ_About_fst.html.Walkable Communities. www.walkable.org/.Wisconsin Alliance of Cities tax-base sharing memo.www.lafollette.wisc.edu/reform/Issues/Tax-Base_Sharing_Model.htm.Wright, John B. “Land Trusts in the USA,” Land Use Policy 9 (April 1992): 83.
LIST OF ACRONYMS 97

onyms

ities Act

t

ey (part of the U.S. census)

ociation

Employees’ Retirement System

anization

pment Block Grant (a HUD pro

ent Corporation

t

portation (also referred to as U.S.

on Agency (also referred to as U.S.

ministration (part of DOT)

 system

ram

ng and Urban Development

unty Management Association

ITE - Institute of Transportation EngineersLDGS - Land development guidance systemLEM - Location Efficient MortgageSMMPDU - Moderately priced dwelling unitMPO - Metropolitan planning organizationNCDOT – North Carolina Department of TransportationNEWS - Neighborhood early warning systemNJTPA - North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority, Inc.PACE - Purchase of agricultural conservation easementsPDR - Purchase of development rightsPUD - Planned unit developmentTDR - Transfer of development rightsTEA-21 - Transportation Equity Act for the 21st CenturyTOD - Transit-oriented developmentTPL - Trust for Public LandULI - Urban Land InstituteUSDA - Department of AgricultureVMT - Vehicle miles traveledWMATA - Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority
http://smartgrowth.org

01/02 • 02-202